] :zll 'II'I'I'III'II'IIII: iiihliiii L mesrs 3 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE LOCAL CONTEXT AS A SOURCE OF EVALUATIVE QUESTIONS ON MASS COMMUNICATION, DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION, AND RELIGION IN AFRICA presented by Menkir Esayas has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Dept. of Secondary Education & Curriculum x5131] (,J . [SAIL Major professor Date _ /4 /7X/ 0-7 639 [ LIBRARY ' Daemon Erato University *— OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per m per 1m RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to remove charge from c1rculat1on records THE LOCAL CONTEXT AS A SOURCE OF EVALUATIVE QUESTIONS ON MASS COMMUNICATION, DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION, AND RELIGION IN AFRICA By Menkir Esayas A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1981 C3-l/ES7KVJE ABSTRACT THE LOCAL CONTEXT AS A SOURCE OF EVALUATIVE QUESTIONS ON MASS COMMUNICATION, DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION, AND RELIGION IN AFRICA By Menkir Esayas There is a close relationship between social communi- cation and the modernization process in which communication plays a vital role. These assumptions about development strategy and practice within the local context have not been compiled, compared, or articulated. A great deal of Africa's theoretical basis for understanding 'development' and 'under- development' has been heavily determined by theoretical frameworks developed outside the continent. To a large extent, communication practice in.Africa has followed similar patterns. The present study attempts to present a conceptual critique of the main propositions and relationships between communication for social development on the one hand, and communication's significance and role in light of what deve10pment means in the African context on the other. The problems which motivated this study are (1) the conceptual understanding (or lack of it) about the relation- ship between communication and development, (2) the value perceptions of actors at the local level, and (3) con- cern about the role participatory communication can Menkir Esayas - 2 play in development. The objectives of the study were (1) to reflect on the theoretical bases of development/underdevelopment and to analyze and describe the merits and limitations of these theories; (2) to propose, on the basis of evaluative research on two communication centers in Africa, some conclusions and suggestions for advancing contextual theory, in the hope of improving understanding and action in communication for development. The researcher examined original intentions and actualities of the two systems, the perceptions of their audiences, and their social reality. The Stake model of evaluation was chosen as the basis for the study. The procedure included describing the communication centers in terms of their intended and perceived values, examining communication theories and learning strategies, and des- cribing the actual characteristics of the centers based on data gathered from records and the research instrument. The findings suggest that critical attention should be given to the following areas: (1) the distinction between the churches' role as 'communicating bodies' and their 'communicative function'; (2) audience participation in media use; (3) 'missiological/theological' conceptions of indigenous forms of communication; (4) local value perceptions, particularly when addressing large, non- Christian audiences; (5) the extenionist nature of media; Menkir Esayas - 3 (6) the relationship between communication and development; (7) the people's role in media use; (8) the development of local program resources; and (9) research and training for communication. TO MANFRED LUNDGREN For all the years of loving concern and without whose sustaining spirit, critical judgement, and perception none of this would have been written. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The number of people who became involved in this study has never ceased to amaze me. Professional colleagues gave guidance, advice, and instruction; institutions furnished the machinery through which it could all happen; my family had to live with and without me and through all of the problems and sacrifices; friends and relatives had faith and gave encouragement as well as tangible support, they never faltered nor allowed the writer to falter and they always understood and minimized their demands for time; many people in the field helped me and provided me with the data-~such is the range of people to whom I wish to extend my sincere appreciation. Earticular mention must be made of a few who have been superlative in making completion of this work possible. First are my faithful and diligent wife Filippa and our children Addis, Elizabeth, and Yonatan. My thanks for their untold devotion, tolerance, and understanding as well as for the unique and consistent love that gave me the strength to pursue my goals. Professor Ted Ward, my major professor and chairman of the dissertation guidance committee, provided me with personal support and a critical intellectual richness as i he aided me in conceptualizing and completing the study. My enduring appreciation is extended to my teacher and friend for his motivational efforts, patience, and human warmth in the many phases of my deveIOpment. I also want to express my deep appreciation to 0 Drs. Larry Sarbaugh, Joseph Levine, and Howard Hickey for their guidance, patience, and encouragement and for sharing their wealth of knowledge and friendship as members of my doctoral guidance committee. 0 Professor Ulf Himmelstrand at Uppsala University, Insti- tute of Sociology, under whose guidance the sociological framework of this study was developed. I am grateful for the special training I was given in the fascinating com- plexities of the sociology of mass communication and development. 0 Professor Urban Dahl3f at Uppsala University, Institute of Pedagogy, for his invaluable insights and guidance on qualitative research methodologies and for his genuine interest in this study. 0 Dr. Lowe Hedman at Uppsala University, Institute of Sociology, whose stimulating orientation and encouragement helped to make the otherwise 'lonely' academic reorientation at Uppsala manageable. 0 Dr. Bereket Yebio of the Malmfi Teachers Training Insti- tute, my friend, colleague, and advisor who gave me unlimited moral support and intellectual guidance, ii particularly in the development of the research instrument. _I am deeply indebted to him. 0 Dr. Ezra Gebremedhin, for his motivational, emotional, and intellectual support and for patiently reading parts of the manuscript. My sincere thanks for his constant reinforcement of originality and scholarship. 0 Mr. Jim Storer for his relentless support, much needed advice, candor, and concern. A special thanks of deep indebtedness for providing me with a home away from home, and for sharing with me what he knows, who he is, and what he can do. Thanks also for sharing the special talent of his perceptive mind and for expressing my thoughts in graphic form. 0 The Church of Sweden Mission for providing full financial support throughout the study period and for the prayerful, spiritual, physical, and emotional support shown to me and my family in times of hardship and loneliness. My grateful indebtedness and profound thanks to each person who helped us in so many ways. 0 The Lutheran World Federation's Department of Communi- cation, my professional home, for many years of rich experience in service. I want to express my special thanks to Rev. Marc Chambron and to all uw' friends and colleagues for their interest in this study and for the financial and professional assistance that made this work meaningful and sustained my body and spirit. iii o The directors and staff members of Radio Sauti ya Injili and Muryar Bishara Communication Centre for their warm reception and assistance and for making this field study a fresh and revitalizing encounter with my roots. Finally, an expression of grateful thanks to Manfred Lundgren,to whom this study is respectfully dedicated, for many years of rich and memorable experience and for his confidence, encouragement, and support as a father, a teacher, and a colleague. He has been a true mentor and has helped me in a thousand ways as I sought to unfold the significance and meaning of 'development of the whole person'. I am deeply grateful to him and hope that I can emulate his life and work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .......................................... Xii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................. l The Significance of the Problem ....................... 2 Purpose and Objectives ................................ 7 The Approach .......................................... 8 Assumptions ........................................... 9 Overview of the Dissertation .......................... 11 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE PRECEDENTS ....................... 13 View of Human Beings .................................. 13 Development and Underdevelopment ...................... 15 Modernization and Ideal Type Theories .............. 16 The Marxist Approach ............................... 18 Summary ............................................ 20 Education ............................................. 21 Historical Background .............................. 21 Formal Education ................................... 22 Non-Formal Education ............................... 23 Education for Development .......................... 25 Summary ............................................ 28 Communication ......................................... 31 Mass Media and Development ......................... 33 Ideology and Information Flow ...................... 37 Diffusion Studies .................................. 39 Effect Studies ..................................... 42 Indigenous Communication ........................... 43 Participatory Communication ........................ 45 Summary ............................................ 46 Program Evaluation .................................... 49 Essential Qualities of Evaluation .................. 49 Methodological Tools for Evaluation ................ 54 The Role of the Evaluator .......................... 56 V Evaluation Models .................................. Summary ............................................ CHAPTER III: RADIO VOICE OF THE GOSPEL .................. Radio Voice of the Gospel ............................. Involvement and Evolvement ......................... The African Context ................................ Purpose and Policy ................................. The 30/70 Formula in Program Production ............ Program Production in Africa ....................... Audience Relations and Follow-Up ................... Research ........................................... Manpower Development ............................... Ongoing Plans ...................................... Radio Sauti ya Injili ................................. Ujamaa--A Way of Life .............................. The Role of the Church ............................. History of the Studio .............................. Purpose and Policy ................................. The 30/70 Formula in Program Production ............ DevelOpment, Education, Information, and Proclamation ................................ WOrld News ......................................... Audience Relations and Follow-Up ................... Research ........................................... Manpower Development ............................... Studio Cassette Project ............................ Studio Program Resources Library ................... Muryar Bishara Communication Centre ................... The Hausa of Northern Nigeria ...................... History of the Studio .............................. Purpose and Policy ................................. The 30/70 Formula in Program Production ............ Audience Relations and Follow-Up ................... Research and Manpower Development .................. Studio Cassette Project ............................ Studio Publication Project ......................... Studio Program Resources Library ................... CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............. Methodology ........................................... Identifying Indicators of Social Realities ............ The Intended System ................................ Logical Contingencies .............................. vi Page 57 62 63 100 102 103 104 105 106 108 110 112 114 115 116 116 117 118 120 120 127 129 130 Congruence ......................................... Records ............................................ Questionnaire ...................................... Interviews ......................................... Evaluating Value Perceptions .......................... Rokeach's Eighteen Terminal Values ................. Statistical Presentation ........................... CHAPTER V: TANZANIA AND NIGERIA--FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS.. Radio Sauti ya Injili ................................. Development of the Whole Man ....................... Aim and Goal of Development ........................ Incorporating Development Goals into Programming... Types of Programs .................................. Meaning of Christian Programming ................... Reactions to the 30/70 Formula ..................... Comparison with Government Programs ................ Perceptions of Audience Values ..................... Socio-Economic Influences on the Audience .......... Programming for Islamic Audiences .................. Program Resources .................................. Factors Influencing Program Production ............. Media Formats ...................................... Support Media ...................................... Indigenous Communication ........................... Barriers to Communication .......................... Reasons for Working in Christian Communication ..... Evaluation, Follow-Up, and Contact with the Audience ............................... Experiences in 'Successful' and 'Unsuccessful' Programming ..................................... Muryar Bishar Communication Centre .................... Development of the Whole Man ....................... Aim and Goal of Development ........................ Incorporating Development Goals into Programming... Types of Programs .................................. Meaning of Christian Programming ................... Reactions to the 30/70 Formula ..................... Comparison with Government Programs ................ Perceptions of Audience Values ..................... Socio-Economic Influences on the Audience .......... Programming for Islamic Audiences .................. Program Resources .................................. Factors Influencing Program Production ............. Media Formats ...................................... Support Media ...................................... vii Page 131 131 133 144 144 147 151 154 155 157 160 161 170 172 175 177 180 181 182 186 187 190 192 194 194 196 199 200 201 204 206 208 217 220 222 223 224 225 Indigenous Communication ........................... Barriers to Communication .......................... Reasons for Working in Christian Communication ..... Evaluation, Follow-Up, and Contact with the Audience ............................... Experiences in 'Successful' and 'Unsuccessful' Programming ..................................... CHAPTER VI: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS... The Church, Communication, and the Current Situation.. Research Themes ....................................... Values and Religion ................................ Development ........................................ Audience ........................................... The 30/70 Formula .................................. Program Conceptions, Resources, Form, and Content.. Barriers to Communication .......................... Concept and Form ................................... Media Use (Support) ................................ Indigenous Communication ........................... Recommendations ....................................... LIST OF REFERENCES ....................................... APPENDIX A: THE EVANGELICAL CHURCH MEKANE YESUS STATEMENT ON THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN PROCLAMATION OF THE GOSPEL AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ................................. APPENDIX B: HISTOGRAMS SHOWING THE MEAN VALUES OF DIFFERENT PERCEPTIONS OF AUDIENCE VALUES.... viii Page 225 229 231 232 233 235 236 242 242 247 252 254 255 257 258 258 260 261 270 283 288 Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Page Categories Identified by Tanzanian Board Members as Best Describing the Concept 'Development of the Whole Man' ................................... 145 Categories Identified by Tanzanian Producers as Best Describing the Concept 'Development of the Whole Man' ................................... 146 Tanzanian Board Members' Perceptions of the Aim and Goal of Development .......................... 148 Tanzanian Producers' Perceptions of the Aim and Goal of Development .............................. 148 Tanzanian Board Members’ Recommendations for Incorporating Development Goals into Programming. 151 Tanzanian Producers' Recommendations for Incor- porating Development Goals into Programming ...... 152 Tanzanian Board Members' Perceptions of the Meaning of 'Christian Programming' ............... 155 Tanzanian Producers' Perceptions of the Meaning of 'Christian Programming' ....................... 156 Tanzanian Board Member's Reactions to the 30/70 Formula .......................................... 156 Tanzanian Producers' Reactions to the 30/70 Formula .......................................... 159 Rank Order, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Audience Values as Perceived by Audience Members, Producers, Studio Directors, and Board Members in Tanzania ......................................... 162 Tanzanian Board Members' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences ...... 174 ix Table Page 13. Tanzanian Producers' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences ................ 174 14. Tanzanian Board Members' Perceptions of Important Program Resources ...................... 175 15. Tanzanian Producers' Perceptions of Important Program Resources ................................ 176 16. Tanzanian Board Members' Perceptions of Factors Influencing Program Production ................... 178 17. Tanzanian Producers' Perceptions of Factors Influencing Program Production ................... 178 18. Tanzanian Producers' Perceptions of Culturally Relevant and Effective Media Forms ............... 131 19. Tanzanian Board Members' Reactions to Using Indigenous Communication ......................... 183 20. Tanzanian Producers' Reactions to Using Indigenous Communication ......................... 134 21. Tanzanian Producers' Reasons for WOrking in Christian Communication .......................... 139 22. Categories Identified by Nigerian Board Members as Best Describing the Concept 'Deve10pment of the Whole Man' ................................... 194 23. Categories Identified by Nigerian Producers as Best Describing the Concept 'Development of the Whole Man' ....................................... 195 24. Nigerian Board Members' Perceptions of the Aim and Goal of DevelOpment .......................... 197 25. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of the Aim and Goal of Development .......................... 198 26. Nigerian Board Members' Perceptions of the Meaning of 'Christian Programming' ............... 202 27. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of the Meaning of 'Christian Programming' .......................... 203 28. Nigerian Board Members' Reactions to the 30/70 204 Formula .......................................... Table 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Nigerian Producers' Reactions to the 30/70 Formula .......................................... Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of the Similarities and Differences between Government and Muryar Bishara Programming ................... Rank Order, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Audience Values as Perceived by Audience Members, Producers, Studio Directors, and Board Members in Nigeria .......................................... Nigerian Board Members' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences ................ Nigerian Producers' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences ................ Nigerian Board Members' Perceptions of Important Program Resources ................................ Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of Important Program Resources ................................ Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of Culturally Relevant and Effective Media Forms ............... Nigerian Board Members' Reactions to Using Indigenous Communication ......................... Nigerian Producers' Reactions to Using Indigenous Communication .................................... Nigerian Producers' Reasons for Working in Christian Communication .......................... xi Page 205 207 209 220 221 222 223 225 226 227 232 Figure 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF FIGURES Page The Four Operations of Evaluation ................ 58 The Structure of Evaluation ...................... 59 Description and Judgement Matrices Used in the Stake Evaluation Model ........................... 60 The Relationship between Evaluation and Decision- Making ........................................... 61 Radio Voice of the Gospel Antenna Coverage ....... 65 Dr. John Bachman's Re—Interpretation of the 30/70 Formula .......................................... 78 Distribution of Ethinic Groups (African Religions) in Tanzania and the Location of Radio Sauti ya Injili ........................................... 87 Organizational Structure of Radio Sauti ya Injili. 96 Location of Muryar Bishara Communication Center.. 107 Organizational Structure of Muryar Bishara Communication Centre ............................. 113 Adaptation of Stake Evaluation Matrix ............ 122 Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and Board Members' Perceptions of Audience Values in Tanzania ......................................... 163 Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and Producers' Perceptions of Audience Values in Tanzania ......................................... 164 Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and the Figure 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. A-4. Studio Director's Perceptions of Audience Values in Tanzania ...................................... Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and Board Members' Perceptions of Audience Values in Nigeria .......................................... Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Audience Value Perceptions and Producers' Perceptions of Audience Values in Nigeria ........ Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Audience Value Perceptions and Studio Directors' Perceptions of Audience Values in Nigeria ........ Structural Ingredients of a Working Plan in the Use of Group Communication ....................... Participatory Communication as a Continuous Process of Social Participation in Planning, Evaluating, and Re-Evaluating .................... Histogram of Mean Values of Variables 1-6 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Director--Moshi, Tanzania ................. Histogram.of Mean Values of Variables 7-12 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Director--Moshi, Tanzania ................. Histogram of Mean Values of Variables 13-18 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Director--Moshi, Tanzania ................. Histogram of Mean Values of Variables 1-6 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Directors--Jos, Nigeria ................... Histogram of Mean Values of Variables 7-12 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Directors--Jos, Nigeria ................... Histogram of Mean Values of Variables 13-18 for the Audience, Board Members, Producers, and Studio Directors-~Jos, Nigeria ................... xiii Page 165 210 211 212 246 265 288 289 290 291 292 293 Chapter I INTRODUCTION This study arose out of two problems regarding communi- cation and development efforts in Africa. The first problem concerns the interrelationship between communication and the production of information/knowledge for development. The second problem relates to the understanding or lack of understanding of the social constraints that influence communication efforts. Conventional models of development and mass communi- cation have generally borrowed ideas and approaches that were developed outside of Africa and that do not reflect an understanding of the African people and of the approaches to communication that are indigenous to their life and roots. Furthermore, the principal approach to development has been largely economistic and cost-benefit oriented. The focus of communication efforts has been on finding ways to have audiences adopt the technology and ways of the communicators. Comparatively little attention has been given to the interactive process of communication or to having audiences participate in designing the communication effort. Concerns about the relevance of conventional develop- ment models have led to a quest for a new conceptual frame— work for development communication. Such a framework would 1 2 link the process and structures of communication to the social reality of the local person as an individual and as a member of society. It would also encourage the active participation of individuals in the communication process. In order to contribute to the development of such a framework, the researcher conducted a qualitative evaluation of two communication systems: Radio Sauti ya Injili in Meshi, Tanzania, and the Muryar Bishara Communication Centre in Jos, Nigeria. The two centers are affiliated with the Lutheran Church and have provided a combination of religious and development programming since l963-1964--first over Radio Voice of the Gospel (RVOG) in Ethiopia and now, after RVOG's nationalization, over other transmitters in Africa and through the limited use of other media such as cassettes and literature. The Significance of the Problem In the past thirty years, private and governmental agencies have launched large-scale radio projects as part of their overall development effort. Transmitters have sent the words of the Gospel, of national political leaders, of the industrialized nations, and others to all parts of Africa in an attempt to change the agricultural, nutrition, and health behaviors of the 'underdeveloped' masses and to foster 'appropriate' political or religious attitudes. 3 Most development communication projects are based on a set of ideological assumptions about the nature of human beings, learning, change, and society. These assumptions and ideas determine the projects' characteristics, content, methods, instructional arrangements, and even the evaluation of the results . For the most part, the ideological assumptions that guide development communication projects have been trans- planted to Africa from non-African societies. The topic, format, content, and delivery of messages have been based on Western conceptions of deve10pment and determined by senders who may have no contact with their audiences. Those in the audience can only choose whether or not they will listen to a given program. Their role in the communication process has been that of passive listeners rather than of active creators. Generally, these broadcasts have been based on the assumption that merely making the information available will result in the desired changes in attitudes and behavior. Broadcasters have also assumed that 'feedback', one of the most important steps in the communication process, naturally occurs as part of the overall message-channel-receiver ‘model of communication (Berlo, 1960). In many broadcast situations in Africa, feedback was expected to take the form of interpersonal communication. Broadcasters assumed that peOple in the audience would take the initiative and 4 complete the communication cycle by responding in one way or another to the communication 'treatment' they have received. Thus, it has been the audience's responsibility to seek out the communicator. Unfortunately, feedback has often been more of a myth than a reality. After projects have been started, the expected responses have frequently not taken place. 'Target audiences' have continued to lead their lives in ways quite different from those in the government plan. In areas where the percentage of those who cannot read and write may be as high as 90 percent and post offices are rare, few listeners have provided broadcasters with the letter-based feedback that has been assumed to be an important part of the communication cycle. The failure to dramatically change the attitudes and behaviors of their audiences has led some communication planners and practitioners to bemoan the non-responsiveness of those they "are trying to help." Others have looked not to the audience but to the limitations of the programs and the media with which they work as the source of their problems. In recent years, fundamental questions have been raised as to the role of the media in contributing to the processes of effective development and of maintaining the standards and values that characterize the rich heritage of the African culture. Critics such as Buchanan and Keith (1975) have argued that conventional models of development 5 and mass communication have not only failed to meet the development needs of African and other developing countries, but that these models may perpetuate and intensify the very problems that they are supposed to help solve. One alternative that has been proposed is to more actively involve the audience in the design of communication programs. Such an approach requires that the media be conceived as bearers of social responsibility, that social and institutional mechanisms support the concept and provide channels for organized feedback, that training in the understanding and handling of communication is provided, and that evaluation is incorporated into the programming process. However, though a number of models have been developed to provide coherent explanations of the communication phenomenon, no one has yet developed a model centered on the receiver. There is a need for an interactive model of communication that would transform the broadcasters' myth of feedback into reality. Development communication programs also need to act in consonance with traditional cultural codes of interaction and learning behavior. In the long run, it is indigenous forms that will remain the rightful means of communication. If the potential of the mass media is to be effectively harnessed, one must understand how the audience is affected by the medium and what is implicit in a given message 0 ‘ O O O O Vis-a-v1s the audience's orientation, perception, and 6 expectations in the context of a given culture. These theoretical issues can be seen in the practical context of the more than eight radio programming studios that form the Radio Voice of the Gospel network in Africa, the Middle East, India, and the Far East. The studios operate under the auspices of the local churches and receive technical and financial assistance from international church organizations. Like other development communication programs that are administered locally but receive support from inter- national sources, the studios must select programming that is in conformance with their organization's mandate but suitable to the local context. In the case of the RVOG studios, the mandate is to offer programs that conform to a 30/70 formula--30 percent of the programs are to be religious in content and 70 percent are to be educational and/or developmental. The actual percentages vary greatly and are determined by studio personnel under the broad supervision of their boards of governors. Programs prepared by the studios locally are broadcast to a wide-ranging audience each day. Yet there have been few evaluative studies on the programs' effectiveness either in evangelism or education and development and even fewer on the needs and interests of the radio audience. This study represents an attempt to assess the assumptions and criteria employed by those responsible for operating 7 the mass media-—particular1y the assumptions that relate to the value perceptions of the audience and the use of indigenous communication. It further represents an attempt to develop an evaluative framework that can be used to assess similar programs. Such assessments are critical if communi- cation is to be a dynamic, interactive process that is relevant to the audience's perceptions and expectations in the context of a given culture. Purpose and Objectives The purpose of the study was to examine the working orientations, possibilities, and limitations of two radio studios in order to understand the effectiveness of their operations and to propose ways in which more effective communication programs that take into consideration indigenous communication patterns and participatory approaches might be developed. The researcher also examined how the evaluation process could be used to contribute to an understanding of the structures of development programming and the value perceptions of communication actors. The specific objectives of the study were 0 To examine the literature on development, education, communication, and evaluation in order to develop a conceptual approach to these areas and an evaluative framework for understanding communication systems; 8 c To examine the historical development of Radio Voice of the Gospel in order to better understand the objectives and purpose of the two studios and to compare the intentions of the studios with the reality of their situation; 0 To identify and analyze the assumptions of board members, producers, and studio directors regarding the value perceptions of the audience and to compare their assumptions with the value perceptions of the audience; and, c To recommend modifications and changes in the existing system on the basis of the findings about the intended and observed systems and the researcher's conceptual approaches to development and evaluation. The Approach Through interviews and an examination of studio and RVOG documentation, the researcher studied the current communication situation at Radio Sauti ya Injili in Moshi, Tanzania, and Muryar Bishara in Jos, Nigeria. As background preparation for the study, the researcher reflected on the conflicts in development theory as they relate to the communication process and to our understanding of traditional and modern societies. Three foundational "platforms" were used to examine 9 some of the specific characteristics of the communication systems: (1) ideological assumptions about development and communication in Africa were examined in order to develop a frame of reference for mass communication in Africa; (2) relationships between the influencers of development (e.g., mass media and non-formal education) were examined in order to understand the deliberate inputs that affect development); and (3) indigenous communication was examined in order to understand the way people share ideas and send messages within the cultures of Africa. The Stake evaluation model (1967) was used as a general source for evaluating the communication systems; however, the model was not seen as a fixed standard but as a sort of "juristic device by which one discovers more." The term ‘model was used, therefore, in the sense of a partial representation dealing with different aspects and facets of the communication systems in the study. It was also used as a point of departure for developing a 'criterion referencing model' that can be used in future evaluation studies. Assumptions The following assumptions guided the development of the study: 0 Decisions about the use of mass media for development and learning should be 10 based upon an understanding of the existing and relevant communication system consistent with the actual situation of the society. Decisions about development and learning systems must be based on (a) the careful understanding of the message and its rele- vance to society, (b) the available channels and their relevance and roles relative to the communicative process, (c) the society's perceived needs, and (d) the availability of resources. Most developing countries, unaware of the problems and potential of communication for development, seem to expect development to 'happen' without determining priorities, assigning resources, or developing the strategies that are such vital tools for achieving development. Planned interaction between communication and development results in positive influence cycles that repeat themselves towards a parallel growth of the vital processes to be reached. The local context in Africa has much to learn and gain from establishing a strong relationship between communication and development as a basis for an increased and effective improvement in the quality of life for people in Africa. Behavior is highly related to felt needs. Development communication in the Christian context may not be effective if programs 11 use a one-way proclamation format, parti- cularly if they Operate in a Muslim or other religious milieu and in circumstances where 90 percent of the population is illiterate. Communication for development may be effective, however, when it is defined as a social, political, and religious structure. This structure in turn determines the nature of the communication process and the amount of influence that it will have. A basic value premise of the study is the importance of searching for guidelines or frameworks that are essen- tially rooted in the local community and that use local skills, materials, and resources. Overview of the Dissertation Included in Chapter I are a discussion of the problem and reflections on the approach used for understanding the problem. The literature on development, communication, education, and program evaluation is reviewed in Chapter II, while Chapter III includes a discussion of the background and development of Radio Voice of the Gospel and the two communication centers selected for the study. Chapter IV includes a detailed description of the methodology used in in the study. The findings regarding the intended and observed learning systems at the two centers are presented in Chapter V. The implications of the research findings are discussed in Chapter VI as are recommendations for 12 creating more effective and productive communication efforts that take 'feedback' seriously. Also included in this chapter are recommendations for developing communication policies that would allow various levels of audiences to not only serve as the recipients of messages, but also to parti- cipate in all aspects of the communication process. Chapter II LITERATURE PRECEDENTS Included in this chapter are sections on the nature of human beings, development and underdevelopment, education and development, communication and development, and program evaluation. View of Human Beings Humans are social, historical, and communicative beings "with values in life beyond those of modern technology and economic betterment, without which humanity's development will never be meaningful and lasting" (Freire, 1970). Rooted in historical time and space and reflecting on the world from a particular ideological perspective, humans are endowed with a conscience that intervenes in what they do. They are not only mechanistic creatures in need of help; they are the most important agents in development, for they are capable of acting and reflecting. Freire (1970) noted that humans are unique in that they create their world: The main difference between the animal, whose activity goes no further than mere production, and man, who creates the domain of culture and history through his action on the world, is that 13 14 the latter only is a being of praxis. He is a being who creates and knows it as changer and creator. That man in his permanent relationship with reality, produces not only material goods, sensible things, and objects, but also science, and technology. Freire added that humans give meaning to history and culture by recombining knowledge and relating to their world in a critical way--and as active agents in their history. Transcending a single dimension, they reach back to yesterday, recognize today, and come upon tomorrow. Humans exist in time. They are inside. They are outside. They inherit. They incorporate. They modify. Humans are not imprisoned within a permanent 'today', they emerge, and become temporalized. In their being creative subjects, humans are also treated as objects by oppressive systems which dehumanizes them. But, their 'ontological vocation' is to be a subject. In "Extension or Communication?" Freire (1973) argued that "the social human world would not exist if it were not a world able to communicate....0ne can only exist in relation to others who also exist, and in communication with them." Endowed with free choice, humans are 'creative subjects' who are capable of acting and reflecting. They find their true meaning in life by realizing their ability to communi- cate with others. Through creative and interactive communication, individuals move towards humanization and towards the realization of their freedom as subjects in 15 Thus, humans are communicative beings and 'creative subjects' in relationship to their world: Men...cannot be truly human apart from communi- cation for they are essentially communicative creatures. To impede communication is to reduce man to the status of 'things'...only through communication can human life hold meaning (Freire, 1970). In interactive communication, humans create knowledge through 'dialogues' with each other rather than acting simply as senders or depositors of information. Development and Underdevelopment One of the most dominant forces in modern African society has been the demand for 'development' and 'planned' change. However, theories of development and underdevelop- ment have reflected a range of ideological and academic perspectives on the development process and the relation- ship between modern and traditional societies. Following the period of Auguste Comte, development was seen to be a linear progression representing social evolution. Later theorists rejected the notion of social evolution in a linear sense and favored the idea of social change. These theorists believed that, as societies emerge and new nations develop, new expressions reflecting their ambitions and aspirations also emerge. In recent years, two schools of thought have particularly influenced the African con- ceptions of development: modernization and ideal-type 16 theories and the Marxist approach to development and underdeveloPment. Mbdernization and Ideal-Type Theories The term 'modernization' has been used synonymously with 'development' and 'westernization'. However, the use of this term reflects a view of the modern-traditional dichotomy that is represented by linear theories of progress. According to these theories, modernization is a process of moving from 'traditionality' or 'underdevelopment' to a state of 'modernity' or 'development' in the economic sense (Levy, 1966). Modernization as a theory assumes the existence of more than one society. Whitaker (1970) and others have suggested that these societies are distinct from each other and differ in their respective 'pattern variables'. Whitaker's conceptualization of 'pattern variables' is derived from the ideal-type theories advanced by such sociologists as Toennie (1955), Durkheim (1933), Weber (1930), Becher (1957), Redfield (1955), Parson (1951), Lerner (1964), Merton (1961), Riesman (1961), and Rostow (1960). These scholars have suggested that dichotomous relationships exist within changing societies. These relationships can be seen in areas such as the value orientations, social organization, social relationships, economy, technology, and communication consumption level of a society. 17 Qualitative change in these and other areas is a necessary accompaniment of quantitative growth. The main criticism of the ideal-type theories is that they represent ideal societies and do not lead to an understanding of the actual characteristics of traditional, underdeveloped, or modernized societies. Loomis and Beegle (1950), Redfield (1955) and others have discussed the dangers of using ideal-type models as the basis for analysis. They maintained that ideal-type theories should be seen as describing polarities on a continuum since no society entirely represents either extreme. The empirical validity of ideal-type theories has also been questioned. Frank (1967) and Baran (1966) have pointed out that Parsons (1960) and others did not employ instru- ments that are suitable for social policy analysis. Nor do ideal-type theories take into account the change that occurs in traditional societies. Gusfield and Singer (1965 and 1967) have commented that the traditionalism of today is a result of a long process of development and change. Rudolf and Rudolf (1967) have criticized the use of ideal-type theories as expressions of the concepts of development and underdevelopment. They suggested that such theories reflect demands that traditional societies must systematically discard their traditional patterns before they can attain socio-economic development. Furthermore, ideal-type theories ignore latent deviant or minority 18 values. Modern societies, according to Rudolf and Rudolf, have a latent structure of traditional values, while tradi- tional societies have the potential for modernization. They concluded that using an ideal-type model that focuses only on the manifest characteristics of a society can obscure the actual reality of that society. The Marxist Approach A quite different approach to development can be seen in the Marxist theory of deve10pment and underdevelopment. Marx, who developed his economic position in the mid-19th century, stipulated that the value of human labor is based on its external utility over and against individuals' relationships with each other. Emphasizing humans and their labor, not humans as individuals, Marx saw history as less a product of individual self-alienation than of economic necessity and class struggle. Social roles are intended not so much to bring about the alienation factor in the division of labor, but to assure the class appropriation of private property. In the search for a dialectical approach to overcoming idealism and traditional materialism, the transformation of people is a necessary condition for the transformation of nature. However, the freedom and responsibility of individuals in achieving this transformation is undermined by their subordination to the economic laws of history. l9 Commenting on the Marxian deterministic view, Gregor (1965) has noted, productive forces are usually spoken of in an active sense...and human beings, although energized agents, remain passive in the sense that initiative somehow rests with the productive forces. Marx believed that social development, in the sense of an improved capability for developing an efficient and better social organization and providing for more democratic participation, is almost impossible given that few regimes are likely to allow for such development. He also believed that the inherent contradictions in capitalism will eventually be responsible for the final breakdown of the social, economic, and political system. As wealth is con- centrated in the hands of a continually smaller number of wealthy bourgeoisie and the size of the proletariate increases, a revolution of the proletariate becomes inevi- table. Such a revolution will result in the liberation of the whole society and thereby establish full equality. Marxist theory treats all underdeveloped societies as parts of a single social system that is linked through interaction. Fundamental to the Marxist approach to development is the search for the historical causes of underdevelopment. For example, in Capitalism and Under- development in Latin America, Frank (1969) maintained that the historical link between the industrially developed nations and those that are underdeveloped accounts for the 20 underdevelopment of the latter. This dialectical relation- ship is shown in Frank's metr0polis-satellite model. Furthermore, structural compatability is not mixed with the cause and effect of change and so modernization is not measured by the extent to which a nation has adopted Western standards and lifestyles. Summary This background review is intended to help establish a point of departure for this study; namely, that the researcher wishes to look at development as a dynamic process leading to an increase of societal capability which in turn leads to the development of an efficient social organization. Improving a society's capacity for attaining collective goals renders benefits to each individual maker of society. It calls for an increase of individual and collective liberty and for the establishment of basic equality among its members. These objectives have serious implications for the allocation of material and human resources and for the design and implementation of education and communication strategies. 21 Education Developing countries virtually everywhere now find themselves besieged by the serious maladjustment between their socio-economic environments and the products of their educational systems (Castle, 1972, p. vii). This is parti- cularly true for the 80 percent whose future must be lived on the land. Education, which plays an important role in rural development, is rarely planned to meet the needs of village life. The present system in general divorces academic from technical education, downgrades vocational and manual work, is often based on class distinctions, and is used to reproduce social structures that are responsible for the poverty of the masses. Many African educational systems are now undergoing expansion, but few have seriously tried to use education as an instrument for social develop- ment. The failure to do so "appears to be the result of either a misunderstanding of the real interrelations between education, the economy, and politics, or a deliberate indif- ference to available information" (Hanf and Karl, 1975). Historical Background The educational system (i.e., schooling) in most African countries is rooted in Africa's colonial past. How- ever, the education provided by colonial governments was not designed to prepare Africans to serve their people and country, but to inculcate the values of the colonial society. 22 It was created to produce government servants who, under supervision, could serve the state. Access to educational facilities was limited to those who lived in the better-off sections of urban and rural areas and who devoted themselves to attaining competence in the skills needed by the govern- ment. Africans went to high school or college so that they could get a white collar job. They were not concerned with manual labor, with craftsmanship, or with technology in general. The purpose of education was to make a person a gentleman, not a technician. To this day, many African leaders insist on having a European type of educational system. Thus, most of the schooled population is urban oriented and believes that the most desirable jobs are in white collar occupations. Few are interested in farming or other manual occupations. Formal Education Education for development is, in fact, to a large extent mixed up with formal education. We have to initially, therefore, speak of education in Africa in terms of what we today understand as 'schooling' or 'formal education' ....'Schooling' and 'schooled' [are] words which interchangeably refer to the place, the period of time, and the learning outcomes. Thus 'formal education' usually means schooling (Ward, n.d.). In Africa, as in other developing areas of the world, formal schools have been affected by what Coombs (1968) has called the "world educational crisis." Coombs noted that the 'internal efficiency' and the 'external produc- tivity' of formal educational systems in most parts of the 23 developing countries are extremely low. Furthermore, the massive rise in student enrollment in formal educational systems has required a large proportion of the national income. Formal educational systems have also been criticized for their ineffectiveness and inappropriateness. Studies by Unesco (1975) and the World Bank (1974) have shown that literacy rates continue to be low despite dramatic increases in school enrollments. Critics of the formal system contend that formal education in poor countries does not contribute to the development of relevant skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Nor is it offered at an acceptable cost or linked to realistic and prevailing economic conditions. In fact, formal education may contribute to some of the problems faced by deve10ping societies. The expansion of formal education into rural areas may be the main cause of rural migration to urban areas and a contributing factor in rising unemployment. Non-Formal Education Nonformal education is simply an attempt to bury the notion that persons lacking formal schooling must forever be sentenced to an existence of poverty, misery, and squalor (Harbison, 1973, p. 12). Adult literacy programs, occupational skills training programs, educational activities that are offered outside the formal system, youth clubs with substantial educational goals, community programs in health, nutrition, family 24 planning, and c00peratives are all examples of non-formal education programs. Coombs (1974) defined non-formal education as "any organized, systematic educational activity carried on outside the framework of the formal system, to provide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the population." This view of non-formal education has also been expressed by Grandstaff (1973), Schramm (1973), and Bowers (1972). Essentially, non-formal education has the following characteristics: 0 It is broad in its learning system, bureau- cratic structure, and transfer of skills and techniques. 0 It focuses on the improvement of social and personal living skills and on occu- pational upgrading. o It has a practical and immediate utility of learning. 0 It is wide in its range of learning activities and its learning value is measured by the degree to which it can help the individual as prescribed by the learner's goals and wishes. 0 Its curriculum context is determined by the locally felt needs or problems that individuals encounter and the help needed to solve the problems within the local culture, resources, and ways of expression. 0 It uses a range of professional expertise and lends itself to effective use of 25 mass media and group and interpersonal communication. 0 Its locality is the home, the workplace, under a tree, the community center, church, temple, or clinic. Non-formal education need not be linked to the formal system; however, Coombs and others have argued that non- formal education will, in the long run, radically alter the system of formal schooling in develOping countries and that this is essential if education is to truly suit the needs of those countries. Education for Development The purpose of education is simple and straight- forward: to enable the person to emerge, to come forth, to develOp to his greatest potential (Vaccaro, 1979). Education for deve10pment requires something far more basic than the academic knowledge that is conventionally taught in formal schools or top-down extension programs. Education must develop a consciousness that is based on real experience in one's own social context. Such a consciousness can be realized at all ages and by those whom current educa- tional systems have identified as illiterate. Education for deve10pment also requires the formation of new attitudes, values, and aspirations. It seeks to build an informed, active citizenry whose members are concerned not only for themselves, but also for their neighbors and their environ- ‘ment. It is education that helps peOple towards self- realization, self-assertion, and acting to determine their 26 destiny. Such education is based on role-playing rather than on an imposed structure. It is education which is "much more responsive to change and thus is a more effective tool for development" (Ward, 1980). Awareness, decision, and action give this responsiveness to education. Vaccaro (1979) addressed this point when reviewing the positions held by Carl Rogers and John Dewey: the individual's choosing, with the locus of this process within him, is very important for human development and growth....Dewey stresses 'experience' and Rogers speaks of 'this moment'. Both 'experience' and 'this moment' are indispensable for the individual to gain self- knowledge and confidence which in turn allow the person to shape his/her life and thereby achieve true education (p. 7). The work of Paulo Freire and Ivan Illich has strongly influenced current discussions of education for development. Both authors have argued for a radical revision of the current educational system and, although they approach the issue from different perspectives, both essentially represent a concern for the dignity and value of the whole person and for the liberation of peOple from exploitative and oppressive systems. Central to Illich's work is the need for a cultural revolution that would reject the current emphasis on credits, certification, and diplomas. This educational monopoly, claimed Illich, is 'uncreative' and has an inherent tendency "to confuse teaching with learning, 27 advancement with education, a diploma with competence, and fluency with the ability to say something new" (1971). Illich's emphasis on 'creativity' as a characteristic of an expressive and free society resembles Freire's call for freedom of the 'oppressed' from the 'Oppressors'. Both authors contend that one-way learning situations do not safeguard individual freedoms. Illich (19 ) explained, When the schoolteacher fuses in his person the function of judge, ideologue, and doctor, the fundamental style of society is perverted by the very process Which should prepare for life. A teacher who combines these three powers contributes to the warping of the child much more than the laws which establish his legal or economic minority, or restrict his right to free assembly or abode. Freire has strongly attacked the prescriptive form of learning which he calls the 'banking system'. He noted that the act of transferring information from the message source (the teacher) to the receiver (the student) estab- lishes a system of "domestication" in which teachers are 'depositors' and students are 'depositories'. In such a system, The teacher teaches and the students are taught; The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing; The teacher thinks and the students are thought about; The teacher talks and the students listen meekly; The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined; The teacher chooses and enforces his choices and the students comply; 28 c The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher; 0 The teacher chooses the program content and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it; o The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his own professional authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students; 0 The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects (Freire, 1970). For Freire, educational programs should not be domes- ticating systems but rather avenues for attaining indepen- dence from powerlessness and fatalism. His main contri- bution is reflected in the concept of conscientizacao (conscientization) which speaks to the need for arousing individuals' positive self-concepts and urging them to become active agents in their society and free from dependency and feelings of inferiority. Through praxis (reflection/action/reflection) they are to transform their world. Central to conscientizagao is a redefinition of what learning ought to be. Freire believed that o No one can teach anyone else. 0 No one learns alone. 0 People learn together, acting in and on the world (Noel, 1973). Summary In discussing educational constraints related to deve10pment, change, and modernization, it is important to 29 remember that 'development' is a response to the desire for change. For this researcher, development is an expression that means that there is no wealth but life, and that improvement in individual welfare is dependent on change in human, political, and social structures, not only on the growth of GNP. It means that men and women are the subjects and objects of their own improvement. Contrary to the view of some economic planners, the researcher does not believe that rural development can be equated with increased agricultural production, particularly if such development is based on the production of major commercial crops that result in higher GNP and foreign trade balances, but do little to meet the nutritional needs of rural inhabitants. Rather, as Gunnar Myrdal (1970) pointed out, "development is the movement upward of the entire social system. This social system encloses: economic, social, physical, educational, health, and distribution of power in society." Without education there is no development and without development there can be no further national progress. Education is both the product of society and an instrument for bringing about change in society. Because formal education is historically associated with the 'development' of industrialized societies, it has generally been considered the best means of bringing about development. Recently, however, a number of questions have been raised about the 30 appr0priateness and feasibility of using formal education in developing countries. Given the high cost of formal education and the many competing demands for public funds, develoPing countries may not be able to afford continued expansion of the present system. Nor, in the view of some planners, should they. The gap between the content of their textbooks and the reality of the students' environ- ment has led authors such as Freire and Illich to urge that new educational concepts and approaches be adopted. They and others believe that education for development must be concerned with the development of the whole person and that this deve10pment will only occur if there is a radical restructuring of the educational system. Freire's and Illich's contributions to the orientation of education for development are also relevant to mass communication. There are many similarities between the 'banking system' of education and the approaches employed by broadcasters who 'deposit' their information in programs geared towards passive audiences. Though educators and communicators may differ with Freire's socio-political orientation, his idea of 'interaction' as the basis for meaningful communication has much to offer for those enaged in mass communication for education, enrichment, development, and outreach. 31 Communication Communication is pervasive and covers a wide range of human situations. At its most fundamental level, communication is "the process of using signs and symbols which elicit meaning in another person or persons" (Sarbaugh, 1979). Communication can also be seen as a network of relationships that binds a society together through inter- action. As Schramm (1973) noted, When we study communication, we study people-- relating to each other and to their groups, organizations, and societies, influencing each other, being influenced, informing and being informed, teaching and being taught, entertaining and being entertained. Early theorists viewed communication as a major coordi- nating and controlling mechanism in society (Spencer, 1889) and as the mechanism through which the very existence of human relations is maintained (Cooley, 1909). Sapir (1935) commented, "every cultural pattern, and every single act of social behavior involves communication in either an explicit or implicit sense." Lasswell (1960) studied the societal functions of communication (i.e., the socio-cultural exchange of messages). He identified three functions of communication: 0 Surveillance of the environment. 0 Coordination of the different parts of society in responding to the environment. 0 Transmitting social heritage (pp. 117-130). 32 Lerner (1958) believed that communication is the means of exchange by which social value is measured and that a breakdown in communication has serious economic and poli- tical consequences. Pye (1963) also saw communication as part and parcel of the social structure: "the structure of the communication system.with its more or less well-defined channels [functions as] the skeleton of the social body which envelops it." For Freire and Illich, communication is a process that should not be separated from the other socio-cultural processes that are part of overall national development. They believed that a coherent communication philosophy, policy, and methodology must be adopted by all of the insti- tutions involved if communication is to be truly meaningful and effective. In addition to being a social mechanism for maintaining the status quo, communication also functions to promote ideology and strengthen or weaken social power relation- ships. According to Pye (1963), the communication power of the mass media plays a crucial role in national development. Emphasizing that media's role is to 'create'a.basis for political consensus, increased interest, and participation, Pye commented: unless the masses of people are exposed to new ways of thinking and led to adopt new attitudes, there can be little hOpe of any steady progress towards economic development, social modernization, and political maturity. 33 One area of communication research has focused on studying the flow of information without analyzing the social situation in which the information is transmitted. For example, in a classic communication paradigm developed by Lasswell and later worked out in more detail by Lerner, the communication process involved six variables: WHO (the source), SAYS WHAT (the content), TO WHOM (the audience), WHY (for what purpose), HOW (through what media), and WITH WHAT EFFECT? (Lasswell and Lerner in Schramm, 1960, pp. 131-140.) The message flow within society (between source and receiver) can take a variety of forms (e.g., oral channels, print media, electronic media). The message itself can be personal or impersonal. Other research has focused on the social, political, economic, and cultural aspects of communication. Drawing upon research in psychology and other disciplines, researchers in this area have analyzed the social system in terms of communication as an interactive process (see Festinger, 1950; Deutsch and Gerard, 1955; and Schramm, 1973 among others). The following sections highlight research in this area as it relates to communication and development. Mass Media and Development Much of the recent research on communication has examined the relationship between the mass media and social and economic development. For example, Lerner (1958); 34 Unesco (1961);Schramm (1964); Schramm and Ruggels (1961); de Sola Pool (1966); and Rao (1963) have explored the interrelationships between variables such as mass media consumption, literacy, and economic deve10pment. After analyzing data in Western countries and countries in the Middle East, Lerner (1958) formulated a three— phase model of development. He suggested that there is a mutual correlation between urbanization, development of reading and writing, and development of the mass media: media development requires technological know-how, the availability of capital, and that the receiver be able to read and write. While in the Middle East, Lerner encountered the notion of 'induced change'. He found that this common characteristic of most developing nations did not fit into his 'traditional-modern' continuum. Schramm (1964) also suggested that mass media and deve10pment are closely interrelated and that development follows a linear progression: [first there is] a nucleus of mobile, change- accepting personalities; then a growing mass media system to spread the ideas and attitudes of social mobility and change; then the interaction of urbanization, literacy, industri- alization, and media participation to bring modern society into being (p. 47). However, Schramm and Ruggels (1967) did not completely agree with Lerner's model. They maintained that, except for the correlation between percentage of literature and 35 the degree of exposure to media, Lerner's hypotheses were not supported. They also doubted that a single variable could be used to explain differences among societies and noted that there are problems in contrasting 'developing' and 'developed' societies. Lerner saw mass media as the 'great multiplier' in the development process. In addition to maintaining and spreading literacy and information for development, the media can help develop 'empathy' and 'mobile personality'. These concepts, Lerner maintained, are not only valuable in themselves, but are also affected by the mass media. Rao (1963) believed that development and the mass media influenced each other: While it is true that economic development leads to an increase in the flow of infor- mation through the greater purchasing capacity of the people, reflected in sub- scriptions of newspapers, magazines, and specialized journals as well as the owner- ship of radio sets and travel, it is also true that increased information in turn furthers economic development. It is futile to attempt to treat this interaction between communication and economic development as a causal relationship and isolate the chicken from the egg. The interaction is constant and cumulative (p. 2). Rao's work has been criticized as not being represen- tative of situations in the developing countries. In *Lerner defined.empathy as the extent of one's ability to relate to the sentiment and feeling of another person and 'mobile personality' as the extent of one's adaptability to changing situations. 36 particular, Mishna (1970) pointed out that Rao's statistics did not indicate the extent of media distribution in a given country and that a causal relationship could not be identified from the data provided. He further criticized Rao's study as not reflecting an understanding of 'develop- ment' and as showing an economistic orientation towards 'development' by using terms such as 'modernization' inter- changeably with 'westernization'. Deutsch (1966) and Lerner (1958, 1960, and 1963) believed that mass media can be used to psychologically and socially stimulate the process of change from tradi- tionality to modernity. They maintained that such change is essential if economic growth is to take place. Though some researchers have stipulated that mass media is but a product of development rather than affecting or causing development, Schramm and Ruggels (1967) main- tained that the media has a limited role to play and that this role is not determined exclusively by economic development. Theoreticians have also expressed concern that the widespread use of the mass media will have precarious and damaging effects, particularly in developing countries. Lerner (1958) suggested that the media might generate an 'unrealistic demand' for material provisions, while de Sola (1966) has argued that the cost of mass 37 communication technology imposes an unrealistic burden on the deve10ping countries. Ideology and Information Flow The full dissemination of information is regarded as being consistent with an individual's right to information (Unesco, 1964) and/or as contributing to deve10pment. However, the free flow of information (as defined by laws governing the free enterprise system) is monopolized by those who distribute information as a commodity. The world information market is essentially dominated by five main news agencies (AP, UPI, Reuters, AFP, and TASS) who represent a global information power structure. The world is virtually dependent on these agencies for news and information regarding events that affect the lives of the majority of the global population (IPI, 1953). The relationship between mass media and power struc- tures is a topic of current discussion among researchers and policy makers. Schiller (1969) noted that economic factors tie groups together in a variety of levels of interest and determine what should constitute their communi- cative products. These products are in turn used to maintain and safeguard economic interests. Schiller considers this monopoly of influence to be a form of 'cultural imperialism'. Package programs are exported to the periphery countries where they are channeled directly into the broadcasting 38 system. In a study of the pattern of monopoly, influence, interest, and communictation flows between the industrially developed and the developing countries, Varis (1973) drew the following conclusions: (1) the U.S. is the major exporter of TV programs; (2) in most countries, American programs constitute the major portion of imported programs while British programs form the second largest portion; (3) the flow of communication is essentially between Western Europe and the rest of the world; and (4) most of the news items on developing societies came from American and European correspondents. The international flow of information is dominated and controlled by the economic power group. Information is released at the convenience of and for the purposes of serving the interests of the industrial state. Gerbner (1974) noted that the media are "the chief cultural arm of the industrial order from which they spring." Infor- mation organizations with their economic and ideological interests not only cater to the 'needs' of their consumers; they actively participate in creating those needs. Thus, the content provided for the consumer may be said to be 'selected'; however, the consumer is, in fact, provided with pre-selected material. Moreover the filter mechanisms that influence the selection process are largely provided by the news media in the first place. 39 Galtung (1965) examined the structure of foreign news. He concluded that in order for events to be classified as news they must meet criteria relating to place, frequency threshold, ambiguity (the less ambiguous the more noticeable), meaningfulness, and consonance. They must also be unexpected. News reports in the develOping countries should be tailored to elite notions and elite audiences. In a later study that focused more on social and psycho- logical aspects of news, Galtung (1970) noted that Western news reports about Third WOrld countries report the abnormal as normal and focus only on questions of alignment in reporting about a country's search for relevant social alternatives. Rosengren (1974) developed a comprehensive politico- economic theory of news that examined the structure and underlying ideology of news. He concluded that news reports define events (international, national, and local) in terms that coincide with the political powers' definitions of those events. Diffusion Studies Another body of communication research is related to increasing learning effectiveness. The main work in this area, which is known as diffusion research, has been done by Everett Rogers. Rogers (1970) discussed the 'innovation- decision' process and its implications for communications 40 planners. He identified three functions associated with the communication process: knowledge, persuasion, and decision. Knowledge represents an individual's confron- tation with a body of new ideas. These new ideas are then evaluated by comparing them with other alternatives (including the old way of doing things). Persuasion represents the point when the individual becomes persuaded in his/her mind as to whether or not the new idea should be adopted. Decision is the final stage and occurs when an individual decides to act on his/her intentions. The diffusion model has been criticized for focusing only on the 'recipient' and not giving sufficient attention to the functional constraints posed by the person's socio- cultural environment. The theory, for instance, would not treat all factors (such as external possibilities and the availability of credit) as operating in an equal way, but would accept that there are some privileged persons who are 'innovators', while labeling others as 'laggards'. Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) pointed out that communi- cation is paramount in the process of social change. Defining social change as the "process by which alteration occurs in the structure and function of a social system," they noted that national revolution, invention of a new manu- facturing technique, founding of a village improvement council, adoption of birth control methods by a family--all are examples of social change. Alteration in both the structure and 41 function of a social system occurs as a result of such actions. The structure of the social system is provided by the various individual and group statuses which compose it. ...social change implies three stages-- invention, diffusion, and consequences. The first stage is a process through which new ideas are created. The second stage is a process of disseminating information about the new ideas created in the first stage. Finally, the consequences are the changes which occur in a social system as a result of the adoption or rejection of the innovation. Social changes occur when the new ideas are applied in such a way that they are effective. A rejection of the innovation may also have an effect on the social system. This is a phenomenon which we do not always remember. Failure to adopt a new idea can produce change in individuals or social systems when the rejection of the innovation causes an alteration. For example, the failure of many Indians to adopt birth control methods will eventually change the structure and function of their social order as a result of population increase (p. 7). Recognizing the ineffectiveness of impersonal (mess media) channels for all stages of the innovation-decision process, communicators have experimented with delivery systems that include both personal and impersonal channels of communication (see Neurath, 1960 and Coleman and Opoku, 1968). They have found, for example, that effectiveness is greatly increased when village-level discussion groups are used to supplement radio and TV broadcasts. The above research indicates that careful consideration must be given to the role of different channels in the 42 innovation-decision process. Another important consideration is the role of the specific channels in the client's culture. Hovey (1971) has demonstrated that cognitive style varies from culture to culture and that this variance can be identified and categorized. His point is that instruction will be more effective when it reflects the cognitive style of the intended learners. Cole, Gay, Click, and Sharp (1971) also concluded that learning is culture bound, while Ward (1973) commented, Effective learning depends on (1) relevancy of the educational goals to social values, (2) accommodation of the cognitive style of learners, (3) accommodation of the pedagogical expectations of the learners. These considerations also need to be taken into account in designing communication strategies and research models. Effect Studies Effect studies are concerned with opinion and/or attitude formation, confirmation, reduction, and/or their absence (Klapper, 1960). These studies have primarily focused on short rather than long-range effects. Researchers in this field would maintain that the central question in communication research should be, "What can peOple do to mass communication and/or what can communi- cation do to people?" They are concerned with responsive behavior (i.e., decision-making at election time), deter- mining the degree to which knowledge is comprehensible, one's ability to communicate, and the effects of communication 43 on attitudes. Effects in communication are seen as part of a wider context in which communication is a component part. A given effect can only be understood in the context of a number of variables that are Operative in the communication process. These include (1) the extent of the effect, (2) the historical, ideological, economic, and socio-cultural context, and (3) the people involved in the communication process. Indigenous Communication The theoretical approaches mentioned above tend to neglect the internal, indigenous aspects of communication, development, and underdevelopment. Schramm has noted that the mass media in traditional countries is 'minority media'. It is almost a house organ for the elite in countries where 70 to 80 percent of the people live in rural settings and reflects the content and approaches used in industrialized societies. Generally, the flow of information to urban and rural areas takes the form of what Freire has called 'the banking concept'; information is imported from abroad, deposited, and then released to audiences that are expected to listen meekly and comply passively. Few efforts have been made to decolonize the Western model of communication in favor of a group communication ‘model that is based in traditional African culture. Yet, in thousands of villages and small towns in the Third 44 World some type of development continues through networks of indigenous communication--often despite rather than because of external influences, deve10pment assistance, and various modernization programs. Indigenous communication in traditional Africa is essentially part of the cultural dynamic of social systems and a key factor in maintaining the cohesiveness of tradi- tional societies. The meaning of many social functions is expressed through some form of communication. Rumor, oratory, poetry, songs of distinctive quality and natural artistry, "dancing for joy, for grief, for love, for hate, for prosperity, for religion, for past time..., these are inherent qualities in traditional Africa and reflect a rich cultural heritage that has been overlooked by development planners. Yet culture is the motivating and constraining power of what Durkheim (1933) called 'the social fact'. It is one's expression of life; an expression by the individual that flows out of the mind of society. To communicate is to know and understand the genesis of cultures and all of their dimensions. Each culture defines a set of values (patterns), purposes, and perceptions for the individuals living within it. It shapes their perceptions of time and space. It provides an avenue for communicating intellectually and emotionally and serves as the moral foundation for 45 expressing love, affection, optimism, and pessimism. It provides the basis for communicating with one's family, coworkers, village, city, nation, country, and world. Some cultures, such as Tanzania, have used short slogans or key words (i.e., ujamaa) to express the essence of the society. By ignoring indigenous forms of communication, many communication projects have ignored basic features of the cultures they have sought to reach. Participatory Communication Participatory communication advocates see the media as bearers of social responsibility and as having responsi- bility for assuring that audiences have opportunities for clear feedback channels as well as for contributing to integrated and planned evaluation procedures. Partici- patory communication provides the possibility for praxis-- for education that will move society to levels of change in such a way that "development is for all men and for the whole man" (Goulet, 1974). In programming, tasks are not only the responsibility of the immediate staff, but also of all who are to benefit from the communication process. The image that the sender has of the receiver and vice versa; the personal experiences, values, and expectations of both the source and the receiver; the variations in cultural context and the variety of symbols and meanings--all of these mean that 46 communication has become participatory and reflective of the complexity of life rather than functioning merely as a mechanistic phenomenon (Ball, 1960). Participatory communication goes beyond merely transferring content from a knowledgeable and authoritative source; it promotes the receiver's growth as a person with an autonomous and critical conscience who is capable of contributing to and influencing his society. Summary Communication for development is viewed in this study as a total process that includes understanding the audience and its needs as well as planning, develOping, and producing communication efforts for development. Such efforts must take into account the interpersonal aspects of communication and feedback. Most of the studies on the mass media and developing societies have emphasized economistic and quantitative aspects of development in accordance with the linear approach to understanding development and underdevelopment. Though these studies have provided us with some understanding of the interactive relationship between communication and development efforts, they have generally focused on top-down, one-way models of communication. Communication that is not unidirectional but participatory in nature has been given very little attention in the literature. Nor has 47 much attention been given to the possibilities of using indigenous communication. Yet, for most people in rural Africa, the traditional system of social communication seems to be the system to which access is possible. A central argument of this study is that communication for development requires more concern with participation, decentralization, and developing a broad base of action. There are several advantages to such a system: (1) systems that allow maximum and direct participation can allow for the expression of distinctive cultural traits and elicit and regulate desirable behavioral patterns; (2) old and deeply rooted values can be directly challenged in a supportive atmosphere; (3) the intimate small group situation also provides a setting for the emotional involve- ment necessary to facilitate the deve10pment of a cross- cultural consciousness; and (4) small groups organized along local, regional and national lines are relatively easy to keep alive given a constant flow of tasks. Motivated through intergroup communication, they also constantly plan, produce, use, and evaluate their communication efforts. Using participatory and indigenous communication can also help to counter the one-way flow of information from developed to developing countries. Rather than passively receiving the ideology of the broadcasters, audiences 48 could help to create and form their own ideologies of development. Questions about the role of the mass media in develop- ment continue to arise. If it was once believed that the mass media could be used to 'solve' many world problems, today it is recognized that the media are, at best, marginal enablers who can contribute to or disrupt the process of development. Developing countries cannot afford to ignore the significant interactional relationship between communication and deve10pment or the ideological and social implications of development communication efforts. Because communication is an integral part of the social system, any change in society cannot be effective without affecting the communication system and vice versa. Thus, a major unanswered question concerns the criteria that should be used to determine what types of communication efforts are useful for a given African context. In the absence of concrete answers, the impact and specific role of communication in a given context remains primarily a question of subjective preference and an undertaking of faith. McNelly (1966) called this approach a 'pragmatic position' for it neither underestimates nor glorifies the role of communication in development. 49 Program Evaluation The two mass media centers in this study (Muryar Bishara in Jos, Nigeria, and Sauti ya Injili in Moshi, Tanzania) were viewed as instructional communication systems in which specific audiences are learners and the results of their learning are intended to enrich their lives and, where appropriate, bring about some observable change. The study drew upon concepts and approaches of educational evaluation in order to analyze these systems and recommend appropriate modifications. Essential Qualities of Evaluation Value is the heart of evaluation. Evaluation is the process of valuing or judging...the goal of evaluation must always be to provide an answer to the all-important question: Does the phenomenon under observation have greater value than its competitors or suffi- cient value of itself that it should be maintained? (WOrthen and Sanders, 1973, p. 26) Evaluation is not limited to the realm of description or well-stated observation. As Stake (1967) pointed out, it also involves making judgements that lead to decisions about educational programs. These judgements are used to determine the issues, outcomes, and processes of the curricula and to evaluate the effectiveness of the program in meeting its goals (Stake and Denny, 1969). The attribution of values is a process of comparison. In evaluation, elements of the instructional system are 50 compared with stated objectives. Tyler (1950) noted that evaluation requires a clear definition of behavioral objectives in order to determine the degree to which the program is effective. Stake and others agreed with the importance of using objectives but have also used the term 'intended outcomes'. The following summary by Stake and Denny (1969) focuses sharply on the attention that has been given to the role of objectives in evaluation: Scriven (1967) has proposed presenting objec- tives through test items. Krathwohl (1965) helped clarify the problem by discussing levels of specificitycxfobjectives. Gagne (1965) has shown how student achievements can be analyzed to indicate intermediate objectives. Taylor and Maguire (1966) offered a model of the transformation of objectives from societal needs to student behaviors. Alkin (1963, 1968) and Eisner (1967), in a different vein, protested against the constraining effects of specified objectives on educators. These writings are part of a foundation for new methods of representing educational objectives (p. 333). Stufflebeam (1970) spoke of evaluation in terms of comparing alternatives that are ascribed relative values and by choosing specific elements that may be introduced into the educational system. Stake, on the other hand, emphasized the importance of having standards as measure- ments against which educational materials may be compared. These standards are determined by organizations, communities, institutions, and other social factors. Taylor and Maguire (1966) outlined five sources of standards for evaluating programs: (1) experts in the 51 content area, (2) parents, (3) students, (4) teachers, and (5) representatives of society as a whole. The main focus of their discussion centered on whether evaluation should be based on internally stated objectives or if it should be based on the external expectations of society. Another issue concerns the comprehensiveness of evaluation. Stake (1967) believed that evaluation should encompass the full context of a learning experience and include students, teachers, and their relationships as well as the educational process. He added that evaluation should also include a close examination of program objec- tives so that appropriate judgements can be made as to their use. Anderson (1965) noted that evaluation should be comprehensive in scope. Citing yet another dimension of evaluation, Cronbach (1963) believed that evaluation should include a study of the educational process, measures of proficiency, measures of attitudes, and follow-up studies. The follow-up studies should not only look at retention levels in the learning process, but at whether or not the acquired learning is functional and appropriate to the person's needs. Taba (1962) also agreed with the view that evaluation should be broadly conceived as educational programs in themselves are broad and encompassing. He pointed out that the term curriculum encompasses everything that has to do with learning, its values, and its accomplishments. However, 52 one also has to be discerning in choosing what is to be included in the evaluation. Ward and Dettoni (1974) noted that subjective criteria can be applied in sorting out which elements should be considered for their significance to the curriculum and learning experience. The fundamental purpose of evaluation is to help program planners, strategists, and educators make better decisions regarding program operations. Alkin (1969) noted that evaluation is the process of ascertaining the decision areas of concern, selecting appropriate information, and collecting and analyzing information in order to report summary data useful to decision-makers in selecting among alternatives (p. 150). He believed that evaluation could contribute to five areas of decision-making in program development: (1) systems assessment; (2) planning; (3) implementation; (4) improvement; and, (5) certification. ward and Dettoni (1974) held a similar view. They assumed that educational programs will always be someWhat less than what the planners and operators expect, and that the important purpose of evaluation is to improve operations by making judgements about alterable elements. They identified two critical areas where evaluation can contribute to improving programs that must deal with cross- cultural and geographical differences: 53 (1) the more careful implementation of the general theory upon which the program is based, and (2) more careful adjustment and adaptation to the local situation. In reference to the first, the general theory will itself need to be under constant reexamination and revision on the basis of feedback from the field operations. The second, adaptation to the local situation, also demands that feedback be made available and used by the staff and leaders of the field operation to decrease the discrepancy between intended and realized outcomes (p. 206). Grobman (1968) and Gooler and Grotelueshen (1970) believed that curriculum evaluation should raise questions of a practical and immediate nature and raise the conscious- ness level of practitioners to issues at hand. Cronbach (1963) noted that "the greatest service evaluation can perform is to identify aspects of the course where revision is desirable" (p. 48). Stake and Denny (1969) stressed that evaluation must go beyond the immediate and help educators and planners to reflect on concerns that are not foreseen. Evaluation may be either formative or summative. Formative evaluation is concerned with the capability and power to produce good results in the educational program, while summative evaluation emphasizes value advantages. Scriven (1967) has commented that educational projects "clearly must attempt to make the best use of both these roles" (p. 43). 54 Methodological Tools for Evaluation Though a variety of methodologies have been developed for doing research in education, the methodology used for program evaluation is different from that used for basic research and standardized testing. The latter research seeks to evolve lawful principles of relationships that have essential characteristics of generalizability or to assess individual progress. Program evaluation, on the other hand, is "concerned with a phenomenon which has limited generalizability across time and geography" (WOrthen and Sanders, 1973, p. 32). Basic research focuses on experimentation whereas in evaluation the demands of experimentation are not met. Furthermore, evaluation is administered to specified and limited groups, whereas experimental research requires ran— dom sampling of a universe that is large enough to be statis- tically justifiable. This is rarely possible in program evaluation; randomizing of groups or placing them in such a way as to develop a statistically verifiable sample is neither practical nor is it logically feasible. Glass (1969) cautioned of the danger of compromising the experimental approach in matching one group with another. Standardized testing is also quite different from program evaluation. Though it uses a sophisticated methodology, standardized testing focuses on the individual rather than on the program. It is designed to assess 55 students in a discriminatory manner and is based on comparing student scores with those of a total student population. Evaluation, in contrast, looks at the educa- tional program to determine whether or not a program has met its objectives. Evaluation also compares programs and makes judgements as to their relative effectiveness. Stake and Denny (1969) have commented that evaluation is an assessment of the relevancy of a given program as seen or judged from the perspective of its stated objectives, the value of the learning experience, and the value that the learners have ascribed to the learning experience. Evaluation also includes information from non-learner sources. Cronbach (1963) noted that such information is a valuable input and can be used to accentuate the level of objectivity of the evaluation.* Evaluation methodology, therefore, reflects what is being evaluated and the purpose of the evaluation. Appropriateness is determined by the information one wants. *This point is particularly relevant for this study. Even though leaders such as the chief of a Nigerian village or the chief of the Fulani nomads have been accurate sources of information about their people for years (Ford, 1976), these leaders.are rarely contacted as part of evaluation programs in part because it is not yet possible to tap such information through modern technology or statistical sampling. However, through interviews with these leaders, one can gain an understanding of the values of the audience and the impact of programs. Thus, the researcher contacted leaders in Nigerian and Tanzanian villages as part of the overall study. 56 Stake and Denny (1969) noted, "the concept and technques that will serve evaluation have roots in philosophy, anthro- pology, linguistics, history, and economics as well as psychology" (pp. 328-329). The Role of the Evaluator The evaluator is particularly concerned with deriving principles on which to make decisions about instructional practice...[and] focuses on the task of describing the nature and worth of educational programs in order to improve decisions about the management of those programs (Stake and Denny, 1969, p. 330). Evaluation deals with real problems that affect pro- gram management, operations, and planning. Thus, it must be carefully planned and administered by carefully selected personnel. The evaluator works as part of a team and should be involved in the evaluation process from the very beginning. Though it is important that the evaluator be academically skilled in data collection and evaluation research (Stake and Denny, 1969), he/she should also be sensitive to the needs of the learner and the social context in which the learning takes place (Stake, 1967). Provos (1969) pointed out that the evaluator must be knowledgeable about group dynamics and the processes involved in bringing about change. The evaluator performs a variety of functions. Gooler and Grotelueschen (1970) noted that he/she raises questions, collects data, interprets data, judges values, and judges 57 responsiveness. Scriven (1967) noted that the evaluator makes judgements and relates to the appropriate planners of educational programs. Evaluation Models Several authors have developed graphic models of program evaluation in order to enhance our understanding of evaluation and to guide research in the field. Four of these models are reviewed below. The Ward and Dettoni Model. Ward and Dettoni (1974) identified four functions of evaluation. They noted, the base or first stage is description; on this is built measurement; on the measure- ments are built assessments; and then, by bringing value positions to bear on the assessments, one can make evaluations (p. 208). As shown in Figure 1, evaluation starts from a des- cription which is usually verbal and cannot be useful in making a comparative analysis. The next step is to quanti— tatively measure the variables. This leads to an assessment of the comparison or change made in individuals or of measurements taken of individuals at different time intervals. The evaluation of differences, however, will not be complete without ascribing value as to the relative worth of the ascertained difference. In such an evaluation, the items to be included have to be determined by asking the question, "What difference would it make?" (p. 275). 58 Valu- Pomunnn \\\\\\\‘\~ lunumnen JR ~_______—4” Asuuumnnt hum-Int lxuadpckm Figure l. The Four Operations of Evaluation. (Source: Ward and Dettoni, 1974.) The Hammond Model. Hammond (1973) developed a three- dimensional model that focuses on the relationships between various elements of a program, including institutional aspects and instructional and behavioral directions (see Figure 2). He identified five stages in evaluation: (1) deter- mining the baseline effect of current programs, (2) defining the descriptive variables, (3) stating objectives in behavioral terms, (4) assessing the behavior described in the objectives, and (5) analyzing the results (factors produced) and comparing them to the stated objectives. Hammond's model is encompassing in that it brings to focus 59 the identification of variables that are essential for evaluation. Like Ward and Dettoni, Hammond saw description as foundational to the process of evaluation. He also believed that evaluation is a holistic process which brings into focus prestated objectives and judges them on the basis of actual learning that may have taken place (as verified by changes that take place .mnong learners). 01' $639" Psychomtor Dcmin/ / / / / / mean. m////// Cognitive Domin// / Organization // g Content // g Henna ’////////' Facilities j/L C08: 5? d’ 9 9' <5 4 ,5; ”5° 0° 43¢ 3)" i ‘7' ., «a a" a 37’ s 5 *3 493' d? i ° INSTITUTION Figure 2. The Structure of Evaluation. (Source: Hammond, 1963.) 60 The Stake Model. Stake (1967) uses descriptive and judgemental matrices to evaluate programs. In the descrip- tive matrix, the antecedents, transactions, and outcomes of the intended system are compared with those in the observed system. Standards and judgements are compared in the judgement matrix. Logical contingencies and con- gruencies among the different dimensions are evaluated in each matrix (see Figure 3). RATIONALE INTENT OBSERVATIONS STANDARDS [JUDGEMENTS ANTECEDENTS PROCESSES OUTCOMES Descriptive Matrix Judgement Matrix Figure 3. Description and Judgement Matrices Used in the Stake Evaluation Model. The matrices in the Stake model not only clarify the concepts used in the model, but they can also be used as a working instrument. (See Chapter IV for a discussion on.how the Stake model was adapted for this study.) 61 The Stufflebeam.Model. The Stufflebeam model, which is shown in Figure 4, is based on the following premises: (1) Evaluation is performed in the service of decision-making. (2) Evaluation is a cyclic, continuing process, and, therefore, must be implemented through a systematic program. (3) The evaluation process includes the three main steps of delineating, obtaining, and providing. These steps provide the basis for methodology. (4) The delineating and providing steps in the evaluation process are interface activities requiring collaboration between evaluator and decisiondmaker, while the obtaining step is a technical activity executed by the evaluator. ; C Activities ’ < Decisions > < ‘ Evaluation a ‘7 < - Providing Goteining Figure 4. The Relationship between Evaluation and Decision-Making. (Source: Stufflebeam, 1970.) 62 Stufflebeam believed that this model could be applied to four types of evaluation: Context evaluation serves planning decisions to determine objectives; input evaluation serves structuring decisions to determine project designs; process evaluation serves implementing decisions to control project operations; ppoduct evaluation serves recycling decisions tojudge and react to project attainments (p. 136) [Emphasis added.] Summary The foregoing models are quite similar in their approach to evaluation. Each calls for specific and systematic procedures for evaluation and maintains that changes in programs are the results of evaluation. Ward and Dettoni (1974) have suggested a slight modification of the Stake model in order to have that model function in a more 'specific' manner. The Stake model serves not only as a theoretical framework for evaluation, but also has a practical usefulness that can facilitate the evaluation process through the use of a visualized matrix. An important feature of all of the models is the role they ascribe to data collection. While measurement is important, it is clearly not everything in these models. Evaluation is first and foremost a "process of ascribing 'value." Chapter III RADIO VOICE OF THE GOSPEL "Every opportunity should be used to propagate the Gospel by means of radio." These words from the records of the 1955 All Africa Lutheran Conference in Marangu, Tanzania mark the first time that the united voice of the Lutheran churches in Africa called for an intensive communication effort that would use radio as a means of education, proclamation, and development. Allan J. Gottneid, Director of Education for the Lutheran Church in Tanzania, noted in an interview, "while it is true the conference ' the intention did not say, 'Let's build a radio station, of the churches was very clear...radio was to become a far more integral part of the churches' witness." The dream of using radio to propagate the Gospel became a reality in 1963 when Radio Voice of the Gospel (RVOG) began transmitting from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. From the beginning, RVOG was to be the world's most powerful and best-equipped Protestant radio station. Its planned technical coverage had the capacity to reach approximately half of the world's population. At the time of its nationalizationi111977, RVOG transmitted programs to Ethiopia, East and West Arabia, 63 64 Iran, North and South India, China, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Madagascar, and East, West (including Zaire), and Southern Africa (see Figure 5). In addition to its program, adminis- trative, and technical complexes, RVOG had a vast program resources library, and provisions for training and manpower development, research and resource development, church involvement, follow-up, and planning. It employed over 200 persons from 15 nations and operated a transmitting station with towers more than 450 feet tall. Curtain antennas multiplied the 100,000 watts produced by two 100 kilowatt transmitters by about 118 times,giving them an effective transmitting power of about 10 million watts. Programs were produced in 13 languages from 14 program areas and scheduled programming included 24 hours by shortwave and 6 hours by medium wave. After nationalization, the work of RVOG was carried on by area studios who produced programs for broadcast over transmitters owned and operated by private/government organizations throughout Africa. The following sections include a discussion of the history of RVOG and the operations of the two studios selected for this study: Radio Sauti ya Injili in Moshi, Tanzania, and Muryar Bishara Communication Centre in Jos, Nigeria. 65 . Hong Kong Antisrabe Figure 5. Radio Voice of the Gospel Antenna Coverage- 66 RVOG: Involvement and Evolvement The Norwegian churchman, Dr. Fridtjov Birkeli, the director of the Lutheran World Federation's Department on World Mission (now called the Department of Church Cooperation) at the time of the Marangu conference and the chief executive officer at the conference, may be credited with taking the first crucial steps that led to the creation of Radio Voice of the Gospel. Dr. Birkeli is reported to have returned from a tour of Africa with a deep conviction that a radio broadcasting mission should be established on the continent. One of the impressions that he had gathered during his tour was that radio was popular in African homes. He had found that homes were "equipped with battery-operated radios...where other more essential elements are lacking....Broadcasting represents a remarkable possibility for mass evangelism” (LWF, news release, 1957). Recommendation No. 4 of the Marangu conference called for the LWF to establish contact with millions of people living in scattered and isolated populations. In 1957, Birkeli appealed to the LWF World Assembly at Minneapolis, Minnesota: If we dare to take another bold step in order to meet the challenge of today in these two continents, this could certainly be done in a most effective way by inaugurating well-planned, continent-wide, radio missions. Extensive travels in Africa have shown that this continent is ripe for radio mission. This will require heavy financial investment, but all that we have 67 experienced during the first five years points to such a development as one of the most effective ways by which the Lutheran World Federation can fulfill its duties towards the millions that have not so far been reached through personal contact, but who could be reached through the many wireless sets which are now pouring out words and music into village and city from ocean to ocean (LWF/DOC, 1957b). After Birkeli's address, the Commission on World Mission (CWM) recommended that the LWF further examine the possi- bilities for establishing a radio mission in Africa. This was to be done jointly by the International Radio Program of the Lutheran Layman's League; the Lutheran Church-- Missouri Synod, U.S.A.; and the Radio Audio-Visual Education and Mass Communication Committee (RAVEMCCO) of the National Council of Churches. The group was to survey not only Africa, but also Asia. They were to report their findings at a 1958 meeting of the CWM in Sigtuna, Sweden (LWF/DCC, 1957a). At the Sigtuna meeting, the CWM voted to establish what later became known as Radio Voice of the Gospel (RVOG). Lutheran mission directors were to raise the necessary funds from their constituencies (LWF/DCC, 1958). Of the two most desirable locations (Ethiopia and Liberia), Ethiopia was chosen since it offered good possibilities for transmitting to Asia and a hOSpitable atmosPhere for the new mission. Dr. Arne Sovik, Director of the Department of World Mission, and Dr. Sigurd Aske, who became RVOG's first executive director, were given responsibility for 68 taking the next major steps. At this stage, the planning process involved repre- sentatives of the LWF, the Lutheran Hour (LH), and RAVEMCCO. One would have hoped that the earlier concerns voiced by the African churches would have been considered at this crucial stage of RVOG's development or in the report that had been prepared for the Sigtuna meeting. However, the Sigtuna record reflects concerns about the following points: (1) the urgent need to 'enter now', (2) the belief that the task of radio evangelism is the task of LWF and that the station should carry LWF's name, (3) the need for the transmitters to be as strong as possible and far reaching technologically, (4) the provision that financial support would be available through the missions in Europe and America, (5) the need to train local staff, (6) the need to produce culturally relevant programs, and (7) the need for effective follow-up work. The involvement of the churches in Africa was limited to a discussion of concerns about being sure that the programs would be actually heard. In response, it was suggested that "the churches in Africa and Asia adopt a pattern for follow-up work different from that used by the Lutheran Hour in Japan and elsewhere." It was, however, also clear that, "even without effective follow-up from the beginning, the Gospel was being proclaimed and that the churches themselves could seek for means of making 69 this proclamation effective" (LWF/DCC, 1958). On the one hand, the idea for RVOG seems to have been conceived in the mind of Dr. Birkeli and later refined by committed individuals and by the respective responsible bodies of LWF (this impression is given in earlier records). On the other hand, one cannot disqualify the direct expres- sion of interest in radio shown at Marangu or the indirect involvement of the churches in Africa. Even though Birkeli may have been the first to be 'enthusiastic' about formally presenting the idea to the appropriate organizations, his proposal should only be seen as the beginning of the beginning for it was the staff, particularly Dr. Arne Sovik and Dr. Sigurd Aske,who developed the plans for the station. And, during these deve10pments, it is difficult to say that the churches were not involved. The establishment of RVOG in Addis Ababa was not without difficulty. At about the same time that the LWF staff was busy compiling and filing reports on the need to establish a Lutheran radio ministry in Ethiopia that could reach Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, two other groups were also preparing their applications for a similar station. In April/May 1958, the Near East Christian Council (NECC) (a working fellowship between the ancient churches of the Near East and indigenous churches supported by mission societies in Eur0pe and America) had applied for a franchise to Operate a radio station in the Eritrean capital, Asmara 70 (LWF/DCC, 1959a). The Sudan Interior Mission (SIM) is also reported to have made a similar application, but this was rejected by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. (The NECC application also was rejected by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.) Apparently the LWF knew nothing of the NECC move when it expressed its interest in establishing a station in Addis Ababa. Emperor Haile Selassie I organized a special com- mittee to look at the LWF and NECC applications. In the meantime, representatives from all sides worked to resolve the ecumenical conflict in Geneva. In the Geneva agreement, the two groups agreed that if one group received the fran- chise, the other group would be a cooperative party. It was in this way that the concept of 'Party B' emerged (LWF/ DCC, 1959b). The LWF was granted the franchise to build and operate a radio station in Addis Ababa on November 27, 1959. The franchise was signed on February 15, 1961, and Emperor Haile Selassie I officially opened the RVOG station on February 26, 1963. Since the LWF received the franchise, the other churches became 'Party 3'. The relationships with these churches were complicated by difficult and constantly restructuring organizations that represented non-Lutheran churches in Christian communication. 'Party 3' was comprised of the Near East Christian Council (NECC), the 71 All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), and the East African Christian Conference (EACC) together with the Division of World Mission and Evangelism of the World Council of Churches (WCC) through the Coordinating Committee for Inter-Continental Broadcasting (CCIB) which represented the non-Lutheran churches in the broadcast areas. This group was changed in 1968 to the Coordinating Committee for Christian Broadcasting and later merged with the World Association for Christian Broadcasting to form what is now called the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC). This organization, whose headquarters are in London, now represents the non-Lutheran churches in the LWF Commission on Communication. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church was given the automatic right to broadcast over RVOG, although there was no official agreement Of a working relationship between the Ethiopian Church and the LWF in the matter of broadcasting. The Lutheran Hour, which was involved in the initial stages of the search for a location for RVOG, committed itself to offering financial assistance for the station. At the time, the Lutheran Hour was involved in establishing a radio studio in Tanzania. (See the section on Radio Sauti ya Injili.) 72 The African Context The decision to establish a radio broadcasting station in Africa was made at a time when the people of Africa were struggling to achieve their independence and radio was seen as a major force on the ideological battlefront. Aske (1960) wrote, "the issues at stake on the vast religious battlefields of Africa are more clearly defined than on any other continent...." By 1970 the air waves over the continent of Africa were besieged day and night with a barrage of radio programs, most of which came from every- where but Africa. Radio Moscow broadcast for more than 21 hours a day in no fewer than 12 African languages, while the Voice of America broadcast for more than 19 hours a day in English, French, and several African languages. Some of the other stations that could be heard were Radio Peking which broadcast for 10 hours a day, the Deutsche Welle (German Wave) in Cologne broadcast for 12.5 hours, the British Broadcasting Company broadcast for 14 hours, and Radio East Berlin International broadcast for 12.5 hours. The Voice of Islam also broadcast to Africa. There were few outlets for the 'Christian voice'. African governments as a matter of policy did not allow any appreciable air time to the churches and the only private radio station Operating in Africa (ELWA in Liberia) did not make air time available. Furthermore, the Islamic countries strongly resisted attempts at Christian 73 proclamation. Christian communicators saw radio as offering tremen- possibilities for evangelization in Africa. In a 1958 news release, Birkeli noted, "the churches must learn to use the medium of this modern technique for the spreading Of evangelism." Later Aske (1960) was to write: the urgency of increased radio evangelism for the teeming millions of Africa is accentuated by the possibility Offered of directly approaching great masses of people who can neither read nor write and consequently cannot effectively be reached through more conventional means Of communi- cation. Thus, radio was to be the means by which the "teeming millions" in Africa were to hear the words of the Gospel. Purpose and Policy By 1959, the LWF Commission of World Mission had established a Statement of Purpose and Policy that was to guide the Operations of the station in Addis Ababa: Purpose (1) To proclaim the Gospel of Jesus Christ as revealed in the Scriptures as the only means of salvation to the widest possible audience. (2) To strengthen the life of the Christian churches within radio reach by providing programs that nurture believers in their Christian faith, and to keep the responsi- bility of evangelism constantly before the churches. (3) To promote education and culture through the broadcast of educational and cultural programs. 74 (4) TO assist the churches in follow-up. (5) To train radio workers. Direction The Lutheran World Federation shall, through the Commission on World Mission and the appointed Board of Directors: (1) appoint staff, (2) determine policies, (3) rule on major questions of ongoing policy, (4) raise ' funds and control finances, and (5) decide on development of program and station facilities. Administration The staff shall, under the leadership of the Director, and subject to the authority of the Board of Directors: (1) produce programs, (2) accept, reject, or edit any program submitted for broadcast, (3) guide and advise the local production of programs, (4) arrange and determine a balanced program schedule, and (5) represent the station with broadcasters, listeners, and the government. Limitations (1) NO program shall involve the station in partisan politics. (2) No program shall in substance or intent attack or deny the evangelical Christian faith, or contradict generally accepted codes of Christian morality. (3) No program for commercial advertising purposes shall be accepted (LWF/DCC, 1959a). A fundamental expression of RVOG's overall programming policy was presented by Dr. Franklin Clark Fry during his inaugural address: Whatever is of benefit to human beings, to their standard of life, their health, to their advancement, to add to their education, to enrich their personalities, as well as tO 75 open their ears to the best news of all, of peace with God, will legitimately be within the sc0pe Of concern of the programs that will be beamed from here. This wide interpretation in programming policy throws light on the fundamental basis of Christian programming. The program policy includes a wide range of concerns about the need to be educational, informational, and culturally relevant as well as evangelistic. At times, this has meant that programs have been 'less Christian' in their approach so as to allow for cultural participation in programming (Esayas, 1971). At the same time, Christian communicators have fuui to guard against the dangers of reducing the Christian aspect of programs to a mere "hidden message" (Lundgren, 1973). The 30/70 Formula in Program Production The programming policy of RVOG has emphasized the need to include the promotion of education and culture through producing programs that speak to the total needs of the individual,thus attempting to avoid the criticism that Christian programming is "just another (though uniquely expensive) Christian house-telephone" (Aske, 1967). At the policy level, RVOG has maintained that the "programmer--whether 'evangelistic' or 'informational'-- aims to present the Christian attitude toward God, the world, and the society in which we live, and toward the 76 individual in all aspects of his life." Programming has sought to encourage the 'development of the whole person'. However, there has not been a unified attempt to develop programming for the local context or to Offer programs on other than a 'one-way' dissemination basis. RVOG's contribution to the 'deveIOpment debate' of the 19603 has nonetheless been significant. This writer, as a signator of The Interrelation between Proclamation of the Gospel and Human Development (see Appendix A) under- scores that RVOG's participation in this crucial African and worldwide debate represents one of its unique contri- butions. In an attempt to assure that programs would be con- sistent and culturally relevant, RVOG introduced the 30/70 formula as a yardstick for program decision-making. This formula, which calls for 30 percent of the programs to be evangelistic and 70 percent of the programs to be educa- tional, was first developed and introduced by Sigurd Aske. The formula was to be a general guideline so as to avoid "socialized evangelistic programs that appeal only to Christians, [and] just as deplorable, a copying of secular programs out of a book to fill up the 70 percent" (Aske, 1967). The formula has been and continues to be subject of constant debate and discussion. Though the formula clearly calls for a certain percentage Of programming to be devoted to education and a certain percentage to be 77 devoted to evangelism, programming at the local level in fact represents the studio's own interpretation of what is needed. The following comments illustrate some of the different reactions to the formula: We do not accept the distinction between the sacred and the secular, and we claim that all our programs are religious (Madras studio, 1970). Our programs aim at serving the whole man and we do not separate the programs into a clear cut 'reli ious' and ['educational/cultural' division . We just try to do good programs (Ethiopia YD studio, 1974). Because of the nature of our audience (being mostly Moslems) our programs are 70 percent religious and 30 percent education and culture (Ngaundere studio, 1977). The proportion of time given to programs of directly evangelistic character should be at least 30 percent. The remaining should be programs of cultural and educa- tional intent with definite Christian undertones. For the 70 percent, the programs should be neutral. By listening to them, people should be able to identify that it is coming from a 'Christian' studio (Muryar Bishara studio, 1981). Aske devised the 30/70 formula as a means of helping broadcasters deal with the two enticing temptations [that] run parallel along the stony path of the Christian broadcaster; to proclaim an Objective Gospel that rests its feet on no human situation, and then to think that the Gospel is made relevant simply by diving into all kinds of social and cultural explorations (1967). However, it is clear that the studio personnel have different perceptions as to the best way through the "stony path" of 78 the Christian broadcaster. In Tanzania, for example, the formula is interpreted in the reverse. Dr. John Bachman, under whose chairmanship the LWF Broadcasting Service was established as the Commission on Communication, has developed a more dynamic approach to determining program content (see Figure 6). Proclamation CA9 Edu Figure 6. Dr. John Bachman's Re-Interpretation of the 30/70 Formula. (Source: Bachman, 1971.) Bachman (1973) approached the interrelationship between education, information, and proclamation in a dynamic manner. He did not see a clear-cut and static separation among the different elements, but rather stressed that they overlap. Thus, he emphasized the need for a purposeful goal in which proclamation, education, and service are simultaneously at work. 79 Program Production in Africa The Nyborg Commission minutes indicate that plans to establish local production studios were made as early as 1959 (LWF/DCC, 1959a). The responsibility for estab- lishing a given studio and its choice Of language was, it seems, the prerogative of the LWF and dependent upon the "willingness" of the "Lutheran confession church" to be responsible for program management. Studios were established according to the following criteria: (1) technical capability to cover a desired area, (2) the size of the linguistic group, (3) the number of radio receivers available, (4) the presence of other Christian communication work, (5) the proportion of Chris- tians and non-Christians in the area, and (6) the local churches' ability to minister using the chosen languages (Lutheran World, 1959-1960). RVOG policy emphasized that "all programs (except news) are produced by the churches in the areas where they are heard" (Aske, 1967). The station's relationship to the local studios was described in a 1964 meeting of the LWF Broadcasting Service Board of Directors: The station, for its part, is asked to take initiative in giving suggestions, inspiration, and impulses which stimulate studio staff to check their plans and tapes, and to continue with a critical discussion about their pro- duction. It is up to the station to draw the studio's attention to what they do not dis- cover themselves, tO feed material which can be used, and to widen the scope of production (LWF/DCC, 1964). 80 The RVOG staff was also to make regular visits to the studios and to arrange for biennial conferences in Addis Ababa. The board of directors was to participate in these conferences as well. All of the programs produced by the studios were to be in the local language; however, each studio was required to submit an English language translation of every program to RVOG (unless a different agreement had been worked out). RVOG's monitoring of programming by local studios has caused some tension, particularly among studios whose traditional relationships have been with 'Party B'. Local production over the medium.wave service was to be the responsibility Of the station. One of the reasons for this was that French and English were considered to be 'foreign' languages (at least in Ethiopia) and responsi- bility for broadcasting in these languages had been assigned as the responsibility of the area studios (RVOG Programming Policy, 1962). Another reason was that the medium.wave service that reached Addis Ababa and the sur- rounding areas was meant tO serve an international audience. Some of the programs were also broadcast over short-wave. The impact of the medium wave service was strongly felt as shown in a 1971 audience survey. Other than locally produced programs, RVOG carried newscasts in over five languages daily. The news programs have been a source of constant international 'conflict' 81 as there are frequent disagreements about the way a given subject is presented. The station, however, saw the news as serving a variety of purposes: (1) as a means of attracting large audiences and as a necessary part of any 'real' broadcasting station, (2) as part of the station's "Christian duty to mediate truth about the world in which our listeners live" (Aske, 1967), and (3) as a matter of efficiency--the station wanted to be as good, if not better, than comparable radio stations. For its ten minute daily news bulletin, the station monitored Western news agencies, the Voice of America, BBC, and other stations. Audience Relations and Followjyp A crucial aspect of RVOG's ongoing Operations was to be the full involvement Of the local churches in follow-up and audience relations work. This aspect, theoretically more than any other,gave significance to the station's existence as "one instrument at the disposal of the churches." As early as 1960, the African churches had emphasized the importance of follow-up work. One of the resolutions at the All Africa Lutheran Conference in Antisrabe (September 8-18, 1960) called for "every church to work out a program of systematic follow-up of radio contacts as soon as the radio program is initiated so that individuals hearing of Christ may rapidly be drawn into Christian fellowship" (LWF/DCC, 1960). 82 Each studio was to fulfill this objective by setting up a special department that would have an active and direct relationship with the churches in the listening area and with the listening audience. Follow-up activities included sending literature, forming radio listening groups, sending letters, etc. RVOG was to train studio personnel in follow-up acti- vities. However, the follow-up aspect has not been very successful, perhaps because production and technical questions have required most of the studios' attention. The nature of the undertaking has also been relatively new to the churches and the studios. Consequently, there has been some friction in this area, particularly when questions have been raised about who is doing what in the area of follow-up work. Research A vital activity of the station was to be its engage- ment in ongoing research. In 1970, RVOG established the Department of Research and Planning which was responsible for conducting training and research programs. Among the research programs conducted by the department were audience surveys in EthiOpia in 1972 and Tanzania in 1974 (Esayas, 1972 and 1974). Developing research methodologies that are apprOpriate to the African context was found to be an 83 ongoing learning experience. There remain many problems in applying and conducting research, in part because appro- priate psychological and social bases have yet to be estab- lished (Esayas, 1976). Manpower Development The test of good media is not the quality of its technical qeuipment, but the quality of its software (pro- gram output). This is further determined by the quality Of those who put the programs together. RVOG developed systematic long-and short-range training and manpower deve10pment plans in order to fulfill this aspect of its mandate. These training plans included 0 WOrkshops at the local level of beginners. e WOrkshops at the local level for church leaders and for those involved in media work. e Workshops for program producers in audience relations, promotion, research, and resource development. (These lasted for periods of up to one month.) 0 Training in the same areas as above as part of a follow-up effort for the local training program at RVOG in Addis Ababa. (These lasted for periods up to six months.) 0 Training at the All Africa Conference of Churches Training Center. (These 84 programs lasted up to six months.) e Training and workshops at theological seminaries. e Training for all areas at higher levels (universities and specialized institutions abroad). RVOG trained many Africans through these training programs, many of whom have, for different reasons, found themselves in leadership positions in government and private business. Thus, the station's and studios' loss of trained manpower has been the gain Of the public and private sector. Ongoing Plans By about 1973, the LWF Broadcasting Service had shifted its emphasis to "a new role conception" and estab- lished a Task Force on Mass Communication. The new role conception was intended to be functional in its appli- cation and consultative in its overall outlook so that LWF communication efforts would be Open to OOOperation with all denominations and agencies that are interested in communication for the development of the whole person. At the LWF Church/Media Consultation held in Kitwe, Zambia (November 7-11, 1977) after the nationalization of RVOG, it was strongly recommended that the LWF continue to function in even broader ways. The recommendations 85 called for the following actions: (1) the creation of a Consultative Services Unit, and (2) the discovery of ways and economic means to get access to program transmission facilities nationally and regionally (LWF/DCC, 1977). RVOG's new role conception was to be expressed at the local level through Christian communication outreach in areas such as Group and indigenous communication 0 Conscientization e Motivation 0 Planning and coordination e Training 0 Research 0 0 Program and resource sharing. The Consultative Services Unit was to help local studios work in these areas. The churches also endorsed the need for continued news services. They saw such services as relating to "human development in all its aspects, social justice on a global scale, human rights, concern for the environment, and an appreciation for all that is beautiful in it" (LWF/DCC, 1977). . At meetings in Jos, Nigeria, and Arusha, Tanzania, the churches expressed similar beliefs about the new role conception of Christian communication (LWF/DC, 1980 and 1981). 86 Radio Sauti ya Injili The 16 million people in Tanzania (projected to 17.1 million in 1978) live in ethnic groups scattered around the periphery in clusters, none of which are large enough to form a national economic base (Grove, 1978, Government of Tanzania, 1978).* A minority group known as the Swahili lives in the area around the coast. More than 50 percent of the population adheres to traditional religion. Islam and Christianity claim the remainder Of the population (see Figure 7). Kiswahili is the official language with English and several other languages widely spoken throughout the land. Kiswahili, as a single language, no doubt, has given the Tanzanian people a basis for coherence among themselves and their neighbors barring political conflicts. When com- paring Kiswahili and the Tanzanian language situation with that prevailing in other African countries (particularly those south of the Sahara) Kiswahili stands out as a basic *The people of Tanzania, like those of other African nations may be identified along ethnic groupings. Most of the 120 or so tribes are descendants of the Bantu. The largest group, the Sukuma, has more than a million members spread throughout the region south of Lake Victoria. To the west are the Ha, next to them are the Nyamwezi, and the Hehe. In the south are the Ngoni, along the coast are the Zaramo, and on the slopes of Mt. Kilamanjaro in the north are the Meru, the Arusha, and the Chaga. The remainder of the popu- lation lives in numerous sub-tribal groups, each of which has its own identity and culture. Seventy thousand Masai roam throughout the pasturelands of Tanzania and Kenya. 87 Kuhn!” H K \ A \Iumnu IANAKI [IN/A Sill“ ARIN . sl'M MA "1 , M03111 AnnhaO . - * (.1 ALLA .kahama MM (AH IRAQ“ MAsAI '5'" NVA \I W} [I :muula K I In .Ialmu . ' m ‘ .VYA I'I'Kl' “Itflulnd . ‘lpuapwu anulnl (ANA) k‘(.| kl Magnum“. k0l¢|\d. .‘1wlu‘ag'u llhlkl “u ISAIAH“ l \RA‘IU/ \Ibl M. Kl‘llil iKI AU Ohm.“ d V\'\k\l SA \(.I\IN) Ind: TANZANIA "'“'""‘"' ~.... “ \kUNlH .\"""‘ .‘Iauu MAIN A .\(u(,\l ‘untlulll. , \An Figure 7. Distribution of Ethnic Groups (African Religions) in Tanzania and the Location of Radio Sauti ya Injili. 88 unifying force in all activities of the nation and gives promise for an integrated deve10pment in which the mass media can play a significant role. A second and critical determinant in the nationhood of Tanzania is its social/ideological framework--ujamaa. Tanzania's uniqueness as a system, its 'indigenous approach, and the potential for applying its principles to grassroots communication in other parts of Africa merit close study. This study will, therefore, reflect on ujamaa as a possible 'African' ideology, social system, and basis for projecting an African worldview. Ujamaa--A Way of Life The Tanzanian peOple are governed by a socio-political system which is rooted in African communal tradition and is popularly known as ujamaa. The derivation of the term is the Swahili word jamaa (family). Julius Nyerere, the president of Tanzania and originator of the modern ujamaa concept, wrote, u'amaa then, or familyhood, describes our socialism. It is opposed to capitalism, which seeks to build a happy society on the basis of the exploitation of man by man; and it is equally Opposed to doctri- naire socialism which seeks to build its happy society on a philosophy of inevitable conflict between man and man. Also referred to as 'African socialism', ujamaa poses as an African ideology. However, the socialism of ujamaa is not to be identified with socialismixrthe Marxian tradition. In its 'modern' concept, ujamaa claims no 89 kin to Marxism, capitalism, or communism. Until 1963, a non-African could not be a member of the Tanzanian African National Union (TANU--formerly Tanganyikan African National Union), Tanzania's political party (Bienen, 1967). Nyerere has maintained that socialism is more an attitude of mind than a political dictum. Thus, to be a member of TANU is to "accept the spirit and letter of TANU's ideology, much in the same way as to be a Christian or a Muslim is to accept the teachings of Christ or of Mohammed the prophet" (Daily News, December 2, 1974). Ujamaa is essentially based on an African view of individuals that stresses an Obligation to work and to build a nation that is economically, politically, and cul- turally sound. The emphasissison.pe0ple--the familyhood of men and women, their place, freedom, security, equality, and happiness are seen as the foundation of human dignity. Ujamaa society is not rooted in the European tradition of dialectical materialism or class struggle, but instead considers the totality of human experience including the individual's relationship with the supernatural. Such a view is consistent with the traditional African view. Ujamaa society, having existed before the Arusha declaration, provides a fair and realistic structure of social reality (Berger, 1967). Nyerere has written, We are not importing a foreign ideology into Tanzania and trying to smother out distinct social patterns with it. We have deliberately decided to grow, as a society, out of our own 90 roots, but in a particular direction and towards a particular kind of objective. We are doing this by emphasizing certain characteristics of our traditional organ- izations and extending them so that they can embrace the possibilities of modern technology and enable us to meet the challenge oflife in the twentieth century world (1968). The Arusha Declaration, Education for Self Reliance, and Socialism and Rural Development provided the basis for an explicitly radical socialist policy which Tanzania follows.* The Role of the Church The role of the church in ujamaa society essentially has two sides which are in constant review and development. On the one hand, the Church is committed to the call of evangelization. This has been its 'traditional' function and the basis of its present activities. Traditionally, the missionary function of the Church had no economic or social dimensions (Adegbola, 1974). The Church has been and is involved in an ongoing search to integrate its missionary tradition with the concept of the deve10pment of the whole person as under- stood by the ujamaa society. The question still remains Open as to how the Church with its deep roots in the evangelization tradition can apply its calling to the *For a critical review of the ujamaa policy, see "The Villagization Panacea: A Review of Tanzania's Ujamaa Policy" by Helge Kjeshur (Nordiska Afrikan-Institutet, Uppsala, Sweden, 1978, mimeographed). 91 ujamaa social context whose orientation is essentially labor intensive and predominantly engaged in farming. Nyerere has written of the Church: The Church should accept that the development of people means rebellion. At a given and decisive point in history men decide to act against those conditions which restrict their freedom as men. I am suggesting that unless we participate actively in the rebellion against those social structures and economic organizations which condemn men to poverty, humiliation, and degradation, then the Church will become irrelevant to man and the Christian religion will degenerate into a set of super- stitions accepted by the fearful. Unless the Church, its members, and its organizations express God's love for man by involvement and leadership in constructive protest against the present conditions of man, then it will become identified with injustice and perse- cution. If this happens, it will die and-- humanly speaking--it deserves to die because it will then serve no purpose comprehensible to modern man (1970). A fuller picture of the role of the Church in the familyhood of the Tanzanian pe0ple can be found in another of Nyerere's articles. In "Socialism is Secular," Nyerere commented, a man's relationship with his God is a personal matter for him and him alone; his beliefs about the hereafter are his own affair.... There is nothing incompatible between socialism and Christianity, Islam, or any other religion which accepts the equality of man on earth (1968). Nyerere's views on 'private faith' and the public expression of that faith are not made clear in the above article, and the history of the Christian Church in Tanzania does not bear witness to this view. 92 History of the Studio Given the understanding that there is a natural affinity between the ethics of ujamaa (as expressed by Nyerere) and those of Christianity, one can see that the evangelistic, educational, medical, publishing, and mass communication programs of the Evangelical Church of Tanzania (ELCT) serve the people of Tanzania in the Spirit of the Arusha Declaration. In 1980, the ELCT had 850,000 members or almost five percent of the total population (approximately 35 percent (of the 18 million peOple in Tanzania are Christians). The ELCT was officially formed in 1963 and evolved from a federation of the Lutheran churches in Tanganyika that started as early as 1938. The organization is divided into thirteen synods and dioceses (including one in Kenya). ELCT's mission includes Kenya, Zaire, and Burundi. This study focused on the Church's mass media efforts, parti- cularly the programs offered by Radio Sauti ya Injili. Unlike Muryar Bishara in Nigeria, the idea and later deve10pment of Radio Sauti ya Injili is said to have originated in Tanzania. The present studio director maintained that the studio is "essentially a Tanzanian idea" which began in a room of a bible school at Mwika near Mt. Kilamanjaro. 93 On the other hand, Rev. Carl Johansson, a missionary from the United States who in 1952 joined the bible school and in 1955 became principal of the school, was exten- sively involved in the development of the studio. He recollected, The school (250 students) was a hotbed for evangelism, renewal, and fresh and stimulating ways of sharing the Gospel. SO it was inevitable that we began consultations with ELWA in Monrovia, Liberia. Soon we began to assemble equipment. Advice was given from.the African Inland Mission at Kijabi, Kenya. Soon this expanded into a relationship called the Sudan Interior Mission and in 1958 we began sending tapes to ELWA. Thus, we became the first group to do Lutheran programming in Swahili. At the same time, we developed relationships with the Lutheran Hour from St. Louis Mission through its executive secretary, Dr. Eugene R. Bertermann. This made it possible,with their financial help, to purchase equipment and gain needed experience. We continued to do this in the early 603 (Letter to the author, April 21, 1981). In 1961, Rev. Johansson was appointed executive secretary of what became the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania. Soon after that the Church "entered into a relationship with the Lutheran Bible School where the first studio of RVOG was located at the bible school at Mwika" (Johansson letter, 1981). The move was later made to locate the studio at a more 'urban' center, thus the present location, Moshi, was chosen. In their initial stages, the radio programs were thus a joint project of three churches and missions: the Lutheran Church of Northern Tanganyika, Usambara Digo 94 Lutheran Church and Ozaramo Lutheran Church. These three organizations managed the MWika bible school and produced radio programs on the side. The bible school staff developed the programs, but, in the words of the present director, "they had hardly any idea in mass communication." The first staff members were Rev. Eugene Baglo (the director) and Fred Mansah (the technical director), both of whom were from the United States. Later the studio was administered by Tanzanians (Rev. Ephraiam Amos Lyimo, Rev. Zephania Gunda, and Rev. Daniel Magogo--the present director). Purpose and Polipy The general policies that have been adopted by Radio Sauti ya Injili are the same as those of RVOG: e To proclaim to the widest possible audience the Gospel of Jesus Christ as revealed in the Scriptures as the only means of salvation. e To strengthen the life of the Christian churches within radio reach by providing programs that nurture believers in the Christian faith, and to keep the challenge and responsibility of evangelism constantly before the churches . e To promote education and culture through broadcasting educational and cultural programs. 0 To assist the churches in follow-up work. e To train radio workers. 95 The fundamental purpose and function of the studio is, in the words of its director, "to be a 'servant' within the Church." To that end, the studio uses the following general guidelines: 0 The studio should clearly adhere to the teachings of the Church and its theo- logical position. e The studio should maintain the 'tradition' of the Church in its songs, music, messages, teachings, and worship formats. 0 The studio should maintain the identity of Radio Sauti ya Injili as the voice of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania. 0 The studio should produce a dated sequence of programs that emphasizes the Church calendar (particularly with religious programs). The function of the studio is presently to produce programs in developmental, educational, and religious broadcasting that "reach audiences in Tanzania and beyond the geographical confines of Tanzania." The studio currently broadcasts over Transworld Radio (TWR) from Swaziland. It should be remembered, however, that this policy is interpreted in the daily life of the studio primarily by what it can do rather than by what it must do. The radio center is a department like any of the other departments under the Board of Mission and Evangelism (see Figure 23). All of the departments Operate under this board; however, there is no operational coordination at any level. The board meets to review the work of each 96 EVANGELICAL LUTHERAN CHURCH IN TANZANIA l , [Ay EXECUTIVE 1FARD - ELCT J [ BOARD OF MISSION AND EVANGELISMI--[ SEC. FOR MISSION AND EVAN. I I I I I J _ k A _ , J— I‘LITERATURE ] I AUDIO VISUAL I I EVANGELISM I_¥INFORMATION J I PUBLICATION—I I RADIO SAUTI YA INJILI I I DIRECTOR.“ - SAUTI YA INJILI - - -I LWF/DC I _ l l L _ _ ' - L PROGRAM DEPARTMENT Annmrsmrrom I L TECHNICAL DEPT. I . i ‘ * g ‘ L PROGRAM SUPERVISOR I SECRETARY/MIST J ECHNICAL SUPER. I SENIOR Pnoc. ASST. I Lrscn. ASST. 1I - DRIVER/CLEANER _ _ I , GARDENER/GUARDS. etc. ‘ ’ PROGRAM PRODUCERS 8 I LrPCH. ASST. 2 I AUDIENCE RELATIoNs" I AUD. muons sec. I AUD. RELATIONS ASST. * Positions presently held by the director. Figure 8. Organizational Structure of Radio Sauti ya Injili. 97 department and it is up to the directors to bring up concerns that may need the board's attention. Other than the ELCT General Seeretary (who by virtue of his Office is an ex officio member of the board), all of the eight board members are clergy. The chairman and eight members of the board preside over the Department of Mission and Evangelism. The board is appointed by the executive committee of the ELCT and is responsible for the departments of literature, audio-visuals, evangelism, and information in addition to Radio Sauti ya Injili. Board members represent the various synods and dioceses within the ELCT and therefore play a functional role. The directors of the various departments bring up their concerns, achievements, and difficulties at the board's annual meeting. The 30/70 Formula in Program Production Although the studio accepts the 30/70 formula in principle, it applies the formula differently on the local level. Rev. Magogo commented, "We are always aware of our 'service' responsibility. We follow the Church's program and teachings. Our programs are sometimes 100 percent evangelistic and our people like it." According to the studio, the 70 percent of the formula means that "church related development agencies are contacted and their work is related to our radio programming." The 98 development programs are topical; producers go out and record interviews on specific topics that are felt to be of use to the audience. If the production turns out to be heavy on the 30 percent side of the formula, even when doing deve10pment programs, this is no problem for the studio. The director commented, We look for our materials from 'Christian' deve10pment projects. These undertakings Obviously project a clear 'Christian' view of their action, thus our programs turn out to be in fact 30 percent/70 percent in reverse. The current chairperson of the board, Rev. 8. Masangi, addressed this issue during the interview session: "Our efforts must result in showing God's love and concern for all people, in Tanzania and beyond, and that He is glorified." The interpretation of the formula has been a constant source of misunderstanding and misinterpretation, parti- cularly during 1979 and 1980 when the ELCT had to withdraw its broadcasting from FEBA (Notes on Meeting between ELCT, the LWF/DC, and FEBA, 1979). Development, Education, Information, and Proclamation To understand the function of the studio, it is impor- tant to understand the role of the Church in the overall socio-political context. The Associate General Secretary of ELCT described the role of communication in the context of the Church's overall ministry in education, information, 99 and proclamation: The Church is entrusted with the word of God. Its primary purpose and function is to spread the word for the salvation of peOple. The Church, therefore, is involved in (1) preaching, (2) evangelism, and (3) teaching. The development of persons comes from their hearing and knowing the Word, learning it and accepting the teaching. In knowing the Word, there is freedom. Freedom from ignorance, disease, hunger. The business of the Church is to free people by educating them. Together with this ministry, there is also the ministry of healing through the work done in hopsitals and clinics, and by providing health education. Through preaching, teaching, and healing, the Church fulfills its mandate of caring for the 'whole person'. The mass media in the Church is no exception to this understanding. Thus all programs are done within the context of a 100 percent Christian programming. On all programs that are strictly devotional and religious, the Church's calendar is closely followed. Respective pastors from the various synods and dioceses are contacted to record their sermons and devotions--thus, also, "we maintain the balance of participation by all synods in this work" (Magogo, 1981). World News In contrast to RVOG's policy on news, some of the leaders at Sauti ya Injili strongly believe that including 100 world news in the context of present programming is of little relevance whether it is included to 'catch' the audience or to inform them about world situations. These leaders maintain that the former can be accomplished by "producing good programs that are relevant to the needs of the audience." As for the need to inform the audience about the world situation, these leaders believe that including such programming in their broadcasts would be 'bad stewardship'. There are at least six major broadcasting stations (including the national government's) which broadcast news to Tanzania. They see little advantage in duplicating the programs offered by these stations. Besides, the director maintained that 'the Church should stay out of politics' (Magogo, 1981). Audience Relations and Follow-Up As in the other area studios, Sauti ya Injili has a Department of Audience Relations and Follow-Up. And, as is the case at the other studios, this aspect, though fundamental to the whole Operation,is one Of the weakest links and has been since earliest times. The present situation is a reflection of the situation in 1971 (Esayas, 1971). Currently, the duties of this Office are tended by the studio director. As in other areas, the studio claims to be carrying out the task of follow-up work. In the very beginning, the studio had a rather well- 101 functioning audience relations division (Volz, 1965). Later, after the departure of the expatriate audience relations Officer in 1966, the work was handed over to the ELCT as the Officer, an American missionary, was seconded to the ELCT with assignment at the studio. Since that time, the studio has tried to fill the position with no apparent success in retaining personnel. The recollection of this writer is that between 1968 and 1977 not less than five audience relations officers were trained for the studio by RVOG. Since 1974, the functions of this office have been mainly handled by the director,who described the manner in which this is done: In our Opinion,the studio is capable of main- taining quality broadcasting according to our standards which go with the need and demand of our audience. In order to establish whether we are doing acceptable work or not, we maintain closer contact with our target area as follows: (1) Feedback from listeners. (2) Correspondence with individuals who are our 'special' contacts. (3) During recording trips where we take the opportunity to discuss with individuals or groups about both reception and quality or types of programs. Last year we did recordings in Tanga, Dar es Salaam, and Coast regions. This year we intend to cover Iringa, Mbeya, Singida, Mwanza, and West Lake regions. 102 (4) Through the Secretary for Mission and Evangelism we get reception reports about Zaire, Ruanda, and Burundi. These reports are also supported by listeners' letters from these areas. (5) The ELCT itself holds at least four Executive Council sessions each year supplemented by board and committee meetings. During these meetings I take the opportunity to talk to Church and lay leaders so I get an account of whether we are satisfying the listeners or not. (6) As studio director, I travel as far as our limited budget can stretch and do a good deal of audience relations work as well (Magogo in a letter to the LWF/BS, 1980). The director's 1980 report notes that the studio received 25,637 letters from listeners inside and outside of Tanzania. Of these, 25,000 letters came from Tanzania and the remainder came from Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Malawi, and Burundi (Radio Sauti ya Injili, 1981). None of the letters have been objectively analyzed for content. Research Kiswahili, a widely spoken language in Africa, has been given particular attention as a potentially strategic language within the RVOG broadcast area (Esayas, 1971). Due to this and other considerations such as training and. research, Tanzania became the second country in which a fully develOped audience survey was conducted by RVOG. The audience survey of 1974 was designed and administered 103 in the framework of the Tanzanian conception of ujamaa vijijini (Villagization). The study specifically was based on a ten-cell leader system that corresponded to the statistical random sampling method. This was the first time that this method had been used in a mass media study. The researcher used the random sampling method to select households in each of the ten- household cell units. A comprehensive questionnaire was developed, tested, and administered in August 1974 (Gebre- medhin, 1974). The Tanzanian exercise provided grounds for reflecting on programming for the audience and training programs for personnel. It also introduced an approach to research that is worthy of further development. Unfortunately, the concept of research has been viewed at best with guarded optimism and has been received with reluctance in many ecclesiastical and theological circles in Africa. Tanzania has not been an exception. The extent to which the studio, the church in Tanzania, and the LWF continue the efforts that were curtailed as a result of the RVOG nationalization will determine the future role and input of research-~input that is essential if communication is to have any impact. Manpower Development Through the RVOG training scheme, the studio has benefited from all levels of training. Regular grassroots 104 workshops at the studio, at RVOG, and at the AACC Training Center in Nairobi were attended by staff members from the MOshi studio. The training program included training by correspondence and special training programs for technical personnel. Studio Cassette Project Following the nationalization OfRVOG in 1977, Radio Sauti ya Injili developed a plan for a cassette project. The plan was partially implemented in 1979 but,at the time of this study,the project had not yet produced any tapes. It was expected that the project would soon prepare tapes on the following topics: (1) pgoig (widowhood); (2) talaka (divorce); (3) mahari (dowry); (4) vijana (youth); and (5) pogo (marriage) (Radio Sauti ya Injili, 1981). The cassettes were to be distributed through ELCT's audio- visual department at Arusha. The cassette project was to e Produce cassette programs, normally at the request of and in cooperation with the ELCT departments, synods, and dioceses through their contact persons, institutions, etc.; o Inform the various levels of the Church as well as secular outlets of available cassette programs, titles, costs, etc.; e Prepare the number of copies needed upon request; 105 e Dispatch the cassettes to those who ordered them with payment to be received by the ELCT treasury; 0 Purchase empty cassettes, etc., needed for the activities of the department; and, 0 When requested, assist the studio director with advice, planning, purchases, repairs, etc. Studio Program Resources Library The term 'library' may be misleading in this context and in the context of Muryar Bishara. In one of the back rooms of the studio is a small room in which there is a bookshelf holding mainly Old reference books such as encyclo- pedias and commentaries. Some transcriptions of programs from the BBC, Deutsche Welle, Voice of America, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Radio Nederland, and RVOG's program exchange are also there. The collection also includes some locally published periodicals and government handouts. The studio's collection of religious and secular, traditional and modern songs, music, and other recorded cultural material is one of the finest in the country. As is the case at Muryar Bishara, many of the materials used by respective producers are kept at home. Some of the materials belong to the producers while others may have been borrowed from libraries. 106 Most of the books and reference materials in the small backroom at the studio resemble those at Muryar Bishara (see p. 119 for a list of some of the materials at Muryar Bishar). The resemblance between the two studios is also striking in that the producers turn to these 'libraries' when they need program ideas (see the section on Program Resources in Chapter V). Muryar Bishara Communication Centre Nigeria with its present population of about 80,000,000 was one of the strongest democratic younger nations in Africa during the 19603 and a prime target area for RVOG broadcasts. It was also one of the few countries where both Lutheran World Federation and Lutheran Hour-related churches were at work. Nigeria met other criteria for a studio as well: English was the national language,and there were large ethnic groups speaking Hausa (16-18 million), Ibo (4 million), and Yoruba (3 million). Nigeria was also within transmitting Operational feasibility as it is located in a time zone that is two hours different from the station in Addis Ababa and five and a half hours' different from target areas in India. Thus, within overall broadcast scheduling, an optimum of two hours a day was available. Jos was the natural choice for a studio (see Figure 9). It was preferred because (1) J08 is located amidst large Hausa 107 NIGERIA Figure 9. Location of Muryar Bishara Communication Centre. 108 communities, (2) J05 had good communication contact (accessibility) with the rest of Nigeria, (3) J03 had close contact with the Church at Numan, and (4) J03 was seen as an ideal location because the large vacation and conference center attracts various contacts (see Figure 9). The Hausa of Northern Nigeria Northern Nigeria, deeply influenced by its Islamic heritage, is the scene of striving towards industriali— zation, using power and the resources of nature. Technology, industrialization, and allegiance to the Islamic code of ethics go hand in hand as primary instruments shaping the mode of life in contemporary society. A better standard of living, freedom of expression, the striving for ever higher levels of formal education, and alignment with the current 'power structure' represent key values and criteria of excellence. The Hausa are a heterogeneous group with their basic commonality expressed in their language and habitat. Their family background, according to Greenberg (1955) is Afro-Asiatic along with the Kotoko Yedima, Muki, and Musgu found in the Chad basin farther east. The Hausa language is of Arabic origin, the Kanuri of Bornu, west of Chad, having dominated them politically and culturally from the 15th to the 18th century. Since 1900 many English words have been added to the Hausa language. 109 Traditionally, most villages or large towns are walled (mainly to protect against raiders). These walled towns are traditional capitals of the village areas around them. In each 'capital' are usually a marketplace, a mosque, the official priests, the village chief, and a great majority of the population under his charge. The size of these villages varies-~between one and four thousand people may live in the village area. In a place like Kano, which is the capital of the northern state, more than 350,000 peOple may live in the area. A village area is a clearly delineated area that includes scattered hamlets and is Operated under a local administration. Within the villages there are also administrative wards, each of which is under a residential head administrator. Each area in the administrative ward is occupied by families from similar occupational groups. Traditionally, the village chief maintains public property, administers the cultivation of the land around him, and collects the tax.(The latter is no longer one the chief's functions.) The chief also checks on migration (of the Fulani), the arrival and withdrawal of villages, harvest failures, epidemics, etc. He rewards the well- doers and punishes the wrong-doers. Today, the village chief has control over a vast area around his village. Five or more men with their wives and families may live together in one compound, work in a common farm, and 110 share common food supplies. Such a group is regarded by the chief as a unit and lives under the leadership of one man who is usually the senior member. The chief is always to diSplay qualities Of virtue that are stressed in the moral code (i.e., temperance, compromise, agreement, respect for the rights of Others) (Forde, 1976). History of the Studio The desirability of establishing a studio in Nigeria was initiated by a visit of Dr. Sigurd Aske in the early 19605. Dr. Aske visited Pastor Akili Todi and Pastor Hojvig, the Field Superintendent of the Danish Sudan Mission. Pastor Hojvig approached the "home board" who also approved the project. For the missions, the new possibility raised some problems. One problem concerned whether there should be only one studio for all of Nigeria (combining the Lutheran Church in southern Nigeria (the LCN) and the LCCN) or whether two studios were necessary. Another problem related to the matter of language. Most of the people in the LCCN area are Hausa speaking, but ”very few are 'real' Hausa people." Thus, their Hausa was not acceptable to the 'real' Hausas (Interview with Fleming Kramp, March 1981). Though Jos had many advantages as a site, the LCN felt that Jos was too far out of their reach. Furthermore, they were not ready to move since the Lutheran Church, 111 Missouri Synod, had, under Rev. Paul Volz, established a studio in 1956. Each group decided to move on its own, and it was then that Muryar Bishara became a reality. Both Fleming Kramp and Dick Mbodwan confirm that "the urge to have the studio was more at the initiative of the missions, although with approval of the more 'informed' part of the local leadership." In March 1962, a consultation was held between the Lutheran Hour, the Danish Sudan Mission, the American Lutheran Mission, the LWF Broadcasting Service, and Rev. H. M. Ottermoeller who represented the Evangelical Church Of Nigeria. After considering several alternatives as to how to best coordinate the efforts of the two groups (the American and the Danish), it was agreed that each would establish separate studio facilities. At the meeting, Rev. Hojvig announced that the Danish Sudan Mission and the American Lutheran Mission would jointly establish a studio for the production of Hausa programs. The location was to be Jos. Additional criteria for establishing the studio in Joe included its favorable climate, electric supply, and the presence of a number of missionary organizations that could provide source material for productions. It was thus clear that the Danish group established a studio of its own with Rev. Hovgig as the studio's 112 first director. The studio was ready in 1965 and in 1966 Fleming Kramp from.Denmark became its second studio director. Recalled Kramp, The Church had no knowledge of what was involved about how this project is to function. For the church people it was a gift Of a new technology wherein they felt the good feeling of hearing themselves talk. By having an expatriate director and another one for the technical side, the problem of even running the studio was never felt to be a problem. They did not, further, consider alternatives as to how else that money could be used in other less ambitious media. Thus, the whole Operation was left to me and the staff to handle it professionally (1981). The studio later was organized within the framework of the Church of Christ in Nigeria. What is now known as the Muryar Bishara Communication Centre is managed, owned, and Operated by the LCCN through its board of government (see Figure 10). The constitution of the studio cannot be amended without the ratification of the LCCN and the Sudan United Mission--Danish branch. Purpose and Policy In accordance with the overall broadcast policy of RVOG, the studio's main purposes are e To proclaim the Christian Gospel. 0 TO enrich believers in the Christian faith within the reach of radio. e To promote educational,intellectual, and cultural development through the production of programs that are educational, informational, and cultural. .ouucoo :OHuMowcsasoo mug—mam Hakka: mo ousosuum Hmcowumnwcmwuo .OH ouawfim «NUDGOML Pzlo3=< 2559: 2.5 85 54.85 89». _ _ _ _ _ 113 ”show—mun >9:me macaw—HQ oHaPHm onzzm>8 we gon AHUZDOU m>Hb=uuxm — ¢8mn>z>n> program produced by a Christian and that relates that fact 1 program which talks about Christian activities l > * O I O Derived from interViews The producers indicated that 'Christian programs' were those which talked about the relationships between God and man, Christ and man, man and man, and salvation. They also mentioned programs about godly, good.Christian living that are produced by a Christian person (see Table 27). The above responses call for a sense of creativity and willingness to experiment that is of a deeper level than what is reflected here. For the mass media's greatest possibility for effectiveness is in reaching the 203 Table 27. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of the Meaning of 'Christian Programming' Category* Frequency A program about the relationships between God and man, Christ and man, man and man, and Salvation 8 A program about Godly, good Christian living (no drinking, no gambling, one wife, etc.) that is produced by a Christian person 8 * Derived from interviews listener. The possibility of being understood depends not so much on our understanding of the problem or on our ability to indoctrinate someone but on what is in the listeners' mind. This is particularly true when what is in the listeners mind is essentially a matter of cultural involvement. In a Moslem dominated society, religious concepts are also cultural in their context and are expressed in cultural terms. Thus, if Muryar Bishara is to "proclaim the Gospel to the widest possible audience," it may be best to meet the challenge from within the Moslem cultural context. The challenge posed here is to discover what types of direct proclamation and creative work that are not explicitly Christian may be Offered. For, in the world of Islam, reaching listeners is. more of a cultural than a religious matter. However, the intertwining of 204 religion and culture in Islam poses a serious question for Christian communicators: Are the issues with which Christian communication deals (even so-called religious issues) primarily cultural and secondarily religious or vice versa? Reactions to the 30/70 Formula The Nigerian board members' reactions to the 30/70 formula varied considerably. Three board members felt that it was more important to have 100 percent good religious programs and 100 percent good development programs than to have a fixed formula, two felt that the decision should be made by the studio director, and two felt thattflmeformula should be reversed (70 percent religion). Only two board members indicated that the formula should be kept as it is (see Table 28). Table 28. Nigerian Board Members' Reactions to the 30/70 Formula Category* Frequency There should be 100 percent good religious and 100 percent good development programs 3 It should be left to the studio director to decide 2 It should be kept as it is 2 It should be reversed (70 percent religious) 2 * O O O Derived from interViews 205 The producers had similar comments although none of the producers suggested that "it should be left to the studio director to decide" (see Table 29). Table 29. Nigerian Producers' Reactions to the 30/70 Formula Category* Frequency Productions should be more religious, up to 70 percent if we are to be effective at all 5 A program should be 100 percent religious and 100 percent developmental 5 The present balance should be maintained 2 * O O O A Derived from interViews The studio directors also had mixed reactions to the 30/70 formula. Among their comments: Any program should be conceived on the basis of what it should aim to accomplish and not necessarily be bound by the 30/70 formula. A percentile calculation in a program con- ception is not consistent with our way of thinking. We cannot think of a person in a 30/70 dichotomy. A person is a whole. We should 'preach less' Christianity and live more of it, particularly in a culture like ours. The above rather pointed expressions of the studio directors provide a new perspective on planning in communi- cation at the local level. The Muryar Bishara constitution (1970) requires that programming follow the 30/70 formula 206 and interpreting the meaning of the formula has been a constant duty of the studio directors. Dick Mbodwam, the director at the time of the study, commented: We start with an understanding of a 100 percent program conception. Then we ask, "How much of that 100 percent do we want to give to reli- gious programs?" Then, based on the consti- tution and the LWF Objectives, we make a clear cut separation of direct evangelismpprograms. With what is left, we try to do good neutral programs but from a Christian point of view. Our intention is not to drag a person by force. We should be identified by what we do and not by how we attract a person deliberately to our way of thinking. The comments on the 30/70 formula indicate that there is an urgent need for a discussion of what an apprOpriate 'balance' or policy regarding programming should be and who should determine that policy. Despite the diversity of the comments, three themes emerged: (l) the need for a local identification of purpose and intent; (2) the need for 100 percent good programming, whether deve10pmental or religious; and, (3) communication occurs not only through proclaiming an idea, but through living it as well. Comparison with Government Programs When asked about the ways in which the content of Muryar Bishara programs was similar or different to the content of government programs, the producers indicated that there were substantial differences. Although they used the same language and developmental and cultural 207 materials and addressed the same audience, the stations clearly emphasized different areas in their programming. The producers' comments are listed in Table 30. Table 30. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of the Similarities and Differences between Government and Muryar Bishara Programming Similarities* Differences* -Use same language -Strong emphasis on reli— -Have same audience gious/spiritual outlook use same develop- -We do not entertain mental and cultural materials -NO political programs -What we can say about our country and politics is very limited -We include follow-up in programming -We have aid from missions for our programs, govern- ment is largely independent * Derived from interViews One of the significant differences perceived by the producers was that Muryar Bishara programs are limited in what they can say about situations in their country. It is also important to note that the realm of outreach is narrowly restricted to areas that are 'religious' and 'educational'. Civic involvement and social action seem to have no place in the producers' perceptions of Christian communication. 208 Perceptions of Audience Values The board members, producers, and studio directors at Muryar Bishara were asked to identify the main values of their audiences based on Rokeach's Eighteen Terminal Values.* These ratings were then compared with the ratings of 20 village chiefs who were selected as represen- tatives of the audience in Nigeria. Table 31 indicates the rank order, mean, and standard deviation of audience values as perceived by the board members, producers, studio directors, and village chiefs, while Figures 15. 16. and l7illustrate the areas of congruency between the values identified by those associated with Muryar Bishara and those identified by the village chiefs. As can be seen in Table 31 and Figure 15 the board members perceptions of audience values and the village chiefs' perceptions of audience values were strongly con- gruent for only three values: (7) family and clan security, (6) equality, and (5) a world of beauty. Values (4) a world at peace, (15) self-respect, and (8) freedom also fall within the area Of congruence. Values (17) true friendship, (18) wisdom, (9) happiness, (1) a comfortable life, (14) salvation, (10) inner harmony, (3) a sense of accomplishment, (2) an exciting life, (16) social *See the section on "Perceptions of Audience Values" for Radio Sauti ya Injili and Chapter IV for a discussion of Rokeach's work and the methodology used in the study. 209 Table 31. Rank Order, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Audience Values as Perceived by Audience Members, Producers, Studio Directors, and Board Members in Nigeria. Studio Main.::1ues Audience Producers Board Members Directors No. Daily Life (N -_20) (N -_12) (N -_5) 4——N : 3) R x s R x S R X S R x S 1. A COMFORTABLE LIFE 9 3.7 .70 2 4.8 .78 7 4.6 .91 6 4.3 .71 (a prosperous life) 2. AN EXCITING LIFE 17 2.7 .17 11 3.8 .94 10 4.0 .63 14 3.3 .66 (a stimulating, active life) 3. A SENSE 0F ACCOMPLISHMENT 15 3.0 .70 4 4.1 .92 3 4.8 .90 11 3.6 .71 (a lasting contribution) 4. A WORLD AT PEACE 3 4.2 .40 12 3.75 .83 11 3.8 .97 2 4.6 .91 (free of war and conflict) 5. A WORLD OF BEAUTY 16 3.0 .70 18 2.8 .99 14 3.2 .90 18 2.3 .55 (beauty of nature and art) 6. EQUALITY 5 4.1 .70 14 3.5 .50 9 4.2 .90 3 4.3 .24 (brotherhood. equal opportunity for all) 7. FAMILY AND CLAN SECURITY 1 4.7 .95 1 4.9 .38 1 5 0 4 4.3 .24 (taking care of loved ones) 8. FREEDOM 13 3.5 .59 7 4.08 .51 15 3.2 .90 15 3.3 .66 (independence, free choice) 9. HAPPINESS 6 4.2 .40 3 4.7 .59 2 5 O 1 5 O (contentedness) 10. INNER HARMONY 12 3.5 .59 15 3.5 .50 8 4.4 .80 17 3.0 0 (freedom from inner conflict) 11. MATURE LOVE 10 3.6 .91 16 3.1 .91 18 2.8 .40 7 4.0 0 (sexual and spiritual intimacy) 12. SECURITY 2 4.3 .65 10 3.8 .94 12 3.6 .98 13 3.6 .83 (protection from attack) 13. PLEASURE 18 2.6 .91 5 4.16 .92 13 3.6 .98 5 4.3 .84 (an enjoyable. leisurely life) 14. SALVATION 7 3.8 .40 13 3.58 1.12 6 4.6 .48 16 3.0 .81 (saved, eternal life) 15. SELF-RESPECT 11 3.6 .91 9 3.8 .94 16 3.2 .40 8 4.0 O (self-esteem) l6. SOCIAL RECOGNITION 14 3.1 .80 6 4.08 .51 17 3.2 .50 9 4.0 .81 (respect, admiration) l7. TRUE FRIENDSHIP 4 4.1 .70 8 3.91 .79 4 4.8 .40 10 4.0 0 (close companionship) 18. WISDOM 8 3.8 .40 17 3.0 .81 5 4.6 .49 12 3.6 .83 (a mature under- standing of life) 210 A ~ U D I E N C E l 2 3 4 5 l 1 J 1 J _ 1 BOARD MEMBERS Variables 1. A comfortable life 7. Family&clan security 13. Pleasure 2. An exciting life 8. Freedom 14. Salvation 3. A sense of accomplishment 9. Happiness 15. Self-respect 4. A world at peace 10. Inner harmony 16. Social recognition 5. A world of beauty 11.‘ Mature love 17. True friendship 6. Equality 12. Security 18. Wisdom Figure 15. Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and Board Members' Perceptions of Audience Values in Nigeria. 211 P I! O I) U (3 E I! S A. 'U D I E N' C E Variables 1. A comfortable life 7. 2. An exciting life 8. 3. A sense of accomplishment 9. 4. A world at peace 10. 5. A world of beauty 11. 6. Equality 12. Family & clan security Freedom Happiness Inner harmony Mature love Security Pleasure . Salvation . Self-respect Social recognition True friendship Wisdom Figure 16. Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and Producers' Perceptions of Audience Values in Nigeria. 212 A U D I E N C E 1 2 3 4 5 l 1 l J l J J D I R E C T O R S Variables l. A comfortable life 7. Family&clan security 13. Pleasure 2. An exciting life 8. Freedom 14. Salvation 3. A sense of accomplishment 9. Happiness 15. Self-respect 4. A world at peace 10. Inner harmony 16. Social recognition 5. A world of beauty ' 11. Mature love 17. True friendship 6. Equality 12. Security 18. Wisdom Figure 17. Cartesian Graph Showing Perceived Mean Value of Variables of Audience Value Perceptions and the Studio Directors' Perceptions of Audience Values in Tanzania. 213 recognition, and (13) pleasure fall outside the area of congruence and were rated higher by the board members than by the village chiefs. Values (12) security and (11) mature love also fall outside the area of congruence, but these were rated higher by the village chiefs than by the board members. As shown in Figure 16 the producers' and the village chiefs' perceptions of audience values were in congruence for more values than were the perceptions of the board members and the village chiefs. The producers' and the chiefs' perceptions were congruent for values (7) family and clan security, (12) security, (17) true friendship, (4) a world at peace, (14) salvation, (15) self-respect, (6) equality, (11) mature love, (10) inner harmony, and (5) a world of beauty. Values (9) happiness, (1) a com- fortable life, (8) freedom, (16) social recognition, (3) a sense of accomplishment, (2) an exciting life, and (13) pleasure fall outside the area of congruence and were rated higher by the producers than by the village chiefs. Value (18) wisdom also falls outside the area of congruence, however the village chiefs gave this a higher rating than did the producers. As can be seen in Figure 17, the studio directors' and the village chiefs' perceptions of audience values were congruent for only four values: (6) equality, (l7) true friendship, (18) wisdom, and (8) freedom. Values 214 (2) an exciting life, (11) mature love, and (l) a comfor- table life are on the borderline of the area of congruency, while values (4) a world at peace, (9) happiness, (16) social recognition, (3) a sense of accomplishment, and (13) pleasure received higher ratings from the studio directors than from the village chiefs. Values (7) family and clan security, (12) security, (14) salvation, (15) self-respect, (10) inner harmony, and (5) a world of beauty also fall outside the area of congruency; these values received higher ratings by the village chiefs than by the directors. The dominant values of the audience in Nigeria can be divided into two main groups: those which received a rating of 4 or more points (on a 5 point scale) by all groups, and those which received a rating of 3 to 5 points. Looking at the values that were rated 4 or higher by all groups, a number of values stand just barely outside the area of congruence. Values (17) true friendship, (7) family and clan security, (6) equality, and (4) a world of peace received a high rating from all of the groups. The priority given to these values reflects the emphasis on individual values in Nigeria (the opposite of what was Observed in Tanzania). These values can be extended to the group as a whole; however, they are primarily individual centered. Fewer values received a high rating in Nigeria than in Tanzania. Of particular interest is the high rating assigned 215 to family and clan security. Although this is a value that extends beyond the realm of the individual, it is nevertheless a value that essentially signifies the comfort of the individual. This value is central to a basic understanding of society, for comfort is seen as blessings experienced through the number of cattle and households, health, and the security of the clan. These blessings are seen as reflections of God's will in the person's life and so the concept of comfort has a spiritual as well as secular dimension. Comfort without spiritual significance does not mean much in the family and clan security of the Hausa and Fulani ethos (Smith, 1965). In Islam and and traditinal African religion, the secured family life is composed of wealth, health, and familyhood understood within a religious frame (Martensen, 1974). Security of the family and clan is perceived as fundamental to the functioning of society and ultimate security is in God. Islamic society sees peace, happiness, the wholeness of life, and true friendship as a totality that is under God. This view is consistent with traditional African society. One's happiness and a comfortable life are measured by the 'blessings' Of God (i.e., the number of children and cattle, the extended family). The blessings of human experience (individual and public) are all in God's supreme and powerful hands (Adegbola, 1974). Thus, the life issues that one deals with in this social context, 216 even the religious issues, are primarily family and clan- oriented and cultural. They are secondarily religious. The Christian tradition, on the other hand, separates religion and the public life. In Christianity, the term 'comfort' relates mostly to secular 'worldly' gains attained mainly through hard work or other 'worldly' means. In the Christian tradition, there is a "surrendering of politics, economics and law to the selfish will Of man, withdrawn from the authority of God" (Kritzinger, 1981). Though all of the groups recognized the importance of family and clan security as an audience value, the totality of life perception that is reflected in this concept can pose problems in designing learning programs, particularly those that focus on religion. In programming, there is a tendency to place into a religious category many things that could be separated insofar as religion and culture are concerned. In Islamic and traditional society, however, everything that is religious is also cultural because religious concepts are understood within a cultural context. Thus, when one talks about Christian religious matters, one is talking about 'cultural conversion'. In spite of this, the communicator's understanding of religious concepts is usually outside the frame of reference of the cultural context. It is important that Christian communication recognize and develop an appreciation for the traditional values and 217 norms brought to focus in the high rating given to family and clan security. Christianity must not operate in a way that requires the abandonment of all of the cultural norms of African society, but rather should build upon the unique heritage of that society. Of the values that received ratings of between 3 to 5 points, only two values (15) self-respect and (8) freedom stand out (as compared with five in Tanzania). Again, these two values are more 'individualistic' than those identified in Tanzania. If one compares only the number of items selected, 10 items received 3 to 5 points in Tanzania, while 6 items received 3 to 5 points in Nigeria. It appears that the groups in Nigeria represent more of a dispersed ideology than do those in Tanzania. As none of the values in the area of congruence received less than a rating of 3 points, it appears that all of the 18 values outlined by Rokeach are perceived highly by all the groups in Nigeria. However, as noted in the Tanzania section, the value ratings should be used to reflect on what is happening throughout communication rather than seen as being conclusive and inferential. Socio-Economic Influences on the Audience When asked to identify which categories (Islam, traditional religion, social and economic change, tribal and family tradition, or Christianity) had the most 218 influence on their audience, the Nigerian board members most frequently cited Islam as having the greatest influence, while tribal and family traditions, socio- economic change, Christianity, and political factors were ranked second, third, fourth, and fifth respectively. Islam was also cited the most frequently by the producers although almost as many producers cited tribal and family traditions as did Islam. Social and economic change and the Christian tradition were the third most frequently cited factors, and political factors were ranked last. The studio directors also selected Islam as having the strongest influence, while social and economic change, tribal and family traditions, and Christian traditions were mentioned more or less equally. Islam.was selected by all of the respondents as having the greatest influence on the Hausa. As Smith (1965) noted, "Islam is a way of life as well as a set of beliefs in Allah and his prophet". As a religion it demands full personal commitment to worship and strict personal attention to expressing its ethics in daily life. The issues in Christian communication that may be addressed to an Islamic audience are, therefore, primarily cultural and secondarily religious. Therefore, to the extent that communication is not expressed from within a cultural context, the message may be lost no matter what the communication ability of the sender. 219 the overwhelming influence Of Islam raises significant questions about the role of Christian communication in Nigeria. Is the Church's mission to competitively work for cultural conversion in the context of the religious realm or is it to attempt to work towards a 'faith- allegiance' to God that would be expressed by the Hausa within their culture? The importance attributed to family and tribal tradi- tions is consistent with the influence Of Islam. While the Christian tradition emphasizes the indiviudal need for freedom, in the Islamic tradition, the good of the indivi- dual must be sacrificed to the good of the group or of the society. In a 'family-tribal bound' society, individuals who live outside the circle are almost non-existent. Such societies are security-oriented and individuals feel at home only when they are part and parcel of the clan, family, group, and community. When something starts pulling the individual apart, the other elements also fall apart. The choice of political factors is significant. Islam as a religion has permeated the socio-economic realm of Nigerian life. Thus, one may not separate culture (mainly Islamic), from politics, religion, the socio-economic base, and vice versa. Each factor influences the others, perhaps dialectically. Although the Christian church is a minority, its greatest meaning and expression will lie in activities that recognize these interrelationships, and, in the words 220 Of one board member, are related to "visible action- oriented understakings, and in communication work which is to a daily life experience." Programming for Islamic Audiences Given the strong influence of Islam in Nigerian society, the personnel at Muryar Bishara were asked what type of pro- gram content should be used for a predominantly Islamic audience. As shown in Table 32, the board members had diverse views as to what the content of programs should be. These views ranged from the need to appeal to both Moslems and Christians through the use of categories that are not particularly religious to the need to provide "direct but positive Christian witness." Table 3 . Nigerian Board Members' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences Category* Frequency Appealing to both Muslims and Christians and not particularly conflicting 'religious' categories 5 Direct but positive Christian witness 5 Real life situation (contextualized) 4 Clear statement of what an 'event' in programming means in the Christian context 3 Purely educational programs 2 Presenting an 'objective' comparative program on both religions l * O O O Derived from interViews 221 The producers most frequently cited the need to present Christian values without condemning Islam. They also mentioned discussing religion and politics as they relate to power and responsibility; presenting programs that are not religious; and stating the Christian view clearly without passing judgement (see Table 33). Table 33. Nigerian Producers' Recommendations Regarding Programming for Islamic Audiences Category* Frequency Presenting Christian values without condemning Islam 8 Discuss religion and politics as they relate to power and responsibility (these are common to both) 5 Present programs that are not religious at all 5 State the Christian view clearly and do not pass judgement 4 * Derived from interViews The studio directors suggested that programs should be closely related to the Islamic cultural context. They questioned the idea of 'indirect evangelization', stating that whenever a Christian speaks to Moslems there appears to be an emphasis on'cultural conversion to the Christian way of understanding religious concepts rather than on finding ways to interpret these concepts from the'Moslem's 222 perspective. All of the respondents clearly recognized the strong influence of Islam as a religion and as a way of life. The challenge posed here is to discover what types of direct proclamation and creative work that are not outside of the audience's cultural context may be offered. Program Resources When asked about the sources used for producing programs, the board members emphasized the importance of books and magazines as program resources. They also mentioned knowledgeable people, experts, and audience recordings (see Table 34). Table 34. Nigerian Board Members' Perceptions of Important Program Resources Category* Frequency Books, magazines 5 Knowledgeable people, 'experts' 3 Audience recordings 2 * O O O Derived from.interViews The producers also emphasized books and literature and interviews with 'experts' as sources of programs. In addition, they mentioned recordings from outside, government 223 agencies, and the audience (see Table 35). Table 35. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of Important Program Resources Category* Frequency Books and literature 15 Interviews with 'experts', pastors, etc. 12 Recordings from outside 10 Government agencies 8 Audience 2 * Derived from interviews All of the respondents made extensive use of books and magazines. Interviews were restricted to known sources, and recordings from the outside were also mentioned fre- quently. Though a few of the board members and producers mentioned the audience, it is clear that the audience is not seen as a major program resource. At Muryar Bishara, as at Radio Sauti ya Injili, it appears that a deep, fresh, and alive source of programming known as pe0ple is rarely tapped. Factors Influencing Program Production When asked which of six factors influenced program production (the need of the audience, the age of the specific sub-audience, the availability of material, the 224 length of the program, the time of day, or the skill of the producer), four of the Nigerian board members mentioned the need of the audience, while three mentioned the length of the program. Availability of material and the skill of the producer were each mentioned two times, and time of day and the age of the sub-audience were each mentioned one time. The producers identified the availability of materials, the age of the audience, and the time of day as being important factors. Though the needs of the audience were mentioned fre- quently by the board members, the producers did not empha- size this area as a source of program production. In Nigeria as in Tanzania, it appears that the availability of materials is the most important factor that influences program pro- duction. Media Formats When asked what types of communication were the most effective, the producers most frequently cited drama and songs. They also mentioned story telling, debating, poetry, written communication, and art forms in that order Gee Table 36). Though the producers selected drama, songs, etc., as the most effective forms Of communication, programs are primarily straight lectures or interviews "because of material shortages." 225 Table 36. Nigerian Producers' Perceptions of Culturally Relevant and Effective Media Forwns Category* Frequency Category* Frequency Drama 10 Poetry 3 Songs 10 Written 3 Story telling 9 Art forms 2 Debating 6 *Derived from interviews Support Media The board members were asked if they saw a need for some type of support media to supplement the overall radio work of Muryar Bishara and which media would be the most appropriate for this type of work. All of the board members believed that support media was necessary and welcomed the idea. However, they had not given much thought to the "idea of working it in the structure of the radio program." Muryar Bishara has startedacassette project and a publi- cation program, but there is no integration of these programs with the radio programs. Indigenous Communication When asked to identify the main problem areas that are associated with indigenous forms of communication, the * O I 0 See Chapter III for a discuSSion of these prOJects. 226 board members indicated that such forms would be very effective in their area. However, they also expressed concern that indigenous communication may not be accep- table because the "Church and the mission usually think " and our "thinking is not tradi- it is not 'Christian'. tional, it is Western." Other comments related to more practical concerns. Some of the board members believed that indigenous communication is limited in its outreach while others indicated that using indigenous communication requires a great deal of organization (see Table 37). Table 37. Nigerian Board Members' Reactions to Using Indigenous CommunicatiOn Category* Frequency Indigenous forms would be very effective in our area 12 The Church and the mission usually think it is not 'Christian' 11 Our thinking is not traditional, it is Western 10 Indigenous is limited in its outreach 8 Indigenous communication requires much organization 7 * O O O Derived from interViews The producers received the idea of using indigenous communication with great enthusiasm, particularly since 227 the studio had no outlet after RVOG's nationalization. However, they also expressed concerns about the problems of mission-church relationships and how indigenous forms might fit into Christian theology (see Table 38). Table 38. Nigerian Producers' Reactions to Using Indigenous Communication Category* . Frequency Problems of our own theology about indigenous systems not being developed. 6 Problems in mission-church relationships will develop if indigenous forms are used. 5 Radio is doing a job of 'reaching for', maybe that is our present preoccupation. Indigenous forms are concerned with the local situation. 5 Indigenous means are the best possible forms and medium for our purpose. They are always with us even when we have no possibility for being on the air. We must give them serious consideration. 3 * Derived from interViews The studio directors pointed to the following problems in using indigenous communication: We began on a broadcasting tradition and we are still far away from being able to handle the technology properly. To engage in other forms means more finances and that may not be something that can come easily. The Church and our mission friends still have to resolve as to what part of our indigenous forms can be introduced without raising too big questions. 228 Specially trained menpower would be required for this and the backing of the Church, for understandable reasons, may not be forthcoming easily. From the above responses, it appears that there are three major areas of concern about using indigenous communication: O The need for an 'African' theological conception of the Church. It is not the intention of this writer to enter into discussion about theology and related questions on communication in Africa. However, it is significant that the church leaders have expressed a fundamental concern about the need for the Church to be 'African' in its communication and theology. o The problem of traditional Church-mission relationships. Several board members spoke to this problem in a pointed manner: The Church here and the sister mission] Church abroad look upon indigenous forms of worship (communication) as being 'pagan' and conflicting with Christian values. We have not used indigenous forms of communication (also in worship) because our 'tradition', our background, which is protestant, has not been too supportive of this. This aspect of the problem reflects an awareness of the lack of Church-mission relationships in terms of finding an appro- priate interpretation of 'mission' that is meaningful for both the Church and the mission be it evangelization or building churches and establishing schools and clinics. 229 The problem further reflects the apparent 'lack of faith' that the Gospel has not been clearly interpreted in terms of the local society and the social responsibility of the Church. O The preoccupation with mass communication. Though the staff saw indigenous communi- cation as being effective, they indicated that the overwhelming emphasis was on using mass communication techniques. As one board member commented: Indigenous forms are effective and can be locally applied. But our preoccu- pation is with the farther reaching medium. Indigenous forms will remain with us even when technology fails us. Underlying many of the above areas of concern are the structural and institutional constraints that affect the Operations Of Muryar Bishara. The center is closely tied to international mission organizations and so policies regarding indigenous communication must be considered from an international perspective. For example, the constitution of Muryar Bishara stipulates that amendments must be ratified by the Danish branch of the Sudan United Mission. Barriers to Communication The effective exchange of symbols among people is impeded by communication barriers. Radio communication is no exception to such distortions. When asked about the 230 barriers that impeded effective communication, the board members most frequently identified experiential barriers, misunderstanding the medium, and conceptual and social barriers as the greatest barriers to communication. Cultural and semantic barriers were mentioned the next most frequently, while credibility barriers were mentioned the least frequently. The producers mentioned cultural barriers, conceptual and social barriers, sementic barriers, experiential barriers, credibility barriers, and misunderstanding the media in that order. The studio directors also pointed to cultural and experiential barriers as being the most reoccurring barriers to communication. One director stated, The culture of the people and the culture of the Church are many times in conflict. This usually results in limiting what the listener wants to hear from us, thus the experiential barrier becomes Operative. The emphasis on cultural barriers followed by con- ceptual and semantic barriers becomes significant in view of the society in which the studio operates. Islamic society is a closely knit unit with the family as the center and ultimate security being vested in God. Its cohesion is further strengthened by its strictly observed customs and practices. Also identified were barriers which relate to (l) selectivity, retention, and exposure on the part of the listeners, (2) the producers' limitations in 231 understanding the possible effects of the media, and (3) the problems associated with the basic understanding of the culture of the various groups. Of lesser importance but significant are those barriers related to the lack of understanding of the various traditions. Beliefs, language, and tenets shared by the listening groups (e.g., marriage, the role of women in society, religion, the worldview) are carried on through a long and proud history of chiefdoms. The possi- bilities for interactive communication are promising pro— vided these barriers are understood before messages are prepared. Reasons for Working in Christian Communication When asked why they were particularly interested in working in Christian communication, many producers seemed attracted to working at the center because it appeared to be a protective shelter from the outside world. For others, working in Christian communication is a 'calling'. For a small group, however, working in Christian communication was like working at any other job. Interestingly, no one mentioned 'communication' as a basic interest either as a profession or as an art (see Table 39). 232 Table 39. Nigerian Producers' Reasons for Working in Christian Communication Category* Frequency As I am a Christian, this seems to be the place where I can work. Other- wise it can be difficult. 8 I believe I have a calling to work in a place like this. 5 I have to make a living and this is what came by, so I am working here. If I don't like it, I'll leave. 2 I feel I must help with the work of the Church. 1 * Derived from interviews Evaluation, Follow-Up, and Contact with the Audience As at Radio Sauti ya Injili, there were few evaluation or follow-up efforts at the center. When asked about the points in program production at which they were in contact with their audience, the producers indicated that the main contact came through audience feedback to programs. The studio directors, on the other hand, said that contact with the audience occurs before program production and when they receive audience feedback. Muryar Bishara does have a well-maintained audience relations Office which keeps records of all letters that have been received by the studio. In 1970 the studio received 7,886 letters; by 1975-76 the number of 233 letters had increased to 20,067. There has been a rapid decline since RVOG's nationalization in 1977. In 1980, the studio only received 720 letters. There has apparently been no formal evaluation of the correspondence. However, most of the questions in the letter appear to deal with questions of religion, marriage, sex, family life, and other socio—cultural concerns. The audience relations staff person responds to the letters, but few, if any, of the people who wrote the letters have been contacted by their local church as part of the communi- cation process. The seriousness of the concerns raised in the letters and the manner in which they are dealt with raise funda- mental questions as to the role, function, and responsi- bility of the Church in follow-up work. One problem may lie in the original conceptualization of Christian communi- cation. For the mest part, Christian communication has been seen as a one-way dissemination of ideas that relies on audience initiative for feedback. What is needed, however, is an interactive process that involves the audience in the early stages of the communication process. Experiences in 'Successful' and 'Unsuccessful' Programming Producers were asked to choose particular programs and identify the characteristics that made them 'successful' or 'unsuccessful'. Their impressions, which 234 were based on their own experiences and audience feedback, are listed below: Successful programe: -Discussions about love, hope, peace -Discussions about the home and family and stressing the role of the man as head of the house -Discussions about real-life Situations -Names and pronounciations clearly stated -Discussions using names and events the audience knows about -Using indigenous music and telling true stories -Simple, clear, honest, value-loaded programs Unsuccessfulgprograms: -Presenting Christianity as having the answer to all of life's problems -Discussions about the family in which the roles Of men and women were described using the producer's standards. Men were placed in the kitchen! -Failing to tell children about obedience, honesty, and diligence in religious programs -Presenting translated materials with names and locations not in Hausa -Telling an audience scientific facts in terms that are not known to them (e.g., telling the scientific facts about rain when the audience believes that "rain is not of its own but directly from Allah." -Leaving out the men when making women's programs. Chapter VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS One of the problems that led to this study is the absence in the literature of a comprehensive perspective that can be used to analyze and integrate development and communication theories as they relate to the development of the 'whole person' in Africa. This study was designed to explore the main propositions and findings regarding these theories as they pertain to the experience of two communication centers in Africa--Radio Sauti ya Injili in Moshi, Tanzania, and Muryar Bishara Communication Centre in Jos, Nigeria. The specific Objectives of the study were O To examine the literature on development, communication, and evaluation in order to develOp a conceptual approach to these areas and an evaluative framework for understanding communication systems; O To examine the historical development of Radio Voice of the Gospel in order to better understand the Objectives and purpose of the two studios and to compare the intentions of the studios with the reality of their situation; O To identify and analyze the assumptions of board members, producers, and studio 235 236 directors regarding the value per- ceptions of the audience and to compare these assumptions with the value perceptions of the audience; and, O To recommend modifications and changes in the existing system on the basis of the findings about the intended and observed systems and the researcher's conceptual approaches to development and evaluation. In this final chapter, the researcher has attempted to identify some of the major implications of the study's findings as they relate to Christian communication in the African context. Where appropriate, relational parallels have been drawn from the experiences of Tanzania and Nigeria. The Church, Communication, and the Current Situation In a fundamental manner, the theological and ecclesias- tical role Of the Church in Africa is synonymous with communication. Like a power giving stream, the Church's embodiment of the Gospel message can flow into nations and cultures--enriching, renewing, and transforming them in the process. This function of the Church, which is in a way Incarnational, calls for cultural adaptation and diversification. Historically, the Church has survived in many cultures by recognizing that the dynamics of these 237 cultures will inevitably influence and contribute to the Church's communicative function. In Africa, this means that the Church as a communi- cative institution needs to address itself to the socio- cultural constraints that affect our understanding of humans and society. One of these areas of cultural concern relates to the Church's commitment to communication, deve10pment, proclamation, and education. The decisions made at the Sigtuna meeting in 1958,* set the groundwork for LWF's involvement in radio broad- casting in Africa and Asia. At that meeting, the LWF Commission on World Mission clearly recognized the "tremen- dous potentialities and staggering responsibilities...[for] radio evangelism in Africa and Asia" (LWF Executive Council Minutes, October 1958). The commission saw as its immediate mandate: (1) continued proclamation; (2) immediate entrance into the challenges made possible by current technological advancement; (3) development Of a broad international base of consensus for funding and operations; and, (4) eventual involvement of the local churches in follow-up work and manpower development. There was no discussion Of radio's appropriateness for the local context or of involving the local churches in designing the broadcasting system. Apparently, the media were seen merely as technical tools that should be adapted to the duty of proclamation rather * See Chapter III for a discussion of the Sigtuna meeting. 238 than as active agents of social change. As indicated by the lack of reflection on the cultural, ideological, and structural constraints at the local level, the Sigtuna action assumed that the Gospel could and/or should be accepted at face value. There was no reflection on the local context as a partner in the common discovery of truth or on the possible negative impact of the media. The assumption that the proclamatory use of the media would automatically have a positive impact on society reflects the general absence of reflection on the positive/ negative use and effects of the media (de Fleur, 1966) and the failure to seriously consider the long-range impact Of the media with respect to cultural socialization. Though the 1972 LWF Task Force on Mass Communication and Publication Strategy explored these issues, the absence of organized feedback and serious follow-up efforts by the churches in Africa leads one to believe that radio is still seen primarily as a technical vehicle for the one-way transmission of messages. In Tanzania and Nigeria messages continue to be developed for the widest possible audiences and to reflect the worldview of the information sender rather than the social reality of the audience. The churches also assume that programs have a missionary impact, even though it appears that radio pro- grams are not completely effective in direct proclamation, 239 particularly when they employ a unidirectional (as opposed to dialogical) approach to communication. In a sense, the churches in Africa are torn between two cultures. Their historical background binds them closely to Western traditions, while their audiences are bound to the roots of African culture and the demands of changing societies. This paradox can be seen in Nigeria where the churches operate in a social context that is essentially family and tradition oriented, yet public proclamation efforts are direct calls for individuals to respond to the Gospel and thus act independently of their social context. Given the cultural duality of the churches, one must question how far they are willing and/or able to present Christianity in ways that are meaningful and understandable in the local context. In both Tanzania and Nigeria, the majority of respondents did not believe that indigenous communication is a viable means of Christian communication. They maintained that indigenous forms would not be acceptable to their Western counterparts because such forms are considered to be 'pagan'. However, if they are to be effective, the churches in Africa must reconcile the demands of their theological and missiological mandates with the reality of the socio- cultural-political context in which they operate. In Tanzania, for example, the churches are faced with ujamaa, 240 a national political view of development that has far reaching consequences for their total ministry. The reality of the local situation in Africa requires that Christian communication efforts offer perSpectives that are (l) rooted in the socio-cultural dimensions of society; (2) nurtured by realistic insights and expec- tations vis-a-vis the media; and (3) based upon dialogical principles. Theological and missiological concepts alone cannot provide sufficient grounds for developing strategies. There is a legitimate and deep longing within the African populace for true selfhood--a longing that cannot be satisfied short of a meaningful confrontation with the traditional understanding of what it means to be a person in relation to the African community. If they are to be faithful to their calling, the churches in Africa will have to take a bold and necessary step towards a new beginning in communication. Supported and encouraged by their tradi- tional partners, they can bring about the new beginning and provide the foundations for effectively using indigenous forms of communication. This new beginning should not be a radical restructuring of the churches or an upsurge of nationalistic passion that uncritically sweeps out all that is foreign, but rather a careful reconsideration of communication in the African context. Such a reconsideration would take into account the African worldview with its understanding Of the wholeness 241 of life, the continuity of life as shown by the living community's sense of solidarity with the spirits of those who have passed on, its primal regard for nature as being alive and worthy of respect, its close-knit family ties, its understanding of personality in the context of community, and the importance that it attaches to myth and ritual. Indigenous communication can provide one way of incor- porating the African worldview into development communi- cation efforts. The introduction of indigenous forms should be gradual, however. To radically introduce indigenous forms would be to impose forms that are strange and unfamiliar in the Christian context. In the churches of Africa today, what is familiar in communication and most natural are forms of communication that are essentially foreign and structurally 'Western'. In many ways, one cannot encourage the grafting of indigenous forms of communication on trunks bearing characteristics that are not related to local indigenous ways. The challenge, then, is for the churches in Africa to cultivate and nurture their African heritage while being true to their theological and missiological calling. A theology that will provide peOple with the communicative tools to discover their potential in communication and development, to celebrate their own lives and concerns, to deepen their awareness, to express their joy in their awakening, and to 'talk back' to the communicators is 242 long overdue. Creating such a theology will remain the most stringent test of the churches' effective ministry in development, education, proclamation, and communication. Research Themes The intention of the study was not to predict and establish patterns of behavior. It sought instead to recognize, appreciate, and consequently learn how to enhance communication for deve10pment in the language and context of perceived social reality. The study sought to develop a bridge between message receivers and senders (including policy makers) so that the praxis of partici- patory communication could show the way to dialogical learning. Values and Religion In both Tanzania and Nigeria perceived social reality as deduced from the responses to questions about the value perceptions of the audience, is basically seen as the need to improve the quality of life even when this means fewer goods and services. However, the responses also indicated the importance of a satisfying, integrated, non- alienated life, and a strong sense of religion. Religion seems to be an entrenched part of the overall perception of a meaningful life. Since the time of Max Weber, many social scientists have argued that there is a 243 meaningful association between religion and economic development: some have believed that religion has had a positive influence (i.e., via the protestant ethic), while others have considered religion to be an impediment to development. While it is true that there are develop- ment successes among protestants, the same may also be true among other religious settings. The point here is not one of relevancy, but, rather the following researchable question for the African context seems to emerge: to what extent does religion provide a framework for viable development? In situations where social separation and obstacles to other forms of mobility are dominant, religion seems to provide a framework for cohesiveness and fulfill- ment. Perceived values were reflected in needs that corresponded to the well being of the family and society and to needs arising from the structural causes of problems. Values are linked with practical solutions to everyday problems. Values are related to family and clan security and a comfortable life as expressed in a religious context. These values provide the motivations for people's perceptions of social reality. As noted in the ranking of value perceptions, the three groups and their audiences in both countries do not Show dramatic differences in their perceptions. However, their value congruency is in contrast to the modes of 244 program production followed at the two centers which raises questions of serious concern. Many of the highly appropriate and meaningful values such as wisdom, comfor- table life, security, happiness, and family and clan security could be integrated into a participatory communi- cation experience. Thus, the content ideas Of producers could be drawn from contextualized communication that encompasses the wholeness of life rather than the boundaries of an encyclopedia. A second aspect of the same basic concern is the inter- relationship between board members, producers, directors, and policy makers. In a sense, decisions on what is to be communicated, to whom, when, for what purpose, and how cannot be made by those concerned with the production of programs. These are decisions that must be taken by policy makers, for it is they who appraise the situation, set the course Of action, and fix the priorities. Only then are communication people able to aid in converting resolutions into operations, messages into behavior, intents into effects, and plans into results. In a strict sense, therefore, communication for development, education, and religion has no strategy of its own. It requires the active and full involvement of policy makers for their decisions as to what messagcs will be sent and in what form, style, frequency, and length. They also must decide which of the available channels of communication are most 245 effective and for what purpose, which channels will predominate, which channels are best for which particular sub-audience, etc. The process of education and develop- ment depends upon peOple receiving new messages, new images, new pictures, new possibilities, and new oppor- tunities as to what life can be. The formulation of communication strategies, the integration of media use, the formulation of messages, and the follow-up of messages are parts of a working whole (see Figure 18). Communication continues even after the above steps have been taken. The accomplishments and the weaknesses of programs must be reported to the planners so that they can reappraise the situation, readjust the strategy, and start the cycle again. Formulating viable communication strategies for deve10pment is crucial to the communication process. Effective communication demands the commitment of all levels to develOping a viable strategy, planning coordinated media use, etc. This requires that there be a free flow of information and interaction between policy makers and those concerned with day-to-day Operations. Among the research questions that need to be asked in this area are (1) How are values developed in the learning experiences of people? and (2) Which values are most supportive of effective participation in communication for deve10pment? 246 Planning / Evaluating "The System" Pro ucing / Using Planning J Producing Using [:Evaluating Policy and Communication resource Formation of Research methodology decision development social conscious- development formation ness Manpower development: Resource evaluation a: ideology Conflict formation , » Integration of b. media use Solution building system Figure 18. Structural Ingredients of a Working Plan in the Use of Group Communication. 247 Development Many of the researchers in the sociology and anthro- pology of development have avoided any in-depth definition of 'develOpment'. Those who operate in the realm of economics and administration are much more explicit. They base their definition on terms such as consumption, income, and a vast range of elaborate quantitative indices. Technical unreliabilities in the availability of data (especially among Third World countries) as well as conflicting interpretations of quantitative data make much of the data meaningless. For the developing countries of Africa, dimensions such as injustice, poverty, and participation in social/spiritual growth are simply dis- guised by or lost in statistical aggregates. In the African context, these are vital aspects of humans in development and go beyond the concerns of the development discussions of the last decade. In Another Development: Approaches and Strategies, Nerfin (1977) focused on the need to de-emphasize 'growth' and called for a reorientation towards self-reliance. Seers (1977) characterized this type of development as being need- oriented, local in its context, small-scale, indigenous, and as seeking to transform the basic structures of society. 248 For the church, development means more than what is stipulated by social, political, and economic determinants. In its document, On the Interrelation between Proclamation of the GOSpel and Human Development, the Evangelical Church of Mekane Yesus in Ethiopia pointed to a new dimension that recognizes that there are values in life beyond those of modern technology and economic betterment without Which man's development will never be meaningful and lasting, (b) that man is not only a suffering creature who needs help but that he is also the most important development agent (1972). Based on this understanding, the study tried to assess how an understanding Of the development concept would be interpreted at the local context and how it relates to communication for development. The responses were varied; outstanding among the views in the two countries were the following: Tanzania. The responses to the question on development in Tanzania were markedly different from those obtained in Nigeria. The Tanzanian board members, all of whom are clergy (except one ex officio member), emphasized spiritual growth; while the producers and studio director emphasized social justice, human rights, freedom of religion, equal distribution of wealth, and political participation. Given the important role that ujamaa plays in the socio- political life of Tanzania, the board members' concern for more religious programming is understandable. However, 249 questions arise as to what kind of programs contribute, if at all, to the development of their listeners' religious needs. Since religious needs were rated rather low by the audience, one must also ask how effective such pro- grams might be. The second and equally significant understanding of development was along the socio-political and civic aspects of life. As discussed earlier, Tanzania is engaged in the process of transforming the entire socio-economic structure of the nation to a socialism of self-reliance based on agriculture which provides 95 percent of the pOpulation's livelihood. The policy aims at revolutionizing education to foster self-confidence and creative problem-solving in the students and the population at large. This unique situation, however, does not seem to be an integral part of Radio Sauti ya Injili. Given the claim that the studio receives over 26,000 letters per year, the possibility for small-scale participatory education pro- grams should be one of the most realistic steps for the studio to take. However, doing so would, ideally, neces- sitate an operational integration of the Church's communi- cation departments Which presently operate independently of each other. The study showed in both situations that concepts of participatory development could have meaningful impli- cations for development of the whole person in both 250 countries. However, this can be done only when there is commitment and interest on the part of the leadership on the policy-making level and an evaluation of the churches' understanding of their active involvement in development. Nigeria. Development was mainly expressed as having to do with national economic development first, and having to do with social aspects second. The most important determinant at the individual level was seen as the attain- ment of higher education (completion of high school, college, and university). The application of this value in the realm of communication for development was viewed in the production of programs that are mainly educational. The approach was further expressed in the interaction between teachers and learners. The absence of any concept of participatory development in the responses should be an area of concern for both policy makers and communicators. The great surge for 'examination and certificate' education predominates thinking in much of Nigeria today as industrialization attracts vast sectors of the population to the cities. The establishment, in 1974, of the National Institute for Adult Education in Jos is a milestone towards realizing an educational plan that exposes the learners to the social, economic, and cultural realities of development in their community and nation. 251 For Muryar Bishara, participation in this broad and yet realistic aspect of education for the whole person on a participatory basis gives meaning to its commitment to education for development. This encompassing view of education is, as Hickey (1973) noted, a process that concerns itself with everything that affects the well-being of all citizens within a given community (extending its role) from one of the traditional concept of teaching children to one of identifying needs, problems, and wants of the community and then assisting in the development (or identification) of facilities, programs, staff, and leadership toward the end of improving the entire community. Further study should be carried out to establish guidelines as to how participatory development could be carried out by policy makers and those engaged in communi- cation for development. The following questions could be focused on: (1) What are the characteristics of parti- cipatory deve10pment as it relates to our understanding of 'development of the whole person' in the African context? How do the dynamics of development relate to the Gospel on the one hand, and to the African worldview on the other? How do both relate to communication? (2) How is 'development of the whole person' seen in relation to current models of development (national/transnational)? and, (3) In what ways can 'participatory deve10pment' be included in structuring communication for deve10pment (for all media) along the aims of non-formal education? 252 Audience A reoccurring phenomenon about 'audience-knowledge' and the 'communication process' in Africa is that everybody seems to know it works even though statistics are rare or nonexistent and there are very few case studies. Program producers know exactly which audience they are reaching and with which message. Circulation managers are sure that their programs are widely distributed because lorry drivers go into remote villages. Radio program directors gladly tell of the wide reception to their programs. These are, of course, supported at best by the Opinions of friends and by general rumors. There are virtually no baseline data on African communication, audience delineation, and the role of the media. Because of the lack of information about the audience and the Often naive assumption that radio is able to 'reach all', the general view of the audience is one of a monolithic audience 'out there'. The responses to questions about audiences were not far from such a depiction. At both centers, programs were mostly develOped using the following criteria: (1) sex and age; (2) if there is program material; (3) obligation to the commitment of religious programs; (4) availability of an audience (time of day); and, (5) audience needs. In programming for a Moslem audience, opinions were varied as to how such programs are viewed, developed, and 253 delivered. Many of the decisions for such programs are left to the producer's imagination and creativity. None of the programs for Moslem audiences are related to any follow-up programs or involvement of the local church. In the same way, none of the other media of the churches relates directly to the output of radio programming. All of this points to the absence of an integrated con- nection between commitment, Objective, and delivery. Because of this, it seems that the religious programs follow the style of the 'extended pulpit,‘ while other programs are produced as the material and ideas are found to be useful. Realizing both the inherent limitations of radio as a medium and the Obvious high cost involved in buying daily air time, the churches will have to seriously rethink their communication outreach programs. A systems approach which envisages an institutional framework within each country to enable various resources of education, development, and media use, could be developed as integrated components, operating in a single system. The following questions need to be considered in the future: (1) There is a definite need for exploring what proclamation by radio really means in the local context. To this should be added an exploration of the meaning of audience relations as an aspect of the beginning of 254 interpersonal communication. What actually is the role of the church in this context? For Christian communication is said to succeed or fail on the strength of its follow-up work. (2) What ought to be the theological and conceptual framework guiding the Church's proclamation and develop- ment programming for audiences whose culture and religion require special attention? At what point and how do theories of society and theology interact in planning for communication of development and proclamation? The 30/70 Formula The yardstick for 'balanced programming' which aimed at presenting a Christian attitude towards society, the individual, and all aspects of life has been for some a general and positive guideline. Yet for others it has been a pointer in the direction of the individual producers' or policy makers' point of view regarding programming. For the director at Jos, there was "no distinction in a 30/70 balance." The important thing was to develOp a "100 percent good program." The Tanzania director saw it differently: "The need is for much more religious programs. Our audiences want that, and it is the Church's policy." The range of understanding about the formula varied greatly. The formula has been restated by Dr. John Bachman who suggested a conceptualization in a three-dimensional and at the same time interactive framework of proclamation, 255 education, and service; thus providing a more encom- passing understanding of 'development of the whole person'. At the present time, however, the 30/70 formula is still widely talked about and interpreted in various ways. When it comes to the actual production of programs, few producers are concerned about how it is to be applied. The formula can greatly benefit the church's direction and policy in communication would be enhanced if a cross-culturally based effort that is reflective of an African worldview expression of 'proclamation, education, and service' is undertaken. Program Conception, Resources, Form, and Content Producers at both studios follow more or less similar approaches in the conceptualization of programs, identi- fication of program resources, and the production of programs. Upon deciding the general audience by sex and the kind of program deemed necessary, the time segment to be used, and production aspects, the producer is responsible for actually creating a program in accordance with the proposed theme. Programs are produced mainly centered around the favorable aspects of service or product use and mainly have a one-sided message. This was Observed in comparison with the two-sided method of presenting a message [i.e., incor- porating both the positive and the negative aspects of the 256 messages as studied by Hovland (1948)]. This is not to say that Hovland's theory would be valid in the situations in Tanzania and Nigeria, but the one-sided and positive approach to programming can, in terms of effectiveness, raise questions, particularly when a good portion of the programming is aimed at an audience having very definite and deeply rooted behavioral attitudes against what is advocated. Several studies have shown that educational programs that use entertainment have a significant effect on audiences. Only a minority of the population listens to purely educational programs, while a majority of the popu- lation, which does not have an adequate level of education, may be more prone to turn on entertainment programs. This has something to say for how non-formal education could be approached, particularly in cultures where solutions may be sought to salient problems relevant to the development of society. Certainly such an approach can help ease the heavy dependency on the volumes of books, magazines, encyclopedias, and reference materials, much of which has little relevance to the local context. Development is indeed a response to the human desire for change. It is the experience of men and women as they become the subject and object of their own improvement. There can never be a better program resource for African 257 development than its own human resources. For the local context, a mere transference of content from books and authoritative sources to a passive receiver does not contribute to that person's development of a critical consciousness or to a person's capacity for contributing to and influencing society. The content and form of programming ought to reflect faith in the people's ability to learn for change and for their liberation from ignorance, poverty, and exploitation. Content and form should further lead towards closer contact with the learners' own reality and problems. In the process, communicators should also reaffirm that they are no less learners than the audience. Barriers to Communication Among the main barriers to communication identified at both studios were those having to do with cultural, experiential, and perceptual barriers. These barriers are certainly a much deeper and more involved area of central concern and require an in-depth study in themselves. The attempt in this study has been to expose the issues and bring to consciousness that there is even more that we need to know further. For the purposes of this study, these 'barrier gaps' may be characterized by (1) the distance (isolation) which communication practice maintains from the experience of the local context; (2) the 258 theoretical bases of media practice which makes 'develOpment of the whole person' more of an idea than a reality in participation; and, (3) the preclusion of analysis of an understanding of humans as having a corporate identity as a family in an African worldview, on the one hand, and a theological base for such reflection on the other. Concept and Form In both cases, programming concepts were understood along educational and developmental lines. Producers particularly view their programs as highly educational. An inadequate realization that the best educational messages are those which the audience helps to design is, however, a critical shortcoming. Short of that, efforts in educa— tional programs will only result in a one-way extensionist and authoritarian position, sending out much information and not confronting the learner with the reality of the local context. Media Use (Support) In the two centers studied, as in many other African countries (private as well as government), development plans for education and communication are, traditionally, planned separately. Within mass media outreach programs, especially in the case of Tanzania, the departments of 259 information, education, audio-visuals, literature, radio, cassettes (established in the radio department but as a separate project), and print media Operate in clearly separated structures, although they are governed by one board Of directors. Nothing can be more productive, effective, and even efficient than for the churches to face up to their communi- cation responsibilities and reconstruct their programming in a manner that will reflect a structure related to the local context. This framework would enable various resources of non-formal education, as integrated components, to operate as a single system. Such systems will allow a meaningful approach to devising new strategies and to establishing priorities in light of major needs and available resources. These strategies would have the following implications: (1) the whole system.would be coordinated and planned at the highest level and down through the Operational and production levels to the field level. This would apply to all educational and mass media agencies; (2) a reappraisal and transformation in the relationships between the communicator and the learners would be required; (3) appropriate forms of communication would be determined on the basis of Which could best carry out particular tasks. Each media operation would be responsible for output and utilization; and (4) 260 there would be evaluation and research at every cycle of operation. Such research would examine the aims, objec- tives, methods, and techniques used in programs and so help programmers avoid resorting to what Freire has called 'the banking concept'. The audience in this situ- ation is envisaged to be a participating, active, and responsive partner in the communication process. Indigenous Communication For most people in rural Africa today, the traditional systems of social communication are the appropriate, viable, and effective means upon which all other mass media could be made to operate as a unified system. Decision- makers of national or private organizations and technicians can work with rural and urban people to use indigenous forms of communication as a means of achieving development goals. In the African context, indigenous communication is viewed as (l) a system which allows maximum and direct participation. This system, which allows for the expression of distinctive cultural traits, can also elicit and regulate the desirable behavior patterns; (2) a means of challenging old and deeply-rooted values. These values can be challenged because of the possibility of generating appropriate perception and broad unanimity; (3) a means of providing for the creation of small groups 261 and for providing a setting that encourages the emotional involvement necessary for facilitating behavior change in the deve10pment process; and, (4) providing a means of keeping small groups alive and buSy with a constant flow of tasks. These groups, which would be organized along local and regional levels, would be relatively easy to keep motivated through intergroup communication and could constantly carry on the development process. Recommendations Condensed as a derivation Of the discussions carried on in the preceding pages, the following recommendations are submitted for further reflection and action. In most cases in Africa, Christian communication work has been a result of the initiative, courage, and vision of one or a few people. We find today that the churches are not fully involved in assuming responsibility for mass communication, and that the mass media have tended to operate as separate entities. For the most part, mass media outreach programs have, at best, only a loose relationship with the total work of the Church in society. One of the main reasons for this seems to be that the conceptions and origins of media outreach programs have not taken into account the constraints of the local context. It may also be because the Church has failed 262 to develop a clear understanding of the role of communi- cation, perhaps because of its preoccupation with its own institutional stability and its need to establish a predominant role in society. As a communicating body that has a functional role to interact with society, the Church should seek to interact with men and women in matters that are compelling and relevant. It should also seek to speak with new tongues; the songs and idioms that are the cultural and religious heritage of the people should be added to the language of the Church. Developing such a new beginning for the Church would imply O Rethinking and reformulating the Church's role and function in communication vis-S-vis its understanding of 'development of the whole person', establishing objectives, and setting priorities relevant to the local context. O Identifying with the culture of the people and using the forms of thought and modes of communication that are natural and familiar in their own environment. O Seeking to identify with the world and true to its calling, the Church, together with the theological colleges should get out of the present "theological enclave" and walk the road of the grassroots and speak the language of God's people. The Church is in Africa and its mark of identification 263 and purpose is its identity with the people and their mode of communi- cation. O Identifying with African culture not only through the use Of languages but also through the development of forms of expression in art, music, dance, history, and the traditions of the land; thereby creating and recreating the transformation of the culture. God has already blessed the drums by establishing the Church among people who can speak by the use of the ease! O Introducing workshops, seminars, and courses at all levels of schools, theo- logical colleges, and seminars throughout Africa. In areas where the churches had at least a basic understanding of the potential of mass media, there was still a gap between media professionals and church leader- ship. The absence of understanding about the media and the lack of interest in its operations among the leader- ship has contributed to a serious breakdown in the components of learning delivery systems, the disintegration of follow-up efforts, media coordination, and message identification. The use of media is always experimental since no one can guarantee its success. For that reason, the media should not be thought of as magical. The churches should 264 seek to establish a basic stance regarding multi-media outreach programs with a clear statement as to what the educational objectives of such programs are; who is to benefit from such learning experiences; which medium is to be used, when, in what mix, and at what time; and, what types of follow-up efforts are to be offered. As shown in Figure 19, the process of evaluation and reevaluation is a continuous process. The characteris- tics of such a strategy would include O Developing overall communication policies and plans for development at all levels of the decision-making body. O DevelOping a participatory need appraisal of the society, groups, and individuals thus providing situational data and a critical assessment of the local reality. O Allocating as an investment, Specific funds for development communication in a scale that realistically corresponds to the urgency and extent of the development communication plan. O Wherever possible, assembling learners not as an amorphous mass, but as groups related to the real local situation, reflecting and acting towards meaningful development. Learners would not be passive listeners but active reflectors. 265 .wcwumoam>mlom pom .wawuooam>m .wcwccmam OH coauoafiowuumm Hmwoom mo mmoooum mooocwucou o no coaumowcoEEOo muoudeOfiuumm .mH ouowem modumucoao~eam mo I o I noduoaum>o huoOmm«Ouuumm \. 0' all I'- \ \ —\ 1.4. / :o«umnuouuumm . AhmOuohum ‘ muscuos< . no noduoueoaoass .I I I .I I I .II} 5 I someone... mausoaaodoe'oo I I .l l. A floccuuooaoo uo wcummoooum ./ _/ I. ...moaum«uOuomuoso ~s=ou> Iwocw .masoum .huOuoOm uo monumumeo moo: AHOuomuowuuom owmmmol one “access .mo«u«>uuom undemo~o>oo I m I .:o«u=0u:« no co«uo~=auom 266 O Establishing a participatory evaluative body, the purpose of which would be to ensure the implementation of communication as a social right and to make critical judgements for future improvements. O Establishing a re-evaluation of the original intent of the program and reformulating the original plans. The advantages of the above approach to development communication are that it (1) provides learners and communicators with an Opportunity for mutual enrichment through praxis and participatory needs assessment; (2) generates learning from an experience of interaction that is grounded on culturally relevant value perceptions; (3) provides a learning experience for participants and helps to develop critical interaction; (4) provides the learner with an Opportunity to develop and reflect upon content and reality and to form critical judgements for further action and reflection; (5) helps to establish a diversified social context for the learners and to develop critical and insightful reflections upon the local context. This means the provision of a broad social diversification base; and, (6) provides for adequate evaluation procedures and assures that the interests of the local context will be considered. The need to develop a systematic means of pooling and processing documentation and resources is equally 267 as important as the need to develOp innovative planning approaches. Creating documentation and resource centers would imply Studying and identifying objectives in the communication plan and evaluating outcomes. Developing such resources and idea pools only from the local context and relating them to communication work in a specific area. This would require assessing and evaluating ongoing programs against social realities and close cooperation with local communication centers. Using such centers to serve local and regional programs, eventually expanding them to work on a continental basis. Experimenting with new and locally useful approaches to educational programming. The center could be best used in this manner because methods need to be developed to meet the sepecific needs of local areas. Many of the current methods are based on formal education,journalistic mass media, and other experiences from technically more developed and specialized Western societies. Using the centers to encourage cross- cultural communication on a continental level. Developing adequate policies and financial support. Though these are important for the long run, the immediate need is to 268 gain the support of those who are assigned the responsibility for trans- forming the communication centers already in operation. For this, only goodwill and commitment are required. In the long-run, development communication efforts will need to Train people--both in congregations and at different levels--in the arts, dance, and oral traditions and in the use of different media. Evaluate programs before, during, and after learning experiences have taken place and determine which are critical events after taking into consideration the message sent, the channel used, and the learner. Develop appropriate media mixtures that are based on the objectives in the deve10pment plan. Those involved in the communication field will no doubt subscribe to these proposals without difficulty, but they are not the ones who will subsequently turn them into a reality. It is up to the policy makers and church leaders in agencies who have been given the duty and responsibility to set the course of the churches in their mission to decide whether or not they want to make communication a vital avenue of mission, education, and 269 development. It is they who will decide whether or not the churches in Africa will be faithful to their commitment and calling or will continue in weariness and stagnation. Given the social and economic costs of the mass media, the churches in Africa today cannot afford to use the media for development without taking the utmost care and basing their decisions on assessed knowledge. This becomes even more crucial as one watches the deve10pment of a new communication technology that can be used to meet community needs, especially those relating to self expression and dialogue. Communication in Africa needs to be approached from a new perspective that will break away from conceiving communication as unidimensional and a tool for persuasion. By constantly evaluating, analyzing, and avoiding past misconceptions, we can make communication interactive and a source of mutual discovery. Doing so will make its impact greater and help millions of human beings in Africa to attain, through the deve10pment of the whole person, the dignity, happiness, peace, and prosperity they so well deserve. LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES General Books and Articles Adegbola, A. From Tribalism to Nationhood. In J. C. Bennett (Ed.), Christian Social Ethics in a Changing World. London: OxfOrdIUniversity Press, I974. Alkin, M. C. Evaluation Theory and Development. Evaluation Comment, 1969, 2, 2-7. (Center for Study Ofvaaluation, University of California at Los Angeles). Allport, G. W. & Odbert, H. S. Trait-names: A Psycho— logical Study. Psychological Monographs, 1936, 47. Amin, S. Accumulation on a World Scale: A Critique of the Theory of Underdevelopment. New York: Monthly Review Press,71974. Anderson, J. G. Health Services Utilization: Framework and Review. Health Service Research, 1973, 8, 184-195. Anderson, W. B. The Church in East Africa 1840-1974, Dodoma, Tanzania: Dodoma Publishing House, 1977. Aske, S. Ministering Through Mass Communication. In His Kingdom and His Will. Augustana Missions, 1960, 1, 19. Aske, S. Radio Voice of the Gospel. International Review Review of Mission, 1967, 56, 355-364. Aske, S. Building a Radio Station. In Radio Voice of the Gospel. Addis Ababa: Radio Voice Of_the Gospel, 1968. Bachman, J. Communication of the Gospel is More Than Proclamation. WACC Journal, 1973, XX, 3-10. Ball, J. Process: The Conceptual Basis for Communication. Research Principles and Practices in Visual Communication. East Lansing: Michigan State University,l960. 270 271 Baran, P. A. & Sweezy, P. M. An Essay on the American ‘Economic Social Order. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1966. Bater, M. L. Tanganyika. In G. M. Carter (Ed.) African One-Party States. Ithaca & New York: 1962. Becker, H. Current Sacred—Secular Theory and Its Develop- ment. In H. Becker & A. Boskoff (Eds.), Modern Sociological Theory in Continuityyand Change. New York: Dryden Press, 1957. Berger, P. The Sacred Canopy. New York: Doubleday Inc., 1967. Berlo, D. K. The Process of Communication: Introduction to Theory and Practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and’Winston, 1960. Bienen, H. Tanzania: Party Transformation and Economic Development. Princeton: 1967. Bogue, D. The Use of Radio for Social Development. The Community and Family Study Center, Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979. Bowers, J. The Use and Production of Media in Non—Formal Adult Education (Background Paper No. 6). Essex, Connecticut: *International Council for Educational Development, July 1972. Buchanan, K. M. Reflections on Education in the Third World. Nottingham: BertranduRussellgPeace Foundation, 1975. Cabral, A. Our People Are Our Mountains. London: Committee for FreedOm in Mozambique, Angola and Guinea, 1971. Civille, J. R. Ujamaa Socialism: An Analysis of Socialism of Julius K. Nyerere in the Light of Catholic Church Teaching. New York: 1976. Cole, Gay, Glick, & Sharp. The Cultural Context of Learning and Thinking. New York: *Basic BoOks, Inc., 1971. Coleman, W. F. & Okoku, A. An African Experiment in Radio Forums for Rural Development (Reports and Papers on Mass CommunicatiOn, NO. 51). Paris: Unesco, 1968. Cooley, C. H. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Schocken, 1964. Coombs, P. H. The World Educational Crisis: A Systems Analysis. OxfOrd University Press, 1968. 272 Coombs, P. H. & Ahmed, M. AttackingiRural Poverty: How Non-Formal Education Can HElp. *(Prepared'fOr the World Bank by the International Council on Educational Devel- opment). Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974. Cronbach, L. J. Course Improvement through Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen & J. R. Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington,—Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. (Teachers College Record, 1963, 64, 672-683.) Cultures (Vol. 1, No. 4). Paris: Unesco and la Baconnaiere, 1974. Dahman, G. The Presentation of the Christian Message Today. The Christian Broadcaster, 1967, XIV. Davidson, B. The Growth of African Civilization: History of West AfrIEa, 1000-1800. Longman, Green & CO,7196§. DeFleur, M. L. Theories of Mass Communication (2nd edition). New York: McKay, 1970. Desai, P. V. M. Ujamaa Villages: A Tanzanian Experiment in Rural Development, African Quarterly, 1976, 16, 2. de Sola, P. Communication and Development. In Myron Weiner (Ed.), Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth. New York: Basic Books, 1966. Deutsch, K. W. Social Mobilization and Political Develop- ment. Jason L. Finkle & Richard W. Gable, (Eds.), Political Development and Social Change. New York: WiIey,1966. Deutsch, M. and Gerard, H. B. A Study of Normative and Informational Social Influence Upon Individual Judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1955, 51. Doob, L. Communication in Africa: A Search for Boundaries, Yale University Press, 1961. Dorson, R. Folklore Research Around the World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961. Dorson, R. African Folklore: Papers of the African Folklore Conference. New York} Doubleday Anchor, 1972. Durkheim, E. Division of Labor in Society, (Trans. George Simpson). _G1encoe: The Free Press, 1933. 273 Esayas, M. Christian Programs within African Culture_ Paper delivered to the All Afiica CommunicatiOn Congress, Nairobi, Kenya, 1971. Esayas, M. Audience Research in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Radio Voice of the Gospel, Department of Research and Planning, 1972. Esayas, M. Tanzanian Audience Survey. Addis Ababa: Radio Voice of the Gospel, 1974. Esayas, M. Some Problems of Communication Research in Africa. In S. Hamelink (Ed.), Communication Research in the Third World: The Need for Training. Hong Kong and Geneva: Lutheran World Federation, Department of Studies,1976. Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus. On the Interrelation between Proclamation of the GOspel and Human Develop— ment. Addis Ababa: 1972. Fernandez, J. W. African Religious Movements. In Roland Robertson (Ed.), Sociology of Religion. London: Penguin, 1969. Festinger, L. Informal Social Communication, Psychological Review, 1950, 51. Finnegan, R. Limba Stories and Story-Telling. London: Oxford UniVersity Press,’1967. Finnegan, R. Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Fisher, H. (Ed.), Essays. In Franklin Clark Fry, Palette for a Portrait. Gettysburg: 1972. Forde, D. African Worlds. Oxford University Press, lnternationaiiAfrican Institute, 1976. Frank, A. G. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies Of7Chili and Brazil. New York: Modern Review Press, 1967. Freire, P. Cultural Freedom in Latin America. In Louis M. Colonnese (Ed.), Human Rights and the Liberation of Man in the Americas. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1970. Freire, P. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press, 1970. 274 Freire, P. Educationfor Critical Consciousness. New York: Seabury Press, 1973. Fry, F.C. Inaugural Address. Radio Voice of the Gospel, Addis Ababa: 1963. (Mimeographed) Galtung, J.H. & Ruge, M.H. The Structure of Foreign News, Journal of Peace Research, 5: 64-69 (Oslo, Universitets Forlaget.) Gebremedhin, N. (Ed.). Instruction Manuals for Interviewers. Addis Ababa: Radio VOice of the Gospel, Department of Audience Research and Planning, 1974. Gerbner, G. Cultural Indicators: The Third Voice. 1973. Glass, G.V. Design of Evaluation Studies. In B.R. Worthen and J.R. Sanders, Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A.'Jones, 1973. Goody, J.R. (Ed.), Literacy in Traditional Societies. London: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Gooler, D.D. & Groteleuschen, A. Process Accountability in Curriculum Development. In B.R. Worthen & J.R. Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. (CurriEulum Theory Network, 1970, Special Issue, No. l) Government of Tanzania. Population Census, 1967. In Tanzania: Notes and Records. (5, No. 83) Dar es Salaam: Author, 1978. Grandstaff, M. Non-Formal Education and an Expanded Conception of DevElopment (Report NO. 1, Program of Studies in NOnéFOrmal Education Discussion Papers). East Lansing, Michigan State University, 1973. Greenberg, J. Islam and Clan Organization.among the Hausa. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 1947, 5, 193-211. Grobman, H. Evaluation Activities of Curriculum Projects: A Starting Point. Chicago: RanndNally & Co., 1968. Grove, A.T. Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1978. Hamelink, S. (Ed.). Communication Research in the Third World: The Need for Training, Hong Kong and Geneva: Lutheran WOrld Federation, Department of Studies, 1976. Hammond, R.L. Evaluation at the Local Level. In B.R. Worthen & J.R. Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. JOnes, 1973. 275 Hanf, T. & Ammann, K. Education: An Obstacle to Develop- ment. Comparative Education Review, 1975. Harbison, F. H. The Development of Nationwide Learnipg, Systems: A Sector Approach fOr Assessment of National Development from a Human Resources Perspective. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University, Research Program in Economic Development, 1973. (Mimeograph) Hickey, H. The Role of the School in Community Education. Midland, Michigan: Pendell Publishing Co., 1969. Hill, F. Ujamaa: African Socialist Productism in Tanzania. 1975. Hjekshus, H. The Villagization Panacea: A Review of Tanzania's U’amaa Policy. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrika Institutet, .978. Hovey, R. L. Cognitive Styles in African Cultures: The Global-Articulations Dimension. Ph.D. diSsertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1971. Hovland, C. 1.; Lumsdaine, A. A.; & Sheffield, F. Experiments in Mass Communication. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1948, 5. Illich, I. Celebration of Awareness. 1970. Illich, I. Deschooling Society. New York: Harper and Row, 1971. Imbiti, J. S. African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann, 1970. International Press Institute. The Flow of the News: A Study of the International Press Institute. Zurich: Imprimerie Ganguin,1953. Katoke, I. K. The Coming of the Gospel and African Reactions. In C. K. Omari (Ed.), Essays on Church and Society. Tanzania, 1976. Katz, E. & Logarsfeld, P. F. The Effects of Mass Communi- cation. New York: The Free Press, 1955. Keep Religion Out Of Politics. Re orter, October 1963, 14-20. (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania) Klapper, J. The Effects of Mass Communication. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1960. 276 Kritzinger, T. N. T. Islam as a Rival of the Gospel in Africa. Evangelical Newsletter, 1981, 5, Lane, D. S. The End of Inequality? Stratification Under State Sociaiism. Baltimore: Penguine Books, 1971. Lasswell, H. The Structure and Function of Communication in Society. In Schramm, WI (Ed.), Mass Communication. Urbana: 1960. Legum, C. Africa in the 19803: A Continent in Crisis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. Lerner, D. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958. Lerner, D. Communication Systems and Social Systems. In W. Schramm (Ed.), Mass Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,—1960. Lerner, D. Towards a Communication Theory of Modernization. In L. N. Pye (Ed.), Communication and Political Develop- ment. Princeton: PrihCetonthiversity Press, 1963. Levey, M. J., Jr. Modernization and the Structure of Societies. (1, ll). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966. Loomis, C. P. & Alan, B. Rural Social Systems. New York: Prentice Hall, 1950. Lundgren, M. Use of Mass Media in the Ministry of the Church. Evangelical Church MékaneiYesus, Eighth General Assembly, 1973. Lundgren, M. The Church in Communication -- Review of Priorities. (Paper presented’at Consultation on‘the 'Church's Involvement in Communication, Nigeria, July, 1974). ‘ MacDonald, A. Tanzania: Young Nation in a Hurry. London: Hawthorne Books Inc., 1966. Magogo, D. Letter to the Lutheran World Federation, Office of Consultative Services. Geneva, February 12, 1980. Mahbub al Haq. Development and Independence. Development Dialogue (NO. l). 1974. McGinn, N. E. The Psycho-Social Method of Paulo Freire: Some Lessons from Experience. In Inter-American Seminar on Literacy in Social and Economic Development. New York: World EducatiOn, 1973. 277 Mead, M. Continuation in Cultural Evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964. Merton, R. K. Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1961. Mishra, V. M. Communication and Modernization in Urban Slums. London: Asia Publishing House Ltd., 1970. Moore, W. E. Social Chan e. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice Hall, 1963. Mussa, T. The Importance of the Opportunity Which Christianity has in Ujamaa. African Theological Journal, 1977, 5:2. Myrdal, G. The Challenge of World Poverty. New York: Pantheon BOOks, Random House, 1970. Myrdal, G. What is Development? (Paper in honor of the late Professor Ayres), n.d. Nationalist. June 10, 1965; July , 1971. Nerfin, M. (Ed.), Another Development: Approaches and Strategies. Uppsala, SWeden. Dag Hammarskjoldf Foundation, 1977. Neurath, P. M. Radio Farm Forums in India. Delhi: Government of India Press, 1960. Nigerian National Council on Adult Education Resolution Adopted at the International Seminar in Jos, Nigeria, July, 1974. Nyerere, J. Speech published by Information Service, Ministry of Information and Tourism, Dar es Salaam. October 16, 1970. Nyerere, J. Freedom and Socialism. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press, 1968. Omari, C. K. African§ocialism and the Mission of the Church. Arusha, Tanzania: 1977. Parson, T. The Social Systems. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1951. Provus, M. Evaluation on Research, Research on Evaluation. Educational Technology, August 1970. 278 Provus, M. Evaluation of Ongoing Programs in the Public School System. In Worthen & Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. Pye, L. W. Communication Patterns and the Problem of Representative Government in Non-Western Societies. Public Opinion Qperterl 1958, 55, Pye, L. W. (Ed.) Communication and Political Development. Princeton, N. 37: Princeton University Press, 1963. Radio Sauti ya Injili. Rapoti ya Mandeleo ya MWaka wa Kazi, 1980/81: KKT-Sauti ya Injili (Studio Director's Report, 1980/81: KKT-Sauti ya Injili). Moshi, Tanzania: Author, 1981. Rao, U. V. L. The Role of Information in Economic and Social Change. University of Minnesota Press, 1963. Redfield, R. The Little Community. Chicago: University of ChicagoiPress, I955. Riesman, D. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961. Rogers, E. M. Communication Channels in the Diffusion of Technology: combining Mass Media and Interpersonal Channels. East Lansing: Michigan State University, . Mimeograph) Rogers, E. M. & Shoemaker, F. F. Communication of Innovations: A Cross Cultural Approach. New York: The Free Press, I971. Rokeach, M. The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free Press,—1973. Rokeach, M. Beliefserttitudes and Values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, I976. Rosengren, K. E. International News: Methods, Data and Theory. Journal of Peace Research, 1974, 55, 145-156. (Oslo, Universitets Forlaget.) Rostow, W. W. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non- Communisithanifesto. Cambridge UniverSIty Press, 1971. Rudolph, L. & Rudolph S. H. The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967. 279 Sapir, E. Communication. In Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. New York: Macmillan Co., 1935. Schiller, H. I. Mass Communication and the American Empire. New York: A.’M. Kelley Co., 1969. Schramm, W. Mass Media and National Development: The Role of Information in Developing Countries. Stanford: Stanford’University Press, 1964. Schramm, W. Media for Non-Formal Education. In Bingedia, Little Media. Stanford University: Institute7for Communication Research, 1973. Schramm, W. & Ruggels, W. L. How Mass Media Svstems Grow. In Lerner, D. and Schramm, W. (Eds.) Communication and Change in DevelopinngOuntries. Honolulu: East West Center Press, 1967. Scriven, M. The Methodology of Evaluation. In Pers ectives of Curriculum Evaluation. Chicago: Rand McNalIy, 1967 Seers, D. The New Meaning of Development. International Development Review, 1977, XIX, 5, 2-7. Smith, M. G. The Hausa of Northern Nigeria. In J. L. Gibbs (Ed.), Peoples of Africa' New York: Holt Rinehart, 1965. Sorokin, P. Sociological Theories of Today. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Spencer, E. Principles of Sociology. (I, Third edition), New York: Appleton & Co., 1898—18991 Stake, R. E. The Countenance of Educational Evaluation. In Gephart & Ingle (Eds.) Educational Research: Selected Readings. Columbus: Charles MerrilI Publishing Company, 1969. Stake, R. E. The Countenance of Educational Evaluation. Teachers College Record, 1967,55, 523-40. Stake, R. E. & Denny T. Needed Concepts and Techniques for Utilizing More Fully the Potentials of Evaluation. In B. R. Worthen & J. R. Sanders (Eds.) Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice, Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. Stufflebeam, D. L. Educational Evaluation and Decision Making. In B. R. Worthen & J. R. Sanders (Eds.) Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. 280 Suggate, L. S. Africa. 1950. Taba, H. Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962 Tamas, S. The Structure of Society and Its Changes in the AfricanCountries. Studies in Developing Countries (NO. 76). Budapest: University of Budapest, 1975. Taylor, P. A. & Maguire, T. O. A Theoretical Evaluation Model. Manitoba Journal of Educational Research, 1966. 5, 12-17. Temu, A. J. & Kumambo, C. N. (Eds.) The Rise and Triumph of Nationalism: A History of Tanzania. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1969. Tippett, A. R. FijianfiMaterial Cultures: A Study of Cultural Context, Function, and Change. Honolulu: BiShop Museum Press, 1968. Toennies, F. Community and Society. Charles P. Loomis (Trans.). East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1957. Unesco, Mass Media in the Developing Countries: Reports and Papers on Mass COmmunication (No. 33).7Paris: Author, 1961. Unesco, International Conference on Communication Policies (Report CC/MD 142), June, 1979. Paris: Author. Unesco, Minutes of the General Conference (Volume 1). Resolutions of the 19th Meeting in Nairobi, Oct. 26- Nov. 30, 1976. Vaccaro, L. C. Non-Formal Education -- Lessons to be Learned. Delta Epsilon Bulletin, 1979. XXIV, 5-12. Vansina, J. Oral Tradition: A Study of Historical Methodology. ”LondOn: Routledge andPKegan Paul, 1961. Ward, T. Non-Formal Education -- What is it? East Lansing: Michigan State University, n.d. (Mimeograph) Ward, T. & Dettoni, J. Increasing Learning Effectiveness Through Evaluation. In Ward & Herzog (Eds.) Effective Learning in Non-Formal Education. East Lansing: ‘Michigan State University, 1974. 281 William, R. M. Values. In E. Sills (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. New York: Macmillan, 1968. Worthen, B. R. & Sanders, J. R. (Eds.). Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice. WOrthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1973. Lutheran World Federation Documents Department of Church Cooperation. The All Africa Lutheran Conference (Fridjov Birkeli, Director). Held at Marangu, Tanganyika, 1956. Department of Church Cooperation. Minutes. Staten Island, New York, USA, 1957a. Department of Church Cooperation. Report: 1952-1957. Lutheran World Assembly, August 15-25, 1957b. Department of Church Cooperation. Memorandum to the Executive Committee of the LWF re Proposed Lutheran Radio Stations in Africa. October 1958. Department of Church Cooperation. Agenda. Nyborg Strand, Denmark, 1959a. Department of Church COOperation. The Geneva Agreement: NECC/LWF Consultation re Proposed Christian Radio Stations in Ethiopia. Geneva, SWitzerland, June 849, 1959b. Department of Church Cooperation. Minutes. Bukoba, Tanganyika, 1960a. Department of Church Cooperation. Second All Africa Conference. Antisrabe, Madagascar. Septemher 8-18, 0b. Department of Church COOperation. Minutes: Division of LWF Affairs, National Lutheran Council. Octhber 30-3I, 1962. Department of Church COOperation. Lutheran Hour/Lutheran WOrld Federation: Cooperation in Radio Evangelism. June 28, 1978. 282 Department of Communication. Church/Media Consultation. Kitwe, Zambia, November 7-11, 1977. Department of Communication. Report of the Consultation for West African Church Leaders, Studio Directors, and Church Communicators. Jos, Nigeria, November 1980. Department of Communication. Report of the Consultation for East African Church Leaders, Studio Diiectors, and Church Communicators. Arusha, Tanzania, March 1981. Department of Communication, Board of Directors. Agenda. Uppsala, Sweden, 1964. Department of Communication, Board of Directors. A enda: Report I. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, January 19-2I, 1971. Joint Report of the Task Force on Mass Communication and the Task Force on Publication Strategy. 1972. Lutheran World. 1959-1960. News Release, No. 2. 1957. News Release, NO. 17. 1958. Notes on Meeting between ELCT, the LWF/DC, and FEBA. ELCT Lutheran Centre, Arusha, Tanzania, November 8, 1979. Interviews Rev. Daniel Magogo (MP), Studio Director, Radio Sauti ya Injili. Moshi, Tanzania. February 28, 1981. Rev. S. O. Masangi, Chairperson, Board of Evangelism and Mission, Evangelical Church of Tanzania. ELCT Lutheran Centre, Arusha, Tanzania. March 1981. Mr. Dick Mbodwam, Director, Muryar Bishara Communication Centre. March 1981. Mr. Fleming Kramp, LWF Communication Consultant for Africa, March 1981. APPENDICES APPENDIX A The Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus Statement on the Interrelation between Proclamation of the Gospel and Human Development 283 APPENDIX A THE EVANGELICAI. CHURCH MEKANE YESUS STATEMENT ON THE INTERBELATION BETWEEN PROCLAMATION OF THE GOSPEL AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT In May 1972 the-Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus in Ethiopia issued a statement on the c Interrelation between Proclamation of the Gospel and Human Development a to the Lutheran World Federation, of which it is a member, and to other churches around the world. This statement raises a number of important questions concerning the concept of development and the relationship between evangelism and development work, between witness and service; questions concerning the criteria for aid, and the relationship between the . receiving :- churches and the . giving .. churches, mission boards, and other donor agencies. Because these issues are crucial for the understanding of the mission of the Church and of interchurch relationships, this statement has provoked a great deal of discussion and response among churches and mission bodies the world over. This statement also provides the background for a Lutheran World Federation Consultation on Proclamation and Development to be held in Nairobi, Kenya, 21-25 October 1974. ON THE INTEBRELATION BETWEEN PROCLAMATION OF THE GOSPEL AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT In January 1971, the Seventh General Assembly of the Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (ECMY) pass- ed a resolution requestin the Lutheran World Fed- eration to approach the onor agencies in Germany and other countries with a view to reconsidering their criteria for aid and to including direct support for congregational work, leadership training, and church buildings. . This action was prompted. on the one hand, by the fact that the ECMY realized its own inability to cope with the fastgrowing congregational work and the opportunities for evangelistic outreach in 'this country. On the other hand, the church had become more and more concerned about the prevailing im- balance in the assistance given to the church by its overseas partners. It is true that the church had become more and more aware of its Obligation to serve our fellow people and society bi engaging itself in communit and social development projects. The church coulcf' not responsibly let the opportunities to et funds for development projects go by without maiing the fullest possible use of them. Over a number of years, the church has therefore consider- ed it its responsibility and privilege to work out project requests which would meet the criteria decided by the donor agencies. It is also with great gratitude that the church acknowledges the ge- nerosity on the part of the donor agencies in grantixexg ds or so many development projects present by the ECMY. At the same time, the church, in faithfulness to its Lord, realized its obligation to proclaim the gospel to the ever-growing crowds expecting more than bread. The church cannot possibly remain silent where a genuine spiritual need is prevailin and people in thousands are flocking to newly esta lish- ed churches and in places where there are no churches to hear the Good News. Finding that its own resources are insuflicient both in personnel and funds. the church has called on a number of churches and mission organizations in the West to come and help. In its of the encouraging response received. the ch is not able to cope with the situation. ' In turning to its overseas partners and sister churches in the West for assistance in the work which has been regarded as the prime responsibility of the church both in the field of development and proclamation of the faith, it has become evident over the last few years that the churches and agencies in the West are readily prepared to assist in ma ' development while there seems to be little interest in helping the church meet its primary obligation to proclaim the gospel. From the African point of view. it is hard to understand this division and the dichotomy created in the West and reflected in the “criteria for assistance laid down by the donor avencies. The ECMY therefore felt that it was its responsibi- lity as well as its duty to call the attention of the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) to this. in our opinion, most vital issue. In consequence. the res- ident of the ECMY, H. E. Emmanuel Abraham, addressed a letter to the general secretary of the LWF. Dr. Andre Ap l, on 9 March 1971, enclosing the above-mention resolution of the Seventh Gen- eral Assembly of the ECMY. It is with satisfaction that the ECMY has come to understand that the concern of the church. ex- pressed in the Assemny resolution, has been taken seriously by the LWF and that consideration is be- ing given to it. We are sufficiently encouraged by this to reiterate the request outlined in the resolu- tion and in the letter from the president as well as to give the request more substance by presenting a brief supporting document explaining in more de- ' the reasons for our concern. In doing this we should like to refer to three issues: 1. Our understanding of humanity and its needs. 2. The old and new imbalance in assistance from the West. 3. The present situation in Ethiopia and its chal- lenge to the church. Our Understanding of Humanity and its Needs It is generally known and admitted that we live in a divided and terribly unjust world, where some people have more than enough and others do not ave enough even to survive. We talk today about a: rich :- and - poor 1» nations. about . developed . and « underdeveloped - or «- developing ,, societies, and even of the «- Third World -. In doing this, we are using only generally adopted socioeconomic measurements to determine which society is rich or poor, developed or underdeveloped. The stan- dard of human life and that of society is normally evaluated in terms of economic growth and ma- terial wealth or in technology and production. Ba- sed on this materialistic Western concept of devel- opment and in an effort to find a remedy at least two things seem to have been largely overlooked, namely: a) That there are values in life beyond those of modern technology and economic betterment without which humanity's development will nev- er be meaningful and lasting. b) That people are not only the suffering creatures who need help but that they are also the most important development agents. In our view a onesided material development is not only self-deceiving in the sense that people need more than that, but it is also a threat to the very values which make life meaningful if carried out without due attention to a simultaneous provision to meet spiritual needs. We know that we need more of modern technology. We need to learn more effective methods to replace the primitive ones in agriculture and other pro- duction. We have still to learn and gain much from the Western world from the experiences and discov- eries they have made in various fields, and we hope that the Western churches and agencies will con- tinue to share with us their wealth of knowledge, skill, and funds. - However, when we in effect are told, by virtue of criteria unilateral! decided by the donor agencies, what we need an what we do not need, what is good for us and what is not good, then we feel uncomfortable and become concerned about our own future. Looking at the so-called developed societies, we realize that in the midst of their afluence people 284 are still suffering from all kinds of evils. The values which make life meaningful seem to be in dan r of being lost in these societies. It seems to us t what is happening in the affluent art of the world today points to the fact that technology and eco- nomic growth beyond the ability of people to con- trol and responsibly use is leading to development in reverse where people have to suffer new evils. The present ecological or environmental crisis in the form of physical and moral pollution indicates the danger of this one dimensional development. We. therefore, see the development of the inner per- son as a prerequisite for a healthy and lasting development of our society. Unless our people are helped to the spiritual freedom and maturity which enables them responsibly to handle material devel. opment. we are afraid that what was intended to be a means of enhancin the well-being of people can have the opposite e ect and create new forms of evil to destroy them. We believe that an integral human development, where the spiritual and material needs are seen to- gether, is the only right approach to the develop ment question in our society. The World Council of Churches Central Committee also pointed to this when it was stated in the meeting in Addis Ababa in January 1971, that from the Christian point of view development should be understood as a process of liberation by which individuals and societies realized their human possibilities in ac- cordance with God's purpose. Charles Elliott in his book, The Development Debate, goes as far as to say that: Humanism closed in on itself and not open to the values of the spirit and to God who is their source could achieve apparent success. True, man. can organize the world apart from God, but without God he can organize it in the end only against man. An exclusive humanism is an inhuman humanism. There is no true humanism but that which is open to the Absolute and is conscious of a vocation which gives human life its true meanin . Far from bein the ultimate measure of all t ings man can on y realize him- self by reaching beyond himself. As Pascal has said so well: c Man infinitely surpasses man. - The spiritual is thus easily linked to the secular vision, indeed, the two merge. Throughout humanity's civilized history people have been plagued by the dilemma that even though they may know what is good and ri ht and even want to do the right thin yet they fai to achieve it. It has therefore rightly feen said that « our problem is not Emarily to know what is good. Our problem is to d something which will make a man do good when he knows the good. » (Dr. Alvin N. Rogness, Lutheran Standard, 1 February 1972). St. Paul spoke of this 285 in Romans 7: 15-20. There is. however, for many to- day a struggle to accept this rather depraved view of humanity. People are still seen as the most noble of all creatures with a power within them to be guided by this higher intellect. People are capable of reasoned response. If they know what is right they will do it. a Knowledge is virtue :- is the motto of this appealing humanism. Can history support such a view of humanity? Obviously not. Though certain flagrant abuses of justice have been removed from the affairs of humanity. unjust practices like ra- cism. oppression. and corruption continue wherever people are found. Thus the basic need of people is not simply to be informed of what is good and right. People's primary need is to be set free from their own self-centered eed. Here is where the gospel of the Lord Jesus C rist comes in as the liberating power. The other aspect which in our opinion has been over- looked and for which there is very little room within the present framework of the criteria of the donor agencies is the question of people as agents in the development process. The basic question which is asked is this: how many will benefit from this project? The community which the project is sup— posed to serve is seen more as an object that as an agent for betterment. This basic approach has re- sulted in two problems: a) Too narrow and well-defined projects which re- quire professional experts and which in turn are bound to be remote from those who should be involved. b) Too few possibilities of long-term support by way of broad training at the grassroots level. In order to get the ordinary person involved with a view to becoming an agent in the development pro- cess, provision must be made to work with unim- portant groups over long periods of time. Within the church structure this brings us down to the congre- gational level where in our view this potential is available. In the SODEPAX report from the Drieber- gen Consultation in March 1970, it is pointed out that the Church provides a unique possibility to carrv out development ideas. It says: a: Each pastor working in a rural community could potentially be a change agent in favor of development; each Chris- tian women's or youth group could be a center for the diffusion of innovations. Equally important. be- cause of its grassroots penetration the Church could . provide one avenue for the democratization of devel- opment by allowing scope for participation and ex- pression by the local rural population. :- Here again the artificial division between church work and de- velopment is an obstacle in the attempt of the Church to develop the humanpower potential it has within its congregational structure. We submit that a fresh approach to development aid through church channels would be to consider mph and their needs as a totality. This would mean that the present artificial division between spiritual and physical needs would be done away with and provision would be made for an integral development of people in order to enable them to play their role as agents in the development process. In our view, the most urgent and the most important investment needed at the present time in the ECMY is in hu- manpower development and here we see no division between congregational work and develo ment pro- jects. They must go together because t e Creator made people that way. We also maintain very strongly that it is the need that should determine where assistance should be given and not criteria laid down by the donor agen- cies which reflect trends in the Western societies and churches. It is the need in a given local situation that should be the guiding principle for assistance and therefore there ought to be more flexibility in order to meet extraordinary opportunities in an African church which does not necessarily share all the views of Western churches and agencies. Old and New Imbalance in Assistance The old emphasis in the mission of the Church had been on the verbal proclamation of the gospel. All other activities in the educational, medical, or tech- nical fields were regarded as being of secondary im- portance or even as a means to an end ., namely, ave- nues by which the message would reach ople. In the promotion of the mission work, socia responsi- bility or help towards material betterment of the living conditions among the people were usually mentioned only as side issues of expressions of Christian charity. The new emphasis is on social action, community development, liberation from dehumanizing struc- tures, and involvement in nation-building. Proclama- tion of the ospel has become a side issue which should be re erred to those who may have a special concern for the spiritual welfare of people. The two should be kept apart. It has been said that Christian service is a an end in itself. :- These two extreme positions are equally harmful to the local churches in developing countries which see it as their obli- gation to serve the whole person. It has been sug- gested that . false piety - is responsible for the old imbalance in assistance and c a sense of guilt - is responsible for the new imbalance in the assistance to the work of the Church. It seems as though the prevailing view in the West assumes that the evan- gelical missions have not in the past paid due at- tention to the material and physical needs of people and that they were only concerned about the salva- tion of souls, doing very little to bring about chan- ges in society; that they called themselves «I evan- 286 gelicals - and declared wherever they went that they were there to evangelize non-Christians. By this at- titude of a false piety they created an image of mission work as being only or at best mainly verbal proclamation of the gospel. This, however, is not the true icture. The Western churches and the Western wor d at large had been misinformed by the missions themselves. Although they spent a larger portion of their total resources on social activities, the missions never reported it or reported it in a distorted form due to false humility and false piety. It would seem that they operated on the principle « your left hand should not know what your right hand is doing a». We must therefore hold the missions themselves largely responsible for the situation which has developed and the misunder- standing that has resulted in the breakdown of the relationships between development and proclama- tion or between witness and service which from the biblical and theological point of view are insepara- ble. Here is, in our opinion, a field where a proper study of the forei mission era could bring about a new understan ing of the integral development approach which in fact was a signi cant part of mis- sion work although it was not admitted nor rightly understood by all involved. The false piety we have mentioned did not only result in distorted information about mission work but also in a distorted understanding of social activi ties as a means to an end ». The gospel was not un- derstood as the Good News for the whole person, and salvation was given a narrow individual inter- pretation which was foreign to our understanding of the God-human relationship. God is concerned about the whole person and this concern is demon- strated in the gospel. The imbalance in assistance created by some missionary attitudes has been harm- ful to the Church in its consequences. The new extreme position taken by more recently formed donor agencies has drawn a line between mission and development which is completely arti- ficial. The new emphasis is reflected in the criteria laid down for the distribution of funds. It has been suggested that the prevailing understand- ing that the Church had largely failed to carry out its mandate in the world resulted in a feeling of shame and guilt which resulted in a reaction to make up for this «failure ._ When the motto, c: we must minister to the whole person ., was adopted. it was implied that the Church had not been min- istering to the whole person in the past. There was dismay and a feeling of guilt that gripped the Church when about twenty years ago the injustice and exploitation of colonialism began to come to the surface. Somehow, the Church felt that it had to defend its actions in those « colonized :- countries. The Church was faced with the questions and often the accusations: c Has the Church been an instrument of op ression? Has the Church been so busy saving sou s that the physical and political needs of people were ignored? Has this not led to an indoctrination of passive subsewience as the ideal Christian conduct which left colonialism almost unopposed? .. As the Church rocked under the impact of such guilt (this was always implied as a sin of omission) the cry went up, - ministry to the whole person I». As the emerging nation states began to exercise control over the influences that they admitted into their countries. the Church was forced suddenly to make explicit in all its activities that which had always been implicit. Certainly the Church had always emphasized medical work, education, and other community improvements, but in the early sixties it was necessary to make all such work all the more visible to accommodate the new nationalism and refurbish the «- mission ,, image in the sending countries. This led to an indefensible (from the theological stance) division of ministry and witness. The - real » ministry of the Church was seen as service and this service was an end in itself. The ulterior motives of conversion, evangelistic outreach, and spiritual nurture should be done away with. These matters should be dealt with separately and in a different context. This overreaction to the Church's failure to engage in social and economic matters in the past and the sense of guilt on the part of the wealthy Western churches led to a new imbalance in assistance to the younger churches. All this happened in the West, but why should this historical and theological development in the West be the only determining factor in the aid relationship between the older and the younger churches? The national church people in Africa today are unencumbered by an a image » which has to be maintained for the benefit of a guilt-ridden constituency « back home -. They are ree to interpret the commands of the Lord in the context of their sister's and brother's situation (which they share intimately) without having to apologize for the power of the gospel. Thus it was providential and foreordained that we. the national church people today, should begin to question the hesitancy and the equivocation in the proclamation of the ospel that we witness in some of the agencies whic support our work. When the ECMY felt that the time had come to call the attention of the LWF to this issue, it did so with the conviction that something could be done to bring assistance into balance. It is our firm belief that Christian service is neither a means to an end nor an end in itself, but an inte 1 art of the total responsibility of the Church. Tit: ivision between witness and service or between proclamation and development which has been imposed on us is. in our view, harmful to the Church and will ultimately result in a distorted Christianity. Having made this our concern clear, we hear some ple say: «Why should we change the criteria use of wrongs done in the past? . Others say: t: The present arrangement is only a division of labor. One cannot do everything and therefore this division must be there for practical reasons. , In our opinion, such remarks are onl meant to avoid this issue which is the artificial division of things which belong together. The Present Situation and its Challenge to the Church Among the man remarkable things that ha pen in Africa today, e rapid growth of the Christian Church is probably one of the most surprising. The phenomenal expansion of Christiani across Africa in the last few decades is simply frig tening for the responsible church leaders. Dr. David Barrett in his thorough analysis of the situation (in the Inter- national Review of Mission,Vol. LIX, No.233, January 1970) has, on the basis of available statistics, sug- gested that within the next thirt years the center of gravity of the Christian worl will have shifted southwards from Europe and North America to the developing continents of Africa and South America. He points out that while the Western churches will have doubled their membership in the twentieth century, the younger churches will have multiplied seventeen times. If we take this development seriously, it puts a tremendous responsibility on the whole Christian world. If the historically young churches will represent the « center of gravity :- in the Christian world in three decades, they must be prepared. Dr. Barrett points out some of the consequences of the present expansion of the Christian Church in Africa and one of them is an urgent and massive help in order to prevent a widespread breakdown of the Church. So far, very little planning has been done both among Roman Catholics and Protestants. The growth rate indicates that c the construction of four times more physical plants, such as church buildings: religious education for children; mass production of Christian literature, literacy programs and so on n are urgently needed. What is ha pening in this respect in our continent at large is a so happening in the ECMY. The problems which Dr. Barrett has pointed out for Africa as a whole are also our problem today. We are alarmed by the development and challenged by the op- portunities to such a degree that we must share our concern with our sister churches in the West, which we believe have both the desire and the means to help us. Here we should like to quote some parts The church officers of the ECMY. Emmanuel Abraham Emmanuel Gebre Silassie Berthe Beyene Gudina Tumsa, general secretary 287 of the ECMY general secretary, Rev. Gudina Tumsa's report at the Lutheran World Federation/Com- mission on Church Cooperation (LWF/CCC) meeting in Tokyo last year. Alarmed b the high growth-rate, the General Assembly ecided in 1969 that a plan whereby the church could be able to know where it stands be worked out. During the two-year period from 1969 to 1970 the necessary data were collected for assessment. In the process of working out a plan it became clear that in the past three years from 1968 to 1970 the average growth was calculated to be fifteen percent. Membership growth in 1970 alone was twenty- seven percent. However, if we stick to the more moderate growth figure of fifteen percent the membership of the ECMY will be about doubled by the end of 1975 which means that the ECMY will then have a membership of about 285,000. To meet this expansion about 137 pastors must be trained during this period as well as about 1.000 evangelists. Realizing the urgency of making use of the present opportunities in Ethiopia. our Seventh General Assembly passed a resolution requesting the LWF to approach the donor agencies in Euro and the USA with a view to reconsidering t eir criteria for aid and include direct support for congregational work and leadership trainin so that the ECMY would be able to cope wi the rapid growth taking place at present. The earnest wish of the ECMY is that this request be passed on to the member churches of the LWF to be communicated to the congregations in order that they may know our problems and desires, and it is our sincere and earnest hope that the LWF will do its utmost in the first place in passing and making known our concern to the churches and secondly that the LWF may influence the present donor a encies to review their criteria for allocation 0 assistance, thereby giving due consideration to our evangelistc outreach plan. Our hope is that our sister churches do not judge our needs solely on their own criteria and on the conditions that they have stipulated. We want to proclaim Christ because we believe it is our responsibility. We want to proclaim Christ because our people are hungering for him. We trust that in this document we have made the reasons for our concern clear and that the current theological and missiological trends in the West will not be the sole determinin factors for aid but that African views will be en more seriously and considered against the background of the present situation. Addis Ababa. 9 May 1972. Fitaurari Baissa Jammo Ommund Lindtjorn Menkir Esayas Olav Saeveraas, associate general secretary (IDOC 74/039/029) APPENDIX B Histograms Showing the Mean Values of Different Perceptions of Audience Values 288 .mfiGMNGMH .chozlluouooufim cavaum new .muooaeoum .muonfioz vumom .oonofiea< ecu wow eta moanmwum> mo mo=Hm> one: uo Emuwoumfim .HI< ouswfim zuaamavm .e|> huamoa mo pauos < .ml> commonzweauo3 < .¢t> unoazmwaaaooom mo omcom < .nt> 289 .mwamncma .finwozlluOuoouwo caeaum new .muooapoum .muopaoz eumom .oocofie=< one How main moanmfium> mo mooam> one: mo Emumoumfim .NI< ouawfim zufiuaoom .NHI> o>oH ensue: .HHI> meoaum: noccH .OHI> 3A? . o.m o.m o.n o.n zufiuaoom Eoeooum .wt> eaao new xafiaum .mt> 290 .mwomucmp .HnmoZItuouoouHo cannum ecu .muomsemum .mu< ouomfim .muonfioz eunom .oocofiea< ecu Hem wanna mofinmfiuo> mo wo=Hm> coax we Emu ou H: .H . I Scum“: .wH|> afinmvcwfiuw m: H NH > whammoam .mHI> 291 .3335 .e-> .mfiuowwz .mowlanOuoouHQ oaeaum woo .muooaeoum .muopaoz eunom .ooeofies< onu now and moHnMHum> mo monam> one: mo Emuwoumfi: .ql< unawam .3335 no p.733 < .nl> 0%: wefiufioxo =< .NI> women um pic: < 47> 292 .mwuowaz .mOhltmuouoouwn afleaum pom .muooaeoum .muonaoz wunom .oocowea< can you warm moanmwum> mo monam> one: mo Emumoumw= .mt< ouamfim Dragon .NT> o>3 33m: 47> Eoeoouh .w|> code 293 .mauomaz .mowllmuouomuwn cavaum pom .muooaeoum .muonamz eumom .oooowp=< can now wanna moanmwum> mo monam> one: mo Emuwoumfim .ol< ouswam Eovwfiz .wH|> 933:3: .3: .2; Jr. 3:? 2020 ' V.V.V' seas o.m GOHuwcwooou Hofioow .eHI> ouamooam .nHt>