A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN Thesis for the Degree of Ph.. D. MlCJ-HGAN 'STATE UNIVERSITY .IONE GENEWEVE SHADDMCK ; ' 1967 Luann," WWIWIW HI ii mm 4 ._ J, 3 1293 01068 1280 fvucuigat owe University This is to certify that the thesis entitled A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN presented bg Ion. Genevieve Shedduck has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D Physical Education degree in Datefi’flk J: 1 0-169 .‘4 at» "Nr ”71“,". 1 “I; ‘I ,1 ”Id.“ 359$;q . i! -‘ “W ._ ‘ ${m " ) r. ABSTRACT A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN by lone Genevieve Shadduck The purpose of this study was to derive a philo- sophical base for determining a Physical Education pro- gram design. The approach to the problem was threefold: Eirst, to define criteria for the selection of content in Physical Education which would, presumably, contribute to the intellectual growth and skill compet- ence of all students. An examination of the contributions which education hOpes to make to the individual in a rapidly changing environment and an interpretation of Physical Education led to the identification of specific contributions which could be made through Physical Edu- cation. These contributions were grouped into four cate- gories: purpose—establishing, purpose-achieving, aesthetic- ethical, and emerging self-other behavior. The specific contributions which were identified served as criteria for the selection of content in Physical Education. Second, to establish criteria for deriving a con- ceptual base for Physical Education content structure necessitated by the growing emphasis on subject matter Ione Genevieve Shadduck structures for intellectual achievement. Three basic criteria were used: basic unity, sequential logic, flexibility. As a result five content themes were de- rived to form the unifying threads which bind together the vertical components and form the scope for all hori— zontal components in the content structure: (1) History of Movement: Cultural Heritage, Social Structures, (2) Movement: Unity of Pattern; Diversity of Type, (3) Changes in Movement: Age, Practice, Conditioning, (4) Interrelationships: Structure and Function of the Moving Organism, (5) Individual Optimal Movement: Regulation, Balance. Third, to develop a Physical Education program de- sign for kindergarten using this philosophical base for selecting and organizing content and in developing evaluative tools and procedures. The performance base for kindergarten was established through a selective review of research evidence on early development of movement behavior and motor skills. The philOSOphical base for a Physical Education pro- gram design is not intended as a final statement of authority, nor is it intended as the only philosophical base. Certain considerations, choices, and philosophies of the person or persons making curriculum decisions will make some developments seem of greater worth than others. It is recognized that data derived from all sources must be evaluated by those shaping curriculum. Ione Genevieve Shadduck There are many ways to formulate a philosophical base for a Physical Education program design. Imple- mentation of a philosophical base may take many forms. Procedures used in this study included an attempt to use pertinent research information wherever possible. Careful consideration was given to theories, experiences, and speculations of others. In the final organization, the investigator has sought to bring as much wisdom to bear on the controversial problems as possible. The ultimate worth of a program design can only be determined by implementing and evaluating it in a Specific situation. This study does not undertake to evaluate the Physical Education program design for kindergarten, nor is it based on a specific group of children in a specific setting. A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN By lone Genevieve Shadduck A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 1967 C H32‘)51? 3 ~15} l. _.V p Q‘fiopyright by IONE GENEVIEVE SHADDUCK 1968 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to V. Andree' Bayliss whose faith and support made this work possible. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to thank Dr. Janet A. Wessel for her continued encouragement in the preparation of this thesis. Sincere gratitude is extended to Dr. Wayne Van Huss, Dr. Harold H. Anderson and Dr. Don E. Hamachek for their guidance and expression of confidence. To Dr. Vern Seefeldt whose technical assistance in the area of motor development was invaluable, the author is most indebted. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS COPYRIGHT . . . . . . . . DEDICATION. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . .. . LIST OF CHARTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . The Challenge for Curriculum Change Early Education. . . . . . in An Increasingly Complex Environment A New Emphasis on Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . Physical Education--A Response to Challenge. . . . . Statement of the Problem. Scope of the Study. . . . . . PART I. SELECTION AND STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT II. THE SELECTION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT Educational Contributions An Interpretation of Physical Education. Definition of Physical Education Domain of Physical Education Page ii iii iv viii xi NOLA) 12 14 IA 15 Chapter Specific Contributions of Physical Education . . . . . . III. THE STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT. . . . . . . . . . Criteria for Determining Structure of Content. . . . . . . . . Basic Unity . . . . . . . . Sequential Logic. . . . . Flexibility . . . . . . . . Application of Criteria to Physical Education Content . . . . . . Basic Unity-—The Content Themes and Key Concepts. . . Sequential Logic—-Progression of Concept Levels . . . Flexibility--Potentia1 for Absorb- ing New Information. . . . . PART II. IMPLEMENTATION OF A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN IV. A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN FOR KINDERGARTEN . . . . . . . The Performance Base for Kindergarten. Human Movement—-Early Development . . Statement 1 . . . . . . . . Statement 2 . . . . . . . . Statement 3 . . . . . . . . Motor Skills--Performance Expectations Development of Motor Skills . . . The Selection and Organization of Content. . . . . . . . . . The Pattern of a Lesson . . . . . Lesson Plans for the Teacher. . . . vi Page 16 2A 25 26 27 28 28 29 36 36 Chapter Page 1. Movement is a Reflection of the Cultural Heritage and Social Structures of the People . . 80 2. Movement is a Genetic and Environ- mental Product . . . . . 81 3. Movement Changes with Age, Practice, and Conditioning . . . 82 A. There is an Interrelationship Between the Structure and Function of the Moving Organism. . . 82 5. The Individual Has the Primary Responsibility for the Regulation and Balance of His Own Movement. . 83 Evaluation of Learner Status and Progress 94 Movement Behavior Entry Profile. . . 95 PART III. SUMMARY, OBSERVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS V. SUMMARY, OBSERVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I25 vii LIST OF CHARTS Chart Page II.l Dominant Forces of Change Placing New De- mands on Education . . . . . . . . ll II.2 An Example of Symbols Characteristic of Physical Education . . . . . . . . l7 II.3-a Specific Contributions—-Physical Education . 19 II.3—b 2O II.3-c 21 II.3-d 22 III.1 Content Themes and Key Concepts for Physical Education . . . . . . . . 3O III.l-a 31 III.l—b 32 III.l-C 33 III l-d 3A III l—e 35 IV.l Part I.--Movement Performance and Physical Fitness Guide. . . . . . . . . . 72 IV.l Part II.——Additional Guides to Achievement in Movement . . . . . . . . . . 73 IV.2 Flow Chart——Kindergarten . . . . . . . 77 IV.3 Part I.-—Movement Behavior Entry Profile. . 102 IV.3 Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 IV.3 Part III . . . . . . . . . . . 104 viii Chart Page A.l Prone Behavior in the Human Infant Flexor— Extensor Dominance Pattern . . . . 130 A.2 Various Reactions in the Motor Sequences . lA3 A.3 Birth Weight and Development . . . . . 157 8.1 Selected Motor Items from Gesell Develop- mental Schedules . . . . . . . . 164 B.2 Percent of 40 Week Old Infants Performing at or Above Indicated Gesell Develop- mental Level. . . . . . . 165 B.3 Percent of 40 Week Old Infants Performing at or Above Indicated Gesell Develop- mental Level. . . . . 166 B.A Griffiths Mental Development Scale Loco- motor Items . . . . . . . . . 167 8.5 Motor Development Test Items . . . . . 168 8.6 Motor Test Items . . . . . . . . . 169 8.7 Motor Achievements. . . .’ . . . . . 170 B. Median Ratings for Various Activities . . 171 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page IV.1 Postural Changes . . . . . . . . 98 A.l The Development of Locomotion. . . . 128 A.2 'Behavior Growth and Motor Behavior Sequences . . . . . . . . . 129 A.3 Phases in Achieving a Sitting Position. 132 A.A Phases in the Development of Prone Progression. . . . . . . . . 135 A.5 Stages in the Development of Prone Progression. . . . . . . . . 137 A.6 Selected Phases in the Development of the Ability to Assume an Erect Posture . . . . . . . . . . 139 A.7 Developmental Phases in Erect Locomotion . . . . . . . . . 140 A.8 Development of Movement. . . . . . lAA LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Human Movement—~Ear1y Development . . . 126 B. Motor Skills-~Performance Expectations . 161 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Challenge for Curriculum Change in Early EducatiOn An Increasingly Complex Environment American education must respond to vastly expanding knowledge, improved research techniques, new methods of communication, an ever increasing rate of technological change, a shifting American value structure, and the signifi- cant discoveries about peOple and learning which emphasize individual differences. Of vital significance is the edu- cation of the children in an environment which is becoming increasingly complex. Value patterns of the past are being disturbed and new directions are not clear. Experiences in the schools must deveIOp stability within the children, skills with which to apply new information, and ethical values for guidance of behavior. Children must learn to think clearly, respond quickly, and face pressures and tensions that demand better training and greater adapta— bility than were required in the past. Because of the in- creasing interdependency of people throughout the world, children must develop a sincere interest and appreciation for people whose appearance, language, or customs are different from their own. Cooperative effort and sensi— tivity to the needs of others are essential for living in a changing and widening world. A New Emphasis on Early Childhood Education There is a growing emphasis on early childhood edu- cation. Development of programs has moved downward--from adolescence to childhood. Recent emphasis is on early childhood extending from primary grades down through kindergarten and nursery school. Several content areas, e.g., mathematics, science, and social studies, have de- fined and sequenced their content starting with the primary grades. Programs such as Head Start have shown that chil- dren can benefit from earlier school experiences. New learning is rooted in previous learning and earlier learn- ing affects that which follows. Emphasis on early child- hood education is essential because the early years are root years in the development of (1) the self concept, (2) con- cept formation, (3) language deve10pment, and (A) creativ- ity (117). The view of himself which the child develops in these early years has a profound and pervasive effect on how he functions in later years. A broad base of direct encounters helps the child move toward abstract structure and reasoning. Thought is intimately linked with a de— pendence upon language. Language development enables the child to store information, recall information, and solve problems. Curricula must be developed which afford oppor- tunities for original and self-selected work, and for practice of discovery techniques as ways of learning (117). The explosion of knowledge and the new insights into the way children learn have presented the schools with a challenge for changing procedures and seeking new direction in early childhood education. The task of education is to use this new knowledge and insight in developing criteria which will guide the selection and evaluation of new cur- ricula in meeting the challenge of a changing environment. Physical Education--A Response "to Challenge Major national curriculum studies similar to those of science, mathematics, and physics have not been undertaken by the Physical Education profession. A number of national projects are ongoing, such as The Lifetime Sports Edu— cation Project which started in June 1965 and the Project on Recreation and Fitness for the Mentally Retarded. The President's Council on Physical Fitness has developed Physi- cal Fitness Demonstration Centers throughout the country. The availability of federal monies through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-10), has enabled many local units to develop curriculum pro- Jects. To the knowledge of this author, no national or local project has structured and sequenced Physical Edu- cation content in terms of concepts and movement perform- ance. Professional interest in the need for determining the structure of content has been expressed in profession- al journals. The Dance Division of the American Associ- ation for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER) has looked at dance as a discipline and attempted to define its content (152). Two recent studies (1965, 1966) have involved the development of conceptual struc- tures for Physical Education. One study (7) was developed for physically handicapped students; and the other study (113) was developed for higher education. Interest in exploration and discovery about movement in relation to the self, others, and the environment has increased under the Movement Education approach (87). The concepts of discovery, problem-solving, and creativity in movement are not new. The work of Diem (A1) of Germany, Morrison of England (116), and Laban (102) are well known in this area. Andrews (6) in America has utilized this approach in the development of a variety of learning experiences for young children. In spite of the increas- ing interest and the research evidence which stresses the importance of early experiences, there is little in the Physical Education literature which could guide the teacher in a systematic development of concepts or movement per- formance during the early school years. Current programs are not adequate to meet the needs of the children in a rapidly changing environment. Contri- butions which can be made through Physical Education to the learner in the school must be identified and imple- mented through the selection of content and evaluation of progress. If the early years are the root years in the development of the self concept, concept formation, language deveIOpment, and creativity, then Physical Edu- cation can probably make its greatest contribution in the early elementary program. Movement performance is an important part of feelings of competence and therefore af-. fects the body image and self concept (21, 56, 76). Active, continuous learning which includes many movement experiences provides the basis for cognitive processes (168, 89, 126, ll“, 97, 25, 71, IO, 52, 21, 56). The symbolic communi— cation system used in games, sports, and dance——of vital interest to children-~can add to the total language develop- ment of the early years (52, 145). Certain games, sports, and folk dances can provide a channel for understanding children throughout the world. Opportunities for explo- ration and discovery must be provided to complement the creative endeavors of children's play activities. Strategy for curriculum change must be planned and integrated within the total curriculum decision—making process. Curriculum decisions are usually made at three distinct levels: local, state, federal. At the local level, decisions on general content and curriculum struc- ture are made through curriculum committees, adminis- trators, and school boards. Teachers at the local level make final decisions on specific content to be taught each day. General decisions about curriculum are made by education officials and authorities of the state; federal government makes certain curriculum decisions by the Sponsorship and support of selected curriculum programs. Decisions about what the schools should teach depends upon the recognition that certain decisions are best made at each level. Statement of the Problem It is the purpose of this study to derive a philo- sophical base for determining a Physical Education program design by: 1. Defining criteria for the selection of content in Physical Education which would contribute to the intellectual growth and skill competence of all students; 2. Establishing and applying criteria in deriving a conceptual base for Physical Education content structure; 3. Developing a Physical Education program design for kindergarten using this philosophical base for selecting and organizing content and in developing evaluative tools and procedures. The performance base for kindergarten was established through a selective review of research evidence on early development of movement behavior and motor skills. Scope of the Study A philosophical base for determining a Physical Edu— cation program design with an example of implementation at a Specific level has been attempted using pertinent basic research information wherever possible. The theories, experiences, and speculations of others have been carefully considered. In the final organization of content for kindergarten, the investigator has sought to bring as much wisdom to bear on the controversial pro- blems as possible. The identification and structuring of content is essential not only to the subject—matter area itself, but for integration with other content areas of the curriculum. The lesson plans and evaluative tools have been developed from theoretical concepts derived by the investigator from research evidence and descriptive information. Definitive criteria need to be established for evaluating the effectiveness and teachability of the lesson plans. The evaluative tools need to be objectively checked for 38 as a record of status and progress of the learner. A longitudinal study would be necessary in confirm— ing that the specific contributions identified could be made through Physical Education and the concepts selected for kindergarten would form the base for building toward the key concepts. The ultimate worth of a program design can only be determined by implementing and evaluating it in a specific situation. This study does not undertake to evaluate the Physical Education program design for kindergarten, nor is it based on a specific group of children in a specific setting. Methods for implementation in a specific school system need to be developed. It is recognized that the most effective strategy for curriculum develOpment demands curriculum decisions at all levels: federal, state, local. PART I SELECTION AND STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT CHAPTER II THE SELECTION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT The selection of content should be guided by the specific contributions which can be made through Physical Education within the over-all contributions of education. Direction which education takes in defining its contri- butions must come through an understanding of the power- ful forces and ideas which are reshaping the environment. Many sources (15, 17, A“, 73, 75, 77, 104, 123, 132, 135, 171) atteSt to forces which are producing change in America and thereby influencing educational practices. A summarizing list of the dominant forces of change which are placing new demands on education will be found in Chart II.l. A reconsideration of the function of education, in light of these forces, takes on a new sense of urgency. Children must be prepared for an unknown future. The pace of our activities, the impact of new ideas, new knowledge, new people, our comprehension of the nature of the uni- Verse--all these are changing continually. The commit- ment of the school is to the learner as a person and to the needs of individuals as members of a society. The 10 ll CHART II.l DOMINANT FORCES OF CHANGE PLACING NEW DEMANDS ON EDUCATION Dominant Forces of Change New Demands on Education Explosion of scientific and technological know- ledge. Transportation and com- munication advances. Bigness, complexity, automation in almost everything including the schools. Ever-increasing popu- lation throughout the world. Demand for Speciali- zation as industry and technology expand forces. Rapidity of change exaggerating differences between past and future. Racial integration, popu- lation mobility, and the relatively easy shift from one socio-economic level to another. Disintegration of family unit and striking changes in family patterns. Shift in value orien- tation which has long guided the American way of life resulting in a Value crisis among the youth. 8. 9. Find means of handling tremendous wealth of knowledge. Utilize advances, recog— nize and deal with im— pact of mass media and mobility. Counteract dehumani- zation and alienation from society; promote individual creativity. Emphasize sharing and structured planning for the future. Make curricula priority decisions. Counteract feelings of personal insecurity, estrangement, and root- lessness. Evaluate value systems and ways of integrating all races. Reinforce personal security and inner roots. Clarify value system of adults; guide youth in forming own beliefs. l2 task of the school is not to slow down technological and scientific advance, but to direct these forces of change toward the fulfillment of human purposes. A continuing analysis of the forces of change and their significance for educational practices is crucial. The development of individuals with the capacity to adapt in a rapidly changing environment requires a new look at the ends sought and contributions most essential in ful- filling human purposes. The selection of content should, therefore, be based upon the contributions which can be made to the individual in a rapidly changing environment. Educational Contributions Many writers (55, 57. 72, 133. IMO. 132, 139, 155, 156, 164, 173) have suggested a reconsideration of edu- cational contributions because of the changing culture. Many conferences have been held to discuss educational goals as affected by these changes. Chase (32) has suggested contributions which seem to reflect general views based on analyses of the transformations in culture and society to which education must respond. These contributions are listed below: 1. "The ability to use relevant_processes for selection of goals and activities" (32:290). Learning experiences can help the individual in making choices in midst of the uncertainty and value conflicts characteristic of l3 contemporary American culture. This involves purpose—establishing,behavior. "The ability to select and use means appropriate to learning and other goals" (32:291). Learning experiences can help the individual find and efficiently use the appropriate and essential means to reach chosen ends. This inVolves purposefachieving behavior--effectiveness of performance. The information and disposition to identify and apply aesthetic and ethical criteria to the way activities are performed. Learning experiences can help the individual bring to activities a lively sense of Joy, a sense of style, and a consciousness of feelings. This involves aesthetic-ethical behavior--cognizance of form, sequence, harmony, precision, and impact on self and others. The ability to respond to an increasing range of phenomena and relationships with understanding, appreciation, and appropriate action. Learning experiences can help the individual in the pro- cess of becoming--a steadily enlarging ability to respond with satisfaction to: one's self; to others; to the phenomena of nature; the per- ceptive insights of art; the processes of 14 science; technical excellence; the complexities of human nature and relationships. The desired outcome is emergingself-other behavior--an in- creasing openness-—both to the world and to the self. These contributions have been selected, not only be- cause they reflect the changing culture, but also because they reflect the needs of the individual within a changing culture and the ways in which education can contribute to the fulfillment of human purposes. They will serve as the educational framework within which the specific contri- butions of Physical Education will be defined. An Interpretation of Physical Education An interpretation of Physical Education is based on the personally derived philosophy of this investigator. The philosophy is derived from evidence currently avail- able from experimental research, observations, professional Judgment, and experience. Definition of Physical Education Physical Education is a program of continuous search fgr meaning in human movement. An understanding of the forces in man and environment which enable comprehension, control, direction, and organization of his movement-~not only in games, Sports, and dance, but in all life situ- ations—-should be a means toward effective behavior and individual fulfillment. 15 That Physical Education is the search for meaning in human movement-~the personal significance of participation in movement activities—-is the integral idea which must be sustained so that the scope, logic, and continuity of the content is not lost during a time of rapid change. Per- sonal discovery of the meaning of information by the indi- vidual must be a part of acquiring new information or participating in new experiences. Knowing is the result of gaining new knowledge. A change of behavior is the result of discovery of meaning. This change has to be made by the learner himself. A search for meaning necessitates experimentation, exploration, and a groping for new mean- ings as old ones are challenged. It encompasses a con- tinuous process in which deeper discovery of meaning can be found in things already known. On the basis of this definition, the domain of Physi— cal Education can be identified. Domain is defined as that "natural phenomenon, process, material, social insti- tution, or other aspect of man's concern on which . . ." attention is focused (99:7A). ngain of Physical Education The domain of Physical Education is the study of human movement from conception through maturity. Human movement is a natural phenomenon which is the focus of study in Physical Education. Movement experiences com- pose an essential aspect of learning about self and the l6 world--a process which contributes to the development of a self concept and an awareness of people and elements of the environment. The extensive social structures organ— ized for the promotion of sports, games, and dance are part of the realm of Physical Education. The concern for the individual and the fulfillment of human purposes cent- ers around the role of physical activity in the perpetu— ation of vital health in an increasingly sedentary society; it emphasizes the role of expression through movement in an increasingly technological and impersonal society; it demands Opportunities for communication among peoples of the world through the commonality of movement in games, sports, and dance. Each content area has its own known and used techni- cal vocabulary, system of notations, and precise meanings for commonly used words. The responsibility for develOping a command of the language system of Physical Education can— not be escaped. The technical vocabulary of movement forms and the nonverbal communication of expressive movement com- prise a system of symbols drawn from many sources but used in a unique way in Physical Education. Examples within this system of symbols are given in Chart II.2. Specific Contributions of Physical Education The selection of content in Physical Education Should be guided by the specific contributions which can l7 CHART II.2 AN EXAMPLE OF SYMBOLS CHARACTERISTIC OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHYSICAL EDUCATION-—THE STUDY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT SYSTEM OF SYMBOLS J I J 1 Technical Vocabulary Nonverbal Communication of Movement Forms 1 --Expressive Movement Elements Gesture Space: Physical mannerisms Direction; range; level; Movement signals focus; Posture Body Facings; relation- ships (up; down; forward; Body form around) Body poses Time: Speed; duration Force: Magnitude; direction Rhythm: Beat; accent Quality: Dynamic; affective Mass: Weight transfer; body parts relationships Joint action; balance Forms Axial: bend, stretch, circle, swing Locomotor: walk, run, leap, hop, Jump, crawl, skip, slide, gallop Manipulative:’ throw, kick, catch Games: relay, circle, partner Sports: soccer, athletics, home- run Dance: choreography, ballet, technique Utilitarian: push, pull, lift, carry Physical Action Over-all configuration Point of origin Direction Speed Pathway Details of execution Empathy Form Beauty Expression Rhythm Vigor 18 be made to the learner within the framework of the over-all educational contributions. The four categories of edu- cational contributions which were identified in a previous section will serve as the framework within which the specific contributions of Physical Education will be de- fined. These categories are as follows: 1. Purpose-establishing Behavior 2. Purpose—achieving Behavior 3. Aesthetic-ethical Behavior 4. Emerging Self—other Behavior In Charts II.3-a, II.3-b, II.3-c, and II.3-d, the educational aim has been defined under each category. The specific contributions which can be made through Physical Education are grouped within each category according to: (1) understandings, (2) performance, and (3) sensitive awareness. Specific contributions should not be confused with objectives of a unit or a program. The contributions are an inherent part of each learning experience which cumu- latively become integrated with the contributions of other content areas to fulfill the educational aim. It is well recognized that constructs of the learning environment are essential in making specific contributions through Physi- cal Education. Each learning experience must have in- herent worth-~significance for the individual-—not neces- sarily in terms of some eventual change in behavior, but l9 CHART II.3-a SPECIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS-~PHYSICAL EDUCATION Purpose-Establishing Behavior Educational Aim: "The ultimate aim is to help the individual choose with care the ends for which life is spent" (32:290).* Increase Understanding Of: The Role of: Movement activities in vocational and avocational pursuits; Participation in movement activities and competence in motor performance in becoming a contributing member of society; Movement as an art in the need of man to order, express, and communicate his appreciation of truth and beauty; Movement in man's search for values and meanings to give significance to life; Enduring American values--dignity of the individual; equality of opportunity; integrity of man; freedom-~in movement activities; Eovem nt activities in promoting feelings of physical vigor and emotional well being; (government, education, industry, religion, social units, business) n of movement activities; Institutions of in the organ: ups, socioeconomic groups in professional and leisure pursuits in The moving self in relationship to the possibilities in movement. The vocational and/or avocational pursuits in movement activities which contribute to rsonal fulfillment; o . activities and level of movement competence which enables the individual to become a contributing member of society; The art of movement as a means to order, express, and communicate appreciation of ruth and beauty; ~r~{ dovement as one way to seek values and meaning which give significance to life; .1 The enduring American values as a method of relating with others in movement activities; Movement activities as a way to promote feelings of physical vigor and emotional well being. Movement activities according to the basic purposes for which they were organized; Movement act vities for professional and/or leisure pursuits according to an evaluation of age, sex, cultural groups, and socioeconomic groups as they influence social expectations; Movement which enhances the self from all the possible movements in the world. ---—-----—-n-—----—-----------------------------------—----—--¢-——---——---------a-----------— Increase In Sensitive Awareness Of The Relevance in: Setting goals in movement activities in the midst of uncertainties and value conflicts; Choosing movement activities with care; Participation in self-selected movement actiVities. rwroose—Achieving BehaVior Educational Aim: The aim is to help the individual find and utilize efficiently "the neces- sary and proper means to the chosen ends" (32:291).* Increase Understanding Of The relationship between: movement performance and: neuropnysiological factors of conditioning and practice, body uuild, nutrition and rest; Rovement acfivities and: urinr process, en ti nal releise, .e.ica1 restoration; Iovement and: holy functio.-—anatonical and Physiological; Survival Potential and: strength an: flexibility, pndurance, motor Skills, total body coor ination; ‘t‘ -, t ; i , , . fl,, ,_ ‘ , _ . ,. 1 ,.. a l.. O . ~. muvlng .zuani.n and. phyleal laWo a; universe. ————————————— .a——n—v-~~————-—-a--uv-—-——.———.—w—w—c-u—p-n-----a—--a--—--—-----—---—------------—------ ' .. .. , P- . . T taprove Fer.mrnance -n ' n! . configj :' —~ r ‘ - -. - +- ' - .w v ' 1 -. ‘ -~‘ JEILQPCI,’ 7.93’ffi'nt‘rlu p:i-te:1:‘:13 Gog: , lfiyr}.-1/., ran, V‘me; A” ‘ _ H. -, . complex movement saills, Movement activities n.1Ch rerilt in efficiency of the human organism; help to maintain body weight and attractive body ontour; develop strength, physical skill, and total body coordina ion, ‘ " I nu H . -~ 4 o neuromuscular relaxation technicues 4 ’ Sensing and responling to rhythmic movements; Physical forces to meet external for: s; w \ W CPL. Critical evaluation of quality of own movement e Leadersnip and followersh The t cnniques Movement to transLate ideas; Ftratesy in games and S —-——-_-__.-__~__-_~___-—-___-.-.-.—-.———-———-———----.—-—-—-—_—_-_— -——---—‘-———-----------_--._ increase in Sensitive Awareness Of The effectiveness in: The inherent relationship between thought, feeling, and action in movement; The security potential in own knowledge and adaptable use of movement; Feelings of competence in being able to master one‘s owl movement; Self-direction, initiative, and self—discipline in movement activities. 21 CHART II.3—c Aesthetic~£thical Behavior ”ducational Aim: "The aim is to enable the individual to brin to activities a livel sense . 3 y of joJ, a sense of style, and a consciousness of affects" (32:291).* *‘fl'--- ————— ’ —————————— _—-----—----—-‘——-‘—“-*——‘”--—”-’_-----‘-------------------------. Increase Unierstanding_0f The necessity for: F4L>.ir g in harnxnn/ with tins natural curlironmen ; Hot 11:51:: all erer~‘e:—-trjslcal and psychical-~For action according to emotional forces of can nature ainin; enrichment throurh increzising realm of aesthetic satis: action in movement forms and movement activities; Heccgnising the interjepenience between men-—ways of working together to overcome opposition in pxrnesa11d 8pm he laws, rules codes of conduct in games, sports, dance--spectator and f L Demonstr atin ng: The ability to cope with opportunities, demands, frustrations, and pressures of the environment through the use of movement; A rhythmic consciousness--ar appreciation for action expressed in line and form--in nature and art, as well as movement; ' A harmonious relationship with the natural environment thro gh movement The ability to sel e t, mNari e, and integrate all experiential elements necessary for a personalised style oi movement; beauty in body torn, poise of carriage, and grace in movement and an appreciation for these traits in otlnezw ; The ability to work together to over one opposition in games and sports; Courtesy, acc ceptan<3e of others, an understanding of the mistakes or difficulties of others; Positive attitudes of winning and/or losing in games and sports; An acceptance of tne laws, rules, codes of conduct in games, sports, dance--spectator and participant. --—~_-_—_u‘-———-u—-—-——.——-—---p——_.—-——--p——u————u—---———-———_--—————-r—¢-—--o-a———--—--—-——¢——----—--—— increase in Tensitive awareness Of The creative attitude--accepting the content of one's own personality in relation to the task at hand, selecting from it, and exercising critical Judgment in seeking the meaning of one's movement experience; Beauty in movement, its essential character, means by which it may be Judged, and its relations to the sensations, emotions, and thought processes it evokes; Following intuition and Feelings, exhibiting joy of spontaneity, and living for the moment through movement; Empathy as a means of critically judging movement performance of others. 22 4‘ o 1 -1‘ ’ he - I A ."\ . in .. 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H .._ .8 ah . :1 _ I. — .p 1’; \V\ ‘..A o—‘.. , 1 Y A U i) ("ll d ‘L 1 on .A‘ at 42 1“AE“ ‘A Ffality ' ll" 3" 'r“. . rs" ~ 'I «‘ ”L... 23 for the quality of living in the present. The immediate personal experiencing is a vital element in the learning environment. Choice and freedom should be part of the context of the structured task in education. An open system of transactionv-acceptance, confidence, and mutual respect allows the individual to be himself, to be unique, and to go beyond, to be creative (5). This is the type of learning environment which encourages the learner to search for personal meaning in movement activities. The specific contributions which have been identi— fied will serve as the criteria for the selection of content in Physical Education which will contribute to the intellectual growth and skill competence of all stu— dents. CHAPTER III THE STRUCTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CONTENT A consideration of Physical Education as a content area-~what should be taught, how can it be most effective -—is a challenge and opportunity. This is an age when assessment of status and trends is common practice and change is expected; The opportunity for change is accom- panied by the responsibility for thoughtful action. This action must be made within a realistic framework of current trends in educationc The full understanding of Physical Education requires insights into many facets of human movementt This means the acquisition of a body of knowl- edgeu Serious study of human movement requires a continuous integration of two phases of study: one phase pertains to acquiring underStanding and insight into movement as it has personal significance in life; the other phase pertains to movement itself as a vital part of living. The body of knowledge or content of Physical Education must be defined and organised into a unified structure which can be logically sequenced to make specific contributions during any level Of learning; This structure must be flexible enough to absorb new information so that the content will remain cur- rent in a rapidly changing society. In this chapter 24 25 criteria for determining a structure of content will be identified and the content of Physical Education will be structured. Criteria for Determining Structure of Content A growing interest in utilizing the structures of content areas for direction in choosing learning experi- ences at many levels has resulted in an increased effort to define more clearly the structure of certain bodies of knowledge. The structure approach is not new. Whitehead (169), Judd (95), and an early attempt to organize social studies around generalizations (13) have emphasized this approach. Each content area has its own traditional structure (98:79). "Structure" is regarded as the identi- fication of key concepts, together with the major relation- ships among these concepts, and ways of acquiring or con— firming new knowledge in an area (137). It is important that the tremendous influx of new information be evaluated, selected, and sorted into some kind of structure. Knowledge proceeds from facts. These facts become meaningful when they are perceived within the structure of key concepts (20). Many new curriculum studies—~mathematics, biology, physics, social studies, health--stress key concepts throughout their courses of study. A structure of content is needed, not only to manage the diversity of accumulating knowledge, but also 26 to accommodate the new ideas from studies of the learning process. The work of Piaget (126), Bruner (25), and others has pointed out the potential for more effective learning through the use of a structured content. Two recent unpublished studies have looked at a conceptual content for Physical Education. One study (7), has organized content around three unifying concepts: (1) man's organization for movement, (2) man's capacity for movement, and (3) movement potentiation. Another study (113), identified content for a humanistic Physical Edu- cation curriculum in higher education. From an examination of current curriculum studies, three criteria have been suggested for determining the structure of content in most subject matter areas: (1) the basic unity of the total area, (2) the sequential logic of the concepts, and (3) the flexibility for absorb- ing new knowledge. Three three criteria are explained below. Easic Unity There is an urgent need for clarification of the inherent logic of each content area (166). This inherent logic allows for search and discovery in the learning pro- cess--§§§£gh for patterns within the structure; and dis: covery of the relationships among these patterns (167). The learning of concepts and their relationships can lead to more complex thinking, use of generalizations and abstractions, in addition to concrete items (137). Mastery 27 of all the facts of information in an area is impossible. Bits and pieces of information have little or no meaning within themselves. If the learner loses sight of the larger concepts, the educational process may become mean- ingless. Facts related to larger concepts become meaning- ful; therefore, they should be grouped into a structured pattern (91,117). Sequential Logic With the basic unity developed around themes and key concepts, sequencing of concepts can be done which allows each individual to proceed at his own rate and engage in experiences apprOpriate to his own level of understanding (20). Concepts should be arranged in a logical sequence in order to insure an appropriate base for later learning (115). Concepts should be organized so that the learner has an opportunity to use meanings gained in previous experiences and, thus, deepen and extend learning (172). It is the task of the educator to transform the patterned concepts which represent some part of man's knowledge into a sequence of events that is comprehensible to the learner (96). At each concept level of understanding, each learn- ing experience should present new information, enable children to use old information, and provide opportunities for interrelating the new with the old. The key concepts 28 are identical at every level of development, but the arrangement of learning experiences vary in type, level of sophistication, materials used, and depth of study (99). Flexibility A structure of content should provide for the dis— covery of new information which is then incorporated into the structure, replacing or modifying obsolete information. New and significant material as developed must be inte— grated into the existing structure if the curriculum is to meet the needs of the learner in a rapidly changing world. An advance in knowledge around one theme must be absorbed by the rest of the structure. With this criteria, the idea of an inflexible framework must be rejected (99). Application of Criteria to Physical Education‘Content The specific contributions which Physical Education can make to the individual have given insight into the pro- cess of defining content. Change is characteristic of contemporary culture. The concepts of Physical Education, the patterning of facts and statements of relationships, are relatively stable. This stability allows a reasonable foundation for a content structure. A definite structure Of content is essential to the integration of content areas. The content themes provide a framework within which the learner can progress toward an understanding of the 29 key concepts. The three criteria suggested for structur- ing content were used in developing a content structure of Physical Education. Basic Unity--The Content Themes and Key Concepts The basic unity of Physical Education content is pre- sented through the process of defining content themes. The content themes have been derived from the process of identi— fication of specific contributions which may be made through Physical Education. These themes form the unifying threads which bind together the vertical components and form the SCOpe for all horizontal components in the content structure of Physical Education. They are as follows: 1. History of Movement: Cultural Heritage, Social Structures. 2. Movement: Unity of Pattern, Diversity of Type. 3. Changes in Movement: Age, Practice, Conditioning. 4. Interrelationship: Structure and Function of the Moving Organism. 5. Individual Optimal Movement: Regulation, Balance. The content themes and the key concepts which serve them are presented in Chart III.1. For further definition of scope, the key concepts are extended into scope—defining concepts in Charts III.l-a, III.l-b, III.l-c, III.l-d, and III.l-e. 3O CHART III.1 CONTENT THEMES AND KEY CONCEPTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION CULTURAL HERITAGE; THEME 1 HISTORY OF MOVEMENT: SOCIAL STRUCTURES Key Concept: Movement is a reflection of the cultural heritage and social structures of the people. UNITY OF PATTERN;I THEME 2 MOVEMENT‘ DIVERSITY OF TYPE Key Concept: Movement is a genetic and environmental product. AGE; THEME 3 CHANGES IN MOVEMENT: PRACTICE; CONDITIONING Key Concept: Movement changes with age, practice, and conditioning. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION THEME A INTERRELATIONSHIP. OF MOVING ORGANISM Key Concept: There is an interrelationship between the structure and function of the moving organism. REGULATION' THEME 5 INDIVIDUAL OPTIMUM MOVEMENT: BALANCE ’ Key Concgpt: The individual has the primary responsibility for the regulation and balance of his own movement. 31 CHART III.l-a THEME , CULTURAL HERITAGE“ HISTORY OF MOVEMENT. SOCIAL STRUCTURES, KEY CONCEPTS gg Movement is a reflection of the cultural heritage agd social structures of the people. SCOPE-DEFINING CONCEPTS ‘ CULTURAL HERITAGE: People from the beginning of human existence haVe contri- buted to the cultural heritage of movement. Movement forms change as movement theories change. Movement which is characteristic of a culture is a re- flection of behavioral patterns, mores, customs, and values. Movement is common to all mankind; therefore, it is a means of communication and understanding among people throughout the world. SOCIAL STRUCTURES: Movement activities are organized and conducted through social institutions. Organized movement activities must act in accordnace with established social rules and system of social controls. Movement activities are structured according to: age; sex, cultural groups; social groups; People develop institutions which support their movement activities. ‘ 32 CHART III.l-b THEME , UNITY OF PATTERN- MOVEMENT' DIVERSITY or TYPE] KEY CONCEPT Movement is a genetic and environmental product. SCOPE-DEFINING CONCEPTS UNITY OF PATTERN: Movement is characteristic of all living things. Movement is governed by the physical laws of the universe. Members of a biological species possess the charac- teristic movement patterns of that species. DIVERSITY OF TYPE: Movement varies with the genetic potential of the individual. Movement varies with the physical medium: water; land; air; space. Movement varies with climatic conditions. 33 CHART III.l-c THEME AGE; CHANGES IN MOVEMENT: PRACTICE; CONDITIONING KEY CONCEPT L_Movement changes with age, practice, and conditioning.] SCOPE-DEFINING CONCEPTS AGE: Motor development follows an orderly sequential pattern which is characteristic of all human beings. Movement behavior is influenced by the aging process. PRACTICE: Movement patterns can be improved with practice. Movement patterns can be modified for specific activities; CONDITIONING: Movement performance can be altered through physio- logical conditioning. 3H CHART III.l-d THEME STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION] INTERRELATIONSHIP: OF MOVING ORGANISM KEY CONCEPT There is an interrelationship between the structure and function of the moving organism. SCOPE-DEFINING CONCEPTS Movement performance can be enhanced by the harmonious relationship between structure and function of the organ- ism. Functional vitality in movement is dependent upon the energy system of the organism: nutrition; rest; organic health. Structure--body form, body coordination, body compo- sition-~is influenced by the functional use of movement. 35 CHART III.l-e THEME REGULATION; INDIVIDUAL OPTIMUM MOVEMENT: BALANCE KEY CONCEPT The individual has the primary responsibility for the regulation and balance of his own movement. SCOPE-DEFINING CONCEPTS REGULATION: Conservation of physical ability begins early and continues throughout life through the regulation of amount and intensity of physical activity. Physical condition of one's organism influences the quality of movement performance. Values govern one's world of movement—-its direction (type); its dimension (extent). Conscious control of understanding and reasoning manifests discrimination and personal choice in one's movement. BALANCE: Movement experiences provide means for a better understanding of self and the world. Development of movement potential is related to the effective use of human resources in our society. Movement provides a basic means of communication and expression. 36 Sequential Logic--Progression Effooncepp'LEVels The first learning experience is based on the experi- ential background of the learner and where he is in his stage of development. At each concept level, eXperiences should consist of continuous interweaving and enlarging of the concepts, the symbols, and performance capabilities. The same key concepts within the content structure are used at every level, but the arrangement of learning experiences and the emphases vary. Learning experiences should be sequenced so they add to the foundation upon which subsequent understandings can be built and the child can move ahead in intellectual development. At each level, the learner should deve10p a working understanding of increas- ingly complex concepts. The learning experience should be designed according to the movement capabilities and inter- ests of the learner so that personal significance can be- come part of the experience. Flexibility-~Potential for AQSOrbing‘NeW'Infofmation Physical Education is a dynamic area. An examination of many sources indicates that new information on the ef- fects of exercise and health on human performance is a major area of research. Interdisciplinary research is contributing to the knowledge of the interrelationships between structure and function of the moving organism and between the moving organism and his environment. The 37 sociological aspects of games and sports in our culture are being studied more thoroughly. Two books which have been written in this area have come out this year (1967): Man, Sport and Existence by Howard Slusher (150), and, Social Dimensions of Physical Activity by Bryant J. Cratty (3A). The role of humanities in the schools has brought a new emphasis in the study of cultural heritage. The billion dollar business related to sports, games, dance and other activities in our society forces recogni- tion and study of the problems and potential of those activities and the social structures which control and organize their develOpment. The role of movement experi- ences in the optimal development of the young child and how these experiences affect learning have received a new impetus from the theories of Piaget and studies of learn- ing disorders in children. Sedentary activity of man in an increasingly mechanized society and its effects on physical well-being have been continous research areas. The computerized potential for storing and dispensing information should bring the new information from the re- search laboratories to the curriculum worker within a shorter time than ever before. The content structure of Physical Education must be flexible enough to absorb all new pertinent information in order that it may be trans- lated into learning experiences. PART II IMPLEMENTATION OF A PHILOSOPHICAL BASE FOR A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN 38 CHAPTER IV A PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM DESIGN FOR KINDERGARTEN In Part II, an example will be given of how the philosophical base can be implemented at a specific level. The Physical Education program design will be developed for children in kindergarten. In order to give the teacher insight into the developing child and guidance in selecting appropriate movement performance activities, it will be necessary to establish the performance base for kindergarten. This is accomplished through a selec- tive review of research evidence on the early development of movement and motor skills. Physical Education content will then be selected and organized for the kindergarten level, followed by suggestions for evaluation of learner status and progress. The Performance Base for Kindergarten Performance of movement patterns and movement skills plays a significant role in the understanding of self and the world. Movement experiences are basic to the varied encounters with the environment which allow the child to engage in the process of concept building. Control of the 39 A0 moving self is an aspect of development which is reflected in oneis total relationship with the world and becomes a cornerstone of personality development (56). To untangle the complex interrelations of the structural, functional, and psychological factors which influence the movement characteristics of the young child is a challenging task. A child is a complex organism--a thinking, feeling, behaving organism which is not static but is in continual reciprocal interaction with his environ- ment. At any given moment in time, the behavior of the child is a resultant of his genetic endowment plus all the environmental transactions--internal and external--which have taken place since conception. The genetic and environmental conditions which occur prior to school entry will be discussed in the form of general statements followed by supporting evidence from the literature on the following concerns: (1) the orderly sequence of motor development and the variation among human beings regarding the time at which specific motor develop- mental stages are reached, (2) the variation in movement behavior-~the integral relationships among an individual's movement forms (what he does), movement structures (how he does it), and movement attitudes (why he does it)—-among individuals, (3) the factors in early movement experiences which help to establish effective transactions with the environment. This information is a means toward the Al understanding of the integral part which movement perform- ance has in the development of the child. It will give the teacher insight into the developing child and may be used in selecting appropriate learning experiences for the individual. A section on performance expectations will serve as a guide to the teacher in the selection of performance activities appropriate for the early years. Human Movement-—Early Development Statement 1 Motor development proceeds in harmony with bio- logical laws and follows an orderly sequence which is consistent within a species. There is consider- able variation among human beings regarding the time at which specific motor developmental stages are reached. The timing of these events is in— fluenced by: Race, Sex, Nutritional Factors, Body Build, Perinatal Factors, Child-Rearing Practices. Orderly Sequence of Motor Develgpment.--The material contained in Appendix A illustrates the motor development which characterizes the human race, and which normally develops in every child. The continuity in development from fetal and neonatal life through infancy and early childhood is readily apparent. For an indication of the growth of motor activities, as revealed in a study of twenty—five infants during the first two years of life, 42 see Figure A.l., Shirley (147) observed these infants at intervals of one day until they were one week old; at intervals of two days until they were two weeks old; at intervals of one week until they were a year old; and at intervals of two weeks until the end of the second year. Parents reported on the progress of the infants during the intervals through the use of specially prepared forms. Additional information on motor development during infancy has come from a number of studies, including those. of Gesell and co-workers. The developmental sequences of motor behavior (birth to age 5) have been combined with the behavior growth (embryo to age 5) as presented by Gesell (65,68) in order to illustrate the trends and fields of behavior growth (Fig. A.2). The pattern of flexor- extensor dominance during the development stages of prone behavior and the age at which a given action pattern typically appears as observed by Gesell and Ames (67) is presented in Chart A.l. Biographical and normative studies, while differing Slightly in their age norms for particular items of motor development, are largely in agreement concerning the sequential order of appearance of major items such as sitting, creeping, standing, and walking. Although the sequence of motor development is constant from child to child, it should be recognized, however, that there are wide individual differences in the age at which specific items appear. A3 Although normative studies indicate the age at which various motor accomplishments are to be expected, they do not necessarily reveal the details about the development of a Specific activity from its initial to its final stages. In order to gain insight into this part of develOpment, the following illustrations from the studies of McGraw (111) and Ames (3) have been in- cluded in the Appendix: (1) six phases of the resistive aSpect of neuromuscular development in achieving a sitting position (Fig. A.3), (2) nine phases in the development of prone progression according to McGraw (Fig. A.A), (3) fourteen developmental stages in prone progression according to Ames (Fig. A.5), (A) seven selected phases in the assumption of an erect posture (Fig. A.6), and (5) seven phases in erect locomotion (Fig. A.7). For a detailed discussion of this development, see Appendix A. In the progression from supported to unsupported locomotion, there are at first self-initiated stepping movements. Subsequent stages are marked by a lessening of the movements necessary, changes in foot contacts, and improved coordination. A more detailed discussion of this development will be found in Appendix A. A better understanding of the development of the infant may be obtained relating the development of loco- motion with other motor reactions. In order to illustrate this relationship, the median ages and parts of the body AA controlled in various reactions in the motor sequence as observed by Shirley (147) are presented (Chart A.2). For further understanding, the development of movement during the first two and one-half years based on Montessori's (11A) work with children has been reproduced in Figure A.8. The orderly sequence of motor development presents a strong argument in favor of the view that motor develop- ment is a function of maturation. Although there is a marked tendency for the motor developmental sequence to be maintained from one child to another, different children reach a Specific stage of development at different ages. Some of the major influences which cause this variation are summarized here. Research evidence to support the following statements will be found in Appendix A. The time at which the earlier patterns are reached is advanced in Negro children. Earlier skeletal and sexual maturity is characteristic of females as compared to males. The female exceeds the male in attaining the early motor patterns. Nutritional factors of the child and prenatal nutrition of the mother affect the time at which stages in motor develop- ment are reached. Caloric and protein deficiency limit growth. Poor maternal diet is positively related to still- births, prematurity, neonatal deaths, poor physical condi- tion, functionally immature infants, and congenital defects. Infants who were breast fed from four to nine months were found to be physically superior to those infants who were artificially fed. “5 Components of fat, muscle, and bone vary and are different for the two sexes. Fatness is associated with a faster rate of growth and earlier sexual maturation. The most crucial perinatal factor is that of pre- maturity. The determining factor as to when the premature infant reaches specific motor developmental stages is the weight at birth. The lower the birth weight, the greater the delay in reaching and mastering the progressive motor developmental stages. Anoxia may also affect motor be- havior through hyperactivity or hypoactivity. Child-rearing practices which are restrictive, in— hibiting, psychologically traumatic, or delimiting in freedom of movement have been found to retard motor development. Customary infant sleeping position appears also to affect the timing of motor development. Statement 2 Movement characteristics provide each individual with a unique and recognizable movement behavior. These movement characteristics are a result of genetic and environmental variables: Timing of Motor Developmental Stages, Responsiveness to the Environment, Movement Experience. Movement behavior is defined as the integral relation- ships among an individual's movement forms (what he does), movement structures (how he does it), and movement atti- tudes (why he does it). The state of preparedness to A6 respond to environmental stimuli depends upon the extent to which the child has been permitted to advance to the new developmental stages. It depends also on whether or not the child has been permitted to complete each develop- mental stage without being forced to proceed to a stage for which he is not ready. Differential abilities to respond to or be modified by the environment are dependent upon individual differences in the development of intra- individual maturational and acquired changes. State of preparedness also limits the modifiability of the child by his culture. Changes occur in the kinds of stimuli which reach the child and which he seeks as his thresholds of response proceed through orderly sequences (93). These are the factors which will be discussed below under the categories: timing of motor develOpmental stages, re- sponsiveness to the environment, movement experiences. Timingof Motor Developmental Stages.—-In the previous section, it was illustrated that there are wide variations in the time when individuals reach each motor developmental stage. It is particularly important for adults to be con- stantly aware of the great variations among children in timing and achievement during the early stages of motor development. Because of this individual variation, it is inapprOpriate to expect a child to conform to a certain norm obtained from a group of children of a similar age. A child that develops muscular control early may reSpond “7 more effectively to the environment. The late develop- ing child may not respond satisfactorily only because he is less mature. Rate of development is one factor which helps determine the psychological situation in which the child finds himself. His self—perception and the reaction ac- corded him by others is determined largely by his physical status (9). Bodies which function poorly or develOp erratically contribute to inferior self-concepts (106). The same child who faces this situation when young, will probably be exposed later to a sociOpsychological environ- ment which may have adverse affects on his personality development because of retarded physical and motor develop- ment (118). The movements of a child who is delayed in motor development may be clumsy, awkward, and uncoordinated in comparison with his peers. This may result in the in- ability to join in the play activities of one's peers. Dependency because of motor incompetence may result in self-consciousness in the presence of children who are more independent in their actions. This delayed motor control during infancy and early childhood may cause with- drawal from social groups which may in turn lay the foundation for unsocial attitudes and behavior (90). Each child needs to be allowed to follow his own timing in mastering various aspects of bodily control. A8 Parental expectations which are not based on knowledge of the child's maturational level may cause frustration and feelings of failure. This attitude of frustration and failure developed in the preschool years can affect his behavior not only at this time but also in the years to come (92). Responsiveness to the Environment.--There are wide individual differences in response to environmental con- ditions. During a given amount of time, one individual may be considered hypoactive and another hyperactive. Movements of some individuals may be categorized as in- tense (strong, forceful) whereas other individuals may be considered weak. Certain individuals characteristically move slowly whereas others may move quickly. In the neuro- logical examination of the newborn infant, spontaneous motor activity is assessed by the three factors mentioned: (1) level of activity or amount of movement in a given time, (2) the intensity (strength, forcefulness) of move- @221, and (3) the Speed of movement (128). Movement characteristics such as these contribute to a uniqueness and recognizable movement behavior for each individual. 1. Level of Actiyity Infants can be grouped on a continuum from hypo— active to hyperactive including the groups: (1) within normal range, (2) quiet, (3) moderately active, and (A) active. Hypoactive and hyperactive groups are considered A9 pathological (5A). Level of activity in infancy is con- sidered predictive of subsequent behavior and therefore an innate rather than an acquired characteristic (143). A high score for percentage of time active in fetal life was predictive of specialized behavior on Gesell items six months postnatally in the studies of fetal behavior by Newbery and Richards (135). The activity level of the child may affect his development indirectly by affecting general interaction with the environment (119). In Western culture, parents expect the boy to be active and the girl inactive. The active boy and the inactive girl would, therefore, meet with much more parental approval than the inactive boy and the active girl. This cultural eXpectation is probably apparent with the first child-parent interaction, but may not be perceived by the infant until he is neurologically more mature. A preference for more activity may be characteristic of boys. As a group, boys were more active than girls, according to a study by Koch and Streit (101). This prefer- ence for more activity by boys as compared with girls was also found in a study of ten three-year old nursery school children (22). Whether or not this activity pattern is based on cultural expectations or is genetically defined according to body type remains a question. 50 The child's relative standing in activeness may be a function of the situation in which he is placed. Inter- activity correlations df preschool children were found to be low. Behavior in the afternoon was less active than in the forenoon (101). Hyperactivity, along with short attention span and poor power of concentration, impulsiveness, irritability, explosiveness, variability and poor school work make up the components of hyperkinetic behavior syndrome (103). A hyperactive child may find physical activity, although appearing not very purposeful, to be the only mode of self expression (1A1). Activity level may reflect a potential which pre- disposes toward a definable course of development. High activity level, in the presence of some other conditions, can lead to: (l) a maturational pattern at preschool age in which gross motor coordination is distinctly more ad- vanced than fine coordination, and (2) a pattern of intel- lectual functioning in which achievement on performance items (minimally requiring abstract thought) is distinctly superior to achievement on verbal items (which predomi- nantly tap concept formation and thought processes). Opposite patterns of motor development and intellectual functioning can be predicted for children whose infancy activity level is markedly low. Infants who are hyper- active in early life may be unduly vulnerable to 51 environmental stimuli and therefore more likely than others to show some degree of maladjustment (48). 2. Intensity of Movement Each individual is endowed with certain genetically determined or constitutional characteristics of physical and mental vigor. These qualities contribute to a po- tential resistive or reactive response to environmental pressures (15A). The importance of this vigor or inten- sity of response is emphasized by Duffy: Energy mobilization tendencies constitute one of the most significant aspects of the individual's personality. They represent the intensigy with which he responds to the various environmental situ- ations with which he is confronted. They indicate then, whether he is likely to be relatively unre- sponsive to situations, highly responsive, or moderately responsive. And this tendency to re- spond to situations with high, with low, or with some intermediate degree of energy mobilization is the basis for a wide variety of behavioral mani- festations which differentiate one individual from another (A6:170). The human organism is a dynamic energy system. Wide individual differences in the use of this energy are evi- dent as early as the fetal stage of development and per- meates all aSpects of later development. Evidence tends to substantiate the assumption that there is a marked de- gree of difference in the extent of activation in the same situation between individuals and that these differ- ences in activation tend to persist and to characterize the individual. Habits of meeting a situation in a cer- tain way appear to provide a considerable degree of consistency (A6). 52 The consistency of response to stimuli for specific individuals is supported by research evidence. Individual differences in intensity of response among babies were found to show significant day-to—day constancy (1A). Identifiable characteristics of reactivity were found to be persistent features of the child's behavior throughout the first two years. Specifically, intensity of reaction can be considered a stable characteristic. A given environ- mental influence, therefore, will not produce the same response in all children (162). Energy output, identifi— able early as a trait of individuality, has been correctly appraised in terms of prediction prior to sixteen weeks (66). Available energy has been identified as a factor productive of one‘s "life-style" (31). The behavior of the organism is always in response to changes occurring either inside or outside the organism or, characteristically, in both places. Children who have exceptionally low sensory thresholds and therefore high sensitivity may be unduly vulnerable to environmental stimuli. Degree of sensitivity to stimulation is, there- fore, of primary importance in the adjustment to and inter- action with the environment (A6). Large individual differ- ences and relative constancy for each individual were found in a study of muscular tension and emotional ten— dencies with children ages 2 years, ll months and 3 years, l0 months. There was a correlation of .52 between 53 excitability ratings and tension scores. The author sug— gested that children who habitually manifest a high de- gree of muscular tension may have special problems which must be recognized and dealt with. These children seem to be very sensitive to stimulation of all kinds which ex- poses them to certain dangers which may result in com- plexity of social adjustments (A5). 3. Speed of Movement From the moment of birth, there appear to be differ- ences in such things as the rapidity of crying, strength of sucking reflexes, and activity patterns (130). The findings in a study of the constancy of psyco—motor tempo in individual infants suggest considerable consistency in the tempo of movement of any one child. For example, children who creep slowly also climb and prehend slowly. Furthermore, the characteristic tempo of movement does not appear to change markedly as a result of practice. This constancy is pointed out by Ames: The fact that in such various fields of behavior new and often complex behavior patterns can appear for the first time in a form so complete that several weeks, often several months, of exercise do not appreciably change either their form or Speed strongly suggests that such patterns are determined by internal maturational rather than experiential factors. Children do simpler things first and more complex ones later, but the indi- vidual movements, whether simple or advanced pat- terns, remain remarkably constant (A:AA5—A50). Evidence tends to support the belief that there are wide individual differences in: (1) level of activity, 54 (2) intensity of response, (3) speed of movement. These definite motor habits are as characteristic of the child as speech patterns or facial expressions. The conclusion can be drawn that each child presents a consistent and unique pattern of movement behavior. Movement Experiences.--Each individual has a move- ment identity which is formed by the circular, reciprocal relationships between the unique motor characteristics of the individual and all eXperiences involved with move- ment. Not only does the individual have knowledge of and experience with his own body, but because people are anatomically and physiologically more alike than differ- ent, comparative and empathic assessment is possible (139). Each individual creates his own life-space through his individualized perception and communication with his environment, whereby he is able to participate socially while living in his own idiosyncratic way, "ignoring and rejecting or attempting to escape whatever is not rele- vant, congruous, or consonant with his idiomatic patterns of perceiving, functioning, and communicating" (52:3A). Within the framework of available environmental stimuli, each child selects those things which have meaning for him and in this way begins a pattern of unique behavior. Each culture has within it what is often a complex net— work of interpersonal relationships. Because relation- ships are not random, but are patterned, behavior to a 55 certain extent is predictable. However, the living, growing, developing, aging human being is an_open system with a continuum of experiences--forced to interact with the environment and the symbolic cultural world. This interaction begins at birth. Charles has stated: "The newborn child arrives in the world with no knowledge of human cultural and social ways. He is as naked culturally as he is physically. . . ." (31:37). Encouragement by parents to participate in certain movement activities probably begins with the first toy given to the infant. Many sources agree that people in American culture respond differently to girls and boys, even as early as infancy. Clear differences in play preferences have appeared by the age of two or two and one-half years. Boys prefer more rugged activities, girls more quiet ones (106). The question is whether this "prefer- ence" is cultural or a genetically prescribed motor charac- teristic. Personal involvement--the feeling the individual has about his own movement--interweaves a path throughout the total circular, reciprocal relationship pattern between motor characteristics and movement eXperiences. The main object of study for the infant is his own body and the bOdy's ability to enter into and explore its environment. The child uses his body to express his feelings. The process of establishing bodily control is modified by his 56 emotional status. Kephart has pointed out the importance of early motor responses: The early motor or muscular responses of the child, which are the earliest behavorial responses of the human organism, represent the beginnings of a long process of development and learning. Through these first motor explorations, the child begins to find out about himself and the world around him, and his motor experimentation and his motor learnings become the foundation upon which such knowledge is built (97:35). Attitude affects the performance of a movement task. The ability to focus interest on a specific movement task is essential. An infant, whose interest in the environ- ment is diffuse, may be easily distracted by other objects. When the child's interest becomes less diffuse, the child may show intense interest thus enhancing his motor per- formance. If the urge to perform the task is too intense, performance may be impeded. The next stage in development of attitude emerges as the total situation becomes ordered in the mind of the child. Optimum performance is found in the following stage when the child performs the movement task for the sheer satisfaction of performing. Once the movement task is completely mastered, it loses its fasci- nation. At this time, the child may become easily dis- tracted because of boredom and performance is dependent upon mood (37). Movement is experienced as conduct in relation to the world. Movement occurs in space and time. When an individual moves, he finds that time has passed and his 57 relationship in space has changed. Movement experiences consist of sequences of movement or modes of moving rather than individual movements (157). Movement explo— rations are essential for the child to build up a stable body schema from which he can create a relationship to the object world. Verticality and laterality are elabo- rations of a stable body image learned through a long pro- cess of experimenting, observing, comparing, and differ- entiating the various parts of the body in terms of move- ment activity. These movements, then, must be integrated in terms of total body activity and in relation to the center of gravity of the child. The child's own body is the starting point for all exploration of the world and if it is variable and distorted, exploration will be variable and distorted. If his exploration is rigid and restricted, so will be his ability to eXplore. An orien- tation to time is also crucial to awareness of the moving self. A temporal awareness of self serves as a point of origin for estimates of time and duration. The child should be able to order events along a temporal continuum (“7). Evidence tends to support the belief that each in- dividual has movement characteristics which provide a uni- Que and recognizable movement behavior. Both genetic and environmental variables aid in the development of move- ment behavior. The state of preparedness and the 58 prediSposition to respond in specific ways to environ- mental stimuli determine the modifiability of the child. Thus, his movement characteristics continue to shape and mold his behavior as he interacts with his environment. Spatement 3 Early movement experiences are fundamental to establishing effective transactions with the environment. The child is a small human being carrying on his own struggle to meet his needs and find meaning in his life. He must learn to cope with situations as best he can. Out of these efforts, he eventually develOps pat- terned ways of coming to terms with his environment. A behavioral sequence has been observed when children are faced with a new situation: anxiety about the new situ- ation, which gives way to interest as familiarization be- gins; increasing mastery accompanied by repetition; mastery Of the activity after which interest wanes; readiness for new challenges (120). During the locomotor progression, there is a dramatic expansion of the spatial world of the child. Dependency slowly diminishes and the child begins to explore on his own initiative, discovering not only new areas of space, but also new things which he can manipu- late. Observe an infant placed in the prone progression. Although an attractive object may be placed within the 59 infant's range of vision, he will not be able to study the object except through a brief visual input if he is unable to hold up his head. As soon as he is able to maintain head control, he will be able to study the ob- ject visually. When the child is able to maintain a stable sitting posture, he can then explore objects either within his reach or objects given to him. He is now free to feel, taste, smell the objects. This he could also do previously in the supine position, however, his relation- ship in space in now quite different. He can add the sense of sound by pounding the object on a surface. He will probably throw the object as soon as he is able to release it. In the throwing movement, he receives kinesthetic feedback. The object, when returned to the child, is thrown again and again, but stability in the sitting position and release of the grasp must precede this action. The child first learning to crawl or creep is con- cerned with getting from here to there--the process has his full attention. This is true also with the child first learning to walk when attention is focused on the specific elements of walking--how to put one foot in front of the other; how to keep from falling down. If he comes to an obstacle, he will probably revert to any earlier develop- mental stage, i.e., creeping or crawling, in which he has enough competence to get to his goal. 60 When the child has achieved postural control the vertical position has once again placed him in a new spatial relationship. He is free to engage in the ex- ploration of his environment—-free to move to the ob- ject, to touch, to taste, to smell, to throw, to strike, to kick, to stand on, to sit upon, to put on top of his head. Through experimenting with many different move- ment elements, he gradually extends his movement capa- bilities and ways of coping with his environment. The purpose of the movement has now changed from control of movement itself to the use of movement to gather infor- mation of his inner world of self and his outer world of the environment. Abnormalities in basic movement patterns are early symptoms of learning disorders, e.g., reading problems (reversals, inversions). Clinical evidence has shown that lack of well develOped crawling and creeping patterns in infancy may cause motor disorganization in later life (78, 39, 131, 70). Child growth and development research indicates that motor development of children occurs in a sequential pat- tern beginning with simple reflex patterns. Development takes place in a cephalocaudal and proximodistal direction with a neurological interweaving between oppositional parts (33). The mastery of neuromuscular control and coordination at one level of development serves as a basis 61 for performance in the next higher level, and all succeed- ing levels. It is when there is inadequate development in neuromuscular coordination at any level, that the sub- sequent levels of performance are less than optimal. There may be many reasons for inadequate motor development. However, one which should be considered is the lack of specific movement experiences which are con- sidered essential to motor development. There appears to be general agreement, including Kephart (A7), Barsch (10), Getman (71), and Bowers (19) on the importance of specific movement experiences during the period of time in which neurological growth and organization at a given level is proceeding in the individual. To help the child who has inadequate motor develOpment, a number of clinicians have advocated movement experiences which follow the motor developmental sequence arranged from simple to complex and from gross to fine motor experiences--from early patterns, i.e., rolling, crawling, creeping to more complex patterns of walking and jumping. The beginning of behavior is placed at the point in time when the neuromuscular activity begins (30). Infancy is a time of active, continuous learning during which is laid the basis for all cognitive and motor processes through which the child becomes capable of establishing effective transactions with his environment (168). There has been renewed interest in motor, sensory, or exploratory 62 activity as related to learning. The child responds to his environment with differences in degree and kind of activity. An intrinsic activity motivation has been stressed by Hunt (89). That the child seeks Opportuni- ties to investigate his surroundings has been demon- strated by Piaget (126). The importance of early move- ment experiences has been emphasized by Montessori (llA), Kephart (97), Bruner (25), Getman (71), among others. Those experiences which have had repeated emphasis are those which help in developing: awareness of the body and differentiation between the body and objects in space; stability of the moving body; spatial orientation; tem- poral integration. The infant learns to differentiate himself from the object world. Based on an integration of all past and ongoing sensori-motor experiences, the body becomes a reference point for transactions with the environment. This reference point is stabilized through the force of gravity. Movement eXploration which includes many postural adjustments is necessary for developing body awareness. The maintenance of these postural adjustments deve10ps through the precise mechanism of coordinated balance (A7). The child must develop an orientation in space--he must know "where" he is and where all other things are in relationship to himself and each other. This will enable him to move with efficiency and secu- rity as he inspects the world in front of him, behind him, above and below and to either side of him (10). 63 The body is also a point of origin for time. The child should learn to order events along a temporal con- tinuum. Time and space are inseparable aspects of move- ment--when a child moves, he will find that time has elapsed and space has been covered. A child may per- ceive a Span of time by the number of events which occur within that span of time. This is similar to perceiving distance by the number of objects within a given dis— tance (A7). The human organism is designed to receive infor- mation. Vision defines objects, relationships, color, distance, direction. The auditory mechanism organizes the vast world of sound into a symbolic system of com- munication. The tactual sense defines texture, contours, edges, shape, heat, cold, pain. In order to understand how to position himself for performance, how it feels to move in a certain way, the child must become aware of the kinesthetic input from the muscular system. These senses bring meaningful information to the moving organism and work harmoniously with the body awareness, spatial orien- tation, temporal integration, and dynamic balance (10). When the child begins to explore his world, he learns by direct contact with things and events. He discovers their temporal, spatial, and quantitative di— mensions and thus begins to understand the orderliness and regularity of events. Each experience is built upon 6A what the child has already perceived, his expectations, patterns of response, and feelings developed through previous explorations. When adequate sensory stimulation has been denied, the child is handicapped in developing sensory and motor capacities. The early years are the most crucial for learning to learn and for establishing environmental relationships (53). Ideas can develop from autonomous orienting pro- cesses and be woven into the child's own independent motor, emotional, kinesthetic, and other sensory eXperiencing. According to Murphy, the "cognitive and motor--or basic ego--resources of the child contribute a major share to- ward determination of the potential skill, competence, problem solving, conceptualizing, and mastery potential- ities of the child" (120:251). Motor and sensory deveIOpment provide expanding horizons through which the child increases cognitive abilities. Level of motor competence affects the body image and self concept of the child (2l,A8). Motor ability constitutes an important component of feelings of compe- tence in coping with the environment (8). The motor activities of the child are basic to the varied experi- ences which allow him to participate in the process of concept building. Motor control is not only learning to use muscles appropriate to a given act but of learning to inhibit the action of nonessential muscle groups. 65 During the preschool years the child incessantly partici- pates in_gross motor activity, during which there is continual practice and improvement in locomotor action with many variations, object manipulation, and increasing skill in coordinating body action with sensory stimu- lation (56). Activity is a major characteristic of the child's world. Objects of the physical world become integrated into symbols through action. Games provide an oppor- tunity for the child to learn to abide by social rules, to show joy or anger without losing control (18). Games provide opportunities for practicing neuromuscular coordi- nation which enables the child to COpe with spatial dimen- sion and organization as he orients himself in his small world. Play provides opportunities for dealing with the real world of objects, situations, and events and allows communication of feelings through nonverbal messages. It is a major area of opportunity for the child to learn to learn through endless practice which develops proficiency in a variety of performances (53, 1A5). The active transaction of the child with his environ- ment is essential for maximum development. Most children will seek out aspects of their environment. When a task has meaning for the child, there is no limit to his attention span. He will become so engrossed, the world literally goes on around him. The child will choose a 66 more complex task over a simple one which he has already mastered. Motor behavior is translated into perceptual symbols. Thus, the child engages in behavior that leads to concept attainment. These concepts about self and how to deal with the environment give the child, not only competence, but feelings of competence (76). Motor Skills--Performance Expectations Development of Motor Skills The acquisition of motor skills is a gradual process growing out of postural control and the integration of movement patterns. The importance of postural control and integration of movement patterns has been presented in the previous section under Statement 3. The early years are primarily concerned with elaboration and re- finement of reflex movements and the gross movements in- volved in neuromuscular maturation. Improvement in this process is dependent upon the capacity of the organism to anticipate response needs and the opportunity for move- ment experiences as the neuromuscular system becomes ready. It is generally recognized that the infant must have reached a certain level of maturation before practice can become effective (69, 83, 8A, 82). As competency in the performance of movement patterns is acquired, greater freedom is available for adapting to new situations. On 67 the basis of her study of Johnny and Jimmy, McGraw (109) concluded that the extent to which exercise of an activity may alter the development of a particular behavioral course in infancy is contingent upon the following conditions: 1. The neuro-structural level at which the activity is controlled; 2. The state of plasticity or fixity of the be- havior-course at the time increased exercise of use is introduced; 3. The state of fixity attained by the behavior- pattern at the time the factor of special exercise is withdrawn; and A. The phylogenetic origin and importance of the behavior-pattern. The longitudinal study of motor performance of children studied earlier in life indicated three factors as being important in determining the permanence or deterioration of a motor skill when no special exercise had occurred for a period of years. These factors were: (1) the lack of practice p33 s3, (2) the influence of the child's attitude toward the performance, and (3) the changing configuration of the bodily structure as a re— sult of physical growth (110). The retention of advanced Skills, after the modifying factors of intensive exercise 68 have been withdrawn is prOportional to the quality of integration of the movement performance (110). DevelOpment studies on the motor skills of children indicate that initial ability on all tasks increases with age (7A). Although there is an increase in motor skills with age, evidence tends to indicate that this achieve- ment could be greater in some children. A study by Gutteridge (80) implied that young children showed motor control and proficiency far in advance of the common be- lief or tradition. This would indicate that our expec- tations are set too low. A slowing down of achievement in certain activities after three years of age was attri- buted to a lack of environmental stimulation and challenge to further effort. The author suggested that in cases of motor retardation, a way must be found to judge whether this was due to retarded physical development or lack of Opportunity suited to individual needs. Other factors which influenced motor skill achieve- ment have been pointed out by Jones (9A): (1) interest and confidence in children as expressed by the mothers results in Spontaneity, (2) the length of the legs affected the use of wheel materials-~children with shorter legs pro- pelled the materials earlier than did those with longer 1983, (3) amount of intelligence affected the ability to coordinate body locomotion with locomotion of wheel materials, (A) freedom of play activities in the home 69 environment, presence of preschool playmates, and ab- sence of adults other than parents were all factors which positively related to a tendency toward spontaneity in play, (5) continued practice of a skill was necessary for it to develop into graceful, coordinated performance, and (6) each skill must become automatic before the child can combine activities successfully. Norms for Motor Skills.--Information on the develop- ment of motor skills during infancy has come from several normative studies including those of BUhler and Hetzer (26), Gutteridge (80), Griffiths (79), Cunningham (36), and McCaskill and Wellman (107). These and other workers have prepared scales or tests of motor achievements. The norms established vary somewhat from one scale to another, but are generally representative of the pOpulation. These scales contain important information for the parent or teacher responsible for guiding the motor development of the child. Examples of tests which show the relationship of motor skill to chronological age are shown in Appendix B. A summary of criteria of satisfactory performance of motor activities has been compiled from the Gesell Developmental Schedules by Blum and Fieldsteel (16). Items were selected on the basis of their significance as indicated by Gesell, their appropriateness as judged 70 in wide clinical experience, and the ease and accuracy with which they may be observed. This chart is repro- duced in Chart 8.1. The median age-placement of some activities are similar but not identical with those of Gesell. In studying the consistency and predictive value of the Gesell Developmental Schedule, Knobloch and Pasamanick (100) also found variations in age ex- pectancies. Charts B.2 and B.3 reflect a trend for children of today to reach specific developmental levels earlier. In order to Show chronological age expectations for a greater variety of motor items, several other tests have been included in the Appendix. The locomotor items of the Griffiths Mental Development Scale (79) include a scale for children from one month to twenty-four months (Chart B.A). Bayley's (ll) tests include activities starting with crawling at two months to walking down- stairs at fifty months (Chart B.5). Cunningham (36) de- vised a scale of motor test items for children from twelve to thirty-six months (Chart B.6). The McCaskill and Wellman (107) motor achievement items range from twenty-four to seventy-one months (Chart B.7). The age levels between six and fourteen years are covered by the Lincoln-Oseretsky Motor Development Scale, Sloan's standardization of the original Oseretsky test. For further information on this test, the reader is referred to the Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1955, 51:183—252. 71 Achievement norms for motor skills and components of motor skills, e.g., strength, flexibility, etc., are incomplete for children within the age range of three to five years. Those for which information is available are presented in Chart IV.l. Part I includes standards for specific tests, and Part II includes additional information which can serve as a guide to expectations at certain levels. This chart has been compiled from the material given in Appendix B--Motor Skills--Per- formance Expectations, plus other references cited on the-chart. It is important to emphasize that this infor- mation should act as a guide only. Clues to developmental variations in skill achieve- ment in several familiar motor activities based on studies of children from two to seven are given below: Climbipg 1. Extremely wide variations in ability. 2. No significant difference between ability of boys and girls. 3. Descending was more difficult than ascending. A. Increased height may cause reverting to earlier form. 5. Extreme versatility in climbing skill. 6. Climbing well established for half of children at 3 years of age. 722 CHART IV.l--PART I MOVEMENT PERFORMANCE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS GUIDE Girls Boys Item Age 5 6 7 5 6 7 30 Yd. Dash (sec.) 7.67 6.69 6.17 7.A7 6.78 6.28 Shuttle Run (sec.) 13.83 12.99 , 13.83 13.12 Standing Broad Jump (inches) 33.1 u1.2 u8.6 35.9 A2.9 “9.1 Hurdle Jump (inches) 1A.A 17.8 20.1 1“.“ 17.0 19.0 Softball Throw (ft.) 19.0 25.8 39.1 “5-2 Accuracy Throw (pts.) 9" Rubber Ball . 12.A' 7.7 9.1“ 9.0 50' Hop (sec.) 10.2 7.3 5.9 10.6 7.A 7.0 Net Hop/Jump (pts.) 2A.6 33.2 18.9 23-3 Beam Balance (sec.) 22.1 33.7 33.3 23.2 30.1 35.8 Beam Walk (steps) 15.7 20.6 20.7 15.7 17-8 21.0 Side Step (points) 8.2 11.1 8.8 10:7 Cable Jump (no.) 3.5 5.2 1.8 3.0 Grip-Right (lbs.) 16.6 19.3 22.9 18.3 23.5 26.3 Grip-Left (lbs.) 1%.: l3.¢ 22.2 18.1 21.8 23.6 Push-ups 2 3 A 6 hope Climb 2' 3' 9‘ 5' Les Hold (sec.) 30 35 30 35 Sit-ups 5 8 5 8 Knee Raising 10 15 15 20 Endurance 500 yds. 600 yds. 500 yds. 600 yds. or 5 min. or 10 min. or 5 min. or 10 min. Kick-Utility Ball 10' 10' a Girls--Age 6 - 10' & 15' Age 7 - 15' & 20' Boys---Age 6 - 15' & 20' Age 7 - 20' & 25' From Jack Keogh, Motor Performance of Elementary School Children. Los Angeles: University of California, Department of PhysIEal Education, March 1965; and State Department of Education, Guide for Teaching Physical Education--Grades 1-6. Columbia, 3. 0.: State Department of Education, 1966. AJLITIWHAI 73 CHART IV.l-—PART II curses To Lfi—ang‘_ ACHIEVEMENT IN MOVEMENT , ‘ a I 60 months ' 72 Months -————————————————___________m____________________1 Alternates fee‘ iescenuing stairs. Tricycling 'V'I ' _ ,i 1' . ,1, 1, ' . . LIIIEQ, LUFpo, :IJJPE‘, SHE‘S, gallops, skips, throws, counces balls, catches bills March to music. {Stalled construction with blocks. Can draw a circle, cross, square. Can button and 1a: (a (D Approximate Ages 8A Months Throw 8” ball up and catch. Play catch 8" ball 10' dis- t HY‘ICC‘ . {ounce i” ball :nd catch 3 out of 5 times. hick rolling ball A out of 5 times. Jump 5 successive rope turns by self. Clap rhythmic patterns: S/A; E/A; /A; 6/8 in even and uneven rhythms. Walk \0 | o run, hop, jump, skip, ;a o lea p, slide, stop, turn, ,, dodge, tag. 7') P ‘ ate movements to music. 1 i 7‘. ~.« ‘ m Modified push-ups--6. Curl-ups, legs bent-—5. .unp rope turned by two others 5 times in succes- sion. turning rope and tives in succession. d roll and come to 7' balance beam Curl-ups--1O continuous. Play catch, 8" ball, 5 yds. distance, A out of 6. Hit 2" x A" target with volley- ball 3 out of 5, 12' distance. Bounce 8" ball for 2 min. continuously, both hands. Throw beanbag hoop, 10' away, through 13" underhand. filt away with 8” 8” x A" moving target 10' ball. Throw 8" ball 3' up and catch ball above head. Run in, jump 10 times, run out of long rope. Jump rope 10 times--self. Two forward rolls in succession and stand. Two backward rolls and come to a stand. Change tempo when music changes. Walk forward 7' x A ' beam turn around and return. Jump from A' height and maintain balance. Change directions while moving to C/A, A/A beat. 11__‘______‘_______________ From Appendix 1—6. Columbia, n. C.: a ,, braces B and State Department of Education, Guide for ‘ State Department of Education, 1966. Teaching Physical Education- 7U .Jumping 1. Jumped from high to low at 2 years. 2. 42 percent Jumped well at 3 years; 72 percent at M 1/2 years. 3. Jumping over an obstacle presented a different hazard than jumping up or down. Hopping l. 33 percent were proficient at age 4. Galloping 1. Could not gallop at age 3; 78 percent could gallop at age 5. 2. Different ways of learning to gallop; most introduced it into their running or to strong beat of music. Skipping 1. Later than gallop; 14 percent at age 4; 72 percent at age 5. ggll Throwing 1. None threw well at ages 2 and 3. 2. Range wide even at 6 years of age. 3. Size of ball made a difference; 2 hands were used first with many movements (80). Median ratings at half yearly age levels in each of the various activities for each sex are given in Appendix B. The acquisition of motor skills is a gradual process growing out of postural control. Many tests have been developed which indicate expectations for early motor 75 skill achievement. These motor achievement test items can serve as a guide to the teacher in the selection of performance activities in Physical Education for the early years. Individuals who are retarded in their motor development may not be ready (neurologically) to participate in certain learning experiences: jumping, hopping, skipping, galloping. Individuals who are ac- celerated in their motor development may need more challenging learning experiences. Teacher and student need to understand that chronological age is not neces- sarily the best criterion for comparing motor development; that there are wide differences among individuals, a fact which is acceptable and desirable. They should under- stand that motor skills improve with age and/or practice; that prior experiences make a difference in their ability to perform now; that present experiences will influence future performance. The Selection and Organization of Content Specific content must be identified for kindergarten. This content should provide a base for interpreting the continuous encounters of the child with his environment. The content themes set forth in Part I, and the key con- Cepts which serve them, lend themselves to basic experi- ences for children as they study their own movement and the movement in the world around them. It is believed 76 that each concept introduced at the first level is basic to understanding the theme as it is developed at the next level. The themes are not taught directly to the chil- dren nor are the key concepts; rather, they are the eventual goals of understanding which the learner will reach through selected learning experiences. This in- volves a sequential process of concept formation through- out all grades. Movement performance, the other vital phase of Physical Education learning experiences, should also be sequenced so that each learning experience pro- vides a base upon which more efficient and effective per- formance can be continuously built. The following procedure was used in the selection and organization of content for kindergarten: Task l.--Identification of the specific contributions from Charts III.3-a-d which should be a part of learning experiences. Task 2.--Selection of scope-defining concept(s) under each theme from Charts III.l-a—e, and determination of the number of units necessary to develop the key concepts with five-year-olds. 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Passive kneel (1 week) Both arms ard bot h legs are syn mgtrically and sharply flexed. Cheek contacts plat form, or head may be evertel. 2A. Passi"e leg extension (A weeks) Th legs passively assume a symmetric extended posture. Arms still flex, fists at shoulders. Head lifts slightly less than A5°. 2E. Active kneel (about A weeks) Infant spo w;aneously draw's up one knee at a time b" (unilateral) flexiun. .__._______ ______. 3A. M tive leg exte.sion (8 weeks) Legs actively assume a symmetric extended posture. Arms flex slightly forward. 35. we knee thrust (about 8 weeks) .Infant spont ”r ously draws up one knee by flexion vxith an abducted thrust (unilat(.alA Iiead lifts from A50 to AA. Alternate extensor kick (12 weeks) Tnf ant lies wit: legs well extended and kicks in alternation. P sts at temples. Head 11:":3 “17?? 93- Abducted one knee thrust (about i: Wee}. 8) Infant draws up one knee by flexlon With increased abduction (unilate:::77__ Head lifts A50 to 9:0, ”—‘—__"—' 5. _ ) lack arches so that inf ant' 5 weight rests on abdomen and lower chest. Arms lift, flexed syn vetric a1 lv. Legs lift, in gymmetric exten- sion. lead lifts 90°. 6. Simultaneous low creep (2’) weeks) Eoth arms and both legs are flexed S"m”€tric a1 ". Face and chest cert ct the suppoxting surface but abior er 5 lifted. 7. Froggi.g (2A weeks) Arms are lexed or extended symmetrically. Legs are exten-sei symmetrically in abduction, feet evertex. Head lifts >09. 8- Alvanc ed unilateral knee thrust 9- 53'“E with foot e'ers ion (38 weeks) Both arms ext .d c.7"etnitally, or one extends and one flexes. Infant draws up one knee by flexisn with an abducted thrust. (9). Same except that foot is everted. Head lifts 90° or more. 13. piwgt n? (29 ‘w’EEKS) Arms alternately flex and extend, one after the other, causing trunk to p.ivot on abdomen. S“:metrical leg extension is followed by ward flexion of one knee, in abduction. Head lifts about 90°. 131 Flexor Dominance Extensor Dominance 11A. Inferior low creep (30 weeks) Arms flex symmetrically. One knee flexes forward in adduction. Other knee then flexes forward after heel has ro- tated outward. Weight rests on side of body. Head everted, cheek on floor. 12. Low creep (32 weeks) both arns are flexed symmetri . Legs flex forward in adduction, one at a 333:. Face and chest contact supporting surface but abdomen is lifted. .,5 weeks) . . extended and both legs are flexed symmetrically. Knees are for- ward under trunk—infiaddfiction lifting abdomen and chest from supporting surface. Head is well up from floor and eyes look ahead. 16. mocking (about 3A weeks) Arms extend symmetricall" and both legs are f1exed_symnetrically. knees are forward under trunk lifting abdomen and chest from supporting surface. Infant rocks back and forth, remainilg in one location. I LI.) Creeps (AD weeks) 1 l CreepsJ near step one f . Y _ ‘ a 'L J o \ llB. Backward crawl (31 weeks) Legs extend symmetrically and passively and abdomen rests on the supporting surface. Infant pushes body backward from symmetrically lexed arms which come to extension as body ; pushes away from them. Head lifts less than ?; I 900. L.‘_'-‘ 13A. Crawling (3A weeks) Legs extend_§ymmetrically and are dragged forward psssively. Infant pulls trunk forward by extending then simultaneously flexing both forearms. Head lifts 90° or more. 135. Later (3A 1/2 weeks) Pulls weight forward by extending and then flexing forearms one at a time. 15. Backward creep (36 weeks) infant is in the high creep position. Extends first one leg then the other, lowering abdomen and falling backward. Arms are flexed simmetricall‘ -—_-_—. (3? weeks) n creep position, both arms extended 5 flexed. Falls f rward, both legs t sion. Arms extend forward and igh creep position again. is fashion. Both arms extend JCW.WJ- r shoulder, then extend forward, alternately. Lags £131 forward aggggggggggy. Arm and leg on opposite sides of body move simultan- eously. 20. Creeps, step with one foot (A5 weeks) Arms exteni forward alternately. Legs move forward alternately, one flexed, one ex- tended. 21A. Plantigrade position (A9 weeks) Arms and legs both extend downward. 213. Plantigrade_progression (A9 1/2 weeks) Arms and legs extend forward, alter- nately; left hand and right foot moving at same time. 22. §£ap§ing (56 weeks) Trunk upright. Arms and legs extend bilaterally. "“' 23. Walkin (60 weeks) Arms and legs both extended, move ____;‘;;;;: ”_m_hfi_ alternately. From Arnold Gesell, and L. R L. Ames, "The Ontogenetic Organization of Prone Behavior in Human Infancy," J. Genet. Psy., 56:2A7-263, 19AO, pp. 249-251. 132 FIGURE A.3.--Phases in achieving a sitting position. A. The newborn baby gives very little resistance to gravity; attempts to elevate pelvis and extend lower extremities (see lined drawing). B. A few weeks later some resistance is shown in Jerks back and forth; shoulder girdle movements are used in attempts to free himself. C. Resist- ance later becomes exaggerated and the tendency is to fall backward (see lined drawing). D. During the next phase, the infant moves forward from the vertical position and uses the trunk muscles to maintain posture. E. In the next phase, the child is able to maintain a leaning posture supported on the extended upper extremities. F. Finally, the child can maintain an erect sitting position on a flat surface and the arms are now free to engage in other activities. From M. B. McGraw, The Neuro- muscular Maturation of the Human Infant (New York: Columbia University Press, l9h37, p. 6U. 133 resistance to gravity and falls forward so that his face rests near his feet on the surface. He attempts to ele- vate the pelvis and extend his legs which are pinioned beneath his body (Fig. A.3-A). A few weeks later the in- fant shows some resistance against falling forward by a few Jerks back and forth as the axis of the body passes beyond the right angle. Discomfort may be expressed by crying. Primarily movements of the shoulder girdle are used in an attempt to free himself (Fig. A.3-B). The resistance to falling eventually becomes exaggerated and when pulled into the sitting position, the tendency is to push backward into the dorsal position (Fig. A.3-C). Dur- ing the next phase, the infant moves forward from the vertical position and uses the trunk muscles to maintain the posture. He then topples forward or sidewise (Fig. A.3-D). When the child is able to maintain the leaning posture supported on the extended upper extremities, fur- ther advancement toward the sitting posture is clearly indicated. The angle of flexion widens and the child gradually decreases dependency on the upper extremities for support (Fig. A.3-E). When the infant can maintain an erect sitting position on a flat surface, usually with one of the lower extremities flexed and abducted, while the other is fully extended in front of the body, mature development has been reached. The arms are now free to engage in other activities (Fig. A.3-F). Data from 1717 13U records on 82 infants ranging in age from a few minutes to two-and-one-half years were analyzed for this study (111:68-72). Figure A.h--Phases in the Development of Prone ‘Progression (McGraw) A newborn baby placed in the prone position assumes fl a posture in which the legs and arms are flexed and the face rests on the surface (Fig. A.4—A). The head is some- times lifted momentarily and although there is a great (I deal of activity in the lower extremities, progression is normally absent. In McGraw's observations on 82 infants, this phase of development gradually, within the first 100 days, progressed to that shown in Figure A.4-B. The baby can now hold his head off the surface for a short period of time, and the arms are less flexed. The next phase (Fig. A.u-C), which overlaps the two preceding phases is characterized by sustained raising of the head and chest, use of the elbow or palm to provide support, and generalized activity directed toward a desired object. There is still no obvious urge to move the body forward. Phases D, E, and F overlap a great deal in time with the preceding stage and with each other. They are most evident at approximately 200 days. In phase D there is an impulse to progress, which is not successful, although pivoting and even back- ward movement may occur. In phase E, as illustrated in Figure A.H, movements in the hip region and pushing with 135 fl??? -.r.-.. .. . .- f i FIGURE A.D.——Phases in the development of prone progression—~McGraw. These nine phases are clearly dis- tinguishable, according to McGraw, and represent gradual assumption of control. For descriptions of these phases and an indication of the age levels at which they appear, see the discussion in the text. From M. B. McGraw, The figuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant (New York: Columbia University Press, l9u3), P- 51- 136 the feet as well as reaching out with the hands are usually not sufficiently synchronized to produce propulsion. Phase F is characterized by assumption of a creeping posture, either by raising the abdomen by flexing the legs and lifting the head and shoulders (as in the first part of F); or, by straightening the legs (as in the second part of F). There is apparently deliberate but unorganized progression 5 in phase G which is most evident in babies between the ages of 200 and 300 days. Phases H and I are characterized, respectively, by organized (although somewhat staccato) progression and progression with relatively smooth inte- gration. Figure A.5--Stages in the Development of Prone Pro— ggession‘(Ames) Other descriptions of the development of prone pro- gression differ somewhat from that of McGraw and from each other. Although these descriptions are not in complete agreement, all investigators emphasize the sequential nature of development which they attribute to neuromuscular maturation. For purposes of comparison, the fourteen stages differentiated by Ames (3) in her analysis of moving— picture records obtained with twenty babies are illustrated in Figure A.5. Median ages at which successive stages were reached are indicated in the legend, along with a brief description of the development. 137 FIGURE A.5.-—Stages in the development of prone progression——Ames. Median ages for attainment of each stage by twenty infants are given at the end of each description. A. Knee and thigh forward beside the body—- 28 weeks. B. Knee and thigh forward, inner side of foot in contact with floor--28 weeks. C. Pivoting—-29 weeks. D. Low creep position——30 weeks. E. Less inferior low creep position—-32 weeks. F. Crawling—-3U weeks. G. High creep position-~36 weeks. H. Retrogression--36 weeks. I. Rocking--36 weeks. J. Creep—crawling--36 weeks. K. Creeping on hands and knees-~40 weeks. L. Creeping, near step with one foot—-U2 weeks. M. Creeping, step with one foot--HS weeks. N. Quadrupedal progression (creeping on hands and feet)—-49 weeks. From L. B. Ames, The se- quential patterning of prone regression in the human infant, anet. Psyc. Monog, 19:U36, 1937. 138 ggguregA.6--Selectgd Phases in he Development of the Ability to Assume an Erect Posture The ability to roll from a supine to a prone position and the assumption of a sitting position were found to be necessary antecedents to the assumption of upright posture. McGraw, in her study of eighty-two infants, did an inten— sive observation of antigravity reactions such as sitting upright (see Fig. A.3) and standing, with or without help (see Fig. A.6). According.to McGraw, mature sitting be- comes evident around 300 days. Around 400 days, some of McGraw's infants helped to an upright posture, were main- taining it and taking a few steps. This followed a period of standing by pulling up to furniture, standing with help, and continuing to stand after help is withdrawn. The in- fant finally reaches the stage where he assumes the upright Posture unaided. Selected phases of this series of develop— ment are illustrated in Figure A.6. Figure A.7--Developmental Phases in Erect L0comotion Reflex stepping movements were exhibited in some new- born babies when they were supported with their feet in contact with a surface. These stepping movements were more evident around the third week than immediately after birth, according to McGraw (see Fig. A.7—A). During the following phase (B), reflex stepping motions appeared to be suppressed. The movements illustrated in phase C, 139 FIGURE A.6.—~Selected phases in the development of the ability to assume an erect posture. The upright position is achieved only by holding onto furniture or being helped by others, in the early stages. From M. G. McGraw, The Neuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), p. 87. Passive response. Extensor thrust in attempt to push upward. Extension of lower extremities. Erect position. . Vertical push. Rise from recumbent to standing position independently. Rising characterized by smooth movements. Q "IJEUUOCUID 140 FIGURE A.7.-—Developmental phases in erect locomotion. A. Newborn, supported with feet on surface, displays reflex stepping movement which become more evident around three weeks. B. Suppression of stepping motions. C. Transition stage--up and down movements of body and stepping motions which are different than the reflex stepping motions of the newborn. D. Self—initiated stepping movements while sup- ported. E. Independent stepping. F. Heel-toe progression. G. Integration—-maturity of erect locomotion. From M. G. McGraw, The Neuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant (New York: Columbia University Press, 19A3), p. 77. 141 differed from the reflex motions in phase A. The infant moved his body up and down while holding feet in position; stamped, and made stepping movements. Self-initiated stepping movements followed, at first with support and then without it (see phases D, E, F, and G). Improved coordination, a lessening of motions, and changes in the contact made by the feet followed. Some of these aspects will be considered in the discussion of Charth.3. Several investigators, including Burnside (28), Shirley (1M6), and McGraw (111), have studied the mechanical aspects of locomotion. The following description of loco- motor mechanics as discussed by Shirley is in agreement with the data of Burnside and McGraw. Shirley (146) studied the footprints of her subjects and found the median length of the step increases as a function of age and the number of weeks which the child has been walking alone. The speed of progression also increases with age and walking experience. There is a slight decrease in speed around the twenty-sixth week of walking which may indicate the child is now attending to other pursuits. The width of the step increases until the baby walks alone and then it begins to decrease slightly. The width of the standing base and the stepping angles show great irregularity in the early stages. These angles gradually decrease and approach zero degrees after the babies walk alone. Dancing or walking 102 on the toes only is common in the early stages; later on the full footprint is visible on a paper. In the early stages of walking a large percentage of the footprints are out of sequence, but after the babies start walking alone their feet follow one another in sequence. For purposes of showing the relationships between the development of locomotion and some other motor re- actions, Chart A.2--Various Reactions in the Motor Se— quence--and Figure A.8--Development of Movement-~are in- cluded. The median age in weeks is given for locomotion, fine motor reactions, motor play, and parts of body con— trolled from three weeks to sixty-six weeks as observed by Shirley (1&7). The general development of equilibrium and the use of the hand for children ages one month to two-and-one-half years of age has been recorded by Montessori (114). This record of development is illus- trated in Figure A.8. Variation in Time Children Reach Specific 'Stages cf Motor Development Some of the major influences which cause children to reach specific stages of motor development at different ages are presented below. Race Investigators who have compared the progress of motor development between infants of the Negroid and Caucasian races report that the Negro children are more 143 CHART A.2 VARIOUS REACTIONS IN THE MOTOR SEQUENCE Median Age r comotion Fine Motor Motor Parts In weeks “0 ‘ " Reactions Play Controlled 3.0 Chin up Eyes, head, neck 9.0 Chest up Smile 1A.0 Adjust for Reach and touch Arm and upper lifting trunk 15.0 GraSp obgect Play with hands 18.0 Sit on lap Retain object {thumb opposition) 21.0 Grasp dangling iject to Hands and lower object mouth trunk 25.0 Sit alone Transfer object Plays with momentarily hand to hand toes 29.8 Poll Pat toy, rock, shake head 30.5 Sit alone 1 minute 31.5 Stand with help 38.0 Home progress Suspension on stomach bridge ‘41.] "coot backwar Pat-a-cake Peek-a—boo “2.0 Stand holding Point with index Pelvis region, to furniture finger legs, and fingers “5.3 Creep b5.0 Walk when lei “7.0 Pull to stand Hpen simple by furniture boxes 56.0- Put fingers 62.0 in holes 62.0 Stand alone 66.0 walk alone Fun, climb fiinneapolis: Adapted from Mary Shirley, The First Two Years, The University of Minnesota Press, Vol. II, Intellectual DeVelopment 1933), p. “0. zc-p u-F-com ‘ 5!): gm, DEVEUD PMEH ) ' 3 ’ 1 9. 3 4 s 7 a 9 lo 11 1 0 O O O O Q 0 C) O O ENORmOUS RFIPID DEV o I DEVELOPmEnT . EL szmr OF THE CERPBELLUIII OF THE Ban I EQUILIBRIUM IS RCQUIRED |N FOURISTHGES Control I 5 3 of the Head 1 II In H: can H; can walk When placed He can 5': He ca. '9, .°' i hel ed oqhis {oggthr if helped by hir:s:If ”353' "'1 chnld can Mt his but walks Mud and shoulders on (our limbs His walking ac places them movements at on the r when held up ”J" an madeo tip toe 1 2 :5 4 s 7 e 9 lo 11 1 1 o _-—I o o o R o o o o O J——. THE FIRST THINQ _ DEVELOPMENT IS TOBE ALIVE 0F PREHENSION BECOM ES PUR POSIVE P_hgsiolos§c_a_| GRA's'Bmo. l (worm AND REPETITION— PRACTICE ) ' TI N w N Ada tat-ans {DISCRIMgg/gmoEs BET es } : GRASPING OF NSTINCTIVE HE swmes ; SOME-[HMO PREFENSION ms HAND INTENTIONAL SELECTED GRASPING or OBJECTS (CHOICE) '34 I OF A‘LGDVIEMIENT 14H 0 L o. p. Dam 2 5 4- 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 o o to ._o i8u_51 () o to o o _oi ©‘ CYCLES OF ACTIVITY , . m MAXIMUM EFFORT Runs and holds things He walks He Wm“ carrgmg wIth certamty Without help heavy objects Takes He catches hold of objects wncn long walks CIImbIn ,. 8 uumnnsncs He goes upthe . 5c air Case 2. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 i 1 2 3 4- 5 6 0.. Q 11 1) I: 0 HQ_ 0 C) C) Q, o o in (L, {S FIRST ACTIVITILS or THE HAND DIRECTED TOWARDS WORK FIGURE A.8.—-Development of movement. STRENGIfi_ LIFTS HEAVY OBJECTS IN HIS ARMS HANDS USED TO HELP IN CLIMBING FINDS OPII'OKTUNIIIES FOR MAXIMUM EFFORT CO-ORDINATION 8v {DEANS or. EXPERIENCE EXERCISES WITH WORK LEADING THE HAND 10 MW WORK LEADING WASHING cnocxsnv TDINDEPENDENCE ..____ SURENESS IN MOVES THINGS HOLDING SUPPORI'S ABOUT wITHA WHEN CLIMBING PuRPOSE ._—...—__ Cl. EANI NGI AND DusTING. LAYING THE TABLE “HEImeTo DO lTBI/IIIVSELF” From Maria Montessori, The Absorbent Mind, translated by Claude A. Claremont (India: 1961), p. 100. The TheOSOphical Publishing House, 145 advanced during the months shortly after birth. A repre- sentative sample of 1409 infants was given the revised forms of Bayley's Scales of Mental and Motor Development. It was found that Negro babies tended consistently to score above the Caucasian on the Motor Scale. It was suggested that the superior performance of the Negro babies may be due to generally heightened muscle tonus (12). The muscle tone of the African infant was found superior to that of the European infant starting from birth in a study of African children ages 1 through 72 months. The head was held better and there was earlier standing, prehension, and manipulation in the African children (63). The younger the child the greater the precocity of development in African over European children. The ad- vancement in motor development is evidenced in the follow- ing achievements: (1) the child had a straight back and could keep his head from falling backward when drawn into the sitting position starting with the first day, (2) at six weeks the child could control his head whatever his position, (3) at four months he could sit alone, (A) at eight months he could stand without support, (5) at ten months, walk, (6) at eleven months was able to use his thumb and forefinger accurately for picking up objects (62). A comparison of the skeletal ages of Negro and- Caucasian infants born in East and West Africa and in the 146 United States led Tanner (160) to conclude that the differences were genetic in origin. This advancement of the Negro in skeletal ossification at birth was associ- ated with the advancement of motor behavior in Negroes. Several studies which compared the motor develop- ment of American born Negro and white infants reported early motor achievement in favor of the Negro children. Scott (lhu) found the American Negro infant advanced in certain psychomotor developmental milestones such as sitting up and vocalizing during the first year of life when compared with established standards for Caucasian children. Pasamanick detected a definite acceleration in gross motor behavior in Negroes, although he did not find an outstanding characteristic which could be called a "racial" difference (12A). Not all investigators agree that early motor deve10p- ment is advanced in Negro children. A study of 725 chil- dren from seven races failed to disclose significant racial differences on the age at which children walk (151). McGraw found white babies superior to Negro babies in terms of developmental age, developmental quotient, and percentage of successful reactions. This study was done on white and Negro infants in the south (108). In an- other comparative study of Negroes and whites, Rhodes (13A) found little, if any, difference in the motor abilities measured at any level of development. She 147 found both rate of motor development and organization of motor abilities strikingly similar for the two races. Although some studies did not reveal an advancement in motor development of the Negro infants as compared with white infants, the majority of studies do substantiate this belief. Sax On the average, the female is more advanced than the male in nearly all maturation indicators. In skeletal maturity, girls are ahead by about two weeks intrauterine- age, about 4 weeks at 40 weeks or birth, and roughly 18 months at adolescence (159). Fifty percent of terminal stature, on an average, was attained by girls between 1 1/2 and 2 years and by boys between 2 and 2 1/2 years (148). Osseous precocity was found in females in spite of the heavier weight in males in a study of over 900 in- fants born of Negro mothers. In the same weight and/or length category, the frequency of ossification centers was higher for females than for males (161). Acceleration of skeletal age in the female over the male increased from late fetal life to maturity (49). Girls have been found to complete their skeletal maturation, on the average, two to three years before boys (138). The mean age at onset and termination of the circumpubertal growth acceleration occurred approximately two years earlier in girls than in boys (112). 148 Girls walked approximately two weeks earlier, on the average, than boys according to four different studies including 1449 children (151). Garn and Rohmann (61), in reviewing Gesell test performance scores of over 500 long—term participants in the Fels Longitudinal Studies, found that the general advance of girls over boys was clear. A larger percentage of girls were able to successfully achieve each given task at each age level. The girls were distinctly ahead of the boys in 61 of the 91 items. When looking at the 91 Gesell test items, the sex difference was less clear on the motor items and in the perceptual-motor behavior the boys were actually ahead of the girls. The boys were distinctly ahead in form- board and performance—box triangle drawing, circle copying, and rod-in-hole activity. Boys had a higher activity level and were bigger. The question of whether or not the boys were advanced in motor behavior because of the size differential was not answered. There is substantial evidence to support the theory that females are accelerated in skeletal age and reach skeletal maturity earlier than males. This advanced maturation is also characteristic of sexual maturation and motor development. The earlier maturation is evident be- fore birth and persists throughout the growing years. 149 Nutritional Factors The interaction between the state of nutrition and the genetic endowment influences size from infancy through adolescence. Progressive behavioral retardation in mani— pulative and gross motor tasks following weaning has been found related to protein-calorie malnutrition. Generally, the more a child falls behind in somatic growth, the more retarded he becomes in his motor development (35). "Nutritionally, the newborn infant is the result of a long series of metabolic processes within the mother, which, in turn, were the result of metabolic processes in the maternal (and paternal) body previous to pregnancy and ad infinitum" (163). Nutrition is the prime factor in the prOpagation of individuals with maximum potential for physi- cal development and maintenance of the best possible physical status throughout life (163:30). The mother and the fetus form a unity and must be con- sidered together. Because of its negative influence on the well-being of the mother, nutrition is a chief cause of pre—. maturity. A girl whose nutrition may not be adequate for her own body because she has not completed her growth could not be expected to develop a good fetus. An older woman may have already depleted her store of food factors. If the dietary pattern of a woman is habitually poor, her store of food would become more depleted with each succeed— ing pregnancy. The maternal body should be rebuilt after each pregnancy and lactation period (163:131). 150 Because of the interrelationship between prematurity and stillbirths, neonatal deaths, and physically and mentally defective children, it follows that malnutrition ranks as one of the leading causes in these events (163: 130). In a study of maternal nutrition and its relation— ship to the condition of the infant at birth, the follow- ing results were recorded: (1) 95 percent of a sample of 284 infants were in good or excellent physical condition when the maternal diet was excellent or good, (2) 65 per- cent of the infants were in the poorest physical condition at birth when the maternal diet was poor to very poor, (3) 27 percent were in fair condition and 8 percent were in either good or excellent condition when the maternal diet was poor to very poor. All the stillborn infants, all of the neonatal deaths but one, and all of the premature in- fants but one (a neonatal death), all of the functionally immature infants, and most of the congenital defects were found in the group of infants born to mothers with poor to very poor prenatal diets (27). All other things being equal, the state of nutrition clearly determines the rate of growth. Protein deficiency is growth—limiting in many parts of the world today, i.e., Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and Indonesia. In two-thirds of the world's population, caloric and pro- tein deprivation limit childhood growth (59). 151 The long-range effects of adequate nutrition were demonstrated in a study comparing the physical and mental traits of artifically fed and breast fed children. Of the 383 children, ages 7—13, children who had been artifically fed were inferior physically and mentally to those who were breast fed. Except for height, the children who were artificially fed ranked lowest in all physical traits g measured. Children breast fed from 4 to 9 months were definitely superior physically and mentally to all other L groups. Those fed exclusively by breast for over 9 months had the lowest I.Q's of all groups, although they apparently developed physically at a normal rate (85). Severe malnutrition interfered with motor performance among institutional children (40). Prolonged feeding pro- blems in children between two and four years of age appeared to have a definite effect on weight and a lesser effect on height (43). Serious undernutrition in Serbian children during infancy did not appear to affect normal physical characteristics, but did affect normal mental capacity when they reached school age (29). Undernutrition has been found to not only retard deveIOpment but to reverse many of its characteristic Changes. For this reason, body composition as well as retarded linear growth is an important consideration. A study of body composition was made on eight children who died of malnutrition. These children differed most markedly from the other children in a very low fat and 152 high water content. Protein as a percentage of body weight was.not so conspicuously affected. It was concluded that what is important in protein depletion is not simply the weight or percentage of total body protein which is lost, but the degree of depletion of certain types of protein and the distortion of the protein pattern which results (23). Children are capable of growing and maturing at an accelerated rate when care is improved after suffering from undernutrition (2). Growth is a regular process under dynamic and complex biological control. When this process is disrupted, this control tends to return development into its original channel. If growth is retarded by illness or malnutrition, growth becomes more rapid at the end of the illness or period of malnutrition. This tends to put the child back on his normal growth curve (127). It should also be pointed out that in the case of chronic illness in which growth-inhibiting drugs are used, this "catch-up" growth may not occur unless growth-inducing drugs are administered (50). 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