WWWWWWW WW WWWWWWW —— ‘ I ...1 vm.mm':vxum>mw mesa 1293 010722 57 11:- w ‘ 1' E: 3;. " 3' 1.“?sz __r ‘ 4 '.. ‘ Mia 5.2;: ’3‘ . 41;; We; E's-‘5 3 9 0 'v‘ W b 17.2% .2. :1 1" 43y This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARISON OF AUTHORITARIANSIM AMONG FEMALE AND MALE CRIMINAL JUSTICE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND FEMALE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS OUTSIDE LAW ENFORCEMENT presented by John Joseph O'Neill has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master .QLScifinQe—degree in Criminal Justice WWW Major professor Date W 0-7639 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. A COMPARISON OF AUTHORITARIANISM AMONG FEMALE AND MALE CRIMINAL JUSTICE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND FEMALE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS OUTSIDE LAW ENFORCEMENT By John Joseph O'Neill A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice I981 ABSTRACT A COMPARISON OF AUTHORITARIANISM AMONG FEMALE AND MALE CRIMINAL JUSTICE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND FEMALE STUDENTS PLANNING CAREERS OUTSIDE LAW ENFORCEMENT By John Joseph O'Neill A number of writers contend that law enforcement is an occupation to which individuals who have certain personality similarities, particu- larly authoritarianism, are attracted because it is compatible with their personality. This view is known as the "predispositional model". The results of the present study cast doubt on the "predispositional model". Female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement were found to be no more or less authoritarian than either other female students planning careers in the criminal justice system or female students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. Similarly, male law enforce- ment students were found to be no more or less authoritarian than either other male students planning careers in the criminal justice system or male students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. In addition, female law enforcement students did not differ on the basis of authoritarianism from male law enforcement students. To my wife, Judy, for her years of support and assistance. 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the Chairman and the members of my thesis guidance committee for their advice and assistance. In particular, I wish to thank Dr. Thomas Austin of Wayne State University for his many hours of assistance with the statistical analysis of the data. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. INTRODUCTION ............................................ l The Police Personality ............................. 3 The Female Police Personality ...................... 8 Hypotheses ......................................... l2 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................ 14 Specific Personality Inventories ................... 15 General Personality Inventories .................... 27 Personal Value Surveys ............................. 29 Vocational Interest Inventories .................... 32 III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ......................... 37 Sample ............................................. 37 Research Instrument ................................ 39 Statistics ......................................... 42 IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS ....................................... 45 V. CONCLUSION .............................................. 53 BIBLIOGRAPHY .... ........ . .............. . ....................... 6l APPENDIX--SOCIAL SCIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................... 66 iv LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE TABLE Page 1. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Among Criminal Justice and Non-criminal Justice Female Students ................... 46 2. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Among Criminal Justice and Non-criminal Justice Male Students ..................... 47 3. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Law Enforcement-Oriented Criminal Justice Students.. 48 4. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Non-criminal Justice Students..... .................. 49 5. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Students at Wayne State University and Michigan State University ....... 50 6. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Students.. .......................................... 51 FIGURE Page 1. Personality and attitudinal measures employed in past studies concerning criminal justice students ............... 35 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The reason an individual chooses one particular occupation over another is a question researchers have attempted to answer for decades. An explanation of the process of occupational choice has been approached from a number of perspectives:l The sociological approach focuses atten- tion on the social structure, examining stratification systems and the limitations imposed on the choice process as a result of an individual's social status within those systems. The economics approach focuses on the economic structure and the process through which economic factors regulate the distribution of individuals into various occupations. The psychological approach investigates the psychological characteristics of individuals which may effect their occupational choice. In examining the relationship between psychological characteristics and occupational choice, vocational theorists have contended that people are attracted to or repelled by certain occupations on the basis of their own personality. There have been a number of theories which have been developed in the past to explain this relationship between personality 1Peter M. Blau et al., "Occupational Choice, A Conceptual Frame- work," in The Social Dimensions of Work, ed. Clifton D. Bryant (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1972): 266. 2; self-concept theory3; and occupational choice: psychoanalytical theory parent-child relationship theory4; personality trait-factor theorys; as well as a multi-disciplinary theory6 representing the three disciplines of psychology, economics and sociology. However, upon examination, these theories are found to be only loosely independent in that there exists considerable overlapping, borrowing and cross-fertilization between them. Each, without exception, to some extent includes personality as a salient factor of occupational choice. As Osipow, after an extensive review of these theories, concluded, "Several distinctive referents in basic 2Abraham A. Brill, Basic Principles of Psychoanalysis (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1949): V. S. Sommers,TfiVocationa1 Choice As An Expression of Conflict in Identification," American Journal of Psychotherapy 10 (1956): 520-535; and E. S. Bordin, B. Nachmann, and S. J. SegaT, "An Articulated Framework for Vocational Development," Journal of Counsel- ing Psychology 10 (1963): 107-116. 3Donald E. Super, "A Theory of Vocational Development," American Psycholo ist 8 (1953): 185-190; and Donald E. Super, The Psychology_of Careers New York: Harper and Row, 1957). 4Ann Roe and Marvin Siegelman, The Origin of Interests APGA Inquiry Studies, No. 1 (Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Associ- ation, 1964). 5John L. Holland, "Some Explorations of A Theory of Vocational Choice: One-And-Two-Year Logitudinal.Studies," Psychological Monographs 76 (1962): 26; John L. Holland, The Psychology of Vocational Choice (Haltham, Massachusetts: Blaisdell, 1966); and John L. Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: ‘PFentice Hall, 1973). 6E. Ginzberg et al., Occupational Choice: An Approach to A General Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). psychological literature have served as anchors for the theories of career development. Virtually all the theories have roots in personality theory to some extent."7 The term "magnet phenomenon" has been used to describe the relation— ship between personality and occupational choice. The "magnet phenomenon", as it applies to an individual's choice of career, is an analogy drawn from the physical sciences. As Sullenberger explained: In this instance, however, the magnet phenomenon is not to be taken as like forces attracting unlike forces and vice versa as in the case when one magnet approaches another but rather as the way in which a magnet attracts or repels substances external to itself. Thus, the magnet phenomenon holds that certain professions attract persons of a certain personality type while at the same time repelling people who are of a different personality type.8 Thus, it is clear that social scientists in general and vocational theorists in particular have long recognized that career choice represents an extension of one's basic personality. In particular, there has been a great deal of interest in recent years regarding the role of personality in the recruitment of individuals into the career of law enforcement. The Police Personality Historically, concern with the personalities of police officers as an occupational group first began as a result of the turbulence of the 7S. H. Osipow, Theories of Career Development, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-HaTl,_T973), p. 276. 8Thomas Earl Sullenberger, "The Magnet Phenomenon in Criminal Justice Education: Personality Comparisons Between Law Enforcement and Corrections Oriented Students with Additional Comparisons to Field Counterparts" (Ph.D. dissertation, Sam Houston University, 1977), p. 7. 1960's, and its riots, civil disorders and mass demonstrations. The con- frontation politics of the Viet Nam war protest movement deepened this concern, especially following the massive violent confrontation between the Chicago Police Department and protestors at the Democratic National Convention in 1968. As a result of this long period of confrontation and antagonism between the police and segments of the populace, citizens in general and scholars in particular began to examine the nature of those who enforce the law. As Niederhoffer observed at that time, somewhat cynically, scholarly interest in the police personality was not sparked by recognition of the fascinating complexities of police work, but rather because "climatic social upheavals in America have thrust the police to the center of the public arena where their vital significance cannot be ignored."9 An increasing amount of research literature has shown that persons engaged in different occupations are characterized by distinctive person- ality patterns and sets of values. Like other occupational groups, police officers were found to have distinctive personalities. In this context, the notion of the "police personality" developed. It is the term used often to refer to those traits thought to be typical of police officers and said to be important determinants of their behavior on the job. The "police personality" is said to be comprised of such interrelated traits as "authoritarianism, suspiciousness, physical courage, cynicism, conserva- IO tism, loyalty, secretiveness and self-assertiveness." In particular, 9Arthur Niederhoffer, Behind the Shield (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967), p. 1. 10Joel Lefkowitz, "Psychological Attributes of Policemen: A Review of Research and Opinion," The Journal of Social Issues 31 (Winter, 1975): 3. authoritarianism, defined by Smith and Locke as "the aspect of personality that makes it possible for policemen on all levels to use authority and 1] has been a recurrent theme in law enforcement literature. force", As Balch noted, "The dimensions of authoritarianism seem to describe police officers very well. In fact, the typical policeman, as he is portrayed in the literature, is almost a classic example of the authoritarian person- ality."12 Although the existence of such a "police personality" is generally accepted, there is little agreement on its origin. Popular attempts to explain the underlying influence forming the police personality fall into two broad theoretical models. One is the "socialization model", a belief that it is the police occupation itself that develops the police person- ality. According to this view, the police personality is merely the conse- quence of police work. It develops as an unavoidable by-product of the police officer's everyday experience on the job. A number of writers contend that the "police personality" is a product of the personality traits of the individual officer prior to his entry-into a law enforcement career. Incorporated into this view, which is known as the "predispositional model", is the contention that law en- forcement is an occupation in which individuals who have certain person- ality communalities are attracted because it is compatible with these 11Alexander B. Smith, Bernard Locke, and William F. Walker, "Police Who Go To College," in The Ambivalent Force: Perspectives on the Police, eds. Arthur Niederhoffer and Abraham 5. Blumberg (Waltham, Massa- chusetts: Xerox College Publishing, 1970): 145. 12Robert W. Balch, "The Police Personality: Fact or Fiction," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science 63 (1972): T07. personality needs. In particular, advocates of the predispositional view contend that the law enforcement occupation attracts individuals who are highly authoritarian. They argue that logically an authoritarian person- ality will find the tremendous influence, power and authority exercised by the police officer in society very appealing. As Smith and Locke stated, "There is a common assumption in social psychology that certain personality types are all attracted to particular professions ... authori- tarian personalities are attracted to correctional institutional work and "13 Thus, the "predispositional model" appears to be based on the police. "magnet phenomenon". Moreover, the "predispositional model" holds that such personality traits may be particularly selected to and possibly rewarded in the law enforcement occupation. The “predispositional model" is based not only on theoretical, but empirical grounds also. The latter consists of the results of research studies in which the personality and values of police recruits and experienced police officers have been compared. In their study of police officers from a small mid-western city, Rokeach, Miller and Snyder found a number of disparities between the value patterns exhibited by the police officers and the values of a repre- sentative national sample of black and white Americans, matched on race, sex and education. Rokeach et a1. refer to these disparities as "the 14 value gap between the police and the policed". From their data, they 13Alexander B. Smith, Bernard Locke, and William F. Walker, "Authoritarianism in College and Non-College Oriented Police," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology_and Police Science 58 (1967): 132. 14Milton Rokeach, Martin G. Miller, and John A. Snyder, "The Value Gap Between Police and Policed," Journal of Social Issues 27 (1971): 155- 171. concluded not only does a distinctive police personality exist, but that personality and social backgrounds are more important than occupation socialization in the formation of the police personality. This last con- clusion was derived from the finding in comparisons among officers varying in length of service that young police officers have essentially the same value systems as older police officers. Thus, Rokeach et a1. state that "the value gap between the police and the policed" is a product of a per- sonality predisposition rather than a product of socialization into an occupation. Teevan and Dolnick, in their study comparing a sample of Cook County Sheriff's police with the two groups in the Rokeach et a1. study, differed somewhat from Rokeach et a1. concerning their interpretation of their data. They stated that situational factors, i.e., being overworked and isolated, enforcing unpopular laws and finding frustration at the hands of civil libertarians, magnify the "value gap" reported by Rokeach et a1. However, Teevan and Dolnick basically agree with them that predispositional factors are operative and are primarily responsible for the existent gap.15 Hanewicz administered the Myers-Briggs Type Indication, a 166-item, self-disclosure instrument designed to implement Jung's thedry of type, to a sample of 1,282 veteran and recruit police officers from Michigan and Florida. From the results of his study, Hanewicz concluded: Balch wonders if 'perhaps there is something about the police system itself that generates a suspicious, conservative world view. Or perhaps certain personality types are inadvertently 15James J. Teevan, Jr. and Bernard Dolnick, "The Values of the Police: A Reconsideration and Interpretation," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (1973): 366-369. recruited for police work'. Both possibilities may be true, but the data presented in this paper speak primarily to the latter speculation - and seem to speak affirmatively.... Thus it seems reasonable to conclude, as have other researchers, that certain personality types are drawn to police work because such a role is pompatible with their strengths, abilities, inter- ests and needs. 5 Consistent with these findings is a study by Sterling which found many significant differences on personality trait scores between a group of police recruits at the beginning of training and both general popula- tion and college student norm groups, but few significant differences in comparison with a group of experienced police officers. Moreover, the recruit scores were homogeneous for the recruit samples from four geo- graphically separated cities.17 However, these studies, and the "predispositional model" on which they are based, concern males attracted to the field of law enforcement. Recently, women have been taking a more equitable and active role in all functions of society and this is reflected in the increasing numbers of women being recruited in law enforcement. There is then a need to examine the "predispositional model" in light of this trend. The Female Police Personality Traditionally, a female was hired by a police department to work with juveniles or with cases involving offenses against minors. "Presumably, her inherent maternal instincts were consieered such that this particular 16Wayne B. Hanewicz, "Police Personality: A Jungian Personality," Crime and Delinquengy 24 (1978): 166-167. 17James W. Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972 . assignment was appropriate to her role in life as a woman," explained 18 In addition to juvenile work, women were used in jail matron Talney. functions and, from time to time, assigned to special investigations where their femininity was again deemed useful. These special investiga- tions included acting as undercover operators to gain access to illegal abortion mills and establishments violating gambling and liquor laws as well as serving as decoys to trap sex offenders and purse snatchers. Almost always these activities were carried out under the direction and control of male officers. By the end of the 1960's, the role of the policewoman in law enforcement had changed little since Alice Stebbins Wells, the first regularly rated policewoman, was appointed to the Los Angeles Police Department in 1910 to supervise and enforce laws con- cerning juveniles and women in dance halls, skating rinks, penny arcades, picture shows and other similar places of public recreation.19 During the early 1970's, the role of the policewoman changed dramatically. The feminist movement had gained momentum. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination by employers on the basis of race, creed, color, sex and national origin, had been amended and its provisions extended to cover public as well as private employers. The Supreme Court had applied the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to specifically prohibit discrimination on the basis of 18Ronald G. Talney, "Women in Law Enforcement: An Expanded Role," Police 14 (November-December, 1969): 49. 19Lois Higgins, "Historical Background of Policewomen's Service," Journal of Criminal Justice, Criminology and Police Science 41 (1951): 823. 10 sex. These movements all lead to the increased employment of female personnel in the traditionally male patrol function, and thus a more active and equitable role in law enforcement. With the recruitment of increasing numbers of women in law enforce- ment, an important issue that must be considered is if there will be a difference in personality between women and men attracted to a career in law enforcement. For, if it is found that there are personality differences between women and men attracted to a career in law enforcement, a change in the "police personality" can be expected as females assume a more active and equitable role in law enforcement. The importance of this issue in regard to the police function was stated by Breece and Garrett, It seems important to establish whether or not there exists sig- nificant personality differences between male and female officers as they enter the profession, especially because these findings may hold clues about subsequent job performance related to police discretion as well as other performance characteristics.20 It is interesting to note that early advocates of female officers on, patrol claimed that the female patrol officer's personality would be dif- ferent from that of the male to the benefit of law enforcement. These claims reflected society's commonly accepted characteristics of women in general. As Sherman noted, We associate feminity with sympathy, understanding, compassion. The male is stern, unrelenting, patriarchal; the female temper- ate, accepting, motherly.... Our society expects women to be decigedly less aggressive, less harsh and less physical than men. 20Constance M. Breece and Gerald B. Garrett, "The Emerging Role of Women in Law Enforcement," in PoliCe Roles in the Seventies: Profession- alization in America, ed. Jack Kinton (Aurora, Illinois: Social Science and SocioTOQical Resources, 1975), p. 109. 2lLewis J. Sherman, "Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (1973): 392. 11 Therefore, it was claimed, women on patrol would be less aggressive than males which would lead to a reduction in the incidence of violence between police officers and citizens. Sherman wrote, Women, it seems, have a pacifying quality that men lack and that is a distinctive asset in police work ... policewomen will have a greater calming effect on aggressive behavior and will also elicit less violence and abuse than policemen in their routine patrol operations.22 He went on to predict that “less violent behavior of policewomen would spill over on policemen, who would learn that a decrease in muscularity often leads to an increase in efficiency".23 Similarly, female officers on patrol, it was predicted, would be more sympathetic, empathetic and compassionate, thus improving the public's image of the police. Typical in this respect is the view of Catherine Milton, author of Women in Policing. Milton stated, By their visible presence, and through expanded contacts with citizens, women may improve the image of the police. The public may begin to see the police as public servants who care abogx those who need assistance and are motivated to help others. Additionally, it was claimed, female patrol officers would bring new attitudes to police work. As Milton pointed out, Most patrol forces are composed of individuals who have a common background and a common set of social attitudes. Introducing new kinds of people--women—-to the patrol forces would diversify their attitudes and would break down what Chief John Nichols of Detroit calls 'the squadroom set of values' or help in what Chief Bernard Garmire of Miami calls 'the humanizing of the policeman'. 22 23 24Catherine Milton, women in Policipg (Washington, D.C.: The Police Foundation, 1972), p. 37. 25 Ibid., p. 389. Ibid., p. 384. Ibid. 12 The objective of the present study is to determine if female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement can be dis- tinguished on the basis of personality from both male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and from female students planning careers outside the field of law enforcement. Student popula- tions have in the past been selected for studies involving vocational research because it is felt that they provide a representative sampling of the personalities which will come to make up the profession for which they are undergoing academic training. In the present case, that profes- sion is law enforcement. The personality trait that will be examined is one said to comprise the "police personality", that of authoritarianism. Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: There is no difference between scores on a measure of authoritarianism of aygroup of female criminal (justice students planning careers in law enforce- ment as compared with the scores of male criminal justice students_planning careers in law enforce- ment. Hypothesis 2: There is no difference between scores on a measure of authoritarianism of a grogp of female criminal justice students planningycareers in law enforcement as compared with the scores of female students plan- ning careers outside the field of law enforcement. 13 In summary, vocational theorists hold that certain professions attract persons of a certain personality type while at the same time repel people who are of a different personality type. A number of writers con- tend that law enforcement is an occupation in which individuals who have certain personality similarities, particularly authoritarianism, are attracted because it is compatible with their personality. With the recent recruitment of increasing numbers of women in law enforcement, an important issue that must be considered is if there will be a difference in personality between women and men attracted to a career in law enforcement. The present study will attempt to determine if female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement can be dis- tinguished on the basis of authoritarianism from both male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and from female students planning careers outside the field of law enforcement. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A college education has come to be viewed as somewhat of a panacea for law enforcement problems. In 1967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice's Task Force on the Police wr0t89 The quality of police service will not significantly improve until higher educational requirements are established for its personnel ... sworn personnel, who, in various unpredictable situations, are required to make judgments, should possess a Sound knowledge of society and human behavior. This can best be obtained through advanced education. The Commission went on to recommend that "the ultimate aim of all police departments should be that all personnel with general enforcement powers have baccalaureate degrees".2 In response to this recommendation, the following year Congress created, with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) which administered the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) providing finan- cial aid to persons pursuing law enforcement education. Spurred on by 1President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing OfTice, 1967), p. 126. 2President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challen e of Crime in a Free Society (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing fice, 1967), p. 279. 14 15 massive doses of federal funds, criminal justice major programs began to multiply in the early and middle 1970's. Initially, the courses offered by various colleges were designed for the criminal justice professional who was already employed and had decided to pursue additional education. Within a relatively short period of time, the number of students who were interested in becoming criminal justice professionals began to equal and, in some cases, outnumber the criminal justice professionals enrolled in colleges and universities throughout the United States. In order to have a better understanding of future criminal justice professionals, researchers have in past studies compared the personalities and values of students majoring in criminal justice with those of students majoring in other areas. These comparisons have been based on personal value surveys, vocational interest inventories and personality inventories. The latter have included both those which measure a specific personality trait and those which measure general personality traits. The majority of these past studies have involved comparisons between male students. However, recent studies have included comparisons between male and female students as well as between female students, reflecting the increase of females both in criminal justice educational programs and the criminal justice system itself. Specific Personality InVentories Merlo measured differences in dogmatism between freshmen criminal justice majors and non-criminal justice majors at a state college in 16 New England in May of 1977.3 The instrument utilized in the study to measure dogmatism among 675 freshmen in the sample was the 40-item Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, a measure of authoritarianism. The statistical test employed to analyze the data was the t—test. The results of the analyses conducted by Merlo indicated that the eighty-six criminal justice majors in the sample were more dogmatic than non-criminal justice majors and that the fifty freshmen criminal justice majors who indicated that they have a preference for law enforcement careers were no more dogmatic than the twenty-five criminal justice majors who indicated a preference for correctional careers. Additional analysis demonstrated that male freshmen students were more dogmatic than female freshmen students. The thirty-six female freshmen criminal justice majors were found to be less dogmatic than the fifty male freshmen criminal justice students; however, the female criminal justice majors were no more dogmatic than female non-criminal justice majors. Commenting on the latter findings, Merlo stated: These data are important because they demonstrate that the percep- tion of criminal justice professionals may be changing. As more women decide to enter a law enforcement related profession and as more women decide to enter a corrections related profession, a shift in the attitudes and behavior of criminal justice professionals may occur. Such a transition may eliminate the stereotyping of the police officer as male bully, and further the development of the role of the police officer as social worker and peace keeper.4 3Alida Valli Merlo, "An Examination of the Relationship Between Dognatism and Choice of Criminal Justice As a Major Among College Fresh- men," (Ph.D. dissertation, Fordham University, 1980). 4Ibid., p. 135. 17 Attitudes and personality differences between males and females in police science and non-police science courses were examined by Sutton and 5 The subjects, nineteen females and sixty-one males in police Carlson. science courses and twenty-two females and thirty-three males in non- police science courses, completed four measures. A shortened l6-item version of the California F scale, a measure of authoritarianism, was administered to the subjects as well as the Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals (APC) Scale, a measure of the respondent's attitudes concerning the use of punishment. High scores on the APC indi- cate an attitude that punishment effectively deters crime and should be harshly administered, while low scores indicate an attitude that punishment is ineffectual and should be leniently administered. The subjects also completed the Survey of Ethical Attitudes (SEA) which is designed to measure the disposition to adopt the ethic of personal conscience or the ethic of social responsibility. 'The ethic of social responsibility incor- porates a belief that the social structure has value in controlling man's primitive animal nature, and injustice occurs when man escapes from social controls. The ethic of personal conscience, On the other hand, incorporates a belief in the basic goodness of man and an antagonism towards institu- tional forms of control. If injustice exists, it is due to the oppression of dehumanizing institutions. Low scores (ethic of personal conscience) on the SEA are described as likely to be progressive, innovative, rebellious and anticonforming, while high scores (ethic of social responsibility) are 5Markley S. Sutton and Helena M. Carlson, "Attitude and Personality Differences Among Men and Women Studying Police Science," The Journal of Social Psychology 102 (June, 1977): 161-162. 18 more likely to be conservative, responsible, conventional and have a strong need for structure and order. Finally, all subjects completed a vocabulary test which estimated intellectual functioning. Two hypotheses were formulated by Sutton and Carlson. The first was that police science students will be more authoritarian, more punitive and more committed to the ethic of social responsibility than non-police science students. The second hypothesis stated that female students will be less authoritarian, less punitive and more committed to the ethic of personal conscience than male students. Results from a MANOVA indicated significant overall multi-variate F scores for the difference between police science and non-police science students as well as between males and females. However, no interaction effects were significant. As Merlo had found, Sutton and Carlson discovered that police science and non-police science students differed significantly on all measures in the predicted direction fully supporting the first hypothesis. Police science students were more authoritarian, more punitive and more committed to social responsibility than non-police students. Females were signifi- cantly less punitive than males and were significantly more committed to the ethic of personal conscience than males. Although Sutton and Carlson did not make comparisons between males and females in police science courses, they did point out that "it is interesting to note that males in police science courses were the most authoritarian, most punitive, most committed to the ethic of social responsibility and made the most vocabu- lary errors."6 6151a., p. 152. 19 In conclusion, Sutton and Carlson stated, "Overall, our results indicate the socialization of rigid, punitive attitudes early in the career of would-be police personnel; however, they indicate the potential posi- tive contribution of females to the criminal justice system."7 Two years prior, Carlson and Sutton had conducted a study comparing the attitude and values of police and non-police concerning authoritarian- 8 The police sample numbering one hundred ism, punitiveness and ethics. twenty-seven males consisted of thirty-one recruits enrolled at the River- side County, California Sheriff's Academy, twenty-nine deputies employed at the County jail, forty-seven deputies in the patrol division and twenty deputies in the detective bureau. The non-police sample consisted of thirty-three male students in evening classes in English and American History at a local community college which was the control group in the study and thirty-eight male police science majors taking evening police science courses at the same community college. Occupation of fathers of all the subjects were categorized as either blue-collar or white-collar; and this categorization showed that both police and non-police subjects had similar socioeconomic backgrounds, with the majority in all groups coming from blue-collar working class homes. All subjects had approximately between one and two years of college. As hypothesized by the researchers, it was found that the least authoritarian group in the sample was the non-police control group as 7151a. 8Helena M. Carlson and Markley S. Sutton, "The Effects of Different Police Roles on Attitudes and Values," The Journal of Psychology 91 (1975): 57-64. 20 measured by the F Scale. The police officers who worked at the County jail were the most authoritarian group. Punitiveness, as measured by the Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals (APC) Scale, was lower in the non-police control group than in all police groups and in the police science majors. Mean scores on the Survey of Ethical Attitudes (SEA) showed the non-police control group evidencing a strong commitment to the ethics of personal conscience. Police science majors and the police groups clustered together with mean SEA scores demonstrating a greater commitment to the ethics of social responsibility. Culbertson found differences in personality between students planning careers in law enforcement and students planning careers in corrections.9 He administered the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale to one hundred twenty-six stu- dents enrolled in the criminology program at Indiana State University. After the students completed the instrument, background information was collected from each student including age, sex, previous experience in law enforcement or corrections, class status (i.e., freshman, sophomore, junior or senior) and father's occupation, which was used to determine the stu- dent's socioeconomic status. Culbertson hypothesized that the sixty-two law enforcement-oriented students in the sample would have higher dogmatism (authoritarianism) scores than the sixty-four corrections-oriented students in the sample. The data collected for the sample clearly indicated using a test of signifi- cance, the t test, that criminology students at Indiana State University who 9Robert G. Culbertson, "Occupational Choice, Corrections or Law Enforcement: A Comparison on the Basis of Dogmatism," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3 (March, 1975): 95-99. 21 had selected law enforcement as their career choice scored significantly higher on the dogmatism variable than did those criminology students who had selected corrections as their career choice. The background informa- tion which was collected for the students was used to conduct further statistical tests controlling for age, previous experience in law enforce- ment or corrections, years of college completed, socioeconomic status, as well as sex. The author reported that, even with controlling for these variables, the major finding was not altered. However, he failed to pro- vide the number of individuals in each of these sub-groups. However, not all studies comparing the personalities of criminal justice majors on specific personality inventories with those of non- criminal justice majors or other criminal justice majors have resulted in significant differences between the student groups. Specifically, the results in the area of authoritarianism appear to be somewhat contradictory. An authoritarianism scale, which was a modified version of the F Scale developed by Adorno et al.,and a Deviance Control Scale were admin- istered by Newman, Articolo and Trilling to a sample of one hundred sixteen police science students from Hudson Valley Community College and a random representative sample of ninety-one students from the State University of New York at Albany.10 Newman et a1. hypothesized that clear differences on both scales would be found between the two groups, specifically the police science students would be more authoritarian and prefer more con- trol of deviance than the representative Albany student sample. Contrary to the authors' hypothesis, no significant difference between the two 10Graeme R. Newman, Donald J. Articolo, and Carol Trilling, "Authoritarianism, Religiosity and Reactions to Deviance," Journal of Criminal Justice 2 (1974): 249-259. 22 groups was found by the authoritarianism scale. However, a significant difference was found between the two groups on the deviance control scale. The police sample scored much higher in the direction predicted. Smith, Locke and Walker compared authoritarianism in police and non- police students at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. The police group consisted of one hundred twenty-two newly appointed police officers of whom fifty-eight were between the ages of twenty-one through twenty-four and sixty-four were between twenty-five through twenty-nine. The non- police group consisted of eighty-nine non-police freshmen students whose ages ranged between seventeen and twenty. In addition, the eighty-nine non-police students were asked to rate their interest in a career devoted to police work on a five-point scale. Twenty-two of the students indicated a high level of interest and eighteen indicated no interest whatsoever in police work. The questionnaire used in the study to measure authoritarian- ism consisted of 57 items, 40 items from the Dogmatism Scale developed by Rokeach and 17 items from a scale developed by Piven.n In comparing the authoritarianism of police college students and non-police college students, it was found that the freshmen police officer college students tended to be less authoritarian than the freshmen stu- dents who were not police officers. Furthermore, the twenty-two students who were most motivated for a future career in police work were more authoritarian than the eighteen who would not consider police work as a career. This difference, using a t-test of means, was not found to be 11Alexander B. Smith, Bernard Locke, and William F. Walker, "Authoritarianism in Police College Students and Non-Police College Stu- dents," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police SCience 59 (1968):440-443. 23 statistically significant. Shortly after Culbertson published the results of his study, Regoli and Schrink re—examined the relationship between dogmatism and preference for the law enforcement occupation while trying to avoid what they con- ]2 In order to overcome sidered the pitfalls of Culbertson's study. Culbertson's control group problem, they sampled non-criminology students as well as law enforcement-oriented and corrections-oriented criminology students at Indiana State University, the same institution at which Culbertson's study was conducted. “All Culbertson did was compare dogmatism score differences between law enforcement-oriented and corrections-oriented students; he could not say whether or not they were any more or less dog- matic than any other group of college students," Regoli and Schrink stated.13 The researchers felt that another flaw in Culbertson's study was that statistical analysis was limited to tests of significance. There was no effort made to test the strength of the relationship between the vari- ables or to identify either simple or multiple interaction effects. Regoli and Schrink point out that in past studies, when tests of sig- nificance were performed, the researchers were determining only whether or not a relationship existed between dogmatism and "occupational preference", not the strength of the relationship. Additionally, they point out, it is very easy to obtain statistical significance, and thereby imply a 12Robert M. Regoli and Jeffrey Schrink, "Dogmatism Among Law Enforce- ment-Oriented, Corrections-Oriented and Non-Criminology Students: An Eggegggon," Journal of Police Science and Administration 5 (June, 1977): 1315111., p. 233. 24 relationship among variables, with large samples. As Regoli and Schrink, quoting Blalock, recognized: "Statistical significance can tell us only that certain sample differences would not occur very frequently by chance if there were no differences whatsoever in the population. It tells us nothing directly about the magnitude or importance of these differences.14 Thus, statistical differences indicate a relationship between vari- ables, but the question of the strength of the relationship and its form remain unanswered. As Blalock wrote: We refer to a relationship as being statistically significant when we have established ... that there is a relationship between two variables. But does this mean that the relationship is signifi- cant in the sense of being a strong relationship or an important one? Not necessarily. The question of the strength of a relation- ship is a completely different question from that of whether or not a relationship exists.... This means, in effect, that when samples are large, we are saying very little when we have estab- lished a 'significant' relationship.... Regoli and Schrink's study went beyond presenting tests of signifi— cance and offered statistics which describe the strength of the relation- ship between the variables. The sample consisted of two hundred seventy-one junior-senior level students attending Indiana State University during the 1976 Spring semester. Of the sample, one hundred seven were non-criminology majors, ninety-one were law enforcement-oriented students and seventy-three were corrections- oriented students. All completed a short-form of the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale (D Scale) consisting of 20 items. 14Hubert M. Blalock, Jr., Social Statistics (New York: McGraw Hill, 1972), p. 162-163. 151bid., p. 291-292. 25 The results from the analysis of variance indicated that the detected differences among the three groups were statistically significant at the .01 level. Law enforcement-oriented students had the highest mean dogmatism score, followed by non-criminology students and corrections— oriented students. Critical difference t-tests were then calculated in order to specify which of the mean dogmatism scores significantly differed from one another. It was found that the mean dogmatism score for law enforcement-oriented students was significantly higher at the .05 level than those obtained by either corrections-oriented students or non-crimin— ology students. Differences in mean dogmatism scores between corrections- oriented and non-criminology students were negligible. Thus, the findings at this point validate Culbertson's research. Then Regoli and Schrink applied a more stringent statistical test to determine the strength of the relationship between the two variables. The eta-squared (E2) value which estimates the intra-class correlation 2 = .045, indicates that was .045, which is extremely small. This value, E only 4.5 percent of the variance in dogmatism is explained by the independ- ent variable, i.e., law enforcement-oriented, corrections-oriented or non- criminology students. Finally, third-order partial correlations were com- puted to test for interaction effects. The results for the procedure proved negligible, indicating that even when controlling for up to three variables simultaneously, the relationship between dogmatism and occupa- tional preference remains weak. In summary, the researchers stated, "Our data demonstrate the need for future research to include more refined statistical techniques than those previously used. Only then will dogmatism be explainable and 26 predictable."16 Fabianic, in his review of criminal justice research literature on authoritarianism among law enforcement personnel, expressed a similar view. There are many shortcomings in the research designs and forms of analysis used in the reports under review.... However, several suggestions which have been made by others merit emphasis in hopes that future research will take them into account. One such methodological problem, cited by Balch, and Regoli and Schrink, concerns the use of statistical tests. In previous reports, statis- tical tests have been used to establish the existence of a relation- ship between variables. However, the size of the sample affects the ease with which statistical significance may be obtained. The larger the sample, the simpler it is to establish significance ... statistical differences indicate a relationship between variables, but the question of the strength of the relationship and its form remain unanswered. In order to avoid the error of confusing significance with strength of association, Fabianic recommended that a measure of degree of associa- tion be computed in addition to the statistical test whenever possible. Additionally, when comparison of multiple means is desired, a more appro- priate strategy is to use an analysis of variance. Several studies which Fabianic reviewed for his report included a comparison of means among dif- ferent groups of subjects which resulted in a series of significance tests between paired groups. As Fabianic pointed out, "Such an approach in- volved making a number of comparisons and calculations and included the statistical limitation of increasing the probability of making an alpha "18 error. Therefore, the author recommended the use of analysis of 16 17David A. Fabianic, "Authoritarianism in Criminal Justice Literature," Journal of Police Science and Administration 7 (1979): 59. 18 Regoli and Schrink, p. 235. Ibid., p. 60. 27 variance "which provides for making one comprehensive decision about several differences among means of several groups".19 Consistent with the preceding recommendations, the results of a sur- vey were then presented by Fabianic as an analytical example "in order to contribute to the general pool of data and information on the subject of the distribution of authoritarianism among student groups".20 A questionnaire containing Rokeach's short-form dogmatism scale, in addition to other items, was administered to Montana State University students taking social science courses in the Fall of 1976. The sample, although possessing limitations, was considered to be a reasonable representation of the undergraduate students attending the University. Dogmatism scores were compiled for students in academic major categories, including criminal justice, and an analysis of variance was used to determine the statistical significance among group means. The mean differ- ences among academic majors were insignificant at the .05 level. Further- more, eta squared (E2) was only .0025 indicating no substantial relation- ship between academic major and dogmatism, similar to the conclusion reached by Regoli and Schrink. General Personality Inventories Sullenberger attempted to determine if criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement could be distinguished on the basis of personality factors from criminal justice students planning careers '9Ibid. zoIbid. 28 2] A total of two hundred nine outside the field of law enforcement. junior and senior-level criminal justice students from the Institute of Contemporary Corrections at Huntsville, Texas were tested using the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire developed by Raymond B. Cattell and his associates. Of these students, ninety-seven were designated law enforcement and one hundred twelve non-law enforcement. Classification was based on student responses to occupational preference questionnaires. The study found that "the two groups under discussion represent two 22 In distinctly different and basically incompatible types of people". general, law enforcement types were found to be a highly stable, prosaic group in comparison to the non-law enforcement types who were discovered to be less stable and more aesthetic and imaginative. Factors I (impatient, kindly, sensitive vs. mature, hard, practical), M (unconventional, intel- lectual, imaginative vs. conventional, narrower interests, practical), H (adventurous, gregarious, frank vs. shy, aloof, secretive), Q3 (will control vs. slothful lack of dependability) and 04 (id demand vs. conflict pressure) were the discriminating factors with I and M indicating the strongest difference. In a further comparison, Sullenberger compared both of the two stu- dent groups with their field counterparts. The field counterparts were assumed to be working policemen in the case of the law enforcement-oriented students and social workers in the case of the non-law enforcement-oriented students. Field group scores were drawn from profiles collected by the 2ISullenberger, p. 90. zzlbid. 29 developers of the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Neither group was found to be like its assumed field counterpart. Of particular interest to the present study is one of Sullenberger's recommendations for future research; that is, the necessity of focusing throughout future studies involving criminal justice majors on the sex of the subjects. The author pointed out that the scores of non-law enforce- ment students, since that group contained a large number of females and "may actually represent a construct of the female personality",23 might have been quite different had the researchers separated male from female and scored each group unto itself. Sullenberger stated-- This oversight might be easily remedied if raw score data from the field were collected and sorted to allow gender comparisons between the various groups involved. Only then will researchers have any definite notion of whether they are measuring sexuality as much as personality.24 Personal Value Surveys In his study entitled, "An Empirical Study of Police Value Systems: Socialization and Selectivity", Walker administered the Rokeach Value Sur- vey Form D to four hundred five subjects.25 The subjects consisted of two groups of recruits, one from the Detroit (Michigan) Police Department and the other from the Flint (Michigan) Police Department; veteran officers from the Detroit Police Department; sheriff's auxillaries in the Flint 23 24 25Donald Barclay Walker, "An Empirical Study of Police Value Systems: Socialization and Selectivity" (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State Univer- sity, 1975). Ibid. Ibid., p. 96. 30 Police Academy; in-service police officers taking courses at Michigan State University leading to a Bachelors Degree in Criminal Justice; and in-service students, pre-service students and other students taking law enforcement courses at a two-year community college, Mott Junior College. In the study, the values of the pre-service students were compared with the values of the adult male population provided from field group studies conducted by the developers of the survey instrument. The pre- service group, numbering one hundred seven males, consisted of all those individuals who were taking law enforcement courses at the two-year com- munity college and who indicated that they were planning a career in law enforcement. None of these individuals were employed police officers or in recruit training academies at the time of the study. The pre-service group could be sharply distinguished from the adult male population in their values, differing on 20 of the 36 values. In comparison, the recruit group differed on 15 of the 36 values and employed police officers on 20 of the 36 values. "The conclusion that individuals who declare an intention to become police officers differ significantly from the popula- tion is thus supported," stated Walker.26 In terms of sheer number of value differences, socialization into the police role would appear to have no apparent impact as evidenced by the comparisons of the values of pre-service students and employed police officers with those of the adult male population. However, when the impact of socialization was examined in terms of specific values, a number of important differences appeared. Socialization appears to impact upon 261bid., p. 178. 31 selected values; such as, equality, broadmindedness, loving and forgiving, operating to change initial differences in important ways. The pre- service group was shown to be no less committed to these values than the adult male population while the employed police officer group is signifi- cantly less committed to these values than the adult male population. Walker concluded-- The process of socialization seems to operate in the direction of taking a group of individuals who are somewhat more committed to personal goals than the adult male population, but not signfi- cantly less compassionate and changing their value systems so that they become even more committed to personal goals while at the same time becoming significantly less compassionate.27 On the other hand, Bennett and Greenstein found little relationship between value systems and occupational preference.28 The sample in their study consisted of seventy students majoring in police science at a state university, one hundred thirty-nine college students majoring in other fields, but enrolled in the same police science course as the police science majors and one hundred fifty-three police officers. The Rokeach Value Survey, Form E, was used to assess the value hierarchies of these subjects. Tests of significance were obtained using the Median Test. TWenty-one of the 36 values significantly differentiated between police officers and police science majors at or below the 5 percent level, the level of significance selected in the study. On the other hand, only two values, those of inner harmony and obedient, were significantly differ- ent between the two student groups. As Bennett and Greenstein pointed out, 2715111., p. 178-179. 28Richard R. Bennett and Theodore Greenstein, "The Police Personal- ity: A Test of the Predispositional Model," The JoUrnal of Police Science and Administration 3 (December, 1975): 439-445. 32 "By chance alone, we would expect about 2 of the 36 comparisons to be significantly different at the 5 percent level."29 On the basis of Spearman's rho correlations between the three groups, the researchers con- cluded, "For both terminal and instrumental value systems, the values of police science majors are far more similar to those of college students not majoring in police science than they are similar to the values of experienced police officers."30 At this point, it would appear that Bennett and Greenstein's results conflict with the findings of Walker's study. However, on closer examina- tion of their data, Bennett and Greenstein found that the median value ranking for police science students is located between the medians for police officers and for non-police science majors for 24 of the 36 values. This result would be expected to occur by chance alone only 12 times and "thus, these findings are highly significant statistically".3] Like Walker, Bennett and Greenstein explain these results in the socialization framework, stating that the police science students are in a transitional socialization state. Vocational Interest Inventories In a dissertation entitled, "A Comparative Study of Vocational Interest in University Law Enforcement Students, Police Recruits and Men in General", Johnson investigated the vocational interest of university 29 30 31 Ibid., p. 441. Ibid. Ibid., p. 444. 33 law enforcement students as well as police recruits using the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII), a vocational assessment test.32 Vocational interest inventories, like the SCII, are carefully constructed questionnaires that ask the respondent to indicate a like or dislike for a wide range of occupations, occupational activities, hobbies, amusements, school subjects and types of people. In the SCII, the subject is given a list of 325 items and asked to respond either "like", "indifferent" or "dislike" to each of the items. The student sample involved in the study were ninety-two university law enforcement students at Sam Houston State University during Fall of 1976. The recruit sample consisted of police recruits from five cities in Texas: twenty-three from Austin; twenty-two from Corpus Christi; sixty- eight from Houston, twenty-eight from Beaumont; and fifty from Dallas. In terms of the present study, it is important to note that female law enforcement students as well as current in-service and past in-service students were excluded from the study. Initially, the responsescfl’the police recruit sample in the study and the university law enforcement sample were compared with the police occupational scale of the SCII provided in the SCII Manual. In developing the SCII, those items, to which a specific occupational sample, such as police, responded to differently than the general reference group sample, were used to establish that specific occupation's occupational scale. No significant difference as measured by group mean difference tests was found when the responses of the university law enforcement sample and the 32Charles Lawrence Johnson, 111, "A Comparative Study of Vocational Interest in University Law Enforcement Students, Police Recruits and Men in General" (Ph.D. dissertation, Sam Houston State University, 1977). 34 police recruit sample were each compared with the police occupational scale. Johnson then compared the responses of both the police recruit and university law enforcement samples against the responses of the men-in- general group provided in the SCII Manual on the police occupational scale. The men-in-general group, according to the SCII Manual, represents the general population of working men. There was a significant difference between both the police recruit and law enforcement student samples, versus men-in-general on the police occupational scale. In addition to this major conclusion, additional analyses of the data indicated signifi- cant differences between these groups on several related scales of the SCII, i.e., the General Interest Scales (Holland Scales) and the Basic Interest Scales. In light of these results, Johnson concluded: In summary, it would appear that the current demands for social control requires a police officer who not only has vocational interests in a police occupation, but also has certain abilities, skills and attitudes which will increase his ability to perform in this occupational environment. The consensus of opinion in some Quarters is that exposure to a four-year university program will enhance these abilities, skills and attitudes. This study demonstrates that persons enrolled in a university law enforcement program have the vocational interests which are ngcessary to stable tenure in the law enforcement occupation.3 In summary, a review of the literature reveals that there have been a number of studies in the past comparing the personalities and values of criminal justice majors with those of non-criminal justice majors as well as other criminal justice majors (see Figure l). The results of these studies appear to be somewhat contradictory. This is especially true of 33Ibid., p. 131. 35 .mucouzum mowumsw chwswco mcwcgmocoo mowvzpm “mag cw quoano moczmmos Pmcwuzuwuum use zpwpmcomgmm .F ocaawm x Amfim_v eexpez x x x Afikmpv eemFeeu pee coppsm x ANmm—v meczncop~zm x Nwomfiv .Pe pp eBPEm x ANNmFL xeweem use w_omem x Aemva ._e we eeszez x Aommsv epeez x Auum_v comeees x amumpv eweeeeea x Amnmpv campeee_=o x x x Ammo-v coupzm new compemu x Amumev ewepmeeeew eee speeeem )8 IS OS bud :0 1W1. 0 0 0V 5“ U1. "1.. no I. 0 a 1:1. ..JJ AJ 3X a» A S w A 1. VA 30 $1. $8 8 3 l. 31.. (a UU 1.3 1.0.. U D. P. D. J1. K 175 Ira [.3 I. 1.. u I..." 0 0U 0U. S 3 L. 3 ND. 0 J3 U U 3 S a 1:3 1.: 0A9 Ud UA P w U m 93 Po. 1. 3 Pl 3 d ItJ 1:1. 3 S 0 L0 1+. 0. JS .4" 3 U SM U. 9 30 33 D. 1. D. L. I. u I. J SJ 3 I. D. S a 0 30. D. L n .l. D. L I L. J [:0 U 1.. A S 3” V a... A 9 3 U a]? 8 FA 9 )L. 1. J .... l VS I: a p. a law. 1. S 3 3 n 1. .4 (a D. 0 U W J 1.. 36 the results of studies in the area of authoritarianism, the focus of the present study. In addition, there appears to be a controversy concerning the effect the statistical tests employed have on the results of these studies concerning authoritarianism. Although the results of studies examining authoritarianism among male criminal justice students are contradictory, the few recent studies that have examined authoritarianism in female criminal justice majors, that is, those of Merlo and Sutton and Carlson, indicated that, in general, female students are less authoritarian than male students and that female criminal justice students are less authoritarian than male criminal justice students, but no more authoritarian than other female students. The present study will specifically compare, on the basis of authoritarianism, female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement with both male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and with female students planning careers outside the field of law enforcement. CHAPTER 111 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Sample The sample in the present study consists of students enrolled in the five sections of the "Introduction to Criminal Justice" course at Wayne State University during the Spring, 1981 semester and students enrolled in the three sections of the "Introduction to Criminal Justice" course and in three other law enforcement-oriented criminal justice courses at Michigan State University during the Spring, 1981 quarter. Wayne State University is an urban, primarily commuter university located in the City of Detroit with an enrollment of approximately 33,000 whereas Michigan State University is primarily a residential university located in East Lansing with an enrollment of approximately 44,000. The "Introduction to Criminal Justice" classes were included in the study because it was felt that a sub—sample of students not majoring in criminal justice could be found in these classes. The subjects were administered the research questionnaire, consist- ing of demographic information and a 20-item short form of Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale, during class. They were informed that the completing of the questionnaire was voluntary and that all replies were anonymous. All, with very few exceptions, responded. A total of 400 questionnaires 37 38 were returned. Seven of the 400 returned questionnaire were discarded because of the respondent's failure to complete them. In general, the sample was 50.6 percent male (n=199) and 49.4 per- cent female (n=194). The age of the sample ranged from 18 years of age to 48 years of age, with the mean age being 21 years. In addition, 94.1 percent of the sample were single including widowed and divorced (n=370) and 5.9 percent were married or separated (n=23). The racial distribution of the sample was 81.7 percent white (n=321) and 13.5 percent black (n=53). The remaining 4.8 percent of the respondents (n=l9) described themselves as Hispanic, Oriental or American Indian. In regard to years of higher education completed, 29.0 percent of the sample had completed one year or less of college (n=ll4), 21.4 percent had completed between one and two years (n=84), 26.7 percent had completed between two and three years (n=105), 20.4 percent had completed between three and four years (n=80) and 2.5 percent had completed more than four years of college (n=lO). Finally, 50.9 percent of the sample (n=200) had declared criminal justice as their choice of major and 49.1 percent (n=193) had declared majors other than criminal justice or were undecided about their choice of major. Among those who had declared criminal justice as their major, 51 percent were male (n=102) and 49 percent were female (n=98). Of the males majoring in criminal justice, 58.8 percent indicated law enforcement as their career objective (n=60), 12.8 percent indicated corrections (n=13), 22.5 percent indicated courts (n=23) and 5.9 percent did not indicate a preference (n=6). Of the females Majoring in criminal justice, 28.6 percent indicated law enforcement as their career objective (n=28), 39 31.6 percent indicated corrections (n=31), 29.6 percent indicated courts (n=29) and 10.2 percent did not indicate a preference (n=lO). Of those majoring in criminal justice, 15 percent had completed one year or less of college (n=30), 21 percent had completed between one and two years (n=42), 35 percent had completed between two and three years (n=70), 26 percent had completed between three and four years (n=52) and 3 percent had completed more than four years (n=6). Research Instrument The research instrument, entitled Social Science Questionnaire, con- tains demographic information and a 20-item short form of the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, developed for field studies by Troldahl and Powell (see Appendix). Although designed to measure the variable of closed mindedness, the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale is considered to be a measure of general 1 In fact, the characteristics of the dogmatic person authoritarianism. closely resemble those of the authoritarian person. The dogmatic person has sharp distinctions between his beliefs and disbeliefs and he is generally intolerant of those who do not adhere to his particular belief system. The dogmatic person is also likely to rely heavily on authority 2 and to be resistive to new ideas. A sample item is, "Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is unfortunately 1Walter R. Borg and Meredith D. Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction 2nd ed. (New York: Longman, 1971), p. 180. 2John P. Kirscht and Ronald C. Dillehay, Dimensions of Authoritarian- ism: A Review of the Literature (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967), pp. 11, 46-48. 4O necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups." For all statements, agreement is scored as closed and disagreement as open. Subjects completing the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale are asked to choose one of six possible responses to the 20-items ranging from -3 (I disagree very much) through +3 (I agree very much). The total score on the dogma- tism scale is the sum of scores obtained on all items of the scale. For scoring purposes in the present study, the responses on the items were converted from values of -3 through to +3 to values of 1 through 6 with 1 being least favorable and 6 most favorable. In addition to the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, a second measure of authoritarianism, the California F Scale by Adorno et al.,3 has been employed in research concerning law enforcement personnel in the past. The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale was chosen to be used in the present study rather than the California F Scale because the latter has come under formid- able criticism during the last three decades.4 In fact, Rokeach developed the Dogmatism Scale in response to this criticism. According to Rokeach, there is a special difficulty in using the authoritarian concept as developed by Adorno et al. The California F Scale was designed to provide an indirect measure of prejudice without using the names of minority groups and to indicate underlying personality predisposi- tions toward a fascistic outlook on life. High F Scale scores were found 3T. W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper and Row, 1950). 4See Walter T. Plant, "Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale as a Measure of General Authoritarianism," Psychological Reports 6 (1960): 164, and F. N. Kerlinger, "A Social Attitude Scale: Evidence on Reliability and Valid- ity," Psychological Reports 26 (1970): 379-383. 41 to be associated with ethnocentric, anti-semetic and politically conserva- tive groups. When the F Scale became the authoritarian personality scale. Rokeach argued, "this gave rise to a certain amount of conceptual confusion, because in the shift from 'fascism in the personality' to 'the authoritarian personality', there is an unwitting leap from the particular to the general".5 He recognized the need for an ahistorical concept devoid of "rightist" forms of authoritarianism. To Rokeach, it was not so much what you believed that was important, but how you believed. Rokeach then developed the Dogmatism Scale which purports to measure general authoritar- ianism which can be associated with any ideology, regardless of content. As Rokeach explained, In other words, if our interest is in the scientific study of authoritarianism, we should proceed from right authoritarianism not to re-focus on left authoritarianism but to the general properties held in common by all forms of authoritarianism ... what is needed is therefore a deliberated turning away from a concern with the one or two kinds of authoritarianism that may happen to be predominant at a given time. Instead, we should pursue a more theoretical ahistorical analysis of the properties held in common by all forms of authoritarianism regardless of specific ideological, theological, philosophic or scientific content.6 Troldahl and Powell developed a shortened version of the 40-item self- administered dogmatism scale originally developed by Rokeach because of their concern with the time required to administer the 40-items in field studies, approximately 20 minutes.7 The short form was developed by 5Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960), p. 13. 6 7Verling C. Troldahl and Frederic A. Powell, "A Short-Form Dogma- tism Scale for Use in Field Studies," Social Forces 44 (1965): 211-214. Ibid., p. 14. 42 Troldahl and Powell from data collected in two field studies. First the 40-item dogmatism scale was included in a study of 227 Boston suburbanites to test whether it could be meaningfully administered to general-population samples. From this data, a 20-item short form of the scale was developed. The complete 40-item dogmatism scale was then included in a field study of 84 Lansing, Michigan residents. The Lansing data was used to cross-vali- date the abbreviated version of the scale developed from the Boston data. Troldahl and Powell found that the two scales are equivalent measures of dogmatism with any difference in reported scores negligible. The 20- item scale was found to estimate authoritarianism as reliably as the 40-item scale. As Troldahl and Powell noted: The 40-item dogmatism scale had a reliability coefficient of .84.... In cross- validating the 20- item Boston scale, the Lansing data produced a correlation of .94 between the 20-item version and the 40- item version ... split- -half reliability of the 20-item version ... is about .79. Therefore, it would seem that the 20-item version could be used without much reluctance.8 Troldahl and Powell concluded that "the 20-item short form is a good predictor of what one would obtain using the 40-item version."9 Statistics The research design used in the present study is a causal-compara- tive research design. In order to test the two hypotheses in the study, comparisons of the difference between the mean scores of groups in the sample on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale will be made. The parametric statistics employed in these comparisons were chosen in response to 8151a., p. 214. 9151a., p. 212. 43 criticism, noted in the review of the literature, of the statistics used in past studies measuring dogmatism among student groups. In comparisons involving three or more group means in the study, simple analysis of variance (ANOV) will first be used. Simple, or one-way, analysis of variance is used when there is only one independent variable, but three or more categories of that variable. This statistical technique provides fer making one comprehensive decision about differences among the means of several groups. The purpose of analysis of variance is to determine whether any of the means of the groups compared differ signifi- cantly from any other. In more technical terms, analysis of variance is used to determine whether the between-groups variance is significantly greater than the within-groups variance. If the analysis of variance yields an F score (the ratio of between-group variance to within-groups variance) that is statistically significant, indicating a significant dif- ference between means, a post hoc test, Scheffe's multiple range test, will be employed to specify which group mean dogmatism scores differ signifi— cantly from one another. In addition to this test of significance, a measure of association to determine the strength of the relationship between the group means found to differ significantly will be applied; this measure is eta squared (E2). On the other hand, if the analysis of variance yields a non-significant F ratio, indicating no significant differences among the group means, the computation of post hoc tests between the means is unneces- sary since obviously none will reach a level of statistical significance. When the mean scores of two groups are compared in the study, the statistical procedure that will be employed will be the t-test using the pooled estimate of the variance. If the observed value of t equals or 44 exceeds the critical value at the .05 significance level, the null hypothesis will be rejected and it can be assumed that there is a true difference between the sample means. On the other hand, if the observed value of t does not equal or exceed the critical value at the .05 level, the null hypothesis would not be rejected and it can be assumed that the observed difference between the two groups means could have occurred by chance. Eta squared (E2) will be used to determine the strength of the relationship of any two group means found to differ significantly. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS From the review of the literature, two hypotheses were formulated and both were empirically tested by analysis of the data obtained from the sample on the research instrument. In general, it was found that scores on the dogmatism scale ranged from a minimum of 33 to a maximum of 101 with the mean score for the sample being 59.88 and a standard deviation of 10.85. The scores on the dogmatism index approximated a normal distribution. The first hypothesis tested concerned the relationship between career objectives and level of dogmatism among female students. This hypothesis, stated in the null form, is: There is no difference between scores on a measure of authoritarianism of a group of female criminal justice students,p1anning careers in law enforcement as compared with the scores of female students planning careers outside the field of law enforce- m. In order to test this hypothesis, an analysis of variance was used to determine the statistical significance among the means of four female student groups on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. These four groups were female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and 45 46 three groups of female students planning careers outside the field of law enforcement, i.e., female criminal justice students planning careers in corrections, female criminal justice students planning careers in courts and female non-criminal justice students. Those female criminal justice majors who indicated that they were undecided about their career objec- tives were not included in the analysis. Table 1. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Among Criminal Justice and Non-criminal Justice Female Students. Law Enforcement Corrections Courts Non-criminal Justice (N=28) (N=31) (N=29) (N=96) 'Y 58.21 59.39 57.62 57.70 5 11.24 11.62 10.59 10.38 F=.209 DF:3/180 p>'.05 As shown in Table 1, the detected differences among the means for the four female groups was found to be insignificant at the .05 level. In order for the mean differences to be significant at the .05 level, the F score from the analysis of variance must have equalled or exceeded the critical value of 2.60. The hypothesis, stated in the null form, is not rejected. The results support the hypothesis that there is no sig- nificant difference in authoritarianism between female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and female criminal justice students planning careers in the other two components of the criminal justice system as well as female students planning careers outside of the criminal justice system. Since the analysis of variance yielded an 47 F score that was not significant, the computation of t tests between the means was unnecessary since, as noted earlier, none will reach a statis- tical significance. In a further comparison, the mean scores on the dogmatism scale of the four comparable male student groups in the sample were then compared using an analysis of variance. These groups were male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement, corrections and courts and male non-criminal justice students. The differences among the means of the four male student groups was insignificant at the .05 level as shown in Table 2. In order for the mean differences to be significant at the Table 2. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Among Criminal Justice and Non-criminal Justice Male Students Law Enforcement Corrections Courts Non-criminal Justice (N=60) (N=13) (N=23) (N=97) '7 61.32 65.92 63.39 60.64 5 10.33 15.64 10.62 10.22 F=l.189 DF:3/189 p>».05 .05 level, the F score must have equalled or exceeded the critical value of 2.60. This result supports the contention that there is no significant difference in authoritarianism between male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and male criminal justice students planning careers in the other two components of the criminal justice system, as well as male students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. Thus, the results of the comparisons were similar for both male and female law enforcement-oriented students. 48 The second hypothesis tested in the study concerned the relation- ship between sex and authoritarianism between criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement. This second hypothesis, stated in null form, is: There is no difference between scores on a measure of authoritarianism of a group of female criminal justice students planning_careers in law enforcement as com- ,pgred with the scores of male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement. A t test was used to determine the statistical significance of the difference between the means of the two groups on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. As shown in Table 3, the difference between the two means was found to be insignificant at the .05 level. Table 3. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Law Enforcement-Oriented Criminal Justice Students Male Law Enforcement Female Law Enforcement (N=60) (N=28) '7 61.32 58.21 s 10.33 11.24 t=1.28 DF:86 p>'.05 The hypothesis, stated in the null form, is not rejected. The results support the hypothesis that there is no difference in authoritarianism between male and female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement. 49 The mean scores on the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale of the males and females in each of the three remaining student groups, i.e., criminal justice students planning careers in corrections and courts and non- criminal justice students, were then compared. As shown in Table 4, the only significant difference that was found was between the mean dogma- tism scores of males and females in the non-criminal justice student group. Table 4. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Non-criminal Justice Students Male Non-criminal Justice Female Non-criminal Justice (N=97) (N=96) 'R 60.64 57.71 5 10.22 10.39 t=l.98 DF:191 p< .05 £2=.022 Eta squared (E2) was then used to determine the strength of the relationship between the variables of sex and dogmatism in the non- criminal justice student group. The eta squared (E2) value, as shown in Table 4, was only .022. This value (E2=.022) indicates that only 2.2 percent of the variance of the dependent variable, dogmatism, is explained by the independent variable, sex, in the case of non-criminal justice students. This finding shows that the relationship between sex and dogmatism in this case is a weak one. It also illustrates the problem 50 previously cited in Fabianic and Regoli and Schrink, in the literature review concerning the use of statistical tests to establish a relation- ship between variables in studies of dogmatism among student groups. As they recommended, a measure of the degree of association in addition to tests of significance should be computed. A comparison was made between the mean dogmatism scores of students in the sample who attended Wayne State University versus students in the sample who attended Michigan State University. This comparison was made in order to determine what, if any, impact the fact that the sample was drawn from two different universities would have on the results of the study. ‘Previous research by Pierce compared value orientations and atti- tudes among students in four college-level police educational programs.1 He found that predispositional differences in student attitudes were significant between different colleges indicating that colleges do draw from different populations. Table 5. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Students at Wayne State University and Michigan State University Wayne State University Students .Michigan State University Students (N=83) (N=310) x 53.17 58.99 s 12.17 10.30 t=3.15 DF:391 p< .05 E2=.018 1 Charles Allen Pierce, "A Comparison of Certain Values and Attitudes Among Students in Selected Police Higher Education Programs" (Ph.D. dis- sertation, Kent State University, 1980). 51 As shown in Table 5, a significant difference was found using the t test between the mean dogmatism scores of the two student groups. However, the eta squared (E2) value was .018, indicating no substantial relationship between the university attended and dogmatism. Thus, dogma- tism and the university attended are not strongly related even though a test of significance implied the opposite. Finally, a comparison was made between the mean dogmatism scores of males and females in general in the sample. As shown in Table 6, a sig- nificant difference was found between the mean dogmatism scores by sex by the t test. However, the eta squared (E2) value was .025 indicating no substantial relationship between sex and dogmatism. Table 6. Comparison of Dogmatism Mean Scores Between Male and Female Students Male Students Female Students (N=l99) (N=194) 7 51.55 58.15 s 10.66 10.80 t-3.14 DF:391 p< .05 52-.025 In summary, analysis of the data revealed that female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement, as hypothesized, were no more or less authoritarian than other female criminal justice students planning careers in the criminal justice system or female students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. Similarly, male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement were 52 found to be no more or less authoritarian than other male criminal justice students planning careers in the criminal justice system or male students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. In addi- tion, female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforce- ment, as hypothesized, did not differ on the basis of authoritarianism from male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement. Thus, there were no significant differences in authoritarianism found between the student groups on the basis of college major. Addition- al analysis compared the mean dogmatism scores of student groups in the sample first on the basis of university attended and then on the basis of sex. Although using the t test, significant differences were found between the mean dogmatism scores in each case, eta squared (E2) values indicated that the strength of the relationship between dogmatism and both variables was not a strong one. However, these additional analyses illustrate the need for future studies concerning authoritarianism among student groups to consider not only college major, but other variables as well, which may affect a student's level of authoritarianism. CHAPTER V CONCLUSION Vocational theorists have long held that people are attracted to or repelled by certain occupations on the basis of their own personality. In particular, a number of writers contend that law enforcement is an occupation to which individuals who have certain personality communali- ties, particularly authoritarianism, are attracted because it is compati- ble with their personality. This view is known as the "predispositional model". Past research studies focusing on the "predispositional model" have involved only male subjects. Recently, women have been taking a more active and equitable role in all functions of society and this is reflected in increasing numbers of women being recruited into the law enforcement occupation. With the recruitment of women in large numbers into law enforcement, an important issue that must be considered is if there will be a difference in personality between women and men attracted to a career in law enforcement. Thus, there is a need to examine the "predispositional model" in light of this trend. The present study attempted to determine if female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement can be distinguished on the basis of personality from both male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement and from female students planning careers outside the field of law enforcement. The personality trait that was 53 54 examined is one said to comprise the "police personality", that of authoritarianism. The results of the present study cast doubt on the "predisposi- tional model" not only in the case of female criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement, but also in the case of male criminal justice students planning careers in law enforcement. The female law enforcement students, as hypothesized, were found to be no more or less authoritarian than other female students planning careers in the criminal justice system or female students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. Similarly, male law enforcement students were found to be no more or less authoritarian than other male students planning careers in the criminal justice system or male students planning careers outside the criminal justice system. In addition, the female law enforcement students, as hypothesized, did not differ on the basis of authoritarianism from male law enforcement students. The finding that there is no differ- ence in authoritarianism between law enforcement students and other students, even when comparisons are made on the basis of sex, support the conclusions reached in studies of student authoritarianism by Regoli and Schrink, and Fabianic. In addition, the finding that there was no dif- ference in authoritarianism between male and female law enforcement stu- dents supports a study by Gray-Little of 223 students in the 1970's in which no significant difference in mean dogmatism scale scores was found between male and female students.1 18ernadette Gray-Little, "Attitudes Toward Conflict with Authority As a Function of Sex, I-E and Dogmatism," Psycholggjcal Reports 34 (1974): 375-381. 55 The similarity in personality between the male and female law enforcement students, as found on the dogmatism scale, may be the result of a shared view of the police function in society. In recent years, police departments have been developing more of a community service orientation as evidenced by the initiating of social service programs, such as family crisis intervention and crime prevention. In fact, research studies in the past indicated generally that about 20 percent of a police officer's time is spent in dealing with matters related to crimin- al activity, while 80 percent is spent in the performance of activities that are closely related to social services.2 It may be that the social service image of police work appeals to the non-authoritarian, flexible and open-minded personalities of both the male and female criminal justice students in the sample planning careers in law enforcement. They may not see the role of the police officer as one of primarily law enforcement, exercising a great deal of power and authority in society, as it has traditionally been viewed. Rather, they may view the police officer's role as primarily one of a social worker dealing with society's problems, a more realistic view. Thus, as more law enforcement students actually enter law enforcement, the stereotype image of the authoritarian police officer may disappear. These findings probably do not represent a change in the personal- ity of females attracted to a law enforcement career given the traditional 2Robert G. Culbertson, "Occupational Choice, Corrections or Law Enforcement: A Comparison on the Basis of Dogmatism," Journal of Police Science and Administration 3 (March, 1975): 98-99. 56 social service duties females were historically restricted to in law enforcement. It would appear, based on the sample in the present study, that females attracted to a law enforcement career today view police work as a social service, despite the fact that their role now includes the formerly all-male patrol function. In contrast, the findings in the present study may represent a change in the personality of males attracted to a law enforcement career. In years past, many males entered law enforcement directly after experi- ence in the military and with very little education beyond high school. Early studies examining the "predispositional model", cited in the first chapter, found males attracted to the career of law enforcement at that time to differ in personality from other males, but to be similar in per- sonality to experienced police officers. Although they were not questioned concerning previous military experience, it is thought that the male law enforcement students in the sample, representative of law enforcement students today, have no previous military experience and will enter law enforcement after completing their higher education. A number of national studies, as well as numerous police studies, have supported the relationship between higher education 3 In the present study, males attracted to law and open belief systems. enforcement were found not to differ in personality from other males. Thus, possibly because of their different backgrounds, there may be a 3Roy R. Roberg, "An Analysis of the Relationships Among Higher Education, Belief Systems, and Job Performance of Patrol Officers,“ Journal of Police Science and Administration 6 (1978): 341-342. 57 change in the personality of males attracted to a law enforcement career today as compared to males in years past. It should be noted at this point that an argument exists that authoritarianism is a functional necessity of the police role; this is countered by an argument that it is a negative and socially dangerous attitude. The latter argument, as stated by Carlson et al., is that "the negative characteristics associated with authoritarianism (e.g., rigidity of perception; tendencies toward aggression) outweigh the posi- tive characteristics".4 However, it is beyond the scope of the present research to examine the potential benefits or detriments of authoritari- anism in police officers. It has long been held that authoritarianism is a personality trait of the "police personality". The purpose of the present study was to examine if, with increasingly large numbers of females entering law enforcement, authoritarianism would remain part of the "police personality". The question of whether authoritarianism should remain part of the "police personality" requires an extensive examination and will be left for other researchers to decide. In regard to future research, it is recommended, on the basis of the present research as well as Fabianic's and Regoli and Schrink‘s research, that studies concerning the differences in authoritarianism among student groups be discontinued. It would appear that law enforce- ment students are no more or less authoritarian than other students. 4Helena Carlson, Robert E. Thayer, and A. C. Germann, "Social Attitudes and Personality Differences Among Members of Two Kinds of Police Departments (Innovative vs. Traditional) and Students," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science 62 (1971): 567. 58 Whatever sex differences have been found in past studies appear to be minimal and account for but a small (less than 5) percent of the varia- tion in dogmatism. Future studies of women in law enforcement should focus on the "socializational model" rather than the "predispositional model". As stated earlier, a number of writers contend that it is the police occupation itself that develops the "police personality". According to this View, the "police personality" is merely the consequence of police work. As Niederhoffer stated in regard to authoritarianism, The source of police authoritarianism is a recurrent question. I have taken the position that authoritarianism develops after appointment as a result of socialization and experience in the police system. The opposing view is that long before appoint- ment, a self-selection process predisposes those who are authoritarians to police work. This latter thesis ascribes police authoritarianism to the personality variable rather than to factors of the social system.5 It may be that differences in authoritarianism between males and females will appear once they enter law enforcement. Studies measuring 7 the performance of female patrol officers in New York,6 Detroit, and 5Arthur Nidderhoffer, Behind the Shield. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1967), p. 132. . 6Joyce L. Sichel et al., Women on Patrol: A Pilot Study of Police Performance in New York City (waEHington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1978); Judith Ellen Greenwald, "Aggression As A Component of Police-Citizen Transactions: Differences between Male and Female Police Officers" (Ph.D. dissertation, City University of New York, 1976). 7Peggy Ann Heffner, "The Impact of Policewomen on Patrol: Contribu- tions of Sex Role Stereotypes to Behavior in an Astereotypic Setting" (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1976). 59 8 have found that women tend to be less aggres- St. Louis County, Missouri, sive on patrol than male patrol officers. This would tend to suggest that female patrol officers may be less dogmatic in their beliefs than male patrol officers. Why this may be so is open to speculation given the paucity of empirical research on the topic. Furthermore, studies in the past concerning police socialization have shown that the rookie police officer undergoes major attitudinal changes as experience is gained on patrol. Future research should examine the changes over time in the female police officer's personality. Longitudinal studies on male police officers have shown that the changes in personality that occur with experience on the job are in a negative direction.9 In contrast to the results of the longitudinal studies of male officers, the one longitudinal study conducted on the personality of women in law enforcement found that their personality changed in a posi- 10 In that study, Flynn tive direction with experience on the job. attempted to determine whether female Los Angeles County Sheriff's Deputies experienced any change in personality or self-concept as measured 8Lewis J. Sherman, "An Evaluation of Policewomen on Patrol in a Suburban Police Department," Journal of Police Science and Administra- tion 3 (1975): 434-438. _9James W. Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers. (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972);John E. Teahan, "A Longitudinal Study of Attitude Shifts Among Black and White Police Officers," Journal of Social Issues 31 (1975): 47-56; A. J. P. Butler and Raymond Cochrane, “An Examination of Some Ele- ments of the Personality of Police Officers and Their Implications," Journal of Police Science and Administration 5 (1977): 441-450. 10Kevin Matthew Flynn, "A Longitudinal StUdy of Women in Law Enforce- ment" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1977). 60 by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Semantic Differential Technique after three to five years on the job. It was found that the female deputies maintained a relatively healthy, stable personality configuration as reflected by the MMPI. As Flynn concluded: In the overall picture we see a group of successful female deputy sheriffs that are emotionally healthy at entry and also after years of exposure to one of the most stressful positions in society. Reports on police being emotionally unhealthy either at entry, or after being on the job a number of years, or both, were not borne out by the study. Quite the contrary, the author was impressed with the emotional well-being of the subjects as reflected by MMPI scores throughout the period of the study. As women increase in numbers in law enforcement and become more active in all phases of police work, questions will be raised as to whether they are emotionally equipped for the rigors experienced daily. Taking this group as a representative sample of Los Angeles County female Deputies, and generalizing to women in law enforcement nationally, it can be concluded that women are qualified for all aspects of law enforcement.n Thus, the small amount of research to date examining the "socializa- tion model" in regard to females entering the law enforcement profession has found that male and female police officers differ on some aspects of personality. As more females enter the law enforcement profession, future research should examine these differences in personality more closely, as well as identify other differences that may be found, given the importance such personality differences may have on the performance of the police function in society. 11Ibid., p. 75-75. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adorno, T. W.; Frenker-Brunswik, E.; Levinson, D. J.; and Sanford, R. N. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1950. Balch, Robert W. "The Police Personality: Fact or Fiction." 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Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (September 1973): 366-369. Troldahl,Ver1ing(L, and Powell, Fredric A. "A Short Form Dogmatism Scale for Use in Field Studies." Social Forces 44 (1965): 211-214. Walker, Donald Barclay. "An Empirical Study of Police Value Systems: Socialization and Selectivity." Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1975. APPENDIX SOCIAL SCIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE 66 SOCIAL SCIENCE QUESTIONNAIRE PERSONAL AGE: __ SEX: Male ___ Female ___ MARITAL STATUS: Single ___ Married ___ Separated ___ Divorced ___ Widowed ___ ETHNIC ORIGIN: White ___ Black ___ Hispanic ___ Oriental ___ Other ___ EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND: (Check years of college completed - convert courses or credits into equivalent of academic years and check nearest one.) Less than 1 l 2 3 b More than 4 ILAJOR: CAREER GOAL (if Criminal Justice major): Law Enforcement Corrections Courts ___ PREVIOUS CRIMINAL JUSTICE EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE (if any): Law Enforcement Corrections Courts INSTRUCTIONS The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important social and personal questions. The best answer to each statement following is your personal opinion. We have tried to cover many different and opposing points of of view; you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements. disagreeing just as strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others; whether you agree or disagree with any statement. you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Circle each statement according to haw much you agree or disagree with it. Please mark every one. I. In this complicated world of ours the only way we can know what's going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Di ea gree of segree Di 3 agree Agree Agree Agree 2. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly DI u gree DJ u gree Di segree Agree Agree Agree 3. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 67 There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Most people just don‘t know what's good for them. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Of all the different philosOphies which exist in this world there is probably only one which is correct. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree The highest form of government is a democracy and the highest form of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree I‘d like it if 1 could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly lfisagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Most of the ideas which get printed nowadays aren‘t worth the paper they are printed on. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Most people just don‘t give a ”damn" for others. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree To compromise with Our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree It is often desirable to reserve judgment about what's going on until one has had a chance to hear the opinions of those one respects. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree The present is all too often full of unhappiness. It is only the future that counts. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree )6. 68 The United States and Russia have just about nothing in common. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 37. In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times to make sure I‘m understood. Strongly Slightly Slightly SCIONQIV Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 18. While I don't like to admit this even to myself. my secret ambition is to become a great man. like Einstein. or Beethoven. or Shakespeare. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 19. Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal. it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. Strongly Slightly Slightly itrozgly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 9’9 20. It is better to be a dead hero than to be a live coward. Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION.