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THE EFFECT OF SELF AND IN VIVO
DESENSITIZATION 0N COUNSELOR
TRAINEE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
THOMAS V. MILLER
1970

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE EFFECT OF
SELF AND IN VIVO DESENSITIZATION
ON COUNSELOR TRAINEE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

presented by

Thomas V. Miller

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Counseling, Personnel
Services & Educational Psychology

 

Date August 3, 1970

0-169

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF
SELF AND IN VIVO DESENSITIZATION
ON COUNSELOR TRAINEE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE
By

Thomas V. Miller

This research investigated the effects of self and
in vivo desensitization on counselor trainee anxiety.
Forty-four subjects were drawn from procedures of coun-
seling and counseling practicum courses and were ran-
domly divided into treatment and control groups. During
the first class meeting, all took the Anxiety Differential,
the Fear Index, and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and
received a one hour instructional unit on structuring the
counseling process. This unit consisted of a video tape
and a handout.

Seven treatments were administered in succeeding
weeks. Self desensitization subjects worked alone in
individual rooms using pre-recorded cassette tapes. The
first tape was a one-half hour relaxation training session.
Through the six other sessions, subjects worked with items
from a twenty-item list which described situations lead-
ing to a performance demonstration of counseling skills.

In each treatment session three or four of the items were
presented three times for five, ten, and twenty seconds,
each presentation being followed by thirty seconds of

relaxation. The items were presented by number, with the

Thomas V. Miller

voice on the tape saying ”imagine item 7,"

for example.

In vivo treatment subjects were given a one-half hour
relaxation training session as a group during the first
treatment session. During the other sessions subjects
entered counseling rooms which were arranged with the
following stimuli:

2nd treatment: Room clear except for two chairs

and one desk. Blinds pulled. No
microphone.

3rd treatment: All furniture in room. Blinds

open, microphone on. Student
practices structuring for an
observer.

4th treatment: Student is interrupted in his

practice by tape recorded client

comments.

5th treatment: Passive, non-verbal client.
Student practices structuring.

6th treatment: Agreeable client interrupts with
questions while student com-
municates structure.
7th treatment: Mildly hostile client interrupts
with questions and negative com-
ments while student practices.
Each subject in the in vivo group spent five, ten, and
twenty seconds in the counseling room followed by thirty
seconds of relaxation. The subjects entered the stimulus
situation three times for each time interval; a total of
thirty minutes was spent each week on this procedure. Self
desensitization and in vivo subjects completed the Anxiety

Differential and Fear Index on alternate weeks throughout

the study.

Thomas V. Miller

A non-treatment control group experienced no desen-
sitization procedures.

After the treatments were administered, each subject
was evaluated on his ability to structure the counseling
process with a role playing client using a performance
criteria. Immediately prior to this performance test, the
Anxiety Differential and Fear Index were administered
again as anxiety post-tests. Multivariate analysis of
covariance was used in the statistical analysis. A one-
way test was done for treatment. Two-way tests were applied
to treatments and counseling experience, teaching experience,
sex, major, and Taylor scores.

The primary finding of the study was that there was
no effect on anxiety level due to treatments. Trends were
noted as to the influence of counseling experience, teaching
experience, and sex. The interaction effect for treatments
and major was significantly related to the Anxiety Diff-
erential post-test measure, as was the effect of the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale scores on the performance measure.

The primary reason suggested for lack of treatment
effects was that the subjects were not particularly anxious
in this situation. Also, subjects were not volunteers and
may not have been highly motivated to participate in de-
sensitization. The reasons for trends were discussed. The

interaction effect of treatments and major was explained

Thomas V. Miller

on the basis of commitment to counseling of counseling and
non-counseling subjects. The effect of high and low Taylor
scores on the performance measure was considered to be an
instance of high anxiety as a personality trait inter-

fering with skill demonstration.

THE EFFECT OF
SELF AND IN VIVO DESENSITIZATION
ON COUNSELOR TRAINEE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

By

1
Thomas V. Miller

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services

and Educational Psychology

1970

..-‘ ‘

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people helped make possible the writing of this
thesis. Since the thesis is the culmination of graduate
work, I would also like to express appreciation to those
who have made contributions to other parts of my graduate
program.

The support of my wife, Karen, has been essential
to the earning of the degree. Her encouragement and
financial assistance through five years of graduate school
preceeded the typing and critical reading of many drafts
of this thesis. Dr. Bob Winborn, my advisor and thesis
chairman, has been a true mentor. I appreciate his
intellectual stimulation, personal friendship, and close
supervision of all phases of this research. Dr. Norman
Stewart taught me many things about scholarship, in-
struction, and writing. Dr. Robert Davis and Dr. Stephen
Yelon have made real contributions to the planning of
my program and this thesis. Dr. Dozier Thornton guided
me in the original formulation of the research topic.

My sincere gratitude is expressed to each one for

giving much for my benefit.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST OF APPENDICES O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O Vii

CHAPTER
I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Need For The Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Learning Theory Applied To Behavior Change. 3
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
II Review Of The Literature . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Limitations Of Counselor Education Research 8
Development Of Performance Based And

Systematic Counseling Training Programs. 9
History of Desensitization. . . . . . . . . 15
Self Desensitization. . . . . . . . . . . . 16
In Vivo Desensitization . . . . . . . . . . 20
111 Design And Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
General Description Of The Design . . . . . 23
Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Instruction In Structuring The Counseling
Interview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Treatment 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Treatment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Treatment 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Measures Of Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Performance Of Anxiety. . . . . . . . . . . 33
Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

iii

CHAPTER

IV AI‘

 

BIBLIOGRAPIi

APPENDICES .

 

 

CHAPTER

IV Analysis Of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 3

Anxiety Level Over Time. . . . . .

Influence Of
Dependent
Influence Of
Dependent
Influence Of
Influence Of
Influence Of
Dependent
Summary. . .

Counseling Experience On The
Variables . . . . . . . . . .
Teaching Experience On The
Variables . . . . . . . . . . .
Sex On The Dependent Variables.
Major On Dependent Variables. .
Taylor Pre-Test Scores On
Variables . . . . . . . . . . .

V Discussion, Suggestions For Further Research

And Summary.

Discussion Of Main Treatment Effects . . . .
Discussion Of Trends And Significant

Findings.
Implications
Summary. . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . .

APPENDICES.

For Future Research . . . . . .

iv

PAGE
35
36
38
38
4O
43
44
48
48

52
55

59
S9
64
68
7O
74

78

TABLE

10

ll

12

LIST OF TABLES

Means And Standard Deviations Of Counselor
Trainee Post-Test Scores On The Fear Index,
Anxiety Differential, And Performance
Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses Of Covariance Of Treatments. . . . .

Cell Size, Means, And Standard Deviations Of
Treatment Groups According To Counseling
Experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses Of Covariance For Counseling
Experience And Treatments . . . . . . . . . .

Cell Size, Means, And Standard Deviations Of
Treatment Groups According To Teaching
Experience 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses of Covariance For Teaching
Experience And Treatments . . . . . . . . . .

Cell Size, Means, And Standard Deviations Of
Treatment Groups According To Sex Of
SUbject O O O O O O O O I I O O I O O O O 0

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses Of Covariance For Sex And Treat-
ments 0 O I O O O I O O O O O O O O I O O O 0

Cell Size, Means, And Standard Deviations Of
Treatment Groups According To Major . . . . .

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses Of Covariance For Major And
Treatments 0 O C I O O O I C C O O O O O O O 0

Cell Size, Means, And Standard Deviations Of
Treatment Groups According To Taylor Score. .

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analysis Of Variance For Taylor Scores And
Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAGE

37

39

45

46

47

49

50

51

53

54

56

57

 

FIGURE

Fe

An

 

 

 

LIST OF F IGURES

F IGURE PAGE
1 Fear Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
.2 Anxiety Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

vi

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Appendix

LIST OF

APPENDICES

vii

Page

78
80
83
84
87
89

94

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Need For The Study

A current trend in counselor education is toward per-
formance based training programs. In contrast to relying
entirely on paper and pencil tests for evaluation, a pro-
gram which emphasizes performance evaluation requires that
trainees demonstrate their counseling skills through actual
practice. Such a performance oriented counseling program,
based on a systems analysis of the counseling process, has
been developed at Michigan State University.

The emphasis on counseling performance in this train-
ing program appears to be anxiety producing for a number of
students. Symptoms of anxiety are frequently observed when
trainees are role playing the functions of the systematic
counselor in laboratory rooms equipped with microphones and
one-way mirrors. Many of them display some or all of the
following manifestations of anxiety: inability to maintain
eye contact with another person; rigid control of voice
tone; strained and unnatural posture; tendency toward a
question and answer format that does not allow silences;
difficulty in recalling the systematic outline of counsel-
ing in whiCh they have received instruction. This behavior

is prevalent either in the early weeks of the course, with

an uncooperative client, or when the trainee feels parti-

cularly pressed to demonstrate counseling skills. These

observations are in keeping with the statement by Van Atta
(1969) that observation may be threatening for the therapist.

Further, Carmichael (1956) describes a study in which he
found that three therapists admitted to having felt initial

éanxiety about being filmed. He states, "They seemed to

:feel more vulnerable about the consequences . . . when their

[Jerformance is recorded.

Instructors in the Department of Counseling, Personnel
E§ervices, and Educational Psychology at Michigan State Uni-
xrersity have hypothesized that anxiety of this type inter-

iieres with counseling performance, and reports of students

support this assumption. Because performance criteria for

<2<3unselor trainee behaviors are used in formal evaluation,
tZkue trainee knows that inappropriate behaviors lower his

grade. This knowledge tends to produce anxiety as he in-
t2€3rviews clients. Therefore, reduction of anxiety could be

€31<pected to result in improved student performance.

IP11rpose

This research compares the effects of two desensiti-
=iation procedures, self desensitization and in vivo desen-
Siitization, on anxiety associated with observed performance
By comparing

demonstrations required of counselor trainees.

tlhe effectiveness of these treatments with each other and

with a control group, the relative therapeutic power of

these treatments can be assessed. While desensitization has
been used in the treatment of patients and clients, few in-
vestigations have been made using this procedure in modifying
anxiety of individuals not in therapy.

Comparison of the counseling performance of trainees who
experience self desensitization or in vivo desensitization
with those who do not is directly related to the central pur-
pose of examining the effects of these treatments on anxiety,

and therefore, is also discussed.

Hypotheses

1. It is hypothesized that both self desensitization
and in vivo desensitization will reduce anxiety of counselor
trainees.

2. It is hypothesized that in vivo desensitization will
be more effective than self desensitization in reducing
anxiety of counselor trainees.

3. It is hypothesized that both treatment groups will
perform better than the control group in a performance demon-

stration of counseling.

LearningiTheory Applied to Behavior Change
The theoretical structure for this investigation was
derived from behavioral or learning based approaches to

therapy. These approaches assume maladaptive behavior to

be inapprOpriate behavior which has been learned and is not

symptomatic of underlying dynamics. AS such, maladaptive
behavior can be modified by the therapeutic application of
learning principles. There are many behavioral counseling
techniques. These include role playing, modeling, rein-
forcement of successive approximation, and countercondi-
tioning or desensitization.
Desensitization was selected for this investigation
{as the treatment mode for reducing the anxiety of counselor
trainees. It is a principal tool of the behavior therapist.
IIn its standard form, the method has three main components.
CEhese are: (1) training the subject in deep muscular re-
ILaxation through the use of relaxation instructions, (2)
c:onstruction of a hierarchy of anxiety producing situations,
sand (3) the systematic presentation of the graded anxiety
E>roducing scenes to the relaxed subject through imagery
Lintil anxiety is no longer present. In standard individual
(fleesensitization, the therapist asks the subject to imagine
ZE<3r a brief interval the hierarchy item that is least
éinxiety producing. If the subject indicates anxiety by
lféiising a finger, the therapist immediately instructs him
two replace the anxiety producing scene with a neutral one
Eirui to relax for several minutes. If no anxiety is indi-
cIated, the item is followed in five seconds by thirty to
iEOrty-five seconds of relaxation. In the next few steps

tlhe presentation interval is lengthened to thirty seconds.

The presentation of the item followed by thirty seconds of
relaxation is repeated several times after the subject
feels no anxiety. Then the next item on the hierarchy is
introduced. Anxiety is replaced by a feeling of relaxa-
tion in the actual situation through counterconditioning.
Laboratory studies support the clinical evidence that
(demonstrates the efficiency of this method in reducing
zanxiety in real life situations (Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966;
IBandura, 1969; Franks, 1969).

A number of recent studies have suggested that the
ssuccess of desensitization does not depend on the tradi-
tzional approach. These studies (Migler and Wolpe, 1967;
PCahn.and Baker, 1968; Lang in Franks, 1969; Donner and
(;uerney, 1969; Cooke, 1966; Garfield, Darwin, Singer and
bicBrearty, 1967; Meyer and Gelder, 1963; and O'Neil and
Iicmmll, 1969) suggest that two approaches, automated self
<3<asensitization and in vivo desensitization, lead to de-
creased anxiety.

Self desensitization is the self application of the
E>Irinciples of desensitization by the subject in order to
c3ecrease the anxiety associated with a particular stimulus
Situation. The procedure involves the use of a tape re-
<2<3rder and a pre-recorded tape containing relaxation in-
Estructions. This is followed by a presentation of the

tlierarchy items for preset time intervals with a relaxa-
tlion period after each interval. This method of desensiti-

Zation has been reported in several studies. Kahn and

Baker (1968) found that significant counterconditioning of
anxiety can be brought about by the subject working alone
without a desensitization therapist. This raises the
theoretical question of the importance of the therapist's
contribution to desensitization. If self desensitization
is as efficient as regular desensitization, this technique
could be used with only a minimum amount of involvement by
the therapist.

In vivo desensitization involves the actual approach
to the anxiety producing situation rather than through
imagery. As in standard desensitization, anxiety producing
situations are arranged in a hierarchy graded from least to
most threatening. For example, if riding in an automobile
makes a person nervous, the in vivo procedure would involve
having the subject make a list which could begin with
observing an automobile parked in the street. The subject
might then progress through a series of items which in-
volve approaching the auto, Opening the door, getting in
both with the engine stopped and running, and finally
riding at increasing speeds. Each of these approaches
would be followed by relaxation in a neutral environment,
that is, a place where the subject did not feel anxious.
This method has been found in some studies to be more
powerful in reducing anxiety than standard desensitization,
and for this reason should be explored more fully as a
therapeutic technique.

In summary, desensitization procedures have been

proven to be effective in treating many types of neurotic
anxiety. There is considerable evidence to suggest that in
vivo and self desensitization procedures would be equally

effective in modifying counselor trainee anxiety.

922$!l2E.

The need for the present research has been described
in the above sections. The hypotheses have been stated in
broad research form, and the theory of self desensitiza-
tion and in vivo desensitization has been discussed. In
Chapter II, the pertinent literature is reviewed. The
design of the study, including the statement of the pro-
blem, subjects, apparatus, instruments, measurements of
anxiety and performance, related instruction, and treat-
ments are described in Chapter III. Chapter IV is com-
posed of the analysis of the results. The summary and

conclusions are presented in the final Chapter.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Limitations Of Counselor Education Research

Counselor education has not yet been fully justified
by empirical research. It has develOped programs and prac-
tices which are only now being tested. Some suggest that
counseling is still far removed from an empirical base and
little progress is being made in attaining a foundation
based on disciplined research efforts (Thoresen, 1969).

Research that has been done in counselor education
often has not been theoretically related to either the coun-
seling process or specified problems in training and super-
vision. For example, Whiteley (1969) points out that des-
criptive studies of the differences between counselors and
norm groups of non-counselors have been of marginal value.
Another unproductive approach has been to describe the
differences between effective and ineffective counselors.
Whiteley calls the attempt to describe the personal charac-
teristics of effective counselors "fruitless" (1969). He
proposes that research in counselor education be focused on
what the effective counselor actually does rather than what
type of person he is.

These various descriptive attempts in counselor educa-
tion research have often been associated with attempts to

develop effective selection procedures. However, a basic

underlying problem with all attempts to develop selection
procedures is the lack of consensus regarding desirable
goals for counseling and the role of the counselor in
assisting the client to reach these goals. Moser (1967)
observed that the conceptual issue of what effects are to
be produced by the counselor is integrally related to the
issues of selection and training.

Goals of counseling are themselves the center of much
controversy. Client centered counselors generally think
in terms of similar global goals for all clients, such as
congruence or positive self concept. Behavioral counselors,
in contrast, focus on stating different behavioral goals
for each client. Without specifying desirable goals for
counselors and the role of the counselor, counseling re-
search will continue to be hindered.
Develonment of Performance Based and Systematic Counseling

TrainingfiProgram§_

The interest in behavioral counseling generated by the
work of Krumboltz, Thoresen, Bandura and others, as well
as the recent development of methods for deriving behavioral
objectives by Mager (1962), Pophum and Baker (1970), DeCecco
(1968), and Yelon and Scott (1970) has provided a more
empirical base for researching the various functions of the
counseling process, supervision, and counselor training

programs. In addition, the increased use of systems analysis

10

among counselors and counselor educators makes it possible
to develop models that show the organization or structure
of the counseling process or training program. These models
show the interrelations of parts of the process or program
to one another and to the whole. In summary, in recent
years these new developments make it possible to move toward
the creation of models of the counseling process that are
performance based and are capable of being empirically
validated.

Developments along the lines of the systems approach
to counselor education offer a remedy to the problems
Whiteley notes because a systems approach is an integrated
program which Specifies the end product that is desired.
Silvern (1968) states that a system is the structure or
organization of an orderly whole, clearly showing the inter-
relations of the parts to each other and to the whole it-
self. A systems approach to counselor education would
include a careful analysis of the skills required of the
counselor, simulated experiences to instruct students in
these skills, and recycling as necessary through exper-
iences which develop specific counseling skills. The de-
velopment of such systematic counselor training programs
has been discussed by Ryan (1969), Thoresen (1968), and
Yelon (1969).

Ryan (1969a) has pointed out that counselor education

can be conceived as a system for attaining instructional

11

objectives. From this viewpoint systems analysis is an
important part of counselor education. Systems analysis
involves identifying objectives, determining alternatives,
hypothesizing solutions, testing and comparing alterna-
tives, measuring outcomes, and evaluating results. One
of the more important features of the systems approach is
the use of feedback from the operation of a model in a real
life environment. The system, thus, provides for continuous
revision of components of the system.

Ryan (1969b) advocates the use of systems techniques
in counselor education, saying that this is a management
problem having to do with achieving organized integration
and orderly interrelations of component parts. She states
that professionalization cannot be attained in counselor
education programs which continue to treat selection, course
work, practicum, and on-the-job counseling as unrelated,
independent elements, rather than articulated components of
a unified system. In accordance with general systems theory,
she emphasizes that once objectives have been decided upon,
the task then is one of working out the functions and sub-
systems supporting goal achievement. A flow-chart model for
a counselor education system might include selection, ad-
mission, scheduling, advising, curricula, and evaluation.
This model permits the examination of the interrelations

between program subsystems. She gives five advantages of the

12

use of systems models in counselor education: (1) increased
efficiency, (2) increased effectiveness, (3) improved plan-
ning, (4) increased creativity, and (5) increased innovation.
Ryan cautions against assuming that the use of systems
techniques will guarantee effectiveness and efficiency in a
counselor training program, however.

Thoresen discusses the basic features and implications
of the systems approach and counselor education in a paper
by the same name (Thoresen, 1968b). After dealing with the
elements of a systems approach to counselor education--per-
formance objectives, cybernetic concepts, feedback, models,
team approach, man-machine components, and simulation tech-
niques--he looks at anticipated problems. They are the
inertia associated with changing established methods, the
belief that the systems approach is too cold and scientific
to develop the human qualities necessary in a counselor,
and that the state of the art of counselor training is not
well enough developed to be a basis for an effective coun-
selor education system. In each case, he offers suggestions
to solve a real problem or reply to an inappropriate criticism.

There are three steps in setting up a systematic coun-
selor training program according to Thoresen (1968a). The
first is to state training objectives in specific terms that
will serve as research hypotheses. A specific training

objective might be to assist the client to state verbally

13

the goals of counseling in observable, measurable terms. The
second step is to create an advanced model or prototype of a
possible system which can achieve stated objectives. This
involves analyzing the existing system into its various com-
ponents, exploring how ”machine" components interact optimally
with ”human" components. Determining through research the
relevant behaviors to be examined in selection is the last
step in establishment of a systematic training program. The
paper ends with a relevant note on the problems in setting

up such a program.

Yelon (1969) outlines a plan of counselor education
based on systems analysis. He states that when using a
systems approach, training objectives must be written which
have been based on the component performance and knowledge
derived from a careful analysis of the job. Objectives are
then described and analyzed and the training procedures which
follow from required functions are identified. He includes
an example of a systematic job analysis and gives four com-
ponents of an instructional design to accomplish the train-
ing of counselors: presentation of knowledge, practice of
knowledge, practice of performance, and management of stu-
dent counselors.

Although much has been written about the possibilities

of the systems approach in counseling and counselor education,

14

few programs and models are actually operational. One such
program which has been in operation for the past two years
for training M,A. level counselors was develOped by Winborn,
Stewart, Hinds, Burks, Johnson, and Englekes (1969) at
Michigan State University. A central feature of the program
is the evaluation of counselor skills in performance demon-
strations. For example, the trainee is required to demon-
strate his ability to perform different functions of a
systematic counseling model. This includes: structuring

the counseling interview; understanding the client's con-
cerns; establishing a behavioral objective for counseling;
developing a baseline of client behavior; performing required
tasks to attain counseling objectives; evaluating counsel-
ing; and terminating counseling. Criteria that specify mini-
mum performance standards have been established for the
different functions. Since a performance demonstration of
these skills is written into the instructional objectives of
the courses in the program, the ability to do these counselor
tasks is a very real requirement in the program. Course
evaluation is determined to a large extent by this ability

in a procedures of counseling course and entirely on this
basis in the practicum. As a part of the course evaluation
in the counseling class, several role playing situations are
provided in which the trainee demonstrates his ability to go

through the steps in the systematic counseling model. In

15

the practicum the grade is based on the number of success-
fully completed cases. The reasoning, of course, is that
counseling is a professional activity which is not adequately
evaluated by paper and pencil tests.

Such performance based objectives provide numerous
opportunities to test empirically many behavioral techniques
in training programs. Also, the same principles of learn-
ing used in behavioral and systematic counseling can be
tested in attempts to hmprove counselor training programs.

Desensitization was mentioned in Chapter I as a pri-
mary tool of the behavioral counselor. This technique has
been found to be quite effective in changing client behavior,
but it has not been applied to changing the anxiety of
counselors in training. Before discussing such an applica-
tion, we turn to a review of the application of this

approach to neurotic anxiety.

History of Desensitization

The history of desensitization can be traced back to
the work of Jones in the 1920's (Bandura, 1969, p. 430).
Although applications of the principle of countercondi-
tioning were reported by Jones in 1924, the approach re-
ceived little attention until it was developed by Wolpe
more than thirty years later. Wolpe (1958) initiated the
three step method of desensitization described in Chapter I.

The inclusion of an anxiety hierarchy of imagined scenes

l6

greatly increased the range of disorders that could be
treated by this method. Further details of this basic

method and its varient forms have been published by Wolpe
(1961), Wolpe and Lazarus (1966), and Lazarus (1954).

Paul (1966) compared insight therapy to desensitization in
the treatment of public speaking anxiety of college students.
Paul's research is widely recognized as a well controlled
experimental study that is noteworthy in the history of
desensitization. He found desensitization to be signifi-
cantly more effective in reducing anxiety than insight

therapy.

Self Desensitization

Self desensitization is a new approach to man's age
old attempts to change himself for the better. The record
of human efforts to overcome fears and feelings of inade-
quacy reach back to antiquity. For example, Demosthenes
practiced his speech with pebbles in his mouth over the roar
of the waves, according to Greek legend. In modern times,
the "power of positive thinking” philoSOphy of Norman
Vincent Peale is a general example. There are also current
psychological reports of self help efforts. Goldiamond (in
Ullrick, Stachnik, and Mabry, 1965), Nolan (1968), and Rehm
and Marston (1968) describe self help and self control
projects that assisted clients to modify behavior that had

been undesirable.

17

While the cases mentioned above are bona fide approaches
to self control of behavior, they do not involve self
desensitization. We now turn to a review of those studies.
Migler and Wolpe (1967) report a case study of self de-
sensitization applied to a patient who experienced anxiety
in public speaking situations. The relaxation training and
the imagining of scenes from the hierarchy while relaxed
were carried out at home, entirely by the patient, using a
specifically modified tape recorder. The behavior problem
was eliminated in seven treatment sessions. Migler (1968)
offers a technical note suggesting that tape recorders used
in self desensitization have (a) 30-40 minutes minimum
playing time, (b) control of playback, rewind, and stop,
with very little physical exertion or manipulating, and
(c) sound playback during rewinding to detect the beginning
of each session.

Bandura (1969, p. 477) reports a case treated by
Hutchinson involving self desensitization of an exhibition-
ist. The treatment involved the subject's performing a set
of relaxation responses immediately following the occurance
of stimuli that typically preceded exposure. Bandura (1969,
p. 435) also discusses unpublished studies by Melamed and
Lang, Donnee, and Krapfl, all of which indicated that self
administered desensitization produced the same amount of
reduction in avoidance behavior as the Standard, socially

administered form.

l8

Wolpe (1958) reports considerable success with self-
conducted desensitization of impotence. The individual first
received training in progressive relaxation as an aid in
counteracting anxieties elicited by sexual excitation. He
approached intercourse through a series of sexual behaviors
while practicing relaxation. Ultimately, he was able to feel
sexually excited without being anxious.

Kahn and Baker (1968) assigned subjects with various
phobias to two treatment groups: (1) a ”conventional de-
sensitizatiod'group which was treated by the therapist
in the laboratory, and (2) a ”do-it-yourself” group which
carried out the desensitization process at home. The sub-
jects in this second group were given a do-it-yourself
desensitization kit to take home. The kit contained a
manual and a long-playing record. The manual was designed
to permit an "intelligent and motivated" patient to conduct
the entire course of desensitization therapy with no therapist
contact at all. The record gives a twenty minute course in
relaxation training and a recorded framework for a desen-
sitization session. The dependent measure was the subject's
reported success. There was no significant difference
between the groups, although the home group actually im-
proved more than the laboratory group which had considerably
more therapist contact.

Lang (in Franks, 1969) describes his development of a

device for automated desensitization. A computer stores

19

hierarchy and relaxation instructions. In use, it presents
the prerecorded hierarchy items in sequence, presenting each
item a preset number of times unless the subject gives a
signal of distress. This terminates the item and auto-
matically presents instructions to stop visualizing the
scene. If the subject signals that anxiety is decreasing
with repeated presentations of an item, the apparatus will
continue to present the same item until he reports no fur-
ther distress of two successive repetitions of the image.
Only then does he go on to the next item. If the subject
reports an increase in anxiety, the preceeding item is
repeated, and the subject must work his way back up the
hierarchy. The subject's response to automatic inquiries
on the clarity of the image are recorded. Evidence indi-
cating that the device is about as effective as the live
therapist in producing fear reduction is presented.

Another study also indicates the therapist is dis-
pensible. Automated group desensitization for test anxiety
is described in a study by Donner and Guerney (1969). Forty-
two test anxious female college students were divided into
three groups on the basis of previous semester grade point
averages. The three groups consisted of a waiting list
control, a therapist administered group desensitization,
and group desensitization through the use of a tape recorded

set of instructions. A common hierarchy of twenty-nine items

20

was used for each desensitization group. Each step was
presented six times; first, the subjects visualized it for
five seconds, and then relaxed for five seconds. This was
repeated. Next, subjects visualized each scene for ten
seconds and then relaxed for ten seconds. This was repeated.
Last, twenty second intervals were used for visualization
and relaxation, and this was repeated. Both groups mani-
fested significant improvement in grade point average

after treatment.

In Vivo Desensitization

In vivo desensitization consists of training the sub-
ject to relax in the presence of the therapist and then
gradually re-exposing him to more fearful real life situa-
tions under the therapist's direction. The therapist
directs the amount of exposure the subject gets on any
trial and reintroduces relaxation procedures as necessary.
Thus, rather than depending on imagery to associate relaxa-
tion with the anxiety producing situation, as in standard
desensitization, relaxation is associated with the situation
directly.

Cooke (1966) examined the efficiency of in vivo desen-
sitization and regular desensitization. He randomly divided
into three treatment groups twelve female subjects rated

very much afraid of laboratory rats: direct treatment (in

21

vivo desensitization), indirect treatment (regular desensi-
tization), and no treatment. He found that in vivo desen-
sitization led to a significant decrease in fear, but there
was no significant difference between the two desensiti-
zation treatments.

Garfield, Darwin, Singer and McBrearty (1967) describe
the desensitization of snake fear using the in vivo method.
The treatment involved exposure to a large snake in a cage
at controlled distances. The instructions for one trial
were: "Enter the . . .training room and walk up to the
fourth tape beyond the door through which you enter. The
experimental assistant will tell you when to leave. When
he so indicates, leave the room even though you feel you
could look longer. Do not approach closer than the fourth
tape. Be sure to look at the snake." These in vivo
approaches to the snake were in addition to standard desen‘
sitization with the experimental group of subjects. Sta-
tistically significant differences were found in pre and
post therapy avoidance scores in favor of the in vivo
desensitization group.

Meyer and Gelder (1963) describe the in vivo desensi-
tization of agoraphobic patients. Davidson (in Franks,
1969) comments that the fears were so unusual that the
patients could have been diagnosed as psychotic. Nonethe-
less, the results showed that at least three of the five

remained improved outside the hospital.

22

O'Neil and Howell (1969) found that in vivo desensi-
tization, desensitization using pictures to aid imagery,
and standard desensitization using imagery were all equally
effective in reducing snake anxiety.

In summary, both self desensitization and in vivo
desensitization have been found to be effective in lowering

anxiety and changing behavior of many types of clients.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

The following experiment was designed to test the
effectiveness of two desensitization procedures in relieving
anxiety believed to be associated with certain aspects of
counselor training. The experimental design, subjects,
apparatus, instruments, instruction in structuring the coun-
seling interview, treatments, measures of anxiety, the per-
formance evaluation, and testable hypotheses are described

in this chapter.

General Description Of The Design

Subjects were divided into three groups: Group 1,
self desensitization; Group 2, in vivo desensitization; and
Group 3, control group. Groups 1 and 2 received seven
weekly one-half hour desensitization treatments. Instru-
ments to measure anxiety were administered before, during,
and after the treatment period. Following the treatments,
a performance demonstration of counseling skills was re-
quired. All treatments were administered in the Guidance
Center, 250 Erickson Hall, located on the campus of Michigan

State University.

Subjects

Subjects for this study were Master's degree students

enrolled in procedures in counseling (24 subjects) and

23

24

practicum (20 subjects) courses during spring term, 1970,

at Michigan State University. The subjects participated in
the experiment as a part of the course requirements. Forty-
seven original subjects were divided into the two treat-
ment groups and a control group using a table of random
numbers. Three members of the self desensitization group
subsequently dropped out of their respective courses, lower-
ing the total number in the experiment to forty-four.
Thirteen subjects composed the self-desensitization group;
sixteen subjects were in the in vivo desensitization group;
fifteen subjects composed the control group. Twenty-two

subjects were men and twenty-two subjects were women.

Apparatus

The self desensitization procedure involves the use of
a tape recorder and pre-recorded tapes. A Sony cassette
tape recorder, Model TC-llO, was used for the experiment.

A sheet describing the development of a fear hierarchy
was given to each self desensitization subject to assist
him in constructing his own twenty item hierarchy of anxiety
arousing situations associated with an observed counseling
demonstration. Other comments about self managed anxiety
reduction were also included. (See Appendix A.)

For the relaxation training that is an initial part
of self desensitization, a tape was prepared with relaxation

instructions read from Wolpe and Lazarus (1966). The

25

relaxation instruction is designed to train a subject to
relax the large muscle groups of the body. This tape
recording was approximately thirty-five minutes in length.
Self desensitization tapes were prepared that paired
either three or four hierarchy items with relaxation. The
numbers of the hierarchy items covered each week are given
in the section headed ”Treatment 1" below. The self desen-
sitization tape first instructed the subject to imagine the
item for five seconds and then to relax for thirty seconds.
This was repeated two more times before the interval was
lengthened to ten seconds. Three presentations of the
item were made at this interval before the interval was
extended to twenty seconds. The rationale for the length
of the intervals was develOped by Donner and Guerney (1969)
who reported that five seconds is too short a time for
anxiety to build up. They stated that gradually raising
the exposure to items to twenty seconds with three re-
petitions at each interval effectively desensitizes subjects
when the hierarchy includes many items. Each presentation
was followed by thirty seconds of relaxation. Taped in-
structions urged subjects to relax deeply and completely
between each presentation of hierarchy items. Thus, six
to seven minutes were required for each item of the hier-

archy. Each of the weekly tapes began with a few remarks

26

of encouragement and appropriate comments as to the pro-
gress that was being made in the hierarchy, making them
about thirty minutes long.

The self desensitization subjects worked individually
in rooms A through F in the Guidance Center. These rooms
are approximately six by nine feet in size, equipped with
a one-way mirror and microphone, and each has a padded easy
chair. Similar rooms in the Guidance Center were also
used for the in vivo treatment, set up in the manner des-

cribed on page 31.

Instruments

 

Three standardized measures were used to quantify
subjects' anxiety. They were a manifest anxiety scale, a
self rating instrument, and a semantic differential anxiety
instrument.

The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (Taylor, 1953) con-
sists of fifty items which the subject indicates are or
are not characteristic of him. A person's score is the
number of items which are marked in the anxiety direction.
(See Appendix B.) Taylor's original research placed its
reliability at .89. Extensive research using this scale
has indicated it is a valid measure of anxiety. Represen-
tative of the diverse validity studies that have been re-
ported on the Taylor are the three cited here. Matarazzo, Guze,

and Matarazzo (1955) found significant differences in the

27

mean scores, distributions, and point biserial correlations
when the Taylor was given to psychiatric and normal groups.
Buss (1956) found that a psychologist's rating of 64 patients
on a five point anxiety scale correlated .60 with the Taylor
scores. Lebo, Toal, and Brick (1958) found that carbon
dioxide, administered as a physiological relaxant, reduced
Taylor scores. The results were interpreted as indicating
the validity of the Taylor scale as a measure of anxiety.
The Specific Fear Index or "fear thermometer" is a ten
space continuum for self-rating of anxiety develOped by
Walk in connection with military research on anxiety and
performance (Walk, 1956). Walk found that this procedure
gave a reliable and valid measure of anxiety. Significant
correlations were obtained between self ratings of fear and
errors made in training performance tests for paratroopers.
Correlations ranged from .12 to .45 on seven jumps, with
an r of .20 significant at .05. Also, trainees who performed
best gave themselves lower fear ratings than those who
also passed, but performed poorest (significant at .001
level). Reliability of the scale was shown in its high
degree of relationship to responses to a direct question
about being afraid and from the congruence of high-fear
ratings with physiological fear reactions. Lang and Lazovik
(1963) and Martinson and Zerface (1970) have used the

Specific Fear Index in desensitization studies. (See Appen-

dix C.)

28

The Anxiety Differential is an empirical measure of
anxiety develOped by Husek and Alexander (1963). It is
similar to the semantic differential in that it consists
of one word concepts with a seven interval continuum on
which the subject rates the concept on a specified dimen-
sion. For example, the subject might rate "fingers" on
the dimension ”straight-twisted.” The Anxiety Differential
consists of eighteen such items which discriminate between
people who are anxious and those who are not without
calling their attention to the fact that it is measuring
anxiety. Each subject's score is the sum of the ratings
on each concept; this may be as low as eighteen or as high
as one hundred and twenty-six. Husak and Alexander (1963)
report four studies in which different Anxiety Differential
items discriminated between anxiety (pre-examination) and
control groups. A number of studies, including that of
Paul (1966), have employed the Anxiety Differential to
measure anxiety connected with performance situations.

(See Appendix D.)

A rating scale was prepared to permit observers to
rate trainees on their performance of the structuring task.
This scale yields a score of from zero to ten for each
subject. (See Appendix E.) This scale defines in behavioral
terms whether 0, l, or 2 points should be given for the

trainee's demonstration of his skill in communicating role,

29

purpose, limits, focus, and appropriate non-verbal behaviors.
The use of the scale is described in the performance evalua-
tion section below.

The subjects also completed a personal data sheet
attached as Appendix F. This data sheet is the same as that

used for application for admission into the practicum course.

Instruction In Structuring The Counseling Interview

During the first class meeting and prior to the admin-
istration of the experimental treatments, the subjects re-
ceived a one hour instructional unit on structuring the
counseling interview. This unit included a twenty-five
minute video demonstration tape previously prepared by
the department for instructional use, a brief lecture, and
an instructional handout giving explanatory material on
structuring and practice exercises. (See Appendix G.)
The purpose of this instruction was to make possible the
requirement of a performance demonstration of a specific
counseling skill which was previously unfamiliar to the

counselee.

Treatment 1

The self desensitization group members used the written
instructions described above to develop individualized
twenty-item hierarchies between the first and second class
meetings. These hierarchies were examined by the experi-

menter at the second meeting, and suggestions were made for

30

completing or improving the hierarchy. During the first
treatment session (held during the second class meeting),
each subject in the self desensitization group spent
thirty-five minutes in one of the small counseling rooms

in the Guidance Center listening to the relaxation instruc-
tions contained on the tape described above. The second
through the seventh treatments consisted of pairing the
hierarchy items with relaxation using the self desensiti-

zation tapes. The tapes covered the following items each

week:
2nd treatment 20, 19, 18
3rd treatment 17, 16, 15
4th treatment l4, 13, 12, 11
5th treatment 10, 9, 8, 7
6th treatment 6, 5, 4
7th treatment 3, 2, 1

During these six half-hour treatment sessions, the subjects
worked individually using the tape recorded desensitiza-

tion procedure.

Treatment 2

During the first treatment session the in vivo group
members had relaxation training read from Wolpe and Lazarus
(1966) for a thirty-five minute period. The second through
the seventh treatment sessions were composed of in vivo
group desensitization treatment.

The desensitization hierarchy for Treatment 2 subjects

was composed of actual approaches to the performance situation

31

graded both in fidelity of simulation and length of time

the subject was exposed to each item in the hierarchy.

Fidelity of simulation, the degree to which all of the

anxiety producing cues of the counseling situation are

present, was increased in the second through the seventh

sessions, with the subject exposing himself to the item by

entering an interview room.

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

session:

session:

session:

session:

session:

session:

Room clear except for two chairs
and one desk. Blinds pulled, no
microphone.

All furniture in room; blinds
open; microphone on. Student
practices alone knowing observer
is listening.

Trainee practices structuring
while ongoing tape recording
"talks back" to him. These re-
marks were progressively more
critical in nature.

Friendly-Passive client responds
to trainee as he practices.

Neutral-Unresponsive client gives
minimal responses to trainee as
he practices.

Hostile-Uncooperative client in-
terrupts with comments and ques-
tions while the trainee practices.

The role playing clients used in this treatment were

sophomores at Michigan State University from a section of

an undergraduate education class. Both men and women par-

ticipated, and no student was used more than one time with

32

each group. As with the Treatment 1 subjects, the time
dimension for the Treatment 2 presentations was standardized.
Each subject remained in the anxiety producing situation

(the interview room) for five, ten, and twenty seconds,

with three repetitions at each interval level. The rationale
is the same as that discussed for Treatment 1. After each

in vivo presentation, the subjects returned to a reception
room where the experimenter induced relaxation for thirty
seconds. The time intervals were made known to the sub-

jects by the experimenter's tapping on the one way mirror.

Treatment 3
The control group members were given no treatments.
They engaged in all regularly scheduled activities of their

counseling classes.

Measures Of Anxiety

Subjects were administered all three anxiety instru-
ments during the first class meeting. This pre-test was
completed before mention was made of the required perfor-
mance demonstration.

The Anxiety Differential and the Specific Fear Index
were administered alternately during class meetings three
through seven with instructions to the subject to picture
himself entering the observed counseling situation for the

terminal evaluation.

33

During the ninth class meeting, just prior to demon-
strating his competence in the performance task with a
role playing client and after the treatments had been admin-
istered, all subjects completed the instruments again as a

post-test.

Performgnce Eyaluation

At the ninth class meeting, all subjects were individually
evaluated in their ability to structure the counseling
interview in the manner demonstrated by the instructional
material. This counseling skill is considered by the de-
partment to be an essential one for the counselor because
proper structuring of the counseling interview makes for
more efficient use of counseling time. The performance
demonstration was evaluated by the ten point evaluation scale
described above. Three students from the SOphomore level
undergraduate education class mentioned above acted as role
playing clients for the performance demonstration. The
interaction took approximately three minutes. The inter-
action between each subject and the role playing client was
observed and rated by advanced graduate students who had
previous experience in behavioral observations. One,
observer had completed the Master's degree and two were

doctoral students.

Testable Hypotheses

1. It is hypothesized that both self desensitization

34

and in vivo desensitization will result in lower Fear

Index and Anxiety Differential scores of counselor trainees
just prior to structuring a counseling interview with a
role playing client in a counseling room where they are
observed through a one-way mirror by a supervisor.

2. It is hypothesized that in vivo desensitization
will be more effective than self desensitization in lowering
Fear Index and Anxiety Differential scores of counselor
trainees just prior to structuring a counseling interview
with a role playing client in a counseling room where they
are observed through a one-way mirror by a supervisor.

3. It is hypothesized that both treatment groups will
have higher performance scores on the performance evalua-
tion criteria than the control group in structuring a

counseling interview with a role playing client.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The analysis will focus first on the data relevant to
the hypotheses stated in Chapter III. This will be followed
by consideration of the influence of counseling experience,
teaching experience, sex, major, and Taylor pre-test
scores on the dependent variable scores.

Multivariate analysis of covariance was used for the
statistical treatment of the data. Multivariate analysis
is a relatively new statistical procedure for which com-
puter programs have only recently been developed. It pre-
vents the alpha level of a statistical analysis, the
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is
true, from being inflated when many dependent variables
(which are not independent of each other) are used. If
multivariate analysis were not used, the repeated use of
analysis of variance or covariance would tend to cause
random significance to occur in the statistical analysis
of an experiment. Multivariate analysis not only pre-
vents this, but also provides an indication of the combined
effect of the independent variables.

Analysis of covariance permits the ”equating” of sub-
jects on a covariable in the statistical treatment of
dependent variables. The covariate is related to the

dependent variables. In this experiment, the Taylor

35

36

Manifest Anxiety Scale scores were used as the covariate.

Each multivariate analysis summary table contains a
multivariate probability level which refers to all of the
dependent variables taken as a group. Following this,
univariate F probability levels are given, which are the
alpha levels of analysis of variance tests on the dependent
variables taken separately. The standard .05 level of
significance was used.

Reference will be made to Tables 1 and 2 in examining
all three hypotheses. Table 1 contains the mean scores of
treatment groups and Table 2 contains the one way multi-
variate analysis of covariance data of tests of the hypo-
theses. The influence of the supplementary variables are
examined through tables of means and by two-way multivariate

analysis of covariance summary tables.

Hypothesis 1

 

Hypothesis 1 stated that both self desensitization and
in vivo desensitization would result in lower Fear Index
and Anxiety Differential scores of counselor trainees just
prior to structuring counseling with a role playing client
in a counseling room where they were observed through a
one-way mirror by a supervisor. This hypothesis was not
supported by the data. Means of the treatment groups on

the dependent variables are given in Table 1. The control

37

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38

group had a slightly lower mean score on the Fear Index than
the treatment groups, which indicates that they considered
themselves more relaxed. The control group's anxiety

level was also slightly lower than that of the treatment
groups on the Anxiety Differential. There were no signi-
ficant differences between the groups on either the Fear

Index or the Anxiety Differential, as shown in Table 2.

Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2 stated that in vivo desensitization would
be more effective than self desensitization in lowering
Fear Index and Anxiety Differential scores of counselor
trainees just prior to structuring a counseling interview
with a role playing client in a counseling room where they
were observed through a one-way mirror by a supervisor.
It can be noted from Table 1 that on the Fear Index the
average for the in vivo desensitization group was slightly
lower than the self desensitization group, but that the
reverse was true for the Anxiety Differential. In Table 2
it is reported that there was no significant difference
between the in vivo and self desensitization groups on

either anxiety measure.

Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 stated that both desensitization groups

will have higher performance scores on the performance

39

TABLE 2

Summary Table For Multivariate And Univariate
Analyses Of Covariance Of Treatments

 

 

 

 

Treatment

Multivariate F .3928

df 3 and 76

P Less .89

Variable F P Less Than

Performance .0654 .94
Univariate Fear Index .1095 .90

Anxiety .9246 .41

Differential

 

40

evaluation criteria than the control group in structuring
a counseling interview with a role playing client. As
with hypotheses 1 and 2, no evidence was found to support
hypothesis 3. The self desensitization group mean was
slightly higher than the control group mean, as Table 1
shows. The in vivo group mean was lower than the control
group mean. None of the differences were significant,
however, so the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. The
probability levels are given in Table 2 for the multivar-

iate analysis of covariance.

Anxiety Level Over Time

Because there was no effect on anxiety due to the
desensitization treatments, it may be speculated that the
anxiety of all three groups did not increase with the
immediate prOSpect of the performance demonstration.
Graphic representations are presented in Figures 1 and 2
of the scores on the Fear Index and the Anxiety Differ-
ential from the pre-treatment measure through the post-test.
These graphs show no change in anxiety level through the
eight weeks of the experiment. The pre-test measures were
administered during the first class meeting before the
performance demonstration was discussed. The fact that
the control subjects' anxiety level was the same just prior
to the performance demonstration indicates that the sub-

jects, as a group, did not feel increased anxiety about

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43

this particular experience.

The effect of counseling experience, teaching exper-
ience, sex, major, and high or low Taylor pre-test scores
were analyzed with treatments in two way multivariate
analyses of covariance. Counseling experience and teaching
experience were included in the analysis in order to examine
the influence of educational work experience on graduate
training in counseling. Sex was made a dimension in the
analysis to permit gathering basic comparative anxiety and
performance data on sex differences in counselor trainees.
Major was examined in order to determine if commitment to
the field of counseling affected anxiety or performance
while counseling. The Taylor pre-test scores were used in
the analysis to examine the effect of anxiety as a basic
personality trait, which the Taylor is thought to measure,

on performance on situational anxiety.

Influence 0f Counseling Experience On The Dependent Variables
Subjects in each of the groups were divided for pur-

poses of analysis into those who had counseling experience

and those who had no counseling experience. Counseling

experience was defined as any employment as a counselor.

The influence of counseling experience on the dependent

variables and the interaction with the treatments can be

44

examined by referring to the cell means given in Table 3.
Results are mixed for the Fear Index and Performance mea-
sures, but for the Anxiety Differential there appears to
be a trend. Subjects who had been employed as counselors
consistently scored higher on the Anxiety Differential
across all treatment groups, indicating greater anxiety
just prior to the performance demonstration. The multi-
variate analysis of covariance did not show significant
differences between the treatment groups on the dependent
variables as a group, but the univariate F test on the
Anxiety Differential approached significance with a prob-
ability level of .06 for the difference between coun-
seling experience and no counseling experience. The multi-
variate and univariate analyses of covariance values are

presented in Table 4.

Influence of Teaching,Experience on the Dependent Variables
For purposes of analysis subjects were divided on the
basis of their teaching experience into two groups: those
who had teaching experience and those who had no experience.
Teaching experience was defined as any employment as a
teacher. The means of the six cells that are formed are
given in Table 5. The subjects with teaching experience
in the various treatment groups averaged 7.5 or above on

the performance criterion. The mean of only one treatment

45

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46

 

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47

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m mdm<fi

48

group whose members had no teaching experience equaled 7.5.
This trend is reflected in Table 6, where the univariate

analysis for performance is shown to have a probability of
.08. This value is of course not significant, and neither

was the multivariate analysis of covariance.

Influence of Sex On The Dependent Variables

For analysis purposes subjects in each group were
divided on the basis of sex. Table 7 contains the means for
the six cells that are formed when the three treatment
groups are divided into male and female members. The F
ratio for the multivariate analysis of covariance (Table 8)
was not significant; that is, sex was not found to be
related to all of the dependent variables taken as a group.
However, the univariate F test of performance yielded a
ratio that is almost significant, with a probability
level of .06. Examination of Table 7 reveals that the

performance of men was higher than that of women.

Influence 0f Major On Dependent Variables

Twenty-seven subjects in the study were majoring in
counseling, and seventeen were in other prOgrams in educa-
tion, were non-degree students, or were majoring in fields
other than education. When subjects in each group were

divided into counseling and non-counseling majors, the means

49

 

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52

on the dependent variables are as shown in Table 9. The
performance criteria means for those majoring in counseling
are somewhat higher across treatment groups than for those
with other majors. The multivariate analysis of covariance
shown in Table 10 did not reveal significant differences,
though; the probability level of the univariate F for major
was not significant either. However, the univariate F for
the treatment by major interaction was significant at the
.04 level for the Anxiety Differential. Control subjects
not in counseling and Treatment 1 subjects who were coun-
seling majors had the lowest scores on the Anxiety Differ-
ential. Treatment 1 non-counseling majors and Treatment 2
counseling majors made higher scores on the Anxiety Diff-

erential.

Influence Of Taylor Pre-test Scores On Dependent Variables
The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale scores obtained from
the subjects as a pre-test have been used in all the pre-
vious analyses as a covariate. In this analysis, the
subjects in each treatment with a Taylor score of 13 or
above were put in a high anxiety group, and those with a
score of 12 or below were put in a low anxiety group. The
mean of all subjects on the Taylor Scale was 12; this was
also the median. When subjects are dicotomized into high

and low Taylor groups, the Taylor score is being used as a

53

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55

subject variable rather than as a covariate. The means for
the performance criteria shown in Table 11 are two points
higher for the low Taylor subjects than the high Taylor
subjects. Table 12 indicated that the multivariate analysis
of variance is significant, with a probability of .02. The
univariate F test for performance was significant at the
.003 level.

The Taylor score was also used to identify very anxious
subjects. The subjects who were one standard deviation or
more above the mean included one subject from Treatment 1,
four subjects from Treatment 2, and one subject from Treat-
ment 3. With only one subject in two of the treatments, it
is obviously impossible to do an analysis of post-test
differences between these groups of highly anxious subjects.
Instead, change in the treatment subjects was examined by
computing t tests on the pre- and post-test means on the
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Anxiety Differential,
and the Fear Index. The post-test Taylor score was signifi-
cantly lower than the pre-test score in the five treatment
subjects. Of course, this analysis does not demonstrate
that the change was not due to regression toward the mean,

maturation, or other extraneous variables.

Summary

The hypotheses proposed in this study were not accepted.

Scores on the Fear Index and Anxiety Differential did not

56

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58

change during the eight weeks of the experiment. Trends
were noted in the subject variables of counseling exper-
ience, teaching experience, and sex. Interaction of treat-
ment and major and the effect of the Taylor pre-test

scores were found to be significant.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH,
AND SUMMARY
Discussion of Main Treatment Effects

A discussion of the outcomes of this investigation must
include consideration of possible explanations for the lack
of treatment effect. The possibility that desensitiza-
tion is not an effective way of changing behavior must be
considered. This alternative does not appear to be viable,
however, because of the large number of previous studies
that have found desensitization to be effective. More
research has been done on standard, individual desensiti-
zation than on self or in vivo methods. However, positive
results in the latter have been found, as reported in the
review of the literature section. Rejecting the explana-
tion that desensitization is not effective, an examination
of possible hindering factors in this particular study is
in order.

A primary reason for the lack of treatment effect
seems to have been the anxiety level of the subjects.
Desensitization of anxiety presumes that an inappropriate
level of anxiety is being experienced by the subject in
connection with some situation. The planning of the pre-

sent research assumed that subjects were anxious and that

59

60

this anxiety was disruptive. Figures 1 and 2 in Chapter IV
indicate that the anxiety experienced by control subjects

did not change throughout the experiment. Their anxiety

was not noticeably different just prior to the performance
demonstration was discussed eight weeks earlier. This
observation, in addition to the fact that desensitization

did not reduce treatment subjects' anxiety, suggests that

the level of anxiety present in the subjects was not de-
bilitating. A second indication that subjects were not un-
duly anxious is that the average pre-test score on the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety was 12, while the average that Taylor (1953)
found among college undergraduates in general psychology
classes was over 14.

Twelve graduate students in an occupational information
course were administered the Taylor Scale by the experimenter.
This data was gathered near the end of the five weeks
summer term, 1970. The mean of these subjects was over
15. This data further indicates that the subjects in the
desensitization study were relatively low in anxiety.

The mental set of the counselor trainee may have been
influenced by the instructor and classmates so that anxiety
reduction occurred not as a result of the treatments. It
may have been that group discussion during the term re-
duced anxiety of individual subjects who were above average

in anxiety.

61

As reported in Chapter 1, prior observations had been
that whole classes were anxious when role playing was re-
quired. Apparently, the observation of instructors that
practicum students were typically anxious was too general-
ized. Some of the more vocal students may have been moder-
ately or highly anxious. Because of these student reports
and observations of manifest anxiety in a number of trainees,
the present study did not screen for ”highly anxious” sub-
jects. Reported studies of desensitization of anxiety
usually have selected subjects by a screening procedure.

Perhaps the performance demonstration required of
subjects in this experiment was too easy to make trainees
anxious. Role playing experiences in a counselor training
program are usually longer and more complex than the struc-
turing task used in this experiment. This element was
purposely made short and specific so performance could
be objectively evaluated. In reducing the ambiguity of
what is required of the trainee in a role playing situation,
though, the anxiety arousing aspect is reduced as well.

Another possible factor which might have contributed
to the lack of significant treatment effects has to do with
the degree to which the subjects took the treatments ser-
iously and applied themselves to it. Obviously, an exper-

ience such as this must be entered into fully by the subjects

62

if it is to make a difference in their anxiety or performance.
Self desensitization subjects worked alone in individual
rooms, so they were not in contact with the experimenter
during the treatments. The experimenter did observe them
periodically through one-way mirrors to verify that the

tape was on and that the subject appeared to be listening

to it. No subject missed a treatment session without

making it up either immediately prior to the next session

or at some other time arranged outside of class.

Efforts were made to motivate both the self and in
vivo desensitization subjects as a part of their reSpective
treatments. However, it may have been that the self desen-
sitization subjects attended to stimuli other than the
hierarchy items during parts of the treatment session, so
that physical presence might not always have meant full
psychological participation. The in vivo desensitization
subjects were actively involved in the treatment process,
so lack of significant results is more difficult to explain
in terms of lack of involvement. A cooperative attitude was
maintained by the in vivo subjects as they experienced the
graduated contacts with clients. The seriousness of the
in vivo subjects may have been affected by the contrived
nature of the encounters with the role playing clients,

though. Only occasionally were the subjects hesitant to

63

meet the role playing clients. It may be possible that
they perceived the group in vivo procedure as a game which
was not closely connected with the real world.

The hierarchy items may have been a source of error
in the experimental design. The twenty-item hierarchy the
desensitization subjects prepared for their own use was
completed before the study. Standard desensitization pro-
cedure allows for the revision of the hierarchy during the
desensitization procedure. This usually involves adding
additional items to bridge gaps in the original list.
The experimenter did confer with each subject about his
hierarchy as the experiment began, but perhaps the lack of
opportunity to revise the hierarchy was an unnoticed viola-
tion of desensitization procedures. The possible problem
with the in vivo hierarchy is, of course, that it was the
same for everyone. The experiences with role playing
clients were devised to lead gradually from neutral stimuli
to interpersonal confrontations eliciting a negative reaction
from the counselor. The overall purpose appeared to have
been accomplished, but the individual subjects may not have
viewed the sequence in this way. To individual subjects,
the sequence may have had unequal intervals which caused
some transitions to be somewhat traumatic. The relaxation
exercise, then, would perhaps not have sufficiently counter-

acted the anxiety created by the in vivo experience.

9: fl]

64

The time during the term when the performance demon-
stration took place may have been a factor which contri-
buted to the lack of significant findings. It was necessary
to do the study within the framework of the procedures in
counseling and practicum courses. This required that the
performance demonstration of counseling skills be given at
the end of the course at the same time that the final
examination was administered. During the eight weeks of
study, the graphs of the mean scores of subjects in the
treatment groups on the Fear Index and Anxiety Differential
suggest some lowering of anxiety during the middle of the
study and an increase at the end. The proximity of the
final exam in the courses may have raised the anxiety level
of subjects and masked the effects of desensitization.

In summary, four possible ways in which the design of
this study might have been inadequate have been discussed.
It should not be inferred that all of these occurred; in
fact, these explanations are not all compatible with each
other. Each, however, is a plausible reason for the lack

of treatment effects.

Discussion Of Trends And Significant Findings

When counseling experience, teaching experience, sex,
major, and the Taylor pre-test scores were analyzed as
subject variables, several trends or significant findings

were reported.

ill ‘llll.

65

The first of these was a trend toward significance on
the Anxiety Differential as a result of counseling exper-
ience. It is quite noteworthy that lower anxiety scores
were consistently made by subjects in the treatment groups
who had no counseling experience. This is contrary to an
expectation based on the hypothesis that experience helps
a person feel more competent and comfortable in the coun-
seling relationship. Perhaps the lack of counseling exper-
ience is related to lower anxiety in that such individuals
have a positive impression of counseling, whereas those
with counseling experience were reminded by the performance
demonstration of anxiety producing experiences that had
experienced in connection with counseling.

A trend toward teaching experience affecting counseling
performance was noted among the results. Experience in the
teaching field apparently results in greater ability to
structure the counseling process. The counselor task of
structuring is similar to teaching in that certain ideas
are to be conveyed to the client. It is logical that
teaching experience would be associated with a trend toward
better performance in structuring the counseling interview.

Sex of the subject appears to be marginally related
to performance in structuring as well. A trend toward
significance which favored men was noted. Since the per-
formance criteria score reflected the specific number of

points which were made in the performance demonstration, the

66

trend toward higher scores by men might be interpreted as
reflecting greater assertiveness, while the women tended to
be less assertive and, therefore, less successful in struc-
turing the counseling interview.

The major of each subject was classified as counseling
or non-counseling. Significant interaction between major
and treatment was found on the Anxiety Differential. Sub-
jects who were not majoring in counseling, and who were
also in the control group had the lowest mean scores on the
Anxiety Differential. Subjects majoring in counseling who
were in Treatment 1 had the next lowest mean score. Some-
what higher scores were made by subjects who were majoring
in counseling and who were in the control group. Treatment
1 subjects not in counseling made the highest scores on the
Anxiety Differential. It is difficult to suggest a simple
reason for this complex interaction. Regarding the differen-
tial effect of self desensitization according to major, it
could be postulated that counseling students were able to
imagine the hierarchy items more realistically and vividly
than those not majoring in counseling. This may have made
self desensitization more effective with counseling students.
Treatment 2 was more effective with non-counseling students
than with counseling majors. This may have been because
the actual contact with clients made more of an impression

on these subjects. Non-counseling students in the control

67

group may have been low in anxiety because they were un-
committed to professional development in this area, and
did not care about supervisors' ratings.

The most significant finding of the study was that the
Taylor pre-test scores were significantly related to per-
formance scores. Lower Taylor scores were associated with
higher performance scores. This is congruent with the
theory that anxiety interferes with performance. The Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale is thought to be a measure of trait
rather than state anxiety. This general personality trait
of anxiety is not related to situational measures of anxiety.
The highly significant relationship of Taylor scores to
performance scores suggests that the general personality char-
acteristics of a person are more an influence on his be-
havior than either the demands of this particular situation
or treatments.

Trends and significant differences have been discussed
in connection with counseling and teaching experience, sex,
major, and the Taylor pre-test scores of subjects. Of
course, it should be remembered that only some of the trends
and significant findings may be replicable. The random com-
bination of subjects affected by some trends may have arti-
fically created what looks like other trends through the

repeated analysis of the same subjects in different groupings.

68

Implications For Further Research

 

This study has demonstrated the difficulties inherent
in attempting to apply a therapy treatment to a group of
subjects without screening for high anxiety levels. There
are definite implications for further research that grew
out of this study, and indications as to what improvement
should be made in related designs.

To verify or discount trends found in the present
study, this research should be replicated with a design
which provides for a reasonable number of subjects repre-
senting the various subject characteristics of counseling
experience, teaching, sex, major, and Taylor scores. For
example, a future study might have twenty subjects in each
of the three groups divided evenly as to whether or not
they had counseling experience, twenty more in each of the
three groups divided evenly as to whether or not they had
Reaching experience, and so on with sex, major, and high or
lxww'Taylor scores. Obviously, this would require several
hundred subjects, but this would be necessary in order to
keep from randomly recombining the same subjects while
testing for different effects.

A more basic issue emerges from this study regarding
the choice of subjects. It appears that the application of
desenufijfization procedures was not effective in reducing
anxiety because the treatment was not appropriate for the

subjects. Possible explanations given for the lack of

69

treatment effect are that the subjects were not anxious or
were not committed to participating in the desensitization
treatments. In future research subjects should be chosen
for their anxiety in the counseling situation and for their
willingness to participate in the desensitization process.

If this research is repeated within the framework of
an academic course in counseling, the performance demon-
stration should be temporarily removed from any examination
given in the course. The present research may have been
contaminated by the fact that the performance demonstration
was at the end of the term. Final examinations may have
caused all subjects to be moderately anxious, thus reducing
differences between groups.

The performance demonstration of counselor skills in
further research should be longer and more complex a task.
Not only was the task that was used not anxiety arousing,
but it was not representative of the complex interpersonal
interaction that characterizes counseling.

The repeated use of anxiety measures for an "anxiety
curve" during the treatment period should be modified in
future research. Mischel (1968) has argued that people have
stereotyped views of themselves and, consequently, tend to
give the same responses to paper and pencil tests over a
period of time. This tendency may have been encouraged
by the repeated use of these instruments during the experi-

ment. A number of filler items should be used with the

 

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III II [I'll
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7O

Anxiety Differential items to disguise the nature of that

instrument.

Summary

This research investigated the effects of self and in
vivo desensitization on counselor trainee anxiety. Forty-
four subjects were drawn from procedures of counseling and
counseling practicum courses and were randomly divided into
treatment and control groups. During the first class meet-
ing, all took the Anxiety Differential, the Fear Index, and
the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and received a one hour
instructional unit on structuring the counseling process.
This unit consisted of a video tape and a handout.

Seven treatments were administered in succeeding weeks.
Self desensitization subjects worked alone in individual
rooms using pre-recorded cassette tapes. The first tape
was a one-half hour relaxation training session. Through
the six other sessions, subjects worked with items from a
twenty-item list which described situations leading to a
performance demonstration of counseling skills. In each
treatment session three or four of the items were presented
three times for five, ten, and twenty seconds, each presen-
tation being followed by thirty seconds of relaxation. The
items were presented by number, with the voice on the tape
saying ”imagine item 7," for example.

In vivo treatment subjects were given a one-half hour

relaxation training session as a group during the first

 

 

71

treatment session. During the other sessions subjects
entered counseling rooms which were arranged with the fol-
lowing stimuli:
2nd treatment: Room clear except for two chairs
and one desk. Blinds pulled. No
microphone.
3rd treatment: All furniture in room. Blinds
open, microphone on. Student
practices structuring for an
observer.
4th treatment: Student is interrupted in his
practice by tape recorded client

comments .

5th treatment: Passive, non-verbal client.
Student practices structuring.

6th treatment: Agreeable client interrupts with
questions while student com-
municates structure.
7th treatment: Mildly hostile client interrupts
with questions and negative com-
ments while student practices.
Each subject in the in vivo group spent five, ten, and twenty
seconds in the counseling room following by thirty seconds
of relaxation. The subjects entered the stimulus situation
three times for each time interval; a total of thirty min-
utes was spent each week on this procedure. Self desensiti-
zation and in vivo subjects completed the Anxiety Differ-
ential and Fear Index on alternate weeks throughout the
study.

A non-treatment control group experienced no desensi-

tization procedures.

72

After the treatments were administered, each subject
was evaluated on his ability to structure the counseling
process with a role playing client using a performance
criteria. Immediately prior to this performance test, the
Anxiety Differential and Fear Index were administered
again as anxiety post-tests. Multivariate analysis of
covariance was used in the statistical analysis. A one-
way test was done for treatment. Two-way tests were applied
to treatments and counseling experience, teaching experience,
sex, major, and Taylor scores.

The primary finding of the study was that there was
no effect on anxiety level due to treatments. Trends were
noted as to the influence of counseling experience, teaching
experience, and sex. The interaction affect for treatments
and major was significantly related to the Anxiety Differ-
ential post-test measure, as was the effect of the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale scores on the performance measure.

The primary reason suggested for lack of treatment
effects was that the subjects were not particularly anxious
in this situation. Also, subjects were not volunteers and
may not have been highly motivated to participate in
desensitization. The reasons for trends were discussed.

The interaction effect of treatments and major was explained
on the basis of commitment to counseling of counseling and

non-counseling subjects. The effect of high and low Taylor

73

scores on the performance measure was considered to be an
instance of high anxiety as a personality trait inter-

fering with skill demonstration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

| Ill! 'lall .Ill Ililll. [1| Ill

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bandura, Albert, Principles gf_Behavior Modification, Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., New York, 1969.

Buss, Arnold, "A Follow-up Item Analysis of the Taylor
Anxiety Scale,” Journal Qf_Clinical Psychology, 1956,
11, 409-10.

 

Carmichael, H., "Sound-film Recording of Psychoanalytic
Therapy: A Therapist's Experiences and Reactions,‘
Journal gf_Iowa Medical Society, 1956, 46, 590-95.

Cooke, Gerald, "The Efficacy of Two Desensitization Pro-
cedures,” Behavior Research and Therapy, 1966, Vol.
4, 17-24.

DeCecco, John P., The Psyghologyrg£_Learning and Instruc-
tion: Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1968.

 

Donner, Lawrence, and Bernard G. Guerney, ”Automated Group
Desensitization for Test Anxiety," Behavior Research
and Therapy, February, 1969, Vol. 7, (1), 1.

 

Garfield, Zalmon H., Patricia L. Darwin, Barton A. Singer,
and John F. McBrearty, ”Effect of In Vivo Training
on Experimental Desensitization of a Phobia," Psycho-
logical Reports, 1967, V01. 20, 515-519.

Goldiamond, Israel, ”Self Control Procedures in Personal
Behavior Problems," in Roger Ullrigh, Thomas Stacknick,
and John Maybry, eds, The Control Q£_Human Behavior,
Scott, Foresman & Company, Glenview, Illinois, 1965,
127.

 

 

Husek, T. R., and Sheldon Alexander, "The Effectiveness of
the Anxiety Differential in Examination Stress Situa-
tions," Educational and Psychological Measurement,
Vol. 23, 1963, 309-318.

 

Kahn, Michael, and Bruce Baker, "Desensitization With
Minimal Therapist Contact," Journal 9£_Abnormal
Psychology, 1968, Vol. 73, 198-200.

Lang, Peter J., "The Mechanics of Desensitization and the
Laboratory Study of Human Fear," In Cyril M. Franks,
ed., Behavior Therapy: Appraisal and Status, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1969.

74

75

Lebo, Dell, Robert A. Toal, and Harry Brick, "Manifest
Anxiety in Prisoners Before and After C02,” Jourpgi_
p£_Consulting Psychology, 1958, 2;, 51-55.

 

Mager, Robert F., Preparing Instructional Objectives, Palo
Alto, California: Fearon Publishers, 1962.

Martarazzo, Joseph D, Samuel B. Guze, and Ruth C. Martarazzo,
”An Approach to the Validity of the Taylor Anxiety
Scale: Scores of Medical and Psychiatric Patients,"
Journal pf_Abnorma1 and Social Psychology, 1955, 51,
276-80.

 

Martinson, William D., and James P. Zerface, ”Comparison
of Individual Counseling and a Social Program with
Nondaters,” Journal pf Counseli g Psychology, Vol. 17,
(1), 1970, 6-14.

 

Meyer, V. and M. G. Gelder, ”Behavior Therapy and Phobic
Disorders,” British Journal p£_Psychiatry, 1963,
(109), 19-28, as quoted in Cyril M. Franks, Behavior
Therapy: Appraisal and Status, McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, 1969.

Migler, Bernard, ”Tape Recorder for Automated Desensiti-
zation,” Behavior Research and Therapy, Vol. 6, 1968,
243.

Migler, Bernard, and Joseph Wolpe, ”Automated Self Desensi-
tization: A Case Report," Behavior Research and
Therapy, 1967, Vol. 5, 33-135.

 

Mischel, Walter, Personality and Assessment, New York:
Wiley, 1968.

Moser, Ralph L. "Clinical Supervision: The Analysis of
Teaching," Supervision: New Dimensions (Edited by
Ralph Moser, David Purpel, and Kiyo Morimoto), Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin, 1968, 1-2.

 

Nolan, J. Dennis, "Self Control Procedures in the Modif-
ication of Smoking Behavior," Journal p£_Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 1968, Vol. 32, 92-92.

O'Neil, David G. and Robert J. Howell, ”Three Modes of
Hierarchy Presentation in Systematic Desensitization

Therapy," Behavior Research and Therapy, 1969, Vol.
7, 289-294.

 

76

Paul, Gordon L., Insight ygy Desensitization ip_Psycho-
thera , Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press, 1966.

 

POphum, W. James and Eva L. Baker, Establishing Instructional
Goals, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1970.

Ryan, T. Antoinette, "Systems Techniques for Programs of
Counseling and Counselor Education," Educational
Technology, June, 1969, 7-17.

Ryan, T. Antoinette, "Systems Research in Counseling and
Counselor Education," American Educational Research
Association 1969 Presentation, Los Angeles, February 2,
1969.

Rehm, Lynn P., and Albert Marston, "Reduction of Social
Anxiety Through Modification of Self Reinforcement:
An Instigation Therapy Technique,” Journal p£_Con-

sultipg and Clinical Psychology, 1968, V01. 32, (5),
565-574 0

 

Russel, Peter D. and William U. Snyder, "Counselor Anxiety
in Relation to Amount of Clinical Experience and
Quality of Affect Demonstrated by Clients," Journal
p§_Abnorma1 and Social Psychology, Vol. 27, (4),
358-363.

Silvern, Leonard G., ”A Cybernertic System Model for Occupa—
tional Education," Educational Technology, VIII, No.
2, January 30, 1968, 3-9.

Taylor, Janet A., "A Personality Scale of Manifest Anxiety,”
Journal p£_Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 48,
(2), 285-290.

Thoresen, Carl, "Relevance and Research in Counseling,"
Review pf_Educational Research, American Educational
Research Association, 32, (2), April, 1969(b), 263-
81.

Thoresen, Carl E., "Being Systematic About Counselor Train-
ing: Some Basic Steps," Presented in a Symposium,
American Personnel and Guidance Association Convention,
April, 1968(a).

'75... .‘l

Halt-'3‘“

 

 

)1 I .‘f .1

77

Thoresen, Carl E., "The Systems Approach and Counselor
Education: Basic Features and Implications,” un-
published, from an earlier version presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Chicago, February, 1968(b).

Van Atta, Ralph E. "Excitatory and Inhibitory Effect of
Various Methods of Observation in Counseling," Journal
p£_Counse1ing Psychology, 1969, 1§_(5), 433-39.

Walk, Richard, "Self Ratings of Fear in a Fear-Invoking
Situation," Journal p£_Abnormal and Social Psychology,
Vol. 52, (2), 1956, 171-178.

Whiteley, John M., "Counselor Education," Review p£.Educa-
tional Research, American Educational Research Associa-
tion, 39, (2), April, 1969, 175.

Winborn, Bob B., Norman Stewart, William Hinds, Herbert
Burks, Richard Johnson, and Jim Englekes, 1969,
mimeograph.

Wolpe, Joseph, Psychotherapy By Reciprocal Inhibition,
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958.

Wolpe, Joseph, and Arnold Lazarus, Behavior Therapy Tech-
nigues, London: Pergamon Press, 1966.

Yelon, Stephen L., "Toward the Application of Systems
Analysis to Counselor Education," Educational Tech-
nology, IX, No. 3, March, 1969, 55-60.

Yelon, Stephen L. and Roger 0. Scott, A_Strategy for
Writing Objectives, Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Debuque,
Iowa, 1970.

 

 

I'll J I.
| ill I

APPENDICES

APPEND IX A

 

 

ll .1... III" I \l' I

Name

 

Directions For Ranking Anxiety Cues

This is a self - help project to enable you to over-
come whatever tension or "jitteriness" is associated with
being observed and evaluated on your ability to structure
the counseling interview. The method we will be using
involves your making a list of situations leading up to the
performance demonstration that make you tense. Situations
that you rank highest will have the most anxiety cues
associated with them. You will have twenty items in your
list, with number twenty being a situation just suggestive
of the performance demonstration, like entering the class-
room or seeing your instructor, and number one being the
performance demonstration itself with the instructor rating
you, etc. The items in between should lead up gradually
from 20 to 1, including perhaps just walking down the hall
to the counselor training rooms, being in the room testing
the microphone, or practicing with someone sitting in front
of you. Do your twenty items in pencil, so your instructor
can help you with whatever changes are necessary. Be sure
and turn this in next week.

10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.

15.
78

 

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

79

 

APPENDIX B

N a me

Date Instructor

 

 

This scale consists of fifty statements. Read each state-

ment and decide whether it is true as applied to you or false
as applied to you. If a statement is TRUE OR MOSTLY TRUE, as
applied to you, circle the T before that statement. If a
statement is FALSE OR NOT USUALLY TRUE, as applied to you,
circle the F before that statement. Your responses are
strictly confidential.

10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

T

T

F

F

My hands and feet are usually warm enough.

I work under a great deal of tension.

1 have diarrhea once a month or more.

I am very seldom troubled by constipation.

I am troubled at attacks of nausea and vomiting.
I have nightmares every few nights.

I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job.
My sleep is fitful and disturbed.

I wish I could be as happy as others seem to be.
I am certainly lacking in self-confidence.

I am happy most of the time.

I have a great deal of stomach trouble.

I certainly feel useless at times.

I cry easily.

I do not tire quickly.

I frequently notice my hand shakes when I try to
do something.

I have very few headaches.

Sometimes, when embarrassed, I break out in a
sweat which annoys me greatly.

I frequently find myself worrying about something.

I hardly ever notice my heart pounding and am
seldom short of breath.

80

 

21.

22.

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.

32.

33.

34.

35.
36.

37.

38.
39.
40.
41.

42.

81
I have periods of such great restlessness that I
cannot sit long in a chair.

I dream frequently about things that are best
kept to myself.

I believe I am no more nervous than most others.
I sweat very easily even on cool days.

I am entirely self-confident.

I have very few fears compared to my friends.
Life is a strain for me much of the time.

I am more sensitive than most other people.

I am easily embarrassed.

I worry over money or business.

I cannot keep my mind on one thing.

I feel anxiety about something or someone almost
all the time.

Sometimes I become so excited that I find it
hard to get to sleep.

I have been afraid of things or people that I
knew could not hurt me.

I am inclined to take things hard.

I am not usually self-conscious.

I have sometimes felt that difficulties were
piling up so high that I could not overcome
them.

I am usually calm and not easily upset.

At times I think I am no good at all.

I feel hungry almost all the time.

I worry quite a bit over possible misfortunes.

It makes me nervous to have to wait.

 

 

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

82

I have had periods in which I lost sleep over
worry.

I must admit that I have at times been worried
beyond reason over something that really did
not matter.

I am a high-strung person.

I practically never blush.

I blush no more often than others.

I am often afraid that I am going to blush.

I shrink from facing a crisis or difficulty.

I sometimes feel that I am about to go to pieces.

APPENDIX C

Name Date

 

Instructor's Name

 

This is a self rating of how calm or tense you are feeling
right now. Please rate yourself honestly; this will in no
way affect your grade in the course. To rate yourself,
place an X in the space on the continuum that describes how
you are feeling at the present time.

 

calm . . . . l r r L 4 TL 4 tense,
relaxed, nervous,
self-confident concerned

83

APPENDIX D

Name

 

Date

 

Instructor's Name

 

The purpose of this instrument is to determine what certain
words or concepts mean to ypp. Each numbered item presents
a CONCEPT (such as DOG) and a scale (such as High-Low). You
are to rate the concept on the seven point scale indicated.

If you feel that the concept is very closely associated with
one end of the scale, you would place your check-mark as
follows:
DOG
high X : : : : : : :low
OR
high : : : : : : X :low

 

If you feel that the concept is closgly related to one side
of the scale, you would check as follows:
TREE

 

straight : X . :crooked
OR
straight : : : : : X : :crooked

If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as

opposed to the other, you might check as follows:

CLOUD

easy : : X : ' :difficult
OR
easy : : : : X : : :difficult

If you consider the scale completely irrelevant, or that both

sides are equally associated, you would check the middle

space:

CAR
idealistic : : : X : : : :realistic

REMEMBER: Never put more than one check mark 93 any scale.

Also be sure to check every item.

 

For this instrument, work at a fairly high rate of Speed with-
out worrying or puzzling over individual items. It is your
first impressions that we want. Go right ahead now.

84

‘7 ’I'Mfl‘fil

85

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. FINGERS
straight : : : : : : :twisted
2 ME
helpless : : : : : : :secure
3. BREATHING
tight : : : : : : zloose
4. SCREW
strong : : : : : : :weak
5. HANDS
wet : : : : : : :dry
6. TODAY
loose : : : : : : :tight
7 ME
frightened : : : : : : :fearless
8. GERMS
deep : : : : : : :shallow
9. HANDS
good : : : : : : :bad
10. BREATHING

careful : : : : : : :carefree

 

 

 

 

 

'“F

86

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

11. FINGERS

stiff :relaxed
12. ME

calm :jittery
13. HANDS

tight zloose
14. BREATHING

hot :cold
15. SCREW

loose :tight
16. ME

carefree :worried
l7. ANXIETY

clear :hazy
18. FINGERS

loose :tight

 

 

-."-_.‘| a . ».—. .41-fir «‘(4

A—.ok‘_’v ':

l

I' III 'I :1 III .II l i I It] ‘I ll

APPENDIX E

Total Score Trainee
Rater Initials

 

 

Performance Demonstration--Structuring

Roles
O points--one or both roles not discussed

1 point---briefly mentions that the counselor "listens” and
client "describes”

2 points--Severa1 sentences on both the role of the client
and the counselor. Remarks mention action-oriented
tasks of counselor (suggest, provide new exper-
iences in role playing) or client (carry out
assigned tasks or make decisions)

Purpose
0 points--not mentioned

1 point---"Solve problems" or other appropriate brief
comment

2 points--Two or more sentences mentioning several appropri-
ate purposes, like "relationship is provided in
which the client can receive help" "normal con-
cerns such as problem solving concerns are dealt
with" "counseling provides a learning situation
in which the client can learn new behavior.

Limits

0 points--1 mentioned, or not covered
Time limits

1 point---2 mentioned Confidentiality limits
counselor
2 points--3 mentioned Limited to normal problems
Limited to voluntary
participation

87

88

Focus
0 points--not mentioned

1 point---"one concern at a time "or” focus on Specific
behavior”

2 points--focus on one specific concern at a time in order
to bring about change in Specific behavior; also
mention behavioral objective

Non-Verbal

O points--l appropriate behavior or none
Eye contact

1 point---2 appropriate behaviors Forward leaning posture
Facing client
2 points--3 appropriate behaviors Appropriate emphasis in

voice--not a monatone

APPENDIX F

PERSONAL DATA
School Counselor Trainee

Directions: Please fill out this form and bring it to the
next class. Please use the back of this sheet if additional
space is needed. The information you provide will be treated
confidentially. Please be frank. The purpose for obtaining
this information is to assist the counselor education faculty
to better understand the composition of this group of trainees.

Name Date

 

General Data:

a. Age: Date of Birth:
b. Sex: (M F)
c. Race: (B, R. W, Y)

d. Religion:

e. Birthplace:

f. If foreign born, date of arrival in USA:

g. Education (List high schools and colleges attended, dates

of graduation and major)

h. Employment history: (List job titles and give dates of
employment)

i. Yearly income, all sources: (If unemployed, on what
sources of income or on what
are you dependent, giving
occupation and relationship
to you.)

j. Military service: (Yes, No); dates and highest rank:

Residential Data:

a. Present address and telephone number (include area code
and zip code):

89

90

Legal residence and telephone number (include area code
and zip code):

Length of residence in present city:
List previous cities and towns in which you have lived

and give dates: (If you have resided in a rural area,
please indicate).

Marital Status:

8.

M, S, W, Div, Sep:

Date of marriage:

Date of termination of marriage:

Name of mate, if any:

Dates of previous marriages, if any:

Sex and age of children:

Does mate work (Yes, No) If so, nature of work:

If married, have you ever separated from mate (Yes, No)
Number of times.

Education of mate (Give last year of school completed)

Does mate have any serious health problems? If so, please
describe:

Family Identification Data:

3.

b.

Father's name: Living or dead:
Age at present, or, if dead, age at death: Birthplace:
If foreign-born, date of arrival in USA: Occupation:

Education (Last year of school completed):
Estimated annual income, all sources: Religion:
Mother's maiden name: Living or dead:

Age at present, or, if dead, age at death: Birthplace:

91

If foreign-born, date of arrival in USA: Occupation:
Education (Last year of school completed):

Estimated annual income, all sources, if she has indepen-
dent income:

Siblings (List age and sex):

Other significant persons, within or without the family,
that have influenced your life (life age, sex, and rela-
tionship to you):

Health History:

8.

b.

g.

Describe any current, serious physical ailment, give date
of onset:

Describe any physical defect, give date of onset:

Describe any current psychological difficulties of which
you are aware, give dates of onset:

Have you ever received counseling, psychotherapy, or
psychiatric assistance (Yes, No) Describe symptoms, where
treated, and names of peOple who rendered assistance:

Describe any situations or conditions that cause you to
become emotionally upset:

Describe any environmental disturbances that have been
of significant influence in your life (economic, work,
housing, neighborhood, and family):

Describe any relationship difficulties that have been of
significant influence in your life (disturbances in rela-
tionships with people, attitudes toward the world, toward
authority and toward self):

Describe any hereditary, constitutional, and early develOp-
mental influences that have been of significant influence
in your life (significant physical and mental disorders in

I! .IIII'III. II III

92

family, socioeconomic status of family, early traumatic
experiences and relationships, fears and anxieties in
childhood and adolescents):

Data on Achievements, Interests, and Ambitions:

3.

Describe honors, awards, and other achievements that have
come to you, give dates:

List your strongest intellectual aptitude, indicate its
strength in comparison with the general p0pu1ation
(average, outstanding, superior), and indicate what
evidence you used to make this assessment:

List your weakest intellectual aptitude, indicate its
strength in comparison with the general p0pulation

(very low, below average, average, outstanding, superior)
and indicate what evidence you used to make this assess-
ment:

List any Special talents; describe the extent to which
these talents have been develOped:

List three primary, specific interests:

List your serious hobbies:

Describe your expectations for yourself for the next five
years:

Describe your expectations for yourself for the next ten
years:

Why did you choose to begin your graduate study in school
counseling; be specific:

When did you first begin thinking of school counseling
as a career; give dates:

P.

93

If any person, situation, or condition influenced you in
your decision to begin graduate study in school counseling,
please describe, give relationships to you, etc.:

What personal needs may be gratified if you become a
school counselor; be specific:

What commitment are you prepared to make at this time to
graduate study in school counseling, be specific:

What makes you believe that you can become a successful
school counselor, be Specific:

If you were not accepted into the regular school counsel-
ing program at the end of this term, what other areas of
graduate study would you consider applying for:

Why did you choose MSU for graduate study, be specific:

APPENDIX C

TITLE:

PURPOSE:

DIRECTIONS:

INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES:

Counseling Systems Research
Project

Department of Counseling and
Educational Psychology

Michigan State University

Establishing Structure

To acquaint students with the function of
establishing structure and to provide
practice in establish counseling structure.

1. Read Instructional Refe ence, ”Struc-
turing the Counseling Process," page 2.

2. Attain Objective 1, page 5.

3. Attain Objective 2, page 8.

4. View Video Tape.

5. Attain Objective 3, page 10.

1. Given two written statements of a coun-
selor's structuring of the counseling
process, the student will identify in
each the words or phrases that struc-
ture roles, purpose, limits, and focus.

2. Given four video tape segments of struc-
turing the counseling interview, the
student will check those aspects of
structuring which are included and,
for one segment, the type of referral,
the timing of structuring, and the
decision as to need. The objective is
attained when less than three errors
are committed.

3. Given two written brief descriptions of
a type of counselee referral, the stu-
dent will write out what he would
actually say to the client to greet
him and begin the interview by spec-
ifying roles, purpose, limits, and
focus. The objective will be attained
when the supervisor approves by initial-
ing.

94

95

STRUCTURING THE COUNSELING PROCESS

What is structure as it applies to counseling? Basically,
it is the framework in which a counselor works with a client.
This framework is communicated to the client by talking with
him briefly about four aspects of "What counseling is."
Structuring is more than a one sentence definition of coun-
seling, however. In structuring, the counselor defines roles,
purpose, limits, and focus in regard to the counseling pro-
cess. Many clients come to counseling with vague notions of
what counseling is, such as "just talking things over" or
perhaps "getting some advice.” Actually clients are not
without some justification in looking at counseling in this
way because typically school counselors have not estab-
lished clearly in their own minds just what counseling is
and, therefore, cannot clearly communicate their purposes
to others in some instances. Structuring of the counseling
process refers to the process whereby the counselor estab-
lishes the framework in which he will work with the client.
This framework involves the four specific areas that must
be understood by the client if the counseling is to be pro-
ductive.

Before the counselor formally establishes structure in
the counseling interview, he is faced with two decisions,
i.e., "Is formal structure needed," and "Is this the apprOpri-
ate time?" The counselor should structure the interview
when the client is being seen for the first time. It should
be done immediately unless the client spontaneously begins to
discuss appropriate concerns; in this case, later in the
initial interview or at the end is the appropriate time for
structuring. Now let us turn to the four elements of
structuring.

ROLES

Within the counseling process, both the counselor and
client engage in certain activities. It is essential that
the client understands what is expected of the counselor.
The roles should be communicated to the client in such a
way as to ensure the inclusion of the following information
about the responsibilities of both participants. The role
of the counselor can be described as that of a professional
person who provides assistance to the client by listening
to his concerns, observing the client and interacting with
him. More specifically, it should be noted that the coun-
selor will assist the client in specifying his concerns and
suggesting courses of action that might be followed to alle-
viate the problem. Although typically it might not be

96

communicated to the client as such, the counselor at times
would also take on the role of providing support for the
client, the counselor would perhaps mention that counseling
provides a "safe” environment in which to try out new be-
haviors.

It is essential that the counselor inform the client
as to his (the client's) role and responsibilities. Pri-
marily, the clients' role consists of describing and dis-
cussing his or her concerns and participating in the inter-
view by providing the counselor with needed information.
The client should also understand that, although the coun-
selor will provide assistance to the client, the responsi-
bility for carrying out assigned tasks as well as reSponsi-
bility for making decisions and carrying them out remains
with the client

PURPOSE

The purpose of counseling should be described to the
client as a relationship wherein the client can receive help
in dealing with the normal concerns that occur in the
course of development as well as providing immediate assis-
tance in problem solving, counseling is designed to help
clients develOp problem solving skills that can be utilized
in dealing with problems that are faced following the ter-
mination of the formal counseling relationship. It can be
pointed out to the client that counseling is essentially a
learning situation wherein he can develop more effective
ways of coping With some of the problem Situations that con-
front him. While counseling, as indicated previously,
deals with the normal concerns with which all young people
are faced, this does not minimize the need of people for
assistance. Indeed, the problems that young peOple typically
face are very real and often extremely frustrating to the
person involved.

LIMITS

The third area to be discussed will deal with the limits
of the counseling relationship. In discussing this area
with the client, the counselor would communicate to the
client that he deals only with certain types of problems,
primarily those that are typical of young people. The client
concerns the counselor deals with are the "normal" problems

lag-with “KNEE“! w

.r
, \
v‘llfi

97

encountered in the process of growing up. Counselors must
know the limits of their training and skill. Those pro-
blems indicate a serious maladjustment should be referred

to a trained professional. In the typical school setting,
the counselor is limited as to the amount of time that can
be spent on any one problem with any one client. The
specific time limits would vary with the particular setting
in which counseling is carried on, but would usually involve
no more than ten interviews of approximately 50 minutes
duration.

It must be made clear to the client that his/her parti-
cipation in counseling is on a voluntary basis, that the
client is not and cannot be compelled to participate irre-
spective of the fact that in many cases the client will have
been referred to counseling by school authorities. As was
pointed out in the discussion of roles, the client has re-
sponsibilities for describing his concerns to the counselor;
unless the client is willing to carry out this responsibil-
ity, the counseling process will not be productive.

An area that is of concern to a great many clients is
that of confidentiality. The counselor should carefully
point out to the client that the counselor is under an
obligation to maintain the confidentiality of the informa-
tion transmitted to him in the interview. In advising the
client of the confidential mature of the relationships, the
counselor should inform the client that circumstances might
arise wherein it might be useful to the clinet to involve
a third party with information that has been derived in the
interview. However, this would only be done with the
client's prior permission and would be limited only to the
information that the third party would require in order to
help the client.

FOCUS

If counseling is to be of maximum effectiveness, the
client must also understand that the process will focus
on one specific concern at a time with the intention of
bringing about an overt change in behavior. In order to
bring about this change in behavior, a specific behavioral
objective will be established and agreed upon by the coun-
selor and client. This objective, or goal, will describe
what the client will be doing as a result of counseling.

98

IMPLICIT STRUCTURE

While formal structure is provided in nearly all
initial interviews, implicit structure is also provided
throughout the counseling process. The counselor can
provide leads that are designed to keep the client focused
on the current problem or can remind the client of his
responsibilities or role. Both verbal and non-verbal rein-
forcements can also be used to deve10p apprOpriate client
behavior in the interview. The counselor could, for in-
stance, use postural movements as a device to encourage
clients to pursue a particular subject area. Moving closer
to or leaning toward the client would tend to reinforce
whatever behavior the client is engaging in at the time.
By the same token, withholding reinforcement for inappro-
priate client behaviors can serve to move the client's
attention to more meaningful material. While formal struc-
turing would occur during the initial interview, implicit
structuring would be used as needed throughout the coun-
seling process.

I .l I [It].

99

Objective 1: Given two written statements of a counselor's
structuring the counseling process, the stu-
dent will identify in each the words or
phrases that structure roles, purpose, limits,
and focus.

Problems: 1. Mary, I suggested that you come in today
because Mrs. Smith noticed you crying in
her calss several times this week. I would
like to work with you in trying to work
out some ways to deal with whatever's
bothering you. Counseling, you may or may
not know, is designed to help young peOple
with all sorts of problems that nearly
everyone has while growing up. Sort of
learning to handle or solve problems. In
exchange for my help in trying to work out
ways of handling your concerns, you'd have
to be willing to work with me, to tell me
about what's concerning you and to let me
know whenever you don't agree with me in
what I'm saying. I won't talk to anyone
about what's concerning you without your
prior permission.

In counseling we would look at making a
decision, acting differently, or something
specific like that. IS this something you'd
like to Spend some time on? I'd be able

to work with you for about 45 minutes twice
a week for the next couple of weeks if that
much time seems needed.

Roles--

Purpose--

Limits--

Focus--

Reread before looking at suggested responses.

100

2. Jeff, in order for me to help you with
this problem, it will be necessary for you
to tell me as much as you can about what's
bothering you. I should tell you that
what you tell me in here will be kept
confidential, so I hOpe worrying about
that wouldn't keep you from talking to me
about your concerns. The problem you have
mentioned is not unusual and counseling
deals with this type of problem and is de-
signed to help young peOple in arriving at
a solution. We will try to narrow the
problem down to something specific and then
work on something definite that you can
do about it.

Roles--
Purpose--
Limits--

Focus--

Reread before looking at suggested reSponses.

j I III] I III I'll! III- lllll 111 .I II]- II ,Ilil’ll. III. I
'III

11.

a.

101

SUGGESTED RESPONSES FOR EXAMPLE I

I would like to work with you . . . in exchange for
my help, you'd have to be willing to work with me,

to tell me what's concerning you and to let me know
whenever you're not right with me in what I'm saying.

Counseling is designed to help young people with

all sorts of problems that nearly everyone has while
growing up, sort of learning to handle or solve
problems.

I won't talk to anyone about your concerns without
talking to you first. I'd be able to work . . . 45
minutes twice a week for the next couple of weeks .

. .trying out ways to deal with whatever's bother-
ing you . . .1ook at making a decision, acting dif-
ferently or something specific . . .

SUGGESTED RESPONSES FOR EXAMPLE II
. . .for me to help you with this problem, it will
be necessary for you to tell me . . .
. . .counseling deals with this type of problem
and is designed to help young people in arriving
at a solution.

. . .what you tell me in here is confidential . . .

We will try to narrow the problem down to something
specific . . .

If you were able to identify the various phrases that con-
tribute to structuring the counseling process, or missed
just one, you're doing fine.

If not, reread either or both examples and be sure you can
accomplish the objective before continuing.

 

102

Objective 2: After viewing four video tape segments of
structuring the counseling interview, the
student will record those aspects of struc-
turing which are included and, for the
last segment, the type of referral, the tim-
ing of structuring, and the decision as to
need. The objective is attained when less
than three errors are committed.

You will now see brief video tapes of four interviews in
which the counselor structures the counseling interview.
The counselor covers the four aspects of structure in some
interviews, but does not include each aspect in other
segments. For each interview, check the aspects of struc-
ture that are covered. Note that for Interview 4 you also

check type of referral, the timing, and the need for struc-
ture.

Interview I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Purpose Roles

Limits Focus
Interview II

Purpose Roles

Limits Focus
Interview III

Purpose Roles

 

 

Limits Focus

 

 

103

Interview 1
Type of Referral

Environmental

 

Decision Time For Structure

Appropriate

 

Decision--Need for Structure

Need

 

Purpose

 

Limits

 

 

 

 

 

 

Self

InapprOpriate

No Need

Roles

Focus

104

Objective 3: Given two written brief descriptions of a
type of counselee refer al, the student
will write out what he would actually
say to the client to greet him and begin
the interview by Specifying roles, purpose,
limits, and focus. The objective will
be attained when the supervisor approves
of your structuring statements.

Practice Problems

1. Willing, verbal, self referred client (at end of interview)

a. (write out what you would say)

b. (Now specify what you included to structure roles,
purpose, limits, and focus)
Roles--
Purpose--

Limits--

Focus--

 

Supervisor Approval

Raise your hand when you are finished. Your instructor will
circulate around the class giving you feedback on your struc-
turing remarks.

105

2. Hostile, non-verbal Referral from teacher (beginning of
interview)

a. (write out what you would say)

b. (Now specify what you included to structure roles,
purpose, limits, and focus)
Roles--
Purpose--

Limits--

Focus--

 

Supervisor Approval

Raise your hand when you are finished. Your instructor
will circulate around the class giving you feedback on
your structuring remarks.

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