-“fiu?_-‘

A NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION
OF RECYCLED SWINE WASTE

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHTGAH STATE UNIVERSITY
DONALD E. ORR, JR. 9
.1374

  

 

   
 

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U47 ABSTRACT

A NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF RECYCLED SWINE WASTE
By Donald E. Orr, Jr.

Seven experiments involving 114 finishing pigs weigh-
ing 54 to 100 kg were conducted to evaluate dried swine
feces (DSF), dried poultry waste (DPW) and oxidation ditch
liquor (ODL) as sources of nutrients in swine finisher
diets.

In experiment 1, 16 finishing pigs were randomly
allotted to one of two rations. One group of pigs received
a 13% crude protein, fortified corn-soybean meal ration.

The other group received a ration of 78% corn and 22% DSF
during the first 3 1/2 weeks of the trial and then 0.1%
L-lysine and 0.1% DL-mmthionine were added to the diet for
the remainder of the trial. The additional lysine and
methionine were required to bring the corn-DSF ration up to
N.R.C. minimum requirements for these amino acids. Pigs
were fed to typical market weights and loin roasts were
removed at slaughter to use in taste panel tests to deter-
mine flavor acceptability. Overall average daily gain was
significantly higher (P<0.0l) with the corn-soy group. Feed
intake of the corn-DSF group was 93% of that of the corn-soy
group, whereas feed efficiency was depressed to a greater ex-

tent with the corn-DSF group. Taste panel tests of loin

Donald E. Orr, Jr.
roasts revealed no significant difference between groups for
flavor acceptability.

In experiment 2, three balance trials involving four
barrows were conducted to determine the digestibility of
nutrients, nitrogen balance and mineral balance for a corn-
soybean meal diet, corn-DSF diet and corn-DSF diet containing
supplemental lysine and methionine. Significantly higher
daily fecal output (P<0.01) occurred from the two corn-DSF
diets than from the corn-soy diet. Daily urine volume was
also higher on the corn-DSF diets. The higher calcium
level of the DSF diets resulted in significantly higher
calcium intake (P<0.01) for the DSF groups. Although calcium
retention relative to intake was significantly greater (P<0.05)
for the corn-soy diet as compared to the corn-DSF diet with
supplemental amino acids, due to the lower calcium intake
of the corn-soy diet, absolute calcium retention was similar
for all three dietary treatments. Daily phosphorus and
magnesium balances indicated a similar pattern to that of
the calcium balance for all treatments. Sodium retention
relative to intake was similar for all three diets. Apparent
digestibility and retention of potassium were significantly
higher (P<0.01) on the corn-soy diet.

Apparent digestibility and retention of iron, zinc
and manganese were improved with the addition of supplemental
amino acids to the corn-DSF diet.

Nitrogen apparent digestibility and retention were

significantly higher (P<0.01) in the corn-soy diet as

Donald E. Orr, Jr.
compared to the DSF diets. Amino acid supplementation
significantly improved (P<0.01) these same parameters with
the corn-DSF diets. Energy balance was directly related to
nitrogen balance of the respective diets.

In experiment 3, 32 finishing pigs were fed (1)
conventional corn-soy, (2) 80% of ration 1 plus 20% DPW,
(3) corn-limited soy plus 20% DPW plus vitamin-zinc-
methionine premix and (4) corn-limited soy plus 20% DSF,
salt and vitamin-trace mineral premix. Growth rate was
significantly higher (P<0.01) on ration 1. Feed intake and
feed efficiency were reduced with diets containing DPW and
DSF. Higher dietary calcium levels occurred with the DPW
diets due to elevated calcium levels of the DPW that
originated from caged layers. Pig performance was poorest
on ration 3. Poor availability of amino acids in DSF may
have been the reason for poor performance on ration 4.

In experiment 4, eight finishing swine were used to
evaluate a corn, limited soy diet containing 20% DSF and 4%
corn oil to improve the energy density of the diet compared
with a fortified corn-soy control diet. Daily gains
slightly favored the control diet, but the difference was
not statistically significant. Feed intakes were similar
with feed efficiency being 9.5% poorer with the corn-DSF
diet. The addition of supplemental energy to the DSF diet
resulted insignificant improvement in pig performance as

compared to previous DSF diets.

Donald E. Orr, Jr.

In experiments 5 and 7, forty-eight finishing pigs
were assigned to one of two treatments: (1) conventional
fortified corn-soy diet or (2) corn-limited soy fortified
only with vitamins A, D and E. Pigs on diet 1 received
equal parts (weight basis) of dryfeed and water. Pigs on
diet 2 received equal parts (weight basis) of dry feed and
ODL. ODL was pumped from the oxidation ditch at each feed-
ing to be mixed with the diet. In experiment 7, these same
diets were also offered ad libitum.from a self-feeder in
addition to being hand fed to two other lots. In experiment
5, average daily gain was only slightly higher for the corn-
soy plus water diet, but was significantly higher (P<0.01)
for the same diet in experiment 7 as compared to the corn-
limited soy plus ODL. Average daily feed intake and feed
efficiency were depressed slightly with the corn-limited soy
plus ODL regime. Results from experiment 7 demonstrated
that feed intake of the hand fed groups was similar to feed
intake of the self-fed groups.

In experiment 6, six barrows were utilized in a
double reversal designed balance trial to determine the
digestibility of nutrients, nitrogen balance and mineral
balance for the diets utilized in experiments 5 and 7.
Results indicated significantly higher (P<0.01) daily fecal
output with the ODL. The corn-soydwater diet had significant-
ly higher (P<0.01) calcium, phosphorus, sodium and magnesium

apparent digestibilities and retentions as compared to the

Donald E. Orr, Jr.
corn-limited soy-ODL diet. Potassium.retentions were
similar for both diets. Apparent digestibility of iron and
zinc and relative retention of iron were similar for both
diets, although zinc relative retention was higher on the
corn-soy-water diet. Manganese and copper balances were
significantly higher (P<0.01) for the corn-soy-water diet.
Higher (P<0.01) nitrogen apparent digestibility occurred
.with the corn-soy-water diet, although nitrogen retention
‘was similar for both diets. Dry matter and energy apparent
digestibilities were significantly higher for the corn-soy-
water diet.

From the experiments conducted, it could be con-
cluded that finishing pigs will consume corn-soy rations
containing up to 22% DSF at 90 to 95% of full appetite.

Rate and efficiency of gain are depressed by the incorporation
of DSF into corn-soy rations to replace all or most of

the soybean meal. The incorporation of DSF into a finisher
diet resulted in a depression of apparent digestibility

and retention of dry matter, nitrogen, energy and most
minerals; however, the addition of supplemental amino acids
to the DSF diets significantly improved apparent digestibil-
ity of these nutrients. Elevated calcium levels, reduced
amino acid availability and reduced energy digestibility of
DSF and DPW (layer) would appear to be the primary factors
affecting their utilization in swine diets. The addition of

supplemental energy to DSF diets to restore the concentration

Donald E. Orr, Jr.
of digestible energy should improve pig performance. No
improvement in pig performance was observed for pigs receiv-
ing ODL in their diet and lower apparent digestibility co-
efficients for dry matter, protein, energy and minerals

were obtained in balance trials utilizing ODL.

A NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF RECYCLED SWINE WASTE

By

95“"

Donald E?%Orr, Jr.

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michi an State University
in partial fquillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Animal Husbandry

1974

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation
to Drs. E.R. Miller and D.E. Ullrey for their expert guid-
ance and counsel throughout his graduate program and for
their critical reading of this manuscript. The association
and valuable experience with these scientists will always be
remembered and cherished. Appreciation is also extended to
Drs. R;W. Luecke and W.R. Dukelow for their helpful guidance
and encouragement during this author's graduate program.

Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. R.H. Nelson
and the Animal Husbandry Department for the use of facilities
and animals and for financial support in the form of a
graduate assistantship. Sincere gratitude is also expressed
to Dr. J.W. Thomas and the N.I.H. Graduate Trainee program
for financial support and research funds.

Special thanks are extended to Mr. E.C. Miller for
his guidance and assistance in providing experimental facil-
ities and to Mr. Roger Hale, Manager, and the swine farm
staff for their cooperation in caring for the experimental
animals. A sincere note of appreciation also goes to fellow
graduate students and laboratory staff for their assistance
and encouragement. Thanks are extended to Drs. W.G. Bergen
and P.K. Ku for their assistance in laboratory analyses and
to Mrs. Joy Walker for her skillful typing of this manuscript.

ii

Above all, the author is indebted to his wife,
Pamela, whose sacrifices and encouragement have made this

study worthwhile .

iii

DONALD E. ORR, JR.
CANDIDATE FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DISSERTATION: A NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF RECYCLED SWINE
WASTE

OUTLINE OF STUDIES:

Main Area: Animal Husbandry (Nutrition)
Minor Areas: Biochemistry
Physiology

BIOGRAPHICAL ITEMS:
Born: January 17, 1945, Kokomo, Indiana

Undergraduate Studies: Purdue University, 1963-1967
3.8.

Graduate Studies: Pennsylvania State University,
1967-1969 (M.S.)
Michigan State University,l970-l974
(Ph.D.)

Experience: Faculty Research Assistant, Pennsylvania
State University, 1967-1969

Graduate Assistant, Michigan State
University, 1970-1974

National Institute of Health Graduate
Tgaznee, Michigan State University, 1971-
1 7

MEMBER:

American Society of Animal Science
Society of Sigma Xi
Alpha Zeta

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .

I. INTRODUCTION .

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .

A.

E.

Digestibility of Nutrients of
Ingredients in the Swine Diet

Production of Wastes by Swine
Methods of Waste Handling
Nutritional Value of Animal Waste
1. Poultry Waste . . . . . . .
2. Ruminant Waste .

3. Swine Waste

Problems with Waste Recycling

III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

A.
B.

Introduction .
Experiments

1. Experiment 1. Feeding Trial
Utilizing DSF in Swine Finisher Diets
2. Experiment 2. Balance Trial Utiliz-
ing DSF in Swine FiniSher diets . .
3. Experiment 3. Feeding trial utiliz-
ing DSF and DPW in swine finisher
diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Experiment 4. Feeding trial utiliz-
ing DSF in swine finisher diets con-
taining supplemental energy . .
5. Experiment 5. Feeding trial utiliz-
ing ODL in swine finisher diets . . .
6. Experiment 6. Balance trial utiliz-
ing ODL in swine finisher diets . . .
7. Experiment 7. Feeding trial utiliz-
ing ODL in swine finisher diets .

V

Page

. vii

.15
.18
.22
.22

.29

.31
.35
.39
.39

.42

.42
.46

.46
.49

.49

.53

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued . . . .)

Page

C. Chemical Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1. Feed and Feces . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2. Urine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

D. Statistical Analyses . . . . . . . . . . 58

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
A. Experiment 1. Feeding Trial Utilizing

DSF in Swine Finisher Diets . . . . . . 59
B. Experiment 2. Balance Trial Utilizing

DSF in Swine Finisher Diets . . . . . 61

C. Experiment 3. Feeding Trial Utilizing
DSF and DPW in Swine Finisher Diets . . . 70

D. Experiment 4. Feeding Trial Utilizing
DSF in Swine Finisher Diets Containing
Supplemental Energy . . . . . . . . . . . 72

E. Experiment 5. Feeding Trial Utilizing

ODL in Swine Finisher Diets . . . . . 74

F. Experiment 6. Balance Trial Utilizing
ODL in Swine Finisher Diets . . . . . 75

G. Experiment 7. Feeding Trial Utilizing
ODL in Swine Finisher Diets . . . . . 82
V. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
VII. APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

vi

Table

w

\JO‘U‘I-P

oo

10.

ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

A-2.

LIST OF TABLES

Nutrient composition of dried swine feces
(DSF) and dehydrated poultry waste (DPW)

Composition of diets used in experiment 1

Amino acid composition of dried swine feces
(DSF)- experiments 1 and 2 .

Composition of diets used in experiment 2
Composition of diets used in experiment 3
Composition of diets used in experiment 4

Composition of dry feed used in experiment
5, 6 and 7 with water or ODL . . . .

Nutrient composition of ODL .
Amino acid composition of oxidation ditch
liquor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of pig performance and taste panel
test from experiment 1 . . . .

Summary of balance trial in experiment 2 .

Summary of pig performance from experiment 3 .
Summary of pig performance from experiment 4 .
Summary of pig performance from experiment 5 .
. 76
. 83

Summary of balance trial in experiment 6 .

Summary of pig performance from experiment 7

Page

. 43
. 44

. 45
. 47
. 48
. 50

. 51
. 54

. 55

. 60
. 62

71
73
74

Chemical analyses of DSF-experiments 1 and 2 .101

Michigan State University vitamin-trace'
mineral premix . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

.102

LIST OF TABLES (Continued . . . .)

Table Page
A-3. Chemical analyses of DPW- experiment 3 . . . . 103

A-4. Premix supplied the following to ration 3- ‘
experiment 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

viii

I. INTRODUCTION

A.major problem confronting the swine industry is
waste management. This is a problem to the industry from
both the standpoint of labor expenditure of disposing of
the waste and from the standpoint of environmental pollution.
With increased intensification of swine production, the
problems associated with waste handling and odor control
have demanded special consideration.

Logically, a system of animal waste management
emphasizing waste utilization rather than disposal would be
of value to the livestock producer. The refeeding of animal
waste (feces) has been practiced by livestock raisers for
‘many years. The practice of following steers with swine
was known long ago as an efficient method of swine raising.
Besides obtaining undigested corn, the hogs also utilized
other nutrients of the cattle manure.

In confinement rearing of swine, slotted floors
offer considerable advantage in labor saving over convention-
al solid floors. In the future, it is conceivable that an
increasing number of swine will be raised on slotted floors.
Any long range solution to management of the excrement
accumulating beneath the slotted floors should emphasize
waste utilization rather than waste disposal.

An approach to the waste handling and odor control

1

2

problems has been the Operation of an oxidation ditch con-
taining a paddle wheel which incorporates oxygen into
liquid swine wastes for the purpose of promoting aerobic
microbial activity and reducing odors. Unfortunately, the
operation of an oxidation ditch is expensive in terms of
initial equipment investment, energy required for operation
and.maintenance. If waste products in the form of microbial
protein and other nutrients contained in the oxidation ditch
could be used, this might help to offset operational costs
of the oxidation ditch in the future or help to justify
waste handling investments.

The purpose of these studies was to evaluate dried
swine feces (DSF), dehydrated poultry waste (DPW) and oxida-
tion ditch liquor (ODL) as sources of nutrients in swine

finisher rations.

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A. Biggstibility of Nutrients of Ingredients in the Swine

The efficiency of utilization of a swine diet with
its resulting effect on animal performance is greatly
dependent upon the nutrient digestibility of dietary in-
gredients.

Much research has been conducted in order to estab-
lish total and available nutrient requirements which permit
the animal to perform adequately at a given stage of develop-
ment. The ability to supply the nutrient needs for a partic-
ular anbmal varies among feedstuffs and depends heavily upon
the complementary nature of the ingredient composition of a
diet. Keys and DeBarthe (1974), feeding complete diets
containing 70% wheat, milo, corn or barley, studied total
digestion of various nutrient parameters. The milo diet had
significantly lower total digestion of dry matter (73.7%),
energy (72.6%) and crude protein (64.8%) then the other 3
diets. The corn diet provided total digestion coefficients
for dry matter, energy and crude protein of 80.7%, 78.4% and
81.7%, respectively. Sihombing £5 51. (1969) demonstrated
that apparent digestibility of crude protein tended to be
higher in diets containing opaque - 2 corn as compared to

diets containing normal corn. They noted that, in general,

3

4

apparent digestibility of protein increased linearly with
increasing increments of crude protein in the diets..

In their experiments, apparent digestibility of fat was
significantly lower in the opaque - 2 corn diets than in
those containing normal corn, whereas apparent digestibility
of dry matter was not consistently affected by corn source.
Jensen 35 31. (1965) showed that milo, which contained 8.0%
crude protein and was fortified with vitamins, minerals

and antibiotic, was inadequate as the sole source of protein
for finishing pigs averaging 55 kg initially. The addition
of 0.25% lysine to this diet resulted in gains and gain/feed
ratios equal to finishing pigs fed a 12% crude protein corn-
soy diet.

In a study of the digestibility of rations contain-
ing different sources of supplementary protein for young
pigs, Combs 33 21. (1963) reported that the apparent digest-
ibility of protein of soybean meal, fish meal or dried skim
milk was not different for these protein sources as the
pigs grew older. They noted that maximum protein digestion
occurred during the 7th to 8th week of age. Studies by
Lloyd and Crampton (1955) and Whiting and Bezeau (1957)
demonstrated that level of crude fiber along with level of
crude protein in the diet affect the apparent digestibility
of protein. Using the rat as an experimental animal,
Sibbald 3E El: (1957) noted that the level of crude fiber in
the diet limited nitrogen retention of the diet. They

demonstrated that, at least in the case of the rat, this was

5

due to nitrogen intake being limited by energy concentration
in the diet. Studies by Crampton and Rutherford (1954) using
the rat and Armstrong and Mitchell (1955) using the pig ‘
showed that fecal nitrogen of these growing animals is
linearly related to the protein level of the diet fed over
various ranges of dietary protein levels. Hendricks st 31.
(1969) conducted nitrogen balance studies with the baby pig
and showed an increase in total urine volume, urine nitrogen
and nitrogen retention as protein levels in the diet were
increased. Kuryvial and Bowland (1962) showed that the
apparent digestibility of crude protein tended to be higher
with 45 kg pigs fed higher protein diets, although nitrogen
retention decreased as protein levels in the diets increased.
This would agree with studies by Greeley, Meade and Hanson
(1964) which demonstrated that as dietary protein level in-
creased, there was a highly significant linear trend toward
reduced efficiency of utilization of digestible protein.

Zivkovic and Bowland (1963) used gilts fed different
levels of energy and protein intake to investigate apparent
digestibility of nutrients during growth, gestation and
lactation. Apparent protein digestibility averaged 76% and
did not vary between the physiological periods, but the
apparent digestibility of other nutrients did vary. They
showed that an increased level of protein in the diet tended
to increase apparent digestibility of protein. Dammers (1965)

also noted that the digestibility of protein by the pig was

6
low when the diet had low protein content. He further con-
cluded that the digestibility of most nutrients increased
as the animals became older. Studies by‘McConnell'gE.gl.
(1971) agree with previous research that nutrient digest-
ibility improved with increasing age and that protein digest-
ibility was somewhat higher when pigs were fed higher protein
levels. These studies demonstrated that lean type pigs fed
a higher protein diet retained similar ammunts of nitrogen
at body weights of 40 to 70 kg, but a lower amount of nitro-
gen was retained at 90 kg body weight. Daily nitrogen
retention in fat type pigs fed a high protein diet
decreased with increasing body weight. Daily nitrogen
retention was similar in both fat and lean type pigs when a
low protein diet was fed. In earlier studies, Bell and
Loosli (1951) showed that the biological value of protein“
fed at a level of 10% in a diet decreased as the pigs in-
creased in body weight.

Dietary amino acid levels and amino acid balance has
been shown to affect nutrient digestibility and animal per-
formance. Luce 23 El. (1964) conducted digestion trials
with growing pigs and showed that dry matter, energy and
nitrogen digestibility tended to decrease as the number of
amino acids supplemented was increased. These workers
related the digestibility depression to an amino acid imbalance.
Baker 2£.§l-(1969) conducted trials with growing pigs to

evaluate amino acid additions to a fortified corn diet.

7
Lysine supplementation at 0.2% of the diet caused a marked
depression in feed intake and rate of gain. A similar level
of supplemental methionine had no effect. Supplemental DL -
tryptophan at 0.05% of the diet completely overcame the
depression caused by the lysine supplementation. This data
would suggest that tryptophan is the first-limiting amino
acid and lysine is the second-limiting amino acid in corn
protein. These data would tend to support the classical
theory that amino acid imbalances can be induced.most easily
by supplementing a low protein diet with its second-limiting
amino acid (Harper, 1964). Clawson (1967) reported that
daily feed intake of growing pigs was not significantly in-
fluenced by protein level as long as amino acid balance was
adequate. Jurgens 35 21. (1967), feeding milo-soybean meal
diets to growing-finishing pigs, showed that average daily
gain and feed efficiency were higher when the pigs received
a 16% crude protein diet than when a 12% crude protein diet
was fed. These performance parameters were not significantly
affected by the addition of 0.1% lysine to the diets.
Standish and Bowland (1967) fed 3 to 9 week old pigs diets
containing 12, 16 and 20% crude protein and 12 and 16%
crude protein diets supplemented with lysine and methionine
to equal those amino acid levels present in the 20% protein
diet. These researchers found that each increment of protein
resulted in increased rate of gain and that the amino acid

supplemented 16% ration resulted in as rapid daily gain and

8
as efficient feed utilization as did the 20% protein diet.
Apparent digestibility of nitrogen was higher in the 20%
protein diet than in the 12 or 16% protein diets and was
found to increase with the amino acid additions to the low
protein diets. Gallo and Pond (1968) utilized finishing
pigs from 50 to 100 kg body weight to evaluate corn diets
containing 10% crude protein supplemented with lysine and
tryptophan. They found that pigs fed this diet gained more
rapidly and efficiently than pigs fed the unsupplemented
corn diets. Rate of gain and feed efficiency for the
supplemented pigs were not significantly different from
pigs fed a 12% crude protein corn-soy diet. Noland and
Scott (1960) showed that protein levels in the diet linear-
ly affected rate of gain of pigs from weaning to 34 kg,
but had little effect on gains from.34 kg to market weight.
They tested diets with crude protein levels of 12, 16 and
20% which were apparently all adequate to support accept-
able daily gains.

In a more recent study, Brown £5 21. (1973) attempted
to more narrowly define the requirement for lysine with the
finishing pig. These Illinois workers concluded from their
studies with the finishing pig that the lysine requirement
for maximum daily gain was 0.48% of the diet, while 0.62%
lysine was necessary for maximum gain/feed ratios. Regarding
methionine supplementation, Huck and Brooks (1972) reported

that methionine added to corn-soy diets increased the nitrogen

9
digestibility for the growing pig, but not for the finish-
ing pig. Other researchers have noted no benefit in perform-
ance from methionine additions to growing-finishing diets
containing reduced protein levels and supplemental lysine
(Miller, Orr and Ullrey, 1973; Orr, Miller and Ullrey, 1973;
wahlstrom.and Libal, 1973).

An interrelated factor with protein and amino acid
levels is the caloric density of the diet. Clawson (1967)
using growing pigs noted that daily caloric intake was
reduced by increasing levels of dietary calories when the
dietary protein level was inadequate and was further depressed
when an amino acid imbalance existed. No depression in
caloric intake resulting from increasing caloric density
occurred.when low protein diets containing high quality
protein were fed.

A number of researchers (Kuryvial and Bowland, 1962;
Dammers, 1965; Boenker, Tribble and Pfander, 1969) reported
that the fat content or gross energy level of a diet had
no effect on the digestibility of the other components of
the diet. Wagner at El: (1963) found that increasing energy
levels for growing swine resulted in less feed required per
unit of gain. Pond, Lowrey and Maner (1962) demonstrated
that average daily gain of growing-finishing pigs was
significantly reduced by the addition of 24.8% corn cobs to
either a 10 Or 18% crude protein ration. Apparent digest-

ibilities of dry matter, nitrogen-free extract and crude

10
protein were significantly reduced by the addition of corn
cobs to the low protein diet. Zivkovic and Bowland (1963)
found that the digestibilities of dry matter, crude protein
and crude fiber were improved and the digestibility of
nitrogen-free extract depressed when gilts received supple-
mental fat (15% added stabilized tallow) in their diet.
Greeley 25 31. (1964) fed growing pigs 16% protein diets
containing 0, 5, 10 or 15% stabilized lard, stabilized
animal tallow or crude corn oil. They found that neither
source nor level of dietary fat significantly affected
apparent digestibility of protein or dry matter. Highly
significant increases in apparent digestibility of energy
resulted with increased levels of dietary tallow. Lowrey
g£_§l. (1962) showed that the addition of 10% stabilized
beef tallow resulted in non-significantly increased weight
gains for growing swine on high protein levels (19%) and
non-significantly decreased gains when fed low protein
levels (13%). The apparent protein digestibility of practi-
cal rations for growing swine was not influenced by the
addition of fat to the diet. Using 45 kg pigs initially,
Waterman £3 31. (1973) showed that a 3% tallow supplementa-
tion to a corn-soy finisher diet brought about a reduction
in time to market weight by about 4 days. Metabolizable
energy consumed per unit gain was reduced by about 4%. Six
percent additional tallow to the diet gave no performance
improvement. Jones and Pond (1964) showed that the inclu-

sion of 12% corn oil in growing-finishing diets resulted in

11
significantly faster gains to market weight when compared to
pigs on corn-soy diets alone. However, Nordstrom.g£flgl.
(1972) found that the addition of 3 or 12% refined corn oil
to corn-soy grower diets or the utilization of corns con-
taining 6.7 to 8.4% oil did not significantly affect rate of
gain, but resulted in a highly significant decrease in feed/
gain when corn oil was added to the diet.

Other nutrients have been shown to be required at
minimum.levels in a diet for acceptable pig performance and
prOper body develOpment. The availability and utilization
of these nutrients from different sources and at different
dietary levels have been the subject of numerous research
papers. Hansard, Lyle and Crowder (1961) showed that
calcium.absorption and retention were greatest in young pigs
and decreased rapidly to 5 months of age. Using pigs weigh-
ing 45 kg, these workers found calcium apparent digestibility
to be 42%. Stockland and Blaylock (1973) showed that the
calcium requirement of growing-finishing pigs from 27 to
91 kg was about 0.30% of the diet for maximum.gain and feed
efficiency. The phosphorus requirement for swine at these
'weights was found to be 0.45% for maximum.performance as well
as maximum.skeletal development. Studies by Vipperman, Pea
and Cunningham (1974) indicated that the utilization of
calcium appeared to be less affected by the calcium to
phosphorus ratios than was the case with phosphorus utiliza-

tion. These investigators noted that as dietary phosphorus

12
increased, urinary calcium was depressed while calcium
retention was improved. They noted that nitrogen retention
was affected greater by dietary phosphorus level than by
dietary calcium level. Morgan gt a1. (1969) showed that
increased dietary calcium improved calcium retention while
reducing phosphorus retention. No effect was shown on zinc
retention. They showed that about 50% of the calcium.and
phosphorus ingested was retained by the pigs, but only
about 10% of the ingested zinc was retained by the growing
barrows. Combs and Wallace (1962) demonstrated that with
growing pigs fed 0.40 and 0.88% dietary calcium, the higher
calcium level significantly depressed growth rate. Studies
with the baby pig by Miller g£_§l, (1962) where the phosphorus
level was maintained at 0.5% indicated that a dietary calcium
level of 0.4% appeared sufficient for normal growth rate and
feed utilization. However, maximum.calcium retention
occurred at 1.0% dietary calcium. N.R.C. (1968) recommenda-
tions for the finishing pig are 0.50% dietary calcium and
0.40% dietary phosphorus.

The availability of calcium.and phosphorus from
different feed sources has been the subject of numerous
research studies. Chapman £5 31, (1955) showed that growing-
finishing swine did not utilize plant phosphorus as
efficiently as inorganic phosphorus, as indicated by a
significantly poorer feed efficiency and depressed feed

intake when fed the former phOSphorus sources. These workers

13
noted a significant linear increase in daily gains and feed
efficiency when the phosphorus from plant sources was
reduced as a percent of the total ration with inorganic
phosphorus being added to maintain 0.5% total phosphorus in
the diet. Taylor (1965), discussing the availability of
calcium and phosphorus from plant materials, noted that
plant phytates influence calcium utilization in two ways:
by interferring with calcium absorption by forming insoluble
calcium phytate and by failing to provide inorganic phosphate
equivalent to their organic phosphate content. In early
studies with corn-soy diets containing 0.30% phosphorus,
Plumlee 23 El: (1958) noted highly significant increases in
daily gain and serum phosphorus values with the addition of
0.15% phosphorus from either dicalcium phosphate or phosphoric
acid. Libal at 31. (1969) showed that calcium and phosphorus
levels did not adversely affect daily gains when calcium
was near the N.R.C. requirements or below. These workers
also noted that increasing phosphorus in 0.10% increments
from 0.30% to 0.70% of the diet had a linear effect on daily
gain. Bayley and Thompson (1969) determined that the
biological availability for phytate phosphorus was 20 to 30%
for a 27 kg pig. Other workers had previously found values
of 18 to 24% (Besecker g£_gl., 1967) and 30 to 60% (Noland,
Funderburg and Johnson, 1968) for the biological availability
for phytate phosphorus with the growing pig. Tonroy 35 31.
(1973) showed the apparent digestibility of phosphorus in

l4
sorghum grain to be 4.5% and 1.9% for the 0.3% and 0.5%
total dietary phosphorus levels, respectively. His studies
showed this parameter for soybean meal to be 27.0%. The
apparent digestibility of phosphorus from dicalcium phOSphate
in a blood fibrin diet was 49.4%. Peeler (1972), in sum-
marizing the work of several researchers, noted that the
soluble phosphates such as sodium phosphate, phOSphoric
acid and monocalcium phosphate have the highest biological
availability, followed closely by dicalcium.phosphate.
Next in order were defluorinated phosphate, steamed bone
meal, low fluorine rock phosphate and, finally, soft phosphate
with the lowest availability. In mineral balance studies
‘with the baby pig, Miller g£_gl. (1964) showed that increas-
ing the dietary phosphorus levels to 0.5% resulted in in-
creased total phosphorus retention and percentage phosphorus
retention. Cromwell 35 a1. (1970), using growing-finishing
pigs, showed significantly slower gains with grower diets
containing 0.38% phosphorus and finisher diets containing
0.30% phosphorus compared to diets having higher phosphorus
levels. Work by Lehmann and Pollak (1941) and McCance,
Widdowson and Lehmann (1942) suggested that increased pro-
tein or amino acid levels might increase the absorption of
calcium. Using baby pigs in mineral balance studies,
Hendricks £5 31. (1969) did not show any significant differ-
ences in mineral retention due to protein level or dietary
vitamin D level. Studies with tallow in swine rations by

Newman E£.El- (1967) showed that the added tallow had no

15
consistent effects on calcium.digestibility, but depressed
the apparent digestibility of dietary phosphorus. This is
contrary to findings by Tillman and Brethour (1958) with
sheep that the inclusion of 7.5% corn oil did not significant-
ly affect apparent digestibility of dietary phosphorus,
but did significantly reduce the apparent digestibility of
dietary calcium.

Concerning the addition of water to dry diets and
its effect upon nutrient utilization, Rerat and Fevrier
(1965) showed that digestibility and utilization of nitrogen
for swine diets were not altered by degree of dilution with
water. Becker £5 a1. (1963) showed that finishing swine
showed increased body weight gains and feed efficiency when
water was added to the diet at ratios of 1:1 or less on a
weight basis. However, Barber, Braude and Mitchell
(1963) and Kornegay and VanderNoot (1968) found no improve-
ment in daily gains and feed efficiency for swine with
similar additions of water to the diet.

B. Production of Wastes by Swine.

Many investigators have attempted to quantitate the
daily production of wastes from.various types and sizes of
swine. Muehling (1971) has presented data suggesting the
average daily manure production (feces and urine) per 45 kg
of live body weight to be approximately 3.64 kg. This
author presents a summary of data on the waste production
of hogs of various ages and weights. For growing-finishing

pigs, live weight (kg) and approximate daily manure production

16
(kg of liquid and solids), respectively, are as follows:
18, 1.8; 45, 3.6; 68, 6.2; 95, 8.0. For sows and boars,
live weight (kg) and approximate daily manure production
(kg of wet solids), respectively, are: 136, 10.9; 227,
18.2. The approximate daily manure production (liquids and
solids) for a typical sow and litter is 14.5 kg. Muehling
(1969) presents average figures from various sources as
3.5 kg of total wet manure and 0.45 kg of dry matter pro-
duced per 45 kg pig per day. Conrad and Mayrose (1971)
characterized daily waste production of growing-finishing
swine as 5 to 8% of their live weight per day of which 10
to 15% is dry matter. Using averages of these values, these
researchers show that a 45 kg pig could be expected to pro-
duce 2.9 kg of total wet manure daily and 0.36 kg of dry
matter. Taiganides and Hazen (1966) found the average daily
manure production for a 45 kg pig to be 2.3 kg per day,
which is somewhat lower than values presented by other in-
vestigators. For the same size pig, Schmid and Lipper
(1969) found daily manure production to be 4.1 kg per day.
Taiganides 35 a1. (1964) showed manure production with
swine to be 5% of body weight and the manure produced con-
tained 17% total solids on a wet basis. Ngoddy g£_§l.
(1971), using growing-finishing pigs, found daily manure
production rate to be 5% of body weight, but these research-
ers found total solids to be only 10% (wet basis) of the

daily manure production. These latter results were obtained

17

from pigs housed in individual metabolism.cages and fed
typical fortified corn-soy rations.

Conrad and Mayrose (1971) illustrated the approach
of basing manure production on the amount of feed fed.
They note that with a 45 kg pig consuming 2.5 kg of air-dry
feed daily and having a dry matter digestibility of 84%,
fecal dry matter would be 0.40 kg. With gestating swine,
these Purdue researchers pointed out that a corn-soybean
meal diet had an average dry matter digestibility co-
efficient of 87% when 2.22 kg was fed daily and 88.5% when
1.8 kg was fed daily. They noted that diets higher in fiber
with lower dry matter digestibility coefficients result in
more fecal dry matter with pigs of any age. They concluded
that 16% of the average feed to a swine enterprise would be
a good estimate of fecal dry matter production. O'Callaghan
{33 El: (1971) measured daily fecal and urinary production of
growing-finishing pigs using 3 different feeding regimes.
They found that manure production to total input ratio was
influenced by feeding regime. This ranged from 0.6 for
floor feeding and pipeline feeding regimes at a water to
meal ratio of 2.5 to l to approximately 0.7 for pipeline
feeding at a water to meal ratio of 4 to 1. These research-
ers also noted that total solids of the manure was influenced
by feeding regime. This ranged from approximately 9.5% for
floor feeding and pipeline feeding at a water to meal ratio

of 2.5 to l to approximately 5.6% for pipeline feeding at a

18

‘water to meal ratio of 4 to 1. These feeding methods can be
expected to vary the urine output considerably. N.R.C.
(1968) states that pigs will voluntarily consume an average
of 2.0 to 2.5 times as much water as dry matter.

Other factors affecting the production of swine
‘wastes from a quantitative standpoint are temperature,
humidity, feed wastage from self feeders and water wastage.
The total amount of liquid in a swine unit can be influenced
more by the amount of wastage from.the many pressure waterers
in a confinement system than by any other single factor
(Muehling, 1971).
C. Methods of Waste Handling

With the trend toward confinement raising of swine
during all stages of production, the burden of waste handling
falls upon the operator of the swine production system.
Prior to the trend of confinement raising, swine were usually
‘maintained on pasture or dirt lots and wastes were deposited
on the soil by the animals. Muehling (1971) noted that be-
fore 1950, hogs were raised in small groups, utilizing port-
able houses on clean pastures. The pasture lots were
rotated to provide clean ground for the pigs. This author
noted that very few pollution problems existed with these
practices. However, during the next 10 to 20 years many
producers increased their hog numbers to better utilize
their equipment capacity and managerial ability. This precip-

itated the trend toward confinement rearing on a large scale.

l9
Muehling (1971) has presented a description of waste handling

from several swine production systems.
Pasture system

As mentioned previously, this method of raising
swine has been used the longest of all the systems and there
are still a large percent of hogs raised by this method.
This system.requires a minimum amount of capital investment
for facilities, especially permanent facilities. It is
best adapted to areas of rough, rolling land unsuitable
for growing cash crops. Little labor is required for handling
wastes, although for this system.to work most efficiently,
the land must be rotated every few years to prevent parasite
and disease problems. If vegetation is lacking, water
pollution may occur following heavy rainfall if wastes
are carried into streams. Gains with this system may not
equal those obtained with confinement systems (Conrad and
Mayrose, 1971).
Solid floor confinement

This confinement system requires the lowest amount
of initial investment of all confinement systems. However,
bedding must usually be used with this type of system.
This is necessary since the wastes must usually be handled
as solids and some bedding is required to make it suitable
to handle with conventional equipment (Muehling, 1971).
This production method requires the most labor for waste

handling. From farrowing to 21 days, an average of 80 minutes

20

per litter was required when the sow and litter were con-
fined in a crate on a solid concrete floor, which was con-
siderably higher than the other systems tested (Daniel £5 31.,
1967). Cleaning and bedding time was 5 to 8 times higher
with solid concrete floor growing-finishing facilities
(Kadlec 35 31., 1966) when compared with slotted floor sys-
tems .
Slotted floors with pit

With slotted floors, the manure must be handled as
a liquid. This type of waste handling system is efficient
from the standpoint of ease of cleaning. No bedding is
used in this system. For farrowing, nursery and growing-
finishing systems, this method requires the least amount of
labor (Daniel st 31., 1967 and Kadlec 35 21., 1966). Con-
struction costs of this type of facility are higher than the
previous systems discussed and adequate ventilation is
required because this facility is usually completely en-
closed. ‘Manure from.this system is handled in liquid form.
The major problems with spreading liquid manure on the land
are the odors during and immediately following spreading,
and the danger of pollution from.runoff on rolling land,
particularly when rainy weather follows or when the manure
is spread on frozen ground (Muehling, 1971). Kesler and
Hinton (1966) found total hauling and spreading to be the
lowest net cost method of disposing of liquid hog manure

from slotted floor confinement facilities when cropland was

21
available to use the manure to replace commercial fertilizer.
Waste lagoons

Lagoons have been used for treatment of liquid hog
wastes because of their ease of operation with expanding
swine operations, and, perhaps more important, a lack of
acceptable alternatives (Muehling, 1971). This author
noted that many lagoons were anaerobic due to overloading
with wastes. These lagoons did have the ability to break
down organic matter, but the major disadvantages were the
undesirable odors released and the higher temperature
required for optimum operation. Fertility value of the
waste is lost with this method. Kesler and Hinton (1966)
found this method to have the highest net cost for dispos-
ing of hog manure. This was primarily due to the large
recommended size of lagoon necessary to satisfactorily
digest the hog wastes.

Oxidation ditch

This system is a mechanical method of aerobically
treating liquid wastes. According to Muehling (1971),
this method has attracted attention because it has the
capability of reducing odors. Volatile solids are oxidized
and gases are minimized with this system (Jones, Day and
Dale, 1970). The aerobic bacteria use the organic matter
in the waste as food for their metabolic processes, thereby
reducing the biologically degradable organic material to

stable products, with carbon dioxide and water as the major

22
by-products (Miner, 1971). However, installation and
operating costs as well as required maintenance are major
limitations associated with this waste handling method
(Conrad and.Mayrose, 1971). Furthermore, hauling or lagoon-
ing of the overflow material is necessary.

Hydraulic manure removal

 

Smith and Hazen (1967) have shown that a flushing
gutter system can minimize odors within a confinement
building when the manure is flushed from.the house several
times a day. The manure is washed into a lagoon or storage
pit before the production of anaerobic gases from the solids
has a chance to increase greatly. This system has been
applied to slotted floored buildings by Miller and Hansen
(1973). Due to the large demand for water and the excessive
amount of liquid wastes produced, normally some type of re-
cycling of liquid is required for the flushing process.
Conrad and Mayrose (1971) have speculated that this system
in conjunction with an aerated lagoon will be used more in
the future combined with recycling of the liquid for flush-
ing and utilization of the effluent for irrigation of crop-
land.

D. Nutritional Value of Animal Waste

1. Poultry waste

 

Before the poultry manure or litter can be success-
fully mixed into animal diets, the manure must have its

moisture content reduced to a maximum level of 15% (Blair

23
and Knight, 1973). Further moisture reduction will in-
crease the length of time which the manure can be safely
stored. Poultry manure has been safely dried with heat at
temperatures ranging from.l49 to 385 degrees C (Sheppard
£3 21., 1971). Their data show an inverse relationship be-
tween the drying temperature and the resulting nitrogen
content of the dried poultry waste. Couch (1974) designated
the manure from caged layers as "poultry battery manure",
that from poultry houses where birds are maintained on

litter as "poultry house litter,‘ and poultry house litter
which has been ensiled for a period of 6 weeks as "broiler
litter silage." He further pointed out that any of the
above types of poultry waste may be air dried or dried with
heat. Blair (1974) noted that dried poultry waste (DPW)
contained a high content of nitrogen of which only about
one-third is true protein and the remainder is non-protein
nitrogen, mainly uric acid, which is of no value to poultry
or other non-ruminants. Muhrer and Carroll (1964) showed
that uric acid is utilized by rumen microorganisms and is a
better source of nitrogen for the ruminant than urea. Thus,
DPW has the potential to serve as an excellent protein source
for the ruminant. Blair (1974) stated that DPW is variable
in composition due to moisture content, variation in the
composition of the feed, variable feed spillage into the

manure, decreases in the stage of lay of hens and feather

shedding. He noted that the protein and amino acid levels

24

of DPW are roughly equivalent to a cereal such as barley.
Numerous researchers have analyzed the nutrient composition
of various dried poultry manure samples and their results
have been summarized by Blair and Knight (1973). Dried
poultry waste has a high ash content with calcium.and
phosphorus having the highest concentration of the minerals
(Young and Nesheim, 1972). Parker, Perkins and Fuller
(1959) showed that 94% of the phosphorus is available for
poultry. The primary deficiency in poultry waste is the
low metabolizable energy content. This parameter has been
estimated to be from 660 to 1290 kcal M.E./kg (Polin £2 31.,
1971; Hodgetts, 1971; Young and Nesheim, 1972; Nesheim,
1972).

In feeding studies with chicks, Flegal and Zindel
(1970, 1971) fed broiler type chicks 5, 10 and 20% dried
poultry manure in their diets. Feed conversion and gains
were depressed when 20% poultry waste was included in the
diet. These researchers found that this depression in
performance could be prevented by the addition of 4.5% fat
to the diet illustrating that the depression of weight
gains and feed conversion resulted from the decreased
energy content of the diet containing poultry manure.
Calvert, Morgan and Eby (1971) confirmed this finding in
their work with dried poultry manure in chick diets. Their
results indicated depressed growth rates when the product

was included in the diet. Lee and Blair (1972) reported

25

that poultry manure could serve as a source of amino acids
to substitute for glutamic acid in a glutamic acid low diet.
These researchers showed that the nitrogen in uric acid was
completely unavailable and might even be toxic for the grow-
ing chick.

Michigan researchers studied the feasibility of
using dried poultry manure as an ingredient in laying hen
diets. Flegal and Zindel (1970) included 10, 20, 30 and 40%
poultry manure in a ration for caged layers with and without
added calcium, phosphorus, fat and methionine. They noted
that the dried poultry manure had an adverse effect on feed
conversion and was not corrected by the addition of fat to
the diet containing 40% dried poultry manure. The low energy
content of the poultry manure was apparent in these studies.
Flegal and Dorn (1971) recycled dried poultry waste through
caged layers for 14 cycles of 12 days each and reported
that there were few differences in nutrient composition of
the manure, although there was a slight trend in accumulation
of calcium and phosphorus. Quisenberry and Bradley (1969)
fed levels of 10 and 20% of dried poultry wastes to laying
hens and noted no depression on performance or egg production.
However, all diets in this study were adjusted, isonitrogenous-
1y and isocalorically. Nesheim (1972) fed layers on a ration
where 22.5% dried poultry manure was substituted for corn.
He noted that the hens could increase their feed intake by

14%, but they could not maintain the level of caloric intake

26
which the control hens had. This resulted in a higher feed
conversion ratio due to the poultry manure addition to the
diet. On the assumption that all the phosphorus was avail-
able, this Cornell researcher showed that the poultry
manure would, by computer analysis, be a selected ingredient
for layer diets until it reached a cost of $26 per 908 kg.
Young and Nesheim (1972) found that 30% of the dry matter
of DPW was digested at levels up to 25% of the total laying
diet. Ousterhout and Presser (1971) obtained a dry matter
digestibility of 25% for poultry manure fed to laying hens.
Blair and Lee (1973) demonstrated that the laying hen was
able to utilize some of the essential amino acids in dried
poultry manure.

Dried poultry manure or litter has been success-
fully incorporated into ruminant diets by many researchers.
Noland, Ford and Ray (1955) conducted feeding trials with
gestating-lactating ewes fed diets in which ground broiler
house litter was used to replace conventional protein con-
sentrates. Ewes fed the ground broiler litter performed as
well as those fed soybean meal. These same researchers
found that fattening steers fed the chicken litter did not
gain as rapidly as those fed cottonseed meal when both
groups were pair-fed for equal feed intake, but nearly
equal rates of gain were obtained for both groups of steers
when the total feed intake of the litter-fed steers was

increased by 15%. The crude protein content in this study

27
and studies by other researchers using broiler litter and
caged layer manure has averaged 28% or higher (Noland 35.21.,
1955; El-Sabban £3 21., 1970; Fontenot gt al., 1966;
Fontenot 25 31., 1971a). Bhattacharya and Fontenot (1965)
used semi-purified diets containing 25, 50 and 100% nitro-
gen components derived from poultry litter for nitrogen
balance studies with sheep. They demonstrated that when 25
or 50% of the dietary nitrogen was supplied from the
poultry litter, nitrogen retention was not significantly
lower than when isolated soybean protein supplied all of
the dietary nitrogen. A positive nitrogen balance was
obtained with the diet having 100% of its nitrogen derived
from.the poultry litter. El Sabban 35 21. (1970) noted a
trend of higher nitrogen retention when sheep were fed
diets containing autoclaved or cooked caged layer manure
as the only source of nitrogen as compared to soybean meal.
These authors did report a trend toward lower apparent
digestibility of nitrogen with sheep fed diets containing
poultry manure as compared to those fed diets containing
soybean meal. Other researchers have reported similar
lower digestibilities for feces rations than for soybean
meal or barley rations (Lowman and Knight, 1970 and
Tinnimit st 21., 1972). Bucholtz st 31. (1971) and Smith
and Calvert (1972) reported similar nitrogen retention with
sheep fed dried poultry wasteland soybean meal as supple-
mental nitrogen sources. Brugman gt a1. (1968) found the

apparent digestibility of energy in laying house litter for

28
cattle to be 59.2%. The low energy value of poultry wastes
is caused, in part, by a fairly high ash content (Brugman
35 $1., 1964; Bhattacharya and Fontenot, 1966; El-Sabban
££.El°o 1970). Fontenot 25 21. (1966) showed that daily
gain of steers fed a fattening ration containing 25% peanut
hull or wood shaving broiler litter was similar to gains for
steers fed a control diet. Drake, McClure and Fontenot
(1965) fed poultry litter with four base materials, peanut
hulls, corncobs, grass hay and soybean hulls, and noted
similar performance in fattening steers. El-Sabban ggwgl.
(1970) reported that performance and carcass quality of
cattle fed rations supplemented with autoclaved and dried
caged layer manure were similar as for cattle fed soybean
meal. Bucholtz gt 31. (1971) reported relatively poor per-
formance of beef animals fed dried poultry waste as 32% of
the ration compared to the use of soybean meal. These
workers noted that milk production from cows receiving about
20% of their total protein from dried poultry waste was
equal to or above that of cows receiving similar proportions
of supplemental protein from non-protein nitrogen in sil-
age or soybean meal. Similar results were obtained by Bull
and Reid (1971) and Thomas and Zindel (1971). Oliphant
(1974) reported that when dried poultry waste was sub-
stituted for conventional protein sources in beef rations,
performance was directly related with the protein content of

the poultry manure.

29

A limited number of researchers have fed dried
poultry‘waste to pigs. ,Geri (1968) used growing pigs in
three trials to test the effects of substituting dried
poultry manure for bran. Up to 22 kg live weight, the
pigs received manure at a level of 7% in the feed and from
22 kg received manure at a level of 10%. Growth rates were
generally similar, but feed efficiency was poorer with
manure in the diet. Phelps (1969) showed poorer feed
efficiency resulted when dried poultry house litter was
included in the diet of growing-finishing pigs. Perez-
Aleman 35 21. (1971) fed dried poultry manure as an addition
to a conventional diet at levels of 10, 20 and 30% to pigs
from 23 to 85 kg body weight. Their results showed signi-
ficant linear relationships between the manure levels and
growth rate and feed efficiency. For every 10% addition of
manure, growth was reduced by 0.02 kg per day and feed
efficiency by 0.25 units.

2. Ruminant waste

Historically, cattle manure has been utilized as a
source of B-complex vitamins for other animals. Hammond
(1942) used cattle manure as a source of certain vitamins
for growing chicks and also (Hammond, 1944) substituted cow
manure for alfalfa meal in poultry diets. Bohstedt,
Grummer and Ross (1943) used cattle manure as a source of
B-vitamins in rations for pigs. Anthony and Nix (1962)

washed manure from cattle fed high energy rations and housed

30
on concrete. The liquid phase was discarded and the washed
fiber was blended with a basal mixture. Excellent gains
were obtained when the diet was fed to yearling fattening
steers. Anthony (1966) reported that combining whole feed-
lot feces with concentrates (40:60 ratio) in finishing
steer diets resulted in lowered performance and digestion
coefficients compared to diets containing corn and cotton-
seed meal. Further experiments by Anthony (1966, 1967,
1968 and 1969) showed the use of cattle manure and ground
coastal bermudagrass hay for making a high dry matter
silage designated wastelage. These reports indicate equal
or nearly equal gains with a corn-wastelage diet as compared
to steers on a conventional high concentrate diet. He
reported that wastelage produces satisfactory performance
in breeding ewes and beef cows when supplemented with
vitamin A. Anthony (1970) showed that ground shelled corn
and manure rations supported gains similar to cattle fed
feeds without manure, although total daily dry matter
intakes were higher for the manure-fed groups. .Air dried
cattle manure has been successfully utilized in pullet
diets and catfish diets (Durham.gg’gl., 1966). Digest-
ibility studies with sheep using dried cattle feces, dried
poultry feces and dried swine feces revealed similar
apparent digestibilities of dry matter, but significantly
lower nitrogen digestibility with the cattle feces diet when

compared to the other diets tested (Tinnimit g£_al., 1972).

31
3. Swine waste

Anthony (1971) in summarizing animal waste research
noted that the published research on the feeding of swine
waste was far less extensive than for poultry waste. With
the confinement of swine and resulting collection of swine
wastes, the potential of this byproduct needed to be pur-
sued. Smith (1973) noted that the nitrogen in feces from
nonruminant animals should be more useful as a protein
source since the digesta undergoes gastric digestion,
followed by an increase in microorganisms in the lower
part of the gut which escape digestion. In the case of the
ruminant, the digesta undergoes a microbial fermentation
followed by gastric digestion. Harmon (1974) pointed out
that the nutrient analyses of swine waste change rapidly
with time after excretion. He presented data showing the
changes in amino acid composition of swine feces under
different conditions. Early studies by Diggs, Baker and
James (1965) showed that dried swine feces added at low
levels (15%) to a fortified corn-soybean meal finishing
diet supported similar weight gains and feed efficiency as
a 14% crude protein basal diet when fed to finishing pigs.
At 30% of the diet dried swine feces reduced both gains and
feed efficiency. Daily feed intake of the diet containing I
30% dried feces was 26% higher compared to intake of the
basal diet. In balance trials using animal feces to furnish

65 to 89% of the dietary nitrogen, Tinnimit 55 21. (1972)

32
fed a diet containing 32% dried swine feces to sheep. Dry
matter and nitrogen digestibilities were lower compared to
values obtained with sheep fed diets containing soybean
meal. Nitrogen retentions were similar for sheep receiving
dried beef, poultry or swine feces in their diets, but all
were lower compared to sheep receiving the soybean meal as
the principal nitrogen source in the diet.

Illinois researchers have conducted many studies
with products of the oxidation ditch. Initial studies by
Harmon, Jensen and Baker (1969) and Harmon 23.3l- (1972b)
involved the refeeding of solids collected from a swine
building oxidation ditch after the liquid portion had been
drained from.the ditch. The oxidation ditch residue (ODR)
solids were dried by spreading in a thin layer at 40 C.

The latter paper by these authors describes the nutrient
composition of the ODR.which contained 27.7% crude protein.
Results showed that the protein of ODR could replace one-
third to one-half of the protein of casein or soybean meal
and permit similar weight gains with weanling rats. Gain/
feed ratio decreased as ODR was increased in the diets. No
depression in feed intake by the addition of ODR to the
diets was experienced. ODR diets were significantly lower
in protein and energy digestibilities compared to a casein
basal diet. The addition of lysine or tryptophan individually
to a corn-ODR diet had no influence on gains while the

combination of these two amino acids significantly increased

33
gain and gain/feed. These authors suggested that these
amino acids were most limiting and nearly equally limiting
in the ODR diet. Baird and Young (1973) showed that dried
sediment from a swine oxidation ditch that analyzed 10 to
12% crude protein and 35 to 45% crude fiber was of no value
in a swine diet.

Holmes £3 51. (1971) have shown that most of the
crude protein in the contents of an oxidation ditch are con-
tained in the smaller sized particles. An increase in
amino acid concentration was noted as particle size decreased
(Harmon, 1972 and Harmon at 21., 1972a). These authors
noted that these data strongly suggest that single cell pro-
tein is responsible for enhancing the nutritive value of
swine waste. Additional studies by the Illinois researchers
(Harmon, 1972; Harmon £2 21., 1972a; Harmon 25 31., 1973a)
included the collection of solids from.an oxidation ditch
by isolating solids from a continuous sample of liquid
into an anaerobically-maintained vat. Solids were carried
to the surface of the material in the vat by gases,
collected, dried and fed to rats and swine as a substitute
for corn or soybean meal in the diets. When substituted at
levels from 10 to 30% of the diet, weight gains and feed
efficiency were reduced at all levels of substitution with
this anaerobically formed product.

In later studies the Illinois workers made no attempt

to isolate solids from the liquid of the oxidation ditch

34
mixed liquor (ODML). In these experiments the ODML was con-
sidered as a source of water (Harmon gg‘gl., 1971, 1973a,b).
The nutrient content of ODML is characterized by Harmon 25 al.
(1973b). The ODML contained approximately 3% dry matter.
Amino acid concentrations as a percent of dry matter were
increased as compared to the amino acid composition of ODR
in previous studies. The ODML or water was mixed with a
12% crude protein corn-soybean meal fortified diet in a
ratio of two parts liquid to one part feed at the time of
feeding. Water was available to all groups by access to
automatic waterers. For five replications, a total of 76
finishing swine were fed twice daily in Open troughs. Al-
though treatment differences were small, gain and feed
efficiency values were significantly greater for pigs
receiving ODML. These authors noted that protein intake
and lysine intake increased approximately 3% and 0.1%,
respectively, for finishing pigs receiving the ODML. No
evidence of liver or lymphatic damage was found due to con-
sumption of the ODML. In a similar study Harmon 35 al.
(1973a) added water or ODML to corn alone as a diet for
finishing swine. Performance of the pigs was quite low
and no treatment differences were observed. These workers
suggested that severe amino acid deficiencies existed on
both treatments. Further studies by Harmon £3 al. (1973b)
were conducted in which all the water available for pigs in

half of the pens was provided as ODML. In these experiments

35

the ODML was pumped from.the ditch into shallow troughs for
20 seconds during every 20 minutes. The initial flow
flushed out any liquid remaining in the trough, while the
ODML flowing as the pump stopped remained in the trough.
Control pigs had access to automatic waterers. A 12% crude
protein corn-soybean meal fortified diet was available from
self feeders for each treatment. Daily gain and feed
efficiency were greater for pigs receiving the ODML.
E. Problems with Waste Recycling

While the main consideration for recycling animal
wastes back into animal diets would be nutritional in nature,
the presence of undesirable constituents in these wastes
must be considered. Scott £3 51. (1969) pointed out several
nonnutritive feed additives that pose potential problems in
recycling animal waste as feed. Many of these additives
have been discussed in detail according to class of animal
by Smith 35 31. (1971). The additives of greatest concern
would appear to be antibiotics, arsenicals and hormones.
Messer 2E.El° (1971) and Webb and Fontenot (1972) found
residues of several common coccidiostats, antibiotics and
arsenic in poultry litter from broiler Operations. In
experiments by these researchers where litter containing a
coccidiostat was fed to steers at a level of 25 or 50% of
the ration, no difference in tissue residues of the coccidio-
stat was found when steers were fed for either 121 or 198
days. Significant increases in liver arsenic levels were

found with steers fed litter containing l7ppm arsenic (Long,

36
Bratzler and Frear, 1969). Studies by Calvert (1973) with
arsenic from arsanilic acid fed to sheep have shown that an
average of 87% of the ingested arsenic was in the feces.
Fontenot 22 al. (1971b) showed copper toxicity in ewes
which were fed diets containing 25 or 50% broiler litter
for 137 days. Woodside (1972) reported that when sheep
were grazed on grass heavily contaminated with pig slurry
from pigs fed high copper diets, no toxicity was noted al-
though individual sheep did show abnormally high S.G.O.T.
levels indicating accelerated liver cell destruction.
Hedges, Kornegay and Martens (1973) noted a trend toward
higher copper levels in corn plants raised on soil where
liquid manure had been spread from finishing pigs receiving
250 ppm of copper in their diet. Griel, Kradel and
Wickersham.(l969) reported abortions in beef cows resulting
from.the intake of poultry litter showing excessive estro-
genic activity. E1 Sabban £5 51. (1970) fed dried poultry
waste to steers and noted no increase in chlorinated hydro-
carbon levels in the fat of the steers. With the swine
oxidation ditch, Harmon (1974) has noted a condition where
nitrate levels reached 5000 ppm in the ODML. The ditch had
been anaerobic for several weeks and then was aerated for a
period of time without adding manure. Death losses due to
nitrate toxicity were experienced with pigs consuming the
liquid. This author also reported another occasion where a

study was terminated prematurely due to ascarid infestation

37

in pigs consuming ODML. This was caused from a recycling of
ascarid eggs back into the pigs resulting in lung and liver
damege. With proper preventative measures for internal
parasites, the problem did not occur again. Ariail, Humenik
and Kriz (1971) studied the effect of antibiotics and heavy
metals on swine waste biodegradation. They concluded that
copper had the greatest effect on microbial inhibition.
Due to the feeding of high levels of copper in certain
swine diets, measures would need to be taken to prevent
this waste from.being recycled back to the animals as a
portion of the diet.

Disease problems have not been reported due to the

feeding of poultry litter. Messer gg_gl. (1971) reported

that while bacteria in poultry wastes does pose a potential ‘

disease problem, mild heat treatment destroys many of the
pathogens. Fontenot g£_gl. (1971a) found that poultry
litter can be sterilized by processing at 150 C for 3 hours
or longer. Zindel (1970) showed that some bacteria were
present after drying poultry manure, but the bacteria

were not of significant importance and may indicate a re-
contamination after the drying process. While Meyer g£_gl.
(1971) and Robinson, Saxon and Baxter (1971) showed that
Salmonella survived aerobic and anaerobic swine waste treat-
'ment for prolonged periods, the former researchers found
that anaerobic digestion inactivated swine enterovirus after

a period of 4 days.

Fins.”

38

The feeding of poultry wastes to ruminants has not
been found to cause undesirable flavors in the meat (E1
Sabban £3 31., 1970; Fontenot g£_§l., 1966; Fontenot gt $1.,
1971a) or milk (Bucholtz g£_§l., 1971; Bull and Reid, 1971;
Thomas and Zindel, 1971). Flegal, Goan and Zindel (1970)
showed that dried poultry feces fed to laying hens at levels
up to 30% of the diet had no significant effect on the taste
of the resulting eggs. Diggs 2E.gl. (1965) found no un-
desirable flavor with pork from finishing pigs which had

received dried swine feces as a portion of the diet.

P"._':‘ll-J-v“ .l g" ‘ 'J l I. ‘
n
.. 1 0'
" s-
r
3;
A .

III.

A. Introduction

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Five feeding trials and two digestion trials with

finishing swine were conducted to evaluate dried swine

feces (DSF), dried poultry waste (DPW) and oxidation ditch

liquor (ODL) as sources of nutrients in swine finisher

diets. These experiments were:

Experiment 1 .

Experiment 2.

Experiment 3 .

Experiment 4.

Experiment 5.

Experiment 6.

Experiment 7.

Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets.

Balance trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets.

Feeding trial utilizing DSF and DPW
in swine finisher diets.

Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets containing supplemental
energy.

Feeding trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher diets.

Balance trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher diets.

Feeding trial utilizing ODL in.swine
finisher diets.

The experimental animals used in these studies were

Yorkshire, Hampshire and Yorkshire-Hampshire crossbred pigs

39

WC
in
th
th:
N

40
Obtained from.the Michigan State University swine research
herd. All pigs were randomly allotted from.weight, sex
and litter outcome groups to the experimental treatments.

All feeding trials were conducted in a completely
enclosed, environmentally controlled building containing
fully slotted floors. Floor space allotted per pig was
adequate for the duration of the feeding trials. Feed was
provided ad libitum using self feeders in feeding trial
experiments 1, 3 and 4. Animals were hand fed twice daily
from.troughs in experiment 5. Two lots were provided feed
ad libitum.using self feeders with the remaining two lots
being hand fed twice daily from.troughs in experiment 7.
All pigs in the feeding trials had free access to water dur-
ing the experiment. The animals were weighed initially and
biweekly thereafter with feed consumption being determined
for each weight period.

The balance trials were conducted in a well venti-
lated metabolism area with thermostatically controlled hot
water heat. The pigs were housed in individual stainless
steel-lined metabolism cages. The pigs were individually
fed 2 times daily an amount of feed and water which they
would consume within a 5 to 10 minute period. The feed
intake data were adjusted for any refused feed by drying
this material to air-dryness, weighing it and subtracting
this amount from.the total offered. Urine was collected in

6N hydrochloric acid separate from the feces. The total

41
amount voided was measured and a 100 ml aliquot was stored
in acid-washed polyethylene bottles at 4 C for subsequent
analysis. Feces were collected separately from urine by
‘means of a fine screen placed above the collection tray.
Total fecal collections were partially dried in a low
temperature oven and spread on trays to air dry before be-
ing weighed, finely ground and stored in air tight pOly-
ethylene bags for analysis.

The feces for the dried swine feces (DSF) were
obtained from growing-finishing swine housed at the
Michigan State University Swine Farm. These feces were
collected by gathering the fecal material contained on the
slats of a fully slotted floored building. This procedure
served to separate urine from.feces and, thus, avoid the
collection of feces containing high levels of urea from
urine. No feces were collected from.swine receiving high
levels of copper in their diets. The poultry feces utilized
in these studies as dried poultry waste (DPW) were collected
from pullets housed in cages and fed a cage laying ration
during their first year Of egg production. A commercial
excreta dryer1 located at the Michigan State University
Poultry Farm.was used to dehydrate the swine and poultry
feces used in these experiments. The moisture content of

the excreta leaving the machine ranged from 5 to 15%, which

 

1Manufactured by Allendale Industries, Inc.,

Allendale, Michigan.

42

'was sufficiently low to insure safe storage. Analyses of
the nutrient composition of DSF and DPW are shown in Table l.

Concerning the studies (experiments 5, 6 and 7)
involving oxidation ditch liquor (ODL), this product was
collected from two similar oxidation ditches which were
covered with slotted floors upon which growing-finishing
swine were fed a fortified corn-soybean meal diet. The
oxidation ditches had been in continuous operation for 2
years prior to the initiation of these experiments.
B. Experiments

1. Experiment 1. Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets.

 

Sixteen purebred and crossbred finishing pigs weigh-
ing 55 kg were assigned to one of the two rations shown in
Table 2. One group of pigs received a corn-soybean meal
finisher ration. The other group received a ration of 78%
corn and 22% DSF during the first 3% weeks of the trial and
then 0.1% L-lysine and 0.1% DL-methionine were added for the
remainder of the trial. The DSF used in this trial analyzed
23.9% crude protein. The amino acid composition of the DSF
used in experiments 1 and 2 is presented in Table 3. In
this trial and all succeeding trials the diets were formu-
lated to attempt to meet the minimum.N.R.C. (1968) dietary
recommendations for finishing pigs. All pigs were fed to
80 to 100 kg final weights. One pig on the corn-DSF ration
was removed after a feeding period of 18 days due to weakness

and poor appetite. At the termination of the experiment

43

TABLE 1. Nutrient composition of dried swine feces (DSF)
and.dehydrated poultry waste (DPW)

 

 

 

DSF

Nutrient l 2 DPW1
Total nitrogen, % 3.48 3.44 3.87
Protein-nitrogen, % - - 1.73
Non-protein-nitrogen,% - - 2.14
Crude protein, % 21.8 21.5 24.2
Calcium, % 2.8 2.2 7.8
Phosphorus, % 1.8 1.5 2.5
Sulfur, % 1.0 1.1 -
Potassium, % 1.2 0.9 1.9
Sodium, % 0.3 0.2 0.9
Chlorine, % - - 1.0
Magnesium. % 0.1 0.1 0.5
Manganese, ppm 213 141 310
Iron, ppm. 513 397 2570
Zinc, ppm 432 586 423
Copper, ppm 117 98 51

 

1Analysis of DPW from Flegal and Zindel (1970).

44
TABLE 2. Composition of.diets used in experiment 1

 

 

 

 

 

Ingredient Corn-soy Corn-DSF
Corn, shelled, ground 85.5 77.7
Soybean meal, dehulled
solvent (49% CF 11.5 -
Dried swine feces - 22.0
L-lysine (50%) - 0.2
DL-methionine (98%) - 0.1
Salt 0.5 -
Limestone, ground 1.0 -
Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 -
VTM premix 0.5 -
100.0 100.0
Analyses: (air-dry basis)
Crude progein, %3 13.0 12.1
Lysine, % 3 0.57 0.50
Methionine + cystine, % 0.46 0.40
Calcium, 7.4 4 0.69 0.98
Phosphorus, 7 0.50 0.71
Potassium %£ 0.63 0.66
Sodium, %4 0.21 0.12
Magnesium. % 4 0.15 0.25
Manganese ppm. 54 90
Iron, ppmfi 113 156
Zinc, ppm4 4 95 160
Copper, ppm 21 30

 

1See Appendix A, Table A-1 for composition.

2MSU vitamin-trace mineral premix. See Appendix A, Table A-2.

3Calculated.

4Analyzed.

45

TABLE 3. Amino acid composition of dried swine feces (DSF)1
- experiments 1 and 2

 

 

Amdno acid %

Lysine 1.11
Histidine 0.40
Arginine 0.67
Valine 1.04
Threonine 0.80
Methionine 0.58
Cystine 0.12
Isoleucine 1.03
Leucine 1.57
Phenylalanine 0.87
Glutamic acid 3.37
Aspartic acid 1.37
Serine 0.58
Proline 0.91
Glycine 1.51
Tyrosine 0.65
Alanine 1.14

 

1Analyzed.

46
4 pigs from.each treatment were slaughtered at the Michigan
State University Meats Laboratory. A 25 cm loin section
behind the 10th rib was removed from each pig. The loin
roasts were used in taste panel tests to determine flavor
acceptability. The flavor tests were conducted in the
Michigan State University Food Science Laboratories using a
nine point hedonic scale for flavor acceptability.

2. Experiment 2. Balance trial utilizinngSF in swine
finisher diets.

Three balance trials involving 4 purebred and cross-
bred barrows averaging 78 to 90 kg body weight were con-
ducted to determine the digestibility of nutrients, nitrogen
balance and mineral balance for the diets presented in Table
4. The diets tested were corn-soybean meal grower, corn-DSF
finisher and corn-DSF finisher containing additional lysine
and methionine. Four-day collection periods were conducted
‘with the first two diets while a three-day collection period
'was conducted with the corn-DSF plus lysine and methionine
diet. The pigs were Offered 1 kg of feed and l l of water
twice daily during the course of the collection period. At
least a five-day adjustment period on the test diet preceded
each collection period.

3. Experiment 3. Feeding trial utilizing_DSF and DPW
in swine finisher'diets.

Thirty-two purebred and crossbred finishing pigs
averaging 68 kg body weight were assigned to one of the four

rations shown in Table 5. Ration 1 was a conventional 13%

I. {‘5‘ ~
J

 

47
.TABLE.4-. Composition of diets used in.experiment 2

 

 

 

 

Ingredient Corn-soy Corn-DSF Corn-DSF +
grower .1% Lys +
.1% Met

Corn, shelled, ground 79.0 78.0 77.7
Soybean meal, dehulled

solvent (49% CP 18.0 - -
Dried swine feces - 22.0 22.0
L-lysine (50%) - - 0.2
DL-methionine (98%) - - 0.1
Salt 0.5 - -
Limestone , ground 1 . 0 - -
Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 - -
VTM premix 0.5 - -

100.0 100.0 100.0

Analyses: (air-dry basis)

Crude progein, %4 14.8 11.2 12.3

Lysine, % 0.76 0.40 ,0.50

Methionine + cystine,

13 4 0.53 0.30 0.40
Gross energy, kcal/kg 3861 3842 3911
Ether zxtract, % 3.24 4.95 4.95
Ash, % 4 4.02 4.94 4.91
Calcium. % 4 0.69 1.09 0.99
Phosphorus, 7 0.51 0.71 0.71
Potassium. %4 0.75 0.64 0.66
Sodium. % 0.22 0.11 0.12
Magnesium. % 0.15 0.26 0.25
ManganeseA ppm. 57 89 87
Iron, ppm4 100 156 156
Zinc, ppm 4 96 138 147
Copper, ppm 20 33 33

1

See Appendix A, Table A-1.

2See Appendix A, Table A-2.

3Calculated.

4Analyzed.

 

l 34;,-

48
TABLE 5. Composition of diets used. in experiment 3

 

 

 

 

Ingredient Ration l Ration .2 Ration 3 Ration 4

Corn, shelled, ground 85.5 70.3 75.0 75.0

Soybean mea1,de1hulled

solvent (49% CP) 11.5 9.2 4.0 4.0

Dried swine feces 1 — - - 20.0

Dried poultry waste - 20.0 20.0 -

Salt 0.5 - - 0.5

Limestone, ground 1.0 - - -

Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 - - - i
VTM premix 3 0.5 0.5 - 0.5 ‘
Vit., Zn, Met premix - 1.0 -

 

 

 

 

 

m
“4:
"-

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Analyses: (air-dry basis)
Crude progein, 7.5 12.8 14.3 12.2 11.5
Lysine, % 0.57 0.54 0.38 0.50
Methionine + cystine,

. 5 0.46 0.41 0.48 0.43
Gross energy, kcal/kg 3850 3610 3820 3860
Ether extract, % 3.46 3.51 3.38 4.78
Ash, 7.5 3.30 6.14 5.59 6.01
Calcium, % 5 0.67 1.41 1.40 1.16
Phosphorus, % 0.52 0.78 0.74 0.80
Potassium %5 0.61 0.90 0.75 0.65
Sodium, 7.5 0.23 0.14 0.15 0.30
Magnesium, % 5 0.14 0.22 0.21 0.26
Manganese ppm 47 91 56 120
Iron, ppmS 92 145 135 198

Zinc, ppm5 5 111 152 161 199
Copper, ppm 19 24 10 37

 

lSee Appendix A, Table A-3 for composition.

28ee Appendix A, Table A-2 for composition.

38ee Appendix A, Table A-4 for composition.

4Calculated .

5 Analyzed .

 

49

crude protein corn-soybean meal finisher. Ration 2 was
essentially 80% of ration 1 plus 20% DPW. Ration 3 was a

corn-limited soy-20% DPW ration plus a vitamin-zinc-

methionine premix. Ration 4 was a corn-limited soy-20%

DSF diet plus salt and the vitamin-trace mineral premix.
The length of the feeding trial was 28 days. The purpose of

this experiment was to evaluate the performance of finish-

 

ing pigs as affected by the source of nutrients in the ration

4. Experiment 4. Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
f inisfie'r' diets containing suppTemental

4 energy

A 28-day feeding trial was conducted using 8 pure-

bred and crossbred finishing pigs with an initial average

body weight of 58 kg. This trial was conducted to evaluate
a diet consisting of corn, limited soy, 20% DSF and contain-

ing 4% corn oil to improve the energy density of the diet
compared to a corn-soy finisher control diet (Table 6).
Flegal and Zindel (1970) showed an improvement in weight
gains and feed efficiency with broiler-type chicks fed a
ration containing 20% DPW plus supplemental fat as compared
to a similar diet which did not contain added fat. Supple-
mental vitamin E was added to the diet containing 4% corn

oil.
5. Experiment 5. Feeding trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher*diets

Sixteen purebred and crossbred finishing pigs weigh-

1g 65 kg were assigned to one of the two diets shown in

.ble 7. One group (1) received a conventional corn-soy

 

50
TABLE 6. Composition of. diets used in experiment 4

 

COrn-DSF-soy

 

 

 

Ingredient Corn-soy + supp. fat
Corn, shelled, ground 85.5 58.0
Soybean meal, dehulled,
solvent (49% CP) 11.5 10.0
Dried swine feces - 20.0
Corn Oil - 4.0
Corn sugar - 5.0
Limestone, ground 1.0 0.5
Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 0.5
Salt 1 0.5 0.5
Vitamin E 2 - 1.0
VTM premix 0.5 0.5
100.0 100.0
Analyses: (air-dry basis)
Crude progein, %412.0 14.2
Lysine, % 0.57 0.68
Methionine + cystine, %3 0. 46 0.55
Gross energy, kcal/kg4 3890 3910
Ether zxtract, 7.4 3.30 7.95
Ash, % 4 3.41 6.13
Calcium, 7. 4 0.66 1.46
Phosphorus, 7 0.49 0.76
Potassium 7.5 0.59 0.80
Sodium, 2.4 0.19 0.30
Magnesium, % 4 0.14 0.25
Manganese ppm 50 124
Iron, ppmlt 86 207
Zinc, ppm4 4 85 178
Copper, ppm 17 31

 

lContained 4400 IU of vitamin E per kg of premix.

2See Appendix A, Table A-2 for composition.

3Calculated.

4Analyz ed .

 

 

 

51

TABLE 7. Composition of dry feed used in experiments 5, 6
and 7 with water or ODL . .

 

 

 

Ingredient Corn- soy Corn- limi ted
finisher soy finisher
Corn, shelled, ground 85.5 90.5
Soybean, meal, dehulled _
solvent (49% CP) 11.5 9.0
Limestone, ground 1.0 -
Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 -
Salt 1 0.5 -
VTM premix 2 0.5 ‘
Vit. A,D, E premix - 0.5
100.0 100.0
Analyses: (air-dry basis)
Crude progein, %4 13.0 12.4
Lysine, % 3 0.57 0.50
Methionine + cystine,4% 0.46 0.40
Gross energy, kcal/kg 3867 3924
Ether Extract, % 3.59 3.66
Ash, % 4 3.59 1.71
Calcium, % 4 0.68 0.08
Phosphorus, % 0.51 0.31
Potassium %4 0.57 0.56
Sodium, % 4 0.24 0.02
Magnesium, % 4 0.15 0.11
Manganese ppm 46 11
Iron, pme‘ 118 42
Zinc, ppm4 4 96 28
Copper, ppm 17 8

 

lSee Appendix A, Table A-2 for composition.

ZSupplied 660,000 IU of vitamin A, 132,000 10 of
vitamin D2 and 4,400 IU of vitamin E per kg of premix.

3Ca 1cu1ated .

4Analyzed .

 

 

52

finisher fortified with vitamins and minerals, while the

other group (2) received a diet containing corn, limited

soy and fortified with vitamins A,D and E. Pigs on the

conventional corn-soy finisher diet received equal parts

(weight basis) of the feed and water. Pigs on the corn-

1imited soy diet received equal parts (weight basis) of

the feed and ODL. Each lot was fed twice daily on a group

basis using troughs. ODL was pumped from the west oxida-

tion-ditch at each feeding to be mixed with the corn-

limited soy diet. The nutrient composition and amino acid

composition of ODL are presented in Tables 8 and 9,

respectively. One pig on the corn-limited soy, plus ODL

diet was removed 13 days after the initiation of the experi-

ment due to listlessness and poor appetite. Duration of

this experiment was 49 days.
Balance trial utilizing ODL in swine

finisher diets

Six crossbred barrows with an average body weight of

6. Experiment 6.

93 kg were utilized in a double reversal designed balance
trial to determine the digestibility of nutrients, nitrogen

balance and mineral balance for the diets presented in

Table 7. The diets were as described in experiment 5.

Three-day collection periods were utilized with at least a

seven-day adjustment period on the test diet preceding the

:ollection. The pigs were offered 1 kg of feed and 1 kg of

rater or ODL, depending on the test diet, twice daily during

he course of the collection period. Water was provided to

 

i 3 ta,
‘

 

a_.mm..

 

 

53
each group between feedings in the feeding trough connected

to the metabolism cage.

7. Experiment 7. Feeding trial utilizing ODL in swine
- finisher ‘d‘fe'ts

Upon completion of experiment 5, it was concluded
that the diets of that experiment should also be fed to
pigs using self feeders without adding water or ODL to the
respective diets presented in Table 7. This would make

possible the determination of feed intake on §d_libitum

 

feeding of the diets and the determination of animal per-
formance on the given diets with no water or ODL addition.
Therefore, 32 finishing pigs were assigned to one of four
lots in experiment 7. Average initial weight of the pigs
was 65 kg. The trial lasted 49 days. Lot 1 was similar to

lot 1 in experiment 5 with the pigs being fed the convention-

 

al corn-soy finisher plus water. Lot 2 was similar to lot 2
in experiment 5 using the corn-limited soy plus ODL on an
equal weight basis. Lots 1 and 2 were fed twice daily from
troughs. Lot 3 was fed the conventional corn-soy finisher
only, using a self feeder. Lot 4 received the corn-limited
soy finisher diet from a self feeder. Additional water was
available 22 libitum for each lot.

C. Chemical Analyses

1. Feed and feces

Feed samples were ground twice through a screen with

2 mm.diameter openings in a Wiley mill.1 Prior to and after

 

1Thomas-Wiley‘Mill, Model ED-S, Arthur H. Thomas
CO., Philadelphia, Pa.

54

 

 

 

TABLE 8. Nutrient composition Of ODL1
Item. East ditch West ditch
Dry matter, % 2.20 2.42
Crude protein, % 0.54 0.59
Crude protein (freeze

dried), %2 24.47 24.22
Gross energy (freeze ‘

dried), kcal/kg2 - 2492
Etggg extragt (freeze

4 ed), % - 2.68
Ash (freeze dried), %2 - 29.49
Calcium. % 0.08 0.10
Phosphorus, % 0.07 0.09
Potassium, % 0.09 0 .08
Sodium. % 0.05 0.06
‘Magnesium. % 0.03 0.04
Manganese, ppm 10 14
Iron, ppm 25 29
Zinc, ppm. 14 13
Copper, ppm 6 2

1Analyzed.
2

Contained 10% moisture.

 

—- I'll-n". S b

‘

 

REE:

 

55
TABLE 9. Amino. acid. composition of. oxidation ditch liquor1

 

 

 

 

   

 

East ditch, % West ditch, %
Amino acid Liquid Freeze-dried.2 Liquid Freeze-dried2
Lysine .035 1.57 .040 1.64
Histidine . 015 0 . 70 . 017 0 . 69
Arginine . 028 l . 26 . 040 l . 64 4
Threonine . 026 l . l8 . 030 1 . 25 g
Cystine .007 0.31 .008 0.32 -.
Valine . 042 1 . 90 . 044 1 . 83 g
Methionine . 013 0 . 59 . 014 0 . 60
Isoleucine . 035 1 . 6l . 035 1 . 47
Leucine .045 2.06 .053 2.20
Tyrosine .019 0.87 .022 0.89
Phenylalanine .035 1.58 .042 1.73

 

1“Analyzed .

2Contained 10% moisture .

grinding they were stored in air-tight polyethylene bags at
4 C.

1 following

Feces were ground with a hand grist mill
air drying on trays. They were again ground once through a
2 mm diameter screen in a Wiley mill. The samples were

stored in the same manner as the feed samples.

 

1Quaker City Mill, Philadelphia, Pa.

56

Crude protein was determined by a semi-micro
Kjeldahl technique.‘ Dry matter was determined by drying in
a vacuum oven for 16 hours at 90 C. Gross energy was
determined by the use of a Parr adiabatic oxygen bomb

calorimeter.1 Ether extract was performed using a dried

 

 

sample and extracting with anhydrous ethyl ether for 6 hours

in a Goldfisch Fat Extractor.2 Dry, fat free samples were

 

ashed in a muffle furnace at 600 C for 18 hours. _ .
The distribution of amino acids in the DSF and ODL b
was determined on acid hydrolysates by resin column chroma-
tography. About 10 mg of the purified protein was weighed
into 25 m1 screw-cap (teflon-lined) tubes together with
norleucine as an internal standard. The sealed tubes were
autoclaved at 121 C for 16 hours to hydrolyze the protein.
Thereafter, the tube contents were filtered through NO. 1
Whatman paper and HCl was removed from the filtrate by
successive evaporations in a flash evaporator. The residual
amino acids were dissolved in a buffer of pH 2.0 composed of
0.3 N lithium hydroxide and 0.05 M citrate, and then applied

to the amino acid analyzer3 as described by Makdani, Huber,

and Bergen (1971).

 

1Parr Corp., Moline, Ill.
2Laboratory Construction 00., Kansas City, Mo.

3TSM-l Amino acid analyzer, Technicon Corp. ,
Tarrytown, N.Y.

57
Approximately 1 gm of air dry feed and 0.5 gm of air
dry feces were digested first in 60 m1 of concentrated
nitric acid and second in 8 ml of concentrated perchloric
acid in a wet ashing procedure for mineral analyses. The
samples were previously weighed into an acid-washed 250 ml

Phillips beaker. The first digestion was heated on a hot

 

plate to near dryness and cooled. In the second digestion

the contents were protected from excessively rapid evapora- ..

 

tion by a small watch glass. The samples were heated again 9
to near dryness, cooled and diluted to volume with de-
ionized, distilled water. Standards were prepared in a like
manner. All minerals except phosphorus were determined using
an Instrumentation Laboratories, Inc.,1 Model 453 atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. Sodium and potassium were
measured using emission spectrophotometry with the instru-
ment set at wavelengths of 589.0 nm and 766.5 nm, respect-
ively, for these two minerals. Other minerals measured by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry and their respective
wavelengths (nm) were: calcium, 422.7; copper, 324.7; iron,
248.3; magnesium, 285.2; manganese, 279.5; zinc, 213.9.
Samples analyzed for calcium and magnesium were diluted with
10,000 ppm strontium chloride to suppress phosphate inter-

ference. All phosphorus determinations were made by the

 

llnstrumentation Laboratories , Inc. , Lexington,
Mass .

 

58

colorimetric method of Gomorri (1942) . The Optical density

was determined on a Coleman Junior II spectrophotometer

at 700 nm following a 45-minute incubation period.

2. Urine.
Urinary nitrogen was determined by the semi-micro

Urinary energy was determined by drying

 

Kjeldahl method.
the sample and then burning the sample with the Parr adia-
Twenty milliliters of urine

 

RE.

batic oxygen bomb calorimeter.
were pipetted into a 250 m1 Phillips beaker and mineral

digests were prepared as described previously utilizing 30 ml
of concentrated nitric acid and 4 ml of 72% perchloric acid.

The method and specifications of mineral determinations

were as described previously.

D. Statistical Analyses
All data from the experiments were subjected to

analysis of variance on a CDC2 6500 computer at the Michigan

State University Computer Laboratory Center. The only ex-

ception to this was the taste panel test which was subjected
to least squares analysis on a CDC 3600 computer at the same

location. Treatment differences within experiments were

determined by the multiple range test of Duncan (1955) .

 

1Coleman Instruments Corp., Maywood, 111.

2Control Data Corp. , Minneapolis, Minn.

 

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Experiment 1: Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets.

Pig performance and taste panel data are presented
in Table 10. The corn-DSF ration was formulated such that
DSF would provide supplemental protein, minerals and
vitamins to the grain portion of the diet. During the
first 24 days of the trial, the corn-soy group gained
significantly faster (P<0.05) than the corn-DSF group. An
amino acid analysis of the DSF after the initiation of the
trial indicated that additional lysine and methionine were
required to bring the corn-DSF ration up to N.R.C. minimum
requirements for these amino acids. On day 24 of the trial,
0.1% L-lysine and 0.1% DL-methionine were added to the corn-
DSF ration for the remainder of the trial. Average daily
gain for the period of day 24 to day 65 significantly
(P<0.05) favored the corn-soy treatment. Body weight after
24 days was significantly greater for the corn-soy group
(P<0.05). Overall performance indicated that the corn-DSF
pigs ate well, with feed intake being 93% of that Of the
corn-soy group. Final body weight and overall average daily
gain were significantly higher in the corn-soy group (P<0.01) ,
‘which differs from the results of Diggs SE 31. (1965) who

showed similar gains with or without 15% DSF additions to a

59

 

 

60

TABLE 10. Summary of pig performance and taste panel test
from.experiment 1

 

 

 

 

 

COrn-soy *COrn-DSF
Item ration ration
NO. of pigs 8 7 iSEl
Initial weight, kg 55.4 54.3 1.36
24 day weight, kg2 72.98 65.2 2.34
Final weight, kg 99.2aa 32.0 4.03 .
0-24 day ADC, kg 0.733 0.45 0.07 a
24-65 day ADC, kg 0.64a 0.41 0.06 U
0-65 day ADG, kg 0.67aa 0.43 0.05
Avg. daily feed, kg 2.25 2.10
Feed/gain 3.36 4.88
Taste panel score3 7.15 6.95 0.06

 

1Standard error of the mean.

 

2Time of supplemental amino acid additions to the
corn-DSF diet.

3Flavor test: 1 = dislike extremely, 9 = like
extremely.

aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05);

aaP<0.01.

 

61

basal ration. It should be pointed out, however, that Diggs
st 31. (1965) fed 15% DSF in a complete ration, whereas in
the present study the diet consisted of 22% DSF and 78% corn.
Feed efficiency was much poorer with the corn-DSF group.
These results are similar to those obtained by Harmon (1972),
Harmon gg{gl.(l972a) and Harmon fig 31. (1973a) when feeding
an anaerobically-maintained waste to rats and swine. They
also experienced reduced gains and feed efficiency at sub-
stitution rates of 10 to 30% of the diet.

Taste panel tests of flavor acceptability revealed
no significant differences using loin roasts from.pigs of
both treatment groups. This would substantiate earlier

reports by Diggs SE 51. (1965) that the DSF imparts no un-

desirable flavor to the meat, as determined by a taste panel.

B. Experiment 2: Balance trial utilizing DSF in swine
- finisher diets.

Analyses of the diets fed in this balance study
revealed that the corn-DSF diets contained higher levels of
calcium. phosphorus, magnesium. manganese,iron, zinc and
copper than the corn-soy diet, whereas the latter was
‘higher in sodium.and potassium levels (Table 4).

Data from.the balance trial (Table 11) indicate
significantly higher daily fecal output (P<0.01) from.the
two corn-DSF diets than from the corn-soy diet. Daily
‘urine output was significantly greater (P<0.01) for the
pigs receiving the corn-DSF diet with supplemental amino

acids than for those on the corn-soy diet. Daily urine

 

62

TABLE 11. Summary of. balance trial in experiment 2
COrn-DSF +.17.*

 

 

 

 

Item Corn-soy Corn-DSF Lys +.l% Met
No. of pigs 4 4 4 tSE1
Daily feed intake,g 1930 1929 1975 33
Daily feces, g 194 426aa 394aa 21
Daily urine, m1 1085 1553a 153oaa 105
Ca balance, daily2 bb aa
Ca intake, g 13.23 21.088 19.49aa 0.27
Fecal Ca, 6.89 13.16 a 13.19 0.71
Fecal Ca, . 52 62 688 b 4
Urinary Ca, 0.16 0.17 0.29 0.03
Urinary Ca, 7. 1.2 0.8 1.5a 0.2
Ca retention, 6.18 7.76 6.01 0.72
Ca retention, . 47a 37 31 4
Ca apparent digest, a
o 48 38 32 4
P balance, daily2 aa aa
P intake, g 9.77 13.74 14.05 0.19
Fecal P, g 5.10 8.6388 8.50aa 0.41
Fecal P, % 52 63 aa 61 aa 3
Urinary P, g 0.25 0.69 0.61 0.06
Urinary P, % 3 58‘ 4a 0.5
P retention, g 4.42 4.42 4.94 0.35
P retention, 7. 45b 32 35 3
P apparent digest,
. 37 39 3
Na balance, daily2 bb a
Na intake, g 4.22 2.09 2.36 0.06
Fecal Na, 0.49 0.63 0.71 0.07
Fecal Na, . l2 bb 3oaa 305la 3
Urinary Na, g 2.58 1.13 1.09 0.21
Urinary Na, % 61 aa b 54 46 5
Na retention, g 1.15 ’ 0.33 0.56 0.14
Na retention, % 27 16 24 5
Na apparent digest, bb
Z 88 70 70 3

 

1
2

Standard error of the mean.

‘7!

 

ildw. : ;

a

All percent values are in relation to intake.
aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05); aaP<0.01.
bSignificantly greater than least two values (P<0.05);

bbP<o.01.

63

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 11. (Continued . . . .3) , . .
Comma" +177?
Item Corn-soy Corn-DSF Lys +.1‘7. Met
No. of pigs 4 4 4 £3131
K balance, daily2 bb
K intake, g 14.42 12.30 13.03 0.24
Fecal K, 2.72 4.12aa 4.47%l 0.11
Fecal K, . 19 33aa 3433 1
Urinary K, g 2.37 3.05 3.62aa 0.23
Urinary K, 7. l6 bb 25aa 2833 2
K retention, g 9.32 5.13 4.94 0.27
K retention, ‘7. 65bb 42 38 2
K apparent digest,
z slbb 67 66 1
Mg balance, daily2 aa aa
Mg intake, g 2.96 5.05 a 4.9288 0.06
Fecal Mg, g 1.86 3.55‘51 3.37 0.15
Fecal Mg, ‘7. 63 70 aa 68 aa 3
Urinary Mg, g 0.23 0.49 0.52 0.03
Urinary Mg, ‘7. 8 10 11 1
Mg retention, g 0.87 1.01 1.03 0.11
Mg retention, '7. 29b 20 21 2
Mg apparent digest,
Z 37 30 32 3
Fe balance, daily2 aa aa
Fe intake, mg 193.72 301.37bb 308‘65aa 3.96
Fecal Fe, mg 133.97 257.29 213.19 8.56
Fecal Fe, '7. 69 a 851313 69 a 3
Urinary Fe, mg 2.31 1.42 2.49 0.28
Urinary Fe, '7. 1.28 0.5 0.8 aa b 0.1
Fe retention, mg 57.44 42.66 92.97 ’ 8.93
Fe retention;l 7. 3033 14 30aa 3
Fe apparent igest,
7. 31‘“El 15 31‘“1 3
1

Standard error of the mean.

2A11 percent values are in relation to intake.

aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05); a“l><o.01.

bSignificantly greater than least two values (P<0.05);

bbP<O .01) .

TABLE 11. (Continued .

64

 

Corn-DSF 3!- . l7.

 

 

Item Corn-soy Corn-DSF Lys +.17. Met
N0. of pigs 4 4 4 rSE1
Zn balance, daily2 a bb
Zn intake, mg 185.02 266.058: b 291-17aa 3.65
Fecal Zn, mg 116.16 256.31 225.29 8.66
Fecal Zn, 7. 63 96bb new 3
Urinary Zn, mg 4.0 2.89 3.14 0.68
Urinary Zn, 7. 2.2 a 1.1 1.1 aa 0.29
Zn retention, mg 64.85 a 6.86 62.75 8.57
Zn retention, 7. 353a.b 3 22aa 3
Zn apparent digest,
% 37bb 4 23aa 3
Mn balance,daily2 aa aa
Mn intake, mg 110.23 172.11bb 172.46aa 2.25
Fecal Mn. mg 92.24 166.1 132.74 5.02
Fecal Mn, 7. 84 9733: 77 3
Urinary Mn, mg 1.46 1.27 1.37 0.29
Urinary Mn, 7. 1.3 0.7 0.8 bb 0.2
Mn retention, mg 16.53 4.74 38.35 4.32
Mn retention, 7. 15a 3 22aa 3
Mn apparent digest, a aa
o 16 3 23 3
Cu balance, daily2 aa aa
Cu intake, mg 36.15 64.428 64.32aa 1.10
Fecal Cu, mg 24.50 51.85 a 55.98 1.80
Fecal Cu, 7. 68 80a 87aa 3
Urinary Cu, mg 1.70 3.15 2.14 0.38
Urinary Cu, 7. 5 5 3 1
Cu retention, mg 9.95 9.43 6.21 1.83
Cu retention, 7. 2788.1) 15a 10 3
Cu apparent digest, aa b
o 32 ’ 20 13 3

 

1

Standard error of the mean.

2All percent values are in relation to intake.

aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05); aaP<0.01.

bSignificantly greater than least two values (P<0.05);

bbP<O.Ol.

 

 

65

 

 

 

TABLE. 11.. (Continued . .)
' ' 4'. 0
Item Corn-soy Corn-DSF, E;:n+nig Me?
No. of pigs 4 4 4 :tSET—
N balance, daily6 bb aa
N intake,g 45.65 34.3388 38'7laa 0.74
Fecal N, 5.91 11.77 10.57 0.49
Fecal N, . l3 34bb 2788 1
Urinary N,g 16. 12 13 .30 13 .72 0.77
Urinary N,7. 35 bb 39 36 aa 2
N retention,g 23.62 9.27 14.42 0.57
N retention,7. 52bb 27 37aa 2
N apparent digest,7.'. 87“? 66 7388 1
Biological va1ue,app. 5988»b 41 518 2
Net protein utiliza- bb a a
tion, app. 52 27 37 2
Dry matter balance,daily6
DM intake,g 1679 1688 1727 29
Fecal DM, 182 391aa 351aa 18
Fecal DM, 0 llbb 2335l zoaa 1
DM appara’lt digest,7. 89 77 80 1
Energy balance,daily6
Energy intake,kca12 7453 7410‘m 7724M 128
Fecal energy,kca1 872 1884 1673 88
Urinary energy,kcal 113 104 140 21
Digestible energy, bb aa
kcal3 6581 5526 6051 98
Digestible energy.7o 8813b 75 78a 1
ktaboll‘izable energy, bb aa
kcal ~ 5422 5911 92
Metabolizable 633.76 87 bbb 73 778 aa 1
N—corrected ME,kca 6292 5353 5804 88
N-corrected m, 7. 84bb 72 758 1

 

l

 

 

Standard error of the mean.

2Gross; energy, kcal/kg = 3862, 3841, 3911, respectively.
3153, kcal/kg = 3410, 2865, 3064, respectively.

4141:, kcal/kg = 3351, 2811, 2993, respectively.
5N-eorr. ME, kcal/kg - 3260, 2775, 2939, respectively.
6All percent values are in relation to intake.
aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05); aa1’<0.01.
bSignificantly greater than least two values (P<0.05);

bbP<0.01.

66
volume was significantly higher (P<0.05) with pigs on the

corn-DSF treatment than for those receiving corn-soy.

The higher calcium level of the DSF diets resulted

in significantly higher dietary calcium intake (P<0.01)
for the DSF groups than the corn-soy group. In turn, this M

resulted in higher absolute fecal calcium excretion (P<0.01)

and reduced absorption (P<0.05) with the corn-DSF diets as
Urinary calcium excretion . _

 

compared to the corn-soy diets.
was small for all treatments in terms of absolute or rela-

tive excretion levels. Although calcium retention relative

to intake was significantly greater (P<0.05) for the corn-soy
diet as compared to the corn-DSF diet with supplemental
amino acids, due to the lower calcium intake level of the

corn-soy diet, absolute calcium retention was similar for

all three dietary treatments.
The daily phosphorus balance (Table 11) followed a

somewhat similar pattern to that of calcium balance for all

treatments. Daily phosphorus intake and absolute fecal
excretion were significantly higher (P<0.01) for the pigs

on the two DSF diets. However, phosphorus relative absorp-
tion and relative fecal excretion were somewhat similar for

Relative urinary phosphorus excretion was

all treatments .
Absolute

significantly higher (P<0.05) with the DSF diets.
phosphorus retentions were similar for all diets, although

phosphorus retention relative to intake was higher for the

corn- soy diet (P<0 . 05) .

67

The daily magnesium balance (Table 11) indicates a
similar pattern of absorption and retention as was found.
for calcium and phosphorus. The lower absorption and
relative retention values for Mg with the DSF diets may be
a reflection of the higher calcium and phosphorus levels
of these diets, which are known to decrease magnesium absorp-
tion or increase excretion (O'Dell, 1960). Absolute
magnesium retentions of all three diets were similar.

While the sodium levels of the DSF diets (Table 4)
analyzed only slightly half or more of the level contained
in the corn-soy diet, the sodium levels of the former diets
were of the same magnitude as the sodium in the optimum
dietary salt level of 0.30% which Hagsten and Perry (1974)
found for growing swine. The low sodium levels found in DSF
diets are due to the separation of the urine (which contains
high levels of sodium) from the feces at the time of-harvest-
ing the solid excreta prior to drying. As a result of the
above, sodium intake (Table 11) on the corn-soy diet was

significantly greater (P<0.01) than from the DSF diets.

Sodium apparent digestibility was significantly higher (P<0.01)

on the corn-soy diet, as was absolute sodium retention, when
compared to the DSF diets. Sodium retention relative to in-
take was similar for all three diets.

While potassium intake (Table 11) was significantly
greater (P<0.01) with the corn-soy diet, fecal and urinary

potassium excretions were significantly greater (P<0.01) on

' _ .iw-Ir ~. E]

 

68
the DSF diets. As a result, apparent digestibility, absolute
and relative retention of potassium.were significantly
higher (P<0.01) on the corn-soy diet.

Much more variation between treatments occurred in
the iron, zinc and manganese balance studies (Table 11).
Although a similar pattern of absorption and retention of
these minerals was noted for each diet, the most obvious
difference appeared to be the improvement in apparent
digestibility and retention of these minerals with the
addition of the supplemental amino acids to the corn-DSF
diet.

Copper intake was significantly higher (P<0.01)
from the DSF diets (Table 11). With this mineral, the
apparent digestibility and relative retention were not
improved with the additional amino acids to the DSF diet,
but these parameters were actually slightly decreased.
Absolute copper retention was similar for all diets.

Regarding the mineral balance studies, it is quite
evident that the utilization of these minerals was variable
in many cases among the diets. The corn-soy diet did
'utilize a trace mineral premix which contained mineral
forms of known acceptable availability. No trace mineral
premix was added to the DSF diets due to the high mineral
content of the DSF. However, these minerals contained in
DSF may not all be in highly available forms, which would

ultimately affect their absorption and utilization bv the

 

 

*-

69
pig. Some mineral levels in DSF are in excess and this
would, in turn, affect utilization of other interrelated
minerals.
Nitrogen balance was affected by diet. Nitrogen
apparent digestibility, absolute retention and relative

retention were significantly higher (P<0.01) in the corn-soy

 

diet as compared to the two DSF diets. The corn-DSF with

 

supplemental amino acids was significantly higher (P<0.01) g,_
in these same parameters as compared to the corn-DSF diets. a
Apparent biological value and apparent net protein utiliza-

tion were significantly higher (P<0.01) in the corn-soy

diet as compared to the corn-DSF diet. The corn-DSF with

supplemental amino acids was significantly higher in

 

apparent biological value (P<0.05) and apparent net protein
utilization (P<0.01) as compared to the corn-DSF diet.
Apparent biological value (ABV) and apparent net

protein utilization (ANPU) were determined by the following

 

 

formulas :
ABV = N intageigtéigcalfgcziufiinary N) x 100
ANPU = N intake fi ifiigfii N + urinary N) x 100
or = App. Dig. of N X ABV

Dry matter balance indicated a significantly higher
(P<0.01) apparent digestibility of dry matter for the corn-
soy diet as compared to the DSF diets. There was a direct
relationship in results of the energy balance as compared to

the nitrogen balance with the respective diets. Digestible

 

 

70

energy, metabolizable energy and nitrogen-corrected metab-
olizable energy were significantly higher (P<0.01) for the
corn-soy diet as compared to the two DSF diets. The corn-
DSF diet containing supplemental lysine and methionine had
significantly higher absolute (P<0.01) and relative (P<0.05)
levels of these same energy classifications as compared to
the corn-DSF diet.

C. Experiment 3: Feeding trial utilizing DSF and DPW in
swine finisher diets.

Pig performance data are presented in Table 12.
Pigs on ration 2 (80% basal plus 20% DPW) consumed 15% less
average daily feed than those on ration l (corn-soy basal),
whereas feed efficiency on ration 2 was 82% relative to the
feed efficiency of ration 1. Average daily gain was
significantly higher (P<0.01) on ration 1 compared to ration
2, with average final weight being slightly higher on the
former diet. Both elevated dietary calcium and a possible
subminimal level of methionine plus cystine in ration 2 may
have contributed to the poor performance of ration 2. Al-
though the calcium to phosphorus ratio of ration 2 was
slightly less than 2:1, absolute calcium level of this diet
‘was well over 1% of the diet. This high calcium level of
ration 2 results from the high calcium content of the DPW
that originated from caged layers, which are fed high cal-
cium diets for egg production.

Rations 3 and 4 were similar in ingredient make-up

by having a corn-limited soy base, except that ration 3

 

 

71
contained 20% DPW and ration 4 contained 20% DSF. Average
daily gain on ration 1 was significantly higher (P<0.01)
than on ration 3 or ration 4. Average daily feed intake of
ration 3 and ration 4 were 79% and 91%, respectively,
relative to ration l and feed efficiency of the DPW and DSF
rations was very poor compared to ration 1. Pigs on ration
3 had the poorest performance in this trial, which was

probably due to the high dietary calcium and low dietary lysine.

TABLE 12. Summary of pig performance from.experiment 3

 

Item. Ration l Ration 2 Ration 3 Ration 4
Corn-soy 80% basal Corn-DPW Corn-DSF
basal +20% DPW + limwsoy.+ limnsoy

 

 

 

No. of pigs 8 8 8 8 rSE1
Initial weight,kg 68.0 67.7 68.1 68.7 1.58
Final weight,kg 85.7 80.1 77.8 80.4 2.30
,Avg. daily gain, aa

kg 0.66 0.46 0.36 0.43 0.05
.Avg. daily feed,

kg 2.44 2.08 1.92 2.21
Feed/gain 3.70 4.52 5.33 5.13

1

Standard error of the mean.

aaSignificantly greater than all other values (P<0.01).

72
Poor performance of pigs on ration 4 was most likely due to
the elevated calcium and marginal methionine plus cystine
level of the diet. Poor availability of other amino acids
in DSF may also have been a factor.'

Pig performance on ration 2 followed the same trend
as reported by Perez-Aleman 2E.El- (1971) when DPW was in- IE
cluded as an addition to a conventional diet. These
researchers experienced depressed gains and feed efficiency

with DPW additions, although these depressions were of a

 

smaller magnitude than was the case with pigs on ration 2.

D. Experiment 4: Feeding trial utilizing DSF in swine
finisher diets containing supplemental
energy.

Pig performance data are presented in Table 13.

The corn-DSF-soy diet in this experiment contained supple-

mental corn oil along with being fortified with dicalcium

phosphate, ground limestone, salt and vitamin—trace mineral
premix. Average daily gain and final weight slightly

favored the corn-soy control diet over the corn-DSF diet,

although these differences were not statistically signifi-

cant nor did they approach significance. The average daily
feed intakes were similar for the two diets. Feed efficiency
of the corn-DSF was 9.5% poorer than that obtained with the
control diet.

Although daily gains, feed intake and feed efficiency
for the DSF group were slightly lower as compared to the

control diet, the former shows definite improvement over

 

73

TABLE. 13. Summary of pig. performance from experiment 4
Corn-DSF-soy

 

 

 

 

Item Corn-soy + supp. fat
No. of pigs 4 4 rSE1
Initial weight, kg 58.2 57.7 1.44
Final weight, kg 78.3 75.0 2.42
Avg. daily gain,

kg 0.72 0.62 0.09
Avg. daily feed,kg 2.47 2.35
Feed/gain 3.43 3.79

1

Standard error of the mean.

results of previous feeding trials using DSF diets without
corn oil. The addition of supplemental energy to these
diets containing DSF to restore the concentration of digest-
ible energy should improve pig performance on these diets.
It should be noted that the DSF diet in this trial did con-
tain improved levels of lysine and methionine plus cystine,
but it also had an elevated level of calcium.due to the
addition of dicalcium phosphate and limestone to the diet.
The results of experiment 4 are consistent with those
reported by Flegal and Zindel (1970) where broiler-type
chicks fed a ration containing 20% DPW plus supplemental fat
showed an increase in weight gains and feed efficiency as

compared to the same diet without the supplemental fat.

74

E. Experiment 5: Feeding trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher diets.

Pig performance data are presented in Table 14.
Final weights were similar for both treatments. Average
daily gain was slightly higher (P<0.ll) for the corn-soy
plus water (lot 1) as compared to the corn-limited soy plus
ODL (lot 2). Average daily feed and feed efficiency of lot
2 were both 93% relative to that of lot 1 on the control
diet.

The nutrient levels in the diet of lot 2 were
determined by adding the nutrient level of the dry feed and
the nutrient level of the ODL. These can be seen in Tables
7 and 8. The diet of corn-limited soy plus ODL was equal
or exceeded the nutrient levels of the control diet with
only a few exceptions. The most obvious deficiency was
calcium which was present at a level of 0.18%. N.R.C. (1968)

lists the calcium requirement for the finishing pig at 0.50%.

TABLE 14. Summary of pig performance from experiment 5

 

 

 

 

Corn-soy Corn-11m. soy

Item. + water + ODL

(1) (2)
No. of pigs 8 7 tSE1
Initial weight,kg 64.0 65.1 0.72
Final Weight, kg 99.6 95.7 2.32
Avg.daily gain, kg 0.73 0.63 0.04
Avg.daily feed,kg 3.16 2.93
Feed/gain 4.33 4.65

1

Standard error of the mean.

/_l
.1 I.
a ll

75
This was perhaps the most important single factor which in-
fluenced pig performance on the ODL diet. The level of
sodium in the ODL diet was 0.08% while N.R.C. (1968) lists
the requirement for growing pigs at 0.10%. This difference

would not seem to have a great affect on performance.

2;!

.4;-

Levels of zinc and iron in the ODL diet were 40 ppm and 70
ppm, respectively, while N.R.C. (1968) lists the minimum
requirement for these minerals at 50 ppm.and 80 ppm,

respectively. Due to the lower zinc level in the DSF diet,

 

‘11:,“ " ‘

the reduced calcium.content of the DSF diet permitted these
pigs to perform without any signs of parakeratosis occurring
due to a zinc deficiency. No structural problems were noted
in the ODL lot due to a lower calcium.intake.

F. Experiment 6: Balance trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher diets.

Composition of the diets fed in this balance trial
are presented in Tables 7 and 8. Data from the balance
trial (Table 15) show significantly higher (P<0.01) daily
fecal output with the ODL diet. Calcium intake was sig-
nificantly higher (P<0.01) on the corn—soy-water diet due
to the higher calcium level of that diet. Percent urinary
calcium excretions were similar for both diets, but percent
fecal calcium.excretion relative to intake was significantly
higher (P<0.01) from the corn-lbmited soy-ODL diet. This
would not have been expected with the low calcium intake
level. This resulted in a significantly lower (P<0.01)
apparent digestibility of calcium on the ODL diet. This may

1

76
TABLE.15- .Summary of balance trial in experiment 6

 

 

 

Corn-soy Corn-lim.soy
Item + water + ODL
No. of pigs 6 52 :SE1
Daily feed intake, g 2000 1952 27
Daily feces, g 169 24688 13
Daily urine, ml 2469 1623 311
Ca balance,daily3
Ca intake, g 13.5588 3.44 0.05
Fecal Ca, g 5.1288 2.81 0.43
Fecal Ca, % 38 8288 4
Urinary Ca, g 0.408 0.09 0.09
Urinary Ca, % 3.0 aa 2.5 0.8
Ca retention, g 8.03 0.54 0.44
Ca retention, % 59aa l6 4
Ca apparent digest,% 62aa 18 4
P balance, daily3 aa
P intake, g 10.20 7.64 0.11
Fecal P, g 4.11 4.50 0.25
Fecal P, % 40 59aa 3
Urinary P, g 0.34 0.46 0.06
mmuyh% $3“ 61 m9
P retention, g 5.76 2.68 0.24
P retention, % 55aa 35 3
P apparent digest,% 6088 41 3
Na balance, daily3 aa
Na intake, g 4.88 1.52 0.02
Fecal Na, 0.52 0.43 0.05
Fecal Na, . 11 aa 2888 2
Urinary Na, g 3.34 0.39 0.18
Urinary Na, % 6888 26 5
Na retention, g 1.03 0.70 0.17
Na retention, % 21 46aa 5
Na apparent digest,% 8988 72 2

 

1Standard error of the mean.

2One pig was removed due to rectal prolapse at the
initiation of the collection period.

3All percent values are in relation to intake.

aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05);
aaP<0.01.

 

k

 

1

77

 

 

 

TABLE 15.(Continued.. .)
Corn-soy Corn-lim.soy

Item +-water + ODL

No. of pigs 6 5 iSE1

K balance, daily2 aa
K intake, g 11.44 12.61 0.17
Fecal K, g 1.78 4.1738 0.20
Fecal K, % 16 3388 2
Urinary K, g 6.02 3.79 0.73
Urinary K, % 52a 30 6
K retention, g 3.65 4.66 0.77
K retention, % 32aa 37 6
K apparent digest,% 84 67 2

Mg balance, daily2 a
Mg intake, g 3.07 2.9188 0.04
Fecal Mg, g 1.45 2.19 0.11
Fecal Mg, % 47 aa 75aa 3
Urinary Mg, g 0.32aa 0.21 0.02
Urinary Mg, % 10.488 7.3 0.6
Mg retention, g 1.31 0.50 0.11
Mg retention, % 4388 17 4
Mg apparent digest,% 53aa 25 3

Fe balance, daily2 as
Fe intake, mg 236.08aa 137.44 1.90
Fecal Fe, mg 141.38 73.81 7.94
Fecal Fe, % 60 54 3
Urinary Fe, mg 1.56 1.29 0.18
Urinary Fe, % 0.66 a 0.95 0.12
Fe retention, mg 93.14 62.33 7.83
Fe retention, % 39 45 3
Fe apparent digest,% 40 46 3

 

 

1Standard error of the mean.

2A11 percent values are in relation to intake.
aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05);

aa1><0.01.

 

 

 

78
TABLE 15 (Continued . .)
Corn-soy Corn—lim. soy
Item. + water + ODL
No. of pigs 6 5 :tSE1
Zn balance, daily2
Zn intake, mg 192.503: 79.69 1.10
- Fecal Zn, mg 104.80 53.26 5.05
Fecal Zn, % 54 67 a 5
Urinary Zn, mg 1.86 2.818 0.30
Urinary Zn, % 1.0 3.6 0.4
Zn retention, mg 85.84aa 23.61 5.41
Zn retention, % 45a 29 5
Zn apparent digest,% 46 33 5
Mn balance, daily2
Mn intake, mg 92.82aa 48.07 0.67
Fecal un, mg 66.85aa 44.08 2.82
Fecal Mn, % 72 a 9288 4
Urinary Mn, mg 0.87 0.47 0.09
Urinary Mn, % 0.9 aa 1.0 0.2
Mn retention, mg 25.11 3.52 2.72
Mn retention, % 27aa 7 4
Mn apparent digest,% 28aa 8 4
Cu balance, daily2 aa
Cu intake, mg 33.68 21.66 0.30
Fecal Cu, mg 17.62 17.54 1.00
Fecal Cu, % 52 8188 4
Urinary Cu, mg 0.45 1.29aa 0.17
Urinary Cu, % 1.3 6.188 0.9
Cu retention, mg 15.6288 2.83 0.89
Cu retention, % 4688 13 3
Cu apparent digest,% 48aa l9 4

 

 

 

1Standard error

2

8Significantly greater than least value (P<0.05);

aap<0.01.

of the mean.

A11 percent values are in relation to intake.

 

 

 

 

 

79
TABLE 15 (Continued . .)
Corn-soy Corn-1im.soy
Item + water + ODL
No. of pigs 6 5 iSE1
N balance, daily6 as
N intake, g 41.29 38.26 0.50
Fecal N, 5.34 8.8788 0.50
Fecal N, o 13 a 2388 1
Urinary N, g 18.21 14.43 1.06
Urinary N, % 44 38 3
N retention, g 17.74 14.96 1.09
N retention, % 43 39 3
N apparent digest,% 87aa 77 1
Biological value,app. 49 51 3
Net protein utiliza-
tion, app. 43 39 3
Dry matter balance, daily6
DM intake, 3 1753 1732 23
Fecal DM, g 154 21788 11
Fecal DM, % 8.8 aa 12.5aa 0.6
DM apparent digest,% 91.2 87.5 0.6
Energy balance, daily6
Energy intake,kcal 7734 7775aa 108
Fecal energy, kcal 802 1193 63
Urinary energy,kca 140 a 131 10
Digestible energy,kcal 6933 6583 80
Digestible energy, % 9088 85 l
Mauinituideeammgy, a
kcal 6793 6452 83
lbtabolizable energgflo 888138 83 1
N—corrected IVE,kcal 6661 6341 85
N-corrected DE, 7. 8683 82 1

 

1
2
3

Standard error of the mean.
Gross energy, kcal/kg- 3867 and 3983, respectively.
DE, kcal/kg= 3467 and 3372, respectively.

, kcal/kg= 3397 and 3305, respectively.

5N-corr. ME, kcal/kg= 3331 and 3248, respectively.
All percent values are in relation to intake.
aSignificantly greater than least value (P<0.05);

6

aaP<0.01.

 

80
be due to several reasons. The calcium.may be in a com-
plexed-form.which has a low availability for the pig. The
magnesium.and phosphorus levels of the ODL diet are near the
normal levels in a finisher diet and may be inhibiting
normal calcium absorption due to the low calcium level
present. Calcium retention was significantly higher (P<0.01)
with the corn-soy-water diet.

Phosphorus intake (Table 15) was significantly
higher (P<0.01) on the corn-soydwater diet with resulting
phosphorus apparent digestibility and retention being sig-
nificantly higher (P<0.01) on the same diet. As was the
case with the calcium balance, phosphorus apparent digest-
ibility was significantly lower (P<0.01) on the corn-limited
soy-ODL diet. This decrease may have been caused by the
form of the phosphorus or by the lower dietary calcium
level, which may have been too low to permit efficient
utilization of the phosphorus in the ODL diet.

Sodium.intake and apparent digestibility (Table 15)
were significantly higher (P<0.01) with the corn-soyawater
diet. Absolute sodium retention was shmilar for both diets.
The lower apparent digestibility of sodium.from the ODL
diet may have been affected by the potassium intake, which
was significantly higher (P<0.01) on the ODL diet.

Apparent digestibility of potassium was higher (P<0.01) for
the corn-soydwater diet, but absolute and relative retentions

‘were similar for both diets.

81

Magnesium balance data (Table 15) indicated sig-
nificantly higher (P<0.01) apparent digestibility and
retention with the corn-soy-water diet. The lower apparent
digestibility of magnesium from.the ODL diet may be due to
the calcium.and phosphorus levels present in the diet which
were discussed previously., It is also possible that the
magnesium was present in a form.which had a poor availabil-
ity.

Iron intake (Table 15) was significantly higher
(P<0.01) on the corn-soydwater diet, which also had a higher
(P<0.05) absolute iron retention. Apparent digestibility
and relative retention were similar for both diets. A
similar pattern of zinc utilization was found. Apparent
digestibility of zinc was similar for both diets, but rela-
tive retention was significantly higher (P<0.05) for the
corn-soy-water diet.

Manganese and copper balances followed similar pat-
terns with the two diets (Table 15). Daily intake, apparent
digestibility, absolute and relative retentions were sig-
nificantly higher (P<0.01) for the corn-soyawater diet with
both minerals. There was more variability in the data for
these two minerals than was the case for many of the other
minerals.

Nitrogen balance data (Table 15) indicated a sig-
nificantly higher (P<0.01) nitrogen apparent digestibility

for the corn-soy-water diet. Nitrogen retentions were

82
similar for both diets, as were biological value and net
protein utilization. Dry matter apparent digestibility was
significantly higher (P<0.01) with the corn-soy-water diet,
which was a reflection of the lower fecal output from.that
diet. This was also reflected in significantly higher
(P<0.01) fecal energy with the ODL diet (Table 15). This
contributed to the corn-soyawater diet being significantly
higher in digestible energy, metabolizable energy and
nitrogen-corrected metabolizable energy, as measured from
the absolute (P<0.05) or relative values (P<0.01).

G. Experiment 7. Feeding trial utilizing ODL in swine
finisher diets.

Pig performance data are presented in Table 16.
Average final weights of lots 1 and 3 on the corn-soy con-
trol diet were similar, with both lots being significantly
heavier (P<0.05) than lots 2 and 4-on the corn-lbmited soy
diet, with or without ODL. Average daily gains of lots 1
and 3 were significantly higher (P<0.01) than gains of lots
2 and 4 in this trial. This had not been shown in experiment
5. Daily gains of lots 1 and 3 were the same. Daily gains
of lots 2 and 4 were similar.

A question raised from.experiment 5 was whether or
not the hand fed pigs were consuming feed at near 3d libitum
intake. Experiment 7 demonstrated this quite well. Lot 1,
the hand fed diet of corn-soy-water, had almost exactly the
same daily feed intake as did lot 3, the self fed diet of

corn-soy. Moreover, feed efficiencies of the two lots were

 

 

83

TABLE 16. .Summary.of pig performance from.experiment 7.

 

 

 

 

 

Hand fed Self fed

Corn-soy Corn-lime Corn-soy *Corn-77'
Item. + water soy + ODL 1im.soy

Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4
No..of pigs 8 8 8 8 1381

1

Initial weight,kg 65.4 64.8 65.1 65.7 1.36 E
Final weight, kg 98.08 86.6 97.48 86.2 3.37
Avg.daily gain,kg 0.66aa 0.44 0.6688 0.42 0.05
Avg.daily feed,kg 2.71 2.33 2.64 2.13 j
Feed/gain 4.11 5.30 4.00 5.07

 

1Standard error of the mean.

aSignificantly greater than least two values (P<0.05);

aaP<0.01.

similar. Feed consumptions of lots 2 and 4 were also quite
similar, with lot 2, the hand fed lot, having a slightly
higher average daily feed consumption. Feed efficiency of
these two lots also showed a similar trend, but the effic-
iencies obtained with the corn-limited soy diet were lower
than those obtained from the corn-soy diet.

It is quite evident that the corn-limited soy diet
hindered performance in this experiment. This is quite likely
due to the lower calcium.content of that diet, along with an
altered interrelationship of calcium with several of the other

dietary minerals. Since this experiment utilized ODL from

84
the east ditch which contained wastes from pigs fed diets
having elevated dietary copper levels, it is possible that
microbial protein synthesis may have been reduced in this
ditch such that the ODL had a reduced nutrient content.
Ariail et‘gl. (1971) demonstrated the inhibitory effect
which copper had on microbial synthesis and it is possible
that this effect was present in experiment 7. These results
are not consistent with those obtained from.feeding ODML
by Harmon.g£‘gl. (1971, 1973a,b). They found significantly
higher gains and efficiencies for pigs receiving ODML.
Such results were not seen in these experiments, although
results from experiment 5 would appear to be encouraging as

to the utilization of ODL in swine diets.

CONCLUSIONS

Within the limits of the experimental conditions
and procedures of the seven experiments presented herein,
the results of this study have led the author to make the
following conclusions:

1. Finishing pigs will consume corn-soy rations
containing up to 22% dried swine feces (DSF) at 90 to 95%
of full appetite.

2. Rate and efficiency of gain are depressed by
the incorporation of DSF into corn-soy rations to replace
all or most of the soybean meal.

3. The incorporation of DSF into a finisher diet
resulted in a depression of apparent digestibility and
retention of dry matter, nitrogen, energy and most minerals;
however, the addition of supplemental amino acids to the DSF
diets significantly improved apparent digestibility of
nitrogen, energy and several minerals.

4. Elevated calcium levels, reduced amino acid
availability and reduced digestibility of energy of DSF
and dehydrated poultry (layer) waste (DPW) would appear to
be the prime factors affecting their utilization in swine
diets.

5. The addition of supplemental energy to diets
containing DSF to restore the concentration of digestible

energy should improve pig performance.

85

3,1-

 

86
6. No improvement in pig performance was observed
for pigs receiving oxidation ditch liquor (ODL) in their
diet.
7. Diets containing ODL resulted in lower apparent
digestibility coefficients for dry matter, protein, energy

and minerals in balance trials.

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APPENDIX

101
TABLE.A~1. Chemical analyses of DSF- experiments 1 and 2.

 

 

Nutrient , (air-dry basis)
Crude protein, Z 23.9
Ether Extract, Z 9.5
Ash, Z 15.0
Calcium, Z 4.02
Phosphorus, Z 2.26
Potassium, Z 1.52
Sodium, Z 0.30
Magnesium, Z 0.81
Manganese, ppm 404
Iron, ppm 794
Zinc, ppm 543

Copper, ppm. 104

 

TABLE A-2. Michigan State University vitamin-trace mineral

premix.

........

 

Nutrient

Amount in4.54 kg of premix1

 

Vitamin A,million

Vitamin D2,million

Vitamin E,thousand

Riboflavin

Nicotinic acid

D-pantothenic acid

Choline chloride
Vitamin B12

Zinc

Manganese

Iodine

'Copper

Iron

Antioxidant2

3.0 I.U.
0.6 I.U.
10.0 I.U.
3.0 g
16.0 g
12.0 g
100.0 g
18.0'mg
68.0 g
34.0 g
2.5 g
9.0 g
54.0 g
45.0 g

Carrier (ground yellow corn) to bring total to 4.54 kg.

 

l

2
hydroxytoluene (BHT).

Mixed into diet at rate of 0.5Z.

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and/or butylated

103
TABLE A-3. Chemical analyses of DPW—experiment.3.

 

 

Nutrient (air-dry basis)
Crude protein, Z 19.22
Ether extract, Z 2.94
Ash, Z 22.62
Gross energy, kcal/kg 3090
Calcium, Z 6.44
Phosphorus, Z 2.56
Potassium, Z 2.03
Sodium, Z 0.62
Magnesium, Z 0.58
Manganese, ppm. 260
Iron, ppm 482
Zinc, ppm 279

Copper, ppm. 37

 

104

TABLE A-4. Premix supplied the following to ration 3 -
experiment 3.

 

 

Nutrient Amountlkg of complete diet
Riboflavin, mg 8.8

Pantothenic acid, mg 17.6

Niacin, mg 39.6

Choline chloride, mg 396.0

Vitamin B12, mcg 26.4

Vitamin A, IU 3960.0

Vitamin D2, IU 1782.0

Vitamin E, IU 22.0

Zinc, ppm 110.0

, DL-methionine , Z 0 . l

 

 

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