IIIIIIII I IIIIIIIIII III III IIIII I ”am 31293010671992 LIBRARY a . Y . Mulligan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Perceptions of Educational Linking Agents and Family Spokespersons About Home-Based Learning presented by Jacqueline Addington Kunnecke has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Family Ecology ‘ Major professor Date August ll, 1978 0.7639 J IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII WSW, 3 1293 01067 1992 This is to certify that the thesis entitled Perceptions of Educational Linking Agents and Family Spokespersons About Home-Based Learning presented by Jacqueline Addington Kunnecke has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D. degree in Family Ecology Major professor Date August ll, 1978 0-7639 LIBRARY Michigan State University Perceptions of Educational Linking Agents and Family Spokespersons About Home-Based Learning Jacqueline Addington Kunnecke A Dissertation Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of PhilosoPhy Department of Family Ecology College of Human Ecology 1978 ABSTRACT Perceptions of Educational Linking Agents and Family Spokespersons About Home-Based Learning by Jacqueline Addington Kunnecke This study examined the relationship between educational linker agents and the home as a base for learning. The two broad purposes of the study were (1) to analyze the relation- ship between perceptions of educational linker agents and families about learning occurring in the home, and (2) to examine the relationship of specific family characteristics making up the home environment to learning in the home. Data were collected in a 1975 exploratory study by a research team from Michigan State University for a project entitled, "The Home As A Learning Center." The project was funded by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Occupation and Adult Education Branch, Contract No. 300748735, and directed by N. Bobbitt and B. Paolucci. This secondary analysis is made between data from two separate surveys. The method used for selecting the sample for the family survey was probabilities proportional to size (PPS) and the educational linker agents sample was drawn using a random sampling method. The family sample consisted of 108 male and female spokespersons and the linker sample was made up of 30 persons serving in linkage roles between the community, institution and agency educational settings and the home. A phi coefficient was used to determine the relationships between perceptions of the family and linker agents. Pearson Product moment and Spearman's rho correlation and analysis of variance were the statistical tests used to analyze the relationships of-family characteristics; number of children, stage in family life cycle, level and specified content of education and income to learning reported to have occurred in the home over a one year period. Major findings were that families undertook learnings with greater frequency than were identified as "should" occur or for which assistance was provided by linker agents. Linker agents also identified learnings which "should" cecur 'with much greater frequency than they identified having provided assistance for learning. Families contact non- professional sources of information as frequently as they contact professional sources but if they know about a source, as in the case of persons with 4-H experience and use of Extension, they do use professional sources. As the number of children increase, families undertake more learning activities related to the care and guidance of children. ’A significant negative correlation was found between stage in the family life cycle and learning activities. As families get older, they undertake fewer learnings. The relationship of home learning activity and income appears to be the kind of learning activities undertaken. With an increase in income, families undertake more learning related to use of leisure time and the use of money. The majority of the findings supported the research literature but due to the constraints of a secondary analysis some of the tests of hypothesized relationships were in- conclusive. Recommendations based qn the findings include: a redefinition of roles of educational linkers such that they can assume greater responsibility for the reciprocal re- lationships that they feel should occur; more research which focuses on the outcames of home learning; careful survey of the needs of families in specific settings before determining assistance to be provided,(i.e., young families with children, older adults);develop strategies to make families aware of the kinds of assistance provided by linker agents; replication of the study using multivariate statistics for analysis of characteristics which make up the contextual setting of the home learning environment; provisions for home-learners to evaluate their learning efforts - families seem to be apologetic when generalizing about their learning efforts but pleased and spoke with pride of specific learning efforts. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is expressed to those who made up my advisory committee, to Dr. Norma Bobbitt, my chairperson, advisor and friend, for her continuous support and guidance; to Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, Dr. Margaret Bubolz and Dr. Rex Ray, professors, advisors, and mentors in numerous and varied capacities throughout my graduate program. Gratitude is expressed to the United States Office of Education for the 1973-74; 1974-75 Education and Professional Development Act fellowship which enabled me to continue graduate study. Appreciation is expressed to persons who supported me in this and other professional endeavors in ways of which only they are aware and to whom I am deeply grateful——Shirley Brinkley, Doris Bogart, Jennie Files, Shirley Ezell, Alice and Ray Addington, and my daughter and ally, Jill Elaine. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . Objectives Assumptions Limitations Theoretical Definitions Operational Definitions Hypotheses II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . Home-Based-Learning. Transitional Role of the Home as a Learning Center. Setting Home-Based Learning as Priority Future Role of the Home in Learning. Relationships Between Educational Linker Agents and Home-Based Learning . Role of Educational Linker Agents and the .Home in Facilitating Human Resource Development Home Linkage and Non~School-Based Sources of Information . . . . Home Linkage and School-Based Sources of Information iii .vi PAGE \OCDGDN 10 12 15 15 15 19 24 27 27 28 32 iv Variables Affecting the Educational Linker Agent's Relationship to the Home . . . . . . . . . Linkage Theory . . . . . III. PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . ... Family Survey . Description of Sampled Community . Sampling Design, Selection Procedures and Data Collection Development of Family Interview Schedule . Demographic Data as Used in Present Study. Stage of Family Life Cycle . Schooling Experience in 4-H Programs . Experience in Home Economics Classes . Income . Educational Linker Agent Sample (Formal Linker) Deve10pment of Educational Linker Agent Interview Schedule . . . . . . Collection of Data for Linker Agent Survey . Data Processing for Educational Linker Survey . . Statistical Analysis IV. FINDINGS. V. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS . Discussion Conclusions . Recommendations for Research and Education 32 41 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 53 54 55 56 56 59 59 59 60 66 87 87 93 97 V Research Recommendations Implications for Educational Programs BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES A. Family Survey Instrument B. Educational Linker Survey Instrument C. Cell Frequencies for Tests of Hypotheses l, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 99 102 107 129 141 TABLE II. III. IV. IVa. IVb. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. LIST OF TABLES Number of Children in Family . Level of Schooling for Adults Experience in 4-H Experience in Home Economics Classes Family Income . . . . Number and Classification of Community and School Educational Linker Agents Chi 2 Test of Relation Between Learning Occurring in the Home and Identified Learning Which Should Occur in the Home Chi 2 Test of Relation Between Learning Occurring in the Home and Learning Assistance Provided. Chi 2 Test of Relation BetWeen Contact Sources Made For Assistance and Perceptions of Contact Sources Made Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Learning Activities and Number of Children in Family . ‘Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Contacts Made For Assistance and Number of Children in Family . Spearman' s Rho Correlation Between Learning Activities and Stage in Family Life Cycle; Level of Male, Female Education . Spearman's Rho Correlation Between Contact Sources and Stage in Family Life Cycle; Level of Male, Female Education . . vi PAGE 52 54 55 55 56 58 68 69 71 72 74 76 77 TABLE PAGE XII. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Learning Activities and 4-H Experience of Male, Female Adults . . . . . 80 XIII. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Learning Activities and Home Economics Experience . . . . . . . . . 82 XIV. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and 4-H Experience of Male and Female Adults . . . . . . . . . . 83 XV. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and Home Economics Experience of Male and Female Adults . . . 84 XVI. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation” of Learning Activities and Level of Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 XVII. Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and Income Level . . . . 86 CHAPTER I Introduction The relationship that exists between the home as a base for learning and the system primarily reaponsible for know- ledge retrieval and dissemination has received considerable research attention during the past decade. Bloom (1964), Coleman (1966), Jencks (1972), and others, have ”rediscovered" the home's role in learning, the importance of which it was not educationally "in vogue" to emphasize during the Sputnik era of the 1950's and the 1960's. The primary focus by these researchers has been upon the effects of the home upon learning outcomes as a measure of school success. With the exception of a limited number, largely in the Human Ecology/ Home Economics field (i.e. H. Bell, 1973; Baker, 1970; Bobbitt and Paolucci, 1975; Clarkson, 1975), few have exam- ined the relationship from the perspective of both the home and the knowledge-based system. Consideration for this perspective is the intent of this study which focuses upon the relationship between the home as a base for learning and the educational system. As these two systems are interdependent, a reciprocal relationship is important in enhancing achievement of the goals of each. To facilitate the relationship, linkages or 1 2 interface networks exist to transfer information from one system to the other. Those who provide this interface, Havelock (1971) designates as formal linkers. These linkers are viewed as representatives from what is sometimes termed the formal and non-formal knowledge-based organizations and institutions. Havelock defines the role of these linkers as retrieving knowledge, deriving practical implications from it and disseminating it to persons who need or can use it. In the model developed by Havelock, linkage is seen as a series of two-way interaction processes which connect know- ledge resource systems with knowledge user systems. In this study, it is the perceptions of the linkers who represent the knowledge-based or resource system and family spokes- persons who represent the home-based or user system which are used to analyze the relationship between the two systems. Through adding to knowledge about this relationship, it is anticipated that increased reciprocity will result. Linker agents involved in the knowledge transfer process are embedded within specific institutional contexts. The institutional knowledge-based settings identified by Havelock are university, government, commercial, practice and inde- pendent. These settings may be viewed on a continuum from the source of information to the user. Such a continuum for linkers in this study might be the university professor conducting research and development about effective ways to provide nutrition information to the elderly, the extension specialist providing training to the paraprofessional for 3 working with the elderly in providing nutritional informa- tion, and the paraprofessional delivering nutritional infor- mation to the elderly in a home-based setting. Each linking agent is functioning such that knowledge is transferred to those who can use the information. This investiture of information, skills, and attitudes in a person has been designated as human resource develOp- ment. Beginning very early and continuing throughout life, human resource development occurs in a variety of settings including the home as well as the institution type of educational settings. There is evidence that an imbalance exists in the recognized value of the home as a setting for the development of human resources and the value placed on human resource development in knowledge-based settings. For example, the value placed on human resource development in our society via the school-based system is manifested both in the provision of free public education and the legal requirement to attend school to a certain age. More money is spent in this country on school-based education than in any other country in the world. Indicators of the lack of recognition of the value of the home in human resource development are evidenced in (1) failure to analyze the worth of home learning to non-market production, and (2) lack of confidence by those in the home for providing, reinforcing and integrating learning (Blessington, 1974; Grandstaff, 1969). Maximum achievement of the goal of human resource 4 development cannot occur by studying learning as an isolated entity in any one setting where it occurs nor by considering one setting as more important than another. According to Litwak and Meyer (1967), maximum goal achievement in contem- porary society occurs where bureaucratic organizations and the home are intertwined. They maintain that the shared, reciprocal learning function of each setting must be in balance. Two recent studies identified the need for study of the relationship between educational linkers and the home. Helen Bell (1973) investigated resource use of families for school related activities as she explored the shared educative function of family and school. In 98 percent of the families, parents used time to assist children with learning at home. Yet, parents did not perceive of themselves as co-educators with the school. Bell identified as a need for study, the obtaining of perceptions of parents and teachers about parents educative function. In a 1975 exploratory study* comprised of 108 blue-collar families and 30 formal linker educational professionals, Bobbitt and Paolucci found evidence which indicated that much of home-based learning occurs with either limited or no *This present study is a secondary analysis of data collected as part of an exploratory study titled, The Home As A Learning Center, which was directed by Dr. Norma Bobbitt and Dr. Beatrice Paolucci of the College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University. The study was funded by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Occupat- ional and Adult Education Branch pursuant to contract number 300748735 and was completed in 1975. 5 assistance from educational linkers. These researchers called for educational professionals to provide pregrams which facilitate home-based learning.‘ Utilizing the data from this exploratory study, this researcher will analyze the relationships of perceptions of educational linkers about home learning to learning activities which occur in the home. The conceptual base for the study is ecologically oriented. The reciprocal relationship between educational linkers as they transfer information and the home as the user of the information in its learning efforts is seen as of primaryconcern. The outcomes of this relationship are important to the total environment within which individuals must interact. Although not under investigation by this researcher, the implications of these outcomes for more successful performance of all life roles is the rationale for the study. Increasing learning potential via increased reciprocity between the home in its learning efforts and the educational linker system will aid individuals in performing family, work, civic, leisure, or any role assumed in inter- action with one's environment. The quality of interaction with one's total environment relative to informed decision- making is dependent upon the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the individuals functioning within the home. Further, the educational linker system will be enhanced by this relationship as the interaction occuring between both systems is seen as providing input which aids in achievement of the related goals of each. The home and the family as the first and most influen- tial learning environment is central to an ec010gical con- ceptual model designed to study the development of human resources. Examination of the relationship of family and environmental characteristics to home learning is vital to an understanding of its effects upon human resource develop- ment as well. Marjoribanks (1976) is critical of the fail- ure to include family structural variables in social learning theory-based research which investigates the relationship of family environment to cognitive performance. Leichter (1974). in an extensive review of the literature on the family as educator, found that researchers had failed to consider processes occurring in the family and the contextual settings being investigated. Awareness of structural characteristics is essential in consideration of these two concepts. Paolucci and Bubolz (1976) cite numerous research studies which indicate relationships between socio-economic and educational variables within the family and human resource development. Litwak and Meyer (1974) utilize both structural and socio-psychologic attributes of families in developing typologies of families for reducing social distance between home and school. The structural attributes and characteristics to be considered in this study are: number of children in the family, stage in the family life cycle, education level by sex, educational background in 4-H and Home Economics and income. Objectives This study attempts to utilize and modify previously conceived ecological models (Bobbitt and Paolucci, 1975; Paolucci and Bubolz, 1976) which relate to the role of the home and family in human resource development. Specifically, this conceptual model identifies the relationship of edu- cational linking agents to the home as a learning environ- ment in human resource development. In this endeavor, the following objectives are identified:(l) To determine if a relationship exists between perceptions of educational linkers about learning which should occur in the home and families' identification of home learning activities com- pleted;(2) To determine if a relationship exists between home learning activities reported by families as having occurred in the past year and learning assistance provided by formal linkers in a home based setting;(3) To determine if a relationship exists between perceptions of educational linkers about whom families would most likely contact for assistance with home learning and contacts reported by families as having been made for assistance;(4) To determine if a relationship exists between reported learning activities of families and family characteristics; number of children in family, stage in family life cycle, education level and experience in 4-H and Home Economics classes, and income; (5)To determine if a relationship exists between families in contacts made for assistance with home learning and family 8 characteristics; number of children in family, stage in family life cycle, education level and experience in 4-H and Home Economics classes, and income. Assumptions Learning goals of educational linkers and the family are the same--to maximize human resource development. The shared, reciprocal relationship between educational linkers and home based learning is necessary for maximum attainment of human resource development goals. A family spokesperson is able to recall and identify learning which occurred within the home over a one year time period. Limitations 1. Only learning activities which could be recalled in one year were reported by a Spokesperson for each family. 2. It is the perceptions of the family spokesperson which are reported. No effort was made to assess the quality or characteristics of the learning projects reported by families. 3. It is the perceptions of those in educational linking roles which are reported. No effort is made to assess the characteristics or quality of the reported percep- tions or assistance provided in a home-based setting. 4. The study is limited to a random sample of families of blue-collar socio-economic status drawn from a township community in Michigan. 5. The study is limited to a random sample of educational 9 linkers from a tri-county area surrounding a major land-grant institution. 6. Secondary analysis of data, particularly from a feasi- bility study, accounts for some of the inherent inade- quacies in measurement of the assertions on which hypotheses l, 2, and 3 are based. 7. Hypothesis 1 is a contingency measure for perceptions about learning which "should occur" and identification of what "does occur”--concepts for which an inherent difference might be expected. 8. Informal learning is by definition often non-deliberate. Families reported perceptions of learning which is often vicarious as deliberate learning presents problems in adequate measurement. 9. Assumptions relevant to the statistical models used were recognized although due to the nature of a secondary analysis of data, complete control was not allowed. Theoretical Definitions Family: A unit of interacting, interdependent persons, living together and sharing resources with a commitment to one another over time. No distinction is made between varying family structures. Educational Linker Agents: (Havelock's typology, 1971) Professionally trained persons who have responsibility in retrieving basic or applied knowledge, deriving practical implications from it and disseminating to people who need and can use it. These linkers are 10 viewed as representatives of the knowledge-based institutions who act as an interface network between the knowledge-based system and the home-learning'based system. Human Resource Development: The skills, attitudes, and knowledge invested in a person that can be used by others. This can occur in any setting including the school, community agency or home. Operational Definitions Blue-Collar Family: Families who fall into three categori- cal descriptions identified by Hollingshead (1957). The head of the household's employment and variables of education and income are utilized to screen in or out of blue-collar family categories. Structural Characteristics and Attributes: In this study, these include the composition of the family as to sibling size, stage in the life cycle of the family, the education level of male and female adults, the educational experience of male and female adults in 4-H and Home Economics classes and the income level of the family. Stage in Family Life Cycle: In this study, the family is divided into three life cycle stages; young families which include all family members from ages 0-34, middle-age families which include all adult family members from ages 35-54; older families which include all family adult members from ages 55 and above. 11 Education Level: The number of years of formal education completed by adult family members. These are divided into five categories, ranging from 7th grade to graduate school for both male and female adults. Income Level: The amount of money reported as earned by families in this sample of blue collar workers. The amount of income is divided into three categories ranging from 2,000 to 22,000 dollars annually. Number of Children: The number of children reported living in the family dwelling. Categories for this variable are as follows: 1-2 children a category 1, 3-4 children = category 2, and 4-5 children = category 3. Home-based Learning: Learning occurring in the home environ- ment which may be planned totally by the learner or may be assisted by educational linker agents using a variety of media and techniques. School-based Learning: Learning occurring in institutional settings which operate for the stated purpose of pro- moting learning. Educational Linking Agents: Agents who serve to transfer knowledge from the expert source to the user or client. Non-School-Based Learning: Learning occurring in settings appropriate and convenient to the learner and using techniques and content appropriate to the particular needs of the learner. Learning is often self-directed and situation specific. Contact Source: Those agencies or organizations which may 12 be utilized by families to assist with home-based learning. These are identified as school, library, extension, neighbor, relative or friend. Reciprocity: The mutual exchange of information between two interdependent systems--the home-based learning system and the knowledge-based system. Attainment of the goals of either system is supportive to the goals of both. Hypotheses All hypotheses are stated in the null form. Hypotheses l, 2, and 3, as stated, are what the researcher expected to find. Expected findings for hypotheses 4 and 5 were the alternative to the null form. 1. There is no relationship between perceptions of formal linkers about learning which should occur in the home and reportings by families of learning activities which occurred in the home. There is no relationship between home learning activities reported by families as having occurred in a one year period and learning assistance provided by educational linker agents in a home-based setting. There is no relationship between perceptions of educa-— tnxml linker agents about whom families would most likely contact for assistance with home learning and contacts reported by families as having been made for assistance in home learning. There is no relationship between families in frequency of 13 reported home learning activities and selected family characteristics. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) There is reported no relationship between frequency of learning activities by families and number of children in the family. There is reported stage in There is reported level of There is reported no relationship between frequency of learning activities by families and family life cycle. no relationship between frequency of learning activities by families and education. no relationship between frequency of learning activities by families and experience in 4-H and Home Economics classes. There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and level of income. 5. There is no relationship between families in contacts made for assistance with home learning and selected characteristics. (a) (b) There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and number of children in the family. There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and stage in family life cycle. (C) (d) (e) 14 There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and level of education. There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and experience in 4—H and Home Economics classes. There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and level of income. CHAPTER II Review of Literature Both empirical and theory-oriented literature is included in this review. The literature is reviewed under the following headings and sub-headings: HOME-BASED LEARNING: Transitional Role of the Home As A Learning Center; Setting Home Learning As Priority; Future Role of the Home in Learn- ing; RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL LINKER AGENTS AND HOME-BASED LEARNING: Role of Educational Linkers and the Home in Facilitating Human Resource Development; Home Linkage and Non-School Based Sources of Information; Home Linkage and School-Based Sources of Information; Variables Affecting the Educational Linker Agents' Relationship to the Home; Linkage Theory. Home-Based Learning Transitional Role of the Home As A LearninggCenter The term educate is from the Latin ”educare" which means to bring up a child. According to Hughes (1976), the emphasis was upon the total development and the persons primarily responsible were parents. For almost two-thirds of the period of time since this country was founded, the home was viewed as having the primary role in the education of its members. Only after the 15 16 Industrial Revolution did schools assume more and more responsibility for education. In the 1870's Ellen H. Richards, founder of the field of Home Economics/Human Ecology, with her keen insight and pre- dictive abilities, noted that the family was ”foregoing its educational responsibility and schools were usurping it." The information and learning function of the home, the traditional seat of civilized culture, where "pass it on" was a family game for life, had shifted. It had gone out the door of the home when labor skills and crafts passed to industry Clarke (1973). As society became increasingly more complex, more and more educational functions were assumed by the "specialists." In the 1850's, states began the process of legally requiring education for all up to a certain age. Currently, we spend 75 billion dollars a year for public and secondary education T. H. Bell (1976). For several decades, the school-based educational system was seen as all powerful. The usurping of the educational .role of the home by other organizations (especially the school) permeates the literature. There is some indication that the home is regaining favor as a critical environment for learning. A summary of sOme of the educational research of the past decade supports the idea that the critical institution is the home, not the school: In a 1964 study, Stability And Change in Human Charact- eristics, Bloom indicated differences in children's academic l7 and cognitive development can be traced to the value placed on education in the family and, Specifically to the parental reinforcement at home of children's activities at school. Bloom found that one-half of all the intellectual differences that exist at the age of seventeen are eXplained by the range of differences seen in children at the age of four. Bloom's study prompted the development of several intervention pro- jects such as Head Start, and the compensatory education programs. The Equality of Educational Opportunity Report, commonly referred to as the Coleman Report, released July, 1966, resulted from the second largest social science research project in history (Mosteller and Moynihan, 1972). Inform- ation was gathered from 570,000 students, 60,000 teachers, and about 4,000 schools. Provisions for the survey were included in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which specified that it be completed within two years by the U. S. Office of Education. The survey had the endorsement of the President, the Congress, the Federal Courts and the integrationists. According to Mosteller and Moynihan, the study is the most important source of data yet to be conducted on the sociology of American education. Although the methodOIOgy, particularly the way the major analytical questions were addressed, has been criticized, even in the reanalysis, the major conclusions of the report remain unchanged (Jencks, 1972). One of the most significant results of the study was its impact on the concept of equality. Prior to the study, l8 equality of educational opportunity was measured in terms of school input such as physical fixtures and teacher character- istics. Following the report, measurement of equality was in terms of school output, chiefly academic achievement. This resulted from two surprising findings of the study: one, the physical facilities and measurable characteristics of teachers and schools for black and white schools were similar and two, there was so little relation of school facilities to varia- tion in levels of academic achievement that it could almost be said to be non-existent. Other revolutionary findings were that variance in achievement was greater within schools than between schools. The implications of this coupled with other findings led to conclusive evidence about the impor- tance of the home environment from which the student comes. Mainly that the difference in achievement is not so much a result of the school as it is the home and peer environment of the student. The extent to which a first effort survey of this type should be used for policy implications was another point of controversy. According to Jencks (1972), the most promising alternative to present policy would be to alter the way in which parents deal with their children at home. How this is to be done is not so obvious. Studies and projects undertaken partly in response to the Coleman Report support its findings. It was found in several early childhood projects begun in 1968 that early achievement gains of children were lost in subsequent schooling years if parents were not involved. Children in 19 programs that involved parents held their gains. In 1973, the International Study of Educational Achievement, a study including nineteen countries, indicated that the home is more crucial than anything the schools have so far contributed in determining overall achievement. At least in some arenas, the importance of the role of the home in learning is beginning to be recognized, not only because of recognition of the role of the home in the outcomes of schooling but because of emphasis upon a life-long learning society. Penland (1978), in a national study of the learning of 1,501 adults, found that the overwhelming reason given by adults for their self-planned learning projects was because they wanted to be in control of their own learning. Tough (1978) reports that 732 of all major learning efforts by adults were self-planned and 202 were planned with the help of professionals. Penland, whose findings were similar to these, reported such reasons as "the need to set their own pace" and ”use their own style of learning" were given by adults for their self-planned learning efforts. These . reasons were not inconsistent with the choice of place to learn identified with the greatest frequency (662) as being in the home. Setting Home-Based Learning As Priority Learning in the home is life-long and continuous. Greater frequency in career changes, increasing societal complexities and more and more knowledge require continuous learning and adaptation in the home environments by all 20 family members. Additionally, changes in sex role expecta- tion, greater emphasis upon the therapeutic role in marital relationships as well as changes in family structure and function require new and adaptive behavior throughout all stages of the family life cycle. An area of home learning receiving considerable attention by researchers is the educative role of the parent. This is viewed as especially critical because of the effect of rapid changes in the value systems of families. American society is caught up in a value conflict not totally of its making but from which it is difficult to escape. The conflict lies in the psychological/sociological needs of family members and the physical, materialistic needs perpetrated by bureau- cratic organizations but perpetuated by the family. T. H. Bell (1975) Speaks out against America's material- istic way of life as it affects the educational role of parents. He feels that the double-income, two-car family must be persuaded that child stability, love at home and basic support of education are values that must come ahead of many things that now are higher priorities in far too many homes. There is a need to re-establish the values and prior- ities that are necessary for educational success in America. Burton White (1973) identifies specific obstacles to families in their role as educators. White, who has screened thousands of parents in his investigations of the learning that occurs prior to the third birthday of the child, determined that there are four fundamental learning tapics 21 that all children in this stage cope with: (1) language development, (2) curiosity, (3) social development, (4) cognitive intelligence. The three obstacles to develOping this learning he identifies as: (1) ignorance, (2) stress (the mother usually faces the job alone), and (3) lack of assistance. Leichter (1974) is critical of the failure by researchers to consider the processes‘occurring in the family as educator. Garbarino (1976) speaks to the two basic pro- cesses through which he maintains that American families act as educators. One is modeling - the development either directly or vicariously of a child which defines his/her social reality. The second process is interaction style and it is through this process that families directly shape the child's learning by initiating and maintaining effective relationships or by failing to do so. This is seen as a powerful process because it leads to learning cognitive and affective skills and the fostering of prosocial values and characteristics. Garbarino identifies four changes which have affected the status of families as educators. One, a smaller social arena for children and adults is coupled with the second, fewer lasting social contexts. One's social identity comes along with a sense of community and for many American fam- ilies, there is a lack of continuing relationships with neighbors and kin. Third, pressures on family life have made it difficult to sustain the concentration that is necessary to teach children how to be adults. Four, the 22 educational tasks facing families have become more complex and difficult. As the importance of School success in shaping life outcomes has increased, so has the need for families to give children the fundamentals of the academic culture, such as use of symbols, literacy, and apprOpriate motivations. The role of the family as educator is an important one for all family members as well as parents. The social inter- actions which occur in the home provide stimuli for continu- ous learning between parent and child, parent and parent, and child and child (Bobbitt and Paolucci, 1975). Just as learning related to the particular role of parent is important within the home, so is learning related to the performance of all life roles including one's work, leisure, and civic roles. We continue to learn throughout life as the need arises and within each new developmental stage. Recognition of the importance of learning throughout life in a variety of settings was identified by the general conference of the United Nations Edudational Scientific and Cultural Organization in Nairobi in 1976. In the Recommend- ations on the Development of Adult Education, many provisions were consistent with the concepts of home-based learning and its reciprocal relationship to formal linkers. Of the sixty-seven recommended provisions, six recommendations which suggest the need to strengthen this relationship are summarized here. 1. Adult education activities have no theoretical boundaries, 23 and should meet the situations created by the specific needs of development, of participation in community life and of individual self-fulfillment; they cover all aspects of life, all fields of knowledge and are addressed to all people whatever their level of achievement. The aims of adult education should ascertain that every adult by virtue of his or her life experience is the vehicle of a culture which enables him or her to play the role of both learner and teacher in the educational process in which he or she participates. Adult education should be adapted to the actual condi- tions of everyday life and work and take into account the personal characteristics of adult learners, their age, family social, occupational or residential background and the way in which these interrelate. Life-long education and learning denote a scheme whereby men and women are the agents of their own education and which are aimed both at restructuring the existing educational system and at developing the entire educa- timmfl_potential outside the education system. Such organizations and institutions as universities, cultural and scientific establishments, libraries, museums, mass information such as the press, radio and television, voluntary associations professional and trade union organizations, families, industrial and commercial firms Should be mobilized to achieve the objectives of adult education; 24 6. Young people should be educated such that greater emphasis is placed on the acquisition of knowledge, the development of self-teaching patterns of behavior, a critical outlook, and reflective and creative abilities. Future Role of the Home in Learning The National Education Association established a Bi- centennial Committee to look ahead one hundred years at education in the United States and to determine if the Seven Cardinal Principles, first published in 1918 are valid for the future (Shane, 1976). The Committee was made up of fifty distinguished world citizens and educators who focused pri- uaribr on the next twenty-five years. They agreed that edu- cation would involve much more than conventional schooling in the next twenty-five years. Five of the twelve key areas of agreement have direct implications fer learning that occurs in the home: (1) recognition of the need to make education a continuing, life-long process, (2) the need for continuing education on a world-wide basis that would serve both mature (past thirty) and senior (past sixty) learners, (3) teaching and learning should occur not only in schools, (4) recognition that traditional patterns of home-school relations need to be modified because of changes in the home, (5) the view that problem-preventing education begun in early childhood is distinctly superior to compensatory education provided at a later time. Also significant for home learning in the re-examination of the Principles of 1918 was the meaning of the goal-worthy 25 use of leisure. The Committee felt that complexity, demand- ing more time for the tasks and routines of daily living, was singled out as a factor of the future along with the likeli- hood that more items now bought in the marketplace would be made at home. Additionally, householders would do more of their own repairing and servicing of equipment and appliances. In a forward looking, dynamic paper written in 1971 and titled "Family Systems in the 1970's: Analysis, Policies and Programs," Sussman describes those "families which make it” as those who have become aware of and use options to develop linkages with non-family organizations. Sussman believes that the family and its larger kin network play their most significant societal role as a mediator between its members and bureaucratic organizations as it provides socialization and competence. Sussman identifies the main tasks of the family as being: (1) to develop their capacities to socialize children, (2) to enhance the competence of their members to cope with the demands of the organizations in which they must function, (3) to utilize these organizations, (4) to provide an environment for the development of identities and affec- thmufl.re3ponses, (5) to create satisfactions and a mentally healthy environment intrinsic to the well-being of the family. Meeting these tasks identified by Sussman will be facilitated through enhancing the capabilities of those in the home by implementing such recommendations as those made by Bobbitt and Paolucci based on findings from the "Home As A Learning Center Project.” Some of the suggestions based on 26 learner needs are as follows: The need for educators to place emphasis upon helping learners acquire Skill and competence in how to learn (process) rather than on what to learn (content). The need for educators to deve10p attitudes and skills favorable to directing one's own or assisting others with their learning. The need to link educational programs with home-based learning. The need for educators to clarify the kind and extent of assistance families need in home learning. The need for use of direct delivery systems to the home to facilitate learning. The need to train paraprofessionals who are frequently utilized as sources of learning. The need to educate family members about the utilization of media sources, both hardware and software, as sources of information. The need for more effective television scheduling for meeting learning needs. The need for more accessible written sources of infor- mation. The need to provide multi-purpose learning resources in the way of furnishings and living space within the home environment. 27 Relationships Between Educational Linker Agents And Home-BasedLearnipg Role of Educational Linker Agents and the Home in Facilitatipg Human Resource Development The socio-cultural applications of human resource devel- opment has implications for the educational linker agent, home learning relationship as identified in the two examples as follows: (1) the rise in affluence of families must be attributed in part to the rise in education of women. Accord- ing to Schultz (1972), many of the benefits from the education of women occur at the micro level of the household as a con- sequence of the increase in her effectiveness and efficiency associated with rise in education. The long-term result of human resource development has many outputs from a home-based learning standpoint. One such benefit is the learning child- ren receive in the home as a result of the initial investment in the education of the caregiver. This benefit covers the developmental span of the child from language development to decisions about careers and beyond. Schultz calls this a dual investment as it increases both the skills of parent and child. (2) The problem of inequality of income distributionis closely tied to inequality in human resource deve10pment. The oppor- ‘Urfiries provided by parents through home-based learning are as important as the provision of learning opportunities in school and community educational agencies in reducing dis- persion in deve10pment of human resources which will lead to eliminating wide dispersions in income. 28 Home Linkage and Non-School-Based Sources of Information Much of the information about non-school-based informa- tion sources focuses on the adult learner. This is reflec- tive of learning theory now being tested about adult learning. With an expanding adult population, there is an increasingly greater need to understand the adult developmental process. According to Essert and Spence (1965), we have little concrete evidence about the continuum of adult maturity beyond adoles- cence. The evidence we do have suggests that adults in their learning efforts rely on a wide variety of sources and set- tings for learning. A summary of the research on character- istics of adult learners provides evidence for the need to provide choice in sources of information and reveals that the potential of existing sources has not yet been realized. Farmer (1971) reports that the types of information- seeking activities in which adults engage varies substantially according to three characteristics; (1) between men and women, (2) level of education and age, and (3) sense of educational efficiacy (degree to which one sees the practi- cability of the information as a means to greater mastery of one's life). Penland (1978) and Tough (1977) and others have focused on the "why" of adult learning and found that practi- cal, useful topics predominate the kind of learning activities undertaken. Penland found 75.9 percent of topics to be in the practical category. Intra-personal topics made up 17.2 percent and formal subject topics made up 6.9 percent of the adults learning projects. Penland utilizes a Knowledge, 29 Production, and Distribution and Utilization model, similar to the Havelock model on which the present Study is partially based. He too, was investigating the relation of information acquisition and utilization. He reports that the modalities, or the ways learners receive information into the thinking process, employ a ”talking out" of their version of the situation and only then are they ready for the services of a professional. Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) report similar modalities by adult learners. They report that when an adult becomes aware of and decides to engage in a new activity, he or she typically moves through stages of apathy, awareness, interest, trial and adoption. The effects of education and age on participation in independent learning were reported by Johnstone and Riveria (1968) as being higher for adults with more formal education and as declining with age. They found that one of ten young adults undertake independent learning projects while for the older adult, it was one in twenty-five. Parker and Paisley (1966) found that independent study as a means of seeking informal information was reported by more than half of the adults studied by them. Some differences might be attrflr- uted to how the learning project is defined in terms of amount of time spent. Penland (1978) reports that 76 percent of his pepulation undertook self-initiated learning projects which averaged about seven hours in length. To determine the sources of information used by the respondents in his study, Penland asked for the first choice 30 of source of information used in learning activities. The source identified with greatest frequency (44.3%) was termed by Penland as a human source--either a friend or expert. Use of the group class or lecture was identified by 5.7 percent and use of museums and libraries was identified by 2.8 percent of the respondents as a first choice for source of information. This study was conducted under the auspices of a library funding source. Penland maintains that there is an association by users of this information source with school-based learning and this accounts for low usage by most independent learners. He also reports that the learner who undertakes topics related to school type of information topics uses the library more often. The potential of this source of information for storing and retrieving knowledge has great promise for the independent learner. Knox (1977) cites information from a recent Gallup poll which found that more than four out of ten respondents used friends and relatives as an information source. Troldahl and Van Dorn (1965) identify the topics of information sought from friends and relatives as being related to the home and entertainment. The kind of information sought from experts was sex role related. Males sought information on business and finance and females sought information on health and 'welfare. They also report that interpersonal information seeking from both friends and experts declines as adults become older. Use of impersonal information sources such as mass 31 media or experts in formal organizations is used less frequently by blue-collar adults according to Knox (1977). Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) report that innovators and opinion leaders, who are the first to try a new activity, use the mass media to obtain information to a greater extent than others. A breakdown of contact sources reported by the Family Living Education component of the Michigan Cooperative Extension Service for 1976-1977 revealed low contact with the senior citizen (22 , the low income/disadvantaged (52) and the young family (72). The contact source identified with greatest frequency by the service is reported as being general families (622). This category is difficult to identify as to characteristics but the lack of use as a source by some of the families for which demographic data is available indicates the potential of this source which is almost ideal as a linkage source. Essert and Spence (1965) recommend the C00perative Extension Service as a useful model for supporting the learning community. The three-way communication between federal, state and county governments has had decades of experience to provide in the development of such a model. As reported earlier in this study, Penland (1978) found that the preferred place to learn identified by the respondents was the home (662). Linking the efforts of independent learners in the home with the total community as a source for information is a concept with great potential. 32 Home Linkage and School-Based Sources of Information John Rich (1976) defines the criteria for "what is a school" as a deliberate arrangement persisting over a period of time that involves teachers and students for the purpose (of promoting learning. The arrangement is distinguished from parents teaching their children in that the central purpose of a school is the promotion of learning. It may under some circumstances assume such secondary functions as nurturance and affection but these are more central to the family. In that the primary purpose of the school is to promote learning, the school-based educational system with its trained expertise seems the most likely system with which to link the family as it seeks to perform its educative function. Many educators believe that to accomplish the goals of each, they must be linked. Cole Brembeck (1974) maintains that the purposes of the school are so intertwined with the purposes of the family that one cannot be achieved apart from the other. George Gallup, speaking at the 1975 Conference of The National Association of Secondary School Principals cited some of the evils afflicting public schools and their students. He identified seven corrective measures all having to do with bringing the school and the home closer together. Some of his suggestions were: forge a closer alliance between school and home; make parents an integral part of the teaching team; hold frequent parent-teacher meetings; develop a new kind of Teacher Core to deal with parents and home problems; turn 33 schools into a new kind of learning center for the old as well as the young. A systematic redefinition of the roles and functions of schools to build a more viable home-school partnership is called for by ex-Commissioner of Education, T. H. Bell (1975). Bell believes we should conceive of the school as a source for delivery of many services to the home. The school must become a community center for strengthening the home and solidifying the family. He identifies the already existing hundreds of thousands of elementary schools in every commu- nity in the nation as a vast resource that Should be utilized more effectively. Increasing this linking role of the school, particularly that of the elementary school, has occurred in numerous communities and is being advocated in others. The structure varies but they all have commonalities of strength- ening, supplementing, and complementing the role of the family. Garbarino advocates that through committing themselves to families, schools can ensure the likelihood that the educa- tional roles essential to children are fulfilled. He makes some specific suggestions for schools: (1) Schools should more specifically recognize their social obligations. As a first step, schools should become human deve10pment centers with goals such as developing competence, identity and pro- social behavior. (2) Schools should consciously seek to provide enduring relationships for children. They should establish family-like settings with the same adults respon- sible for the same children over a period of years. Also, 34 they should bring about a pattern of cross-age interaction and responsibility. (3) Schools should establish an enduring neighborhood and community identity. (4) Schools Should use their resources and influence to provide support systems for families. They Should provide c00perative arrangements and backup systems for families. (5) Where the health and competence of families is in question, schools need to be aggressively including rather than excluding the children of those families. There are frequently social and economic prerequisites for attendance in schools that some families cannot meet and policies serve to exclude rather than include children. Dorothy Rich (1976) cites a 1971 Gallup Poll which revealed that over 80 percent of the parents interviewed said they wanted the schools to tell them what they could do at home to help their children. She cites a publication recently published by the Home and School Institute, which she directs, titled lOl Activities for Building More Effective School- Community Involvement. This publication contains home learning activities which appear to have an impact in raising children's achievements in basic skills according to a study conducted in 1974-75. In this study of four randomly selected first grades in the Washington, D. C. area, eight home learning activities were sent home on alternating weeks. It was found that those students who worked with parents in Vkitchen style" rein- forcements of reading and math, as a group, achieved 35 significantly higher scores in reading than did the four classes in the control groups, who were doing otherwise similar first-grade work. Rich proposes that the real benefit of such activities may be that children come to realize that families value education and schooling and that families come to realize that the school really cares about the child's achievement and the family itself. The network of social systems with which the family interacts presents potential barriers to home-school-based formal linkage. Hodgkinson (1976) is Specific about the complexity of involvement on the part of schools by pointing out that there are over 18,000 bodies responsible for making decisions about elementary, secondary and post-secondary education. An additional barrier to the home-school-based linkage relationship is the legal system. Much of the way schools are conducted is defined by law. Tradition Prevails in the school-based educational system and changes evolve slowly, eSpecially when they must be legislated. This fact is partly attributable to the family's authority. Legally, the family's power is supreme and any changes which might affect its basic ideological system are closely scrutinized. Unfortunately, the complexity of our social systems has undermined the authority of the family. 36 Variables Affecting the Educational Linker Agents' Relation- ship to the Home The need for meeting learning needs of adult learners in other than traditional ways is evidenced in the number of adults functioning at low competence levels as identified by Roth (1976). Roth, utilizing the results of the Adult Performance Level Study reports that one in five American adults, 19.8 percent, lack the Skills and knowledge needed to function effectively and another 33.9 percent are marginally competent. According to the study, only 46.3 percent of Americans are functioning with any degree of competency. To developing countries which because of lack of trained personnel and adequate facilities utilize the most expeditious, economical means to educate their citizenry, the existence of elaborate, often idle facilities and unemployed teaching personnel must be a puzzlement indeed. Given the existing State of lack of adult competence in America as reported by the A.P.L. Study, it is a paradox difficult to understand. Hesburg, Wharton, and Miller (1973), in addressing this problem maintain that it has come about because of attitude, both on the part of educators and the populace. They identify educators as frequently having the attitude that the business of educators is formal schooling and that they should not be concerned about education that occurs elsewhere. As the preceding literature review reveals, Rich, Gallup, Garbarino, and others concur with Hesburg, Wharton, and Miller in the recognition of a need for a change in attitude on the part of 37 professional educators. Their move toward recognition of the reciprocal role of the home and knowledge-based system is to be commended. Unfortunately, with some exceptions, the focus of even these researchers is primarily that of viewing the home as a support system for the knowledge-based system, rather than reciprocity, or the knowledge-based system as a support System for the home. In an ecological model which posits the home as the primary institution for learning, other institutions might be viewed as service organizations to the home and family. In reality, the home and family have become the support system for other institutions. A lucid accounting of the schools' attitude which reflects a lack of perception as to the reciprocal relation- ship of the home and school is related by Janet Bennett (1976) as she reflects upon her experiences of parent as attitude teacher. She expresses concern about this role because of what she calls the school's hidden agenda. She sees her function as parent as being that of presenting the school 'with a compliant, well-balanced, teachable child and then supporting and assisting the school as required. Maintaining the right attitude is endlessly required by the school as it advises parents about its expectations of what "good" parents do. One of the ways the family "assists" she analyzes in terms of time resource allocation. The family spends ten months out of a minimum of twelve years tied to the school i system. Even time spent at home by the child is conditioned 38 by school considerations. The time the family arises, schedules breakfast, receives the child home from school, allocates more and more time to homework, schedules vacations, moving decisions and others are determined by school-based needs. In support of Bennett's position, the school success of children has been highly correlated with parental attitude. In a 1964 British national survey of parental attitudes and attainment of children, researchers found attitude to be an important variable on which educators should capitalize. McGeeny reports that, in this study of 3,000 mothers of primary school children, regardless of social class, children whose parents showed high interest were more successful than those whose parents showed little interest. The study showed that variation in parental attitude accounted for more of the variation in children's school achievement than either the variation in home circumstances or state of the school. Numerous other studies, (Hess and Shipman, 1966; Butler, 1971) and more, confirm the influence of parental attitudes upon school success. Not all of the attitudinal problems rest with those who make up the bureaucratic educational system. Parents have difficulty viewing themselves as serving in an educational role. Bell's (1973) findings summarized elsewhere in this study identify the difficulty parents have in perceiving themselves as educators even though they identify educative functions which they perform. Preception is an important 39 part of the attitudinal problem. According to Hoyt (1969), the initial step in both recOgnizing and solving a problem is to perceive the significance of the various parts in relation to the self. Bubolz and Paolucci (1976) call for educational prOgrams to recognize such influences as the child's prerequisite skills and experiences, and family expectations and attitudes on childrens' educational success. The need is to work with and through them instead of either ignoring or trying to 'counteract their impact. Other variables which have been studied in the relation- ship of the home environment to school success are those structural characteristics of the family such as family size, stage in the family life cycle, education and income. Fre- quently researchers combine several of these variables to determine socio-economic status and the relationship of school outcomes, continuous learning, etc., is studied across SES levels. Baker (1971) investigated the patterning of family resources for educability of families in Costa Rica. She found significant relationship between resource use and SES variables which included education of parents, occupation, income and residence. Baker found the relationship not at a significant level when the characteristics of age and sex of pre-school children, nuclearity, and size of family were considered. . ‘ In a study of adult learners by Tough (1970), SES was found to be closely tied to education level of adult learners. 40 He interviewed nine classifications of individuals to identify time spent on learning projects. In his sample of 86 individ- uals, time spent in learning ranged from 1,491 hours to 139 hours. The average individual spent 700-800 hours per year in learning activities. The blue-collar factory worker fell in the average category with 800 hours spent in learning projects. In an investigation of characteristics of persons who did and did not participate in learning activities, Johnstone and Riveria (1965) found education to be the most powerful influence (more so than occupation or income) on the learning activity rates of continuing learners. They found continuing learners to be better educated and the average age was younger than the average age American adult. Cyril Houle (1961), in investigating influences on continuing learners using intensive interview techniques found that schooling is more closely related to participation in continued education than any other factor. Houle referred to the difficulties in examining continuing learning as being, "a cataract of consequences" because of the many ”whys" that have to be examined. Generally, studies examine the level of education rather than education of specific content and few studies examine the effects of education upon production other than in the market place. Leibowitz (1972) in a time-use study of women found that more highly educated women are more deterred from market production by the presence of young children. Even 41 though higher educated women supply more labor in the market place during most of the life cycle, the amount of labor does not vary by schooling level during the child bearing years. Woodhall (1973) found that higher educated women have children who achieve greater school success and earn higher income. Michael (1973) found that education has a positive effect on and improves the efficiency of non-market production and Welch (1970) found that education improves entrepreneurial and allocation abilities. Because higher education is frequently present with higher levels of income, it is not easy to examine the two variables as distinct from one another. Sears (1970) found a high correlation between an increase in family size and decrease in SES and deereasing intelligence test scores of children. Examining levels of income within one SES level might elimi- naugthe interaction occurring in examining the two across SES levels. Litwak and Meyer (1973) generalize that sociologists and practitioners identify all other family variables as secondary considerations in the relationship to educational achievement. They key variable is the level of family resources - family income. Sussman (1971) and Getzels (1964) argue that adequate income is the single greatest stimulus to improving educational achievement in our society. Linkage Theory The preceding literature review samples the research which has been conducted in the role of the home in learning. 42 As previously emphasized, much research has been initiated with the objective of increasing schooling success. The theories postulated about this relationship start with this objective in mind as well. Two of these theories are summarized below. A third theory, (Havelock, 1971) related to increasing linkage between the user of information and the source of knowledge and on which much of the conceptual base for this study is derived is presented as W811- According to Litwak and Meyer (1965), the relations between the school and the family are conceived in terms of "distance" between them. The desired distance is dependent upon the objectives to be reached. These researchers identify three points of view about distance held among educators: (1) "Closed door" position - Here there is minimum participation by primary groups as they might hamper the educator in performance of duties. The school can best handle within their walls all the major problems of education. It is felt that a school-family relations program will be effective if it maximizes social distance; (2) ”Open door" policy - many of the basic educational processes occur out— side the school, in the family and neighborhood. The moti- vation for learning is in the everyday life of the child. The school-family relations program will be effective if it produces closer contact between family and school; (3) Balance theory - both intimate and distant school-family relations must balance under different circumstances. The school and family must not be so close that professional 43 standards are seriously weakened nor so far apart as to cause contradictory influences to emanate. The school will be close enough to coordinate activities but not so close as to impair the performance of professional educational tasks. The balance theory approach suggests that the linkage between the family and the school is dependent upon the social distance between them. If it is too great, the appropriate relations to reduce it should be enacted, if it is too small, the appropriate relations to increase it Should occur. Litwak (1968) postulated his balance theory of coordina- tion from organizational theory. He views types of organi- zations on a continuum from.the monocratic bureaucracy described by Weber to the primary group formulated by Cooley. Bureaucratic organizations, such as the schools carry out uniform tasks. Those are tasks which require trained expertise with sufficient size and resources to reach organizational goals. Primary groups such as the family are utilized when there are no advantages to having trained experts. Litwak identifies three kinds of non- uniform tasks which these groups can perform more effectively than bureaucratic organizations; (a) simple jobs - tasks that anyone can do almost as well as the expert, (b) complex or idiosyncratic events - the task has so many contingencies that the experts' knowledge could not be brought to bear in time to make a meaningful difference, (c) incomplete know- ledge - knowledge so limited that training provides no 44 advantage to the experts. The second theory exploring the relationship of children's cognitive performance to family environment is based on social learning theory. Marjoribanks (1976) suggests that research theories investigating cognitive performance of children have been inadequate in that they failed to include structural social forces. Previous social learning theory has investigated only proximal social-psychological variables and ignored distal social measures such as social status characteristics and family structure indicators. He quotes Halsey (1975) who proposes that it is essential to insist that the effect of social class on educational experience is not to be thought of as one factor from.which parent attitudes and motivations to succeed are independent. A theory which explains educational achievement as this outcome of a set of individual attributes has lost the meaning of these structural forces which we know as class. Marjoribanks tests a throry which examines relation- ships between the cognitive performance of children, struc- tunfl.characteristics of family environment, and the social psychological environment of the family defined in terms of parentS' expectations and the kinds of cognitive stimuli and reinforcement provided within the family. An equally weighted combination of the occupation of the head of the household and his/her education rating was used to assess social class. Canonical analysis.was used to examine the 45 theory. Results of this analysis suggest that environmental variables such as social status characteristics and family structure indicators, and social-psychological environment variables operate together and that future studies should start from a theoretical perspective which analyzes the relationship between the two. In his theoretical model of linkage, Havelock (1971) provides a framework for understanding the processes of innovation, dissemination and knowledge utilization. The primary focus is upon the transfer of knowledge from the resource system to the user. He analyzes the characteris- tics of individuals and organizations which facilitate this transfer as it occurs on different levels. In total, Havelock identifies nfne linking roles; two linkers in the resource system who produce the knowledge, three linkers in the transfer system who transfer the know- ledge and four linkers in the user or client system who use the knowledge at the practice level. Individuals performing these roles either facilitate or provide barriers to the knowledge transfer process. The primary institutional form of the resource system is the university. Havelock maintains that_as it is structured in most instances, access to the university by other than academic persons is strictly circumscribed. The way in which.most resource linkers transfer knowledge in this system is through courses taught and through publications and papers presented, primarily to colleagues. In addition, the professional schools established 46 as a part of the university system provide greater oppor- ‘UIuty for linkage but Havelock identifies both as being of marginal linkage value outside their own realm because of a pervasive attitude which denigrates practice and practical concerns. The client system, Havelock identifies as having two institutional patterns. One, the "profession" such as the legal and medical fraternities which is dispersed throughout the community and likely to have more contact since it is service-oriented. Two, the bureaucratic system such as businesses and schools which possess three attributes that facilitate linkage: specialization, leadership and coordin- ation. Havelock does not see bureaucratization as a barrier to linkage especially if these three attributes are present. Havelock summarizes into two groups the major problems in carrying out linking roles. For the first problem, over- load, the complexity and magnitude of the job as linker is apparent. The process of getting information, processing it, and distributing it to others may become too great as the amount of information and the number of people to get it from and to increaSes. Two elements of the second problem, marginality, may be assets or hinderances. The fact that the linker has only partial membership in either the practice or the research world and the recency in which the linker role has been assumed may prove to either facilitate or to hinder the linkingperformance. In analyzing family systems for the 1970's, Sussman 47 views the family's most significant social role as that of being the mediator between its members and the bureaucratic system as it socializes its members to cope with the demands of the bureaucratic system. He feels this is particularly true in the area of social, educational, welfare and pre- ventive and therapeutic health care services. The demand on these services has grown so great and the family as a unit providing caretaking, therapeutic, socializing and expediting activities is a vital and often unrecognized partner of bureaucratic service organizations. Coping with the demands of a bureaucratic system is a major function of the home and family in today's society. However, the home-based system in equal partnership with bureaucratic systems is the more desirous means to achieve the objectives of each. Paolucci and Bubolz (1976) in an exploration of the reciprocal relationships between formal, non-formal and informal systems of education conceptualize a linked educational system with each learning arena making a vital contribution to the other in social and economic deve10pment efforts of the family. They call for the need to utilize base line data about whole families for developing educational programs. A change from application of research and theory develop- ment endeavors which focus on the home-school relationship from the school's perspective to a partnership focusing upon hame learning as it is linked to other sources of information will help to bring about the effective reciprocity for which there is such a need. 48 CHAPTER III Procedure This chapter summarizes the research procedures involved in the initial feasibility study* of a project entitled, ”The Home As A Learning Center" (Bobbitt and Paolucci, 1975). For more detailed information about data collection and procedures, the reader is directed to the report of the final project. Additionally, procedures involved in the secondary analysis of the primary data are presented in this chapter. These procedures relate to data which are analyzed to (1) determine the relationship between perceptions of educational linking agents about home learning and families repored perceptions of learning activities completed in the home and (2) to examine the relationship of specific family character- istics making up the home environment to learning in the home. These characteristics: number of children in the family, Stage in family life cycle, level of education, *This investigator participated at various levels of involve- ment in all phases of the 1974-75 study. The greatest involvement was in the development of the instrument, selection of the sample and interviewing 26 of the 30 respondents for the Formal Linker sample. 49 50 experience in 4-H and Home Economics classes, and income were identified as independent variables. Dependent variables were learnings which families identified as having occurred in the home and contacts made for assistance with home learning activities. In the original study, two separate survey instruments designed to determine the feasibility of the home as a learning center were administered to two population samples. A male or female spokesperson from blue-collar families in each of three stages of the family life cycle was inter- viewed using the Family Survey instrument. Representatives from school and community educational institutions and organizations were interviewed for their perceptions about learning in the home using the Formal Linker Survey instru- ment. Family Survey Description of the Sampled Community The sample was drawn from the population in Vevay Town- ship, Michigan. This community is the seat of county govern- ment and is located within commuting distance of two larger metropolitan areas, Lansing, and Jackson, Michigan. Industry, service organizations, and agriculture are the major options for employment. This community was chosen for the study because it is relatively contained, geographically, and it has a diversified blue-collar, socio-economic population from which a random sample of families and linking agents could be drawn. 51 SamplinggDesignnyelection Procedures and Data Collection The sample was drawn using the probabilities proportional to Size (PPS) method to control for variation in size of city blocks and rural areas and to provide equal chance for selection of each element in the population. City block and rural sectors were chosen as a systematic sample with a; random start, then households were randomly selected such that an equal number of contacts would be made in each block or section. Trained interviewers located the correct household in the sample, screened the household for eligibility, and requested the apprOpriate spokesperson (male or female). The two screening criteria for eligibility were: (1) blue- collar occupation (according to Hollingsheads' Two-Factor Index of Social Position) and (2) one year residency. A total of 368 households were contacted and 140 acceptable interviews were conducted. To equalize cell sizes for male and female spokespersons, 17 interviews were randomly discarded. The final sample consisted of 12 families with male spokespersons and 24 families with female spokespersons in each of three age groups for a total of 108 families. All interviews were held in the homes of the families where the average time spent in interviewing was 100 minutes. Probe techniques were used to assist subjects in recalling learning activities. Field notes about the interview were recorded immediately after the interview. The raw data were coded and transferred to mark-sense sheets by the research 52 team, then optically scanned and key-punched automatically. Development of the Family Interview Schedule The survey instrument (Appendix A) consisted of two parts: (1) an interview schedule and (2) a demographic questionnaire. The instrument included both fixed alternative items and open-end questions. The respondents, as spokes- persons for the whole family, provided their perceptions of learnings that occurred in the home over a one-year period. Probe cards to obtain a complete listing of learning activities were used. Pilot interviews with five families were tape recorded and analyzed and apprOpriate changes were made in the interview schedule. Demographic Data From Family Sample As Used in Present Study The demographic data from the original study as it is used in the secondary analysis are reported here. Data con- sisting of number of children in the family, stage in family life cycle, level of education for male and female adults, experience in 4-H and Home Economics classes and income are presented here as these variables were grouped for analysis. , TABLE I Number of Children in Family Percentage of Total for?"F categ°ry Families With Children (1-2 Children) 1 7; (3-4 Children) 2 a 23 (5-6 Children) 3 4 Total ' 160 *Approximately 452 or 48 families had no children. N = 107 53' For those families with children, three categories were used to reduce the total number of categories for analysis. Families with one or two children were in category 1, three or four children in category 2, and five or six children in category 3. Table I indicates the percentage of the total number for families with children in each category. The majority of families had only one or two children. Children up to age 19 were included in the sample if they resided with the family. Stage of Family Life Cycle The three stages of the family life cycle into which families were grouped were young, middle, and older family categories. Families were classified in the young category if family members were between the ages of 0 years and 34 years of age; in the middle cell category if the adults were between 35 years and 54 years of age; and in the older family cell if the adults were 55 years of age and above. Each stage of the family life cycle included 24 female spokespersons and 12 male spokespersons for each of the three stages. This same categorization was used for the rank ordering in secondary analysis. Schooling Male and female adults were rank-ordered into five categories according to the level of schooling. Table II indicates the re-ordering of categories from the original study. Because education was a factor in designation as blue-collar SES, fewer respondents were college graduates. 54 The majority of respondents (902) were in categories 1, 2, and 3. TABLE II Level of Schooling for Adults Years of Schooling Category Male Female Number* Less than 7 years 7-9 grades completed 1 21 18 10-11 grades completed High school graduate 2 23 47 Vocational-technical school ‘ Some college 3 38 22 College Graduate 4 5 5 Graduate/Professional 5 2 No response 20 13 Total 107 107 * N = 107 Experience in 4-H Prpgrams The two categories used for analysis of 4-H experience were presence or absence of experience in 4-H programs. Table III summarizes the frequencies of male and female adults in each of the two categories. Approximately 272 of all adults were involved in 4-H experience. 55 TABLE 111 Experience in 4-H 4-H Experience Male Female Number* Presence 23 35 Absence 84 72 Total 107 107 * N = 107 Experience in Home Economics Classes- Presence or absence of Home Economics experience were the two categories used to analyze this independent variable. Approximately 702 of the adult females reported having had Home Economics classes where only 92 of the adult males indicated that they had had Home Economics classes. Table IV summarizes the data as it was used for analysis. Data is reported for those (respondents who indicated they had had Home Economics classes. All other responses are reported as the absence of Home Economics class experience. TABLE IV Experience in Home Economics Classes Home Economics Class Experience Male Female Number* Presence 12 75 Absence 95 32 Total 107 107 *N = 107 56 Income Three income categories were used to analyze this independent variable. Income categories from the original study were reduced from twelve to three categories. The income range for each of the three categories is reported in Table IVa. The majority of families (452) fell in category 2, with a range of $8,000 to $15,999. TABLE IVa Family Income Income Range Category Number of* Families by Category Under 2,000 2,000 - 3,999 4,000 - 5,999 6,000 - 7,999 l 22 8,000 - 9,999 10,000 - 11,999 12,000 - 13,999 14,000 - 15,999 2 49 16,000 - 17,999 18,000 - 19,999 20,000 - 21,999 22,000+ 3 30 No response 6 Total 107 * N = 107 Educational Linker Agent Sample (Formal Linker) Data from the original formal educational linker sample remain unchanged as to categories used in the secondary analysis. Havelock's (1971) categorization of formal linkers served as a basic guide to sample selection of educational agent linkers. This classification and geographic 57 accessibility as well as professional preparation of the linker were criteria used for sample selection. Among the institutional education structures, Havelock identifies the University as the primary institutional form as a repository of knowledge resource. Linking the resource and the user of knowledge are agents Havelock groups into conveyor, consultant and trainer types. Conveyors receive, package and transmit knowledge directly to leaders and innovators within the user group. ‘Consultants prepare users for acceptance of new ideas, help to diagnose needs and assist in adapting new ideas to local conditions. Trainers transmit new ideas, skills and innovations through the education system. Utilizing these three types of classi- fications, linker agents were identified for this study. (See Table IVb) In addition to classification criteria, geographic accessibility and appropriate professional preparation of the linker were necessary for inclusion in the sample. The formal linkers sample was drawn from the population of educational linking agencies in the geographic region most accessible to the families who were interviewed in the study. Geographically, this included the tri-county region of Ingham, Eaton and Clinton counties in Michigan. If a service was not provided in the tri-county area, the nearest unit providing that service was selected. Since the local telephone directory serves the entire tri-county area, this source was used as a basis for identifying the formal linkers. 58 TABLE IVb Number and Classification of Community and School Educational Linker Agents Classification Number of Linkers Conveyors Extension Specialists and Supervisors Researchers Scholars Community College Program Leaders and Deans Teacher Educators Continuing Education Educators Community Education Educators 4-H Program Leaders Social Service Agency Directors IHIHHH uuw Consultants Secondary, Post Secondary Consultants Consultants (Local level) Coordinators (Local level) Social Service Consultants Consumer Service Agency Consultants - Librarian - lNk—‘N Trainers Community Education Teachers Directors Public School Teachers Extension Agents (Local) HHO .TOTAL 30 A random sampling technique was used. To allow for refusals and persons unavailable, a sample size of 44 was drawn from a population of 344 educational linkers. sample of 44, 13 were unavailable for interviewing. Of the None of 59 the selected sample refused to participate in the interview. However, two individuals were out of town during the inter- view period and could not be contacted. Development of Educational Linker Agent Interview Schedule Both a demographic questionnaire and an interview Schedule made up the survey instrument which included fixed alternative items and open-end questions. (See Appendix B) Although the total interview schedule was not used with a pilot sample, the major questions were pilottesUai with 12 Livingston County Michigan Homemakers Club members. The pilot was then reviewed and revised for use as the final instrument form. Collection of Data for Linker Agent Survey Data were collected from mid-June to mid-July, 1975 by two members of the research team who had also participated in the training sessions and interviewing for the family survey. Interviewees were first contacted by telephone for an interview appointment. In all but 4 cases, interviews were conducted in the linker agent's professional setting. DataProcessing for Educational Linker Survey The interview schedule was reviewed immediately follow- ing the interview to ensure complete and accurate recording of responses. Raw data were coded and transferred to mark- sense sheets by a three member sub-group of the research team. Judgements about accurate coding were verified by two coders. Discrepancies were identified and discussed until consensus between coders was reached. Most questions 60 related to recording of demographic data. All data on the mark-sense sheets were checked for accuracy and interview schedules were totally reviewed to ensure accuracy between schedules and marked-sense Sheets. The use of an optical scanner provided greater accuracy and speed of keypunching. Statistical Analysis* The research objectives, the hypotheses, and the statistical design utilized in testing are identified in the following paragraphs. The objective is stated followed by the hypothesis except for objectives 4 and 5. Objectives 4 and 5 precede sub-hypotheses 4 a, b, c, d, e and 5 a, b, c, d, e. Research Objective 1: To determine if a relationship exists between home learning perceptions of educational linker agents about learning which should occur in the home and families' identification of home learning activities completed. Hl - There is no relationship between perceptions of educational linker agents about learning which should occur in the home and reportings by families of learning activities which occurred in the home. *A secondary analysis of the data occurred, in part, on the Control Data Corporation 6500 Sc0pe Hustler Computer at Mich- igan State University and in part on the Honeywell 66/60 at the University of Houston. No data analyses were made in the original study between data from the two separate surveys. Key punched data cards were duplicated, interpreted and read into a file on the Honeywell at the University of Houston. In this process one of the 108 cases was lost. Therefore, N for the Family Sample for some of the analysis is 107 cases. 61 Research Objective 2: To determine if there is a relationship between home learning activities reported by families as having occurred in the past year and learning assistance provided by educational linker agents in a home- based setting. H2 - There is no relationship between home learning activities reported by families as having occurred in a one year period and learning assistance provided by educational linker agents in a home- based setting. Research Objective 3: To determine if there is a relationship between perceptions of educational linker agents about whom families would most likely contact for assistance with home learning and contacts reported by families as having been made for assistance. H3 - There is no relationship between perceptions of educational linker agents about whom families would most likely contact for assistance with home learn- ing and contacts reported by families as having been made for assistance in home learning. The researcher will utilize a phi coefficient to deter- mine if a relationship exists between the variables in each of these three hypothesis. Chi square test* is used to measure the difference between the data's observed and expected frequency. The greater the discrepancy between the *The statistical reference used for the analysis of data is Hubert M. Blalock's Social Statistics. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1972. 62 expected and observed, the larger the Chi square value becomes. A large Chi square value implies that a systematic relationship exists between the variables. A small Chi square value indicates the absence of a relationship. A .05 probability level will be used for hypothesis decision-making. To achieve more equal sample size between the N of the Family and the Educational Linker samples, a systematic sampling of the family sample was performed. Therefore, the sample for the Chi square test is the same size for both groups. In the case(s) of joint relationships containing expected frequency 1- 5, the Fisher's Exact Test, which gives exact rather than probable results, was substituted for the Chi square test. Research Objective 4: To determine if a relationship exists between reported learning activities of families and family characteristics; (a) number of children in the family, (b) stage in family life cycle, (c) education level, (d) education content, and (e) income. Research Objective 5: To determine if a relationship exists between families in contacts made for assistance with home learning and family characteristics; (a) number of children in family, (b) stage in family life cycle, (c) education level, (d) education content, and (e) income. H4a - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and number of children in the family. H - There is no relationship between whom families 58 reported having contacted for assistance with 63 home learning and number of children in the family. To summarize the relationship between the variables in H4a, H5a, Pearson product moment correlation was used. The Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of linear relationship. H4b - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and stage in the family life cycle. H4c - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and level of education. H5b - There iSIno relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and stage in family life cycle. H5c - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and level of education. Spearman's rho, a non-parametric rank-ordering correlation was utilized to measure strength of relationship between var- iables. These variables, stage in the family life cycle and level of education for male and female adults in the family, were each correlated with frequency of home learning activities and frequency of contacts for assistance with home learning, respectively. Spearman's rho is a measure of difference in rankings of two variables. Large values of the coefficient lead to the 64 conclusion that rankings of the two variables increase or decrease in the same direction while small values indicate that there is no statistical association. H4d - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and content of education. H4e - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and level of income. H5d - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and content of education. HSe - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and level of income. The two dependent variables (1) frequency of learning activities reported by families and (2) contacts for assis- tance reported by families were each examined to determine the effects of the independent variables, (1) education content for males and females and (2) income in the family, respectively. The education content variable reports presence or absence of educational experience in 4-H and Home Economics. Analysis of variance compares within-group variance to between-group variance. The F-ratio (sums of squared devia- tions from the means) is used to determine if the groups differ from each other statistically, to the degree that such 65 difference should be examined and accounted for. CHAPTER IV Findings This chapter presents results of the tests of hypotheses. Each hypothesis will be presented followed by a description of results yielded in test(s) of the hypothesis. The results of the data analysis are presented in two sections (I and 11) based on the two broad questions of the study. Data analyses for hypotheses 4 and 5 are presented according to statistical test and the independent variable being reported. Therefore, sub-hypotheses for hypotheses 4 and S will appear in the H H H H H H H 5b, 5c; 4d, H following order: H4 4c; a, 5a; 4b, 5d; 4e, H5e. ' I. Is There a Relationship Between Learning Performed in the Home and Educational Linker Agents' Perceptions About Home Learning? H1 - There is no relationship between perceptions of educational linking agents about learning which should occur in the home and reportings by families of learning activities which occurred in the home. This analysis delineates the relationship between the learning activities which families identified as having occurred in the home over a one year period and the learnings which formal linkers identified should occur in the home. 66 67 Table V illustrates the results yielded in the test. For the learning activities: getting along inside the family, getting along outside the family, household skills, preparing for the future, maintaining and decorating the home, feeding the family, using money wisely, enjoyment and recreation, care of children, learning values and job-related activities, a relationship was found to exist between learning occurring in the home and learning identified by educational linkers as should occur in the home. With the exception of three of fourteen learning activities, it can be reported that the chi sgpare value is significant at the .05 level such that the null hypothesis, that no relationship exists between the family's reported learnings and educational linkers perceptions of learnings, can be rejected. H2 - There is no relationship between home learning activities reported by families as having occurred over a one year period and learning assistance provided by formal linkers in a home-based setting. A second chi square analysis sought to identify if a relationship exists between learning assistance provided by those professionals in educational roles and the learning activities which occurred in the home over a one year period. The results of the analysis are summarized in Table VI. Rejection of the null hypothesis can be made for the learning activities: household skills, enjoyment and re- creation, care of adults and learning values.’ A relationship was found to exist at the .05 level or greater for these 68 TABLE V Chi 2 Test of Relation Between Learning Occurring In The Home and Identified Learning Which Should Occur In The Home LearninggActivity E. 2: Getting Along In The Family 30 1 Getting Along Outside Family 30 1 Household Skills 30 1 Preparing For The Future 30 l Maintaining And Decorating Home 30 l Feeding The Family 30 1 Using Money Wisely 30 l Enjoyment And Recreation 30 1 Care of Children 30 1 Care of Adults 30 1 Learning Values 30 l Job-Related Activities. 30 1 Health 30 l Outreach** 30 l Significance1 Chi Square Level 5.88 .02* 5.40 .02* 6.80 .01* 5.95 .02* 13.56 .001* 9.96 .001* 10.32 .001* 15.80 .001* 6.48 .01* . .26 .70 11.76 .001* 14.94 .001* ' 2.77 .10 .08 **Indicates small N requiring use of Significance. * 1p i .05 Fisher's Exact Test for 69 TABLE VI Chi 2 Test of Relation Between Learning Occurring In The Home and Learning Assistance Provided LearninggActivity Getting Along In The Family Getting Along Outside Family Household Skills Preparing For The Future Maintaining And Decorating Home Feeding The Family Using Money Wisely Enjoyment And Recreation Care of Children Care of Adults Learning Values Job-Related Activities .131 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 pg H P‘ Fa la H‘ Chi Square \JDOU'I .58 .64 .36 .06 .38 .56 .52 .40 .34 .20 .42 Significancel Level .50 .50 .05* .30 .10 .10 .50 .02* .05* .01* .10 *p =5 .05 70 four learning activities. For the eight remaining activities, a relationship cannot be reported to exist as the chi square values were too small to achieve the established .05 prob- ability level. For one of these activities, care of children, a zero relationship exists, as the number expected and the number of observed frequencies were the same. For three- fourths of the learning activities in this analysis, a relationship does not exist between assistance provided for home learning and learning activities occurring in the home. H3 - There is no relationship between perceptions of educational linker agents about whom families would most likely contact for assistance with home learning and contacts reported by families as having been made for assistance in home learning. Table VII summarizes the chi square values yielded from the test of Hypothesis III. Test results show that half of the contact sources achieved chi square values at the .05 level of significance such that the null hypothesis can be rejected. A relationship can be said to exist for the four contact sources: library, neighbor, church, and contact sources in the other category. For two contact sources, school and extension, a zero relationship was found to exist. The remaining two contact sources, relatives and friends, did not yield probabalities at the accepted significance level. Therefore, for these sources it can also be reported that no relationship exists between contact sources reported as made and perceptions of educational linkers about contacts 71 families are most likely to make for assistance. TABLE VII Chi 2 Test of Relation Between Contact Sources Made for Assistance and Perceptions of Contact Sources Made Significance* Contact N 25 Chi Square Level School 30 1 -0- Library 30 1 22.5 .001* Extension 30 l -O- Relatives 30 l 1.26 .30 Neighbor 30 l 3.75 .05* Friend 30 1 1.71 .20 Church 30 l 4.32 i .05* Other 30 l 9.66 .001* *p ¢ .05 II. Is There A Relationship Between Home Environmental Characteristcs and Home Learning? H4a - There is no relationship between families in frequency of reported home learning activities and number of children in the family. Statistical analysis of H4a was conducted utilizing a Pearson Product moment correlation to determine if a relation- ship exists between frequency of learning activities which occurred in the home and number of children in the family. Table VIII summarizes the result yielded in this test. 72 TABLE VIII Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Learning Activities and Number of Children in Family Learning_Activities .09** Getting Along Inside Family Sig = .17 -.01 Getting Along Outside Family Sig = .45 .33 Household Skills Sig = .001* .06 Preparing For The Future Sig = .26 .05 Maintaining and Decorating Home Sig = .28 .32 Feeding The Family Sig = .001* .04 Using Money Wisely Sig = .34 . .22 Enjoyment and Recreation Sig = .01* .34 Care of Children Sig = .001* .06 Care of Adults Sig = .28 .35 Learning Values Sig = .001* .16 Job-Related Activities Sig = ,04* .14 Health Sig = .07 -.05 Outreach Sig = .31 *p =.§ .05 N=107 ** = correlation coefficient 73 A .05 probability level or greater was obtained for learning activities involving household skills, feeding the family, enjoyment and recreation, care of children, learning values and job-related activities. For these activities, learning increased as the number of children in the family increased. For eight of the fourteen learning activities, the magnitude of the relationship between the two variables is such that the null hypothesis can be accepted. For these activities, getting along inside the family, getting along outside the family, feeding the family, maintaining and decorating the home, using money wisely, care of adults, health and outreach, values from the variable, frequency of learning activities, cannot be predicted from knowledge of number of children in the family. H - There is no relationship between whom families 5a reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and number of children in the family. A Pearson Product moment correlation was also utilized to determine if a relationship exists between frequency of contacts made by families for assistance with home learning activities and number of children. The results yielded from this test are summarized in Table IX. 74 uaowowmmooo cowumaouuookk no.0." as aoa u z mo.umam «mo.uwam mm.uwam mm.umam Ne.umam eaoo.umam eHoo.uwem NH. ma. co. no. No. me. aswm. hafifimm cw Gmumfiwnu mo Hooasz HoSuo ocmwum Hooawflmz mm>wumaom cowmcouxm .thpnaq Hoonom mawamm aw Couoawno mo Honesz one mocmumfimm< new mom: muomucoo amoSuom nowumaouhoo cacao: uooooum comnmom NH M1553. 75 A correlation at the .05 or greater level of probability was obtained for school, library and friend sources, indi- cating that as number of children in the family increased, contacts with each of these sources for assistance increased. For other contact sources, no values can be predicted for number of children in the family; therefore, the null hypo— thesis can be accepted for four of the seven contact varia- bles. H4b - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and stage in the family life cycle. H4c - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and level of education. Rank order correlation was applied to measure the relationships between stage in the family life cycle, and level of male and female education with the frequency of home learning activities reported by families, respectively. Table X summarizes the Spearman rho values and significance level yielded from tests of the sub-hypotheses. 76 TABLE X Spearman's Rho Correlations Between Learning Activities And Stage in Family Life Cycle; Level of Male, Female Education ‘Stage in Level of Education Family Life Cycle Male Female Getting Along .02** .09 .05 Inside Family Sig .43 Sig=.l7 Sig=.29 Getting Along .02 -.006 -.02 Outside Family Sig .43 Sig=.47 Sig=.4l Household .09 -.03 .18 Skills Sig .15 Sig=.36 Sig=.03* Preparing for .05 .02 .16 Future Sig .32 Sig=.4l Sig=.05* Maintaining And .21 .14 -.009 Decorating Home Sig .01 Sig=.07 Sig=.46 Feeding the .21 .17 .18 Family Sig .01 Sig=.04* Sig=.03* Using Money .36 .19 .13 Wisely Sig .001* Sig=.02* Sig=.09 Enjoyment and .12 .25 .22 Recreation Sig .10 Sig=.004* Sig=.01* Care of .43 .16 .17 Children Sig .001* Sig=.05* Sig=.04* Care of .01 .02 .12 Adults Sig .33 Sig=.42 Sig=.12 Learning .22 .02 -.008 Values Sig .01* Sig=.42 Sig=.46 Job-Related .25 .28 .13 Activities Sig .005* Sig=.002 Sig=.09 Health .11 .06 .05 Sig .13 Sig=.28 Sig=.29 Outreach .01 .05 -.10 Sig .45 Sig=.30 Sig=.41 N'= 107’ *p = 5 .05 ** Correlation coefficient 77 Analysis of level of male education with learning activities completed yielded correlations which were low, such that this was considered not a strong relationship. Tests for five variables yielded correlations at a signi- ficance level of .05 or higher. These variables were: feeding the family, using money wisely, enjoyment and recreation, care of children and job-related activities. As in the case of males, education level for females yielded low correlations. There were five learning activities which yielded correlations at the .05 significance level or greater. Three of these were the same for males: feeding the family, enjoyment and recreation, care of children. The two remaining variables at the .05 signifi- cance level were household skills and preparing for the future. H5b - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and stage in family life cycle. H5C - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and level of education. 78 Spearman rho correlations were computed between stage in life cycle, level of education by sex and sources families contacted for assistance. (See Table XI). Correlations between stage in fanily life cycle and contact sources yielded negative results at the .05 or greater level of probability for the variables, library and relative. As life cycle stage increased, families increased contact with extension sources. No correlations at the .05 level of significance were obtained for source of contact variables and level of education, male; therefore, for sub-hypothesis 5c male, the null hypothesis can be accepted. As level of female education increased, library, extension, relative, and friend contacts increased at the .05 or greater level of significance such that a relationship can be said to exist for over one-half of the contact sources and the variable, level of female education. 4 Correlation between learning activities with stage in the life cycle yielded negative results for eleven of sixteen variables. Six of these: maintaining and decorating the home, feeding the family, using money wisely, care of children, learning values and job-related activities, were significant at the .05 level. Although the correlation coefficient was low,-.21, -.21, -.36, -.43, -.22, -.25, respectively, this correlation implies that as families approach the older stages of the life cycle or increase in age, learning activities in these specific categories decrease. 7 ucmwowmmmoo cowumaouuoo as “OH I z am.uwam mo.umam ma.umam «Noo.uwam eao.uwam emo.uwam H~.umem maeaee eo. we. ea. am. am. om. we. eoaoeesem mo Hm>oq ae.umam Ne.uwam mo.u.mam mo.uwem NN.uwam am.uwem oe.umam mama ago. No.- so. ma. no. so. mo. eoaeeesem mo Ho>mq eo.umam NN.uwam Hm.uwam «Hoo.uwam No.umem eNo.umam ma.umam eHeao seam me. no.. no. mN.- ea. mH.- eemo.- saaaea a“ ommum umfiuo mamwum Honswwmz m>wumamm GOHmamuxm kumuafiq Hoonom cowumosom mamaom .mamz mo Ho>mq .oaoxo swag haflamm cw mmMum cam moouoom uomucoo amo3uom cowumaouuou cam m.omahmomm Hx m4m<fi 80 H4d - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and experience in 4-H and Home Economics c1aSses. Table XII summarizes the results of analysis of variance tests used to examine the effects of the independent variable 4-H experience of male and female adults on learning acti- vities performed in the home. For only two learning activities for females with 4-H experience, maintaining and decorating the home and feeding the family, did the F-ratio value approach the .05 level of significance. Each of these two learning activities were significant at the .06 level. Based on the identified level of significance, .05, the null hypothesis can be accepted for all fourteen learning categories in this sub-hypothesis. Test results yielded in analysis of variance tests for effects of Home Economics experience on learning activities in the home are illustrated in Table XIII. Having had Home Economics experience increased learning activities in four learning categories. For male adults, feeding the family, learning values and health, and for female adults, getting along inside the family. The relation- ship of these learning activities to Home Economics experience was significant at the .05 or greater level of significance. For ten other learning categories, no relationship was found to exist with the variable, having had Home Economics experience. 81 TABLE XII Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Learning Activities and 4-H Experience of Male, Female Adults Male Female N** F-Ratio F N F-Ratio Getting Along Inside Family .10 .99 .01 .99 Getting Along Outside Family .09 .99 .00 .99 Household Skills 1.28 .26 .64 .99 Preparing For The Future 1.15 .29 1.01 .32 Maintaining And Decorating Home .21 .99 3.40 .06 Feeding the Family .06 .99 3.49 .06 Using Money Wisely 2.78 .09 .08 .99 Enjoyment and Recreation .00 .99 .77 .99 Care of Children .45 .23 .57 .99 Care of Adults 1.36 .25 .97 .99 Learning Values .31 .99 .39 .99 Job-Related Activities .51 .99 .14 .99 Health .08 .99 1.25 .21 Outreach 1.51 .22 3.25 .07 **ANOVA is computed only on cases where data are given 107 cases processed; 45 cases missing 82 TABLE XIII Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Learning Activities and Home Economics Experience Male Female N** F-Ratio F N** F-Ratio F Getting Along Inside Family .56 .99 .006 .99 Getting Along Outside Family .03 .99 4.39 .03* Household Skills 1.29 .26 3.41 .06 Preparing for The Future .08 .99 .02 .88 Maintaining And Decorating Home .62 .99 .69 .99 Feeding the Family 8.36 .006* 2.97 .08 Using Money - 1 Wise y .75 .99 .02 .99 Enjoyment and Recreation .003 .99 .38 .99 Care of Children .84 .99 .41 .99 Care of Adults 2.32 .13 .91 .99 Learning Values 9.47 .003* .02 .99 Job-Related Activities .75 .99 .31 .99 Health 12.61 .001* .47 .99 Outreach .52 .99 .008 .99 **ANOVA is computed only on cases where data are given. 107 cases processed; 45 cases missing *p = 5..05 83 H5d - There is no relationship between whom families reported having contacted for assistance with home learning and content of education. Table XIV illustrates F-ratios and probability levels for the dependent variable, contacts made for assistance by families as it is effected by male, female Home Economics experience. TABLE XIV *1 Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and 4-H Experience‘of Male and Female Adults Male Female N** F-Ratio F ' F-Ratio F School _ 2.00 .15 .00 .99 Library .02 .99 .12 .99 Extension .01 .99 7.08 .01* _Relatives 4.29 .04 2.52 .11 Neighbor .20 .99 1.84 .18 Friend .63 .99 1.09 .30 Other .77 .99 .41 .99 **ANOVA is computed on cases where data are given 107 cases processed; 45 cases missing *p = 5.05 A relationshipiwas found to exist between male adults with 4-H experience and relatives as a contact source and between female adults with 4-H experience and extension as 84 a contact source for assistance. These relationships were significant at the .05 level or greater. Table XV shows the results of the test for effects of Home Economics experience of male and female adults on contacts for assistance. No relationship was found to exist between these variables with one exception. The relation- ship of Home Economics experience for male adults to library as a source of contact for assistance is significant at the .05 or greater probability level. Having had Home Economics experience had no effect upon contacts for six other sources. TABLE XV A Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and Home Economics Experience of Male and Female Adults Male Female N** F F Contact Source F-Ratio F-Ratio School 1.22 .27 .22 .99 Library 4.08 .04* .11 .99 Extension .06 .99 .001 .99 Relatives .24 .99 .04 .99 Neighbor .47 .99 1.93 .16 Friend .18 .99 .143 .99 Other .03 .99 .000 .99 **ANOVA is computed only on cases where data are given 107 cases were processed; 45 cases were missing * p r.s ~05 85 H4e - There is no relationship between frequency of reported learning activities by families and level of income. Results of tests for effects of income level on home learning activities are summarized in Table XVI. Results show that as income level increases, learning activities in- crease for three learning categories; getting along inside the family, using money wisely and enjoyment and recreation. For eleven other categories, no relationship was found to exist between income and learnings at the .05 level. TABLE xv I Analysis of Variance Results of Relation to Learning Activities and Level of Income N** F-Ratio F Getting Along Inside Family 3.50 .03* Getting Along Outside Family 2.59 .08 Household Skills .02 .99 Planning For The Future .42 .99 Maintaining and Decorating Home .96 .99 Feeding the Family .82 .99 Using Money Wisely 3.39 .04* Enjoyment and Recreation 2.99 .05* Care of Children .36 .99 Care of Adults .39 .99 Learning Values 2.00 .14 Job-Related Activities .81 .99 Health .12 .99 Outreach 2.28 .06 — to.-. .- ~--o~—-~ --——-— **ANOVA is computed only on cases where data are given 107 cases processed; 32 cases missing *p = 3.05 86 H5e _ There is no relationship between families in contacts made for assistance with home learning and level of income. Results yielded in tests of effects of income level on sources of contacts for assistance are Shown in Table XVII. No relationship was found to exist between income level and sources families contacted for assistance with one exception. It was found that with increases in income, families contacted the school with greater frequency. Contact sources for which no relationship with income was found to exist were; library, extension, relative, neighbor, friend and other. TABLE XVII Analysis of Variance Results for Relation of Contact Source and Income Level N** F-Ratio F School 4.72 .01* Library .49 .99 Extension .13 .33 Relative .27 .99 Neighbor .52 .99 Friend 2.04 .13 Other 1.06 .36 **ANOVA is computed only on cases where data are given 107 cases processed; 32 cases were missing *p = £_.05 CHAPTER V DiscussionLConclusioneJ Implications This chapter discusses the findings yielded from analysis of the data and presents conclusions, and education and research recommendations. Discussion Discussion which addresses the two broad questions of the study will be reported in the following sequence: (1) Relationship of home learning activities identified by families to identification by educational linker agents of learning activities which should occur or for which assis- tance was provided in home-based learning. (2) Relationship of specific family characteristics making up the home environment to home learning activities identified by families. The chi square test is a measure to determine statisti- cal independence--where knowing the value of one variable does not aid in predicting the other. Establishing statis- tical significance and proving whether a relationship exists through the use of a contingency measure gives no indication of the degree of association relative to strength or direction of the relationship. Discussion of Hypotheses l, 2, and 3 will include such measures to aid in interpretation of the relationship. 87 88 Results from tests of Hypothesis 1 indicate that no relationship exists between perceptions of educational linker agents about what learning should occur in the home and learning activities reported as having occurred for only three of fourteen learning activities. A perusal of cell frequencies better characterizes the relationship. Cell frequencies for tests of H1, 2, and 3 are included in Appendix C. In ten of fourteen learning categories, families were engaged in learning activities with greater frequency than the frequency with which professionals identified that learn- ing as "Should occur" in the home. In tests of the relationship between assistance provided for home learning activities and learning identified as having occurred in the home, for eight of the twelve learn- ing activities, no relationship was found to exist at the .05 or greater level of significance. Percentages computed from cell frequencies_revealed that in this relationship as well, families completed learning activities with greater frequency than the frequency with which professionals provided learning assistance for eight of twelve learning categories. The learning activities and the greater frequency with which they were performed by families than that identified as provided by educational linker agents are computed in percentage form as follows: learning values, 752; care of adults, 472; enjoy- ment and recreation, 432; household skills, 432; maintaining and decorating the home, 322; feeding the family, 272 and 89 using money wisely, 62. Tests of Hypothesis 3 found a relationship to exist for four of the sources families identified as contacts made for assistance and whom professionals identified families were most likely to contact for assistance. Of these four, library, neighbor, church and those in the "other" category, two would be considered to employ professionally-trained personnel and two may not employ professionally-trained personnel. The relationship was found to be totally dependent for the two contact sources, school and extension., The percentage of families contacting these two sources was small, 212 contacted the school and only 132 contacted exten- sion. The egg source that was contacted with greatest fre- quency was the library, 702 of the families contacted this source while only 102 of the professionals identified library as a source families were likely to contact for information. The home learning environment variables analyzed in test of both Hypotheses 4 and 5 will be discussed in the sequential order of the statistical tests performed and the independent variables. The effects of the number of children in the family (H4a) on learning activities was Significant at the .05 or greater level of significance for six of feurteen learning categories. As the number of children in the family increased, the learning activities related to household skills, feeding the family, care of children, learning values, enjoyment and recreation, and job-related activities increased. As the 90 number of children in the family increased (H4b)’ families contacted the school, the library and friends for assistance with greater frequency. Tests of Hypotheses 4b and 5b relative to stage in the family life cycle and its effects on home learning and contacts for assistance yielded results indicating that as families become older, they undertake fewer learning activi- ties and make fewer contacts for assistance. Negative correlations were obtained for learning activities about maintaining and decorating the home, feeding the family, using money wisely, care of children, learning values and job-related activities. The only learning activities yielding a correlation at the .05 or greater level of significance were these negative correlations indicating that at least for these activities, younger families undertake them with greater frequency than older families. This is consistent with the findings of Penland (1978), where younger adults were found to undertake more learning projects than the older adult. Correlations of sources of contacts for assis- tamxayielded similar results relative to stage in the family life cycle. Negative correlations were obtained at the .05 level of significance for both the library and relatives. The negative correlation obtained for relatives as a contact source might be a result of the older family members being the source used for information by families in younger stages of the family life cycle. The contact source, extension, achieved .05 or greater level of significance indicating 91 that as families become older, they are more likely to contact this source for information. The family characteristics, level of male and female education, yielded low correlation coefficients in tests of Hypotheses 4c and 5c. For both males and females, it was found that as education level increased, learning increased for activities related to feeding the family, enjoyment and recreation and care of children. These activities, parti- cularly the latter category, support the literature (Leibo- witz) relative to education level and care of children. Other learning activities achieving a .05 or greater level of significance were future-oriented Such as, for males, using money wisely, and job-related activities and for females, preparing for the future. Females also undertook more learning activities related to household skills aS education level increased.‘ No correlations reached the .05 level of significance for level of male education and contacts for assistance. For females, it was found that as education level increased, contacts for assistance increased for four sources of information; library, extension, relatives and friends. Education content including 4-H and Home Economics experience were characteristics making up the learning environment for tests of Hypotheses 4d and 5d relative to learning activities and contacts for assistance. No relation- ship was found to exist for males and females with 4-H experience and the.learning activities they performed. The educational value gained from having had 4-H experience at 92 least for females seems to be knowing about and utilizing it for an information source. The correlation for Extension as a source of information for females with 4-H experience was significant at the .05 or greater level. There is evidence that having had Home Economics experience increased home learning activities for males relative to feeding the family, learning values and health. Findings in the original study (Bobbitt and Paolucci, 1975) indicated more males had had Home Economics in younger families than in the other two stages of the family life cycle. Since a current objective for most Home Economics programs is to increase male enroll- ment, this evidence relative to home learning activities lends support to this effort. The effects of Home Economics experience on learning activities for females was significant at the .05 or greater level for one category, getting along inside the family. This evidence supports a major goal of Home and Family Living courses in secondary Home Economics curriculum, Having had Home Economics experience had no effect on whom families contacted for assistance with the exception of one source. Males with Home Economics experience contacted the library with greater frequency than those who did not have Home Economics experience. The effects of income on home-based learning behavior was the family characteristic analyzed in tests of Hypotheses 4e and 5e“ Significance at the .05 level or greater was achieved for three learning categories. Two of these, getting along inside the family and enjoyment and recreation 93 related to performance of the expressive role. Learning activities for the third category, using money wisely, may have increased as the families had more disposable income to consider. Only one contact source for information, school, was found to achieve the .05 significance level in relation- ship to income. Conclusions The need for this study is based on assertions which are both empirically and theoretically grounded. In support of the literature, Hypotheses l, 2, and 3 (null form) are what the researcher expected to find. Hypotheses 4 and 5 (alter- native form) support the empirical and theoretical literature as reported here. A brief summary of this empirical and theoretical evidence will assist the reader in following the conclusions to be drawn from this research. Central to the ecological framework on which this study. is conceptualized is the home as the primary and continuous life-long learning environment. The educational linker support system is viewed as sharing a reciprocal relationship in the role of the development of human resources. That the development of human resources is a shared goal of the two systems is a basic assumption of this study. Both empirical and theoretical evidence have been identified to support the need for reciprocity between the home and the learning support systems to which it is linked and to illustrate that viewing this reciprocity at the rational, policy-making level does not occur in many cases (Litwak, Coleman, Bloom, Rich). 94 Empirical and theoretical evidence exists as well to support the effects of human resource development on one's total ecological orientation, at work, in the family, and in leisure and civic role performance (Welch, Michael, Leibowitz, Sussman). The need for examination of family environmental characteristics as they affect the deve10pment of human resources has been identified by Marjoribanks, Leichter, Bubolz and Paolucci. Examination of some of the relationships existing between the home as a learning environment and the educational linker support system as well as the contextual setting of the home learning environment is an attempt to add to existing empir- ical and theoretical knowledge about the development of human resources. For the geographic location and the randomly selected families and educational linkers, the following conclusions can be made: (Given the care that must be used in interpre- tation of results, tentative ideas are offered). There appears to be evidence to support the assertion that differences do exist between the perceptions of edu- cational linkers and families' behavior relative to home learning. A relationship was found to exist for eight learning categories in the test of the hypothesis relative to what "should" and what "does" occur in home learning. It is important to note that for ten of fourteen learning categories, the learning activity occurred with greater frequency in 95 families than the frequency with which it was identified as "should" occur by educational linkers. For learning activities where differences were found to exist between what did occur and assistance provided by educational linkers, families performed learning activities with greater frequency than educational linkers provided assistance for learning in eight of twelve categories. Cell frequencies indicate that in five of twelve learn- ing categories, the frequency with which assistance provided for home learning by educational linkers was less than the frequency with which they identified those learning activities as "should" occur in the home. (This was not a hypothesized relationship, but is reported in an attempt to explain the relationship. See Appendix C) Speculation as to why findings for tests of Hypotheses l and 2 occurred relative to differences in perceptions of families and formal linkers might be explained in two possible ways. This finding does support the literature and the expected findings as indicated in the null hypotheses. Either formal linkers do not have a clear idea of what is occurring in the home in the way of learning or they do not have the techniques and methods for delivery of assistance, or both. In view of the finding that perceptions about what should occur (at least for some learnings) was identified (with greater frequency than learning for which assistance was provided, it would seem, at least at one level of awareness, that formal linkers recognize that they are not providing 96 assistance for all learnings which they believe should occur in the home. Therefore, the reason for the difference possi- bly has to do with capability to deliver the service. It could be that the level of consciousness about assistance which is provided needs to be raised to the what "should" occur level. Less evidence was found to support the assertion that there is a difference in perceptions of educational linkers and families actual contacts for assistance indicating that educational linkers are aware of the degree to which families do not contact them for assistance. It is important to note that families do contact non-professional sources for assis- ‘unme as frequently as they contact professional sources. The significant relationship found between having had 4-H experience and the use of extension agencies as a contact source for information might help to explain findings from tests of H3. A lack of awareness of types of assistance provided by an agency might be the reason for lack of contact by families. Analysis supported the alternative form of the hypotheses for the relationship between family characteristics and home learning behavior for number of children in the family and stage in the family life cycle. Evidence was less strong in support of the expected findings for the relationship of family characteristics; level and experiences in education and income. Characteristics related to education and income may be highly significant but may have been inadequately 97 conceptualized or measured here. It is of interest that as the number of children increased, there was an increase in learning activity appropriate to the care and guidance of children. Also, learning activity related to children might be more easily conceptualized than learning activities related to other life roles. Recommendations for Research and Education Results from this secondary analysis of data collected from a specific geographic location provide tentative impli- cations for education and recommendations for research. Research Recommendations (1) Evidence from the study suggests that a majority of professionals serving in educational linker agent roles are at varying levels aware of the role of the home in learning. Research studies which focus upon the outcomes of home learning are needed to give the credence and visibility to this institution in its important role of human resource development. .This is particularly true from the standpoint of the role of the home in developing the survival skills currently being expounded by educators. Measurement of the outcomes of home learning will also give the evidence needed by policy makers to provide greater support to the home in its learning effort. Presently, the reward systems in most bureaucratic Structures do not support home learning efforts, (i.e., lack of rewards for service to community, which is one effective delivery system for home-based learning, by many academic institutions). . 98 (2) Evidence which suggests that there are differences between the kinds of learning activities which are occurring and the learning assistance provided for home learning by educational linkers, indicates the necessity of surveying the needs of families in specific settings before determining the kind of assistance to be provided. (3) Findings which support the literature relative to decrease in frequency of learning activities completed by older adults as compared to those of young adults provide additional evidence for the need to examine the special needs of this age group relative to the kind of assistance provided. (4) In view of the evidence of families' lack of usage of professional sources of information, educational linkers need to investigate the means to build trust and to determine effective means for making families aware of the assistance they are able to provide. (5) Research is needed to examine the concepts and strategies presently utilized by educational linkers in preparing professionals to facilitate home-based learning such that more effective curriculum can be developed for this endeavor. Tough (1977) maintains that the point at which the greatest assistance is needed by the learner is at the initiation and planning stage. Research efforts would lend support to where emphasis should occur. (6) Increasing the size of the sample and replicating the study for hypotheses 4 and 5 utilizing multivariate statistical analysis would provide more conclusive evidence 99 about characteristics which make up the contextual setting of the home learning environment. Implications for Educational Programs (1) Though the role of the home in learning is recog- nized by a majority of educational linkers, evidence from this study suggests that more appropriate strategies for delivery of informal learning concepts need to be deve10ped and implemented into existing educational programs. This is true for both provisions of one's own learning efforts as well as assisting others with learning efforts. (2) In view of the findings which reflect a greater relationship between what is believed should occur in home learning and the learning actually being completed in the home, than for the relationship between assistance provided for home learning and the learning being completed in the home, educational linkers need to evaluate their programs internally for provisions for assistance that are more consistent with their beliefs about what should occur in the home. (3) Evidence from this study suggests that families do not utilize educational linkers for assistance in home learn- ing to the degree that they might. Consideration should be given to using Parent-Teacher organizations, in-service work- shOps, and seminars to focus upon the reciprocal relationship between educational and home-based learning and to identify effective means to communicate with families. (4) Consideration should be given to the redefinition 100 of roles and responsibilities of formal linking systems, (especially education) to include greater responsibility for the reciprocal relationships with the home. (5) Innovative prOgrams which exemplify the benefits gained from the reciprocity of educational linkers and home- based learning systems should receive high funding priority. The list of possible strategies is unlimited but some possi- bilities might include: greater use of mass media, particu- larly television and newspapers to serve as linking mediums for learning; involvement of professionally trained personnel in deve10pment of learning packets for use by "do it yourself" learners; use of volunteers of all age levels in educational programs; learning packets designed to increase parental involvement in children's learning; after-school programs for children from dual-career families; use of school facilities by all family members at times other than the traditional school day. (6) Provisions for home learners to evaluate their learning efforts need to be devised. It was of interest to this researcher that individuals, in reporting their learning efforts, manifested much pride in their learning endeavors. Nearly all were grateful for being allowed to share what they had learned and expressed in a variety of ways that they had not previously thought through to the point of awareness and evaluation their learning efforts to the degree that this reporting of them had allowed. Tough (1978) reported a similar response from his interviewers who expressed that they felt 101 they were "giving something as well as taking" (from the interviewee). Tough further reports that as a whole, learners generalized opinions about their learning were somewhat apologetic but in relating specific learning projects, they were very pleased and spoke of them with pride. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, G. Patterning of Family Resources for Educability: Conceptualization and Measurement in Costa Rican Families (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State Univer- sity, 1970). Bell, H. Family Resources Used in School Related Activities (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973). Bell, T. H. 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International Review pf Education, 1974, 2. APPENDIX A Family Survey Instrument* *The content of this schedule is unchanged but formatting has been adjusted for inclusion in the dissertation. The schedule was developed and implemented in an exploratory study, The Home As a Learning Center, directed by Dr. Norma Bobbitt and Dr. Beatrice Paolucci of the College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University. The study was funded by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Occupational and Adult Education Branch pursuant to contract number 300748735, in 1975. Screener: Cell: Family Number: Phone Number: Address: 1. RECORD OF CONTACTS WITH FAMILY Result of screening. IN OUT Date of screening. Home Contacts Made. Date Time __Not at home ___Refused __Family Spokes- person Not Available __Second contact __jhird contact Future appointments. Date Time Interviewer Scheduled List reason for refusal below. (If given.) 107 S AMPLE I DENTI VI (.‘A'l'l 0N Interviewer: Location: Housing Unit from Start- ing Point. Additional description: DATA ON INTERVIEW 1. Desired Interviewec(s): __Ma1e spokesperson __Female spokesperson __Whole family 2. Person(s) interviewed: __Adult male __Male child __;Adult female ___Female child 3. Date of interview (com- pleted): 4. Day of interview (com~ pleted): 5. Time: Started:.__AA. Ended: ___A Length in minutes: 6. Type of Housing Unit: __Single Family Dwelling __Apartment __Mobile Home __Other (INTERVIEWER: It is important to ask Screener: these questions in a friendly manner. You might say: "I'd be interested in Family Number: knowing the names and ages of people who live here," or "Would you tell me Telephone Number: the names and ages of people who live here?" Approach the Occupational information in a similar way.) RECORD OF DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Occupations of Adults Who Live in Household (INTERVIEWER: Obtain information about past occupations if family members have retired. Discuss occupational information so you can Household determine where occupations fit into Hollings— Composition: head categories. See opposite page for cate- Names & Ages gories.) 1. Name 2. Age 4. Occupation 5. Hours 6. Shift worked worked per (Specific week hours) 3. Has this group lived together for the last year? YES NO (If "NO." probe.) 10. 11. 12. COMPLETION pg DEMOGRAPHIC DATA I would like to have more information about your family to complete the interview. Will you please look at this card and tell me which EDUCATION group best fits the people in your family? (INTERVIEWER: Hand the interviewee the EDUCATION card, record the response and ask the next two questions.) Have any family members had Home Economics classes: Have any family members had 4-H experience? Will you please look at the other side of the card and tell me which INCOME group best fits the people in your family? HOURLY INCOME WAGE Do any of your children earn money? If so, who? _FAMILY MEMBER EDUCATION M F Other _____. _____. Adult Chi ld- __.._.._. -—--—- ren HOME ECON OM] CS (INTERVIEWER: Have the inter- viewee look at the other side of the card. If the person can only give hourly wage, record that information below.) HOURS/ WEEKS/ WEEK YEAR (INTERVIEWER: Record information below.) AGE AMOUNT N.A. l 13. Have there been any major changes in your family during the past (INTERVIEWER: If "Yes," record below.) year? NO FAMILY SIZE Death of adult Death of child Divorce/Sepn Birth of child 1 l Major illness of family member SCHOOL ___First child enters school __Last child enters __Change ferent __Change ferent school to dif- school to dif- schedule __;Addition to family (Adoption, parent living w/ EMPLOYMENT Change of emr ‘__Major ployment raise Shift change __Major wage Lose job increase Start new job family Second job added ___Children on dif- ferent schedules __Major increase in extracurricular activities __Major decrease in extracurricular activities (wife working, moonlighting) W __Move to new location __Major change in houseplan (remodel- ins) GENERAL INFORMATION People learn many things at home. What kinds of things do you think people should learn at home? We mean, what do you think ought to be learned at home, not necessarily what is learned at home. (INTERVIEWER: List items mentioned by the interviewee.) INTRODUCTION TO QUESTION 2 Now I'd like to visit with you about the things you and your family learned at home in the last year. When I say "learn," I don't mean the sorts of things peOple learn in school. Learning can be about skills, know- ledge, attitudes or information, and you could have learned it in any way. Anything at all can be included--re- gardless of whether it was big or small, easy or difficult, serious or fun. I've set three guidelines to help me decide about recording what you men- tion: 1. (INTERVIEWER: I'll note those things you have learned in the last twelve months. . .so try to think of things you and your family learned since last The second guideline is that the learning where you made a special effort to learn some- thing or how to do something will be recorded. All of us learn things as a result of visiting with peOple, watch— ing TV, or listening to radio. That is an important kind of learning, too, but I will note the things you made a special effort to learn. The third guideline is that I will record learning at home—-this could mean anywhere in the house, garage or yard. Because I am interested in what families learn at home, I will not record learn- ing at the school, church or on family trips or vacations. Ask Question 2 and record learnings mentioned.) (INTERVIEWER: QUESTION 2 PROBES A. Chronological_probe: Sometimes it is hard to remember back to a year ago. Maybe thinking about differ— ent seasons of the year, special holidays or job and school vacations will help you remember other learnings . (INTERVIEWER: mentioned.) Record learnings 8. Probe card: Sometimes it is hard to remem- ber what we have learned. This card lists some differ- ent things that people learn. It is just to help you remember other things you and your fam- ily might have learned. Hand probe card to an interviewee. Give the person time to read the lists on both sides. Record any additional learnings mentioned. Wheninterviewee seems to hesi— tate and it appears that the list has been completed, say the fol— lowing.) That gives us a fairly com— plete list. If you think of any other learnings while we are talking, be sure to men- tion them. 2. (INTERVIEWER: Introduction on opposite page.) LEARNING M F - In the past year, what have you and other family members made a special effort to learn at home? When we say "family" we mean all the people who live here. 3. Who was involved in each learning? PROBE: for all family members who participated. You mentioned several things that your family members learned. Were any of them helpful for FAM OCC 4. carrying out family activities and household tasks? _. 5. learning about occupations? 6. How much time were your family members M F - involved in these projects? (INTERVIEWER: Give card and record category for each member.) 7. (INTERVIEWER: Mention to interviewee the two learnings which took the longest period of time.) Why did these projects take so long? (INTERVIEWER: Record Learning Number.) WF M F - M F - Enjoyed it more Materials had to be gathered Was more interested in it Trial and error Took practice Was more complicated Was more important Sometimes families have to make changes in what they usually do in order to carry out learning projects. 8. What kinds of changes did your family make in the past year related to learnings about FAMILY ACTIVITIES AND HOUSEHOLD TASKS, like rearrange schedules, spend money for materials, find a space to work or get someone to help your family members? 9. What kinds of changes did your family make in the past year related to learnings about OCCUPATIONS, like rearrange schedules, spend money for materials, find a space to work or get someone to help your family members? FAM TIME OCC FAM MONEY OCC FAM SPACE OCC FAM PEOPLE OCC .__ Rearranged __. ___Books ___ ___ Rearranged ___ ___Helped schedule home for another for own ___Courses ___ learning family learning activity member ___ Tools ___ learn something Rearranged .__ Transporta1__ _ schedule tion __ PTOVlded __ for other moral family mem— __ Child Care ___ support ber's learning ___ Ate out ___ ___ Changed ___ work pat- .__ Bought con-___ terns (Al— venience , ternate foods tasks) __ Taught ___ another member something Used free services FAM OTHER OCC 10. At what times during the year would you say that most of your family's learning projects took place? WF M F - M F — ___ January ___ July .__ February ___ August ___ March ___ September ___ April ___ OCtober ___ May ___ November ___ June .__ December 11. During which part of the week did your family carry out most learning activities or projects? WF M F — Weekdays Weekends 12. During which part of the day? WF M F - Mbrning Afternoon Evening 13. As you thing about these home learning projects, would your family have liked additional help? ___NO If so, what kind? TOPICS MATERIALS PEOPLE OTHER Some pe0ple use various items in theiunmeto help with their home They might use RADIO, TELEVISION, NEWSPAPERS, learning projects. MAGAZINES, BOOKS, CASSETTE TAPES for learning at home A 14. 15. What kind of book 16. Where did Has your or program or article you use it family was it? in the home? used any of these for (TOPIC) learning in your home? RADIO programs: TELEVISION programs: NEWSPAPERS articles: MAGAZINES articles: BOOKS CASSETTE TAPES 17. Who participated? PROBE: For all members M F - 18. How often did your family use these things for learning at home? ) hours/week hours/week hours/day articles/week books/month tapes/month RADIO TELEVISION NEWSPAPERS MAGAZINES BOOKS CASSETTE TAPES Some people use various items in the home to help with their home learning projects. They might use RECORDS, FLYERS/PAMPHLETS, TELEPHONE, VIDEO-VIEWERS & AUDIO—VISUAL CENTERS,COMPUTER LINK-UPS for learning at home. 19. Has your 20. What kind 21. Where 22. Who 23. How often family of book or did parti- did your used any program or you cipa- family of these article use ted? use these for was it? it in PROBE: things learning the for for in your (TOPIC) home? all learning home? mem— at home? ; bers M F - RECORDS 1 hours/ month FLYERS/ pamph- PAMPHLETS 1e ts/ month TELEPHONE VIDEO-VIEWERS & AUDIO-VIS- UAL CENTERS COMPUTER LINK-UPS OTHER Sometimes people make contacts outside the home to get help with home learning projects. neighbors or relatives They might contact the library, Extension, 24. Over the past 25. Which 26. Why 27. How did 28. Where in year, what family were the fam- the home persons were member these ily mem- does each contacted to made used? ber know person help with the to con- prefer to your family's contact? tact learn? home learn- these ing projects? sources? (INTERVIEWER: Have inter— viewee speci- fy personnel.) M F - PERSONNEL ____ School __Conven- Televi- KITCHEN ient _—sion ____Library ‘__Free __Newspaper FAMILY ____Extension ROOM/ __Knew __Referred DEN ____Relative About by friend, neighbor ___ Neighbor __Close or rela— BEDROOM to tive Friend home ———' __Referred STUDY Church Trusted by pro- —_expert fessional Health source LIVING __Friend ROOM Business ‘__Radio Social/ ___Magazine BATHROOM Civic article __Don't know __Special flyer __Yellow Pages ”_Used before __Always knew about _"Past exper- ience 29. Here is a houseplan with different rooms. Here are some envelopes with different items that a family might use to learn in the home. Would you select those things that your family uses and place them in the rooms where they are used? (INTERVIEWER: Have the family spokesperson arrange the furniture and items in the model floor plan of the house. Record the letters of the items arranged, and indicate how many items are placed in each room.) RECORDER :1 RECORD MACHINE LINK-UP ‘- TELEPHONES PLAYERS 7: RADIOS CHAIRS DESKS SOFAS CASSETTE COMPUTER SEWING *n WORKBENCH :> TABLES BEDS F‘ TELEVISIONS 3 MAGAZINES 22 BOOKS C) TOOLS 'u POTS & PANS 7! OTHER (1:! n U m 0 H .O KITCHEN FAMILY ROOM/ DEN BEDROOM STUDY LIVING ROOM BATHROOM OTHER 30. Would you change anything for learning in the future? (INTERVIEWER: Once again, have the family spokesperson arrange the furniture and items in the model floor plan of the house. Record the letters of the items arranged, and indicate how many items are placed in each room.) s a” E... 3 5.12 amsz Hm A e m ass ss'smas sUH i-fl Kama WU§53§WO>EWM 25 CK 4 HM Smsstsssssssesss “ gg<$goa O ELISE-L1 0803 E E-‘mEQmSU g D E-‘ RECORD-t!!! O ABCDEFG H I JLKLLMNOPQ R KITCHEN FAMILY ROOM/ DEN BEDROOM STUDY LIVING ROOM BATH- ROOM OTHER Some people have ideas about what children need to learn at home to be FAMILY MEMBERS. 31. What things about being a family member would you help children to learn? 32. Would it be the same for boys and girls 33. Where would you get your information? 8 Boys Girls Some families might like some help with information about FAMILY RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES. family learn about these things If we could help members of your by providing information in your home, 37. What subjects or topics would 38. Why? be the most useful to your family? 39. What kinds of things would your 40. Why? family like to use to learn these things? WF M F - WF M F - ‘__Radio __Flyers/Pamph- lets __Television __Telephone __Newspapers .__Video Viewers & __JMagazines Audio ViSual __Books Centers ‘__Cassette Computer Tapes Link-Up __Records Other Sometimes families have to make changes in what they usually do in order to carry out learning projects, like experimenting with new time patterns, purchasing materials or tools, planning a special area for carrying out learning projects or teaching things to other family members. What changes would your family be willing to make in the future to help with learning activities at home? 45. TIME 46. MONEY 47. SPACE __Rearrange schedule __ABooks __Rearrange home for for own learning learning activity __Courses __Rearrange schedule __Provide space and for other family __Tools quiet learning __ATransportation __Child care __Eat out __Buy convenience foods 48. PEOPLE __Help another family member learn some- thing .__Provide moral support __Change work patterns (Alternate tasks) ___Teach another family member something 49. OTHER Name of Family Interviewed: Number: Person(s) Interviewed: fl Interviewer: (INTERVIEWER: Date of Interview: Length of Interview: EVALUATION OE INTERVIEWEE BEHAVIOR behavior and record under COMMENTS column.) Choose number 1-5 which best describes interviewee _. l. 2. 3. A. Uncooperative. Suspicious of Neutral reaction Guarded interviewer at in beginning. Interest answers. first. Somewhat Moderate interest in interested at end at end. Interview of interview. __ 4. 5. COMMENTS Asked questions Asked questions # about project about project; OR wants copy wants c0py of of papular artiA popular article. cle. COOpera- Willingly par- tive. ticipated. -—~.-B:' Wfl-vwwmwidrub 2. 3. Time Hurried inter- Hurried inter- Gave only approxi- Commitment view for no view. (Ill time interviewer apparent child, appoint- requested. reason- ment, etc.) 4. 5. COMMENTS Flexible with- Could adjust time # in 15-20 min- schedule if neces- utes of time sary. Unconcerned requested. about time. Con- tinued interest at end of interview. ———.--—--—-— ._ .— ..——_1 3. C. Did not under- stand. Clari- Needed clarifi- cation on most Needed clarifi- cation on sever- Comprehen- fication needed questions. a1 questions. sion of for all ques- Interview tions. Schedule _A p 4. 5. COMMENTS Understood most Readily compre— # questions. hended with— out addi- tional clarifi- cation. 1. 2. 3. D. Would not Terse, short Off—the-cuff answer all answers. answers. Type of questions. Response Provided _____._p r___lnflji:ii.“m.__“_e,mm.-m_5' _- COMMENTS Mostly thought— Complete, # ful answers thoughtful with a few answers. sketchy answers. APPENDIX B Educational Linker Survey Instrument* *The content of this schedule is unchanged but formatting has been adjusted for inclusion in the dissertation. The schedule was developed and implemented in an exploratory study, The Home As a Learning Center, directed by Dr. Norma Bobbitt and Dr. Beatrice Paolucci of the College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University. The study was funded by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Occupational and Adult Education Branch pursuant to contract number 300748735, in 1975. ;H 5/75 DIRECTIONS TO LOCATE UNIT: UNIT DATA 1. Name of unit: 2. Name of Interviewee: Male Female 3. Position of Interviewee: 4. Length of time in present position: 5. Professional preparation: 6. Rank clientele in order of numbers reached. largest clientele, etc.) __Whole families __Adult women ___Children __Youth (E.G. #1 = ___Adult men __Older persons 129 7. IILCP: IH.IS/p 1 DATA ON INTERVIEW Interviewer: Unit number: Phone number: Address: Result of screening: In Out Date Contacts made: Date Time __Agent not available __Second contact ___Refusal Reason for refusal: Future appointments: Date Time Interviewer j” 5/75 HLCP: FLIS/p 2 1. People learn many things at home. What kinds of things do you think people should learn at home? We mean, what do you think ought to be learned at home, not necessarily what l§_learned at home. 2. Where do you feel people prefer to learn about FAMILY- RELATED ACTIVITIES and HOUSEHOLD TASKS? In a classroom In the home In a group Individually HLCP: FLIS/p 3 3. Where do you feel peOple prefer to learn about OCCUPATIONS? In a classroom In the home In a group Individually HLCP: FLIS/p 4 4. Of the learnings that could 5. Of the learnings that could take place in the home, what take place in the home, what would help prepare peOple would help prepare peOple for their role as FAMILY for their role as WORKERS? MEMBERS? Taking care of children Applying for a job Getting along with peeple Taking a job—related course at home __~_Feeding the family ____Applying for unemployment compensation ___Using money wisely Skills for a job Doing household tasks Job Openings Preparing for the future Maintaining and decorating the home Enjoyment and recreation HLCP: FLIS/p 5 Which unit outside the home do you feel families are most likely to contact when they need assistance for learning at home? School ____ Church Continuing education '___ Relative Library ____Neighbor Extension ____ Friend Health Business & industry Social & civic What kinds of learnings related to FAMILY ACTIVI- TIES and HOUSEHOLD TASKS does your unit provide in a home-based setting? HLCP: FLIS/p 6 What kinds of OCCUPATIONAL ACTIVITIES does your unit provide as home-centered learning? Taking care of children Getting along with people Feeding the family Using money wisely Doing household tasks Preparing for the future Maintaining and decorating the home Enjoyment and recreation Applying for a job Taking a job-related course at home Applying for unemploy- ment compensation Skills for a job Job openings HLCP: How does your unit determine what families would like to learn at home? FLIS/p 7 Use of advisory committees who utilize your resources Survey of community prior to program development Employ program aides who know the needs of a particular target audience Confer with other profes- sionals who have resources similar to yours HLCP: FLIS/p 8 10. What resources does your 11. Could you rank order these unit commit to learning resources in terms of the at home? commitment of resources? (INTERVIEWER: Record the order in the Space after the resource.) TIME SPACE SERVICES PEOPLE EQUIPMENT __Z people __2 office __Courses __Profes— ___Records hours space sionals __Books ___Tapes __Parapro- ___Flyers fessionals .__Telephone __Supplies __Volun- __Computer teers link—ups __Magazines ___Audio- __Pamphlet/ visual bulletin centers __Newsletter __Radio program __TV program! TOPICS OTHER 12. During which MONTHS of the year does your unit most frequently provide re- sources for home learn- 13. During which part of the WEEK does your unit most fre- HLCP: FLIS/p 9 14. During which part of the DAY does your unit provide re- ing? quently pro- sources for vide resources home learn— for home ing? .“_*»A_“ learning? ___January ___ Weekdays ___Morning ___ February ___Weekends ___ Afternoon _"_March ___Evening ___April .__ May _*_June __.July _fl’August __ September ___October November December HLCP: FLlS/p 10 15. Specifically, what resources could your unit contribute in the future to home—based learning about FAMILY and OCCUPATIONS? TIME SPACE SERVICES PEOPLE EQUIPMENT TOPICS OTHER HLCP: FLlS/p 11 CLOSING The information you have shared with me gives me a good idea of how your unit serves families in home learning. This information will be kept confidential. We do need your permission to use these data in order to complete the study. Your name and title on this form will give us that permission. Do you have any questions? (INTERVIEWER: Have the interviewee sign the permission form.) You have been a great help to us. We really appreciate your taking time to answer these questions and helping with this study so we can better assist families in home learning. It is possible that you may receive a call from the project office should we need clarification from you regarding the interview. Would you be interested in hearing the results of our study? If so, we can arrange to have the summary sent to you once it is written. (INTERVIEWER: Indicate below whether or not the person is interested in receiving the summary. If so, copy the address from the next page.) Thank you very much! Do send the summary Name: Do not send the summary Title: CONSENT FORM for the HOME _SHA LEARNING CENTER PROJECT I , the undersigned, willingly consent to participate in an interview related to a study on the Home As A Learning Center. I do so with the understanding that my responses will contribute to the goals of this research project being conducted by Michigan State University and the U. 5. Office of Education, which has been explained to me. Those responsible for the investigation have given me full assurance that my name will in no way be linked to the answers I have given. Signature Office Address Title Date 141 APPENDIX C Cell Frequencies of Learnings Identified by Families and Formal Linkers As "Should Occur” or With Which "Assistance Was Provided" in Home Learning Identified By Family N* Yes No Learning_Activities Getting Along Inside Family 30 15 15 Getting Along Outside Family 30 12 18 Household Skills 30 19 11 Preparing For The Future 30 ll 19 Maintaining And Decorating Home 30 19 ll Feeding the Family 30 22 8 Using Money Wisely 30 17 13 Enjoyment and Recreation 30 21 9 Care of Children 30 17 13 Care of Adults 30 17 13 Learning Values 30 12 18 Job-Related Activities 30 14 16 Health 30 8 22 Outreach 3O 6 24 Identified by Formal Linkers Yes No 24 6 21 9 8 22 3 27 5 25 9 21 5 25 6 24 26 4 15 15 24 6 l 29 3 27 l 29 Assistance Provided by Formal Linkers Yes No 18 12 9 21 ll 19 15 15 13 17 l6 l4 l6 14 12 18 17 13 9 21 3 27 20 10 *Family sub-sample systematically selected to achieve a more equal sample size between N of the family and linkers for Chi Square test of relationships. APPENDIX C Cell Frequencies of Contacts Made For Assistance Identified by Families and Formal Linkers Contacts Families Most Contacts Identified Likely to Make By Families Identified by Linkers N* Yes No Yes No Contact School 30 8 22 8 22 Library 30 21 9 3 27 Extension 30 4 26 4 26 Relatives 30 18 12 13 17 Neighbor 30 6 24 13 17 Friend 30 10 20 15 15 Church 30 8 22 2 28 Other 30 17 13 6 24 *Family sub-sample systematically selected to achieve a more equal sample size between N of the family sample and linkers for Chi square test of relationships.