AN ANALY538 0F EDUCATIONALADMFNQS‘YRAfiVE-CULTURAL ASPIECTS OF THE RELATWNSHW BETWEEN THE UNW’ERSITY GE THE RYUKYUS AME MtCHIGAN SKATE UNWERSWY- Thesis fix the Deanne. of PH. D. MEWEGAN S-YATE UNEVERSWY‘ Harmer» Ciiflmfl King 3962 IIHIITIII'IWI WWIIIWWWIIUWWI ' 3 1293 01062 7473 o o p _ l ' 1' I" h ’ ‘Thlshls to certfly'thatdhe -.~._ z z u..- -- v "-1 "-~. e ‘ 7 .- ,... -. ,, 9 t; " thesls‘vehtltlcd v2.3 3‘} '4" ., . AN ANALYSIS 'OF‘Efibc‘l'i‘foNA’fiA’DMIfiISTRmrvB-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE RELATIONSHIP Emam THE UNIVERSITY OF THE ’RYUKYUS'ANDW“ .«. HICHIGAN STATE :UNIVERSIIY; __:_ _ presented by HORACE CLIFFORD KING has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _.Eh..D_._degree in Education jor professor Date August 2, 1962 0-169 PLACE II RETURN BOX to remove thie checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE . I \jl'.L¢ If .‘Iv‘. I ‘ #LA “ 1 l W : (ll-z. ‘ ~ 1 usu leAn Affirmative Action/Emu Opporlunltyim Wane-9.1 AN ANALYSIS OF EDUCATIONAL-ADMINISTRATIVE-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By Horace Clifford King AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION Submitted to ‘Michigan State university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1962 , > \ 1. V V/II'N" .Abstract Horace Clifford King Statement of the Problem The University of the Ryukyus was formally opened in May 1950 in Shuri, Okinawa. To further the development of this institution, Michigan State University signed a contract in 1951 with the U. S. Department of the Army agreeing to furnish assistance to the University of the Ryukyus particularly related to the principles and concepts of the American land- grant university system and the general advanced practices of American higher education. Despite favorable reactions, there has been an under- current of uneasiness about the relationship between the MSU Advisory Group and the University of the Ryukyus throughout the period of this program of educational assistance. As a result, this relationship be- tween the two universities seems not to have developed into its full potential. This study undertakes an analysis of educational-administrative- cultural aspects which the writer believes are interrelated and signifi- cant in the relationship between these two universities. Securing the Data The data for this study has been selected as follows: I. A review of selected books, reports, and other like materials. II. Interviews with Ryukyuans who are or have been directly con- cerned with the growth and development of the University of the Ryukyus. III. From the writer's understanding and knowledge of the situation. Abstract Horace Clifford King Interpreting the Data The order of development for this study includes: I. The identity of forces having influence on the Ryukyuan culture. II. A review of education in Okinawa and the evolution of the University of the Ryukyus. III. Internal issues and considerations at the University of the Ryukyus, and interaction between the University of the Ryukyus and the society it serves. IV. Conclusions and Recommendations. Conclusions 1. Whereas the Ryukyuans have continued to think of the "ivory tower" model of Japanese universities for the University of the Ryukyus, the Americans have stressed the concept of educational service to the people of the Ryukyus. There is a sufficiently broad base of common understanding between the two positions represented by the Ryukyuans and the Americans. 11. There is need for a clearly defined and mutually acceptable democratic-action type of working relationship between the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University based upon the belief that the areas of agreement are wider than the areas of disagreement, and that the areas of disagreement can be di- minished by the ability of individual Ryukyuans and Americans to think and work as members of a group for the best interests of society. Abstract Horace Clifford King III. An appraisal of the evidence indicates that the "climate" is encouraging for further cooperation between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. IV. The lack of a built-in mechanism for evaluation and re- search in the effectiveness of this institutional relationship leaves much to be desired. Recommendations I. An agreement for cooperation between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be entered into based on broad principles of a philosophy of higher education that will provide maximum flexibility of operational detail within the philosophy and allow for different methods of implementation as related to cultural differences between the universities. II. The U. S. Department of the Army contract program re- sources should be directed toward the establishment of an organizational entity to serve as a communicative channel in developing and disseminating new ideas. More specifically, it is recommended that an advisory committee of joint repre- sentatives from the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University study a proposal developed by the writer suggesting the establishment of an International Study Center as a possible alternative to the present MSU advisory group at the University of the Ryukyus. AN ANALYSIS OF EDUCATIONAL-ADMINISTRATIVE-CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BY Horace Clifford King A.DISSERTATION Submitted to 'Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1962 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer expresses his appreciation to: Dr. Troy L. Stearns, Chairman of his doctoral guidance committee for his understanding, imagination, and scholarly leadership in directing this study; Other members of the writer's doctoral guidance committee including Dean William Hawley, Dr. Donald Leu, and Dr. Mary Virginia Moore for their helpful suggestions and guidance; President Matsusuke Yonamine and the many Ryukyuan people whose cooperation made this study possible; Colonel Joseph S. Harbison and the Office of the Chief of Civil Affairs in Washington for their important assistance; ‘Miss Diane DeVinney for her dedicated secretarial assistance through- out this study; Dr. Clifford E. Erickson and Dr. Floyd w. Reeves for their under- standing and encouragement in the development of the writer's doctoral program; Dr. Glen L. Taggart for his understanding and support; Dr. Jehn A. Hannah for his inspiring educational leadership; The late Mr. Henry Ford for sharing his philosophy, imagination, and inspiration in personal visits when the writer was in his youth, for his many contributions to the writer's elementary and secondary education, Pldas, of course, his continuing contribution to education and mankind tihrough the philanthropic activities of The Ford Foundation; and The people of the State of Michigan for the educational opportunity they have provided in Michigan State University. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Chapter I. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM AND METHOD OF RESEARCH . . . . . . l The Problem Securing the Data Interpreting the Data II. THE IDENTITY OF FORCES HAVING INFLUENCE ON THE RYUKYUAN CULTURE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 4 Geographical Features, Environment, and Daily Life in the Ryukyu Islands Early History of Okinawa and the Influence of Far Eastern Civilizations on the Ryukyu Islands Political Evolution in the Ryukyu Islands Okinawa, Japan, and the'West The Battle for Okinawa in world War II Post werld War II Social-Economic-Political Development, and the U. 3. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands Summary III. EDUCATION IN OKINAWA AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS e e e e e e e e e e e O 0 0 O O O O O O O 0 45 Pre-War Education Post-War Interest in Education Establishment of the University of the Ryukyus IV. MAJOR FACTORS IN THE ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6O Purposes of the University of the Ryukyus Financial and Related Resources Michigan State University Advisory Group Leadership, Internal Structure, and Program Performance at the University of the Ryukyus Interaction between the University of the Ryukyus -- the Ryukyuan Community -- the International Community The Ryukyuan Community The International Community Concern for the Future of the University of the Ryukyus iii Chapter V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Recommendations Summary APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . iv Page 121 159 164 177 185 189 CHAPTER I DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM AND METHOD OF RESEARCH lhe Problem The University of the Ryukyus was formally opened in May 1950 on the site of the Shuri Castle, which had stood since the thirteenth century on the heights of Shuri as the symbol of culture of the Ryukyu Islands until it was destroyed in World War II in 1945. The present campus commands a panoramic view of the capital city of Naha, the Pacific Ocean to the East, and the East China Sea to the West. As was true of the castle in the past, it can be said that the University of the Ryukyus is at present the cultural center of the Ryukyu Islands. To further the development of this institution, Michigan State University signed a contract in 1951 with the U. S. Department of the Armyagreeing to furnish guidance, advice, and technical assistance to the University of the Ryukyus particularly related to the principles and concepts of the American land-grant university system and the general advanced practices of American higher education. Under the terms of this contract, Michigan State University has provided a team averaging five faculty members in number who have worked to assist the U. S. Civil Administration of the Ryukyus (USCAR) in the United States plan of assistance to the University of the Ryukyus. From the beginning of this relationship, there have been favorable reactions from both the University of the Ryukyus and the Axnerican community in the Ryukyus toward the achievements and contributions made by the MSU Advisory Group. President Matsusuke Yonamine and his colleagues in the Central Administration of the University of the Ryukyus, speaking as a group, state:1 Michigan State University has contributed in developing many new concepts of higher education in the Ryukyus by bring- ing in ideas from the American community of universities with specific reference to reorganizing curriculum and setting up new academic organizational patterns which are not common in the universities of Japan, but which we believe are vitally needed in our society. The MSU Advisory Group has generally promoted new ideas in curriculum, teaching methods, student services, and re- search and extension activities. Michigan State University, in addition to its professional contributions, has performed an important role in the history of our institution by serving as liaison between the University of the Ryukyus and the U. S. Military represented by USCAR. Through this liaison role the MSU Advisory Group has helped us to maintain a sound rapport with the U. S. Military enabling the University of the Ryukyus to continue to receive sub- stantial financial and moral support from the United States. Michigan State University has continuously improved the quality of staff sent to our University. We are fully aware by past experience of the sincere feelings that USCAR and the U. S. Military have demonstrated in attempting to extend assistance to the University of the Ryukyus. We would like to see Michigan State University continue to play a liaison role between the University of the Ryukyus and the U. S. Military as has been done in the past. Despite these favorable reactions, however, there has been an under- current of uneasiness about the relationship between the MSU Advisory 1Based on interviews with President Matsusuke Yonamine of the University of the Ryukyus, who was formerly Dean of the Education Division Of that institution; Mr. Kunikichi Higoshi, Dean of Curriculum and Regis- trar and formerly Dean of Agriculture; Mr. Seizen Nakasone, Director of Libraries and formerly Vice-President of the University; and Dr. Toshio Akamine, who is Dean of Students and was formerly a Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of the Ryukyus -- all of whom, following the RYUkyuan cultural pattern, replied as a group. See Appendix A for bio- graphical data on these people. Group and the University of the Ryukyus throughout the period of this program of educational assistance. Though vacillating in intensity, this undercurrent has become identifiable as a friction manifested largely by exhibitions of passive resistance; and, in general, something less than a full effort of cooperative teamwork between the representatives of the University of the Ryukyus and of Michigan State University. As a result, this relationship between the two universities seems not to have developed into its full potential. A closer analysis of the friction shows that it has become a problem largely based upon the idea held by the Ryukyuan students, faculty, and society that their university is controlled by the United States'Mili- tary through Michigan State University. This problem is partially related ‘to patterns of associations between the MSU Advisory Group, the U. S. Idilitary Administration, and the American community in Okinawa; as well as to the Ryukyuans' desire to have the MSU Advisory Group continue to perform a liaison role between them and the U. S. Military. As long as Idichigan State University continues to perform a liaison function, the problem will continue, for this'liaison role furthers the image of mili- tary control. President Yonamine and his colleagues state:1 Faculty members, students, and citizens of the Ryukyus have the image that the administration of the University of the Ryukyus is being controlled by the U. S. Military through the Michigan State University staff. We know this is not true, but nevertheless the image is there. Since the U. S. Army controls the Administration of the Islands' economy including the three branches of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands by the veto power that is held by the U. 8. High Commissioner, we see no alternative but to maintain an effective relationship with the U. S. forces. We cannot afford to lose the confidence of USCAR and the U. S. Military. lIbid. Other areas of friction not related to the U. S. Military, but xmevertheless identifiable as further causes of friction, are also commented on by President Yonamine and his colleagues:1 At times the aggressive approach by some members of the MSU Advisory Group has been met by a negative response from the University of the Ryukyus faculty members. We are very appreciative of the American willingness to help, but in some situations this willingness does not meet the needs of the Ryukyuan society as adequately as it should. In the eleven-year history of the relationship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus, areas of friction frame been apparent. One aspect of the difficulty, it appears, has been tine inability of Michigan State University and the USCAR organization to ccnmmunicate effectively with the representatives of the University of time Ryukyus pertaining to the frictions that comprise the problem as cnatlined above. At no point in the history of this relationship between time two universities have their representatives sat down long enough to deafine the problem adequately, identify the sources of friction, and then nurve on a cooperative-teamwork basis to resolve the points of friction t<> the degree possible -- with the intent of moving into a stronger cuaoperative relationship that relates to the goals and objectives of the rrespective universities. Such is the situation today. Thus, it has become increasingly evident that an analysis should Ina made of the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and ‘Michigan State University. This study undertakes an analysis of educational-administrative-cultural aspects which the writer believes lIbid. 4.1-.— are interrelated and significant in the relationship between these two universities. Inherent in such an analysis would be the following: I. The relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University has developed re- markably well under the circumstances of the U. 3. Admin- istration of the Ryukyu Islands, and the circumstances of the founding of the University of the Ryukyus; but now is the time to realistically make a concerted effort to further develop and strengthen this relationship. II. The relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University needs analyzing at this time to further the growth and development of the respective institutions. III. The philosophy of the relationship between the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University is not clearly defined and understood, and without this philosophy this relationship lacks basic purpose and direction. IV. In this relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University, there ought to be concern for a basic philosophy complete with broad princi- ples applicable to the relationship; and tolerance and flexibility should prevail within this context. V. The relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be conceived as bilateral. VI. To effect a productive balance in this relationship between the institutions at this time, it is necessary to analyze the situation at the University of the Ryukyus to understand the problem of this study. The subject matter and problems of philosophy grow out of the stresses and strains in the daily life of the community. As changes in human life occur, interpretations of specific problems will vary. When acutely divergent interpretations appear, a crisis emerges which may often result in a turning point in history. A sound basic philosophy is needed at this point to determine the role and direction of the social process of education. This analysis is concerned with the mutual need for both the Uni- ‘versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University to develop a basis <>f understanding and sensitivity necessary to effectively relate vis-a-vis ‘the institution to institution relationship desired by the academic leaders <>f each university. The past experiences of the University of the Ryukyus and of Michigan State University have acted as filters in the communication between these tnaiversities. These past experiences are products of the Ryukyuan and true American cultures, and attention should be given to the differences sand similarities of each. Also apparent in the communication channel are social-economic-political forces of the broader environment of the 'Ryukyu Islands and the international community that create interferences in the communication between the respective universities. Thus, it be- comes necessary to analyze the Ryukyuan culture and the social-economic- POlitical forces of the broader environment affecting the Ryukyu Islands. Every culture tends to persist in its ways unless forced by new situa- tions to adapt to new ideas. Generally everybody is receptive to new ideas provided there is nothing in the local situation that contravenes these ideas. It appears that a commitment is needed by both the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University to a philosophy that is universally suitable and desirable for a university. It is also evident that there is a need for a democratic type of working relationship between the Uni- ‘versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. It further appears that a relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University will need an organizational entity as a communicative channel to develop and disseminate new ideas. Thus, this relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University will need examples of social services based on a philosophy, implemented through democratic principles of working with people, and equipped with an organ- izational entity to serve as a firsthand direct-experience organization for translating new ideas into action. This will become a multi-prong approach. In making such an approach, the following factors should be kept in mind in an appraisal of the existing situation: I. Universally fundamental purposes of an institution of higher education are A. to seek the truth through research, B. to disseminate the truth through teaching, and C. to preserve the truth for future generations. II. Both the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University agree that their desires and objectives to serve students and the public can best be advanced by broadening the international or cross-cultural basis of their teaching and research. III. The whole province of knowledge is a prOper area for the attention of a university. IV. Teaching of knowledge, long preserved or newly dis~ covered, should not be restricted to any one group or class; but should be made freely available to all who can make good use of it. Higher education should be dedicated to helping men and women develop to the maximum of their abilities. V. In all academic programs the goal of a university should be to serve the people of the broader community supporting the university by increasing their knowledge, and helping them to make practical applications of that knowledge. VI. In the final analysis, an educated man is one who is trained and conditioned to be an effective citizen. He should be educated to contribute to society: A. economically to the limits of his creative and productive skills; B. socially by his understanding of the world around him and his tolerance for the rights and opinions of others; C. morally by his acceptance and observance of the universal values of man; and D. politically by his reasoned and thinking approach to political issues, his rejection of demagogic appeals, and his willingness and ability to lead or to follow with equal intelligence. VII.. A democratic-action approach should be based on the belief that the areas of agreement are wider than the areas of disagreement, and that the areas of disagreement can be diminished by the ability of individuals to think and to work as members of a group for the best interest of society. VIII. The abstractness of a philosophical agreement between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be reduced by stressing the establishment of first- hand, direct-experience organizational entities to serve as vehicles for communicating examples in terms of concrete situations. IX. An agreement for cooperation between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University, based on the broad principles of a philosophy of higher education, should provide maximum flexibility of operational detail within that philosophy, and allow for different methods of implementation as related to cultural differences. x. The relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and‘Michigan State University should have a built-in mecha- nism.for evaluation and research on the effectiveness of the relationship. Sgcuring the Data The data for this study has been selected as follows: I. A review of selected books, reports, and other like materials for the purpose of developing the II. 10 A. historical background of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands with a focus of attention on education; B. the impact of Eastern cultures on Ryukyuan cultural values; C. geographical influences on Ryukyuan history with specific reference to land use, soil, climate, etc; and D. economic factors affecting the Ryukyuan citizenry, and the economic relationship of the Ryukyuan society to the United States Administration. The writer has interviewed Ryukyuans who are or have been directly concerned with the growth and development of the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. These interviews have included the following individuals and groups of people associated with the University of the Ryukyus: A. University of the Ryukyus personnel including members of the Board of Directors, the current President and all former Presidents of the Uni- versity, previous and current members of the Council of Deans, department heads, faculty members of the academic divisions, and administrative staff person- nel of the University; B. students and alumni of the University of the Ryukyus ; C. Ryukyuan political leaders including two former Chief Executives of the Ryukyu Islands, Ryukyuan Legislators and staff assistants, and members of III. with IV. 11 the Education Department of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands; and D. other Ryukyuans including prominent and key lay citizens representing the agricultural, industrial, and private business communities in the Ryukyu Islands; members of the communication-media industry in the Ryukyus including radio, television, and newspaper publishers; and public and private primary, secondary, post-secondary, and technical educational programs and schools. The above interviews with these people have been concerned A. education in Okinawa and the evolution of the University of the Ryukyus; B. the Michigan State University Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus; C. issues and considerations concerned with the charter and the regulations of the University of the Ryukyus; D. leadership, internal structure, and program per- formance at the University of the Ryukyus; E. mobilization and allocation of financial and related resources; and F. interaction between the University of the Ryukyus and the society it serves. In surveying the relationships of the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University, it is necessary to 12 enumerate some significant events and conditions occurring or existing over the past few years including: A. the effect of World War II on the Ryukyu Islands; B. the impact of the U. S. Administration on the Ryukyuan culture; C. post World War II economic development in the Ryukyu Islands; D. the lack of demonstrated knowledge and under- standing by Americans of the Ryukyuan people and their culture;1 E. American goals for the University of the Ryukyus in terms of American values; F. the establishment and functioning of the MSU Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus; and G. sources and effect of financial and related re- sources at the University of the Ryukyus. Interpreting the Data In identifying data from the sources outlined above, the order of development for this study will include: I. The identity of forces having influence on the Ryukyuan culture. II. A review of education in Okinawa and the evolution of the University of the Ryukyus. III. Internal issues and considerations at the University of the Ryukyus, and interaction between the University of the Ryukyus and the society it serves -- representing factors 13 affecting behavior in the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. IV. Conclusions drawn from an appraisal of the evidence gathered in the published books, reports, and other like materials; from the interviews with Ryukyuans who are or have been directly concerned with the growth and development of the University of the Ryukyus; and from the writer's understanding and knowledge of the situation. V. Specific recommendations concerning the action that this study indicates are required to improve the relation- ship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. It is not the intention of the writer to present this as a formalized historical study, but rather to utilize the historical and cultural back- ground of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands as a means of understanding the social forces at work having a bearing upon the present and future re- latxionship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. cu . ub- an' ,. \- l ‘4‘ v.1 Thriltl A l5: 0 WJNHA. ‘ n CHAPTER II THE IDENTITY OF FORCES HAVING INFLUENCE ON THE RYUKYUAN CULTURE To give a proper setting to an analysis of educational-administrative- cultural aspects of the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University, it is necessary to present brief statements pertaining to: I. Geographical features, environment, and daily life in the Ryukyu Islands. II. Early history of Okinawa and the influence of Far Eastern civilizations.on the Ryukyu Islands. III. Political evolution in the Ryukyu Islands. IV. Okinawa, Japan, and the West. V. The battle for Okinawa in Werld War II. VI. Post World War II social-economic-political development, and the U. 8. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands. .nggggaphical Features, Environment, and Daily Life in the Ryukyu Islands 'The Ryukyu Islands, under U. 3. Administration since World War II, forn|.an archipelago extending 374 miles from southern Japan to Formosa and divide the East China Sea from the North Pacific. The Ryukyus con- sist of approximately sixty islands in three groups including Okinawa- Gunto, Miyako-Retto, and Yaeyama-Retto. A fourth group of islands in the archipelago, Amami-Gunto, located northwest of the present boundaries of the Ryukyu Islands, was returned to Japan on December 25, 1953- 1‘3 Japanes Vcrlé i I? Okinawa nel), n éazinas vazeé ] with a: Islanis major c Okinawa lation 0L lies 35,. SOEZE, ; 15 The Ryukyuans are Asian people similar in physical appearance to the Japanese and Chinese. The prevailing language is Japanese, and in post Werld War II years, English has become the second language. The estimated population of the Ryukyu Islands today is 880,000. Okinawa alone is inhabited by 758,000 people (exclusive of U. S. person- nel),.making for a population density of over 1,500 per square mile. A dominant feature is the crowding of many people on a small area of culti- vated land. The largest city in the Ryukyus is Naha City, Okinawa, with an estimated population of 218,000. Naha City is the center of the Islands' political life and has the Islands' chief commercial port. Other major cities include Koza City, Okinawa with a population of 43,000; Nago, Okinawa with a population of 35,000; and Hirara City, Miyako with a popu- lation of 35,000. Okinawa is the principal and central island in the archipelago. It lies 840 miles from Tokyo to the north and 785 miles from Manila to the south, and is approximately 440 miles from Shanghai on the China mainland. The total land area of the Ryukyus is approximately 850 square miles. Over half of the land area is accounted for by the Island of Okinawa, which is .approximately 67 miles long, varies from 2% to 10 miles wide, and comprises 290,555 acres or 454 square miles. Geologically, the Ryukyus are the tops of a submerged mountain chain. 1Ehe.islands are generally hilly or mountainous with only small alluvial plains, and are fringed by frequent extensive coral reefs. Although the Ryukyus lie in the temperate zone, the offshore Japanese crrrrent gives them a sub-tropical climate. Temperatures range from a low of5‘4l degrees (Fahrenheit) in February to a high of 96 degrees in July. IT“; mean annual temperature is about 72 degrees. Humidity is excessive, axui rainfall is heavy. Typhoons strike the islands each year, generally °f ti 0f Evs 91216 g 16 between November and April, although they have been recorded in all twelve months of the year. Mineral resources are poor and cannot support any substantial in- dustrial development. Although a considerable number of minerals exist, only phosphate and coal are commercially exploitable, in addition to plentiful supplies of ceramic clays and building stone. Unimportant quantities of copper, manganese, sulphur, and iron also are found in the archipelago. Sweet potatoes, fish, rice, and tea are the basic elements in the Ryukyuan diet. The crops of greatest volume produced prior to World War II were sweet potatoes and sugar cane. Whereas practically no sweet potatoes were grown for sale, sugar cane was by far the most important cash crop. Smaller quantities of rice and soy beans were grown, with a number of other crops in relatively small quantities making up the balance of agricultural production. In spite of intensive farming practices, each succeeding year generally has a food deficit, and from 20 to 25 per cent of the Ryukyuan food supply must be imported. Individual farms are very small. In 1939, for example, the average agricultural household worked 1.6 acres of cultivated land in Okinawa.1 The pre-Wbrld War II environmental conditions under which the people raf the Ryukyus lived severely limited the possibilities of improving, often (Jf even maintaining, an already low standard of living.2 The poor soils arui the typhoons are factors responsible for these conditions. The small 1Horace C. King, "Some Aspects of the Development of Free Competitive Enterprise in the Ryukyu Islands" (Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1953), pp. 5-6. 2Clarence J. Glacken, The Great Loochoo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955), p. 26. 17 percentage of arable land and its constant need of fertilization circum- scribe agricultural production. The typhoons destroy life and property, beat down and often submerge the growing rice of the paddy, and lash the sugar cane. The salt washed ashore by the driving rain water withers the sweet potatoe slips. Working under these difficulties, the people of the Ryukyus have been engaged in transforming the environment about them since ancient times. The conversion of land is the most striking of these transformations.’ Careful and thorough tillage has changed the soils. Rocks have been re- moved; and composts, residues, and fertilizers have been used to develop and maintain fertility of the soils. The land has been minutely divided and carefully classified. On the lowlands, it has been leveled and on the slopes, it has been terraced. The leveling and terracing have involved diverting streams. The trickling of water from one terrace to another and the simple irrigation of the small valleys are part of this process. Often one is unaware of the presence of the small streams, for, as they reach the lowlands, they become part of a rice field. Areas not in cultivation, such as the steeper slopes of southern Okinawa and the uplands below the northern forests, are intensively used. ‘Their grasses and shrubs nourish the domestic animals, and yield roof tluatch or fuel. The trails leading to these hills and uplands are small :supply routes along which many of the necessities of life are carried to the villages. Igarly History of Okinawa and the Influence of Far Eastern Civilizations on the Rytgcyu Islands The Ryukyus became known to both China and Japan in the seventh cenitury. The first mention of the Ryukyu Islands in Chinese annals dates (W. ‘ I h. AAA 1 Km C631 cue: C3“ L3...‘ 18 back to A. D. 605 when an embassy was sent out from China to secure infor- mation about these islands but failed because of lack of interpreters. The first recorded contact between the Ryukyu Islands and Japan occurred A. D. 617 when some natives from one of the northern islands brought gifts to Japan for the empress. The Japanese repaid this social visit some fifty years later.1 The nearness of the Ryukyu Islands to the richly endowed civilizations of China and Japan was the most important factor affecting their develop- ment until the capture and conquest of Okinawa in 1945 opened them to direct contact with the United States. Fukien, the coastal province of central China, has been the chief point of Ryukyu cultural contact with the Chinese in historical times, and the island of Kyushu in Japan has had a similar role in transmitting Japanese culture to the southern islands. During the reign of Satto (1350-1399), the central kingdom of Chuzan assumed cultural leadership and established enduring relationships with China, whose Ming rulers sent an envoy to Chuzan in 1371 to secure ac- knowledgment of the central kingdom's tributary status to China. The central Okinawans consented and the new relationship was confirmed by the Chinese government in 1372. This subordination to China was the beginning of a relationship lasting over 500 years in which Chinese manners and customs not only dominated court life, but changed the attitudes of the common people of Naha and Shuri.2 11bid., pp. 6-7, 31-37. 2George H. Kerr, Ryukyu, Kingdom and Province before 1945, Scientific Investigations in the Ryukyu Islands (SIRI), Pacific Science Board (Wash- ington, D. 6., National Research Council, 1953), mimeo, p. 26. (‘7 st 19 The political ties involved acknowledgment of subordination to China, Chinese consent to the investiture of a king, and the payment of tribute. The vessels carrying the tribute missions from the central kingdom of Okinawa to China were permitted to carry extra goods to be sold at the port of entry, and the political relationship, tribute, and trade were indissolubly bound up with one another. In return for copper, tin, sulphur, and horses, the Ryukyuans received rich brocades, silk, and other Chinese products. The officials who went to Peking could observe the splendor and riches of Ming court life, while the traders who accompanied the tribute missions had equal opportunity to observe ordinary daily life in China. The first Okinawan contact with Chinese learning took place toward the end of the fourteenth century when students from the central and southern kingdoms were sent to school in China. In time, the route from Naha to Foochow became a cultural corridor as well as a trade route linking China and Okinawa. The Okinawans especially of Chuzan, adopted the Con- fucian ideals with their five relationships -- between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. This coloring of the attitudes of the Ryukyuan governing class with Confucian ideals, according to Robert Steward Spencer, gradually changed "the whole mental outlook of the male population, at least around Shuri," though this may not have been diffused inland nor have affected the women.1 The effect of adopting the Confucian philosophy was to exalt the astatus of the male, although in the countryside the influence of women, 1Robert Steward Spencer, "The Noro, or Priestesses of Loochoo," The fTrsuisactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 2nd ser., VIII (1931), p. 108. a§_14..n..1+ In _. .V 20 through the Eggg priesthood, remained strong. Possibly this partial diffusion of the Chinese influence marks the beginning of a certain dualism in Okinawan culture in which the older folk life of the villages contrasted sharply with the culture of Shuri. The establishment of a Chinese settlement by the Ming government at Kume, near Naha, in 1391 brought an enclave of Chinese civilization to the very heart of Okinawa. The settlers came from Fukien province, and their descendants continued to exert an influence on the cultural and political life of the Ryukyuan kingdom until its extinction in the late nineteenth century.1 Although both the northern and southern Okinawan kingdoms sent tribute missions to China, sought Chinese approval of their kings, and shared in the lucrative trade, the central kingdom of Okinawa was the most affected by the contacts with China. It was in the fifteenth century that international trade brought a ;prosperity known as the golden age to Okinawa. From the middle of the fourteenth century to the second half of the sixteenth century, Okinawa was part of a great trade network which was already in existence when the kingdom of Chuzan established relations with China in 1372. Through foreign introductions there developed a strengthening of the Okinawan institution of the female 3253 priesthood system which became a state-encouraged and state-supported religion. This institutionalizing of'a native religion did not mean that Buddhism and Confucianism were any tflie less valued. Buddhism was encouraged, the king himself becoming an adherent, and the Confucian philosophy continued to be the basis of court life. Political institutions, borrowed from China and in a Confucian mold 1On Kume-mura, see Kerr, gp. cit., p. 36. Fl- de El ri. . “\ t. 7“ in. O.“ “Al the C83: 21 with the dominance of the male in the family and in the government, now existed side by side with the hierarchy of priestesses whose power rested on royal patronage and on royal grants of land. With the passage of time, it was the order of priestesscs that gave way to the male-dominated Con- fucian state. This idea of the state, a combination of the individual morality of Confucius with the ideas of statecraft which the legists developed in the Han dynasty, retained its hold until the Japanese did away with the Ryukyuan monarchy.1 The prosperity and the creative life of this period came from the richness and excitement of the international trade. The kingdom was supported by its commerce. Around the middle of the sixteenth century, the trade network was destroyed. The incessant raids of Japanese pirates drained off the profits. Piracy became so rampant that Japanese Buddhist priests were hired as ambassadors and cargo protectors of shipments to Kbrea via Japan toward the close of the era. The appearance of the IPbrtuguese in the East China Sea also created fear and uneasiness. Finally, I:he maritime expansion of Japan in the last quarter of the sixteenth c:entury gave the Eggp‘gg-ggggg to the Ryukyuan trade. In these last decades of the sixteenth century, Japanese interest :Ln.the Ryukyu Islands steadily increased. In the early seventeenth (zentury, the Japanese Satsuma clan, restive under the Shogunate and looking :Eor expansion southward, successfully invaded Okinawa in 1609. The result seas that the northern Ryukyus -- Amani, Kikai, Erabu, Tokuno, and Yoron -- ‘vere detached and made a permanent part of Satsuma territory; and the Genitral and southern islands, nominally independent, came under the ‘- 1On the role of the legists in political Confucianism, see Charles P. TFitzgerald, China: A Short Cultural Histqu, Rev. ed. (London, 1950), PP). 103-104,156. 22 political and economic control of Satsuma representatives. This conquest was the beginning of an era lasting 269 years, from 1609 to 1878, in which the Ryukyuan kingdom existed, acknowledging vassalage both to China and Satsuma, in a twilight of sovereignty which the statecraft of the time found it unnecessary to resolve.1 Political controls and cultural borrowings also increased after the invasion. The Satsuma clan set up an internal eSpionage system whose agents kept an eye on contacts with the Chinese and even accompanied the tribute missions to China. Meanwhile, cultural ties with the Japanese civilization were strengthened by Okinawan adoptions of glazing and firing techniques, the art of inlaying mother~of-pearl in lacquer, Korean ceramic techniques from Korean potters living in Satsuma, Japanese herbal medicine, drama, and the architecture of temple buildings.2 Authorities on Ryukyuan history believe that the origin of many of the most distinctive traits of the Ryukyuan, and especially the Okinawan people, can be traced to the early seventeenth century. This was the be- ginning of a period of divided loyalties resulting from subordination to China and Japan. The mildness, pliability, acquiescence, and agreeableness <>f the Ryukyuan people, which are commented upon by so many observers, are seen as a product of this long period in which.a weak and small people were forced to placate two powerful civilizations.3 In the past 1,000 years or more, the influences of Japanese and (Shinese civilizations were largely absorbed by the upper class of Ryukyuans. lKerr,'gp..gi§., pp. 70-72. 21bid., pp. 83-86, 93-99. 31bide, Ppe 78-79e 23 Some of these foreign customs filtered through to the Ryukyuan commoners, who in the main went on eking out their simple rural existence much on the same cultural level as the medieval Japanese peasant. After Japan annexed the Ryukyus, she rather effectively removed the upper classes there with the result of placing almost everybody remaining in the Ryukyus in a commoner's status. What remained of the indigenous Ryukyu culture was only the peasant part of it. The esoteric character of the upper-class native life was lost and replaced largely by Japanese customs. The peasant culture subsequently was outwardly changed by new food plants, limited participation in world trade, and Chinese manners and Japanese regulations.1 Inwardly the contemporary Ryukyu culture reflects an old pattern, the core of which probably goes back to an early agricultural level. 'This core is the food economy. It has never been easy for peasants to rnake a living in the Ryukyus, and to do so most effectively requires laard physical work, cooperative effort, and frugality. This hard work is performed cooperatively by family members who farm small plots of land in tenancy or actual ownership. This places tremendous strength in ‘the in-group solidarity of the family, which is reinforced by a religion «emphasizing the sacredness of the household hearth and the veneration of .ancestors. Relationships within the family are regulated by differential ‘behavior patterns for each member. Only enough freedom of action is per- rnitted to absorb domestic tensions and alleviate otherwise intolerable jpersonality clashes. ’Where husband and wife are so unsuited as to threaten family solidarity, divorces occur. These are accomplished with a minimum 1Marshal T. Newman and Ransom L. Eng, The Ryukyu People, A Cultural ;éppraisal, The Smithsonian Institution report for 1947, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1947), pp. 399-401. O '1 m D—‘ p.‘. _— —' '——— — — l _ 24 <>f controversy; the wife returns to her people, and the rest of the family <:arries on until a more suitable wife and mother is brought in. Children .are usually extremely well-mothered, and are serenely brought up to take t:heir ascribed adult status in the family and the immediate society. 1?ami1y "face" is as important as individual "face." Both are preserved at almost any cost.1 Village ties are less important than the solidarity of the family. 'Ties to the village have been and are motivated largely by economic matters. Cooperative building, construction of roads, and the improvement and repair of irrigation systems are some of the village enterprises. Group partici- pation in religious ceremonies and social events, marriage bonds between 'village families, and the village market help cement village solidarity. In times of great stress a Ryukyuan will do a great deal for his family, Tout he will probably make no great sacrifices for a fellow villager. TPhe loyalties are first to the family, and then to the village. In his roorld the Ryukyuan villager, until recently, probably did not see far laeyond either one.2 To make a living in the Ryukyus everything has to be used. This is tzhe only way four or five people can derive their support from an acre <>r a little more of hand-tilled soil. American consultant psychologists :Ln.0kinawa in 1945 on survey teams suggested that this frugality con- tzributes to the prevalent Ryukyuan attitude that worthless things, people tincluded, are to be rejected. This same team of psychologists also con- cluded, however, that the possession of a sometimes ruthless realism does not render the Ryukyuans devoid of religious sentiments. Although rela- tively few natives have been converted to Buddhism or Christianity, in T .4 I — DI-l.’ 1.1-- I 25 their own way they make strong identifications with the supernatural. It is important to note that these identifications are on a practical level. The old-time religion holds that all of nature is alive and endowed with spirits. Because the people realize their helpless dependence upon nature, such as fire, mountain peaks, groves, rivers, and the sea -- all are con- strued as vague but powerful forces that are either friendly or unfriendly. The prayers and ceremonies are designed to please the friendly forces, and placate the unfriendly ones. There are no indications that the belief in inimical spirit forces has made for a fear-ridden society. In the past the popular Ryukyuan attitude was one of resignation which might have been expressed as,"We will do what we can, observe all the proprieties, and then come what may." In the Ryukyuan practice of ancestor worship, the elaborate funerary procedures are carried out to the letter. Apparently, there is deep satisfaction to be derived from properly honoring the dead. A fine tomb for this purpose is a prime goal in Ryukyu culture.1 Political Evolution in the Ryukyu Islands The monarchical tradition is very old in the Ryukyu Islands. From earliest times the people were ruled by native kings established on Okinawa Jima.2 On occasion this dynasty established its rule over the other islands of the archipelago, but more often local chieftains held sway in the north and the south. One period of unification began in 1187 when Shunten, the son of a fugitive Japanese hero of imperial descent IIbid. 2Civil Affairs Handbook: Ryukyu (Loochoo) Islandg (Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, 15 November 1944), pp. 39-41. (Nete more than 95 per cent of the information presented in this handbook derived from publications in the Japanese language, in the main ranging in date from 1934 to 1940.) 26 and of a princess of the local ruling house, established himself as ruler over the entire island of Okinawa. The fortunes of the dynasty which he founded fluctuated, but by 1270 Amami O Shima had been incorporated into the kingdom, and by the fifteenth century the entire archipelago had been brought under unified rule with governors established on each important island. At the time of the accession of Shunten in 1187 the feudal lord of Satsuma in Kyushu was given theoretical jurisdiction over the Ryukyus, and the Japaneselay their earliest claim to the islands to this date. From the dawn of history until relatively recent times, the economic and cultural relations of the Ryukyus have been closer to China than to Japan, despite the nearer linguistic and racial ties with the latter. On several occasions the rulers of China sought to bring the islands under their political sway. In 1290 Kublai Khan invited the king of Okinawa to pay tribute to him, and another envoy was sent in 1297 with a similar request. Both were refused, but in 1372 when submission was demanded by another Chinese mission, the Okinawans felt constrained to comply, and for the next two centuries paid regular tribute to the Chinese court. IFrom this date Chinese customs and ideas began to pour into the islands. (Chinese traders settled at Naha, where they were granted a concession, tand native youths were sent in considerable numbers to China to study. TIhe period was one of commercial prosperity and cultural advancement. The Japanese shogun also exerted political pressure upon the Ryukyu iIslands through the prince of Satsuma. In 1451 the king of Okinawa began ‘to pay an annual tribute to Japan as well as to China -- a practice which likewise continued for centuries. During this period the Ryukyu state remained balanced on the fence between the two stronger neighboring powers. After 1590, however, it began to lean politically toward China 27 and refused a demand from the prince of Satsuma to furnish assistance to the Shogun, Hideyoshi, in a campaign which he waged against Korea. In 1609, after the close of the Korean war, the prince of Satsuma dispatched a fleet and an army and rapidly subdued Amami O Shima, Tokuno Shima, Okinoyerabu Shima, and Okinawa Jima. The defeated Ryukyuan king was taken to Japan where he was hospitably treated, flattered, and royally entertained for two years by the shogun and high feudal lords. Meanwhile the Ryukyu Islands were explored and surveyed by the Japanese, a census was taken, and the political administration was thoroughly reorganized. The king was induced to cede Amami O Shima and the other northern islands to the prince of Satsuma, with whose domain they were thenceforth incorporated. Upon returning to Naha to resume his role over the rest of his kingdom, the king found himself faced with a virtual protectorate. Political agents of the prince of Satsuma had assumed complete control of foreign affairs and continued to exert a strong influence in domestic matters. Tribute was paid annually, and each successive king of Okinawa received his investi- ture from Japan. ‘Despite their conquest by Japan, the people of the Ryukyus retained their respect for China and their cultural ties with her. They continued to pay annual tribute to the Chinese court, and in return the Ryukyuan‘ kings received a complimentary investiture from the rulers of the Ming dynasty. The prince of Satsuma raised no objections to the maintenance of these relations with China, as he actually connived in them. He issued instructions that whenever a Chinese embassy appeared in Okinawa, the Japanese political agents were to retire from the capital; the Japanese language was to be avoided; and Japanese books, money, and goods were to be kept out of sight. 28 The explanation of this curious situation lay in the mercantile importance of the Ryukyu Islands to the prince of Satsuma. After the Korean war, China had closed her ports to all Japanese vessels, and for many years no Japanese except pirates and smugglers visited Chinese waters. In 1636, moreover, the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan clinched its policy of isolation by forbidding Japanese merchantmen to visit foreign countries. Japan was completely shut off from foreign commerce except for a small‘ amount permitted through visiting Dutch merchants and for such trade as could be conducted through the Ryukyu Islands, which Japanese vessels were allowed to visit. The Chinese, because of the tribute relationship with Okinawa, were permitted to trade freely with this island. Japan was thus enabled to conduct trade with China indirectly by way of the Ryukyus for a period of more than 200 years, during which all direct channels were closed. The prince of Satsuma, who controlled this trade and profited immensely through it, thus had an adequate motive for leaving unaltered the longstanding relations between China and Okinawa. Tranquillity and prosperity reigned in the Ryukyu Islands throughout most of this period. Regular trade relations were maintained with Foochow. Goods were consigned ostensibly by or to the king of Okinawa, although the actual beneficiary was often the prince of Satsuma. The latter even main- tained information offices and Chinese language schools in Okinawa to facilitate the flow of commerce. The Ryukyu natives tolerated Japanese overlordship because it was tempered by commercial expediency and because they prospered economically under the existing arrangements, but their cultural attachments remained closer to China than to Japan. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, the various western powers became increasingly anxious to open trade relations with Japan, 29 and the peculiar status of the Ryukyu Islands offered a possible point of attack. The first on the scene were the French, who had concluded a treaty with China in 1844. In this same year Captain Duplan, commanding the French warship Alcmene, landed at Naha and requested of the Okinawa govern- ment the right to trade and to propagate Christianity. The native officials, in replying, mentioned their tributary relationship to China but said nothing of the tie with Japan, alluded to their poverty and their devotion to Confucius, and maintained that they had nothing to trade and desired no other religion. Duplan sailed away after stating that he would return shortly to resume negotiotions, but he left behind a French missionary by the name of Forcade and a Chinese convert, ostensibly to acquire skill as interpreters. The French returned with three warships in 1846. In the meantime Forcade told the Japanese that the British were planning to conquer the Ryukyu Islands and that the best way to stave off this result was to grant a protectorate to the French. These warnings were apparently borne out by a series of visits from British vessels which undertook surveys of the islands, and in 1846 by the establishment of a British medical missionary, Dr. Bettelheim, at Naha. In Japan the shogun was panic- stricken, but the prince of Satsuma, seeing a further opportunity to exploit his unique position in the islands, succeeded in securing tacit 'consent to trade with the French, who, it was thought, would render assistance in excluding other foreigners. Thus, although no treaty was concluded at this time with the French, a certain amount of trade, largely in firearms and machinery, developed with them. In 1853, Commodore Perry, on his way to Japan where he was to break the policy of seclusion, arrived at Naha and established a coaling station there. He forced the Okinawan government, in conversations that were 30 attended by secret representatives of the prince of Satsuma, to conclude a treaty with the United States guaranteeing good treatment for American vessels. In 1854 the French obtained a similar treaty, and in 1858 the Dutch did likewise. With the opening of direct relations with Japan, however, the Ryukyu Islands ceased to be of importance to the western powers and relapsed again into obscurity. With the abolition of the Shogunate and the restoration of the mikado to political power, the Japanese proceeded to incorporate the Ryukyu Islands as an integral part of their own state. The first step was taken in 1871, when Okinawa.was attached to the Kagoshima prefecture. In 1872, the Japanese Foreign Office assumed responsibility for all foreign relations and treaties with the Ryukyu Islands and so notified the western powers. The Ryukyuan king was reduced to viceregal rank in the Japanese nobility, and his former realm was made a "han" directly responsible to the central government. In 1874 the administration of the Ryukyu Islands was trans- ferred to the Japanese Home Office, and in 1875 tribute to China was stopped and the islands were garrisoned by Japanese troops. In 1876 the judicial system and police force were reorganized along Japanese lines. Finally, in 1879, the "ban" was abolished, the former royal domain reorgan- ised as the prefecture of Okinawa, and the king was removed to Tokyo with a retinue of personal attendants and provided with a handsome pension. For many years the Chinese refused to recognize the changed political status of the Ryukyu Islands. In a claim arising over the slaying of a party of Ryukyu natives in Formosa in 1871, China first disclaimed and then accepted responsibility and ultimately paid an indemnity to Japan. Since protests to foreign powers and diplomatic exchanges proved fruitless, China finally recognized the sovereignty of Japan over the Ryukyu Islands 31 informally in 1881, but did not do so formally until the close of the Sino- Japanese War in 1895. Okinawa,_Japan, and the West Although the Okinawans had been known to the Europeans since the age of discovery, the exploration of the island and its surrounding waters did not take place until the early nineteenth century. The interest of the West was met with deep uneasiness and distrust by the rulers of Okinawa and their Japanese overseers.1 The first of these explorations in 1816 was under the command of Captain Basil Hall, who had been directed by the British government at the close of the Napoleonic wars to chart the waters and routes of the Far East. Hallls work, A Voyage to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loochoo Island, was the chief source of information about Okinawa until Perry's time. Many short visits followed Hall's,2 but the first extensive exploration of Okinawa began with Commodore Perry's arrival at the port of Naha on May 26, 1853. Perry's exploration was merely incidental to his main purpose of using the island as a base while inducing the Japanese to open their ports for trade, although a trade compact signed with the Ryukyuan kingdom as if it were an independent state was subsequently ratified by the United States Senate. Looking back on the effect of Western visits like those of Hall and Perry, it is clear that the interest of the Western nations in the Ryukyu Islands led indirectly to their incorporation into the Japanese Empire. 1Glacken,.gp. cit., pp. 38-43. 2For a list, see Kerr, pp. cit., p. 130. See also Henri Cordier, "Les Francais aux Iles Lieou K'ieou," in his Melanges d'Historie et de Qgpgraphie Orientales (Paris, 1914), I, pp. 296-317. 32 After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the new rulers of Japan continued to be uneasy regarding Western intentions in the southern islands, and Japanese policy calling for closer ties with the Ryukyu kingdom gradually led to the complete loss of Ryukyuan independence. In 1871 a Ryukyuan junk, driven out of its way by a storm, landed in Formosa where the aborigines killed most of the survivors. The government at Shuri appealed to Japan for redress from the Chinese government, which, after much tempo- rizing, refused to make any amends. To force the Chinese to negotiate, the Japanese dispatched an expedition to Formosa in 1874. As a result of negotiations in Formosa and at Peking, Japanese claims to the Ryukyus were recognized, although the Japanese government had already announced to the world in 1872 that it had assumed responsibility for the Ryukyu kingdom.1 During the provincial period following annexation in 1871, the Japanese made several fundamental changes in Okinawan society. One might ‘well ask why these changes were so significant when Japan had exerted an influence, while the islands were nominally under Chinese sovereighty since the early seventeenth century. A probable answer is that in the period be- fore annexation, Japanese influence was confined to the upper levels of government, and particularly to the handling of foreign affairs. Many of the changes following annexation can be traced to the introduction of Western influences by the Perry expedition that infectiously permeated Japan and nourished the determination of the Japanese to modernize their own country. The changes within Japan included the reorganization of the government; the adoption of a Western calendar; the establishment of a new educational system, post offices, and telegraphs; vaccination; European dress for officials; photography; and edicts against long hair. lKerr, 22. cit., pp. 158-161. 33 Japan was to become the medium through which Western ideas were brought to bear on the old Okinawan culture.1 The Japanese moved cautiously. Their first innovation in the Ryukyus was the introduction of Japanese education in both urban and rural areas to provide the basis, as in Japan, for mass literacy. The Japanese interfered as little as possible with the customary life of the people, but found it necessary to introduce sanitation measures and vaccination and to instruct the Ryukyuans in Japanese methods of periodic housecleaning. Despite several epidemics, the Japanese suc- ceeded in gradually improving public health during the provincial period. It was necessary also to improve transportation to meet with the new plans of the Tokyo government. The port of Naha was enlarged to provide facili- ties for anticipated increases in shipping, and roads were constructed around Naha and Shuri. In the old Ryukyuan kingdom, the paths, walks, and trails were adequate for the coolie and the palanquin carrier; and there were only a few roads suitable for wheeled vehicles. Road building ‘was neglected in other parts of the island -- for fifteen years after the annexation, the northern district of Okinawa was still a frontier land. The readiness of Okinawans to abandon customs derived from China and old Japan and to accept the ideas coming from modern Japan increased after the success of the latter in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895. In the early years of the annexation as the topheavy native gentry class (Shizoku) was gradually eliminated from responsible positions and replaced by an official Japanese elite, the former ruling group clung tenaciously to their old customs while their new governors proceeded slowly with modernization. 1Basil Hall Chamberlain, Things Japanese, Being Notes on Various Subjec§§ annected with Japan, 4th ed., rev. and enl. (London, 1902), p. 238. See also his comments on "fashionable crazes," pp. 155-157. 34 The most revolutionary change occurred at the turn of the century when the old system of land tenure was abolished. A series of adminis- trative regulations and laws passed from 1898 to 1903 instituted a system of private property and personal rights of inheritance to replace the old system of village communal land ownership. In the years between werld War I and World War II, the main course of events in the Ryukyu Islands was determined, even more than in the earlier decades, by the internal policies and international ambitions of the Japanese government. When military leaders assumed control of Japan in the 19303, emphasis was placed on emperor worship and state Shinto. These became the cornerstones of citizenship in Okinawa as well as in Japan. The Battle for Okinawa in WOrld War II The World War II battle for Okinawa, which began on Easter morning, April 1, 1945, was the first time war had been waged there in over three hundred years. During the 91-day campaign, which ended officially on June 30, 1945, the island rocked under tons of exploding artillery, land mines, mortar rounds, rockets, demolition charges, 16-inch naval shells, and 1,000 pound delayed-action bombs. Casualties on both sides were enormous. The Japanese alone lost more than 110,000 troops, and combat losses of the six American divisions and their supporting air and naval units including dead and wounded were nearly 50,000. The Okinawans suffered indescribable losses. It has been estimated that 62,500 perished, and of these some 47,000 were civilians who had been unable to find safety within caves and tombs. More than 10,000 labor conscripts and civilian "volunteers" serving with the army had met death. One in eight of the civil population was dead. No family remained untouched. No one knows 35 precisely how many civilians perished from exposure, starvation, disease, or unattended wounds.1 Post werldear II Social-Economic-Political Development, and the U. 8. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands At the conclusion of hostilities in the Ryukyu Islands in 1945, the Ryukyuan people were in a state of destitution. In addition to the almost total demolition of industrial and commercial facilities, a large percentage of farm lands had been rendered useless because of war debris, destruction of rice-paddy fields, and use of vast areas by U. S. military forces. More over, there was a tremendous resettlement problem. Many Ryukyuans took refuge in the sparsely settled region of northern Okinawa during the con- flict and upon returning found their previous dwellings and meager pose sessions ruined or non-existent. Approximately 200,000 Ryukyuan natives had to be repatriated from Japan, Korea, Formosa, and various Pacific islands. Some 75,000 persons (mostly Japanese) had to be expatriated from the Ryukyus. Because of these conditions, the incidence of disease and illness was high, and many suffered from malnutrition and mental anguish.2 1For a detailed account of the battle for Okinawa in World War II, see the following: Major General Robert S. Beightler, "Okinawa; U. S. Gibraltar of the Pacific," Pegasus, pp. 5-9, April 1952; George H. Kerr, Okinawa, The History of an Island People (Tokyo; Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1958), pp. 468- 471; Okinawan Times (Pub.): Tetsu no Bofu (Typhoon of Steel), Tokyo (1950), 487 pp.; Walter Karig (ed.), Battle Report: Victory in the Pacific (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1944-52), chs. 29-39, pp. 343-449; Gilbert Cant, The Great Pacific Victory (New York, 1946), ch. 23, pp. 355-82; F. T. Miller, History of World War II (Philadelphia, 1945), ch. 102, "Okinawa," pp. 920-37; Admiral Sir Bruce A. Fraser, "The Contribution of the British Pacific Fleet to the Assault on Okinawa, 1945", London Gazette (Supplement, June 2, 1948), pp. 3289-314; and Charles S. Nichols and Henry I. Shaw; Okinawa: Victory in the Pacific (Historical Br., G-3 Div. H. Q., U. S. Marine Corps, Washington: 1955), 332 pp. 2The material and data for this section has been based on the writer's ex- perience and close association with Okinawa from 1951 to 1962 beginning with his role as a faculty member with the MSU Advisory Group at the University of the Ryukyus, and later as Coordinator of this program at Michigan State University. In addition, the Office of the Chief of Civil Affairs, U. S. Department of the Army Washington D. C. has made available reports of Civil Affairs Activiti§§ Of'w ich Volume , Number 1 for the period ending 31 December 1952 (Declassi- fied 31 December 1955), published by the United States Civil Administration Of the Ryukyu Islands, has been drawn upon as an expert source in this section, pp. 1, 112-115. 36 Recognizing these conditions, the United States as the occupying power in the Ryukyus immediately organized a Military Government at the close of the Okinawa campaign to administer the civilian populace. This was done under the auspices of the U. S. Navy. U. S. military food rations, medicines, clothing, footgear, blankets, metal aircraft runway mats, kitchen- ware, and a host of other items were made available from military surplus stocks. The donation of surplus military equipment and supplies continued in large degree until the beginning of the conflict in Korea in 1950. With the re-establishment of the Ryukyuan national community, the necessity for industrial raw materials and machinery became apparent; and it was recognized that the economy could not subsist using military excess supplies alone. Hence, concurrently with the transfer of Military Government to the U. 8. Army as of July 1, 1946, the U. S. Congress es- tablished an appropriation under the title "GARIOA" (Government and Relief in Occupied Areas). GARIoA funds provided for supplies and services ne- cessary for the prevention of starvation, disease, and unrest among the citizens of countries occupied by the United States throughout the world. With the assumption of Military Government functions by the Army, many items of surplus office furniture and equipment and several Army sedans were made available without charge by the War Assets Administration. The battle for Okinawa caused such complete destruction of native life that no central government and virtually no local governing bodies remained on Okinawa at the end of the hostilities. A11 high-ranking officials, most of whom were native to the main islands of Japan, had fled to their homeland. The complete destruction of the southern areas of the island of Okinawa and the subsequent crowding of the majority of the island's population into remote northern areas made impossible an early re-establishment of governmental machinery along familiar lines. 37 The immediate problems of relief and security controls were so acute during the first months of the United States occupation that political re- construction received little attention. With the establishment of district refugee camps, to which large groups of dispossessed Okinawans were brought and in which they lived for many months, local ”mayors" were appointed by Military Government and provided with councils. Members of these councils were charged with the supervision of such activities as camp sanitation, labor, land cultivation, and rationing. Military Government called together a nominating body of about 125 prominent Okinawans in August 1945. The purpose was to aid in the se- lection of an Advisory Council of fifteen men who would consult at regular intervals with Military Government relative to the rehabilitation of Okinawa. This provisional group met at Ishikawa on August 15 and 20, 1945, and an Advisory Council of fifteen members was selected by ballot. Military Government Circular No. 178<fliAugust 21, 1945 stated that the Council was established to act as an adviSory group of representative civilians. The Council was to be the principal channel through which 'Military Government would keep in direct contact with civilians, and in turn the principal agency for civilian contacts with Military Government. The Council set up operating committees of prominent non-council members governing particular areas of Okinawan affairs, with Council members as chairmen. The evolution of these Council committees into executive offices functioning on an island-wide basis began in January 1946. With some degree of control being established for the civilian popu- lation, most of which was still located in temporary refugee camps and surrounding areas, eleven Military Government districts were established in Okinawa and five on the outlying islands immediately surrounding Okinawa. 38 Military Government issued a circular on September 12, 1945 providing regulations to govern elections of district mayors and councilmen for the eleven districts in Okinawa. All persons, male or female, twenty-five years of age or over, were eligible to vote. Elections for the council- men were held on September 20, 1945. Immediately after this election, each district council met to nominate three candidates for mayor of the district. Voters of the several districts elected their mayors from those nominated on September 25. These men then took office subject to approval by the Military Government District Commanding.0fficer. Mayors and council- men were completely subordinate to the Military Government District Com-~ manders. The mayors so elected were given authority to appoint their sub- ordinate officials and to organize the districts into wards and blocks. The Military Government called a meeting in early April 1946 to nominate three men for governor of Okinawa Gunto. Present at the meeting were Advisory Council members, former district officials, and mayors. It was understood prior to the voting that Military Government would not be bound by the group's choices in appointing a governor. There were three separate ballots establishing first, second, and third choices thereby allowing the U. S. Military Commander a certain latitude in his choosing. The Military Government established a Central Okinawa Administration on April 22, 1946 headed by a governor appointed from among those nominated. Within the over-all administration were established administrative depart- ments; a court system; city, town, and village administrations; and an Advisory Assembly to replace the Okinawa Advisory Council. The functions previously performed by the Okinawa Advisory Council were thus transferred to the governor and his department heads, all of whom were members of the former body. At that same time Military Government established the Okinawa 39 Assembly which was convened by the governor at irregular intervals until November 1947. The economic structure of the Ryukyus had begun to take form in the year 1949. By this time approximately 42,000 Ryukyuans employed by the U. S. occupation forces were earning foreign exchange, and this employment reduced the requirement for U. S. economic aid. Industries were beginning to be developed. Among those were fishing; brick, tile, and pottery manu- facturing; metal working (mostly agricultural implements); woodworking (furniture); salt manufacturing; bean paste and soy sauce manufacturing; ship yards; saw mills; manufacturing of woven straw mats; manufacturing of kitchen and household utensils; coal mining; logging; phosphate mining; flour milling; sandstone, limestone, sand, gravel, and granite quarrying; textile weaving; rope making; button making; pearl culture; lacquerware manufacturing; glassware manufacturing; black sugar manufacturing; hat weaving; manufacturing of wooden and straw sandals; vehicle repairing, manufacturing of miscellaneous souvenir items; and others. Since a majority of these industries were in an incipient stage, large volumes of industrial and raw materials had to be imported. Industrial profits were not realized until 1950 and thereafter. Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands have continued under the Administration of the United States since the end of Werld War II in accordance with Article 3 of the Treaty of Peace with Japan signed on September 8, 1951, although residual sovereignty to Japan has been acknowledged by the United States. Okinawa's strategic military importance was rediscovered and re- emphasized when trouble started brewing in the Orient following the commu- nist seizure of China. Recognizing the island's importance to the defense 0f the free world, the United States late in 1949 began a multi-million dollar reconstruction and rehabilitation program designed to build the 4O island into one of the most powerful advance military bases in the Pacific. The southern half of Okinawa during the 1950-52 period was one vast con- struction project. When the Communists invaded South Korea in June 1950, Okinawa became one of the main B-29 bases in support of the United Nation forces on the Korean battle front. The present United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands (USCAR), which replaced the U. S. Military Government in December 1950 is headed by a High Commissioner designated by the Secretary of Defense after consultation with the Secretary of State and approval by the U. S. President. USCAR is concerned with the development of Ryukyuan self-government and with the entire range of Ryukyuan educational, judicial, economic, and social activities. Public education in the Ryukyus today is organized on the basis of six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, three years of senior high school,.and four years of college. An elected Central Board of Education with sixty-three elected school boards has the responsi- bility of formulating broad policies and educational standards. The Uni- versity of the Ryukyus was founded in 1950 and today has an enrollment of over 2,300 students. The development of this institution has been assisted by personnel from Michigan State University. A number of Ryukyuan students and national leaders travel to the United States each year under an ex- change program operated by the U. S. Civil Administration. Over 400 students and 200 leaders have participated in this program. A review of education in Okinawa and the evolution of the University of the Ryukyus is a major topic in itself, and therefore will be developed as the subject of the next chapter of this study. ,- .. 3.- V01. suit ate: War 1 schs. has '; have Stab: 41 The Ryukyuans now exercise considerable self-government in internal affairs. Their central governmental structure is called the "Government of the Ryukyu Islands." It includes a legislature elected by popular vote, a chief executive appointed by the High Commissioner after con- sultation with the legislature, and a system of courts. At the local level Ryukyuan cities, towns, and villages elect their own mayors and municipal assemblies. Concurrent with the rebuilding of Okinawa for military purposes, many important and far-reaching changes began to take place on the civilian side of Okinawan activities. Cities and villages were rebuilt as the economic conditions in Okinawa began to steadily improve at an acceler- ated rate following the very difficult period immediately after World War II. Many concrete, typhoon-resistant buildings were erected. New schools have risen. Roads have been constructed, and native industry has been revived. Agriculture has been improved, public health measures have been adopted, and the islands' economy has been expanded and stabilized. The Ryukyuan people by 1952 were enjoying a standard of living roughly equal to pre-war levels. A proviSional central government patterned after the American system was established in April 1951, and it brought together the four main groups of islands comprising the Ryukyus chain at that time. The people again went to the polls and elected a Ryukyu-wide legislature in the spring of 1952. This legislature officially went into office on April 1 of that year, and represented the long-anticipated date when the Government of the Ryukyu Islands became a reality. Later that year a new governor of the Ryukyus was elected. In the interest of economy and efficient operation, the four Gunto (state) governments gradually faded out of existence. 42 Throughout the 19503 the progress in the recovery and the redevelop- ment of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands continued at an accelerated pace. For a number of years in the 19505, approximately 75,000 Ryukyuans were working for the U. S. forces in various activities, and their wages repre- sented an important contribution to the Ryukyuan economy. Today approxi- mately 50,000 Ryukyuans are employed by the U. S. Military establishment, and the islands' economy has become heavily dependent on spending by the U. S. armed forces and their personnel. In 1959 imports totaled $112 million, exports only $21 million. An analysis of the history of the Ryukyus brings out that these islands have been a deficit economy in modern times. The damage of World War II was enormous and temporarily destroyed the export potential that existed. The consequent critical economic problems that existed in the immediate post-war period were aggravated by repatriation, the uncertain political future of the Ryukyus, the severance of economic ties with Japan, and the loss of experienced Japanese business managers and governmental administrators. Considering these obstacles, efforts made by USCAR to rehabilitate the Ryukyus have been successful. Schools have been rebuilt, utilities and public services restored, a fishing fleet created, and agrin cultural production substantially increased. The existence of the U. S. Military base in the Ryukyu Islands has been accompanied by a significant reshaping of the economy -- a large wage-earning class has been created which did not exist before the war. In 1960 there were approximately 405,000 persons in the Ryukyuan labor force of which 4,000 (1 per cent) were completely unemployed. Of the total employed, 183,000 persons (46.6 per cent of the employed labor force) were engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The rest were employed in non-agricultural activities. 43 The principal economic forces behind this recovery has been the presence of the U. S. Military, in addition to the U. S. aid that has been channeled through the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands. Some economists have drawn a close parallel to the economy of Hawaii, which is largely dependent on the presence of the U. S. Military forces, to the emerging pattern of the economy in Okinawa. USCAR recognizes that major efforts must be continued to establish new industries to shift some of the dependence that the Ryukyuan economy has on the U. S. Military to a broader base of support. Summary In retrospect it might be well to review some of the salient forces having influence on the Ryukyuan culture. The Ryukyu Islands have been known to China and Japan since the seventh century A. D., and their way of life has been influenced by customs and ideas from both these nations. Their traditional religion is an indigenous animistic cult which has been influenced in varying degrees by Confucianism, Shintoism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The prevailing language is Japanese, and in post-Werld War 11 years, English has become the second language. In the fourteenth century the Ryukyus fell under the political in- fluence of China until 1609 when Japan invaded the islands and established a protectorate which remained in effect until 1371. During the 18709 Japan proceeded to incorporate the Ryukyus as an integral part of the Japanese state and finally removed the king to Tokyo with a generous pension in 1879. The Ryukyus were invaded by U. S. forces in the spring of 1945 and re- mained under U. S. Military Government until 1951. Under the U. S.-Japanese peace treaty signed in September 1951, the Ryukyus were placed under U. S. Administration, although residual sovereignty was retained by Japan. 44 Today Okinawa is considered the "keystone" of the U. S. defense system in the western Pacific. It is the site of a major U. S. base with large airfields and typhoon-resistant military facilities constructed in the 19505. The traditional economy of the Ryukyus is based on farming (rice, vege- tables, sugar cane), fishing, and forestry; and about half of the working people are still engaged in these activities. Approximately 50,000 Ryukyuans are employed by the U. S. Military establishment today, and the Ryukyuan economy has become heavily dependent on spending by the U. S. armed forces and their personnel. A large wage-earning class has been created which did not exist before World War II. Public education in the Ryukyus has been reorganized under the U. 8. Administration and attendance is compulsory through the ninth grade. A review of education in Okinawa and the evolution of the University of the Ryukyus is the subject of the next chapter of this study. CHAPTER III EDUCATION IN OKINAWA AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS Pre-War Education A discussion of pre-war education in Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands is introduced at this time to bring forth some of the problems that per- sisted in relation to the Ryukyuan peoples' interest in improving their educational Opportunities and facilities.1 With the National Education Act of 1872, the Tokyo government had attacked the immense problem of regional loyalties in conflict with central authority in Japan proper. By the time the Ryukyu kingdom became Okinawa Prefecture, "obedience to the emperor“ had replaced traditional standards of loyalty to the local clan or daimyo throughout most of the old feudal territories; but the problems were by no means completely solved. The Satsuma Rebellion of 1877 had brought the threat of general civil war and had betrayed internal weakness which invited attack from the outside. If Okinawa were to be assimilated, the prejudices of the older genera- tion would have to be overcome, and the loyalties of the younger generation would have to be shifted from Shuri to Tokyo. Traditional and sentimental ties with China would have to be dissolved, and the old days of the inde- pendent Ryukyu kingdom would have to be forgotten. Easy-going, casual life in the Okinawan community would have to give way to a more vigorous 1Kerr,'gp. cit., pp. 411-418, 440-449, and Civil Affairs Handbook: ,Ryukyu (Loochoo)Islands, pp. cit., pp. 155-173. 46 and disciplined organization; the individual would have to learn to snap to attention and to believe that his duty to the Japanese state overrode all other considerations. Families were prepared to make any sacrifice in order to provide education for promising youth, and villages took pride in young men who aspired to take the literary examinations. Conversely, the Confucian ideal of the son's obligation to his parents meant that a youth who accepted these sacrifices on his behalf felt himself to be under heavy moral obligation to the family and to the community. Teacher and student commanded the highest respect in the community. In the Ryukyus an opportunity to study, at least to learn the elements of reading, was part of the birthright of every youth of the upper classes. Approximately thirty schools existed at the time of the king's abdication in 1872. The Japanese Ministry of Education in Tokyo determined to create a school system in Okinawa which would provide a corps of young men to be used in carrying through a general provincial reorganization. Ultimately the system would be extended into all the islands and would touch every household having school-age children. A.need for interpreters came first. The Japanese could converse with the educated leaders at Shuri and Naha, but could not make themselves understood in the countryside. Therefore a "Conversation Training Quarter" was opened in the precincts of the Tempi Shrine in February 1880, and soon an elementary Okinawan-Japanese Conversation Book was prepared in two volumes. It was proposed to develop a corps of clerks and interpreters who could use standard Japanese in the government service. In June of the same year a normal school was established to increase as rapidly as possible the number of teachers competent to spread the new 47 learning in the lower schools. It was under these circumstances that the normal school was formally introduced to Okinawa by the Japanese. The situation was not a healthy one; the crisis of Sino-Japanese re- lations concerning Korea was soon to flare into open war. Tension increased within Okinawa between advocates of pro-Chinese and pro-Japanese points of view. China's defeat in 1895 quickened a desire to be considered "up-to- date" at Naha and Shuri and to abandon old-fashioned customs. Students led the way and set the pace. Men no longer "lacquered" their hair into a topknot with seaweed paste or oils, but boldly cut it short. Wide black- crepe sashes for the men's kimonos in the Japanese style became popular. These were the changing fashions of the year. More important was the change in names. Women began to add the feminine suffix kg to their personal names, men took distincly Japanese names, and families adopted a Japanese reading for the characters of the surname. Gradually thousands left the southern islands to settle in metro- politan Japan, where they were lost among the millions of workers in the great cities and where discrimination was less severely felt because the individual adopted Japanese habits of dress and speech. In the Ryukyu Islands, however, regional characteristics changed slowly, and the Japanese educators and the "resident merchants" found it difficult to concede equality to the unsophisticated Okinawans. The story of the Kodama incident in 1394 illustrates one aspect of discrimination. Kihachi Kodama, Director of the Prefectural Department of Education, was concurrently Principal of the Shuri Middle School and of the Shuri Normal School in 1894. He took no pains to conceal his contempt for the people of Okinawa, for he mistook poverty for ignorance and incapacity. 48 He loudly proclaimed that there was no need for higher education in the prefecture, and to make his point he removed the study of English from the list of required subjects at the middle school. This, he said, was an unnecessary luxury for Okinawans. A public controversy broke out and the students went on strike in 1895. Among the student leaders were Kanjun Higaonna, Anko Majikina, and Fuyu Iha -- all destined to become historians of recognized authority in Japan, and Kenwa Kanna, who distinguished him- self later as vice-admiral, parliamentary vice-minister, and Diet member. Parents supported the striking students. Okinawans who held minor posts in the prefectural government rallied behind them and brought pressure to bear, which caused Kodama's removal and the restoration of English to the middle-school curriculum. The history of education after 1890 was distinguished principally by Okinawa's struggle against Tokyo's reluctance to provide education above the primary grades. Twenty years later a second controversy developed in the educational system, which illustrates certain persistent traditions and character- istics of Ryukyuan education. The need for a second middle school began to be debated in 1908. As the opening business of the first prefectural assembly (1909), the chairman, Chokyo Takamine, introduced a proposal that such a school be created as a symbol of "New Okinawa." A new institution was founded as a temporary adjunct of the Shuri Middle School. In January 1911, one hundred students were enrolled from a list of 557 applicants. Rintoku Takara was appointed principal, assisted by Koshin Shikiya.1 1After World War II he became the first Chief Executive of Okinawa under the American occupation, and later first President of the University of the Ryukyus. 49 Public debate of the middle-school problem inSpired the people of Nago and Miyako to petition for high schools. A third middle school was established in Nago in 1928, and a branch of the second middle school was opened in Miyago. Facilities for the education of young women were fewer in number and of less importance to the government than the middle-school system for the boys. A girls' high school was founded as an adjunct to the normal school in 1900, but it had to depend on private funds until 1902. By 1930 it had graduated more than 2,000 students. The record suggests that the Okinawan people themselves took the initiative in promoting development of educational facilities at higher levels. This was done at considerable sacrifice, and won only grudging‘ recognition and cooperation from the government. Students desiring education beyond the middle-school level had to choose between the normal school at Naha, or the more expensive life of a student overseas in other prefectures or in Formosa. By the end of World War I, the major obstacles of assimilation had been overcome. Strong attachment to local scenes and local customs re- mained, but in matters of economics and politics the younger generation thought in terms of identification with nationwide Japanese interests. At the beginning of Japan's second major war with China in 1937, more than 100,000 students were enrolled in the primary schools of Okinawa. This was a new generation. The tradition and history of old Ryukyu meant little to them and they were only dimly aware of the divided loyalties which had troubled their grandparents during transition from kingdom:to prefecture. Pretensions to Chinese learning withered away with the older generation. But the ugly problem of social discrimination had not been overcome. The Japanese government was winning the campaign to have Okinawans think 50 of themselves as Japanese subjects, but in general little was done to overcome the widespread Japanese sense of superiority toward the Okinawans as an "out-group" minority of second-class "country cousins." An example of differentiation was the Okinawan use of pork as a main article of diet. This was part of the Chinese cultural heritage. Many Okinawans established themselves in the metropolitan centers of Japan (and in Hawaii) as pro- prietors of piggeries. This, in Japanese eyes, placed them almost on a level with the despised Egg -- the butchers, tanners, and shoemakers of the old days. The strong insularity of Japanese nationalism would not admit the Okinawans easily to full membership in Japanese society. Before World War II there was relatively little intermarriage in overseas com- munities between Okinawans and the Japanese from other prefectures. The 73-year occupation of the Ryukyu Islands by the Japanese resulted in the development of an educational system patterned after that of Japan and administered as the schools in a prefecture of the mother country. The pattern extended only to the lower echelons of education. Since the highest level of education in the islands was the Shuri Normal School, it was ne- cessary that all seeking professional training other than in education had to attend universities in other prefectures or in Japan proper. Top administrative personnel of Ryukyuan schools were largely Japanese nationals; and curricula, certification, and standards for schools and personnel were all under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Ministry of Education. In 1935 it was officially reported that 99.1 per cent of all children between six and fourteen, the ages for which school attendance was com- pulsory, were actually enrolled in school in the Okinawa prefecture. During the period prior to World War 11, two normal schools were operated by the Okinawa prefecture -- one for men and one for girls. 51 Both schools were located in the City of Shuri. The normal schools offered both regular courses and special post-graduate courses. Students who had completed the higher elementary school course were accepted. The normal schools offered a junior course of three years, a senior course of two years, and a post-graduate course of one year. In 1943 the post-graduate course was made the third year of the senior course, but one year later the last year of both the junior and senior courses was discontinued. Thus, it will be observed that fourteen years of schooling was the maximum that had ever been available in the Ryukyus. Of the eighty-nine students who graduated from the men's normal school in 1934, for example, seventy- six became teachers in elementary schools, and eleven continued in special advanced courses. Of the fifty-six graduates of the girls' normal school in the same year, forty-six became teachers in elementary schools, and seven entered special advanced courses. The highest-level teaching credential given was the regular certificate. Some types of credentials were also given on the basis of experience and proficiency examinations.1 Post-War Interest in Education In some ways there were similarities in the post World War 11 changes in education in both the Ryukyus and Japan, but in many respects there were very noticeable differences.2 In March 1946 Japan invited an educational mission of foremost American educators to visit that country to work with a counterpart com- mission of national educators to make recommendations for reforms. Other 1Civil Affairs Activities, 22. cit., p. 161. 2Based on the writer's experience and close association with Okinawa from 1951 to date, plus Civil Affairs Activities,_gp. cit., pp. 152, 161- 163. 52 missions followed, and all were primarily concerned with the status of education in the main home islands of Japan excluding formerly held terri- tories. During this same period beginning in 1946 the staff of the Edu- cation Division in General Headquarters of the U. S. Army in Tokyo com- posed of educators representing every facet of education worked daily with Japanese Government officials, administrators, and teachers to implement policies recommended by these educational missions. In addition to this full-time staff, numerous other specialists came for periods ranging from one week to nine months to lead workshops and round table discussions and to participate in the Institute for Educational Leadership, which afforded post-graduate training for more than 4,000 leaders in administration, supervision, finance, and instruction in each curriculum at all edu- cational levels. Japanese educators trained in these courses carried out similar programs in their respective prefectures. The result was a wide dissemination of the basic principles of the educational reforms and a new educational philosophy based on democratic precepts. In the Ryukyus, on the other hand, while the structure of Japanese educational reform was accepted as a guide, there was not a comparable staff of educators to work with the Ryukyuans to give them an understanding of the philosophy behind the proposed changes, nor to help them draft the necessary laws, regulations, and standards to implement the changes. The ravages of war left the schools of the Ryukyus in a pitiful con- dition. In the areas where fighting had been heaviest, not even the buildings remained. Thousands of teachers had been drafted into fighting or into the labor battalions of the Japanese Army. Many others had been transferred to colonial posts. Many of those who remained or returned after the cessation of fighting, took other employment. They represented the elite among the civil population, and consequently their services were 53 in great demand by the military, civil administration, and construction contractors. In 1946, Okinawa Civil Administration established Bunkyo Gakko (Edu- cation School) at Gushikawa for the purpose of training teachers. This school was patterned after the pre-war normal schools and accepted students by examination on their graduation from the middle school, high school, or vocational school. Those completing the one-year course at Bunko Gakko were given elementary teacher certificates, and those finishing the two- year course were granted junior high school certificates. Schools were also established for teaching English to turn out trans- lators and interpreters for occupational requirements. These schools gave a six-month course devoted entirely to the study of oral and written English. Later, with the establishment of gunto governments, each department of education operated short-term refresher courses for teachers -- on completion of which certificates were awarded. In these courses some understanding of educational psychology, general teaching methods, and principles of education was reached; but, by and large, the short courses offered represented only a review of the subject content of the elementary and secondary school curricula. Okinawa Gunto set up four so-called normal schools at Nago, Koza, Itoman, and Maehara respectively. These schools offered six-month courses by the calendar, but because of holidays, the courses required only four and one-half months of actual attendance. The schools accepted either high school graduates or teachers who had been assistant teachers on emergency certificates. The curriculum included educational psychology, principles of education, and what was termed "methods of teaching"; but it actually consisted of a subject matter review of elementary and junior high school texts. A very loosely organized system of observation of teaching 54 and practice teaching was attempted; but in many cases the teacher under whom work was taken was as poorly prepared as the student taking the course, so that the net gain to the student was very limited. On completion of the course, the teachers were given either an elementary or junior high school certificate depending on the textbook material reviewed. Instruction in these normal schools was entirely by the lecture method. A few reference materials published by the Japanese Ministry of Education were available to the instructors; but most of the books had been written during the post World War II occupation, and the contents were predicated on the new educational system in Japan of which the in- structors in these normal schools had little knowledge and practically no understanding. Thus, their lectures were based largely on their own training (generally in the pre-war Shuri Normal School), or their ex- perience in teaching. NOne of the instructors had teaching certificates of higher than the elementary level. A.total of 564 teachers took the course in these four so-called normal schools prior to October 1, 1952. A major emphasis in the early post-war period was given to the re- habilitation of the physical plants of Ryukyuan schools. As soon as the fighting stopped and the dazed population began to filter back into the villages from which they had been evacuated by the Japanese Army, the people started to construct schools from whatever odds and ends were available. In some cases the schools were built only of poles and thatch. Some were made with old sheets of galvanized iron and scraps of tarpaulins fastened to every conceivable framework from poles to discarded steel beams from landing barges. Each typhoon leveled most of this temporary con- struction, but the people would patiently salvage what was usable out of the wreckage and patch together another makeshift building. ‘Many classes [1|].- 55 met out of doors, and schools were conducted on double and, in some cases, even triple sessions. As indicated earlier in this chapter, the Ryukyuan people traditionally have been strong advocates of providing educational opportunities for their children. The desire for an institution of higher education in Okinawa dates back to the end of the nineteenth century. In the succeeding years under the direct rule of the Japanese up to Werld War II, the Ryukyuan people continued to press for an institution of higher learning in addition to the programs available in the normal schools in Okinawa. During this pre-war period there were limited opportunities for students from the Ryukyus to study in Japanese universities, but this did not satisfy the real wants of the people. Accordingly many individuals and groups in Okinawa were actively trying to bring about the establishment of a new university after Werld ‘War II. The Hawaii Koseikai (Hawaiian Rehabilitation Association for the Ryukyu Islands, consisting of Okinawan peOple then living in Hawaii) pro- moted the idea of establishing a university on Okinawa. Ryukyuan teachers, principals, and other citizens who were actively interested in education organized a committee in Okinawa in 1947 for the establishment of such an institution. This committee collected catalogues from Japanese universities and gathered much data to assist them in developing some definite plans for the proposed university. When word spread throughout Okinawa that there was a committee working on the establishment of a new university, the high school students were very excited about this development. The students donated pocket money and established a fund which was given to the Okinawa Civil Administration Education Department for custody. Mr. Atsuo Yamashiro, a member of the committee for the establishment of a university, was also Director of Education of the Okinawa Civil s- 56 Administration at that time. At a director's conference in the Okinawa Civil Administration he proposed the idea of establishing a university; and after cooperative deliberation, the proposal was approved. Mr. Yamashiro, with the approval of the Okinawa Civil Administration, approached the Director of Education in the U. S. Military Government of Okinawa with the recommendation for a new university. After this initial approach to Mili- tary Government, Mr. Yamashiro and others from the committee held many con- ferences with the U. S. representatives to talk about this proposal. Following the battle for Okinawa in World war II, the economic sta- bility in the Ryukyus was completely destroyed. Most of the school buildings had been destroyed. The feeling of the Ryukyuan people was to rebuild these buildings and at the same time to construct a university. The Ryukyuan people felt there was a need for teacher training, plus the need for a new concept of education and teacher training that differed from pre-war days. The Ryukyuan people believed a new type of educational system would help them to develop the Ryukyu Islands both socially and educationally.1 There were several factors and influences which combined to produce this movement that brought out new thoughts pertaining to higher education in Okinawa after World War II. Prior to World War II there were many people in Japan and in the Ryukyus who had an awareness of the need for a re-examination of the social and educational systems of Okinawa and Japan. Because the Japanese leadership environment in the pre-World War II period was guided by ultra-nationalistic elements, particularly Japanese military leaders in power at that time, it was difficult for the intellectuals to actively express themselves in objective terms. The intellectuals during 1From interviews with Ryukyuan high officials who were active edu- cational leaders in the years 1946-50. 57 this period were subdued in the total ultra-nationalistic atmosphere, and their social and cultural influence was not respected. When Japan lost the war, many of the Japanese and Ryukyuans became aware that they had been un- realistic and unobjective as a result of the ultra-nationalistic influence of the past. Subsequently many of these people began to criticize the past and to talk in terms of the ideals of democracy; and the pre-war in- tellectuals who were proponents of democracy once again began to emerge. It was conditions such as these that gave support to the development of a university in Okinawa.1 Establishment of the University of the Ryukyus During the period following the end of World War II, the U. S. Mili- tary Government in Okinawa became established on a stable basis. It was during this time that the Military Government engaged in a series of meetings with representatives of the Okinawa Civil Administration and other individuals and groups regarding the movement that had developed for the establishment of a new university. 'Military Government conducted a series of studies to evaluate the need for such an institution. It was recognized that there was a serious shortage of trained Ryukyuans. As a consequence, Military Government had already begun to send many Ryukyuans :students to Japan and the United States for university training. However, schools there were overcrowded; and the cost of sending students abroad was .a factor that permitted only a limited number from a large group of quali- .fied.young people to take advantage of this opportunity. With this ration- ale Military Government resolved the problem and at the same time met the desires of the Ryukyuan people by approving the establishment of a University 11bid. p I I 58 for the Ryukyu Islands to be located on the site of the former monarch's castle atop the heights of Shuri overlooking a vast section of south- central Okinawa. Ample funds for beginning construction of the first building were made available from the U. S. administered Counterpart Fund. Leveling of the site began in Jaunary 1949. In about one year, a large two-story stone administration building, eight two-room wooden classroom buildings, and a library building were completed. Since the new university was to be co-educational, five tile-roofed wooden structures like the small classroom buildings were constructed as women's dormitories and a dining hall. Temporary buildings housed the male students. The formal opening of the University took place May 22, 1950. Five hundred students were enrolled the first year. Mr. Koshin Shikiya, for- 'mer Governor of Okinawa, was appointed President of the University Nevemmer 4, 1950. On January 10, 1951, the Deputy Governor of the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands put into effect Civil .Administration Ordinance Number 30 in which the basic rules governing the operation of the University were set forth.1 It was on this scene that the University of the Ryukyus appeared. In retrospect it appears that there are identifiable elements in the establish- ment and development of the University of the Ryukyus upon which attention should be focused in an analysis of educational-administrative-cultural aspects of the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. These elements include: 1See Appendix B. 59 I. Purposes of the University of the Ryukyus. II. Resources of the University of the Ryukyus. III. The Michigan State UniverSity Advisory Group. IV. Leadership, internal structure, and program performance at the University of the Ryukyus. V. Interaction between the University of the Ryukyus and A. the Ryukyuan community, and B. the international community. VI. Concern for the future of the University of the Ryukyus. Attention will be given to these elements in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV MAJOR FACTORS IN'THE ESTABLISHMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS Purposes of the University of the Ryukyus An issue of first concern in the establishment and development of the University of the Ryukyus has been the charter of this institution. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the USCAR Ordinance Number 30 was promulgated on January 10, 1951 setting forth the basic purposes and rules governing the operation of the University of the Ryukyus. Subse- quently on February 28, 1952 USCAR Ordinance Number 66 was promulgated in which chapter fourteen entitled "The University of the Ryukyus" amended the USCAR Ordinance Number 30.1 .Article I, paragraph 2, of USCAR Ordinance Number 66 states the following objectives: The University of the Ryukyus hereinafter referred to as the University with principal place of operation at Shuri, Okinawa shall make available post-secondary education programs in the Arts, Sciences, and the professions to the men and ‘women.of the Ryukyus. It shall make available general and specific information and educational services to the people of the Ryukyus, thus furthering their economic and cultural development, the understandings,practices, and liberties of democratic peoples and including freedom of speech, right of assembly, right of petition, freedom of religion, and freedom of the responsible press. President Yonamine and his colleagues state:2 1See Appendix B. ZInterviews with President Yonamine, et. a1. 61 Personally we do not feel that the Ryukyuan people are aware of the specific points covered in these two old Ordinances. We believe that the people do not have much criticism against the specific points of these two Ordinances. However, the public demand is strong for civil legislation rather than Ordinances which have come down from the top, meaning U. S. Administration. Since the year 1956 there have been forces operating outside of the University of the Ryukyus to change the USCAR Ordinances serving as the Charter for the University. In 1958 when the Ryukyuan legislature passed the laws of education, all regulations pertaining to education in the Ryukyu Islands and the Boards of Education previously referred to in USCAR Ordinance Numbers 30 and 66 were rescinded except the portions of the Ordinances pertaining to the corporate entity of the University of the Ryukyus, which was perpetuated. Because of a number of unresolved problems concerning the operation of the University of the Ryukyus, the Ryukyuan legislature decided to keep the University outside of their educational legislations of 1958. There has been a popular sentiment on Okinawa favoring integration and unification of all publicly supported educational activities into one systematized organization of educational administration. In this context there are several unresolved questions pertaining to the University of the Ryukyus, among which are the problems of where to fit the University into an over-all educational organization, how to resolve the details of administration and control for the University in such a super-structure covering Ryukyuan public education, and the extent to which the University's iFaculty Council should determine the activities of the University. I The Ryukyuan legislature concluded in 1958 that the University of the Ryukyus should continue to be controlled and administered according to the USCAR Ordinances Numbers 30 and 66 until such time as new legislation can be passed. Since 1956 the faculty members at the University of the Ryukyus 62 and the Ryukyuan community in general have continued to press for new legislation of a University charter; but until very recently, they have been unable to produce a draft of the legislation upon which they could generally agree. The strongest motivation for new legislation relative to a University charter stems from the fact that the Ryukyuan people want to have their University within the control of their own society. The people state that because the University of the Ryukyus is administered under the USCAR Ordinances, the University is essentially in the hands of the U. S. Civil Administration. The Ryukyuan people do not express much criticism against the specific contents of the USCAR Ordinances, but they are concerned that the University must be an integral part of their Ryukyuan social institu- tions. They express the desire to control and guide the growth of the University of the Ryukyus, and look upon this development as the key for the sound growth of the University.1 President Yonamine of the University of the Ryukyus feels that the specific contents of the USCAR Ordinances are sound and practical for an efficient operation, and for an active growth and expansion of his University. He states that he personally favors the type of operation and control provided by the USCAR Ordinances. He further states that the University of the Ryukyus must grow to be a strong institution which repre- sents the public conscience and which can provide strong leadership in the scientific and economic growth of his society. He believes the best leader- ship for developing the University of the Ryukyus under such conditions could be augmented by a popularly elected Board of Directors. 1Interviews with Ryukyuan citizens who are or have been concerned with the growth and development of the University of the Ryukyus, including Uni- versity of the Ryukyus personnel; Ryukyuan political leaders; and other Ryukyuans such as industrialists, bankers, merchants, and farmers. 63 There has been considerable concern by faculty members and people out- side the University campus for changing the present USCAR Ordinances to give more autonomy to the Faculty Council. It should be noted that a faculty council in most Japanese universities is vested with considerable authority to dictate goals, directions, and means of operation of a uni- versity. It also should be pointed out that the Japanese political and legal systems are different from the existing system found in the Ryukyu Islands. President Yonamine feels that the faculty should have the right to guide the academic growth and educational activities of a university. On the other hand, he feels that the Board of Directors, which is not found in the Japanese National Universities but which is the governing body of the University of the Ryukyus under the present USCAR Ordinances, permits greater financial security and independence for the University of the Ryukyus than is possible under the system applicable to the Japanese National Universities. Thus, these are some of the dilemmas that the administration and faculty at the University of the Ryukyus and the Ryukyuan public are facing in resolving the issues associated with the development of a new charter. It can be seen that the major issues vis-a-vis the charter emphasize the need to identify the University closely with the Ryukyuan community. ”With this understanding of the situation today, the writer became more concerned about the degree to which the values and purposes of the University of the Ryukyus have reinforced the traditional values -- or constituted a departure from the established norms -- of the Ryukyuan society. The response of President Yonamine and his colleagues relative to this question furnishes an interesting insight:1 1Interviews with President Yonamine, et. a1. 64 Taking a broader perspective we must recognize that the Okinawan culture has traditionally been greatly influenced by Japanese cultural values and the perspective of Japanese in- tellectuals. Aside from this basic understanding there has been nevertheless a continuous change taking place in our value system which we believe has been influenced by the numer- ous changes taking place in the social, economic, and political rearrangements of the Ryukyu Islands. The changes in the social, cultural, and economic activities in our society have made it necessary for the Ryukyuan people to develop a new world perspective, a new set of values which would serve to explain the new institutions which we are beginning to have, and to explain the new patterns of behavior. The perspective of the Ryukyuan people changed greatly at the end of world War II because they were defeated and be- cause they were put into miserable living conditions. Be- cause of this, the Ryukyuans were more willing to accept whatever changes were forced upon them. They were willing to accept new ways and new methods of doing things. Some radical changes were brought in by the Americans as the occupying force. Some changes were forced upon the Ryukyuans because of the new philosophy which was develop- ing in Japan and in the rest of the world. So probably the Ryukyuans have developed a wider perspective. The Ryukyuan people began to recognize their own problems and their own values; and not only their own, but probably problems and values held in common with people outside of the Ryukyu Islands. This broadened perspective by the Ryukyuan people is certainly a factor in causing the flexibility of the traditional Ryukyuan value system. we feel that traditionally Ryukyuans have had some intense feelings of anxiety. Ryukyuan people feel they are inferior and worthless. Even though it may be a pathological social phenomenon, we feel this did exist in pre-war days. This anxiety of being inferior, which existed in the Ryukyuan mind before the war, seems to have lessened after the war; and we are not sure whether or not the University of the Ryukyus has served in any way to lessen such an anxiety. It may be true that the emerging concept of democracy, plus recognizing the unique values of individuals and ac- cepting the differences between peoples and individuals, has been supported by the faculty of the University; and has been the promoting as well as supporting force for the cause of the University of the Ryukyus. These conditions may have served as mutual influences. Because the Uni- versity has promoted the idea that the Ryukyuan people are not worthless, but to the contrary have abilities and significant qualities; and because of the fact that the Ryukyuan people are realizing this to a greater extent, the University has found it easier to function more adequately in recent years. 65 It can be seen that many value changes developed after the end of World War II in Okinawa. The Ryukyuans' willingness to accept changes forced upon them, their willingness to accept new ways and means of doing things, and the diminishing of traditional Ryukyuan anxieties of inferiority' were among them; but these were in large part coincidental with philosophical and value developments taking place in Japan and the rest of the world at that time. As was pointed out in Chapter II‘ it has never been easy for Ryukyuan peasants to make a living; and to do so most effectively has required hard physical work, cooperative effort, and frugality. It was pointed out that the loyalties of the Ryukyuan were first to the family and then to the village; and in his world, the Ryukyuan probably did not see far beyond either one. To make a living in the Ryukyus, everything had to be used. In commenting on this frugality, Newman and Eng stated that the popular Ryukyuan attitude was one of resignation in which the people did what they could, observed all of the proprieties, and then took life as it came.1 This indicates that there is evidence that the attitudes of the Ryukyuans, as informally measured in day-to-day working contacts between Americans and Ryukyuans since the end of World War II, have begun to shift from.the traditional and historical pattern of their culture to the more flexible position as described above by President Yonamine and his colleagues. I It is small wonder that the events over the past ninety years -- the loss of the esoteric character of the upper-class native life after the monarchy ended and was replaced by Japanese rulers who looked upon Okinawans 1Newman and Eng, The Ryukyuan People, A Cultural Appraisal. 66 as inferior social beings and, later, the devastation of the battle of Okinawa in world War II -- have manifested some intense feelings of anxiety that has led the Ryukyuan people to feel inferior and worthless. At the conclusion of the hostilities of world War II, the Ryukyuan people were in a state of destitution. The battle for Okinawa caused such a complete destruction of native life that no central government and virtu- ally no local governing bodies remained in Okinawa. During the first months of the U. S. occupation, the immediate problems of welfare and security controls were so acute that political reconstruction received little at- tention. There was a tremendous resettlement problem and large groups of dispossessed Okinawans were brought into district refugee camps where they lived for many months. As the Ryukyuan people gradually relocated and re- established their society, a slowly evolving rehabilitation process began to take place. The emergence of a large middle class of wage-earning Ryukyuans has developed along with an upper economic class which is bring- ing with it an emerging upper class defined in terms of a learned and cultural-sensitive society. The attitude of the younger generation upon earning their degrees from the University of the Ryukyus and universities abroad -- along with other important social developments -- appears to be an important factor in the waning of the traditional Ryukyuan inferiority complex. Because of the conditions in Okinawa at the end of world War II, there was little choice for the United States as the occupying power but to move in and in a forthright manner supervise and directly administer the people of the Ryukyu Islands. The problem was so acute that the major efforts by all concerned were to feed these people and keep them alive and as healthy as possible. Historically it can be seen that the United States was successful in its efforts under Military Government, 67 and later in its programs under the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, in helping the people of the Ryukyu Islands to survive and make an impressive comeback after the end of Werld War II. The turnover of American personnel in the Ryukyu Islands resulting from the system of military tours of duty has been a constant process with the exception of certain American civilian personnel who have become career people and continued in their assignments for a number of years. It would appear that this regular turnover of American personnel within the U. S. Civil Administration, the U. S. Military organizations,and the MSU Advisory Group has coincided with a demonstrated lack of sensitivity and understanding of the Ryukyuan people in their cultural setting.1 Contrary to popular belief, there have been many efforts made by Americans to carry out research and become more knowledgeable about the Ryukyuan people and their cultural practices. The writer's bibliography can be regarded as supporting evidence for this statement. As is so often the case, however, the available knowledge included in the published re- ports and studies that give insights into the Ryukyuan people and their cultural practices have not become working tools for the practicing American administrators and specialists in Okinawa and the other Ryukyu Islands. As each succeeding American replacement arrives on the scene, it all too often seems that he becomes caught up in the pressures of day-to-day business. Unfortunately, based on limited knowledge of the Ryukyuan culture coupled with the desire to hasten resolution of the problem,the typical American too often does not follow a systematic, problem-solving approach. In fairness to all concerned, it must be said that a remarkable success has taken place in the re-establishment of the Ryukyuan society, 1From the writer's understanding and knowledge of the situation based on experience in Okinawa, and data secured in interviews with Ryukyuan and American personnel. is? 68 apparently due in large measure to the cooperative working relationships between Ryukyuans and Americans. However, manifestations of some discon- tent by Ryukyuans concerning the U. S. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands as it affects their university and political arrangements seem to indicate that now is the time for the U. 8. Administration to reassess the situation and move more systematically into future planning which would recognize and utilize more fully the cultural backgrounds and cultural practices of the Ryukyuan people. President John F. Kennedy's amendment of March 1962 to Executive Order 10713 dated June 5, 1957 providing for the U. S. Administration of the Ryukyu Islands reflects the shifting tide in the relationship between the United States and the Ryukyuans since the end of world war II in 1945. This amendment was a result of a detailed examination of the problem of reconciling the military imperative for continued United States Administra- tion with the desires of the Ryukyuan people to assert their identity as Japanese, to obtain the economic and social welfare benefits available in Japan, and to have a greater voice in the management of their own affairs. The amendment to the Executive Order is further evidence of the steps that have taken place since 1945 to turn over more self-control of the Ryukyu Islands to the Ryukyuan people.1 The remarkable success in the re-establishment of the Ryukyuan society following the end of world War II is a direct tribute to the gallant efforts of Ryukyuans and Americans alike to overcome the many obstacles they faced in resolving differences. If history were to be recreated covering the situation in Okinawa since the end of world War II, it is difficult to say what changes could realistically have been made in the working relation- ships between the Americans and the Ryukyuans. However, at this time, it 1The New York Times, March 20, 1962. . n u s a x u I a c O s . l I m ' I . I a p '- w i s . v w H 1 .. _ e a 69 appears that the conditions are right for a more systematic, problem- solving approach to take over. Financial and Related Resources Any discussion of financial and related resources for the University of the Ryukyus calls for a brief review of conditions in Okinawa since 1945 to make clear the degree of change and progress that has been achieved in recent years. It can be seen from the preceding pages that a tremendous transformation has taken place in Okinawa since the end of world War II. In June 1945 Okinawa was literally a scorched earth of com- plete destruction from the midsection to the southern end of that island, including the capital city of Naha, where the majority of the population of the Ryukyu Islands resided. Since then the Ryukyuan people have made an impressive comeback through a massive rebuilding and modernization program. Preceding the transformation leading to the conditions that exist in present-day Okinawa, it was necessary for the U. S. Military, as the governing force in the Ryukyu Islands, to undertake a complete inventory of the available resources in the Ryukyu Islands in 1945 -- including human resources.1 In the early days following the close of world War II, the U. S. Military conducted a comprehensive interrogation process of the citizenry residing in Okinawa and the other Ryukyu Islands. During this period, approximately 200,000 Ryukyuan natives had to be repatriated from Japan, Korea, Formosa, and various Pacific islands. Some 75,000 persons, mainly Japanese, had to be expatriated from the Ryukyus. This was a period when all efforts were directed to assisting the resettling of the civilian 1Civil Affairs Activities, op. cit., pp. 1-2. 70 population with a major goal of reducing disease and illness. The circum- stances of the times caused many of the Ryukyuan citizens to suffer from malnutrition and mental anguish. This was to be expected of a populace that had been subjected to the gross deprivations of an all-out military conflict. In the months and years that followed the end of the hostilities in 1945, the inventory of the resources in the Ryukyu Islands was completed. Concurrently major and dramatic efforts were made to rehabilitate the Ryukyuan society and restore conditions to at least a pre-war level. With this knowledge as background, the writer interviewed numerous Ryukyuans concerning financial and related resources for the University of the Ryukyus.1 More specifically the writer sought to determine what constituted the general strategies employed by the University of the Ryukyus in securing operating and investment funds and what factors affected major decisions on tuition and fees, borrowing, and budget re- quests. These interviews revealed that the major sources of operating and investment funds for the University of the Ryukyus are the Government of the Ryukyu Islands' appropriations, United States Government Grant-in- Aid, and the University's self-income. The administration of the University of the Ryukyus reported that it endeavors to negotiate with the Department of Education of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands to secure its appropriation for the University's operation, and that it also cooperates with the Department of Internal Affairs of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, which decides on the final appropriation bill to the legislature. The results of the writer's interviews indicate that since the University of the Ryukyus is treated as a corporate entity, it is difficult for the University to obtain 1Interviews with Ryukyuan citizens, op. cit. 71 substantial support from the Government of the Ryukyu Islands. Officials in the Government of the Ryukyu Islands on several occasions expressed the view that their appropriations must be directed to governmental agen- cies controlled directly or indirectly by the government. From this point of view, the University of the Ryukyus is not a governmental agency be- cause it does not function in any form under the control of the executive branch of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands. The U. S. Grant-in-Aid, which is designated for specific items in the University's operation, is included in the legislative discussion of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands so that its GRI appropriation may be determined in relation to the amount of the U. S. Grant-in-Aid. In other words, the legislature members may decide that, since the University is getting financial assistance from the U. S. Government, they will reduce the size of the appropriation from the Government of the Ryukyu Islands designated for the university of the Ryukyus. Therefore, the University has a delicate problem of balancing the funds to be drawn from both the Government of the Ryukyu Islands and the U. 8. Government. In the past, the amount of Grant-in-Aid from the U. 8. Government has varied. In fiscal year 1961-62, the University received approximately $375,000 from the United States for the construction of engineering buildings and the purchase of equipment for these buildings.1 However, probably be- cause of the increased amount of Grant-in-Aid from the U. 8., the amount of the appropriation from the Government of the Ryukyu Islands was reduced by the legislature in fiscal year 1961-62 by approximately $90,000. One problem, according to information received in the interviews, is that sometimes the U. 3. Government makes a verbal agreement, but does not 1See Appendix C. 72 give a final guarantee until a few months after GRI has completed its appropriation. The Government of the Ryukyu Islands votes an appropriation for the University assuming that a particular amount is coming from the U. S. Government. It occasionally happens that the U. S. Government cannot afford to give the full amount of Grant-in-Aid that has been con- sidered, and it is postponed until a future time. This puts the University of the Ryukyus in a difficult fiscal position. President Yonamine feels that this is more of a local issue and should not be regarded as a problem of the United States Government. The University of the Ryukyus has a small amount of self-income amounting to about $70,000 out of a total annual budget of approximately $1,000,000 or about 7 per cent of the fiscal budget. Self-income for the University comes from student fees and tuition, and from correspondence courses and other miscellaneous items. It is also derived partially from income received through the University of the Ryukyus Foundation.1 The results of the interviews indicate that the University of the Ryukyus serves students of all socio-economic classes. A University survey indicates that the Ryukyuan students are well prepared academically. They have a high intelligence average when compared with students in other institutions. The students are mostly from lower economic classes, many of them coming from poor farming areas or the small retail merchants class. As a result of this, the university officials have been careful in establishing tuition and fees which will not jeopardize the chances of the lower socio~economic class of attaining higher education. The Uni- 'versity officials state that the University of the Ryukyus must serve the :needs of all economic classes of their society. “—f 1See Appendix B. 73 Borrowing is a process that the University is unable to do. They cannot borrow funds from a bank or any other financial agency. They have attempted to borrow funds from the Bank of the Ryukyus in the past, but there were too many complications. One outstanding problem according to a Ryukyuan banking official, is that USCAR contends a publicly supported institution cannot borrow money from local financial agencies if the publicly- supported institutions are receiving U. S. Grant-in-Aid in some form. A public institution receiving U. S. Grant-in-Aid may not obligate the U. 8. Government for a financial deficit for the future. Consequently the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus as a public institution receiving U. S. Grant-in- Aid must avoid obligating the U. 8. Government for future responsibilities. Information was sought concerning the effects of fund availability and the need to compete for funds on the goals, values, and programs of the University. Methods employed to increase these funds were also studied. The interview results on these items indicate that the minimum and basic activities of the academic divisions and departments at the University are not being adequately maintained because of insufficient funds. The Uni- versity of the Ryukyus is troubled with crowded classrooms and the lack of facilities for scientific and technological training. President Yonamine states that most of the research activities con- ducted on campus are done at considerable sacrifice on the part of the University professors. Of the 160 faculty members at the University of the Ryukyus, the current budget provides a research fund that averages out at approximately $10 per person per year. President Yonamine feels that this is much less than what is needed to maintain respectable research activities. 74 Mr. Nakasone, Director of the Shikiya Memorial Library at the Uni- versity, says he has insufficient funds for enriching library study materials. Professor Nakasone also states that the library cannot under- take supplementary services such as a continuing education extension pro« gram or publication activities. At the present time, his greatest concern is how to maintain minimum library services for teaching and research activities. President Yonamine explains that the University cannot afford to commit itself to any one area, such as the area of agriculture, for example, with priority over other academic areas. He points out that various types of activities and areas of study at the University may be equally important, but that each may require different amounts of financial support. He mentions that technological training such as engineering and science re- quires an enormous amount of funds, but that studies in the social science and other fields are just as important. The University officials have made it clear that the allocation of the university budget does not repre- sent the institution's evaluation of the work being supported. They feel that the University must reinforce practically all areas of existing oper- ations by allocating as effectively as possible the available financial and related resources. The University officials state that in the past they have dealt with the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, USCAR, and other sources of support such as gifts and grants through the University of the Ryukyus Foundation; but in this diversity, they have run into different orientations and value judgments. Dean Akamine, in giving an example, says that it has been diffi- cult to persuade the Government of the Ryukyu Islands to support the plans of the University to develop important non-academic facilities including a student activities center, a student counseling center, and student 75 housing facilities. He points out that these non-academic but important areas of the University's activities are not being supported, nor are they likely to be supported by the Government of the Ryukyu Islands. This is an area where the University has to depend upon other sources of funds like the various educational foundations, both in the Ryukyus and abroad, or the United States Grant-in-Aid. The University officials feel that the engineering and science facili- ties require a tremendous amount of funds beyond the financial capability of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands to support. The Government is hesitant, it appears, to appropriate funds for the University to initiate such programs in engineering and science training because of long-range expense involved and the difficulty the Government of the Ryukyu Islands will have in supporting future budgetary requests by the University. President Yonamine says that this is an area where the University must depend upon the U. S. Grant-in-Aid for support. He further points out that these situations determine the strategies they use in finding financial and related resources. The results of the writer's interviews indicate that the University of the Ryukyus tries to react to unanticipated events or opportunities as promptly as possible. It appears, however, that the administrative or- ganization of the University -- which is characterized by group decision- making processes -- makes it difficult for the President and his adminis- tration to respond expeditiously to unexpected opportunities. The officials at the University of the Ryukyus openly state that, in some cases, the time-consuming process of group decision making is cumbersome and slows down the speed of administrative decisions. The University officials feel that, in their present administrative arrangement at the University of the Ryukyus, the individual administrators 76 have less authority to make their own decisions than is common in American universities and colleges. They further state that they are not completely satisfied with their decision-making processes, even though they think. very highly of the over-all benefits that are derived by involving the administration and staff in the group process of decision making. They point out that if an emergency situation develops, the President can re- quest an emergency meeting of the Board of Directors. However, before the meeting of the Board of Directors, the administration must prepare recom- mendations and data for examination by the Board; and the preparation of such recommendations has to be done by a series of committee and council meetings within the administration. This is a time-consuming process, especially if measured against an emergency situation. Michiggn State University Advisornyroup Early in 1951 the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands made a request to the Reorientation Branch of the Office for Occupied Areas under the Secretary of the Army for assistance in develop- ing a program of aid to the University of the Ryukyus. The Army subse- quently contracted with the American Council on Education to take the over- all responsibility for arranging and coordinating such a program. The Council was requested to select one or more institutions which would, in a sense, "adopt" the University of the Ryukyus. The U. 5. Civil Adminis- tration requested that a number of criteria be used as guides in the selection. The institution should desire to affiliate with the University of the Ryukyus. Beyond this, the institution "should be active in extension work and should have an outstanding school of agriculture." They should have schools or strong departments in each of the fields of educational administration, agriculture (including forestry), home economics, and government, including 77 public administration and public finance. Furthermore, the institution should be interested in enrolling Ryukyuan students under a scholarship plan.1 To formulate policies and guide the selection of a college or uni- versity, the American Council on Education appointed an advisory com- mittee made up of representatives from the Association of American Colleges, the Institute of International Education, the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, the American Council on Education, and the U. 8. Office of Education. This committee formulated its program and canvassed prospective American colleges and universities. In June 1951, acting under the above mentioned contract with the U. S. Department of the Army, the American Council on Education completed arrangements whereby Michigan State University would contract to take the initiative in developing a program of aid to the newly established Uni- versity of the Ryukyus in Okinawa.2 This program included the selection of a team of five faculty members from Michigan State University to be sent at Army expense to teach and engage in research and extension activities at the University of the Ryukyus during the 1951-52 academic year. 'Michigan State University was asked to participate as a result of the recommendation of the committee created by the American Council on Education. A.major goal of the U. S. Civil Administration in creating the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus was to train teachers in school administration and 1From the original correspondence of the U. S. Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands as communicated to the American Council on Education, and subsequently, to Michigan State University. 2See Appendix D for abstract of representative contract between Michigan State university and the U. S. Department of the Army. f 78 teaching according to American patterns. This was a part of the Army's efforts to change the character for the Ryukyuan school system from the pre-war Japanese pattern. From the beginning, the University of the Ryukyus was administered by Ryukyuan officers and largely by a native faculty. The University and its students in the early years were almost wholly dependent upon the U. S. Army for financial and logistical support. The level of the economy of the Ryukyus in 1951-52 was such that there was no immediate prospect of adequate native support for the University, either private or public. NOnetheless, the Ryukyuan officers and faculty were encouraged by the U. 8. Army to take the initiative in developing the teaching and other services of the University of the Ryukyus. Since the inception of the University, the Government of the Ryukyu Islands has appropriated an increasing share of the budgetary requirements of the University. To- day the Government of the Ryukyu Islands supplies 57.7 per cent of the funds as compared to 35.6 per cent of the funds coming from direct aid by USCAR.1 These facts, coupled with the status of the Ryukyus as an area administered by the United States, underscores the role of the U. S. Army in the establishment and development of this institution. First impressions by Americans who met the officers and faculty of the University of the Ryukyus in 1951-52 would include the recollection that these Ryukyuan people had native intelligence, drive, and sincerity of purpose to develop a valid institution which they hoped someday would be worthy of the name "university." The level of student pre-university attainment, the capacity of available instructors, and the practical nature of the instruction most urgently needed in the islands was such 1See Appendix C. 79 that general rather than specialized courses were typical of all the departments into which the curriculum was divided. Those departments in 1951-52 included agriculture; applied arts, which included home economics, management, typewriting, music, and certain other subjects; education; English; science, which included mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, botany, and zoology; and social science. The student body was co-educational, and care was taken in its se- lection to assure that it was representative of the entire Ryukyuan archipelago. During the first year slightly more than 500 students were enrolled. Few of these students could have met normal admission standards for an American college, largely because of the complete disruption of the educational system in the islands as a result of World War II and the difficult and slow process of reconstruction.1 The physical plant of the University of the Ryukyus in the first year was very modest. The library, for example, was about the size of four small classrooms. The number of books was correspondingly small. To appreciate the milieu of the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University's role there, it is only necessary to recall the earlier references in this study reporting the impact of World war II and the intrusion of the U. S. Military and the U. S. Civil Administration upon the native society and local conditions. The fact was that, after world War II, the Ryukyus became an increasingly strategic link in the defense system of the western world; and American activities on the island have 1Dr. Milton E. Muelder and Dean Ernest L. Anthony of Michigan State University made an advance survey trip to Okinawa in July 1951 preparatory to the assignment of the MSU Advisory Group to Okinawa in September of that year. Information pertaining to this period of the MSU Advisory Group activities in Okinawa has been drawn from their report covering this initial survey trip. 8O inevitably reflected this. In the course of the resultant activity, native interests and customs have suffered. Construction activities pro- vided one of the most obvious examples of this. In some cases bulldozers ran over large ancestral tombs, certain bills were leveled off including , the shoving of huge stones and debris on rice-paddy farms, and new buildings were constructed on the sites of ancient shrines and tombs. It was no -wonder that local sentiment back as early as 1951-52 favored a return of the Ryukyu Islands to Japan. Polls taken at that time in Southern Okinawa showed that approximately 80 per cent of the natives held these views. During this early period, American consultants were brought into the Ryukyus by the U. S. Civil Administration to assist in the development of programs throughout the islands. It should be pointed out that the plan of bringing five faculty members to the University of the Ryukyus was devised in part as a result of the limitations of the consultant program. In September 1951, in accordance with USCAR specifications, five Michigan State University faculty members arrived in Okinawa to assist in the academic areas of agriculture, home economics, government and public finance, education, and business administration. Head of the MSU Advisory Group was the late Prof. Russell E. Horwood, Director of the Upper Pen- insula Experiment Station at Chatham, Michigan. Other members of the original MSU Advisory Group included Miss E. Eleanor Densmore, a home demonstration agent in Kent County, Michigan; Guy H. Fox, at that time an associate professor of political science and public administration; Edward Pfau, Jr., an assistant professor of education; and the writgr as an instructor of business administration -- all from Michigan State University. 111' a." 81 During the first year of the MSU Advisory Group activities at the University of the Ryukyus, the most important program for the MSU staff was defined as helping to develop an organizational pattern and philosophy of education which would reflect that of the land-grant institution in the 1 The schedule of the MSU staff members was held to a half- United States. time or, at the maximum, a three-quarters time basis of teaching so that research and extension activities could be planned and developed. The MSU advisors were assisted with one interpreter attached to each staff member. The interpreter was to be more than just a translator; he was to be an individual personally trained and interested in the subject unatter field with which he would assist the MSU advisor. The interpreter was thus regarded as a counterpart and potential successor to the respective MSU advisor. It was expected that the MSU advisors initially would work through the interpreters in giving their lectures, but that they would increasingly be able to lecture in English as the students acquainted them- selves with both the vocabulary and the pronunciation of the American staff personnel. These aspirations turned out to be generally unrealistic. In some cases the interpreter had no previous training and his interest was insuffiCient to continue in the field of specialization represented by the MSU advisor. Furthermore, the students at the University of the Ryukyus generally were not skilled in English, nor were the MSU advisors sufficiently skilled in the Japanese language, to relieve the interpreters of their translating functions. The organizational model for the University of the Ryukyus perceived by the Ryukyuans was that of the University of Tokyo, which, like the German universities and even some American schools, is inclined to be an 1Ibid., Muelder and Anthony. . .111 y: 1.. 82 "ivory tower" institution that does not relate its programs of research and teaching to the needs and problems of the surrounding society. By contrast, the "charter" promulgated in USCAR Ordinance NUmber 66 for the University of the Ryukyus states the following purpose: It shall make available general and specific information and educational services to the people of the Ryukyus, thus furthering their economic and cultural development, the under- standings, practices, and liberties of democratic peoples and including freedom of speech, right of assembly, right of petition, freedom of religion, and freedom of the responsible press. Thus, a conflict of purpose is detected between the organizational model of an "ivory tower" institution perceived by the Ryukyuan faculty and the emphasis of applied educational services to the Ryukyuan community which has been stressed by the Americans since the idea of the university of the Ryukyus was first considered. The Americans have believed from the beginning that a university could Inake a real contribution to the future development of Okinawa and the sur- rounding islands. It was further believed that, if the Ryukyuans were given reason to expect that such a contribution would be made (because the ‘whole purpose and orientation of a University as perceived by the Americans was one of service to the community), then future support to sustain and develop that institution would undoubtedly be found. Consequently the Americans concluded that the most challenging task of the Michigan State University group during its first year was to help provide a basic organ- izational pattern to implement programs of teaching, research, and extension similar to the pattern and goals of an American land-grant institution. USCAR stated in 1951-52 that, with the assistance of the Michigan State University staff, the University of the Ryukyus had an opportunity to ex- plore new ways of strengthening the native economy and helping people. ‘This was predicated on the establishment of an extension service with emphasis on service to people. 83 The Americans concluded in 1951-52 that the standards of the University pertaining to equipment and level of instruction were not high, and patience and understanding would be needed to assist the faculty to develop a strong university. It was recognized that a continuing inventory of the needs would have to be made to avoid duplication of the educational services being developed in relation to the limited resources available. In 1951-52 the MSU staff recognized that if the United States were to remain on the island of Okinawa for many years, it was imperative that Americans gain the respect of the Ryukyuans as well as their genuine assistance. This demanded a great deal more than the importation of food or the mere dissemination of information. The real challenge that faced Michigan State University was to play its part in a reorientation program -- a program that was an integral and important aspect of the U. 8. foreign policy in the Ryukyus. It was for these reasons that Michigan State Uni- versity entered the development of the University of the Ryukyus at a very critical time. In the succeeding years there was a normal turnover of advisors that comprised the MSU group at the University of the Ryukyus. The size of this group generally averaged five faculty members. Covering the years beginning in September 1951 to date, specialists have been assigned to the MSU group in the fields of agriculture, home economics, education (including 'vocational education), science, English, the social sciences, business administration, engineering, library science, student affairs, and counseling and.guidance. While MSU faculty members were assigned to Okinawa for one and two years at a time, faculty members and students from the Ryukyu Islands were going to the United States and Japan for undergraduate and graduate study. Through the foresight and assistance of the U. S. Military Government and 84 subsequently the U. S. Civil Administration, heavy importance has been attached to a program for Ryukyuans to study abroad. Graduates with the bachelor's degree began to return to Okinawa, and many of these young men and women took faculty positions at the University of the Ryukyus. As some of these students completed their bachelor's degree, they found means of support, either through the U. S. Army or from private sources, including self-support through part-time employment, to continue their studies abroad. Time passed and several of these students earned a master's degree. The U. S. Department of the Army through the U. S. Civil Administration also made it possible for several faculty mem- bers and students in Okinawa to return for a second time to the United States to pursue graduate work toward the master's degree.. Subsequently, many of these people returned to faculty positions at the University of the Ryukyus. The result of this activity over a period of time was a definite upgrading of the faculty at the University of the Ryukyus. Taking this process a step further in the years toward the end of the 1950s and in the early 1960s, several of these faculty members and students who had their first opportunities to study in the united States provided by the U. S. Army are emerging with the earned doctorate. Again these same people are re- turning to the faculty at the University of the Ryukyus -- a fact which represents a significant step toward upgrading that institution. Since the beginning of the MSU activities at the University of the Ryukyus in 1951, the role of the MSU faculty member as an advisor has under- gone a gradual transition. As the writer suggested earlier, the first few years at the University of the Ryukyus represented a situation in which generally everything was ahead of the group and their colleagues at the University in terms of work to be done. Gradually an orderly procedure 19.5....1T! . 85 was brought to various aspects of the University's operation. The faculty became more settled, the curricular programs were better defined, library facilities began to improve, textbooks were made available in a more satisfactory arrangement to the student body, and general rules and regula- tions were set forth to facilitate the day-to-day operations of the Uni- versity. Concurrently, the Ryukyuan faculty began to increase and improve with the addition of individuals with newly earned degrees from the United States and Japan. Thus, the pressure on the MSU group was reduced in terms of its broad over-all participation in the activities of the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. Throughout the years the MSU advisors have continued to offer services within their respective subject matter specialties, and occasionally ex- tend beyond into general University matters when they can be of assistance. However, over this same period (1951 to date), there has been a transition that has vacillated to some degree concerning the image held by the Ryukyuans of the MSU group at their institution.- President Yonamine and his colleagues of the University of the Ryukyus evaluate the MSU Advisory Group activities as follows:1 we will speak more or less on impressions rather than on a systematic evaluation of their achievements. First of all we must make it clear that we regard the achievements and contributions made by the MSU Advisory Group to be extremely great. They have contributed in developing new concepts of higher education. They brought in new ideas from American higher education which resulted in the reorganization of our curriculum and establishment of new academic departments which are not found in universities in Japan, but which are vitally needed in the Ryukyuan society. They have promoted generally new ideas and new methods in terms of curriculum, teaching methods, student services, and research and extension ac- tivities. We feel that in addition to the professional con- tributions, the MSU Advisory Group members have performed a liaison role between the University and the U. S. Military including the USCAR Education Department. 1Interviews with President Yonamine, et. a1.,‘_p. cit. — 86 We often criticize that the MSU Advisory Group members are too closely aligned with the military interests, but we also acknowledge that because of this liaison role the MSU Advisory Group has helped us to maintain a sufficiently sound rapport with the military from whom we have been able to obtain sub- stantial financial and moral support. Because of these achievements, we believe that the gen- eral evaluation is positive, and we believe that in the future we must maintain a continued cooperative relationship with Michigan State University through the MSU Advisory Group. We‘ would like to see the MSU Advisory Group continue to serve on our campus as our advisors. But, on the other hand, it has been eleven years since the University of the Ryukyus was founded; and it has grown and changed. So, naturally, we expect changes to take place in the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and the MSU Advisory Group. Many years ago some of the members of the MSU Advisory Group, because they were enthusiastic in their efforts to assist the University's growth, often appeared aggressive. The university faculty members often recognized the logical validity of the recommendations coming from the‘MSU Advisory Group, but they had their own judgments about the readiness of the Okinawan society and the traditional forces existent in Okinawa and at the University that would make it difficult for new recommendations to be adopted and put into practice. So, the faculty members of the University have in many cases attempted to persuade the MSU Advisory Group to refrain from going too far too fast. This attempt created in the minds of the Group the idea that the Okinawan faculty members were basically conservative and reactionary against new ideas and new changes. we would like to make it clear here, in order to avoid any misunderstanding, that whereas we have made many remarks criticizing the role that the military has played in putting the University in an awkward relationship with the Ryukyuan public, we are quite positive that USCAR and the U. S. Mili- tary are very determined to help the University of the Ryukyus grow. In other words, we are aware of their sincere feelings and we know from our past experiences that USCAR and the U. S. 'Military on the island have been trying hard to extend assistance to the University; and we appreciate their willingness to help us, but on some occasions their willingness did not meet the needs of the society as adequately as it should have. We are appreciative of the fact that the people in USCAR and the U. S. Military have given us much support. we are also appreciative of the fact that they have made it possible for us to have many buildings constructed on our campus. However, we feel ' that since the U. 8. Army controls the Island and the three branches of the Government completely, we must maintain an effective relationship with USCAR and the military. We can- not afford to lose the confidence of USCAR and the military. 87 Therefore, we would like to see the MSU Advisory Group con- tinue to play a liaison role between the military and the University of the Ryukyus as it has done in the past. From these remarks by President Yonamine and his colleagues, it appears that some MSU Advisory Group members in the past have ”gone too far too fast." It is possible to study the performance of various individual MSU Advisory Group members and clearly see that there were times when some members did excel in their accomplishments. It appears from an analysis of the circumstances of the time that the "successful" advisors had a clearer sense of purpose and understanding of the role they were performing at the University of the Ryukyus -- coupled with a sensitivity to the Ryukyuan culture. Other advisors have applied more pressure of various types in working with their counterparts and colleagues at the University of the Ryukyus in an attempt to speed along and bring about changes. Throughout the history of this MSU Advisory program, briefing and orientation of future advisors has been on a personal basis. New advisors going to Okinawa have been urged to read the available materials and to probe into the cultural background of the Ryukyuan people in an attempt to better understand these people and their society. The position has been taken in the past that the success of any briefing and orientation really depends upon the degree to which the staff member is willing to dig in and immerse himself in the pertinent data that helps to explain the behavioral pattern of the Ryukyuans. It appears that some MSU staff members have been more dedicated in this type of independent study than others. It is also apparent that the individual MSU advisors, as well as the American orientation, have generally been addressed to the purpose of the University of the Ryukyus as specified in its charter "to make available general and specific information and educational services to the people of 88 the Ryukyus." Since the MSU advisors and the Americans generally aimed their respective efforts toward this goal, while the Ryukyuans have con- tinued to think of the "ivory tower" model of Japanese national universities, it is understandable that frictions have evolved along the route. In consideration of the degree of change that has been brought about since the University was established in 1950, the writer interviewed many Ryukyuans who expressed knowledge and interest about their institution.1 The writer asked them to comment on their understanding of the philosophy of education practiced by the national universities in Japan and on their understanding of the philosophy of education practiced by representatives of the American community of higher education. The interviewees agreed that universities in Japan are not as con- cerned with the meaning of education as American universities seem to be. The Ryukyuans, who have traveled and studied in the United States, found that Americans are constantly striving to define and redefine the role of the university in the American culture, the meaning of higher education, and how it serves the American culture. They further state that Japanese universities belong to the twentieth century in terms of scientific activities and Japanese cultural programs, but that the methods of teaching these educational activities would be more properly identified with the nineteenth century, and the institutional management behavior and phi- 1osophy of the universities of Japan would be more rightly classified ‘with the eighteenth century. They have been impressed by writings of as well as visitations to American institutions of higher education with the concept of service that the American university considers as its responsibility. They state that in Japan there is a service concept to 1Interviews with Ryukyuan citizens, op. cit. 89 answer the people's needs; but the significant difference is that American universities puruse research to develop answers that need to be given to the people, while Japanese universities generally give out only what they already have available. The Ryukyuans also state that it appears to them that the key here is in the role of research and its function in the university. President Yonamine and his colleagues stress that it is important for them at the University of the Ryukyus to recognize this difference and to weigh it carefully in their future planning. ~ Dr. Genshu Asato, President of the University of the Ryukyus during 1955-1961, said in his 1961 commencement address: In a-university education two points are particularly, emphasized. The first is to produce personnel or leaders as builders of a cultural and democratic society. The second is to train professional men. Therefore, I believe what people expect of you will fall under these two categories. The Okinawan society still contains its out-of-date elements which have hampered its modernization. They are deeply rooted to the social customs, human relationships, and the way of thinking. To get rid of these elements rests upon the shoulders of the citizens who can feel inconsistency, criti- cize their own ways of life, and set a practical example to others. I think it is natural for the people of society to expect that the university graduates, who have learned the modern practices and theories through a university education, should become such leader-citizens. We Okinawans used to introduce the cultures of Japan, China, and Southeastern countries, which we digested well only to develop our own fine culture. we are very proud of this type of initiative spirit. 0n the other hand, however, we have suffered insularism in which we are sure to see some kind of exclusivism. It is not a question whether we should copy a foreign culture, but it is a more serious concern whether we should lose a progressive spirit to adopt a better foreign culture. In order to develop a fuller culture it is important to introduce the new elements of a foreign culture. Today there live many Americans on Okinawa whose cultural background is different from our own. We have never come in contact with a foreign culture so closely as today in the history of Okinawa. Though the present situation is not what we have been willing to create, this is the present situation Okinawa is in. As such we should not waste our 90 energy to resist against it, but rather digest their merits for our blood and flesh and prepare ourselves for a re- markable progress of our culture. The remarks of former President Asato and the writer's interviews indicate that the climate is open for further cooperation between the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. The historical evidence indicates that circumstances of the re-establishment of the Ryukyuan society after the devastation of world War II often led Americans to be aggressive in working with Ryukyuans in developing answers to the immediate problems needing attention in the beginning years of the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. In contrast to this pattern, the University of the Ryukyus has now become a more sophisticated institution with the development of its faculty and its academic programs. Thus, at this time, it is highly critical that the relationship between Michigan State Uni- versity and the University of the Ryukyus be carefully reviewed and redesigned for the coming period. Leadership, Internal Structure, and Program Performance at the University of the Ryukyus In interviews with Ryukyuan citizens who are or have been concerned with the growth and development of the University of the Ryukyus including past and present leaders at the University, the writer raised a series of questions concerning leadership, internal structure, and program performance at the university of the Ryukyus.2 A general question was raised pertaining to the distribution of functions and influence in the leadership group affecting the University, and the 1From an address by former President Genshu Asato at the ninth annual commencement exercises of the University of the Ryukyus in March 1961. 2Interviews with Ryukyuan citizens, 22. tit. 91 relation of top leadership to actual operations in the University. The general consensus by the Ryukyuans interviewed indicates that the working relationship between the President and the division deans is very close and effective, but there is some criticism that the dean of a division is not given enough authority to go along with his responsibilities. The administrators believe that the authority may be there, but it is not described or defined in a clear enough manner to give them a sense of positive understanding upon which to exercise their authority in functional situations. Concerning internal cohesion and friction in the leadership group of the University of the Ryukyus a question was raised about the effect of resolution or failure to resolve differences in values, purpose, and operation efficiency of the University. The answers to this question indicate that minority opinions expressed in academic council or committee meetings are respected to the extent that decision making is a slow and tedious task for the entire group. The minority opinions are fully examined, and some means of reaching a reasonable compromise are under- taken. The group process that is going on at various levels of the Uni- versity's administration seems very satisfactory, though it sometimes receives criticism.within the group of being slow and not moving rapidly enough. There is also evidence that there have been a few incidents where individual members of the faculty misunderstood the majority opinion and felt unhappy about the decision. However, this appears to have re- sulted more from a lack of communication between the committee and the xnajority and the people who voice the dissenting votes. The Ryukyuans interviewed believe that in some instances the reasons and results of a committee decision may not have been transmitted tactfully enough to the 92 members who supported the minority opinion. It should be emphasized that such cases appear to be of a minimal frequency. The writer raised the question about the mechanisms for identifying and developing future leadership at the University. From the answers received, it appears that the administration at the University of the Ryukyus has not yet adopted an organized approach to clearly identify the potential leaders of their institution, nor have they developed a system- atized training plan for future leaders. They are unanimous, however, in stating that they feel a definite need for such an identification and development plan. Even though an organized approach is not presently adopted, there are some random efforts being made by individual members of the administration and faculty to identify these potential leaders. One such effort is the election of young faculty members to various com- ‘mittees and councils, or special administrative assignments for temporary periods. The Ryukyuans interviewed state that they have seen from the results of these elections and assignments that these young faculty mem- bers are recognized as potential leaders of the University. Another question concerned the criteria used for selecting academic personnel, for promoting academic personnel, and the success‘of the leader- ship of the University in enforcing these criteria and competing effectively for qualified faculty. The Ryukyuans stated that during the past four or five years they have required a minimum scholastic achievement of a master's «degree in all new faculty appointments except in rare cases. Today it is common practice to select University personnel from among many candidates *who have their master's degrees from either Japanese or American uni- 'versities and who have additional scholastic or research achievements to their individual credit. 93 Concerning the criteria used for promoting academic personnel, the interviews indicate that the University promotes those who have been college instructors either at the University of the Ryukyus or other recognized universities for a period of at least five years with sub- stantial teaching and research achievement. The assistant professor may be promoted to a full professor after several years of teaching and re- search service, if he has contributed outstanding work in these fields. The Ryukyuans interviewed state that they have tangible criteria to evaluate candidates for promotions and that these criteria have been followed rigidly during the past several years. They feel, however, that there is a definite need for a re-examination of the criteria at the present time to bring about some improvements in order to differentiate the requirements according to the unique situation in which the person may be involved. The Ryukyuans indicate that they are able to compete effectively for qualified personnel. The only handicaps they apparently have at the present time are the limited salaries and facilities for University professors and other instructional personnel. The salaries and facilities are considerably less than a person could received if he were engaged in private industry or some other type of occupational activity in the Ryukyus according to his qualifications. The leadership at the University at the present time is under the impression that most of their academic personnel seem to be ‘genuinely interested in the University and their profession, with the exception of some people in certain technical fields where higher salaries and growth opportunities are more available elseWhere. A question was raised concerning incentives and/or sanctions established ‘to foster efficient individual and group performance in the University. The 94 Ryukyuans answered that, in general, they did not feel that they had a systematized approach to achieve this type of individual performance. It appears from the results of the interviews that Opportunities for faculty members of the University of the Ryukyus to study abroad in Japan, the United States, or other countries of the world have provided them with outstanding incentive to do more intensive work and to give service to their University. The administration of the University of the Ryukyus has been selecting faculty members who are doing outstanding work in re- search or teaching to study abroad for periods of time ranging from two months to two years depending on the individual case. Outside of this there does not appear to be other major incentives or sanctions except some insignificant items such as the semi-annual and annual bonuses, which are given almost as a necessary addition to the monthly salary paid to the faculty and staff members. The University of the Ryukyus does not have a housing program for University personnel as is frequently the case in Japan. There is a Mutual Aid Association for the University faculty and staff members, but it is not connected formally in any way to the adminis- tration of the University of the Ryukyus. A question raised with the members of the faculty and administration of the University of the Ryukyus pertained to whether or not the leader- ship of the University had attempted to maximize the identification of the faculty with major values and objectives of the institution. The re- sults of the interviews indicate that the group morale of the faculty is high, but it has not been directed to concrete program goals or to specific activity patterns that could more effectively utilize the existing en- thusiasm to bring about fuller developments in the University activities. Both the faculty and the administration are aware of the shortcomings, and they feel an effort can and should be made to overcome these problems. It 95 appears that the faculty is now prepared to take up through group processes the major problems they will have to face in the next few years. The writer investigated who were the principal individuals or groups that established the University of the Ryukyus regulations that are set forth in the University's catalogue. The purpose here was to trace some of the historical background and possible evolvement that has taken place in the administrative behavior at the University of the Ryukyus. Today the University has a publication entitled "Statutes and Regula- tions of the University of the Ryukyus." The results of the investigation indicate that some of the regulations in this publication have been set forth by the Board of Directors, and some of them have been established by the President of the Universityupon approval from his Administrative Council. It is clear that, when the University of the Ryukyus was founded, there were very few regulations or statutes. ‘Most administrative behavior in the first year of the University of the Ryukyus was established by memorandums coming from the American educational specialists in USCAR, who had taken direct responsibility in the establishment of the University, and in establishment of the contract program for the MSU Advisory Croup to the University of the Ryukyus. The Ryukyuans indicate that in these early years most administrative and instructional behavior was controlled by the American educational specialists in USCAR, However, since about the middle of the second year, the University's Board of Directors, along with the President and his Administrative Council, began to establish various regulations. Most regulations today are made as a result of a joint effort of individuals and committees within the University. Usually the first step is for the President to appoint a special faculty committee to investigate the needs and conditions for a new set of regulations. The committee '..l JI'I..I..I§| ll." 96 develops a draft to be examined by the various members of the administration who can make a contribution and have a direct interest in the work of the committee. Subsequently, the committee presents its draft to the Adminis- trative Council for review and possible adjustments. If the Administrative Council approves the draft, it is passed to the President with recommendations for action. The President proposes the draft to the Board of Directors with his recommendation. The Board of Directors is expected to act in accordance with the recommendation it receives. Interviews with past and present faculty members and administrators re- called that, in the early days of the University, they had mass faculty assemblies. All teaching members of the faculty were gathered in an assembly hall, where everybody was permitted to state his point of view, and the majority ruled in determining the proposed regulations. This mass assembly procedure continued for only about two years until the group became so cumbersome and ineffective that the President found it necessary to appoint committees to undertake the various tasks. The present charter as defined by USCAR Ordinance NMmber 66 states in Article 2 that "The responsibilities for the operation and control of the University in all of its phases of operation and management is (sic) hereby vested in the Board of Directors. No responsibility of the Board of Directors shall be delegated to any person or persons whatsoever."1 The results of the writer's interviews indicate, however, that this is not actually the case because the Board has established a set of regulations which set forth procedures whereby the President and the committees take responsibility for various areas of operation and control. ‘These regula- tions permit the faculty and administration of the University relative 1See Appendix B. we. \ 97 freedom in disposing of certain business on their own initiative without getting approval each time from the Board of Directors. It is understood, though, that final authority in all University matters continues to be held by the Board of Directors and can be fully applied at any time at the dis- cretion of the Board. One set of regulations, for example, sets forth the procedure of appoint- ing the deans and directors of the University. The academic deans are elected for three-year terms on the basis of a popular vote from their respective divisions. The regulations state that the dean must be nomi- nated by the faculty council which will make its selection with due respect to the wishes of the entire faculty of the division. This takes place as a formal election by voting. A candidate is chosen by the academic division, and the name is submitted to the President who in turn submits the name to the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors has always respected the nomination from the faculty council. In the case of the non-academic deans and directors and the business manager, the regulations state that the Administrative Council (which consists of the President; three elected faculty representatives from each of the three academic divisions; the academic division deans; plus the current non-academic deans and directors including the dean of students, the dean of curriculum and registrar, the director of libraries, and the 'business manager -- a total of sixteen members) shall nominate the candidates, after a series of voting processes. Usually the Administrative Council tries to reconcile its nomination with the President's own choice, but the pro- cedure is election by secret ballot if requested. It appears that prior to the vote there is much behind-the-scene activity to coordinate the efforts of the voting group. 98 There is no existing regulation established by the Board of Directors covering the procedure for choosing the President of the University. Therefore, before the conclusion of the term of office being served by the current President, the Board of Directors requests the Administrative Council to nominate its candidate. The Administrative Council in turn calls for an cpen faculty conference. The conference consists of all professors, assistant professors, instructors, and business office person- nel who are above the rank of reception chief. This group assembles in a meeting hall where the first ballot for the President is cast. This first ballot is a freeywrite-in, secret vote whereby any member of the faculty conference can write in the candidate of his choice. The candidate, however, must have the qualifications of a full professor in rank. After this first nominating ballot, the candidates who have been named one or Inore times are listed together and presented by the election committee. The first ballot may bring forth any number of candidates.1 There may be as many as ten to twenty names on such a list. On the second ballot the nxmnbers of the conference vote for the candidate of their choice. The top»five candidates are then announced without revealing the number of votes that each has received. The conference then proceeds to vote again auui the top two of the final five candidates are chosen and presented to the Board of Directors by the current President. The Board of Directors can: choose one of the two nominees regardless of the number of votes each has received. According to the USCAR Ordinance, the Board of Directors 13 free to choose, reject, or appoint a candidate who may or may not have been nominated by the faculty conference. The interviews indicate, how- ever, that in actual operation the Board of Directors limits its decision to the nominees submitted by the faculty conference. 99 1 In the writer's interviews with the Ryukyuans a question was raised concerning the individuals or groups that have been responsible for the formulation and communication of concepts relating to the moral image of the University including concepts of dedication to valued social purposes, and the achievement image of the University including concepts of efficiency. The formulation and communication of the University's image to the Ryukyuan people are unique in that the Ryukyuan society is a narrow, closed, insular one. Under these conditions the Ryukyuan people frequently know each other by name and by each other's associations in social meetings. Probably the personal backgrounds of the faculty members at the University of the Ryukyus are better known to the Ryukyuan society than would be true elsewhere in the world. The Ryukyuans point out, for example, that the people know the dean of a given academic division, what school he attended, 'what kind of a person he is, how clever he was in grade school, and what his accomplishments were in high school. For better or for worse, the University of the Ryukyus is judged upon the image perceived of the faculty because the people of the Ryukyus are so familiar with each of then» Students are another group important to the University. The students ‘who come to the University must pass a rigid entrance examination before they are admitted. The Ryukyuan society evaluates the academic standards of the University by the quality of the high school seniors who are admitted. They are compared with the students who were admitted to other institutions, and the graduates of the University of the Ryukyus are also compared to the graduates from other universities. 11nterviews with Ryukyuan citizens, 22. cit. a? iwlfl 100 In response to the same general question dealing with the role of the students and faculty, Dr. Toshio Akamine, Dean of Students at the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus, stated: Of course, we are aware that the students who go out into the streets to form mass demonstrations to protest against various political and social problems probably create an im- portant image of the University. However the student move- ments have been small in scale involving only a small number of students, and the public may realize this. Concerning the faculty we have the feeling that the pro- fessors' personal and public activities in the society, engage- ment in community projects, or acting as a resource person in various types of non-campus activities will probably contribute to the development of a new image of the University. The so- ciety probably formulates these concepts of the University through the impressions they receive from the activities of the professors. The journalists in Okinawa have been influential in helping to determine the University's moral and service image and have used a generous amount of space to write about the University from both positive and negative points of view. The people of Okinawa, as described earlier, have suffered from the anxiety that they are inferior to other cultural groups, and therefore, it appears that many Okinawans have tended to lower the evaluation of the University's role. However, it further appears that as the university continues to turn out more graduates who are comparing favorably with the graduates from Japanese and American universities, the Ryukyuan people are more and more realizing that their own sons and daughters are capable of effectively competing academically with counterparts anywhere. The results of the interviews indicate that the Ryukyuan society's evaluation and image of the University depends in part upon the perception of the relationship of the University of the Ryukyus with the U. S. Mili- tary. It appears that the closer the relationship between the University sand the Military, the less the society tends to sympathize with the efforts 101 of the faculty of the University. Thus, the legal aspect of the University structure seems to characterize the University's image in the minds of the pUb11Cs It is also apparent that the prestige of the President of the University is very important in the Ryukyuan society. The University's President is respected as a very important scholar and educator, and he probably symbol- izes the heightof educational leadership in the Ryukyuan society. Through the President's personal image, the Ryukyuan society will look either up or down to the role that is performed by the university of the Ryukyus. In this series of interviews, the writer asked President Yonamine what basic means were available of defending the University against internal and external challenges to the leadership's view of the University's purpose. President Yonamine replied that he looked upon the external forces as in- cluding the masses of people (particularly their biased and emotional judgments), the political parties, the government in power, and the press. He classified the internal forces as the professors, students, and the Board of Directors. In taking up the external pressures with which the leaders of the University must contend, President Yonamine stated: we have organized bodies of staff and faculty who have been incorporated into various types of councils and committees, each having a distinct responsibility and power. Through these councils and committees we attempt to administer the responsi- bilities of operating the University. Internally at times these councils and committees become pressure groups upon the leaders of the University, but they can be very effective in protecting the University from outside pressures. For instance, we had an example not many months ago when the City of Naha asked for a lease on a piece of land adjacent to and owned by the University. The City of Naha requested rather force- ably that the land he released to them because they wanted to set up a branch office there. The University at that time felt it would be rather difficult to say no because the City could be a negatively influential group in future relations. The City of Naha approached us on a number of occasions and tried to apply pressure. Since the University had only a small piece of land for the campus, we felt that we could not spare 102 any property for any other organizations. The Faculty Advisory Committee, which was responsible for recommending the use of grounds and buildings, was also strongly opposed to the City's request. Therefore we could indicate to the City that this request was opposed by the Faculty Advisory Committee. The rules and regulations passed by the Board of Di- rectors are helpful in protecting the Administrative Council from outside pressures because they serve as the criteria for administrative decisions. The Administrative Council can prove that it is not passing an arbitrary decision, but that the decision was made in accordance with the criteria set forth in the Board of Directors' regulations. we would also like to point out that the MSU Advisory Group to the University of the Ryukyus acts as the Adminis- tration's protection against pressures from USCAR and local American enterprises. Because of the various communication channels they have with the American agencies on the Island, the MSU Group can act as spokesmen for the university of the Ryukyus. The University of the Ryukyus has organized an Alumni Association, a Foundation, and other groups; but at present these groups do not have enough power to act for the Uni- versity's administration. Concerning internal forces, the faculty committees also offer protection to the Administrative Council from pressure coming from within the faculty, student body, and the Board of Directors. Further information reveals1 that the Board apprises itself of the administration and faculty points of view through various means of com- munication such as the reports of the administrative and academic councils and committees. It also appears that the councils and committees, which can be an effective means of protecting the administration's leadership, can also oppose the administration since they are given the general power of representing the faculty. Some of the administrators at the University (sf the Ryukyus state that they are given assignments without the necessary authority to carry out their responsibility. These same members of the thiiversity of the Ryukyus find the faculty election of administrators to 1Interviews with Ryukyuan citizens, op. cit. 103 be an effective means of protecting administrative strength. Because the President is elected by popular vote of the faculty, he feels confident of receiving a substantial amount of support from the faculty. If he were an appointee of the Board of Directors, he believes he would have to win the support of the faculty. Other university administrators in elective positions feel similar confidence in faculty support. Interaction between the University of the Ryukyus-- the Byukyuan Community--the International Community I. The Ryukyuan Communi $1 Utilizing the interview technique, the writer investigated the inter- action between the University of the Ryukyus, the Ryukyuan Community, and the international community.1 A question was raised concerning the relation of the University of the Ryukyus to other institutions of higher education in the Ryukyus, and ex- tent to which the University had displaced other institutions of higher education. Prior to World War II the Okinawan Normal Schools for men and women and the Youth Normal School for training teachers of secondary schools were in operation but were discontinued during the war in 1945. After hos- tilities had ended in 1945, the Okinawa Civil Administration in cooperation 1tith.the U. S. Military established the Okinawa Teacher Training School and the Okinawa Foreign Language School to replace the normal schools that were discontinued. These latter institutions were absorbed by the University of the Ryukyus when it began operation in 1950. A question was raised in the interviews concerning the extent to which the University of the Ryukyus performs complementary functions to other 11nterviews with Ryukyuan citizens, 22. cit. 104 institutions. At the present time there are several government and private institutions of higher education in Okinawa. The government institutions consist of two nurses' training schools and a police academy. The private institutions consist of two two-year junior colleges -- the International Ryukyuan University and Okinawan Christian University -- and one four-year college called Okinawa University. In addition to these private institutions, there is the University of Maryland extension program of Okinawa, which offers a wide variety of classes to the American military community. The University of the Ryukyus has assisted these public and private institutions in several ways. The nurses' training schools are operated by the Health and welfare Department of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands. The legal status of these schools requires that the University of the Ryukyus professors must teach the non-professional courses. For example, the Uni- versity supplies professors of science to the nurses"training schools; and professors of law, political science, sociology, and psychology to the police academy. All the private institutions in Okinawa were established within the last few years, and the University of the Ryukyus has been the assisting agency from their founding days. The University of the Ryukyus has helped these institutions in organizing their curricula, administration, and teaching activities. There are some individual professors at the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus serving as part-time instructors in these private institutions. This part-time teaching activity is permitted with the President's special authorization, so long as it is determined that the professor's teaching and research efficiency on the main campus is not impaired. The University of the Ryukyus has several faculty members teaching in the University of Maryland program. Most of the complementary functions of the University of the Ryukyus have been in terms of assisting in instructional activities and of advising in curriculum organization. 105 The administration of the University of the Ryukyus feels that these relationships have been satisfactory. President Yonamine stated that he believes the University of the Ryukyus is morally supported by these other institutions, and with their support the University can more effectively promote its own values and goals through their programs. The University of the Ryukyus has been unable to find individuals and groups to fill the role of establishing and fostering of social bases for support and leadership. From time to time, the University has aligned itself with various types of organizations and groups for specific purposes, but each alignment has always been on a temporary basis depending on the issue involved. The University has worked closely with the Okinawa Teachers Association, one of the most powerful organizations now existing in the Okinawan society. The University has not wholly accepted the Okinawa Teachers Association's policies and strategies, and it has been careful about becoming completely identified with that organization. The University has had working relationships with governmental agencies and private groups; but to date it has not been able to find an organization in Okinawa whose jpurposes, values, and philosophy agree with those of the faculty of the ‘University. There are several influential citizens not associated with an organized group who are working closely with the University in promoting its activities. Further inquiries dealt with individuals and groups in the Ryukyus who hold attitudes strongly committed to the present organization and operation «of the University, or individuals and groups who are neutral but could be influential in the continuity of the University. Several organizations were identified in response to this question including the Okinawa Teachers Association; the press, radio, and television; the High School Principals 11.... cyan. ..<. . _ psi. I, _ , s . . . . ..u .. U.a..,.- I. .rII.I....rr - . I,» 106 Association, the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands; and various political parties. To date the Okinawa Teachers Association has been withholding its stand on the issue of the University charter. If this Association takes a defi- nite position and publicly announces its views, it will become an ex- tremely influential body vis-a-vis the University charter issue. As the Okinawa Teachers Association has the political power to influence public opinion in the Ryukyu Islands, the University believes it has to be care- ful in this relationship. There are two major newspapers in Okinawa which have carried editorials expressing support for more government control of the University. The newspapers have been skeptical of the need for a separate body of control in the form of a Board of Directors for the University of the Ryukyus. At the present time, how the press will react in support of the faculty and administration at the University is somewhat unpredictable. In the Ryukyuan society, the high school principals are respected leaders carrying the prestige of educators. The High School Principals Association consists of high school principals of all public senior high schools in Okinawa. This association has been completely neutral regarding a stand on the University charter issue, but it could have important in- fluence upon public opinion. The University officials believe they must maintain a good rapport in their communications with this group. The United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands is capable of deciding the University charter question one way or the other. USCAR has the decisive power; but the Ryukyuans feel that if USCAR resorts to utilizing this power in favoring the University's position, the result probably will be that the various political forces and public opinion in Okinawa would unite in opposition. The University officials state that 107 they hope USCAR will wait until the Ryukyuan public decides what it would like to do. It appears that if USCAR acts to help the University, this would reinforce the identity of the University with the USCAR organization. University people appreciate this kind of support, but nevertheless be- lieve that it is more important for the University to be identified and aligned with the Ryukyuan public. The University officials and other prominent and key Ryukyuans are quick to point out that the political parties in the Ryukyus can be an influential force in the legislature in deciding on the university charter or any other issues affecting the University of the Ryukyus. It was also pointed out in many of these interviews that, although the political parties are influential, they are probably alert to public sentiment. It appears that such organizations as the Okinawa Teachers Association, the press, and the High School Principals Association really guide the public sentiment, which then is interpreted by the political parties and the legislature members representing the parties. It might be said that the political parties are influential, but not to the extent that they can create or revise public opinion. Another organization that is very important in determining the Uni- lversity's future is the Government of the Ryukyu Islands Education De- partment which is a branch of GRI responsible to the Chief Executive. The Education Department in its many functions serves as the Business Office of the Central Board of Education, which controls public school education from the elementary schools up through the high schools in the Ryukyu Islands. The Central Board of Education is the body which would discuss and decide in what form the bill for the University charter should be presented to the legislature. The Central Board of Education has not yet decided on the University charter question, nor has it openly expressed 108 a point of view on this issue. The business manager for the Central Board of Education is concurrently the director of the department of education of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, as well as an ex-officio member of the Board of Directors for the University of the Ryukyus. As a followbup to the discussion of individuals and groups who support the University, the next question was concerned with those individuals and groups in the Ryukyus who are openly or covertly opposed to the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus in its present form of organization.and operation. The interviews conducted by the writer indicate that the large majority of the various organizations and individuals in the Ryukyu Islands are proud of their University. They seem to be satisfied that they now have a full- fledged university which is still young, but which has reached a certain height within a remarkably short period of time. For the most part there were friendly reactions from individuals and groups concerning the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. However, there are some individuals and groups who are critical of present conditions. These critics of the University's activities include some public school teachers, members of the Department of Education of the Government of the Ryukyu Islands, and a small segment of the University students. The public school teachers are critical particularly of the procedure and contents of the University's teacher training program. They want to have the University teacher training program oriented more toward the pre- war normal school training program. Furthermore, some of the public school teachers are critical of the fact that the University is a USCAR Ordinance- established University. Members of the Department of Education of CHI have also been somewhat critical of the fact that the University is run apart from their department. They state that the University should be controlled by the Department of Education. truth“. 109 Some of the students at the University are very hostile to the Uni- versity's administration and take every opportunity to criticize or degrade the University and its activities. It appears, however, that the students have not had any substantial role or influence upon the public opinion of the island. Dr. Toshio Akamine, dean of students at the Uni- versity, states that the criticism of some of these students is aimed at the system upon which the University is established and probably some of the techniques used. These students are requesting improvements which Dr. Akamine states he and his faculty colleagues recognize as being needed in various aspects of the University's activities. Dr. Akamine says: There is a small number of extremely radical students in the student body of the University. These students have been against any system of discipline or any administration existing in Okinawa. They would, for instance, join forces with labor unions in their strike against their employers. They would do anything to destroy the present Administration of the University, and the political establishment in the Ryukyu Islands. They would probably favor a violent revolution. However dangerous their existence is to the steady and peaceful progress of our society, they do not exercise much leadership. 11. The International Community In the writer's interviews a question was raised concerning the major events which have impinged on the effectiveness of the university of the Ryukyus in the international community. Responses to this question indicate that the most serious events in the history of the University of the Ryukyus *were the mass student demonstrations in 1953, 1956, and 1960. The student demonstrations in 1953 were mainly protests against the use of nuclear weapons. The issues in 1956 were the acquisition of land ‘by the United States Military forces in Okinawa and the amount of compen- sation paid the Okinawan public for the use of their land. The Okinawan public morally supported the students in the 1953 and 1956 demonstrations, but in 1960, this support turned to criticism when the students' political t—uo—N- ...—_- 110 and social movements became violent and advocated revolutionary methods. The usual issue used in these demonstrations centers around the restoration of the Ryukyu Islands to full Japanese sovereignty -- which was the theme of the demonstration held when the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, visited Okinawa in June 1960. The most serious event in this context was the student demonstration in 1956 when viewed in light of the subsequent developments. In response to an inquiry by the writer, Dr. Toshio Akamine quoted from the Tenth Anniversary Yearbook of the University of the Ryukyus con- cerning the 1956 student demonstration.1 He translated as he read from Japanese as follows: The U. S. Army, Air Force, and Marines, through their spokesman, published a statement that put Central Okinawa off-limits in order to avoid collision between the Americans and the Ryukyuans. This announcement was a shock to the people of Central Okinawa as this section of Okinawa was the principal business district for the Americans. This meant an economic setback for the people who lived there and con- ducted business with the Americans. The next day the Govern- ment of the Ryukyu Islands negotiated with the American au- thorities to put the Central area back on-limits because of the serious economic disadvantage expected for the Okinawan economy. The Civil Administrator was reported to have re- plied to the Ryukyuan Government officials that the reason for this off-limits action was the anti-American demonstrations staged by the University students. On the following day, the ninth of August 1956, the Board of the University of the Ryukyus Foundation published a document stating that the duty of the University is to create people with critical judgment, but the recent behavior of the students of this University was not along the lines of this policy. Therefore the University of the Ryukyus Foundation will no longer financially support the operations of the University of the Ryukyus. This decision was published and sent to the Board of Directors of the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. The Board asked for and obtained per- mission for a joint conference of the Board of Directors of the University and the Board of Directors of the University of the Ryukyus Foundation. After the joint meeting, the Board of Directors of the University stated officially that the anti- American demonstrations of the University students was indeed regretable. After this announcement at the joint conference, the spokesman for the Civil Administration of the United States 1The Tenth Anniversary Yearbook of the University of the Ryukyus (Okinawa, 1960) , pp. 182-3. 111 Government at a press interview was reported to have said that whether or not the off-limits of the Central area of Okinawa would be removed depended upon the attitude of the University of the Ryukyus. Probation is too easy. The students must be put under suspension for a period of not less than one year. Not only the students, but the pro- fessors should be reprimanded. Faced with open pressure from the Military authorities and the U. S. Civil Administration, the University Adminis- tration and the Board of Directors had conferences each of the eight days from the ninth to the seventeenth of August. After evaluating the social conditions, public sentiments, and the strong positions openly held by the U. S. Military authorities and the U. S. Civil Administration, the Board of Directors and the President of the University made a public apology saying they were sorry the students took an anti-American position. At the same time the Board of D1- rectors of the University and the President announced that the University had expelled six students and suspended one student who were leaders of the student demonstrations. University officials state that in the end these students were disci- plined because of outside pressure, but the University helped them to be placed in major universities in Japan. The student government of the University was dissatisfied with the measures taken by the University administration and openly accused the administration of not moving by its own accord but reacting to the pressures brought to bear by the U. S. Military. After the decision was announced by the Board of Directors and the administration concerning the disciplining (If the students responsible for the demonstrations, the relationship be- tween the faculty and the students became critical. Interviews with faculty and alumni, indicate that there was basically :mn uncooperative relationship between the faculty and students following this incident. The annual University festival was cancelled in 1956 be- cause of this situation. The students decided to protest the action of the Board of Directors and the University administration by exercising passive resistance in their normal student-faculty relationships. 112 Interviews with lay citizens in the Ryukyus indicate that the Okinawan public sympathized with the students who had been disciplined. It appears that the Okinawan citizenry felt that the University took the disciplinary actions because of the pressure coming from the U. S. Military authorities. It also appears that the Board of Directors did not wish to discipline the students because they sympathized with them. The faculty members stated that they resented the military pressure and regretted that they had to take this course of action, but felt this was the only alternative because the continued existence of the University was at stake. The officials at the University of the Ryukyus today believe that there were two significant implications stemming from this event. One was the University image created in the minds of the Okinawan public that resulted from the circumstances in the handling of this event. The Ryukyuan press and other media of communication depicted the University of the Ryukyus as an institution without self-respect and without independent decision-making ability -- an institution that would yield to external pressure groups, particularly the U. S. Military authorities. The Uni- versity officials today believe that it was at this point that the public expressed a loss of confidence in the integrity of the University of the Ryukyus and that institution's ability to cultivate its own destiny. They state that this concept has put their institution in a very unfavorable position because the University wants to become integrated into the society of the Ryukyu Islands. The second implication appears to be just as great in magnitude. These circumstances in 1956 suddenly reminded the University's faculty and adminis- tration that the Board of Directors was in fact the governing body of the university of the Ryukyus and could enforce its decisions if it chose to do so. It appears from the interviews that the faculty and administration 113 of the University of the Ryukyus realized for the first time that their recommendations could be rejected by the Board of Directors. Faculty members in reply to the writer's interview questions expressed surprise in discovering in 1956 that there was a legal foundation for this "almighty" power bestowed in the Board of Directors -- namely the USCAR Ordinance which states the Board of Directors has "the responsibilities for the operation and control of the University in all its phases of operation and management..." Faculty members of the University state that, in 1956, it was their belief that student discipline was their responsibility and prerogative. Then they discovered that the Board of Directors could force student discipline if it so decided. The awareness that the Board of Di- rectors was "almighty"concerning every activity of the University suddenly made the faculty and administration suspect the adequacy of such a power- ful Board of Directors, particularly when the Board was "fearful" of the retributions that might come from the Military forces. It is apparent that, in 1956, the faculty members began to express their desire to limit the power of the Board of Directors in any future legislation pertaining to the charter of the University of the Ryukyus. Before concluding this section on interaction between the University of the Ryukyus and the international community, brief reference should be Inade to other notable relationships of the University. One event of significance was the participation of the University of the Ryukyus in the Pacific Science Congress meetings in the year 1958. Meetings were held that year in Bangkok, Thailand at the Chulalongkorn University. Three 'professors from the University of the Ryukyus and two members of the Idichigan State university advisory group attended the meetings. Professor Idargaret Harris of Michigan State University, who was serving as the home 114 economics advisor at the University of the Ryukyus at that time, was one of the party attending. Miss Harris stated in a report on the trip that "our nutrition sessions were most interesting and with 60-80 attending there was much good discussion. The similarity of problems in these Asian countries was striking. It did indicate the need for indigenous research in these countries, and pointed out that we should not apply U. 8. standards to Asian conditions and to people of oriental stature and inheritance. Miss Hiroko Nashiro of the Home Economics Department at the University of the Ryukyus read a paper on a nutritional survey recently completed in Okinawa and she did an excellent job." Several sources indicate that the faculty representatives of the University of the Ryukyus at this Pacific Science Congress made an excellent impression on the other delegates there. In 1961 the tenth Pacific Science Congress was held at the University of Hawaii and again the University of the Ryukyus was represented. This par-- ticipation in the Pacific Science Congress meetings has served to bring the University of the Ryukyus into more active interaction with the Pacific community of institutions of higher education. It should also be noted that the university of the Ryukyus has continued to develop its relationships with universities in Japan and the United States. There have been close relationships with Japanese universities through graduate study programs, cooperative research projects, and ‘visiting faculty programs whereby Japanese professors have taught for 'varying periods at the University of the Ryukyus or worked on research pro- grams in cooperation with Ryukyuan colleagues. The University of the Ryukyus lass had similar experiences with Michigan State University, as well as broad «contacts with the American community of higher education through the Ryukyuan astudent and faculty study program in the United States, which involves an 115 average of 50-60 Ryukyuans per year. This study program in the United States is supported by the U. S. Department of the Army and has been in existence since prior to the founding of the University of the Ryukyus in 1950. President Yonamine and his colleagues at the University of the Ryukyus state that it is their hope to develop further relationships with more uni- versities and colleges in the United States and other countries abroad. They look upon these relationships as opportunities to interact with other institutions of higher education and, in the process, to strengthen the University of the Ryukyus. In this context the writer assisted President Yonamine several months ago in securing a membership application to the International Association of Universities with administrative offices in Paris, France. Other organizations of an international character that relate from time to time with the University of the Ryukyus include the Institute of Democratic Education in Japan, the Asia Foundation with headquarters in San Francisco and Tokyo, the Kellogg Foundation of Michigan, The Rockefeller Foundation of New York, and other groups whose purposes and philosophies are purely cultural and academic -- and/or dedicated to the cause of de- veloping programs and activities based upon a democratic philosophy. A recent development in terms of international interaction that should be mentioned is the establishment of the East-West Center at the university of Hawaii. The University of the Ryukyus by its location in the Ryukyu Islands qualifies as a participant in the activities of the United States supported East-west Center. VThe Center has a sizable endowment and thus can be looked upon as having great potential significance in possibly supporting the development of selected programs at the University of the Ryukyus. It should be possible, for example, for the University of the 116 Ryukyus to cultivate relationships with the East-West Center whereby the Center can support visiting exchange professor and student programs with the University of the Ryukyus related to teaching, research, and service activities. Any assistance by the East-West Center should be viewed as extra and complementing support for the University of the Ryukyus beyond the basic institution-to-institution relationship it now has with Michigan State University under the support of the u. S. Department of the Army contract. The possibility of a relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and the East-West Center is beginning to emerge as the East- West Center becomes more settled and is developing its own program plans. Concern for the Future of the University of the Ryukyus The University of the Ryukyus has made significant strides forward since its establishment in 1950. The enrollment of the University in 1961 was 2,356 full-time students, who were from representative communities throughout the Ryukyu Islands. A completely new campus has been established since 1950. The instructional staff has constantly improved. From the be- ginning of the University, USCAR has provided scholarships to Ryukyuans for study at colleges and universities throughout the United States. Today a large number of these people have returned to faculty positions at the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus with the bachelor's degree, many have earned the master's degree, and a new group is now beginning to emerge with the earned doctorate.1 In February 1961, the writer traveled to Okinawa in his capacity as coordinator for the Michigan State University Program at the University of the Ryukyus. At that time there was a concern on the part of the writer 1See Appendix C. 117 that the relationship between these two universities had not developed to its full potential. Among other problems there appeared to be difficulty in the communication process between the Michigan State University group and their colleagues on the University of the Ryukyus campus. The writer in cooperation with the MSU group members concluded in February 1961 that arrangements should be worked out with USCAR officials to invite selected members of the administration of the University of the Ryukyus to visit Michigan State University sometime during the coming academic year, preferably during the fall of 1961. Reference was made to members of the administration of the University because at that time current efforts of the MSU group were aimed basically at administrative issues in terms of the plan of development for the University and ways the MSU group could reinforce the Ryukyuan plans. It was also thought that if a team of prominent and key members of the administration of the University of the ‘Ryukyus could visit Michigan State University for a period of approximately one month, every effort should be made to establish a rapport with the visitors that hopefully would lead to more effective communication between the two institutions. The last such visit of a high official of the University of the Ryukyus had been limited to President Genshu Asato, who visited Michigan State Uni- versity in December of 1957. President Asato's visit to the Michigan State thriversity campus was considered highly successful concerning the communica- tixn: process that took place, but it was subsequently concluded that Presi— dent Asato had to deal with his administrative council upon return to Okinawa. Consequently, because of the Ryukyuan cultural pattern of group- decision making, it was envisioned that it would be more effective in the future to bring together the prominent and key members of the administrative council if such a trip to the MSU campus could be arranged. 118 Due largely to the efforts of the head of the MSU group in Okinawa and the head of the Education Department of USCAR, the details were re- solved making it possible for President Matsusuke Yonamine, Dean Kunikichi Higoshi, Professor Seizen Nakasone, and Dean Toshio Akamine -- all of whom were elected to their posts effective July 1, 1961 -- to visit Michigan State University in the fall of that year. The meetings with President Yonamine and his colleagues on the MSU campus moved slowly as far as productive communication was concerned; but as the deliberations progressed, they gradually blossomed out into an earnest discussion of defining the problems that have contributed to misunderstandings and frictions in the relationship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus. At the conclusion of these meetings in East Lansing, it could be seen that neither university in the past had viewed these problems in full perspective. It was recognized that each university had to appreciate the many aspects of these problems 'before advice and suggestions could be effectively offered and general communication either way could be accomplished. It was concluded in these meetings in East Lansing between President ‘Yonamine and his colleagues; Dr. Glen L. Taggart, MSU's Dean of Inter- Imational Programs; and the writer, as coordinator of this‘MSU/University «of the Ryukyus Program, that in all probability the day-to-day pressures (of work facing both the Ryukyuans and the Americans, plus the human nature (of the individuals concerned toward moving ahead or rejecting suggestions :mnd proposals of the respective parties without giving full attention to rill of the facts, has retarded the degree of cooperation that potentially (would have been experienced in this institution-to-institution relationship. I]: was also concluded that probably little change could actually have been achieved in the past working relationships affecting the University of the 119 Ryukyus and Michigan State University because of the external conditions that existed. In the past there have been great pressures exerted on this institution-to-institution relationship. It appears that these pressures stemmed primarily from the urgency that grew out of the devastation of World War II and the subsequent reconstruction and, in a broader sense, from the United States Administration of the Ryukyu Islands in accordance with Article 3 of the Treaty of Peace signed September 8, 1951. These conditions, without any doubt, have permeated every phase of contemporary Ryukyuan society. Today, however, the consensus of agreement indicates that it should be possible to move forward in a more positive and productive effort of team- work in the development of the relationship between the university of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. This conclusion was reached be- tween President Yonamine and his colleagues; President John A. Hannah of Michigan State University; Dr. Glen L. Taggart, Dean of International Pro- grams; Dr. Ralph H. Smuckler, Associate Dean of International Programs; and the writer. While President Yonamine and his colleagues were at Michigan State Uni- versity, they entered into interviews with the writer in a spirit of cooperation and understanding to define the relationship between the Uni- ‘versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University as it exists and to examine some of the problems and frictions of the past. Representatives of'both universities acknowledged that this was the first time in the liistory of the relationship that either side had worked together for a long enough period to honestly attempt to identify and define the various aspects <>f the problems that have retarded the development of this relationship :into its full potential. The results of these interviews were added to 120 the collection of data that had already been gathered by the writer. It was at the conclusion of the visit to Michigan State University by President Yonamine and his colleagues that the writer moved ahead to undertake a systematic analysis of educational-administrative-cultural aspects of the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS When one looks for an administrative process that will liberate the potential existing in the future relationship between.Michigan State Uni- versity and the University of the Ryukyus, the approach suggested by Dr. George Sharp in his book Curriculum Development as Re-Education of l the Teacher delineates some possible guidelines for action. This book is not limited to "curriculum development," but is applicable to the whole administrative process. Dr. Sharp writes that the individual who would initiate a program of (curriculum) development should realize a number of things if he is to be successful. He must appreciate that he is embarking on a program aimed at the deliberate change of society and individuals, and he should realize that he has no sanction to change either. He must work to develop the insights of others instead of imposing his own views. He must have a ‘working knowledge of the dynamics of change, not only in terms of theory ‘but also in terms of human behavior. Furthermore, he must understand the ethical and psychological requirements of the role he is to play and be able to control his own behavior in accordance with these requirements. People act on what they perceive, and perception is related to an individual's set of values. All of the methods of psychotherapy may be 1George Sharp, Curriculum Development as Re-Education of the Teacher (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College - Columbia University, 1951), pp. 66-84. 122 summarized by a single concept -- re-education.1 Re-education is complete only when a new system of values dominates the individual's perception. The individual "knows" and "does," and believes in what he "knows" and "does." The whole purpose of the re-education process is to help the individual grow in independence and self-reliance. The first step is to establish a kind of relationship with the indi- vidual that will help him feel free to reveal his problems. A relation- ship becomes established between two people largely as the result of a quality of the rapport between them which permits communication without any feeling of defensiveness. Probably no factor clogs the functioning of human relations more than lack of understanding of emotional, ag- gressive, hostile behavior and how to deal with it. The way of dealing with this situation might be called the "re-educative way." The individual trained in human relations knows from experience that emotions must be "gotten out." He, therefore, aids the individual to "purge" himself completely. This catharsis may bring insight immediately, but not necessarily so. Still it is one of the phenomena of human relations that when all negative feelings are out, positive feelings tend to appear. frhis is the "golden moment" in which to direct attention to a rational consideration of the problem. Too frequently it becomes an occasion for ‘hand-shaking and back-slapping, but it may be seized upon to inject new ideas into the other person's thinking. As the emotions are thrown off, insight tends to develop concerning oneself and the problem. As a result, :1 new feeling of adequacy tends to develop. An individual may be encouraged 1Lawrence F. Shaffer, The Psychology of Adjustment: An Objective Approach to Mental Hygiene (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1936), pp. 481‘ 82 s 123 to do this through a number of procedures, and the process goes on.1 As Dr. Gordon W. Allport points out, catharsis alone may not bring insight, but it sometimes seems to be a "necessary vestibule" to "the process of re-education."2 Throughout the eleven-year history of the relationship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus, there has been an under- current of uneasiness and evidence of friction that has precluded a full effort of cooperative teamwork between the representatives of these two universities. Thus, this relationship seems not to have developed into its full potential. An analysis of the friction indicates that it has become a problem centered on the idea held by the Ryukyuan community that their university is controlled by the United States Military through Mich- igan State university. This problem is partially related to the Ryukyuans' desire to have the MSU Advisory Group continue to perform a liaison function between the University of the Ryukyus—and the u. S. Military, which supports the MSU Group in Okinawa as well as providing substantial grant-in-aid to 'the university of the Ryukyus each year. This problem is also related to the inability of Michigan State University and the U. S. Civil Adminis- tration of the Ryukyus to communicate effectively with the representatives (if the University of the Ryukyus pertaining to the frictions affecting this institution-to-institution relationship. As a result of the visitation of President Yonamine and his colleagues to liichigan State University in the fall of 1961, it appears that many aspects of this comunicative process took place. In a sense the status ISharp, pp. 915., pp. 66-84. 2Gordon W. Allport, "Catharsis and the Reduction of Prejudice," The Journal of Social Issues, I (August, 1945), p. 7. 124 of the relationship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus is now in the "golden moment" phase where it should be possible to direct attention to a rational consideration of the problem. This has been a purpose of this study. Conclusions From a review of selected books, reports, and other materials con- cerned with the historical background and educational development in Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands, the impact of Eastern cultures on Ryukyuan history, and economic factors affecting the Ryukyuan citizenry; from 124 interviews with Ryukyuans who are or have been directly concerned with the growth and development of the University of the Ryukyus; and from the writer's understanding and knowledge of the situation, an appraisal of the evidence gathered indicates that the following conclusions can be drawn: I. Whereas the Ryukyuans have continued to think of the "ivory tower" model of Japanese universities for the University of the Ryukyus, the Americans have stressed the concept of educational service to the people of the Ryukyus. An appraisal of the evidence indicates that there is a sufficiently broad base of common under- standing between the two positions represented by the Ryukyuans and the Americans, although it was a difficult phase in the past relation- ship between the universities in accepting this point of view. IPresident Yonamine of the University of the Ryukyus points out that he and his colleagues in Okinawa often recognized the logical 'validity of the recommendations coming from the MSU Advisory Group, ‘but they had their own judgments about the readiness of the Okinawan society to adopt and put such recommendations into practice. In- ‘cluded in the understanding that has developed between the Ryukyuans 125 and the Americans is the concept that the teaching of knowledge should not be restricted to any one group or class, but should be made freely available to all who can make good use of it. Former President Genshu Asato of the University of the Ryukyus emphasizes that higher education should be dedicated to helping young men and women develop to the maximum of their ability. There is general agreement today between the Ryukyuans and the Americans that the goal of a university in all academic programs should be to serve the people in the broader community supporting the university by increasing their knowledge and helping them to make practical applications of that knowledge. Wflth this understanding, the University of the Ryukyus should find it possible to continue to develop along the lines of a Japanese national university, but at the same time maintain a real and living philosophical purpose of higher education that will be concerned with providing edu- cational services to the community served by the University of the Ryukyus. These points were made by the Ryukyuans themselves. Thus, it can be seen that the Ryukyuan people are cooperating in an active way by determining their own purposes. The reality of this broad base of common understanding be- tween the positions represented by the Ryukyuans and the Americans is further emphasized when one considers the current changes that are taking place in the Japanese national universities toward the philosophical concept of providing educational services to the Japanese community. A future relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be built upon a philosophy emphasizing universally fundamental purposes of an institution “SEE.” 126 of higher education. However, it should be expected that the Ryukyuans will develop their own means and procedures for imple- menting this philosophy, which conceivably could be radically different from the organizational patterns common in the American community of higher education. II. There is need for a clearly defined and mutually acceptable democratic-action type of working relationship between the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University based upon the belief that the areas of agreement are wider than the areas of disagreement, and that the areas of disagreement can be di- minished by the ability of individual Ryukyuans and Americans to think and work as members of a group for the best interests of society. The evidence indicates that the MSU advisors in the past have varied in their approach in working with their counterpart colleagues at the University of the Ryukyus. Some have been sensitive to the purpose and the role they were performing at the University of the Ryukyus and to the Ryukyuan people and their culture. Others have applied pressures of various types in an attempt to speed along and bring about changes they con- sidered necessary. President Yonamine and his colleagues at the University of the Ryukyus have said the general evaluation of the MSU Advisory Group is positive, and they want to continue a cooperative relationship with Michigan State University inithe future; but after eleven years they now expect changes to take place in this relationship. They have commented that some mem- bers of the MSU Advisory Group, in their enthusiasm, sometimes appeared aggressive in wanting to bring about changes. President 127 Yonamine and his colleagues have stated that they appreciate the willingness of the MSU advisors to help them,but on some occasions this willingness did not meet the needs of the Ryukyuan society as adequately as it should have. It appears that the regular turnover of personnel within the MSU Advisory Group has coincided with a demonstrated lack of sensitivity and understanding by some MSU group members, as well as by the American community generally in Okinawa, toward the Ryukyuan people in their cultural setting. The evidence indicates that Ryukyuan administrative behavior and procedure relies heavily on the effective use of group processes. It appears that the American advisors, including the MSU group, could learn much about a democratic-action approach from their colleagues at the University of the Ryukyus. This is not to say that the group process approach at the University of the Ryukyus is without criticism.from the members of the faculty and staff who participate in these activities. They have stated, for example, that administrators do not seem to have sufficient authority to go along with their responsibilities (although this is qualified with the thought that possibly the authority is there, but it may not have been described or defined in a clear enough manner to give the administrator a sense of positive understanding upon which to exercise that authority). The Uni- ‘versity officials feel that even though they are not completely satisfied with their decision-making processes, they nevertheless think very highly of the over-all benefits that are derived from involving the University administration and staff in the group ‘process of decision making. It appears that if the MSU Advisory Group had employed this group-process or democratic-action approach 128 more in the past as a means of cooperatively working with their Ryukyuan colleagues to resolve issues faced by the University of the Ryukyus, many of the difficulties in this relationship would never have developed. For the sake of clarity there are certain aspects of the administrative process applicable in a democratic-action approach that the writer believes should be stated as a foundation upon which to continue the subsequent discussion of conclusions and recommendations of this study. For example, Harold W. Dodds,1 President Emeritus of Princeton University, states that in a democracy the one appointed to lead must lead. Dr. Dodds further states that during the past generation, the general level of the democratic process and participation has moved upward through- out American life. William S. White,2 in commenting on the changing nature of public administration in Washington, speaks of the growing use of the "consultative method of directing affairs," and how it is creating a new type of public official who knows how to "manage well by seeming to manage little," -- who possess "the talent of getting things done collectively." Corporate executives in the business world are discovering that subordinates carry out decisions more heartily if they have had their say while policies are being formulated. In the American academic community, successful university presidents soon learn to curb any compulsions they may have to lflarold W. Dodds, The Academic President -- Educator or Caretaker?, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1962, p. 16. 2William S. White, "Arthur Fleming, A New Breed of Civil Servant," Harpers Magazine, February, 1959, pp. 91-98. 129 make rapid decisions. They learn to cultivate patience and the habit of conferring. Dr. Dodds comments that "given an intellect capable of raising and coming to grips with important educational issues, the president needs most of all a personality or ego that will allow him to share his management load. At the same time he must retain the final responsibility for things over which he has less intimate control because he has dared to delegate them."1 The university president who makes a realistic analysis of his strengths and limitations in relation to his job and forms a determination not to spend his talents on minor issues, will be rewarded by an immediate increment in educational influence. Dr. Dodds comments that virtually all university presidents have something which they call an administrative council com- posed of both academic and non-academic officers. The use made of administrative councils differs widely. Sometimes meetings could be disposed of by a simple decision of an administrative officer. Meetings which are Consumed in pro- longed debate over relatively simple questions are usually tense with irritation by the members over the waste of their time. As a result the psychological benefits of consultation are destroyed. ‘Meetings should be concerned with significant questions. A method of assuring a positive result is to circu- late an advance agenda aimed at excluding trivia and gossip. Dr. Dodds states that "although consensus is one of the goals, rarely are questions decided by formal vote; usually the presi- dent follows Abraham Lincoln's policy that only his vote counts."2 1Dodds, gp..gi§., p. 27. 2Dodds,_c_>_p. cit., p. 87. 130 An informal atmosphere is desirable, but the business must be completed. ‘Minutes of meetings should make clear what decisions are reached and who is to execute them. The president is usually free to reject recommendations of committees and to send them back for reconsideration. This process may entail some grief before agreement is achieved, but the greater confidence in- spired by faculty participation eases the path of the administrator. In consideration of the president's right to final say in his de- cisions, it should be mentioned as a reminder that he may be aware of certain considerations which a faculty may overlook. It is the president's responsibility to maintain a perspective of the problem and then decide according to the best of his ability. There are wide and divergent concepts of democracy and how it can be implemented. Here again, as in the case of the phi- losophy of higher education, the concepts of democracy conceived by the Ryukyuans and the Americans appears on the surface to be poles apart, but the evidence indicates that the areas of agree- ment in this issue are considerably wider than the areas of dis- agreement. The areas of disagreement concerning a democratic- action approach can be reduced through consultation and discussion. George B. de Huszar in his book Practical Applications of Democracy1 states that people can be loyal only to that which they have experienced. He points out that democracy is a variety of experiences and not a mode of discourse; that democracy can be learned in only one way -- through action. 1George B. de Huszar, Practical Application of Democracy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1945), pp. 10-14. 131 He states that talking is an important form of behavior, but all discourse falls into two categories: a) talk which relates to action and b) talk which relates to more talk. When democratic wishes are translated into democratic conduct, then there is something significant to talk about. Thus, democracy is some- thing you do,not something you talk about. Democracy is more than a form of government, an attitude, or an opinion -- it is participation. This point has direct implications for the re- lationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. Any such relationship concerned with the high ideals of higher education must be translated beyond the beautiful and sometimes vague words that express purpose and philosophy -- into a relationship that is a living organism. The challenge becomes how to generate and release the potential energies and abilities of the faculties and the administration of these respective universities in this relationship. An appraisal of the evidence of this study indicates that the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University needs to be strengthened through integration and action. In this context it should also be stated that it is danger- ous for any society to exclude individuals and groups. When the {opportunity to be different is taken away from man, he loses his freedom. Such a society cannot be one where everybody is equal, for freedom means development, and human beings have varying capacities. Some theorists of democracy tend to believe in a society where inequality is abolished, not realizing that in (order to achieve this, all people will have to do the same tasks; 132 and this involves oppressing initiative and abolishing freedom. Democracy's aim has to be to provide an opportunity for every individual to fulfill his destiny. The elimination of crowd behavior must be the final goal of democracy. Thus, the problem of democracy is to keep groups alive and organized. Democracy's success depends upon the ability of individuals to think and that can occur in an atmosphere where they are not swayed by hysteria as in the crowd but are ableto'congregate in groups to deliberate on vital issues. In groups individuals interchange opinion and ideas. In the crowd the individual ceases to exist. In the group he finds expression. In an integrated society, the impulses and wishes of people are absorbed and satisfied by the groups of which a society is composed. A democratic-action approach according to de Huszar1 will ...reduce the stress on the legal aspects of democracy; reduce the formalism of democracy by stressing the im- portance of human relations rather than administrative procedures and parliamentary rules of order; reduce the verbalism of present-day democracy by showing how words may be translated into action; transform hierarchical organizations into more democratic ones, and empty- shelled institutions into living organisms; reduce the abstractness of our present democratic thought by stressing the importance of thinking in terms of concrete situations; reduce the negativeness of present-day democracy by making participation possible for a great number of people; solve many practical problems in various fields of human en- deavor; bring together people, and thus help to create integration; release the energy of which man is capable; and help to create adjustment for the individual by re- lating him to other persons. It should be possible to experience all of the points mentioned here by de Huszar in any situation involving people who are organ- ized in any form or manner by common bonds or concerns. The 1de Huszar, gp, cit., pp. 130-31. 133 democratic-action approach should be applicable to the many pro- cesses -- student affairs; faculty affairs; curriculum develop- ment and coordination; the administration of teaching, research and service activities; business and financial affairs; and conceivably any other activity or concern -- in the adminis- tration and functioning of an institution of higher education. Thus, a democratic-action approach should be emphasized in the administration and functioning of scholarly activities in the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. III. An appraisal of the evidence indicates that the "climate" is encouraging for further cooperation between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. The historical evidence reveals that due to circumstances of the re-establishment of the Ryukyuan society after the devastation of Werld War II, Americans were often aggressive in working with the Ryukyuans in developing answers to the immediate problems needing attention in the beginning years of the University of the Ryukyus. This aggressiveness characterizes the urgency of the situation in Okinawa during the period following WOrld War II. The prevalent Ryukyuan attitude in the past was one of resig- nation. The people did what they could, observed all of the proprieties, and then took life as it came. At the conclusion of the hostilities of Wbrld War II, the Ryukyuan people were in a state of destitution, and the immediate problems were re- «ducing disease and illness and resettling the civilian population. jBecause of these conditions of urgency, the aggressiveness demonstrated by the Americans has been defended against criticism -- 134 and in most cases, it should be complimented. This spirit of need for aggressive action effectively symbolizes the total effort of the Americans in Okinawa during this post-war period, and that the MSU Advisory Group manifested some of these same characteristics is understandable in light of those conditions. The University of the Ryukyus has now become a more sophisti- cated institution, with the development of its faculty and its academic programs. Thus, it is highly important at this time that the relationship between Michigan State University and the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus be carefully reviewed and redesigned for the coming period. During the early years of the MSU Advisory Group activities at the University of the Ryukyus, the MSU staff members were scheduled to teach only half time or a maximum of three quarters of their time so that research and extension activities could be planned and developed. The'MSU advisors were assisted by inter- preters who were assigned to each respective MSU staff member. The interpreter was to be more than just a translator; he was to be a counterpart and potential successor to the MSU advisor. For'several reasons, including lack of training of the inter- preter and insufficient interest, this plan did not materialize. Inn subsequent years the MSU activities at the University of the Ryukyus underwent a gradual transition. Throughout this period, however, the MSU advisors felt a primary necessity to assist their Ryukyuan colleagues on a broad front of activities based on the many needs facing this developing institution on Okinawa. These broad activities undertaken by individual MSU group members 135 established a pattern of operation that has prevailed to the present time under the egis of the MSU Advisory Group to the University of the Ryukyus. If this relationship is to develop examples of social services based on a philosophy and implemented.through democraticnprinciples of working with people, then there is need for an organizational entity to serve as a first-hand, direct-experience organization for communicating new ideas into action. Such an organizational entity should be designed to communicate the broad principles of a philosophy of higher education, should provide maximum flexi- bility of operational detail within the philosophy, and should allow for different methods of implementation to meet with cultural differences. Thus, an organizational entity would serve as the vehicle for communicating examples in terms of concrete situations of the social processes of education. An appraisal of the evidence of this study indicates that these factors have been generally missing in the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. IV. The fact that the writer's interviews with President Matsusuke Yonamine and his colleagues at Michigan State university in the fall of 1961 represented the first time in the eleven-year re- lationship of these universities that a sustained effort had been made over a period of weeks to seriously identify and de- fine the various aspects of the problem that has retarded the development of the relationship between these two universities to its full potential is evidence that this situation should be improved. The lack of a built-in mechanism for evaluation and 136 research in the effectiveness of this institutional relationship leaves much to be desired. Recommendations This study indicates that specific actions are required to improve the relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State Uni- versity. Recommendations are set forth as follows: I. An agreement for cooperation between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be entered into based on broad principles of a philosophy of higher education that will provide maximum flexibility of operational detail within the philosophy and allow for different methods of imple- mentation as related to cultural differences between the uni- versities. If such an agreement between the universities concerning philosophy and understanding of a future relationship cannot be reached, then it is recommended that each university seriously review the circumstances of their lack of agreement and the alternatives -- which should include in this event consideration of discontinuing the relationship. If a cooperative agreement can be reached between the Uni- ‘versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University, it is recommended that the contents of this agreement incorporate the following considerations: Am Such a cooperative agreement should be developed upon universally fundamental philosophical purposes of an institution of higher education to seek the truth through research, to disseminate the truth through 137 teaching, and to preserve the truth for future generations as set forth in greater detail in Chapter I of this study. B. The relationship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus should be based on a democratic-action approach with the beliefs that the areas of agreement are wider than the areas of disagree- ment and that the areas of disagreement can be diminished by the ability of individuals of each institution to think and to work cooperatively together as members of a group for the best interests of their universities and their societies. This democratic-action approach should be aimed at attaining integration and action through the building of social structure out of social units, i.e. problem-centered groups. As indicated earlier in this chapter, this approach is applicable to the multiple processes required in the administration and functioning of an institution of higher education including student affairs; faculty affairs; curriculum development and coordination; the administra- tion of teaching, research, and service activities; business and financial affairs; and conceivably any other acivity in a functioning institution of higher education. C. Attention should be given to the establishment of an advisory committee of joint representatives from the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University to undertake a systematic analysis of the future relation- ship between these two universities as an on-going activity. The results of this committee should be made available on 138 a continuing basis to each institution for their use in adjusting and/or formulating future plans and activities in this relationship. D. It is recommended that the agreement between the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University be a document that simply expresses their intent to enter into a professional and co-equal arrangement of academic coopera- tion based on a philosophy of purpose; and that sets forth in clear and concise terms the intent of the respective universities to cooperate in academic areas concerned with teaching, research, adult education and extension, ad- visory and consultative services that may be requested by either university, educational and cultural exchange programs, and other academic activities as may be defined and mutually agreed upon. This agreement should be con- cerned with bilateral activities between these universities, and should in no way preclude unilateral activities carried on independently at either of the respective universities. E. The agreement between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State university should be broader than any one aspect of the relationship. For example, the relation- ship between these universities at the present time is largely built upon the U. S. Department of the Army con- tract program providing for Michigan State University advisory services to the University of the Ryukyus. The U. S. Department of the Army program in the future, as 139 well as other possible programs funded or supported by foundations or other means, should be entered on a case- by-case basis subject to the mutual agreement of the respective universities. II. The U. S. Department of the Army contract program resources should be directed toward the establishment of an organizational entity to serve as a communicative channel in developing and disseminating new ideas. At present the U. S. Department of the Army contract program is the main vehicle providing for a relation- ship between Michigan State University and the University of the Ryukyus. As this u. S. Army program appears to be built upon a satisfactory philosophy that is incorporated in the contract docu- ment, it is necessary to develop a means of implementation through democratic principles of working with people, and equipped with an organizational entity to serve as a first-hand, direct-experience vehicle for translating new ideas into action. More specifically it is recommended that an advisory com- mittee of joint representatives from the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University (as recommended in point "I-C" above) study the following proposal which the writer suggests be con- sidered as an alternative to the present MSU Advisory Group entity at the University of the Ryukyus: A Proposal to Establish an International Study Center at the University of the Ryukyus A. This International Study Center would function with- in the broad framework of the University of the Ryukyus, but at the same time would have a semi-autonomous role 140 with relative freedom from the detailed rules and procedures of that institution. B. The specific title of the person who would head the International Center would be defined. The title of "Director" is tentatively used here, although this could be "Dean," "Chancellor," or some other title as decided upon by the appropriate people. C. The Director of the International Center would be appointed by the Board of Directors of the University of the Ryukyus. III. The plan of development envisions two subdivisions of the International Study Center as a beginning step in this organization. These subdivisions would include an Asian Studies Program and an American Studies Program (which could be limited to the geographical area of the U. S. A. or include studies of all the Americas,.in-» cluding Nbrth, Central, and South). A. Asian Studies Program 1. The Asian Studies Program would be headed by an associate director (or some other title to be devised). 2. The Asian Studies Program would be largely sup- ported by appropriations made to the University of the Ryukyus by the Government of the Ryukyu Islands. Additional support might be obtained from foundations and other sources in Japan, China, and the United States, for example. B. The American Studies Program would replace the MSU Ad- visory Group. 141 l 1. The American Studies Program would be headed by an associate director, who would be a faculty member of Michigan State University. This appointment would be subject to mutual agreement between the respective universities. 2. The title of the MSU Advisory Group would be dropped. 3. The American Studies Program would be financed - largely in its initial stage by the funds available under the contract between Michigan State University and the U. S. Department of the Army. 4. Functions of the American Studies Program would include teaching, research, adult education and extension, advisory services, educational and cultural exchange programs, and other academic pro- grams as may be defined and mutually approved by the appropriate parties. An implementation of these functions might include: a) Teaching. (1) English Language Training. The English Language Training Program of the University of the Ryukyus could be trans- ferred to the American Studies Program, and accompanying this transfer would be the usual budget available from the University of the Ryukyus. The MSU/u. S. Department of the Army contract would provide one full- time faculty member as a specialist in 142 teaching English as a foreign language. In addition, it should be possible to draw upon American personnel in Okinawa to assist in teaching English classes. University- trained wives of American personnel could be given a short, intensive course to specialize them in various areas of English instruction. (2) American Cultural Studies -- The associ- ate director for the American Studies Program would also take responsibility for developing curricula for American cultural studies. (a) This program would be available only to students of the University of the Ryukyus who qualify with a high- proficiency of English reading and speaking ability. With this stipu- lation these students could take an area in their under-graduate program in American cultural studies. Attention would be focused on cultural patterns, value theories, and social structures of contemporary American life and their relationship to individual and group activities. The courses would be built basically around a program of independent reading with the intention of constructing programs tailored to b) 143 the individual needs of the student, as well as of reducing the instructional and administrative cost per student. (b) Under this arrangement it is assumed that the associate director for the American Studies Program could give direct leadership to this American Cultural Studies function in addition to his other responsibilities. Such a program in American cultural studies would necessitate an adequate library at the University of the Ryukyus. The Shikiya Memorial Library now has a large collection of American books, and this would afford a starting point which could be supplemented as needed. (3) Other teaching programs could be intro- duced as the need arises in accordance with the resources available. Research. (1) This function would be concerned with both basic and applied research. (2) It is anticipated that the MSU/U. S. Department of the Army contract would pro- vide U. 8. dollar funds to support selected research activities at the University of the Ryukyus. 144 (3) The associate director could administer the research activities of the American Studies Program at the University of the Ryukyus. (4) Faculty members from the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University would submit detailed proposals with ac- companying proposed budgets which would be reviewed by the associate director of the American Studies Program and an advisory committee including representatives of the academic discipline concerned. Emphasis should be placed on research that would be meaningful to the development of Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands in such areas as agriculture, business and industry, rural and urban planning, public health and wel- fare, recreation and leisure-time activities, citizenship education, leadership training, aging population, and home and family living education. In consideration of the limited funds that would be available, some attempt should be made to support worthwhile and notable research activities that are al- ready underway and need a little additional assistance to bring them to fruition. As- sistance given to research activities should be related to the over-all goals and objectives of the MSU/U. S. Department of the Army contract. (5) It would be desirable to coordinate and relate common research activities con- ducted at both the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University to make more cooperation between faculty members of each institution possible. Such cooperation would include periodic exchange visits. (6) Opportunities for research should be provided, if possible, for faculty members at the University of the Ryukyus. It appears that several young competent faculty members have been somewhat discouraged in their respective roles as instructors upon their return from studying in the united States. Making it possible for some of these young men to conduct research under the adminis- tration of the associate director of the American Studies Program might serve the dual purpose of training a research worker as well as producing worthwhile research results. c) Adult Education and Extension Programs. It should be possible for the American Studies Program to organize and participate in adult education and extension programs from time to time. It would seem that these activities 146 should be coordinated with the on-going ac- tivities of the American Studies Program. The purpose of adult education and extension program activities would be to project the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus resources to those per- sons not regularly enrolled as students on the campus in Shuri. This program could take the form of various types of educational experiences such as courses for credit, conferences, enter- tainment and cultural offerings, and other special educational service projects. (1) English Language training could con- ceivably be given at various extension centers on the Ryukyu Islands. (2) The results of the research program could be made available to the Ryukyuan community through the adult education and extension activities of the American Studies Program. (3) Aspects of American cultural studies could be presented to the broader Ryukyuan community from time to time through this arm of the American Studies Program. d) Advisory Services. Upon request of the President of the University of the Ryukyus, an attempt would be made to supply short-term advisors in the natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, 147 and other areas as needed. The advisory services, as well as the other functions of this over-all proposal, would be in accordance with the goals and objectives as set forth in the MSU/U. S. Department of the Army contract. e) Educational and Cultural Exchange Programs. (1) Faculty Exchange Programs. (a) Ryukyuan faculty. Plans should be developed and coordinated with Michigan State University to invite approximately two or more faculty members per year from the University of the Ryukyus as visiting professors to the Michigan State University East Lansing campus for periods of one or more terms. With the development of the Asian Studies Program at Michigan State University, this would seem to be a natural body to engage faculty members as teachers and/or researchers on the East Lansing campus. Ideally, the Ryukyuan faculty member could complement the activities of Michigan State University and further the under- standing of Asian affairs both in the classroom and through research ac- tivities in cooperation with the MSU (2) 148 faculty. It is anticipated that the Ryukyuan faculty members could utilize the U. S. Military Air Transport Service between Okinawa and the United States which possibly could be paid either by the U. S. Department of the Army or directly out of the MSU/U. S. Department of the Anmy contract. The salary of the Ryukyuan faculty member at MSU would be paid by Michigan State University. (b) American faculty to the University of the Ryukyus. In addition to the MSU advisors sponsored under the Michigan State University contract with the U. S. Department of the Army, it may be possible to support other MSU and American faculty members in the American Studies Program at the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus through other funds including private resources of the individual faculty member, grants from foundations, grants made available by Michigan State University, or other sources. Student Exchange Programs. (a) Ryukyuan Student Exchange. It is anticipated that the Administration of the Ryukyu Islands (ARI) program 149 supporting student studies in the United States would continue to be available for faculty members and students of the University of the Ryukyus to study at Michigan State Uni- versity and other American colleges and universities. The program should be adjusted, however, to place a major emphasis on a Ph.D. program as re- lated to the various fields at the Uni- versity of the Ryukyus. In addition, people supported by the program should be committed to return to the University of the Ryukyus faculty for a reasonable period upon completion of their degree. It is anticipated that there will be some attrition of participants, but nevertheless this activity could be significant to the University of the Ryukyus in the coming years. Returning Ph.D.‘s have proven to be effective technical assistance experts as they work with their colleagues. (b) American Student Exchange. It is anticipated that students from.Michigan State University and other American colleges and universities would have the opportunity to pursue research and f) 150 possibly some teaching in the American Studies Program at the University of the Ryukyus. At this time Michigan State University is offering fellowships to doctoral students to conduct their dissertation research overseas at loca- tions where MSU is currently engaged in educational assistance programs. Okinawa is included in this program. (3) Cultural Exchange Programs. Attention should be given to supporting the broader aspects of a cultural exchange program in- cluding artists, writers, and the like. These cultural activities should be related to the philosophical objective of the American Studies Program, as well.as to the contractual purposes applicable to the funds used for supporting such exchange activities. Other Considerations. (1) This proposal should fit within the frame- work of the present MSU/U. S. Department of the Army contract with minor modifications, which could probably be negotiated. (2) It is proposed that the office arrange- ments for the American Studies Program con- tinue to be in the Shikiya Memorial Library which is where the MSU Advisory Group is currently housed. It is further proposed 151 that attention be given by USCAR and the University of the Ryukyus to the proposed addition to the Shikiya Memorial Library for facilities to accommodate the Inter- national Studies Center. With the emphasis on research being built into these programs, it would seem logical to plan the housing facility close to the resources of the Library. Summary 1. Any future relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University should be based on, and any organ- izational pattern should facilitate, the following conditions: A. A philosophically oriented agreement between relevant representatives of the two universities that is concrete enough to be understood in its ramifications of the fundamental purposes of the institution of higher educa- tion under consideration (in this case the University of the Ryukyus). These philosophical fundamental purposes would include: 1. seeking the truth through research, disseminating the truth through teaching, and preserving the truth for future generations; 2. broadening the international or cross-cultural basis of teaching and research; 3. recognizing the whole province of knowledge as 152 a proper area for the attention of a university; 4. helping men and women develop to the maximum of their abilities by providing equality of edu- cational opportunity for all who are qualified and can make appropriate use of it; 5. serving the people of the broader community supporting a university by increasing their knowledge, and helping them to make practical applications of that knowledge; and 6. striving to train and condition the people of the broader community to be effective citizens, and educated to contribute to society a) economically to the limits of their creative and productive skills, b) socially by their understanding of the world around them and their tolerance for the rights and opinions of others, c) morally by their acceptance and observance of the universal values of man, and d) politically by their reasoned and thinking approach to political issues, their rejection of demagogic appeals, and their willingness and ability to lead or to follow with equal intelligence. B. A.professional and co-equal arrangement of academic cooperation among the representatives of each institution based on a philosophy of purpose, and concerned with bi- lateral activities between these universities. 153 C. Development of a democratic, co-equal, cooperative action among representatives of both institutions in the decision-making process. D. A cultural understanding and sensitivity by both institutions of the social-economic-political forces of the broader environment of the Ryukyu Islands and the international community that create interferences in the communication between the universities. E. Establishment of first-hand direct-experience organ- izational entities to serve as vehicles for communicating philosophical examples in terms of concrete situations. F. Provision for maximum flexibility of operational detail within a philosophically oriented agreement be- tween the universities, and allowance for different methods of implementation as related to cultural differences. G. A built-in mechanism for evaluation and research on the effectiveness of the relationship. II. For the following reasons, the proposed organizational pattern amnong the alternatives available has more promise of achieving the c ondit ions stated: A. An International Study Center with an Asian Studies Program and an American Studies Program should meet the condition of a first-hand direct-experience organizational entity to serve as a vehicle for communicating philosophical examples in terms of concrete situations. B. The placement of the International Study Center within the broad framework of the University of the Ryukyus, but 154 at the same time in a semi-autonomous role with relative freedom from the detailed rules and procedures of that institution meets the condition of providing for maximum flexibility of operational detail, and allowance for different methods of implementation as related to cultural differences. This arrangement will respect the existing organization within the University of the Ryukyus and pro- vide a means for the Ryukyuan and American faculty members to gradually become acquainted with the academic programs and organization of the International Study Center. C. The appointment of a Director of the International Study Center by the Board of Directors of the University of the Ryukyus places final responsibility and authority within the institution of higher education under con- sideration -- the University of the Ryukyus. D. The organizational subdivisions represented by an Asian Studies Program and an American Studies Program is an extension of the condition cited above to provide organizational entities to serve as vehicles for communicating philosophical examples in terms of concrete situations. In addition, this arrangement would provide the basis whereby the relevant representatives of the two institutions could acquire a cultural understanding and sensitivity of the broader environment of the Ryukyu Islands and the international community that has created interferences in the past in the communication between the universities. The Asian Studies Program and the 155 American Studies Program would also serve the stated con- dition of philosophical fundamental purposes through the broadening of an international or cross-cultural basis of teaching and research. E. The replacement of the MSU Advisory Group by an American Studies Program emphasizes a professional and co-equal arrangement of academic cooperation, as con- trasted to the more limited concept of advisory services. F. The functions of the International Study Center as illustrated in the writer's suggested proposal by the American Studies Program including teaching, research, adult education and extension, advisory services, edu- cational and cultural exchange programs, and other academic programs as may be defined and mutually approved by the appropriate parties represent philosophically fundamental academic activities addressed to the con- ditions stated. The selection of the content of these programs such as the teaching of English language and American cultural studies is identified because of ex- pressed interests in these areas by the Ryukyuans, and because an inventory of an American institution's strength as related to Ryukyuan interests and needs (more speci- fically Michigan State University in this case) supports the identification of these study areas as logical fields of endeavor. It is anticipated that the Asian Studies Program would offer studies in Japanese Language and Ryukyuan and oriental cultural studies in response to the large interest in these areas by the American community in Okinawa. 156 G. The International Study Center through its organ- ization and the functions offered including teaching, research, adult education and extension, advisory services, educational and cultural exchange programs, and other academic programs provides the vehicles to achieve the philosophical fundamental purposes in the conditions stated, provides for a professional and co-equal arrange- ment of academic cooperation among the representatives of each institution, and this provides the conditions for the respective representatives of the universities to develop a democratic, co-equal, cooperative action approach in the decision-making process. Absorbtion of program con- tent in the International Studies Center coupled with a sound basic philosophical understanding of the relation- ship by the relevant representatives of the universities should increase the cultural understanding and sensitivity of both institutions to the social-economic-political forces that have interferred in the communication between the universities in the past. H. The appointment of an Advisory Committee of joint representatives from the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University not only to study the writer's suggested proposal for an International Study Center, but also to conduct a continuing evaluation and research pro- gram on the design and effectiveness of the relationship between these universities will meet the condition stated. 157 This function is vital to the development and maintenance of a dynamic and viable academic relationship between the University of the Ryukyus and Michigan State University. APPENDICES APPENDIX A BIOGRAPHICAL DATA ON MATSUSUKE YONAMINE KUNIKICHI HIGOSHI SE IZEN NAKASONE TOSHIO AKAMINE 10. ll. 12. 13. 160 BACKGROUND INFORMATION - PRESIDENT M. YONAMINE Name: (Romaji) Matsusuke Yonamine Permanent domicile: 257-banchi, Aza-Tokijin, Nakijin-son, Okinawa Present address: 2-461-banchi, Aza-Asato, Naha City, Okinawa Date of birth: July 12, 1910 Place of birth: Aza-Tokijin, Nakijin-son, Okinawa Present employer: University of the Ryukyus Type of work: President, University of the Ryukyus History of schooling, with dates: Apr 1923 - Mar 1928 Okinawa Prefectural First Middle School, Naha, Okinawa Apr 1928 - Mar 1930 Okinawa Prefectural Nbrmal School, Naha, Okinawa Apr 1933 - Mar 1935 Hiroshima Normal School, Hiroshima, Japan Apr 1938 - Mar 1941 Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan History of employment, with dates: Feb 1949 - May 1950 Principal, Shuri Senior High School Jun 1950 - Sep 1953 Assistant Professor, University of the Ryukyus Oct 1953 - Present Professor of Education, University of the Ryukyus Jul 1961 - Present President, University of the Ryukyus Travel outside the Ryukyus: Japan April 1933 - March 1941 for education USA Oct-Dec 1961 for educational tour Military record: None ' Other information such as field of interest, research completed, publications, etc. Children's chronological age at the time of entering elementary school and their consequences on mental development, Research Bulletin, ulR, 1960, and other similar articles. English language ability: Understands well, speaks a little 10. 11. 12. 13. 161 BACKGROUND INFORMATION - SEIZEN NAKASONE Name: (Romaji) Seizen Nakasone Permanent domicile: 647-banchi, Aza-Yonamine, Nakijin-son, Okinawa Present address: 262-banchi, Aza-Daido, Naha City, Okinawa Date of birth: April 26, 1907 Place of birth: Aza-Yonamine, Nakijin-son, Okinawa Present employer: University of the Ryukyus Type of work: Director, University of the Ryukyus Library History of schooling, with dates: Apr 1921 - Mar 1925 Okinawa Prefectural First Middle School, Naha, Okinawa Apr 1925 - Mar 1929 Fukuoka Upper Secondary School, Fukuoka, Okinawa Apr 1929 - Mar 1932 Tokyo Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan History of employment, with dates: Jul 1950 - Nov 1950 Chief, Gen Affairs Sec, Social Affairs Dept. Okinawa Government Nov 1950 - Oct 1953 Deputy Director, Education Dept. Okinawa Government Mar 1952 - Jul 1955 Prof. 8: Director of University of the Ryukyus Library Jul 1955 - Jun 1958 Vice-President, University of the Ryukyus Jul 1958 - Present Prof. 6: Director, University of the Ryukyus Library Travel outside the Ryukyus: Japan March 1929 - March 1932 for education USA October - December 1961 for educational tour Military record: None Other information which may be of value, such as field of interest, research completed, publications, etc. IRON'S STORM, 300 p book, description of World War II on Okinawa English language ability: Reads and writes fairly well 10. 11. 12. 13. 162 BACKGROUND INFORMATION - KUNIKICHI HIGOSHI Name: (Romaji) Kunikichi Higoshi Permanent domicile: ll38-banchi, 3-chome, Tsuji-cho, Naha, Okinawa Present address: 3-banchi, Aza-Daido, Naha City, Okinawa Date of birth: July 8, 1901 Place of birth: 3-chome, Tsuji-cho, Naha, Okinawa Present employer: University of the Ryukyus Type of work: Dean of Dept. of Agriculture, Home Economics History of Mar 1915 - Apr 1920 - History of Apr 1946 - Jun 1950 - May 1951 - Apr 1952 - and Engineering schooling, with dates: Mar 1919 Okinawa Prefectural First Middle School, Naha, Okinawa Mar 1923 Morioka College of Agriculture, Morioka, Japan employment, with dates: Dec 1950 Cheif, Livestock Sec, Dept. of Agr, Government of Okinawa Apr 1951 Guest Lecturer, University of the Ryukyus Mar 1952 Assistant Professor, University of the Ryukyus Present Prof. & Dean of Department of Agriculture, Home Economics, and Engineering Travel outside the Ryukyus: Japan April 1920 - March 1923 for education USA. October - December 1961 for educational tour Military record: None Other information such as field of interest, research completed, publications, etc. None English language ability: Reads and writes fairly well 10. 11. 12. 13. 163 BACKGROUND INFORMATION - TOSHIO AKAMINE Name: (Romaji) Toshio Akamine Permanent domicile: 354-banchi, Aza-Uchara, Naha City, Okinawa Present address: 8-banchi, 2-chome, Sogenji-cho, Naha City, Okinawa Date of birth: January 4, 1929 Place of birth: Aza-Ushara, Naha City, Okinawa Present employer: University of the Ryukyus Type of work: Dean of Students, University of the Ryukyus History of schooling, with dates: Apr 1941 - Mar 1945 Taiwan Provincial First Middle School, Taiwan Mar 1945 - Nov 1946 Taichu School of Agriculture, Taiwan JUn 1952 - May 1959 University of Washington, Seattle,‘Washington, U.S.A. B.A. 1953; M.A. 1955; Ed.D. 1959 History of employment, with dates: Sep 1949 - Jul 1950 Teacher, Naha Senior High School Jul 1953 - Sep 1958 Instructor, University of the Ryukyus Oct 1958 - Present Assistant Professor, University of the Ryukyus Travel outside the Ryukyus: , Taiwan March 1941 - November 1946 for residence USA. June 1952 - May 1959 for education USA October - December 1961 for educational tour ‘Military record: None Other information such as field of interest, research completed, publications, etc. Study’on Okinawan race personality peculiarity by the observations compiled by both Okinawans and American soldiers, Research Bulletin, ‘U/R, 1957, and other similar articles. English language ability: Excellent in all aspects .‘FT _;._*_a ..... APPENDIX B THE U. S. CIVIL ADMINISTRATION ORDINANCES PERTAINING TO UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS 165 UNITED STATES CIVIL ADMINISTRATION OF THE RYUKYU ISLANDS Office of the Deputy Governor APO 331 CA ORDINANCE 10 January 1951 NUMBER 30 UNIVERSITY OF THE RYUKYUS Article I General 1. There is hereby created a corporate entity for public information and education entitled the University of the Ryukyus, hereafter referred to as the University. 2. The main office of the University shall be located at the city of Shuri, Okinawa Gunto. 3. Objects - The principal object of the University is to provide post-high school education in the arts, sciences, and professions to students of both sexes. The University shall also disseminate matters of general information and education to the adult population of the Ryukyus furthering, as far as is consistent with the military occupation, the liberties of democratic countries, including freedom of speech, assembly, petition, religion, and the press. 4. Powers - For the purpose of carrying out its objects, as set forth above, the University is authorized to exercise the following powers, subject to limitations of the budget: a. To establish faculties, departments and branches and carry on its work at any place in the Ryukyu Islands and to confer any and 166 all literary, scientific, technical and professional degrees, and in testimony thereto to award certificates and diplomas. b. To conduct educational programs through classrooms, labora- tories, workshops, institutes and conferences. c. To operate and maintain radio stations, motion picture exhibits, printing establishments, sound amplifying equipment and other facili- ties for the dissemination of news, entertainment and cultural discourse. d. To have, hold, buy and sell any real or personal property and to transact and carry on all or any other business which may be neces- sary, incidental or proper to the exercise of any or all of the afore- said purposes of the corporation. 5. In the exercise of its powers, as heretofore set forth, no dis- crimination shall be exercised against any student, official, or employee on the grounds of political affiliation, religious persuasion or sex; however, no avowed or proved Communist shall be permitted to remain as an official, instructor, or employee of the University. Article II Board of Directors 6. The Board of Directors of the University shall consist of the Ryukyu Information and Education Board and its successor body. 7. The Board of Directors shall: a. Administer the affairs of the University in accordance with provisions of law, the terms of this Ordinance and the by-laws of the University. 167 b. Appoint every three years with prior approval of the Deputy Governor, a President of the University, a Vice-President, a Business Manager, a Registrar and Deans of the several Departments or Colleges. c. Enact by-laws, subject to the ratification of the Deputy Governor. d. Prepare and transmit to the Deputy Governor the agenda and minutes of all meetings of the Board and such other reports as may be required. e. Dispose of the real property of the University with the prior approval of the Deputy Governor. f. Supervise the financial affairs of the University. 8. The Board of Directors shall meet regularly twice a year and at such other times as shall be designated by two weeks written notice given by the Deputy Governor, the President of the University, or any three members of the Board jointly. Article III Finances 9. The capital of the University shall consist of personal and real property, legislative appropriations, gifts, bequests, contributions, trust funds, income from investments and other legal sources. The funds of the University shall be administered by the President subject to the ratifica- tion of the Board of Directors. 10. An audit of the accounts of the Corporation shall be made regularly at the end of each fiscal year by auditors appointed by the Deputy Governor, ‘but at the expense of the University. Special audits may be made at any time by direction of the Deputy Governor. This provision shall not relieve 168 the.osum vooqm>o< ON 0 o H m N H H muonuo m N H H H omHueuoucm oum>Hum mm mm 0N NH oH H a m mcoHumHHaumcH suauaaaz om mm ON d o m N m m ouuoEEoo mo 0H m a n m m m mxcwm NON mm on He Nm eH mH NH H HsHonmo as N1 w, m m N H HH H» NmHuuo>Hcs 5mm an we HoH mm om Hm Ho mH Hoonom an: “0Haom can OOH ooH Nw me ON 0H m H Hoosum swam teases «mm eHH NNH mo mH N N Hoocom %usucoamHm H