ABSTRACT THE NATURE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF A DUAL HIERARCHY SYSTEM OF NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION BY John Alfred Kaufman, III The study examines the system of newspaper admin- istration used by Booth Newspapers, Inc. whereby each of the company's eight daily newspapers is run by an editor and a manager, the two positions coequal in authority and separate in responsibility. Historical evolution of the Booth concept of newspaper administration is traced and an account of the manner in which the concept was applied from newspaper to newspaper at the time research was conducted is included. Personal interviewing and survey research techniques were employed to compare management processes at a Booth newspaper with management processes at a newspaper administered along traditional lines with a single executive in overall charge. The findings indicate that the conventional form of newspaper administration promotes a healthier internal climate in the organization regarding interdepartmental relations than does the dual hierarchy system of administration used by Booth Newspapers, Inc. Accepted by the faculty of the Mass Media Ph.D. Program, College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. D'rector of Dissertation THE NATURE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF A DUAL HIERARCHY SYSTEM OF NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION BY John Alfred Kaufman, III A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Communication Arts and Sciences 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author thanks the employes of Booth Newspapers, Inc. and Dayton Newspapers, Inc. for their assistance. ii LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE S O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O I O FIGURES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . . . . . . . Origins of the Study . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . Organization of the Study . Research Methods Employed . THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE STUDY . . The Nature of Comparative Research . . . . A Pattern for Behavioral Investigation . . The Human Organization: Likert's System 4 Impairments against Cooperation in Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Daily Newspaper As Organization . . . Differentiation in Newspapers: Theoretical Implications . . . . . . Theoretical Implications of Bilateral and Unilateral Administration: Hypothesis and Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE BOOTH CONCEPT OF BILATERAL NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION . A Brief History of Booth Newspapers, Inc. Evolution of the Bilateral Concept . . . . Idiosyncratic Application of the Bilateral Concept by Newspaper . . . . . . . . . . Booth Executives' Evaluation of the Bilateral System: Positive and Negative Attributes . . . . . . . . . Descriptive Summary of Bilateral Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page vi vii 12 13 14 l4 17 20 27 33 38 46 52 52 59 65 71 79 Chapter IV. VI. Page ORGANIZATION AND MANAGERIAL PROCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE BILATERAL AND UNILATERAL NEWSPAPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Selection of Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Organization and Managerial Process at a. Bilateral Newspaper: The Grand Rapids Press 0 I O O O O O O. I O O O O O O I O O O 87 Work Relations Among Managers . . . . . . . 88 Points of Friction in the Organization . . . 92 Organization and Managerial Process at the Dayton Daily News . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Corporate Organization . . . . . . . . . . 94 Organizational Plan of the Dayton Daill News 0 O O O O O I I O O I O O O O O 95 Work Relations among Managers . . . . . . . 99 Points of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Perceptual Similarities at Dayton and Grand Rapids 0 I O O O O O C O I O O O O I O 102 DELINEATING THE STATE OF THE LIVING SYSTEM: A METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK . . . . . 104 Classification of Variables . . . . . . . . . 104 Application of Likert's Organizational Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Additional Measurements . . . . . . . . . . 108 Tests of Validity and Reliability . . . . . . 111 Implementation of the Survey . . . . . . . . . 112 AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LIVING SYSTEMS OF THE GRAND RAPIDS PRESS AND THE DAYTON DAILY NEWS: REPORT OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . 115 Differences in Organizational Profiles . . . . 115 Stronger Cooperation at Dayton . . . . . . . 117 Differences in Employes' Attitudes . . . . . 118 PrOblem-SOlVing o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 118 Analysis of Differences by Department and Hierarchical Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Strength of Interdepartmental RelationShips O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 122 iv Chapter Page VI. Continued. Personality Profiles of Department Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Job Satisfaction at Dayton and Grand Rapids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Interpretation of Survey Results . . . . . . . 128 No Support for Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . 128 Greater Divisiveness at Bilateral Newspaper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Organizational Similarities . . . . . . . . 130 VII. SUMMARY EVALUATION OF BILATERAL NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION: ASSETS AND LIABILITIES . . . 134 Positive Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Negative Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 A Strategy for Improving the Bilateral Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 APPENDICES A. Organizational Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 B. Interdepartmental Relationship Scales . . . . 153 C. Job Description Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 D. Personality Assessment Scales . . . . . . . . 156 E. Scores from Organizational Profile . . . . . . 158 F. Inter-Item Correlation Matrix for Organizational Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O I O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 167 Table 1. LIST OF TABLES Page Intervening Variables with significant differences by hierarchical level . . . . . . . 121 Differences between newspapers in perceived strength of existing interdepartmental relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Ideal strength for interdepartmental relationships as indicated by respondents . . . 125 Summary of scores by newspaper for departmental personality profiles . . . . . . . 126 Summary of scores from Job Description Index . . 128 vi Figure LIST OF FIGURES Unilateral Administration Model Bilateral Administration Model Grand Rapids Press Organization Dayton Daily News Organization vii Page 88 96 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Origins of the Study The impetus for this study came from two origins: one is personal, the other historical. The study deals with organizational effectiveness of newspapers; in that regard it furthers a personal research interest. Systematic study of newspaper management processes has been neglected, by and large, by mass media researchers. There are several omnibus texts on newspaper publishing, texts that describe various departmental tasks, division of labor, work flow and other mechanics of newspaper publishing, but there is little written that examines newspaper management within a theoretical framework vis-a-vis contemporary organizational psychology and management principles. That there is need for such study, there can be little doubt. In recent years critics of the mass media have asked an embarrassing question: Why don't those who believe it their professional obligation to criticize bureaucratic bungling and mismanagement in the govern- mental and private sectors cast an examining eye on their own organizations to determine where improvements are in order? A study group reporting to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence noted: Few American institutions are as free from respon- sible and systematic analysis as the American Press. The press which performs the role of reporter and critic for other institutions, has been reluctant to undertake self-analysis.1 Herbert Brucker called that comment the understatement of the year.2 Brucker admonishes that because newspapers are manned by human beings they are no more perfect than any other institution, an observation that Chris Argyris has called the nub of the problem. He said: Newspapers are crucial for a healthy democracy; they are protected by the Constitution of the United States and they are manned by human beings whose behavior is rarely examined from within or without. This implies that newspaper people are human, and are expected to be superhuman. If one can make an assumption--and personal experi- ence plus observations of disinterested parties seem to indicate it is a safe one--that newspaper people, to a noticeable extent, believe they are working in a unique business where conventional management techniques and 1Mass Media and Violence, Vol. XI, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, p. 151. 2Herbert Brucker, Communication is Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 197. “ 3Chris Argyris, Behind the Front Page (Washington: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974), pp. 253—54. methods are often inapplicable to their special circumstance, then perhaps there is a serious need to investigate such a pr0position. It is important to ascertain to what extent newspapers are similar to or unlike other businesses and, subsequently, to suggest what conventional management tech- niques are appropriate for them as well as to indicate where innovative techniques might be tailored to fit special needs. Perhaps if those in the newspaper industry can be shown that their organizations are not so different from most others in the private sector, they will be more willing to avail themselves of the substantial amount of knowledge that has been accumulated over the past forty years regarding organizational effectiveness. Application of proven management techniques can do wonders for an organization, as was emphasized by a top executive at a newspaper who commented that things had been running a lot smoother the past four years--ever since they started using an annual operating budget! Dynamic management is vital to both the newspaper and to the public which it serves. It is vital to the newspaper because it is one of the major factors related to high productivity. It is vital to the public because without high productivity a newspaper becomes less profit- able and, subsequently, more susceptible to special interest pressures that could work to suppress or distort news content and editorial comment. As a case in point, Brucker noted that when a special task force of reporters from the financially troubled Boston Herald began investigating the relations between a prominent Boston businessman and members of organized crime, the paper's publisher got cold feet and ordered reporters to cease their investigative activities. They did, and then resigned. The merger of the morning Herald with its evening Traveler and its subsequent death from failing T———-'-T' o o . income is in itself a Sign of the pressures that work against journalistic integrity. And it is the weakling, not the paper with healthy circula- tion and advertising income, that is pressed toward compromising the truth.4 Although it is unwarranted to assume that all newspapers which operate from a position of financial strength neces- sarily strive to bring the fullest truth to the reader, it is not an unwarranted assumption to contend that newspapers operating from a weak financial base are less likely to bring the fullest truth to the reader. And the nature of the management system is a major determining factor in the finan- cial health of a newspaper. The study, then, seeks to con- tribute knowledge to the newspaper publishing industry concerning organizational effectiveness, knowledge that will make newspapers healthier and better fit to fulfill their First Amendment obligations. From an historical perspective, this study has origins in the work of Chris Argyris, who observed over a three-year 4Brucker, Communication Is Power, p. 49. period management processes at the New York Times. During the diagnostic phase of his research Argyris found substantial weaknesses in management processes evidenced by the strong presence of dysfunctional interpersonal behavior in what he calls the "living system" of the newspaper--the human environment in an organization within which its members live and work. Prominent among dysfunctional behavior observed was the presence of win-lose dynamics among managers. Problems of an interdepartmental nature were generally perceived by administrators at the Times as resolvable only at the expense of someone with a vested interest in the solution; someone had to lose in order for someone else to win. As a result, strong barriers had been created between departments. Such win-lose dynamics promoted evaluation and control rather than diagnosis and innovation by managers; fostered resistance to exploring what were perceived polit- ically as risky issues and new ideas; permitted little coherence, or additiveness, to group discussions and fostered strong pessimism about the likelihood of increasing organ- izational effectiveness. The existence of such a living system resulted in the organization's inability to review its own operational effectiveness and chart a course for improvement. An example of organizational procrastination at the New York Times involved the creation of an "op ed page." For some time the newspaper had been criticized from within and without for the one-sidedness of its editorial page. To answer critics' charges that readers were not provided an opportunity to read contrasting viewpoints, the publisher had made tentative plans for a new feature page that would present contrasting views and be located adjacent to the editorial page. Predictably, it took almost four years for the 0p ed page to become reality. Executives told Argyris that implementation had been held up over issues regarding both purpose and format. But Argyris found the real reason was political in nature and centered around a controversy regarding who would control the new page--the editorial department or the news department--and what departments would have to relinquish space to make room for the new feature page.5 The implication is clear. For over three years the thousands of readers of the New_ York Times were deprived of an Opportunity to read diverse views on contemporary social issues as a result of feudal- istic warring among newspaper managers who had fashioned their own personal fiefdoms and refused to give ground. The second part of Argyris's study involved a series of interventions by the researcher through which he attempted to coach newspaper executives in the develop- ment of supportive interpersonal behavior that would serve to dissolve the win-lose dynamics which had so adversely 5Argyris, Behind the Front Page, p. 153. affected the newspaper. The intervention phase culminated with a three-and-a-half day "learning seminar," similar to sensitivity training, in which participants attempted to come to grips with their dysfunctional interpersonal relationships. Argyris reported that his attempt to help Times executives was, by and large, unsuccessful. Some success seemed apparent at the very top level in the organiza- tional hierarchy, but many participants of the training sessions thought too many of their long-established, standard interpersonal skills and language habits would have to be modified to effect a meaningful change in their interpersonal relationships, a modification they were not prepared to undertake. The men and women who were involved in this intervention caught a glimpse of the living system that would be necessary for effective self-scrutiny and self-renewal. Some were attracted by it; a few were repelled. All were ambivalent, and all, for varied reasons, withdrew from it. This study is,to a great extent, concerned with the same dimension of organization with which Argyris was concerned in his study--the status of the living system, the human environment of a newspaper. Whereas Argyris attempted to improve the living system by behavior modification, this study seeks to explore the possibility 6Ibid., p. 231. that promotion of a healthy living system can be effected to some degree by a much simpler and more easily manipu- lated variable--administrative structure. Argyris is not deaf to the potential of using structure to improve the living system, but he warns that certain conditions are necessary before structural changes can be implemented successfully. That proposition will be dealt with more fully later. This study will examine structure as it relates to the living systems of newspapers. In this regard it is research of a highly exploratory nature, since past researchers have focused mainly on sociopolitical aspects of editorial operation and neglected to deal with the newspaper as a total entity, examining the organizational dynamics within. Purpose of the Study This study examines two forms of administrative structure used by newspapers. It attempts to ascertain if one type of structure promotes a healthier human environment, or living system, than the other. The two administrative forms are unilateral and bilateral struc- ture. Figures 1 and 2 are abbreviated models of the two types of administrative structure. Unilateral structure is based on traditional administrative theory whereby a single authoritative head is in charge of operations at the top of the organizational hierarchy. It is the structure that has been used historically in the United Publisher Adver- . Circu- . . Produc- tising Bu51ness lation Editorial tion Figure l. Unilateral Administration Model Editor ‘ Manager . . Adver- . Circu- Produc- Editorial tising Bu51ness lation tion Figure 2. Bilateral Administration Model 10 States to administer newspapers; the position at the top occupied by a publisher or, more recently, a general manager. By contrast, bilateral structure operates with two persons in charge of operations at the top of the organizational hierarchy, a manager and an editor. Whereas unilateral structure is widespread among news- papers and represents the mode, bilateral structure as defined in this study is an unusual concept employed by Booth Newspapers, Inc. in Michigan. At each of the corporation's eight newspapers no single authoritative head is in charge. The manager and editor at each news— paper are coequals and must, to a substantial extent, govern through consensus. These two structures henceforth will be referred to as simply unilateral administration and bilateral administration. It should be noted here that while other references to the Booth organization, as well as the corporate employes, refer to the system as "dual manage- ment," that term will not be used here because it is used in management literature to denote a quite different administrative relationship, as defined by Schonberger. Dual management is a form of team management that involves two managers whose collective line authority 11 is over a single common set of subordinates. The most common example of this is the manager-assistant manager (or chief deputy) relationship.7 "Bilateral administration" seems a more congruous term, since by common definition "bilateral" pertains to that which is "located on opposite sides of an axis; two- sided, esp. when of equal size, value, etc."8 The study has two principal aims: First, it describes the bilateral system, specifying lines of authority, span of control of editor and manager, juris— dictional areas where the authority of editor and manager overlap, as well as idiosyncratic application of bilateral administration from newspaper to newspaper within the Booth organization. Special problems and considerations that such an administrative structure creates are also reviewed. The first research problem, then, is: What is bilateral administration in terms of structure and func- tion as it exists within Booth Newspapers, Inc? The study's second aim is to compare the bilateral structure with traditional, or unilateral, newspaper administrative structure to determine if there are signif- icant differences in certain internal processes that serve 7Richard J. Schonberger, "The Dual Management Phenomenon," Public Personnel Management, November- December 1974, p. 500. 8The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 1966. 12 as predictors of the character of the organization's living system, such as level of acceptance by subordinates toward decisions, perceived need for organizational integrative- ness, nature of decision-making processes, degree of interdepartmental cooperation and other organizational variables. The second research problem, then, is: Is there a significant relationship between type of newspaper admin- istration--unilateral or bilateral--and the nature of the organization's human environment, or living system? Organization of the Study The study is organized into seven chapters, of which this is the first. The second chapter explains the theoretical framework within which the study was conceived. The third chapter describes the Booth concept of bilateral newspaper administration in terms of organizational philosophy, history and application. The fourth chapter contains descriptive case studies of bilateral administra- tion as it was employed at the Grand Rapids Press and of unilateral administration as it existed at the Dayton Daily News, Dayton, Ohio, at the time of the study. The fifth chapter outlines a survey design which was used to collect data for an empirical analysis of the living systems of the two newspapers. The sixth chapter reports the findings of the survey. The seventh chapter reports the conclusions 13 reached regarding the two research problems and offers recommendations for strategies that, in light of the findings, should lead to healthier living systems for newspapers. Research Methods Employed Data for the study were collected from June 1975 through April 1976. Three fundamental research techniques were employed: documentary and historical, personal inter— viewing, and survey. Documentary research was used extensively for the chapter that gives the study a theoret- ical perspective. Data for the chapter on the Booth concept of bilateral administration and the chapter describing the Operation of the newspapers at Grand Rapids and Dayton were collected through use of documents and by extensive per- sonnel interviewing. Survey research methods were employed in gathering empirical data from personnel at the two news- papers. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE STUDY The Nature of Comparative Research This study attempts to relate the behavior of individuals to organizational structure as well as explain the organization's structural character. In doing so, it follows the first and second approaches used in tradi- tional organizational research.1 The study describes the Booth system of bilateral newspaper administration and shows how managers and editors operate within it. Such an approach seeks a solution to the first problem-- determining what bilateral administration is in terms of structure and function. The study has another dimension in that it is comparative. Comparative research seeks to determine if organizations structured along classical lines perform better than those structured differently. Classical organizations are generally thought of as those with precisely defined hierarchies of authority and strong lW. Richard Scott, "Field Methods in the Study of Organizations," in Handbook of Organizations, ed. by James G. March (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1965), p. 267. 14 15 bureaucratic development, vis-a-vis Max Weber's bureau- cratic model.2 The comparative dimension seeks to solve the second research problem, which is to determine if there is a significant relationship between type of news- paper administration, bilateral and unilateral, and the nature of the organization's human environment, or living system. The comparative dimension of this study should be of particular value in aiding development of what Etzioni calls middle-range organizational theory. Organizational research has traditionally been based in case studies which either made statements about a single organization or statements concerning characteristics that could be generalized to apply to all organizations. Such state- ments, according to Etzioni, constitute the "upper level" of organizational theory but need to be supplemented by middle-range statements of a more precise nature, speci- fying the categories of organizations for which they hold.3 The Weberian model, for example, applies par- ticularly to business and government bureaucracies, and in part to hierarchical churches and some 2Alan C. Filley and Robert J. House, Managerial Process and Organizational Behavior (Scott Foresman and Company, 19697, p. 77. 3Amitai Etzioni, A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations (New York: The Free Press, 1961), P. xii. 16 military organizations as well. But when we consider prisons, universities, hospitals, research organiza- tions, egalitarian churches, schools, political parties, and labor unions, many propositions must be modified or specified considerably before they hold true.4 It would seem logical that, because of several attributes which will be discussed later in the chapter, newspapers can be included among the list of organizations for which traditional propositions of organizational theory might require some adjustment. It is one of the goals of this study to provide some theoretical insight into newspaper administration to determine, ultimately, how congruent newspapers as organizations are with universal models of organization. If middle-range statements about newspaper organization and administration are apprOpriate, perhaps future policy recommendations by practitioners and consultants will not be founded on stubborn application of universal models, whether they be of the Weberian or human relations school, to the newspaper's organizational circumstance regardless of their applicability, but will be based instead on specific theoretical propositions regarding the newspaper as a member of a certain class of organization. Specif- ically, within the context of the study, the chief aim will be to determine if the Booth concept of bilateral 41bid., p. xiii. l7 administration is an appropriate departure from traditional organizational theory as it relates to newspapers. And, as Etzioni warns us, it is through comparative analysis of organizations that a precise theory patterned to fit the circumstances of subcategories of organizations will be achieved. A Pattern for Behavioral Investigation Filley and House note that although there has been a great deal of activity during the past twenty-five years in behavioral science and operations research in management literature, theories from both sorts of research have been developed with consequent effect on managerial practice without a single, unified theory emerging. ". . . [M]odern management theory has taken so many different directions that the conflict among approaches makes common understanding difficult."5 Such research follows a behavioral approach in that it is problem-centered and inductive. It is inter- ested primarily in determining what patterns of coopera- tion occur within a newspaper operated bilaterally and how those patterns compare with ones of a newspaper operated unilaterally. In such a regard the study closely approximates the behavioral perspective in organizational research: 5Filley and House, Managerial Process, p. 7. 18 According to the behavioral view, the task of admin— istration is to choose those arrangements, broadly speaking, that are most likely to evoke a system of c00perative relationships among the people who are to achieve the mission of the organization. In con- trast to other approaches, the behavioral view centers more on the people, their interactions and their cooperation. It emphasizes, more than the traditional approach, the development of insight and understanding based on empirical investigation.6 Behavioral research has taken many tacks since Chester Barnard departed from classical organizational theory in the 1930's by emphasizing the importance of cooperation as a means by which the limitations of indivi- dual performance and capacity can be transcended to more effectively meet goals. Since 1950 much has been done to promote what Etzioni calls middle-range theory. Taking a problem-centered approach, behavioral researchers have attempted to dissolve parachial boundaries that tradition- ally separated bodies of literature devoted to business administration, public administration, hospital administra- tion and other distinct administrative areas. Behavioral research and the human relations move- ment in organizational administration have to a great extent evolved mutually. The human relations movement has had as its central concern "power-equalization," reducing the degree of power and status between supervisors and 6P. J. Gordon, "Transcend the Current Debate on Administrative Theory," Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 1963), p. 295. l9 subordinates. Generally, four methods have been employed to effect power-equalization: hygenic supervision; delegation; participation; inducing behavior and attitude changes.7 The theoretical premise of this study closely approx- imates that of Rensis Likert's. Likert has been active in the behavioral movement in management studies since its beginnings and has developed one of the most comprehen- sive organizational models, one that focuses on par- ticipation as well as effecting behavior and attitude change through structural design. Likert attacks the classical organizational model as being nothing more than a job-organization plan. Such a structure allows for interaction between superior and subordinate but fails to provide for interaction between the group and the superior as well as between different groups. Filley and House offer a concise abstraction of Likert's model of organiza- tion. It is included here in its entirety. Likert would substitute for this classical theory a "cooperative motivation system" of group-oriented management. He would encourage group problem solving and would design the organizational structure so that an individual is in constant interaction with several different interest groups within the organization. By this means, the organization is run on the basis of 7George Strauss, "Some Notes on Power- Equalization," in The Social Science of Organizations, ed. by Harold J. Leavitt (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1963), PP. 41-42. - 20 the mutual influence of its members--a concept similar to pluralism in government. Under the group plan there is greater motivation to communicate accurately all relevant and important information, because if one person holds back important facts, his omission will be more easily detected by others who have equal acess to the same information and he will be subject to the influence of the group. According to Likert, the group can get across to the superior ideas that no single subordinate dares tell him. As a consequence, there is better communication, which results in heightened awareness of problems and better decision making than in the man—to-man system. Effective group action also stimulates individual motivation, pro- viding each member an opportunity for a high level of identification with goals because of his personal involvement in decisions.8 This, then, is the essence of the theoretical orientation within which the study is conducted. The following section is an applification of the theoretical premise. The Human Organization: Likert's System 4 Likert's central thesis is that all dimensions of organizational activity are determined by the competence, motivation and general effectiveness of its human organi- zation. "Of all the tasks of management, managing the human component is the central and most important task, because all else depends on how it is done."9 And it is through a system of organization with distinct structural definition that management of the human organization is accomplished--to varied degrees of success depending on 8Filley ahd House, Managerial Process, pp. 76-77. 9Rensis Likert, The Human Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), p. l. 21 the type of managerial philosophy and administrative structure utilized. Likert asserts that empirical findings indicate that the management system of a firm is also a major determining factor in regard to productivity. Highly productive organizations are characterized by Likert as having "tightly knit social systems" and being highly complex and interdependent. Highly produc- tive organizations are run by people who understand one another's roles and their relation to the overall mission of the organization. Their members possess favorable attitudes and appropriate motivations and have reciprocal under- standing and acceptance of their respective roles, functions and responsibilities.10 It is this dimension of an organization's character--the appropriateness of attitudes, the reciprocity between members in understanding and accepting one another's roles--that is at the crux of the comparative phase of research in this study. The comparative research here attempts to determine if either the bilateral or uni- lateral system of newspaper administration promotes a healthier living system as evidenced by a greater amount of reciprocal understanding among members in the organiza- tion than does the other. Likert describes management systems as lying somewhere on a continuum; the left polarity is strongly loIbid., p. 106. 22 authoritative in character, the right polarity is strongly participative in character. Such a conceptualization is compatible with Douglas McGregor's well known Theory x and Theory Y. Theory X, the traditional philosophical orientation, holds that the average person dislikes work, must be controlled and directed, wants to avoid respon- sibility, has little ambition and desires only security. Theory Y, the philosphical orientation of behavioral scientists, perceives the average person as one who has no inherent dislike of work and derives satisfaction from it, will exert self-direction toward the goals of the organization if he is committed to its objectives, will be committed to the firms objectives if his ego and self- actualization needs are fulfilled, seeks responsibility under proper conditions, and has a capacity to exercise substantial ingenuity and creativity in solution of the organization's problems.ll Likert divides his continuum into four systems and calls the one to the extreme left System 1, the one to the extreme right System 4. He uses the following typology to categorize the four management systems: System 1, exploitive authoritative; System 2, benevolent authoritative; System 3, consultative; System 4, 11Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960), passim. 23 participative group. Data collected from hundreds of managers by the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has shown that high producing departments are perceived by managers in the organization as using systems more to the right and low producing departments are perceived as managed more to the left side of the continuum. Conventional organizational structure, System 1 and 2,rely on a man-to-man model of interaction with no regard for group processes within the organization. The organization has at its head a president with full and ultimate responsibility for the firm. Responsibility is delegated to those in his span of control who in turn delegate to subordinates in their span of control, and so on. No provision is made for interaction between groups. System 2, benevolent authoritative, adheres to .a philosophy which dictates that management's mission is to secure high earnings through high production and reduced costs. Employe satisfaction and happiness are given nominal consideration but are perceived as wholly unre- lated to the primary task of securing high earnings. Likert admonishes that such an approach to management does little more than apply salve to internal problems. System 4, by contrast, departs from the tradi- tional organizational model through creation of overlapping group forms where certain persons called "linking pins" 24 belong to more than a single work group. In System 4, interaction is both verticle and horizontal, that is, between superior and subordinate as well as between peers. The linking pins in a System 4 organization are not identified through some process of sociological selection, as with Katz and Lazarsfeld's Opinion leaders in the two-step flow theory of mass communication. Instead, their dual membership role is specifically designated in the organization's structure. It is through such a pro- vision that group processes in decision-making are promoted. Whereas System 2 organizations are primarily con- cerned with procedures and outcome, fundamental to the philosophy of System 4 management is the premise that organizational results are direct manifestations of the effectiveness of its internal interaction-influence processes and of the intensity of supportive relation— ships, key terms in understanding the dynamics of System 4. System 4 requires a strong interaction-influence faculty to facilitate exchange of information and foster generation of ideas that will lead to improved organiza- tional effectiveness through such strategies as lowering costs, improving the product, improving logistics and other actions that add value to the firm. It is the existence of a strong interaction-influence faculty that permits an organization to continually update itself, to 25 create what Argyris calls a capacity for self-renewal. Likert provides the following definition. . . . interdependent motivations and processes con- stitute an over-all system which coordinates, inte- grates, and guides the activities of the organization and all its members. Its quality determines the organization's capacity to achieve effective commu- nication, to make sound decisions, and to motivate, influence, and coordinate the activities of its members. The better the over-all system is and the better it functions, the greater will be the power of the organization to use fully and in a coordinated manner the skills, abilities, and resources of the persons in the organization. For easy reference, this system will be referred to as the interaction- influence system.12 "Supportive relationships" is a general principle that can be used to improve interpersonal relationships in an organization by serving as a guide for personnel in their relationships with one another. A high incidence of supportiveness will result in members being motivated to fill higher, noneconomic needs--ego satisfaction, self- actualization--so that both economic and noneconomic needs become compatible, resulting in a fusion of the individual's goals and the goal's of the organization. The principle is stated succinctly in New Patterns of Management. The leadership and other processes of the organization must be such as to ensure a maximum probability that in all interactions and in all relationships within the organization, each member, in the light of his background, values, desires, and expectations, will view the experience as supportive and one which builds 12Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1961): P. 179. 26 and maintains his sense of personal worth and importance.l3 Likert states that small group experiments, organizational change experiments and longitudinal studies demonstrate that the condition of the variables contrib- uting to coordination in the organization is dependent on the nature of the organizational structure and the character of interaction-influence processes, "i.e., by the extent to which (1) the structure consists of multiple overlapping groups, (2) work problems are handled by group decision making, and (3) the principle of supportive rela- 14 He designates those three tionships is being applied." variables as causal in relation to intervening variables which indicate the presence of effective coordination. Intervening variables include different dimensions of internal communication, the capacity of components in the organization to influence and motivate each other, and other indicators of the organization's internal state and health--barometric indicators of Argyris's living system. In The Human Organization, Likert states that research findings confirmed earlier findings that sup- portive relationships and group patterns of decision- making correlate positively and strongly with the 13Ibid., p. 103. 14Likert, The Human Organization, p. 142. 27 organization's capacity to achieve highly coordinated efforts and successfully reach organizational objectives. The end-result variables [those that reflect the achievements of the organization] are important, of course, and must be watched carefully, but satisfactory costs and earnings will be assured to a much greater extent when the central task of management is perceived as building and main- taining a highly effective interaction-influence system.15 Impairments Against Cooperation In Organizations It is paradoxical that the very principles on which formal organizations are founded have dysfunc- tional ramifications that serve to confound their purpose. Formal organizations provide a structure by which diverse tasks can be systematically allocated and a multiplicity of efforts coordinated toward a common goal. "Since no real coordination is possible without cooperation, organizational arrangements must be designed to foster rather than hinder cooperation."l6 Max Weber recognized the crucial principle of sub- division of responsibility and its entailment of a division of labor, specialized competencies and formal hierarchy of authority, and he placed it at the head of his list of 151bid., p. 100. 16Filley and House, Managerial Process, p. 71. 28 distinguishing traits of modern bureaucracies.l7 But while the subdivision of responsibility enables the achievement of a single goal through coordination of a complex set of subtasks, it also creates barriers to internal cooperation by the very essence of its nature-- differentiation. Differentiation in a functional dimension can impede organizational cooperation when personnel in one subdivision become so mesmerized with their particular subtask that they are recalcitrant toward coordinating the work routine with another subdivision to ensure greater overall Operating effectiveness regarding the organization's goal, whether it be profitable manufacture of tires or publication of newspapers. In his study of differentiation among employment security agencies in the United States, Blau notes that the stress on functional differentiation in the formal structure has been so pervasive that it accounts for the core of systematic study of organizations.18 Attempting to advance a general theory of dif- ferentiation in organizations, Blau chose to ignore possible psychological forces that might account for 17Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947). 18Peter M. Blau, "A Formal Theory of Differentia- tion in Organizations," American Sociological Review Vol. 35, No. 2 (April 1970), p. 203. 29 individual behavior and instead concentrated on the social forces that govern interrelations among elements in a formal structure. Blau used the following operational definition of differentiation in his study: A dimension of differentiation is any criterion on the basis of which the members of an organization are formally divided into positions, as illustrated by the division of labor; or into ranks, notably managerial levels; or into subunits, such as local branches, headquarters divisions, or sections with branches or divisions. After studying the fifty-three employment security agencies in the country, Blau deduced two basic generali- zations about differentiation. First, increasing size of organizations generated structural differentiation along various dimensions at decelerating rates. Second, struc- tural differentiation enlarges the administrative com- ponent in organizations.20 Blau determined that differentiation can promote intra-unit homogeneity while simultaneously serving to promote inter-unit heterogeneity. Because task special- ties in large organizations are more differentiated than in small ones and the amounts of work required in each task greater, there are more employes performing homo— genous tasks in large organizations than in small. Such 19Ibid., p. 203. 201bid., p. 216. 30 a situation for large organizations simplifies supervision and administration by permitting a large span of control and a lower administration ratio. "At the same time, however, the heterogeneity among organizational components produced by differentiation creates problems of coordina- tion and pressures to expand the administrative personnel to meet these problems.21 In a study designed to examine characteristics of organizations which allow firms to adjust to changes in the external environment plus marketing characteristics and conditions, Lawrence and Lorsch used a broad defini- tion of differentiation, incorporating both psychological and functional attributes asserting that differentiation ". . . is the difference in cognitive and emotional orienta- tion among managers in different departments."22 They list four dimensions of differentiation: (1) orientation toward particular goals; (2) time orientation; (3) interpersonal orientation; and (4) variation in formality of structure. Lawrence and Lorsch note that there is a definite and obvious need for differentiation in formal organiza- tions, but that the central issue is how to promote integration, i.e., "the quality of the state of collabora- tion that exists among departments that are required to 21Ibid., p. 217. 22Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Or aniza- tion and Environment (Harvard University, 1967), p. II. 31 achieve unity Of effort . . ." without destroying the necessary and functional attributes of differentiation. The authors assert that while the classicists argued fOr the benefits of differentiation, they failed to take into account the dysfunctional aspect. . . . they failed to see that the act of segmenting the organization into departments would influence the behavior of organizational members in several ways. The members of each unit would become special- ists in dealing with their particular tasks. But because of their prior education and experience and because of the nature of their task, they would develop specialized working styles and mental processes.23 Members of different departments and divisions in the organization develop different points of view, and, as a result, Often find it difficult to agree to their mutual satisfaction on integrated programs of action. In a study that examined ten organizations for intraorganizational structural variation, Hall found significant differences in regard to degree of bureau- cratization among internal structural elements of the organizations.24 Taking his cue from Litwak's assertion that different divisions in an organization may perform tasks of differing nature that call for different forms of behavior for participants, Hall wished to determine if 23Ibid., p. 9. 24Richard H. Hall, "Intraorganizational Structural Variation: Application of the Bureaucratic Model," Admini- strative Science Quarterly, December 1962, pp. 295-308. 32 variations in bureaucratization occurred among organiza- tional divisions or subdivisions working at diversified tasks, as well as between hierarchical levels. Litwak suggested that departments and divisions in an organiza— tion can be divided into at least two categories in regard to degree of bureaucratization; Hall calls those divisions Type I and Type II. Type I components.are involved in highly routine jobs that require traditional skills and deal with uni- form events, such as assembly-line work. Type II compon— ents are characterized by Litwak as beset with nonuniform tasks that do not lend themselves to routine schedules.25 Such components might include those that require social or creative skills, including research, sales, design and advertising. Hall found substantial evidence to support his hypothesis that organizational components classified as Type II were less bureaucratic than components classified as Type I. He also found evidence to support his second hypothesis that hierarchical levels where tasks are less uniform and routine prove to be less bureaucratic than hierarchical levels where tasks are uniform and easily routinized. 25Eugene Litwak, "Models of Organization Which Permit Conflict," American Journal of Sociology Vol. 67 (1961), p. 181. 33 Hall's findings demonstrate that there is sub- stantial differentiation within organizations in regard to the amount of bureaucratization among functional com- ponents as well as among various heirarchical levels. The studies cited in this section provide understanding into the nature of differentiation as an organizational phenomenon, particularly of its dysfunc- tional role. Although none of the studies examined differentiation within newspapers, Argyris's study of the New York Times is convincing proof that newspaper managers (uni be hamstrung by the dysfunctional aspect of differentiation, and the organization suffer as a consequence. The next section examines some of the dis- tinguishing organizational traits of newspapers and special problems regarding promotion of supportive rela- tionships and creation Of a dynamic interaction-influence system. The Daily Newspaper As Organization There is no single model of newspaper organiza- tion with universal applicability. The size of the newspaper has much to do with its structural character and division of responsibility. Metropolitan newspapers have greater divisions of labor and correspondingly more complex administrative structures than "small town" news— papers. Generally, newspapers follow what management 34 literature calls a line and staff pattern Of organiza- tion.26 The traditional means for coping with the need for an unambiguous hierarchy of supervision combined with specialized technical support is the line and staff organization. So far as the individual employe in the line and staff organization is concerned, direct day-to-day supervision comes from one formal superior, although advice and specialized direction may come from staff people. This form of structure handles the matter of formal versus technical author- ity rather well, but . . . it creates added problems with respect to power and influence.27 Filley and House point out that the concept is ambiguous at best, different writers using the terms "line" and "staff" to variously designate functions, organizational units or patterns of authority. Applying the line and staff pattern of organiza- tion to a newspaper is no simple task; there are obstacles to be dealt with. It is proposed here that newspapers as organizations can be more meaningfully analyzed if they are thought of as firms which make a profit by selling a service rather than a product. Broadly put, a newspaper is an organization that enters a contract with two types of customers, readers and advertisers. The newspaper enters into a contract with the reader to routinely provide a variety of information services which 26Frank W. Rucker and Herbert Lee Williams, News paper Organization and Management (4th ed.; Iowa State University Press, 1974), p. 8. 27 Filley and House, Managerial Process, p. 259. 35 report changes in the status of the external environment, that is, the community, whether it be local or global. Topically, information can be dichotomized as that which deals with the sociopolitical dimension of the external environment, news and editorial comment, and that which deals with the distribution of goods and services in the environment, advertising. The latter category of informa- tion entails a second contractual arrangement, one between newspaper and advertiser. Advertising revenues generally account for 80 percent of a newspaper's income with sub- scriptions accounting for the remaining 20 percent. In terms of utility theory, a newspaper in hand is not a product because a consumer will realize no increase in utility by buying two copies of the same edi- tion, just as he will gain no additional utility by paying to have the same pair of trousers pressed twice. Con- tinuous change in the external environment renders any edition of a newspaper obsolete only hours after it has been published. Newspapers as organizations in this study, then, are considered as service-oriented rather than product-oriented. Lines of authority and areas of responsibility differ substantially from newspaper to newspaper, and for that reason no exact organizational diagram is included here. Instead, newspapers as organizations are described along five common functional lines of departmentalization: 36 business, advertising, circulation, editorial and production. The business department has as its task activity responsibility for billings and collections, accounting, payroll, employe benefit plans, purchasing, personnel administration and other fiscal matters of a routine- operational nature. It can be considered a staff agency in the organization. The advertising department is charged with solicit- ing advertising, assisting in the creation of advertise- ments as well as coordinating logistics between the adver- tiser and the newspaper. The advertising department is usually subdivided into three divisions: national, which handles "brand" advertisements of manufacturers; retail, sometimes called "display," which handles advertisements from local merchants; and classified, which handles advertisements from individuals who are occasional sellers. The circulation department is concerned with logistics. It is charged with efficiently distributing the newspaper to readers. Often it is also given promo- tional duties aimed at increasing size Of circulation. To the editorial department, more appropriately called news-editorial, is delegated the task of acquiring through staff production or purchase all the textual and photographic material used in the newspaper of a non- commercial nature, that is, all the information dealing 37 with the sociopolitical dimension of the external environment. Editorial departments are subdivided along several lines, including functional and topical. The production department is charged with the task of receiving news copy and advertising copy from the editorial and advertising departments, setting the information in type and reproducing the information on a press. Production departments of newspapers using hot metal processes are subdivided into composing room, stereotyping room, engraving room and press room. Four departments--advertising, circula- tion, editorial and production—-can be considered line agencies in the organization, with certain exceptions. They are line agencies because they all contribute directly to the service offered by the newspaper; if one department failed to function it is doubtful an edition could be published: certainly it would severely reduce services. By contrast, the business department could cease to function for several days and the organization could continue to offer its full services to the consumer. The exceptions regarding classification of those four departments as line agencies is directed at the cir- culation and production departments. They often include staff components which make them hybrid departments. The circulation department is frequently charged with a pro- motional task. It maps strategies aimed at increasing 38 street and home delivery sales of the newspaper. The production department serves a staff function if included within its area of responsibility is responsibility for machine and plant maintenance. In fact, the production department may well be called the "mechanical" department by some newspapers, a general designation that seems intended to denote both the line and staff functions with which the department is concerned. The five department heads of a newspaper are normally responsible directly to the chief operating officer of a newspaper, a publisher or general manager, who sits at the top of the organizational hierarchy. The newspaper organization also includes an administrative element composed of high-level executives directly responsible to the chief operating officer. The adminis- trative element is a staff unit and might include, where circulation is not directly charged with that area of responsibility, a promotion director, a controller, a research director and other specialists. Differentiation in Newspapers: Theoretical Implications NO attempt is made in this study to delineate a comprehensive and exhaustive list of potentially dys- functional activity in newspapers associated with the many dimensions of differentiation. No attempt is made 39 to empirically determine what specific lines of differ- entiation exist horizontally and vertically throughout a newspaper. While such a determination would be extremely beneficial in helping to explain why break- downs in the interaction-influence system occur in newspapers and no doubt could provide insight on pre- ventive measures to be taken, it is a research problem unto itself and far too major an undertaking to be included within the parameters of this study. However, in order to explain obvious and common instances of dysfunctional behavior in newspapers, a brief discussion of some manifest aspects of differen- tiation is in order. The following statements about differentiation are theoretically derived through the researcher's previous experience and observations as a newspaper employe, from observations made during the course of this research and from previous research findings.28 In that regard, they are admittedly sub- jective. When the criterion for differentiation is divi- sion of responsibility by task function it is important to compare the particular goals, time orientation, 28See John A. Kaufman, "The (Lansing) State Journal as a Gannett Property: An Inquiry into and Evaluation of Editorial Performance Under Gannett Co. Ownership" (Unpublished M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1973). 40 interpersonal orientation and formality of structure of the five major departments within the organization. It would seem that along departmental lines differentiation is most prominent and the potential for resultant dys- functional behavior most acute between the editorial department and the other four departments. This is so 'because the many activities that comprise newspaper publishing can be quite cleanly dichotomized. The following statement addresses itself to that division. . . . these many activities tend to be justified, by persons working within newspapers, in terms of two dominant values or symbols: "money" and "service.' And frequently these are expressed as considerations of money versus service (or vice versa). This means, in brief, that a newspaper is not quite sure of the kind of organization that it is, or should be. Is it a service institution or a business institution? Or something of each? Newspapers are faced with the need to come as close to balancing their budgets as possible while being sensitively aware of their task . of serving the information needs of [the] public. . . .4 That statement gets at the crux of the issue. In reference to departmental goals, editorial employes per- ceive the newspaper as a service organization whose primary mission is to continually brief the reader on changes in the external environment. Employes in the other four departments do not assume such an intense service orientation and instead are more concerned with costs and profits, the business aspect of newspaper pub- \. 4....- lishing. This is not an unusual organizational dilemma, as can be judged from the quoted passage. That statement 41 is from a discussion of internal conflict in hospitals. Liberty was taken in substituting "newspaper" for "hospital" and "information" for "health."29 If editorial employes are thought of as pro- fessionals working in an organization--even though journalism does not meet all necessary criteria to be classified as a profession--then the newspaper can be considered one of those formal organizations that faces the problem of having to operate effectively with members of a particular functional component who have a sense of dual loyality; loyalty to the organization they work for and loyalty to the standards of their profession. Such a circumstance can easily create situations where the goals of the professional and the goals of the organization come into conflict. Hospitals face a similar dilemma with a professional medical staff and an administrative staff. Other organizations composed Of professional and lay members include research and development organizations, and universities. In his organizational analysis of news reporting, Sigelman saw the professional status of editorial employes as crucial to organizational control in newspapers. 9Harvey L. Smith, "Two Lines of Authority Are One Too Many," Modern Hospital, Vol. 84, No. 3 (March 1955), p. 60. 42 In the person of the professional participant, organization leaders are presented with a special, sometimes problematic case. The professional holds dual citizenship. He is, to a greater or lesser extent, committed to the methods and goals of both his organization and his profession. This duality presents a potential for conflict which will be actualized when there is tension between organiza- tional and professional standards. Whichever way the professional resolves a conflict between com- peting standards, his psychic costs are apt to be great. . . .30 It is logical to set editorial employes apart from the members of a newspaper's other four departments because of the professional training and orientation that is part of their background. By and large, for the type of newspaper considered in this study, "medium size“ papers with a circulation of 50,000 to 150,000, most editorial employes have received formal training in journalism. Most news people hold a bachelor's degree, many hold a master's degree. They consider themselves members, if not of a bonafide profession, certainly of a quasi-profession, which takes as its mandate the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Through their college experience they have studied a common body of literature and a reasonably well defined system of ethics. While they are an intricate component in the technical core of the newspaper, it is, perhaps, the 30Lee Sigelman, "Reporting the News: An Organiza- tional Analysis," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 79, No. 1 (July 1973), p. 141. 43 latter two attributes that set editorial employes apart, to one degree or another, from personnel who make up the remainder of the technical core--pressmen, printers, advertising salesmen and others. The professional orienta- tion of editorial employes promotes relatively intense psychological closeness among them while simultaneously increasing their psychological distance from personnel in other departments. When juxtaposed against Hall's model of bureau- cratization in organizations, the editorial department of a newspaper would seem to be the organizational component that must closely approximate the Type II component, although the advertising department might well also be so considered. Within the editorial department virtually all managers and workers enjoy a relatively high degree of autonomy. Task activity requires special skills and a nonroutine work schedule for many personnel, especially reporters. It seems a valid assumption that, generally, editorial employes are motivated by needs at the top of Maslow's need theory, self-esteem and self-actualization, and when the organization thwarts their attempts to satisfy those psychological needs they often turn to creative endeavor outside the organization or rationalize their way around the predicament.31 31Rodney W. Stark, "Policy and the Pros: An Organizational Analysis of a Metropolitan Newspaper," Berkeley Journal of Sociology, Vol. 7 (1962), pp. 28-29. 44 It is a prime assumption of this study that the difference between the cognitive-emotional character of editorial employes and the other members of the organiza- tion represents the most prominent instance of differen- tiation across functional lines. Symptomatic of this differentiation is the potential for editorial employes to be more concerned with what they perceive as the primary service mission of the organization than are other departments. Dysfunctional behavior and attitudes consequently result when editorial employes' goals come into conflict with profit-oriented goals of other depart- ments. This situation might be conceptualized as one where editorial employes are strongly committed toward improvement in the external environment, in a sociological- political sense, while members of the other departments are more strongly committed toward improvement, or at least maintenance of the status quo, in the internal environ- ment, i.e., effective and profitable operation of the newspaper. Such cognitive-emotional differentiation pre- cipitates conflict between the editorial department and the production department, for instance, over efficient work schedules. The composing room superintendent wants copy from the editorial department to flow at a relatively even rate. Editors, strongly service oriented, want to leave substantial amounts of the daily news hole open for 45 timely, late-breaking stories, which creates periods of peak work load followed by slack periods for production. Conflict between editorial and circulation personnel surfaces when the circulation department, determined to increase its penetration in a particular locale, asks editors to provide stronger coverage in the area for a while to convince perspective readers that they can learn much about their area by reading the newspaper. Editors balk at the request because they feel it would be misleading to potential readers if they increased local coverage in the area and then methodically reduced it after new subscriptions had been solicited. Conflict develops between the editorial department and the business and administrative components over budg- etary issues. Editors request larger operating budgets to hire additional reporters in order to improve the infor— mation services offered to their readership, but business- oriented personnel veto such budget increases, citing unfavorable economic conditions. At the same time, per- sonnel in other departments regard editors as fiscally irresponsible because they send sports reporters and feature writers on costly out of town assignments to cover major stories, when coverage of the same events is available via wire services or through syndicates. Editorial and advertising personnel disagree when news stories depicting particular industries or 46 businesses in a negative light are run adjacent to advertisements by local sellers who are part of the particular industry. Editorial personnel are chagrined when advertising personnel request that they assign a reporter to write a "trade Off" for a local advertiser, frequently a historical piece about the particular advertiser presented as a legitimate news story. All these are examples of potentially dysfunc- tional attitudes and behavior that can be fostered by differences in cognitive-emotional orientation across functional lines in the organization. Such conditions, subsequently, result in a flawed interaction-influence system and serve to corrode Supportive relations within the newspaper. Theoretical Implications of Bilateral and Unilateral Administration: Hypothesis and Rationale The comparative dimension of this study is con- cerned with determining significant differences in the interaction-influence systems of the two administrative forms, bilateral and unilateral, to ascertain if one form promotes a healthier living system in newspapers than the other. Interdepartmental cooperation and evidence of strong supportive relations should correlate positively with the organization that shows evidence of operating 47 with a strong, effective interaction-influence system. In that regard, the following hypotheses can be considered. H0 There will be no significant differences between the living systems of a bilaterally and unilaterally managed newspaper as evidenced by the character of their interaction-influence systems. Hl Bilateral newspaper administration will promote a healthier living system evidenced by a more effective interaction-influence system than will unilateral administration. H2 Unilateral newspaper administration will promote a healthier living system evidenced by a more effective interaction-influence system than will bilateral administration. This study seeks evidence that will sUppOrt H1, that bilateral administration will foster a healthier living system than will unilateral administration. Sub— sumed under the proposition are two models of newspaper administration. The bilateral model is characterized as one in which interdepartmental communication is vigorous and interdepartmental OOOperation high, especially between the editorial department and the other four departments. Decisions affecting two or more departments are perceived as fair by all those affected and a high degree of team- work is evident in the decision-making process. The bilateral system permits all departments to exert sub- stantial influence in the organization, lowering the dysfunctional aspects of differentiation. 48 By relative comparison, the unilateral model is conceptualized as one in which interdepartmental communi- cation is more formalized and less intense. The dysfunc- tional aspects of differentiation along lines of task activity are more prominent and interdepartmental OOOpera- tion significantly less intense. Cooperation between the editorial department and the four other departments is sig- nificantly lower. A lower degree of teamwork in decision- making is evidenced in the organization and decisions affecting more than one department are often perceived as inferior by one of the departments affected by the decision. Individual departments exert weaker influence in the organization. The rationale to support H is developed both a l priori and theoretically. As was noted before, the only systematic structural difference in the two models occurs at the very top of the organizational hierarchy. Whereas the unilateral model follows classical lines of organiza— tion, with ultimate operational control and authority vested in a chief Operating officer (a publisher or general manager), the bilateral model, the Booth system, divides ultimate responsibility for administration of the organization between two persons, a manager and an editor, leaving no single Officer with ultimate authority and responsibility for the operation of the organization, a violation of the classical concept of unity of command. 49 Classical theory specifies that there should be a grouping together of related functions under a single superior, with various groups of functions combined at the next hierarchical level under one superior, and so on in a pyramidal configuration, up to the chief operating officer of the organization. "The classical theory of organization advocates that structure be kept simple, with as few levels as possible, and with clear-cut authority and responsibility for every position."32 If the bilateral system is thought of as one where the uppermost decision-making level in the organization has been lowered closer toward the bottom of the hierarchy, i.e., closer to line activity, then the bilateral concept is congruent with Galbraith's assertion that lowering the point of decision-making closer to the point in the organi- zation affected by the decision will result in higher quality decisions for the firm, particularly when the information relevant to the decision is qualitative rather 33 While lowering the uppermost decision- than quantitative. making level closer to the line operations of the newspaper, the bilateral system simultaneously provides for one of Galbraith's strategies for increasing an organization's 32Filley and House, Managerial Process, p. 71. 33Jay Galbraith, Designing Complex Organizations (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1973), p. 47. 50 capacity to successfully coordinate its activities as task uncertainty increases in light of changes in the external environment--creation of lateral relations. The final organization design strategy is to employ lateral forms of communication and joint decision making processes. That is, instead of referring a problem upward in the hierarchy, the managers solve the problem at their own level, contacting and cooperating with peers in those departments affected by the new information.34 Lateral relations result in creation of inte- grating roles in the organization that serve to restrain dysfunctional behavior resulting from differentiation. Galbraith lists seven methods for implementing lateral relations in organizations, which vary in the amount of formality and cost to the organization for implementation. One method suggested by Galbraith is precisely the embodi- ment of the Booth bilateral system: establishment of dual authority relations at critical points in the organization. The most substantial difference between Galbraith's model and the Booth model of bilateral administration is the fact that while Galbraith calls for creation of dual authority relations at different points throughout the organization, the Booth system provides for such a rela- tionship only at the very top of the hierarchy. The a priori assumption which provides supporting rationale for H1 holds that because the creation of a dual 341bid., p. 46. 51 authority relationship in the bilateral model occurs at the very top of the hierarchy, subordinates of manager and editor will naturally tend to enter into the sort of mutually influential relationship enjoyed by their supe- riors. This assumption is predicated, of course, on the existence of a cooperative and not antagonistic relation- ship between the manager and editor. It might be thought of as an informal filteration of the lateral relation con- cept to lOwer levels of the organization, effected through informal rather than formal means. It is theorized here that through such lateral processes a stronger, more effective interaction-influence system will develop in a bilaterally administered news- paper because the formal dual authority relationship at the top of the hierarchy between manager and editor serves to lessen the ill effects of differentiation where they are most apt to occur within a newspaper, between the editorial department and the other four departments. Existence of a strong interaction-influence system will in turn promote greater interdepartmental cooperation within the organization. CHAPTER III THE BOOTH CONCEPT OF BILATERAL NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION A Brief History of Booth Newspapers, Inc. The founders of Booth Newspapers, Inc. were George G. Booth and his brother Ralph H. Booth. George was the original entrepreneur in the business and the larger shareholder. They were the sons of Henry Wood Booth of Cranbrook, England, who immigrated to the United States with his family in 1844. Henry's father, a coppersmith, worked for short periods in Ohio, Ontario and New York, finally returning to Ontario, where the family eventually made a relatively permanent home in Toronto. Henry Booth married a Canadian girl, Clara Gagnier, in 1858. George Booth, the couple's second son, was born September 24, 1864. Ralph Booth, the eighth of ten children, was born in Toronto September 29, 1873.1 In 1881, after Henry's store was destroyed when a stock of fireworks was accidentally ignited on Dominion Day, 1Arthur Pound, The Only Thing Worth Finding (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1964), pp. 25, 225. 52 53 he took his son George with him to Detroit, there to inves- tigate business opportunities. In Detroit, Booth and his son made the acquaintance of James E. Scripps, founder and publisher of the Detroit Eveninngews. The Booth family subsequently moved to Detroit, where Henry secured a job with the Barnum Wire and Iron Company. He was soon promoted to head of the firm's branch facility in nearby Windsor. George worked at various jobs in Detroit before settling down as office clerk to his father. When the Detroit com- pany decided to close down its Windsor branch, George saw an opportunity and bought the Canadian facility from the parent company. He was twenty years old at the time. He built the Canadian property into a prosperous business and quite possibly would have made his name in the iron and metal business had it not been for his romantic circumstance. After arriving in Detroit from Canada, the Booth family had become close friends with the family of James E. Scripps. George fell in love with the publisher's daughter, Harriet Josephine Messenger Scripps, and the two were married June 1, 1887. Not long after, George's father-in-law con- vinced him that a more promising future could be found in the newspaper publishing business and that his talents for busi- ness organization were badly needed at the Eveninngews. Several factors motivated Scripps to take his son-in- law into the business. Scripps was not in good health and needed more free time to travel and relax. He realized that 54 the Evening News was quickly growing into a much larger organization than the original daily four-page publication that was his idea of an ideal newspaper. He needed someone with a good business sense to give the enterprise the needed attention and direction. Most important, he needed someone in charge of the business side of the newspaper whom he could trust. Scripps had years before entered into a legal pact with three other members of the family who jointly owned newspaper properties. The agreement enabled the others to obtain the shares of any member upon his death, thereby assuring that the properties would remain in control of fam- ily members. However, the pact created a great amount of family in-fighting over control of the newspapers, especially the Evening News in Detroit. It was for those reasons, then, that in June 1888 George Booth was appointed business manager of the Evening News by his father-in-law.2 When he arrived, George Booth was able to size up the state of affairs at the Evening News with the objective eye of an outside observer. He spent time in each of the news- paper's departments and was able to recognize strong points and weaknesses in the organization. Early in his tenure as business manager he perceived a vital need for close depart- mental cooperation within the organization. In his later years he noted that the first words of encouragement he 21bid., p. 123. 55 received from any of the veteran staff members of the Evening News came from John McVicar, managing editor. I seemed to have stumbled on the idea of real co- operation between the business and editorial departments to his evident appreciation, and in time this thought was to expand in many ways, contributing to the progress and development of the prOperty.3 As Booth worked to expand the circulation of the Evening News and traveled in the outstate areas to secure new advertisers, he saw a way by which he could supplement the salary--what he thought of as a meager income--his father- in—law paid. Booth had expected to receive $10,00 a year from the Scripps newspaper when he joined in 1888, but soon dis- covered his weekly pay amounted to only $40. As he traveled through Michigan promoting the Eveningquws, he observed many small newspapers that were financially weak. He carefully selected papers he thought looked like good investment oppor- tunities, bought them and later sold them at a profit. His travels in the countryside on behalf of the Evening Eggs also taught him that small-town journalism cannot be overcome on its own ground. Interested in starting his own daily publishing business, Booth analyzed the growth patterns of the state and decided that Grand Rapids would provide the best opportunity. It was outside the marketing area of both Detroit and Chicago, and growing rapidly. In November 1893, 3Ibid., p. 128. 56 he purchased an interest in the Morning Press, the newest newspaper in Grand Rapids. Next he bought out a competitor, the Evening Leader, which held an Associated Press membership. He promptly consolidated the two papers and on November 11, 1893, published the Grand Rapids Press, a four-page afternoon publication of 15,000 circulation. It was the first news- paper property Of what later became Booth Newspapers, Inc.4 By that time, Ralph Booth, George's younger brother, had also become involved in newspaper publishing, as had Edmund, another brother. From 1903 to 1914 the Booth brothers purchased two newspapers in Jackson and consolidated them into the Jackson Citizen-Press; acquired the Bay City Times, the Muskegon Chronicle, the Saginaw News, the Flint Journal, and established a publishing corporation, the Booth Publishing Company. From 1914 to 1929, the brothers added daily news- papers in the cities of Ann Arbor and Kalamazoo, and bought out and dissolved several papers competing with Booth news- papers. In 1929,the company name was changed to Booth News— papers, Inc. In 1959,the Grand Rapids Herald, a morning competitor to the Grand Rapids Press, was bought. It was suspended as a newspaper, with the exception of its Sunday edition. The Sunday paper was taken over by the Press, which previously had not published on Sundays. In 1962, the 4Ibid., p. 213. 57 Ypsilanti Press was purchased by the corporation, but was sold in 1968 because of a ruling by the Anti-Trust Division of the U. S. Government prohibiting single ownership of two daily newspapers in a single county. WTWO-TV in Terre Haute, Indiana, an NBC affiliate, was purchased in 1971. It marked the corporation's first step outside of the state,and the newspaper industry. Apparently, it was not a great leap forward. Early in 1975, the corporation sold the television station at a substantial loss to the Fabri Development Corpor- ation of Rochester, New York. In March 1973, the corporation took a major step toward diversification and purchased Parade Publications, Inc., publisher of Parade, the largest nationally syndicated Sunday newspaper supplement and owner of Diversified Printing Corporation, a commercial printer of supplements with printing plants in Philadelphia and Atglen, Pennsylvania. After the acquisition, one-third of Booth's annual revenue, $120 million, came from sources outside the state of Michigan. Through the 19605, Booth Newspapers, Inc. was primar- ily a family owned company; however, several corporate offi- cers saw a need for a stronger public base in ownership. In February 1968, Gordon Craig was elected chairman of the board of directors and president. James E. Sauter, a lawyer who joined the corporation in 1956 as a labor relations special- ist, was elected vice president for operations. Together, they initiated a formal development program to insure the 58 continued health and competitiveness of the corporation. Their plan was to upgrade the quality of management in the corporation and transform the organization from a family corporation to more of a public corporation. The descendents of the Booth brothers who held large blocks of stock in the company had, by and large, lost interest in the actual operation of the eight newspapers. Craig and other corporate officers were afraid that sooner or later a large media firm would come along with an attrac- tive offer to buy large blocks of stock from Booth family members and the corporation would be absorbed by the larger entity. To ward off such a threat, the top management team at corporate headquarters implemented a strategy designed to revitalize the organization. They planned to make Booth stock more attractive to public investors by lowering the price per share through stock splits, increasing earnings, and, eventually, acquiring new properties. In April 1969, the corporation declared a four for one stock split, followed by a two for one split in July 1971. In September 1971, a secondary offering of 570,800 shares, or 14 percent of the outstanding shares of common stock, held by the Cranbrook Foundation, a charitable trust established by George Booth and his wife, was successfully negotiated through a national syndicate of seventy—six underwriters. The stock offering, combined with the two stock splits, gave Booth shares a substantial increase in 59 marketability and greater public ownership. The number of stockholders was increased from approximately 900 to 2,000. In 1976, another dramatic shift came in the corpor- ation's posture. Because those developments could have possible ramifications regarding the empirical findings of this study, they are considered later in the paper. Evolution of the Bilateral Concept Bilateral administration of Booth newspapers was not implemented until the late 1920s. In 1927, three senior corporate officers were charged with supervising operations of all Booth employes in their respective areas, Grand Rapids, Saginaw and Jackson. That system of regional supervision was abandoned after bilateral administration was used at the newspapers and each paper's manager and editor reported directly to the corporation. Systems of bilateral, or dual, administration, as was previously noted, are not unique to the newspaper business. Numerous other enterprises are operated with two lines of authority; hospitals are probably one of the purest forms of dual authority. Filley and House note that such organiza- tional forms have been used in research and development divisions and are used in European countries in a more general way. The authors suggest that dual hierarchies will continue to be used in organizations of the future.4 4Filley and House, Managerial Process, p. 487. 60 Bilateral administration as it applies to newspapers was first used by the Times of London. In the United States, the system has been commonly used when the newspaper is owned by two partners. One partner heads the business side of the Operation, i.e., advertising, business, circulation and mechanical, and the other partner heads the editorial side of the operation.5 Many newspaper executives, including some who work for group operated newspapers, claim they Operate under a dual system because they have a business manager and an executive editor who are "autonomous." However, those organizations also have a publisher or general manager sitting at the top of the hierarchy with ultimate authority, a condi- tion which nullifies the bilateral concept. The Booth corpor- ation administers its newspapers through a genuine dual hierarchy system, what in this study is referred to as bilat- eral administration. "Administration" and "management" are sometimes used almost interchangeably in management literature. In this study, "administration" is used to denote an organizational concept or system employed to direct and coordinate the activities of the firm toward its goal. "Management" is used to denote the nature of the processes of direction and coordination that result under a particular administrative form or concept. 5Frank W. Rucker and Herbert Lee Williams, Newspaper Organization and Management, 4th edition (Iowa State University Press, 1974), p. 30. ' ' ' 61 According to Gordon Craig, president and chief executive officer of Booth Newspapers, Inc. (when interviewed), at the time the bilateral concept was put into effect, George and Ralph Booth subscribed to a philosophy which dictated that a newspaper editor should have no financial restraints upon him that might result in his being remiss in his pro- fessional duties. Editors were to be concerned with providing the best possible news coverage to the reader and were not to let financial considerations restrain them from doing so. Up until the mid 19505, editors were never informed of the financial status of the newspaper for which they worked or of the parent corporation, nor, apparently, did they have any inclincation to be so informed.6 Craig's remarks can be considered reliable. He married Barbara Alice Booth, grand- daughter of George G. Booth, and has been privy to much of the family deliberations over operation of the Booth news— papers. He has been an employe since 1949. Under the original bilateral concept, managers and editors working for the same newspaper seldom had any inter— personal contact. In some instances, weeks or months would go by without the two principals conferring with one another. Following a corporate meeting in October 1954, that situation changed. John A. McDonald, then the general manager and 6Gordon Craig, private interview, Booth Newspapers, Inc. corporate office, Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 1975. 62 chief executive for the corporation, decided that a revision of the bilateral concept was in order. He "opened the books" to editors, keeping them abreast of financial developments at their respective newspapers as well as at corporate head- quarters. Craig said that McDonald became convinced that the newspapers would be operated more effectively if editors had a more universal perspective of their organization. McDonald believed that in the past editors had sometimes been at a disadvantage with their manager because they had been kept in the dark about financial matters in the organization and often had no other course but to agree with the manager con- cerning monetary issues directly related to the editorial operation. McDonald believed that a closer association be- tween editor and manager would result in the editor's gaining a greater appreciation for business problems, a concern for controlling costs, and better budgetary coordination at the newspaper. As a result of McDonald's revision of the bilateral concept, managers and editors began to interact more frequently with one another. Corporate meetings that previously had been separately convened for managers and editors were discontinued in favor of joint sessions. The emphasis on closer associ- ation and cooperation between editors and managers was reaffirmed and increased by successive chief executive officers of the corporation. 63 The revision of the bilateral concept became most pronounced under the influence of James Sauter, who succeeded Gordon Craig in 1976 as chief executive officer. (Craig remained in the organization as chairman of the board of directors until May 1, 1976, when he resigned») Sauter, characterized by many of the editors and managers during the course of research as "the man who brought us into the twen- tieth centuryfl'initiated a formal management development program for both editors and managers in an attempt to inten- sify organizational development in the corporation. Sauter said editors at first were reluctant to meet jointly with managers to discuss newspaper problems and explore possible solutions. But he was convinced, as had been McDonald in the 19503, that a changing economic climate characterized by increased competition for advertising revenues plus substantial increases in labor and material costs, necessitated greater cooperation and understanding on the part of editors and managers to ensure efficient oper- ation of the corporation's newspapers:7 As Craig noted, it became painfully apparent in the 19503 and even more so in the following decade that the bountiful years of the prewar era,when the Booth papers had no problem realizing a 25 per- cent net profit on revenues,were never going to return. 7James E. Sauter, private interview, Booth Newspapers, Inc. corporate Office, Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 1975. 64 One editor suggested that the economic recession of the early 1970s plus increased costs combined to effect some changes in the bilateral concept. Editor and manager had to develop a closer working relationship in order that the total job of managing a newspaper be done more effectively. Editors in particular had to understand the necessity of holding down expenses. What you're seeing is a real coming of age in the dual system. We are both much more appreciative of one another's responsibility, and that helps a lot. Then we have a much better sounding board for our own ideas and problems.8 Sauter believes that the degree of understanding that has been developed recently between editors and managers is the greatest it has ever been in the corporation. An example of horizontal mobility that can develop when editor and mana- ger become involved in a close working relationship is epito- mized in the career of James Brown. Brown began working as an editorial employe for Booth. After serving several years as editor of the Saginaw News, Brown applied for the manager position when it was about to become vacant. His understand- ing of the business operation of the newspaper was sufficient to convince corporate officers that he was the right person for the position and Brown served the second portion of his tenure on the Saginaw paper as its manager, eventually moving 8Thomas Fallon, private interview at Bay City Times, July 1975. ‘ 65 up to a position at the corporate office. Idiosyncratic Application of the Bilateral Concept by Newspaper In fulfilling their function as a management team, editors and managers in the Booth organization are required to coordinate the exercise of their individual and joint responsibility as set down by the corporation to maximize the newspaper's service to the community it serves and its contribution to corporate profits. The corporation defines the areas of responsibility for editor and manager as follows. Editorial--Editors are responsible for establishment and implementation of news coverage and editorial policies. Such policies must promote economic and social development of the community and provide max- imum communication of local and other appropriate news to the newspaper readers. Business-~Managers are responsible for the establish- ment and implementation of advertising, circulation, credit and related policies which will assure econ- omical and efficient service to advertisers and readers. Such policies must be attuned to the long range growth and health of the community. Operations--The Editor has responsibility for opera- tion of the editorial department, the Manager the responsibility for the operation of all other depart- ments. In the many areas in which the Operational responsibilities overlap, such as personnel, copy deadlines, etc., the responsibility shall be joint. Because the descriptions of responsibility for a Booth editor and manager are so general in nature, one might expect a substantial amount of variation from newspaper to 66 newspaper regarding application of the concept, and indeed, that is the case. Differences in allocation of responsibil- ities are found in areas of operations where both editor and manager have a vested interest, the overlapping areas. In some instances, it is apparent that editors with an above average interest in the business side of the operation have become involved in operational aspects that once were the exclusive domain of the manager. Such a situation exists at the Kalamazoo Gazette where the editor plays an unusually active role in labor relations for the entire organization. That particular newspaper is frequently cited by corporate officials and other editors and managers in the Booth organ- ization as one that is extremely well managed, the editor and manager having developed- a mutually supportive relationship. In a similar vein, the editor at the Grand Rapids Press takes a strong interest in the work of the circulation department and, as an editor, feels a sense of responsibility for its effective operation. At both Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids the editor has not usurped any power from the manager, but rather has developed a strong interest in a particular area of the manager's domain which the manager understands and approves. Robert Swartz, manager of the Grand Rapids Press, said it is difficult to precisely define the division of responsibility between editor and manager because of the overlapping areas. Even though editorial content and policy falls within the sole province of Werner Veit, the editor, 67 Veit often discusses editorial issues with Swartz simply because he likes to use Swartz as a "sounding board." In a reciprocal situation, the acceptance policy for advertising is solely the responsibility of Swartz, yet he likes to use Veit as a sounding board for his ideas on acceptance criteria. Frequently, they decide on a solution they both believe has merit.9 Most editors and managers interviewed during the course of research noted that production is the one area of operations where it is most difficult to achieve consensus. The manager tends to be more cost-oriented in regard to com- posing room operation while the editor is more service oriented. Such psychological differentiation results in con- flict, for example, when an editor wants to tear down and remake a page to include a late-breaking news story, but the manager prefers to use what has already been set in type rather than increase costs by setting the page over again. Or, an editor might want to establish a later deadline to facilitate inclusion of the latest possible news in the day's edition, but the manager opposes such action, arguing that more efficient use of composing facilities and personnel will result if copy from the editorial department flows in a rela- tively regular rate, rather than arriving in large quantities just before deadline. 9Robert Swartz, private interview at the Grand Rapids Press, July 1975. 68 In recent years, technological changes have had an effect on the mix of organizational responsibilities that editor and manager divide between them. In the early 19705, all Booth newspapers changed from the conventional hot metal system of newspaper production to the new photocomposition, or cold type, method. In conjunction with that changeover, the newspapers also installed either video display terminal (VDT) systems or optical character reader (OCR) systems in their editorial and advertising departments, to more economically handle news and adverstising copy. As a conse- quence of that technological innovation, two changes occurred within the organization. First, production departments were able to cut their manning level in half; second, editorial and advertising personnel began performing some of the tasks that printers had performed when the old hot metal systems were used. The VDT and OCR systems eliminated one step in the production sequence, a function that had been performed either by printers at the manual keyboard of a line-casting machine or by operators who punched a paper tape which was then fed into an automatic line-casting machine. The VDT and OCR systems now permit a reporter or a classified ad employe to type copy on either an electronic terminal or an IBM Selectric typewriter and, in the case of the VDT, send it directly to a computerized photocomposition machine, or, as with the OCR, feed the typewritten copy into an optical scanner which reads the copy and transmits it to the 69 photocomposition machine. Subsequently, a shift, or reapportionment, of budgetary responsibility has occurred. Before the changeover in tech- nology, the production department had more personnel than any other department. The manager was responsible for the entire production function. When photocomposition systems were installed, the number of jobs in the production department was reduced by as much as two—thirds. As a consequence, the editorial department became the largest single department in a newspaper and the editor's responsibility, proportionately, increased and became more visible. The editor, in short, became responsible for a larger proportion of wages and salaries and, simultaneously, became more involved in the functional aspects of the production task. There is also variation from newspaper to newspaper in the amount of interaction between editor and manager as well as in methods used to achieve integration between editorial and business departments at lower levels in the organization. Findings from an earlier study by the author, which focused on communication traits of editors and managers in the Booth organization, showed that the two principal executives at each newspaper communicated with one another at least on a weekly basis, and more Often on a day-to-day basis.10 10John A. Kaufman, "Organizational Communication Traits among Booth Newspaper Executives," unpublished paper, Michigan State University, October 1975. 70 Thomas Fallon and Rex Thatcher, editor and manager of the Bay City Times, have devised what, when compared with other Booth papers, seems a relatively formalized strategy for promoting greater integration between editorial and the other departments. Fallon and Thatcher initiated a program within their plant whereby the editor with his subordinates meets monthly with the manager and his subordinates to review the status of the organization and discuss mutual problems. As a result, Thatcher said, department managers became more genuinely interested in one another's problems. "The result has been a move toward much stronger integration between departments."ll Unlike other management teams interviewed, Fallon and Thatcher meet jointly with a regional director of operations-- their superior at corporate headquarter5--to discuss perfor- mance figures, revenue projections and other matters. They believe that these joint meetings are beneficial because manager and editor are able to reinforce one another against possible pressure from the regional director to modify operating procedures or revise goals.12 Such a formalized plan for interaction between mana- gers from different departments of a newspaper is unusual among the eight newspapers. Most Often a contingency approach 11 July 1975. 12 July 1975. Rex Thatcher, private interview at Bay City_Times, Thomas Fallon, private interview at Banyity Times, 71 is followed regarding consultation over mutual problems within a newspaper. A contingency approach might be effective in helping resolve problems and conflicts as they occur, but it does not necessarily contribute to the sort of interaction- influence system that, through formal mechanisms, lessens the probability that problems and conflicts will arise. There have been instances in the corporation's history when the bilateral system was ostensibly in effect at a news- paper, but in fact the administration more closely approx- imated the unilateral form. Such departures from established procedure were never common, but they occurred at more than one Booth newspaper. Breakdowns in the bilateral concept occurred when one of the two principals at a newspaper domi- nated the other and a superior-subordinate relationship resulted. Those aberrations were generally thought by per- sonnel interviewed to have been caused by personality and competence factors. In some instances, one partner attempted to dominate the other and succeeded; in other instances, one of the two principals lacked strong professional competence and willingly assumed a subordinate role. Booth Executives' Evaluation of the Bilateral System: Positive and Negative Attributes Few Booth personnel interviewed during the course of this study would deny the assertion that the bilateral system 72 contains a potential for dysfunctional behavior within the newspaper. Because it violates the classical concept of unity of command, a logical assumption seems to persist that such an administrative system might result in the same sort of situation George Washington saw in hospitals: "No princi- pal director and no subordination among surgeons."l3 Booth president James Sauter is aware of the contradiction to con- ventional organizational theory that the bilateral system poses: The dual system is different from that which is so strong in our culture; there's almost a kind of built-in questionmark going in--the feeling thatl4 some one person has got to be steering the ship. He realizes that the system has the potential to split the newspaper in two organizationally, but emphasizes that on any newspaper there is a natural schism between the editorial department and other departments. Sauter's rationale to support that proposition is identical with the theoretical proposition put forth in Chapter II to explain why differen- tiation exists in a cognitive-emotional sense between editorial employes and the other personnel of a newspaper. First, editorial employes believe it is part of their professional ethic to be aloof from the business sphere of the organiza- tion so as not to become tainted by business considerations. 13Smith, "Two Lines of Authority Are One Too Many," p. 59. 14James E. Sauter, private interview, December 1975. 73 Second, for a variety of reasons, persons in the editorial department feel they are a cut above people in other depart- ments. And in many instances, those in other departments share that viewpoint. Sauter noted that such a superior self-image of one department in an organization is not an unusual circumstance or one that is unique to newspapers, citing engineering departments in manufacturing firms as an example. Sauter's observations are particularly noteworthy because they are the deductions of a relatively indifferent observer, since he has never actually worked as a newspaper employe. When you recognize that you have this built-in difference, then having two guys at the head of these two points of differences, there is the real potential that you're going to run into a hell of a lot of trouble. And we have in many cases.15 The most serious such incident in recent years involved a manager and editor who were unable to work co- operatively. Relations between them deteriorated to the point where they were not on speaking terms. After attempts failed to prompt some sort of acceptable reconciliation be- tween them, Sauter fired the manager. Another incident of a less serious and more notorious nature involved what one editor whimsically called the "coffee caper." A quarrel developed between a manager and editor over the issue of 15James Sauter, private interview, December 1975. 74 which employes were allowed to drink coffee at their desks. The newsroom had recently been carpeted and the manager insisted that reporters and editors should no longer be allowed to drink coffee at their desks because accidental spillage would stain the carpet. The editor maintained that his people had been drinking coffee ever since he could remember and they would continue to do so. Relations between the two executives got so strained they requested that Sauter come to the newspaper and resolve the dispute, which he did, ruling in favor of the editor. By and large, occasions where the newspaper executives must ask for, or submit to, mediation by a corporate officer are rare. Both corporate personnel and newspaper executives asserted that the last thing they wanted was to see a local dispute mediated by a corporate Official. Sauter believes that the bilateral system does a better job of resolving conflict than a unilateral system because the latter system often promotes win-lose dynamics between top newspaper executives. He said that a unilateral system creates a living system in which "a lot of corner work is going on," i.e., feuding executives try to informally per- suade the publisher that their proposal is the one that should be honored. This, in fact, is precisely what Argyris found occurring at the New York Times, a unilaterally administered paper. Most of the newspaper executives agree with Sauter's belief that Booth managers and editors work deliberately to 75 achieve consensus, whereas their counterparts on a unilateral 'newspaper are less likely to seek an agreeable solution them- selves because they can always refer the problem upward in the organization for a decision by the publisher. Additionally, because the bilateral system, by design, brings the point of decision-making closer to the organiza- tional elements affected by decisions, Booth executives believe solutions are usually better than might be expected under unilateral administration. Werner Veit, editor at Grand Rapids, does not believe such is the case under a unilateral system. Before joining the Booth organization, Veit worked for the Baltimore Sun and the Grand Rapids Herald; both newspapers used unilateral administration. Citing personal experience and observations, Veit said it is unlikely that a publisher would be more concerned with editorial issues than with business issues or that a pub- lisher would be likely to give equal consideration to the two areas. There might be situations where the publisher's primary concern is for editorial service, but such a situation is very much a rarity. That's a very atypical situation. Almost with- out exception, publishers that I know will look at the bottom line first, and if that will work in the situation of a good newspaper, fine. But that is the ultimate consideration, where it is not the ultimate consideration here. It is a serious one, but it is not the ultimate one.l6 16Werner Veit, private interview at the Grand Rapids Press, July 1975. 76 After having worked under both types of administra- tion, Veit would not want to move to a position where he was editor of a unilateral newspaper. "I would find it extremely difficult now to operate happily--I'm not saying unsuccess- fully--but happily under a publisher." From his perspective, the most significant advantage of the bilateral system lies in the fact that business decisions by design include an examination of editorial considerations. Conversely, edi- torial decisions receive business input because the editor has a direct interest in the success or failure of the organ- ization as a business as well as as an institution. For Veit, the result is a situation in which the newspaper can be more successful both journalistically and financially. Veit's admonition that unilateral systems are too often headed by publishers whose overriding interest is finan- cial gain was articulated by many Booth executives. The belief that publishers with a strong business orientation will tend to make decisions that are not in the organization's best interest for overall operational effectiveness was heard again and again during the course of research. Robert Morse, manager at the Muskegon Chronicle, recounted that such was the case when he worked for the now defunct Grand Rapids Herald. He said the editorial department had very definitely taken a backseat in receiving due consideration in decisions affecting it.17 l7Robert Morse, private interview at Muskegon Chron- icle, July 1975. 77 Franklin Weaver, manager at the Jackson Citizen- Patriot, thought the bilateral system is able to overcome the shortcomings of the unilateral system caused by a short- sighted chief executive because of greater ease and prac- ticality in selecting newspaper executives. In the bilateral system, one can be reasonably successful in selecting a person with proper background and qualifications for editor and, similarly, for manager. But under a unilateral concept, it is difficult to choose, in a corporate situation, a publisher or general manager who has the proper background and qualifi- cations of both a manager and an editor.18 Weaver, a Booth manager whose major field of study in college was journalism, is certain that the bilateral sys- tem is superior to the unilateral system because it designates the manager and editor as coequals, precipitating formation of a peer relationship that permits them to "let their hair down" when one has a problem he wants to discuss, without getting involved in subordinate-superior dynamics. Addition- ally, Weaver said, the bilateral system, unlike the unilateral one, "tends to inhibit the god complex." There was consensus among newspaper executives that the bilateral system definitely lessens the chance that dys- functional aspects of differentiation between editorial 18Franklin Weaver, private interview at Jackson Citzen-Patriot, July 1975. 78 and business personnel will result in counterproductive behavior for the organization. Werner Veit stated that through his conversations with editors working for newspapers outside Booth Newspapers, Inc. he knows that they become embroiled with business managers over conflicts that would never arise between him and Robert Swartz because they meet problems head-on and do not allow them to escalate into unresolvable conflict. The biggest question in the minds of Booth newspaper executives is how far the spirit of cooperation and under- standing evidenced at the tOp filters down to subordinate managers and supervisors. All executives place a high premium on achieving complete integration throughout their newspapers, but their reactions were mixed when asked to what extent the bilateral system promotes such total integra- tion. Some executives thought the system promotes integration between business personnel and editorial personnel from the top of the hierarchy down to the bottom, others believe it promotes integration only down to department managers. One executive, who was speaking from experience, said that if the two top executives were not careful, the bilateral system could serve to line up personnel behind editor and manager like embattled armies. Regarding potentially negative bilateral attributes, several executives thought that perhaps the unilateral system might facilitate a faster decision-making process than does 79 the bilateral system, although opinions were mixed. Virtually all newspaper executives were in agreement on what might be classified as a qualifying rather than a negative attribute of the bilateral system. That aspect centers around the need to insure that an editor and manager of compatible per- Sonality and temperament are selected for service on a par- ticular newspaper. Newspaper executives said that most breakdowns in the bilateral system were the result more of incompatibility between editor and manager than of the organ- izational problems over which they came into conflict. The lessons of the past have not gone unheeded by Sauter and other corporate officers. The corporation in recent years established a SOphisticated screening program to evaluate candidates who apply for a top position at one of the newspapers. The process includes psychological test- ing and evaluation by a consulting psychologist. Descriptive Summary of BIIateral Administration Toward answering the first research question, i.e., what is the nature of the Booth concept of bilateral manage- ment, the foregoing has shown that the bilateral concept has undergone evolutionary change in the history of the corpora- tion. In that regard it can be perceived as dynamic rather than static. When the system was originally implemented by George and Ralph Booth, it was intended as an administrative 80 structure whereby the editor of a newspaper would be free to devote all his time to editorial considerations and would not be prone to compromise editorial initiative or policy on behalf of business considerations. That philosophy of sep- aration of powers, editorial and business, underwent signifi- cant change, beginning in the mid 19505. The bilateral concept was revised by corporate leaders who saw a need for greater understanding and cooperation between editor and manager and their respective subordinates. The efforts of the current corporation president,James Sauter,to involve editors and managers in a formal management development program and his insistence on development of mutual respect and under- standing between editors and managers is generally accredited as bringing the bilateral concept to full bloom in regard to creating a strong and healthy interaction-influence system in the newspapers. A brief and general description of responsibilities for editor and manager permits, and perhaps encourages, idio- syncratic application of the bilateral concept from newspaper to newspaper, no two being administered exactly alike. Differ- ences in areas of responsibility for editor and manager from newspaper to newspaper usually center on overlapping areas of responsibility. However, in some instances editors seem to assume substantial responsibility for areas that traditionally were the domain of managers. There have been instances in the history of the 81 corporation when the bilateral concept did not work at a newspaper and a sort of de facto unilateral administration was acutally employed. In such instances, a subordinate- superior relationship was evident between the two top news- paper executives. By and large, Booth newspaper executives favor the bilateral form of administration and think it is superior in most regards to unilateral administration. They cite as major advantages the notion that the bilateral system results in greater understanding and cooperation between editorial and business departments. As a corollary, they believe their system of administration promotes higher quality solutions to problems than might be expected in a conventional unilateral system. Newspaper executives were uncertain just how far down the organizational hierarchy the bilateral concept effectively promotes interdepartmental understanding. Most newspaper executives theorized that a unilateral system might promote faster decision-making, but did not per- ceive the bilateral system as one that necessarily encumbers the decision-making process. All Booth executives inter- viewed emphasized that the individual success or failure of the bilateral system from newspaper to newspaper is dependent primarily on the degree of compatibility between the two top executives. In an effort to identify personnel who are psychologically suited to the requirements the 82 bilateral system places on editors and managers, the corporate office has designed a comprehensive evaluation program to screen candidates. CHAPTER IV ORGANIZATION AND MANAGERIAL PROCESS OF REPRESENTATIVE BILATERAL AND UNILATERAL NEWSPAPERS Selection of Newspapers In order that the second research question might be answered, i.e., is there a significant relationship between the type of administrative structure--bi1ateral or unilateral-- and the nature of the organization's living system, one of the eight Booth newspapers was selected for intensive examination of its management style. A newspaper using unilateral administration was then matched with the Booth newspaper for a similar examination. Methodological techniques used included personal interviewing and survey research. This chapter reports findings that were made largely through interviewing. The Grand Rapids Press was selected as the represen- tative Booth newspaper because it satisfied several criteria. First, it is the largest of the eight newspapers. The grass is published in the afternoon Monday through Saturday and in the morning on Sunday. Afternoon circulation is approximately 130,000. The largest newspaper in the group was preferred because it has a more complex organizational structure than 83 84 the smaller papers and, organizationally, represents the most SOphisticated application of the bilateral concept. The second criterion that the Grand Rapids Press met was one that required the particular newspaper be well managed. Corporate Officers at Booth headquarters and news- paper executives in the field expressed a belief that the Press was One of the better managed newspapers in the group. It was also crucial to the study that the editor and manager of the newspaper selected for intensive examination work with one another in a fashion that could be perceived as a true partnership arrangement, one that would be indica- tive of how the bilateral form of administration, when validly applied, operates. Such a criterion disallowed selection of a newspaper where one of the two principal executives dominated the other. James Sauter, Booth pres- ident, said he believed the Veit-Swartz association at Grand Rapids was one of the top management teams in the group. He said both men had an excellent understanding of what the bilateral system is about and consciously work to make their administration a true partnership. Additionally, Veit and Swartz had worked together as editor and manager for nine years, ample time to develop as a management team. The Dayton Dai1y_News was selected as the unilateral newspaper to be matched with the Grand Rapids Press. It was chosen because it closely resembles the Press in a number of important attributes. Like the Press, the Daily News is an 85 afternoon newspaper. Its afternoon circulation is approx- imately 155,000. Like the Grand Rapids paper, the Dayton Nays is under group ownership, Cox Enterprises, Inc. The stock in the Cox corporation is held by descendants of its founder, James M. Cox. In that regard, the corporation closely resembles the Booth Newspapers, Inc. when it was a family owned entity. As did the Grand Rapids Press at the time of the research, the Dayton Daily News had a reputation among the newspaper publishing industry as being a newspaper that was effectively managed and profitable. Several newspapers in the Middle West that fell within certain descriptive param- eters were considered as possible representatives of unilaterally administered newspapers. Professionals in Michigan who were consulted about their perception of the quality of management at each of the candidate newspapers held the Dayton paper in high regard. Evaluations of other newspapers were not as complimentary. The Dayton Daily News was also considered an accept- able match for the Grand Rapids Press because there is a substantial degree of regional similarity in the socio- cultural backgrounds of employes of the two newspapers. The Dayton paper was also geographically convenient for research purposes and, more important, its top management expressed an interest in the study and a willingness to participate. 86 While the Dayton Daily News is well matched with the Grand Rapids Press in regard to the foregoing criteria, there is one dimension in which the closeness of fit is not as precise as would be ideally preferred. The Dayton Daily News is a larger entity than the Grand Rapids Press. The Daily Nays is published by Dayton Newspapers, Inc., a subsidiary Of Cox Enterprises, which also publishes the morning Journal- Herald. The two newspapers each maintain separate editorial and circulation departments. Common advertising, business and mechanical departments serve the organization as a whole. The editorial and circulation departments of the Dayton Daily News and the Grand Rapids Press are similar in terms of number of personnel. As an example, the Press had about eighty-four editorial employes and the Daily News had about ninety-five. However, other departments at Dayton were larger than their counterparts in Grand Rapids. Those differences were duly considered before the Dayton Daily News was selected. Although the Dayton newspaper was larger than the grass, it is not a difference that confounds the findings of the study. The two newspapers were closely matched regarding department- alization by function, degree of unionization and goal orientation. The following sections in this chapter provide a general description of the Grand Rapids Press and the Dayton Daily News as organizations. No rigorous attempt is made here to precisely characterize in detail the nature of their 87 individual interaction-influence systems or the character of their living systems. That task was accomplished using survey research methods and is discussed in the following two chapters. Organization and Managerial Process at a Bilateral Newapaper: The Grand Rapids Press Organization of the Grand Rapids Press down to major departments is depicted in Figure 3. Robert Swartz, as manager, heads the advertising, business, circulation, and production departments. Werner Veit, as editor, is responsible for all editorial operations. The EEEEE employs the equivalent of 420 employes when half time situations are equated in a full time schedule. Every employe interviewed at the grass expressed a belief that the two top executives were well matched and cooperated to the fullest measure in the exercise of their separate responsibilities. Personnel who had worked for the newspaper for twenty years or more said the Veit-Swartz management team more closely approximated the bilateral con- cept of administration than had any other management team at the newspaper in its recent past. Several veterans went so far as to assert that previously the Grand Rapids Press was actually administered under a unilateral system because one of the two principal executives had always assumed a dominant role. 88 coaumNHcmmHo mmmum mpflmmm pcmnu .m 855555 MOBHQM OZHOnd IUDDQmm mm0¢2¢2 89 Work Relations among Managers On the whole, meetings between the manager and editor, as well as between their subordinates, are called more on a contingency basis than a scheduled basis. Sometimes Veit and Swartz meet several times a day to consult on an issue, and then go two or three days without seeing one another. A regular meeting attended by department heads is scheduled each month to review budgetary developments. The editorial department is an exception to the rule regarding the contingency approach. The managing editor meets daily with various subeditors to discuss news content and other issues related to the day's edition. Veit and Swartz do not stand on formality when one wishes to consult with a subordinate of the other. Veit takes a strong interest in production and circulation matters and frequently meets with circulation or production managers without feeling a need to first notify Swartz. Likewise, Swartz will meet with the news editor to discuss coordination of the work routine between the editorial and production departments. The readiness of either editor or manager to confer directly with the subordinates of his partner is reflected in their philOSOphy of management, as articulated by Swartz: The editor and manager of a Booth newspaper realize how dependent they are on one another for the successful accom- plishment of their individual tasks. It is important in the 90 prevailing economic and social climate that an editor be in tune to more than only editorial issues. His responsibilities cannot be successfully met unless the overall operation is healthy in a financial sense. It will not be financially healthy until it is healthy from a readership standpoint and can be properly circulated. It is the editor's job to select news and editorial material that will be of interest to the reader, just as it is his job to conform with the change of thinking of the reader so that the organization markets a product that is of value over and above the value of the advertising it contains. It must be useful enough that the reader is willing to pay for it. In such a way, the editor assists the business side because he is in large part responsible for a saleable product. Both Swartz and Veit emphasized that the manager and editor in the bilateral system are protecting one another through strong lateral relations and mutual concern for both editorial and business operation. Swartz said he believed that the COOperative attitude and mutual understanding that he and Veit developed filtered down to lower echelons of the organization, especially the department head level. Most interaction between departments occurs between the editorial department and the composing room. According to Swartz, it is that juncture which serves as a barometer to measure how effectively the bilateral system works. 91 If they're just playing games at it, you're going to have a tremendous amount of friction. Whenever you get into a situation in which you have a time element, and where everyone is trying to do the best job they can possibly do, then there are going to be times when tempers will flare. There are going to be times when there is a certain amount of friction. But the true test is whether or not that friction is a momentary thing, whether two department heads can get together and solve that kind of problem without running to the manager or editor and saying, "Look, I can't do a thing with this guy, he's just destroying our Opera- tion." This is where you get the true test of whether you have problem-solving or whether you've got game- playing.1 By Swartz's estimate, ninety-nine percent of the problems between editorial and composing are resolved at the department head level. Issues that arise between the two organizational components include those involving changes in policy; changes in operations, such as copy deadline changes and advertising deadline changes; plus changes in work schedules of composing room employes. Although both Swartz and Veit believed that the cooperative relationship which they enjoyed had created a cooperative spirit that "rubbed Off" on their subordinates, it is important to note that the Grand Rapids Press has no formal mechanisms lower in the organization to promote an effective interaction-influence system. The only such formal mechanism that existed in the newspaper was the integrating structure at the top of the hierarchy between manager and editor. lRobert Swartz, private interview, July 1975. 92 Points of Friction in the Organization Although the manager and editor of the Grand Rapids grass were convinced that their spirit of cooperation had filtered down to lower levels of the organization, there were subordinates from both spheres of operations who were less positive about that proposition. Others refuted it. They believed the bilateral system includes in it an inherent potential to heighten the divisiveness between business and editorial personnel at lower levels in the organization. One manager characterized relations between editorial and production as "a seething mass under what appears as a calm surface." He said strong resentment against the editorial department was evident from personnel in other departments who believed that editorial spent money wastefully. Personnel on the business side resented being told to pare their budgets to the bone, he said. Travel allowances for managers and supervisors permitting them to attend professional meetings had been sharply reduced, while the editorial department was able to send sports writers to the West Coast to cover Michigan teams. Business side personnel looked upon such action as wasteful because the wire services provided coverage of the same events. "There is a tremendous amount of animos- ity in this building between the editorial and the business side," he said, "a tremendous amount of animosity." Another employe in a managerial position said some- times Operational issues between the editorial and advertising 93 departments caused conflict that often went unresolved. He gave as an example a case where a subeditor would insist that an advertisement be removed from one of his pages, much to the chagrin of the advertising salesman who had promised specific page placement to the advertiser. In such instances, he said, Swartz and Veit would often back off from the issue because, he rationalized, they didn't want to individually make a ruling and have the partner feel that his area of responsibility had been transgressed by the other. In that statement, of course, is the serious implication that the bilateral system serves to inhibit conflict resolution. The employe who made the foregoing statement hypothesized that under a unilateral system such conflicts low in the hierarchi- cal pyramid would be more quickly resolved by a publisher simply making a ruling of his own volition. It is important to note that all personnel who reported conflict and resultant hostility at lower levels in the organization were of the consensus that no such problems existed at the top of the hierarchy between Swartz and Veit. "The fight is not between the manager and the editor," one subordinate said, "the fight is between the people down below who are involved in the day to day operation of the news- paper." Subsequently, it would seem more and more that the primary issue regarding the appropriateness of the bilateral system centers on its effect on the interaction-influence system at lower levels in the organization, those levels 94 closely associated with line activity. Organization and Managerial Process at the Dayton Daily News Corporate Organization The Dayton Dailnyews is one of two newspapers published by Dayton Newspapers, Inc. That company is a subsidiary of Cox Enterprises, Inc. which publishes the Sun and News in Springfield, Ohio; the Constitution and Journal in Atlanta, Georgia; the News, Post and Times in Palm Beach, Florida; the Naya in Miami; and owns a large share of the Journal and Nays in Daytona Beach. The newspaper corporation was founded by James M. Cox of Jacksonburg, Ohio, who was born March 31, 1870. After having worked as a reporter for the Cincinnati Enguirer and served as secretary to an Ohio congressman, Cox returned to Ohio from Washington, D.C.,in 1898 and purchased the Dayton Evening News, one of five newspapers in the city, for $26,000. The paper had four staff members and a circulation of 2,600.2 In later years, Cox was busy as a publisher, expanding his properties, and as a politician. He was elected to Congress in 1908. Four years later, he successfully ran for governor of Ohio, and was twice reelected. The highlight of his 2James M. Cox, Journay Througthy Years (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946), p. 38. 95 political career came in 1920 when he received the Democratic nomination for president of the United States. He lost the election to Warren G. Harding, another Ohio newspaperman. Cox Enterprises, Inc. is a private corporation; the descendants of James M. Cox are the principal shareholders. Unlike the Booth newspapers, the newspapers of Cox Enter- prises, Inc. do not comprise a regional newspaper group. Executives at Dayton said that because the Cox newspapers are so widely separated geographically, there never has been much communication among managers from different papers. Only in the past few years has the corporation started sponsoring seminars and conferences for its newspaper executives to facilitate an exchange of information and ideas. Dayton Newspapers, Inc., as was previously noted, is a larger entity than the Grand Rapids Press. In addition to the Daily News, it publishes the morning Journal-Herald. The company has approximately 800 full time employes. The Journal-Herald has separate editorial and circulation depart- ments, totaling about 125 situations. They were excluded from the study, leaving about 675 employes. Organizational Plan of the Dayton Daily News Dayton Newspapers, Inc. is organized along traditional unilateral lines. Figure 4 is a diagram of the authority hierarchy from president down to department managers. The 96 coflumuflcmmuo msmz mwflma couNmo mmw¢z¢2 OZHmHB mmw¢z¢2 Imm>D¢ Hmzzommmm _ - mmwmH mo. um HGMOHchmHm mOSHm>Id HHH k. Aom.mlv Ammv m.m m a.mm III. III. mocmsHmcH Hmucmfiunwm Any o.m H ImOkucH how HMHucmuom Amo.mlv Ammv o.m N m.mv III. III. mcoHusHOm And o.o H mo mmwcmuMHumoumm4 AHO.NIV Ammv m.v m III. III. a.mOH mEmHQOHm m.Hmcuo mo AHHV m.m H mcHOcmumHmpcs HMHHOHHOH Amo.mlv Ammv o.m Amo.mlv Amvv m.m m H0H>mcmn m.ms a.mma .nnmwm paflnmn Any o.m ANHV m.m H moouom HchHum>Huoz Am~.~1v Amvv 0.0 III III o.mmH GOHumNHcmmHo ANHV m.m H Oumsou mmOSuHuum .mummm Auv muoom GMHOOS _ANV muoom COHOOE Hm>mH anOHHm> mchm>HmucH «msHm>Is «mon>us .noumumHm mOHmmm Ocmuw coummo Hmmmmmzmz Hm>mH HflUHmUmdmmHm mm mmuzmmmthQ BZdUHmHZUHm EBHS mmam¢Hm¢> OZHZm>mmBZH H mqm¢8 122 motivational forces respondents thought were behind peers' behavior. Level 1 managers at both newspapers thought peers were motivated more by departmental and organizational goals than did Level 2 managers. Strength of Interdapartmental Relationships An analysis of differences for perceived strength of interdepartmental working relationships showed that only in two situations were differences significant between the Graag Rapids Press and the Dayton Daily News. The results of the Mann-Whitney U test are presented in Table 2. The strength of the working relationship between the business and editorial departments at Dayton was rated as significantly higher than the working relationship between those two departments at Grand Rapids. The median score of Grand Rapids business personnel was 4.5 and the score of editorial personnel was a full point lower, 3.5. Likewise, the relationship between the circulation and editorial depart— ments at the Daily News was stronger than the relationship between those two departments at the Frags. The median score of Grand Rapids circulation and editorial employes was 2.5 and 2.6, respectively, whereas the scores of the circulation and editorial departments at Dayton were 4.6 and 5.1. It is significant that both sets of relationships involved the editorial department. Those findings would seem to add additional evidence of a greater divisiveness between the 123 TABLE 2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEWSPAPERS IN PERCEIVED STRENGTH OF EXISTING INTERDEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS Median Score Interdepartmental U value Relationship Dayton Grand Rapids (Z) Advertising-Business 5.9 5.1 60.0 (-1.48) Advertising-Circulation 5.6 5.0 70.5 (-0.89) Advertising-Editorial 3.7 3.3 138.0 (-0.76) Advertising-Production 5.6 5.2 121.5 (-0.55) Business-Circulation 5.9 5.5 75.0 (-0.26) Business—Editorial 4.8 3.7 86.0* (-2.09) Business-Production 5.5 5.7 105.0 (-O.4l) Circulation-Editorial 4.9 2.7 57.5* (-3.32) Circulation-Production 4.7 4.3 94.5 (-0.85) Editorial-Production 4.5 4.2 196.5 * Statistically significant at .05 level. 124 editorial department and business side departments at Grand Rapids than at Dayton. Table 3 shows the results of a Mann-Whitney U test for differences between newspapers regarding respondents' estimates of what the ideal, or preferred, strength of rela- tionship should be between the various departments. There were no significant differences between the scores of Dayton and Grand Rapids managers for that set of questions. In relative value, the lowest preferred strengths are those between the business and editorial departments, as opined by respondents from both newspapers. Personality Profiles of Department Personnel Table 4 contains the scores for the personality profile of personnel in the five functional departments of each news- paper. Respondents scored a personality profile for personnel from two departments of their newspaper, excluding their own department, which were specifically designated on individual questionnaires so that each department was evaluated by an identical number of personnel from other departments, or nearly so. The scales in Appendix D present the positive trait description on the right, the negative on the left. Negative and positive poles of scales were randomly switched in the field instrument to offset possible response set. The scores were coded l to 7 from left to right, where 7 indicates the strongest positive measure of the trait. The scores from 125 TABLE 3 IDEAL STRENGTH FOR INTERDEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS AS INDICATED BY RESPONDENTS Median Score Interdepartmental U value* Relationship Dayton Grand Rapids (Z) Advertising-Business 6.5 6.3 74.5 (-0.37) Advertising-Circulation 6.2 6.7 59.0 Advertising-Editorial 5.3 6.0 128.5 (-l.06) Advertising-Production 6.6 6.8 114.5 (-0.95) Business-Circulation 6.3 6.6 62.5 (-0.45) Business-Editorial 5.5 5.0 109.5 (-0.63) Business-Production 6.0 6.1 95.5 (-0.35) Circulation-Editorial 6.1 6.3 142.5 (-0.26) Circulation-Production 6.6 6.8 93.0 (-l.04) Editorial-Production 6.6 6.7 167.5 * None of the differences are statistically signifi- cant at .05 level. 126 TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF SCORES BY NEWSPAPER FOR DEPARTMENTAL PERSONALITY PROFILES Mean Score Factor Dayton Grand Rapids t value Advertising Extroversion 20.26 21.90 -l.l9 Agreeableness 20.68 21.20 -0.31 Conscientiousness 21.11 20.60 0.34 Emotional Stability 18.58 19.09 - .31 Culture 20.35 18.09 1.40 Business Extroversion 16.06 17.12 -0.53 Agreeableness 19.81 17.62 0.99 Conscientiousness 21.53 24.00 -l.45 Emotional Stability 20.93 20.12 0.37 Culture 20.40 18.62 0.74 Circulation Extroversion 21.50 17.90 3.07* Agreeableness 22.90 18.36 2.93* Conscientiousness 22.04 23.27 -0.88 Emotional Stability 20.13 17.45 1.61 Culture 20.22 15.90 2.58* Editorial Extroversion 21.25 16.63 2.94* Agreeableness 20.64 13.77 2.96* Conscientiousness 20.75 18.36 1.70 Emotional Stability 19.46 17.70 0.83 Culture 22.80 21.09 1.13 Production Extroversion 18.46 16.83 0.98 Agreeableness 21.52 17.57 2.07* Conscientiousness 21.00 18.41 1.47 Emotional Stability 19.93 16.67 2.49* Culture 18.06 14.33 1.88 * Statistically significant at .05 level. 127 each of the four scales that comprise an independent factor as identified by Norman were summed to obtain a single score for the factor, with 28 the highest possible rating. Personnel in the circulation department of the gtapg Rapids Press received lower ratings for extroversion, agree- ableness and culture than did personnel in the circulation department of the Dayton Daily News. Likewise, Grand Rapids editorial personnel received lower ratings by their peers for extroversion and agreeableness than did editorial personnel at the Dayton Dailleews. Additionally, production personnel at the Press were rated lower for agreeableness and emotional stability than were production personnel at Dayton. There was no difference in the personality profiles for advertising or business personnel at the two newspapers. Job Satisfaction at Dayton and Grand Rapids Table 5 summarizes scores from the Job Description Index. The highest possible score for satisfaction with work is 30; for satisfaction with people on the job, 24; for satisfaction with pay, 12; and for satisfaction with promotion policy, 15. Scores for the two newspapers are very similar. A t-test indicated no significant differences between news- papers for the scores of any of the four items. 128 TABLE 5 SUMMARY OF SCORES FROM JOB DESCRIPTION INDEXa Mean Score Variable Dayton Grand Rapids Work 24.5 24.8 People 19.6 21.4 Pay 6.4 5.7 Promotion 8.5 7.9 aA t—test showed no differences between newspapers at .05 level of significance. Interpretation of Survey Results No Support for Hypothesis Survey data provided no empirical evidence to support the research hypothesis, i.e., that bilateral newspaper administration will promote a healthier living system evidenced by a more effective interaction-influence system than will unilateral administration. Indeed, there is evidence to support the alternative hypothesis, that unilateral administra- tion promotes a healthier living system, if the organization is taken as a whole. The findings indicate that management processes at the Dayton Daily News, the newspaper with a unilateral admin- istrative structure, more closely approximated Likert's . .~ , 33"»1‘4? . '4‘ ’. I. .. '.' W. ““Iv 4'“ __.A_¢ 129 System 4 system of management along several dimensions than did the newspaper with bilateral administration, the Grand Rapids Press. Respondents from the Dailerews rated their organization higher than did EEEEE respondents in the general areas of intraorganizational cooperation and problem-solving. Dayton personnel saw their organization as having a more effective internal structure that afforded one component in the organization greater opportunity to exert influence on other components than did Grand Rapids personnel. They also reported a greater amount of cooperative teamwork within the organization than did personnel at the Grand Rapids paper. Respondents from the advertising, business, circulation and production departments at Dayton thought personnel in their editorial department were more understanding of their indi- vidual department problems and more willing to help them achieve departmental goals than did that same group of respondents from Grand Rapids regarding editorial personnel at that newspaper. In reference to problem-solving, Dayton respondents reported a greater opportunity to provide input into the decision—making process when it affected their area of opera- tion than did Grand Rapids respondents. They thought com- pleteness and accuracy of information available at the point of decision-making was better than did Grand Rapids personnel. Dayton personnel rated the solution quality of problem-solving higher than did Grand Rapids respondents. Dayton personnel 130 also perceived greater motivation by peers to carry out decisions than did personnel at Grand Rapids. Greater Divisiveness at Bilateral Newspaper The findings indicate a greater split, or more intense divisiveness, between editorial and business-oriented personnel at the Grand Rapids Press than at the Dayton Daily News. That was evident in the low rating given by business— oriented personnel at Grand Rapids for the degree of under- standing and cooperation they received from editorial personnel. It is also evident by the significantly weaker working rela— tionships between the editorial department and two others, circulation and business, at Grand Rapids. The empirical evidence that suggests greater divisiveness between editorial and business-oriented departments at Grand Rapids was corro— borated, as reported in Chapter IV, by the remarks of several managers there who reported substantial resentment against editorial personnel by many others in the organization. Organizational Similarities When the two newspapers are examined along lines of departmentalization, they conform with Likert's findings that intervening variables will differ when measured from organiza- tion to organization but will seldom differ from department to department within a single organization. Analysis of variance for the eleven items in the organizational profile fr", 131 for which there were significant differences between news- papers showed no significant variance of scores among the five departments of either the Grand Rapids Press or the Dayton Dailleews. No particular department at a newspaper produced scores that were inordinately higher or lower than the overall score for the newspaper on any item. Consequently, the ratings for those eleven items came from two broad populations, heterogeneous to one another, but homogenous within. In respect to hierarchical levels, each newspaper had differences in scores between Level 1 and 2 managers for three intervening variables in the organizational profile. At both newspapers, Level 2 managers gave lower ratings than did Level 1 managers. Such results are not unusual in organizational research. Personnel lower placed in an organ— ization will tend often to rate the effectiveness of the organization lower than will those who are higher placed. Consequently, overall differences between the two organiza- tional profiles cannot be attributed statistically to hierarchical variations, since each newspaper had similar differences across the hierarchical dimension. When the personality profiles for the two survey populations are compared, there are more similarities than differences, and the differences would seem to be more reflective of the nature of interdepartmental relationships than actual personality traits of members. Of the five 132 groups of personnel rated, advertising, business, circulation, editorial and production, there were significant differences between newspapers for three departments, involving mostly factors of extroversion and agreeableness. In each instance where there was a discrepancy between matched departments, Grand Rapids personnel received a less desirable rating from their co-workers than did Dayton personnel. Naturally, evaluation of those results necessitates pondering the inter- nal validity of the scales. One could rationally argue that when Norman's personality assessment scales are used to rate an entire population, such as advertising department personnel at a newspaper, they no longer measure personality traits per se, but instead become a portrait of a class or group of people as perceived by the rater vis-a—vis his selective exposure to them. The fact that there were no significant differences between newspapers regarding respondents' estimates of the appropriate strength for various interdepartmental working relationships provides some evidence that a bilateral form of administration does not necessarily create throughout the organization an atmosphere in which members of different functional departments gain a more heightened awareness of their interdependence or perceive a need for stronger inter- departmental working relationships than do managers of a unilaterally administered newspaper. The findings also indicate that while the living 133 system of the unilaterally administered newspaper was healthier and more dynamic than the bilaterally administered newspaper in respect to several aspects of its interaction-influence system, neither form of administration acts as an indepen- dent variable effecting greater job satisfaction of its members. The Job Description Index showed that managers at 55. Dayton and Grand Rapids were about equally satisfied with .; their positions. .Mi- ‘11.“15\n -' . ‘\ CHAPTER VII SUMMARY EVALUATION OF BILATERAL NEWSPAPER ADMINISTRATION: ASSETS AND LIABILITIES Positive Attributes When the Booth concept of bilateral newspaper administration is finally evaluated, it is evident that the system's strongest positive attribute is its facility for lowering the negative, dysfunctional aspect of differenti- ation between executives at the very top of the hierarchy, the manager and editor. Careful selection of manager and editor by the corporation is, of course, prerequisite to such a condition. Booth employes at corporate headquarters and in the field were, by and large, in agreement on both points. The bilateral structure, seemingly, fosters between manager and editor a greater understanding of one another's responsibilities and a heightened awareness of their inter- dependence. This, in turn, usually prompts strong coopera- tion between the two executives. The system is effective in lowering the degree of win-lose dynamics that often exist between top level newspaper executives. Many Booth editors and managers noted that they found the bilateral system 134 1 T . \‘I,’ K 135 beneficial in respect to problem-solving. Because there was no superior-subordinate relationship between them, executives were more inclined to brainstorm with one another in a relatively uninhibited manner. Negative Attributes h. The strongest criticism of the bilateral system is v 3 that in some respects it retards effectiveness of the '4 interaction-influence system of the organization. That was * evident from the findings of the survey. The bilateral Lg newspaper's management processes were characterized by less cooperative teamwork» lower satisfaction by members with the methods and results of problem-solving, less understand- ing between personnel of each other's concerns and, in some instances, weaker working relationships between the editorial and business-oriented departments than were those same pro- cesses at the unilaterally administered newspaper. In such a way, it would seem that the bilateral form of administration heightens the dysfunctional aspects of differentiaion low in the organization. Such a condition is manifest in the greater amount of divisiveness between editorial and other personnel at the Grand Rapids Press than at the Dayton Daiiy News. Survey results indicated that, by and large, managers from all five departments and both hierarchical levels of the Grand Rapids Press perceived the organization similarly. With the exception of the lower scores of Level 2 managers 136 for three items from the organizatinal profile, no particular group of respondents from the Grand Rapids Press could be identified as one that accounted for the organization's overall low score, when compared with the score from the Dayton Daily News. Respondents at Grand Rapids generally perceived their organization as operating under a less effec- tive, less dynamic interaction-influence system than did respondents from the Dayton organization. The findings indicate, to a considerable extent, that the bilateral concept as it exists in the Booth organiza- tion serves to create two opposing organizational entities under a single roof, the editorial personnel and the personnel from the other four departments. That organizational split might not be dysfunctional or even evident in the top echelons of management, but several managers at the Grand Rapids Press indicated that such a condition did exist lower in the organization. More than one manager suggested that the split at lower levels was caused substantially by reluctance of the manager and editor to mediate low-level disputes for fear of antagonizing one another. To the extent that such behavior exists, the bilateral system contains an inherent contradiction. Dissension and conflict emerge at low levels in the organization as a result of behavior by top executives aimed at maintaining harmonious relations between themselves. A more precise explanation of the cause of conflict in the organization than included here might be possible if Q .71 1 , 1": 137 the personal interviewing had been more intensive. Limitations on time and resources permitted, in most cases, only forty to fifty minutes with each person interviewed. Such sessions do not permit establishment of a firm relationship between interviewer and employe, which might be possible if several interviews were conducted over an extended period with indivi- dual employes. Argyris employed intensive interviewing in his study of the New York Times and, it would seem, obtained more candid and enlightening responses from employes than was the case, by and large, in this study. It is important that the apparent deficiencies be put into perspective. There is no evidence here to suggest that the bilateral system has a crippling effect on the interaction-influence system of a newspaper, or that it breeds an intolerable living system throughout the organization. During the course of research no person characterized the Grand Rapids Press as a poorly managed newspaper. To the contrary, the Pra§§_was held in high esteem by professionals both within and outside Booth Newspapers, Inc. This study has been, essentially, comparative. It compared the living systems of the Grand Rapids Press and the Dayton Daily News and found that both newspapers operated under a system of management more closely approximating Likert's System 4, a participative group style, than they did System 1, an exploitive authoritative style. However, the Dayton news- paper was shown to operate under a style of management more 138 closely approximating System 4 than did the Grand Rapids Press. What the findings have done, then, is to refute the research hypothesis. There is no evidence to support the proposition that bilateral newspaper administration promotes a healthier living system evidenced by more effective interaction- influence processes than does unilateral administration. a A Strategy forimproving the ‘ Bilateral Concept ‘ The revised philosophy of the bilateral concept pro- . mulgated by the Booth corporation in recent years has as its E] major tenet the belief that the bilateral system can be used, and should be used, to improve organizational coordination and cooperation between the editorial and business spheres of operations. There is a flaw, though, in application of the principle and it springs from the historical evolution of the bilateral concept at Booth Newspapers, Inc. The original philosophy valued isolation between editorial and business spheres of operations as a positive attribute, and the concept as operationalized was compatible with that philoso- phy. But when the bilateral concept underwent philosophical change, there was no accompanying change in operationalization of the concept. When the corporation began to perceive the bilateral concept as a means of promoting interorganizational cooperation and coordination, it failed to expand Operation- alization of the concept to all levels of a newspaper vis-a-vis formal action. Instead, corporate leaders, it would seem, 139 relied on an assumption that if the two top executives developed a close working relationship, the same would be true of their subordinates. That does not automatically occur, as the findings have indicated. A more elaborate matrix of lateral relations that, by design, would inten- sify integration in the organization was needed. A modification of the bilateral system could possibly be effected using Likert's System 4 strategy for improving cooperation in organizations. Integration is achieved and coordination improved by creating overlapping group struc- tures in which certain individuals, linking pins, are designated members of two work groups and, by design, report to two superiors. A group pattern of problem-solving is utilized and the linking pins participate in the delibera- tions of each group to which they hold membership. Such an arrangement contradicts conventional management theory, of course, because it violates the principle of unity of command. But Likert asserts that it is beneficial to overall operational effectiveness. Coordination is improved because the linking pins are able to exert both upward and lateral influence in the organization. The system eschews the man- to-man method of problem-solving, which frequently involves win-lose dynamics and stifles consideration of alternatives that might be considered politically sensitive, in favor of a group pattern of problem-solving that promotes candid, informal discussion that is less likely to foster win-lose 140 situations. Likert explains the dynamics of the system in the following way: . . . when one superior and the work group reporting to him approach decisions which are incompatible or in conflict with the points of view held or decisions being arrived at by the other superior and his work group, the individual who is in both work groups is obligated to bring such information to the attention of both work groups. This information is relevant data to be used by each work group in its decision making. Even though the chief of one or the other groups may be reluctant to consider such information, the group members are likely to want to do so. They, themselves, are likely to be members of other cross- function work groups and recognize that they, too, sooner or later may find themselves caught in a developing conflict between the two or more work groups of which they are subordinate members. They will wish, consequently, to resolve this conflict con- structively and thereby help to create a well- established process and precedent for handling such differences.1 Likert points out that implementation of such a system would likely require formal training for participants to assist them in developing skills applicable to group problem- solving and related processes. Implementation of an over- lapping pattern of organization at a newspaper of similar complexity to the two examined in the study would require substantial research for successful adaptation of Likert's abstract model. Many position descriptions would have to be revised and the entire organizational structure carefully analyzed and deliberately restructured to conform to a System 4 design. Such a task might not be too difficult for the Booth newspapers to accomplish. In his study of the New York lLikert,‘The Human Organization, p. 161. 141 Timas, Argyris attempted to improve the health of the living system by behavior modification rather than through structural change because, he said, structural change would not be effective unless the people affected were familiar with the new behavior required by the structural modifica- tion. In the case of the New York Times, executives and managers were not familiar with the sort of behavior that would be required.2 A more favorable situation exists with the Booth newspapers, where the bilateral system in many cases has worked to promote a strong cooperative relation- ship between editor and manager. Subordinates, as at Grand Rapids, are familiar with the sort of cooperative teamwork that exists between the top executives and, consequently, would be familiar with the type of behavior necessary for effective group problem-solving. There is no denying that implementation of such a system would be a bold and, no doubt, adventurous step. One could expect strong opposition from various groups in the organization, particularly the editorial department where traditional mores would likely result in skeptical attitudes toward such an endeavor. Implementation of such a strategy would fuse the cooperative relationships that exist at the tOp of the hierarchy with similar cooperative relationships at lower levels in the organization and might very well 2Argyris, Behind the Front Page, p. 284. 142 produce a system of newspaper administration more dynamic and effective than either of the systems examined in the study. Short of such a modification, the only logical evaluation that can be reached conerning the Booth system of bilateral administration is that such a system does not seem to promote as effective a living system as does unilateral newspaper administration. APPENDICES APPENDIX A ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE APPENDIX A thanizationai Profile PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR CAREER WITH THIS NEWSPAPER. 1. Please place an X beside the department you currently work in. ____Advertising ____Business ____Circu1ation ____Editoria1 ___ Production (Mechanical) 2. Please indicate the title of your position: 3. Do you belong to a union? ____Yes No 4. If you have ever held a position in a different department with this newspaper, please place an X beside the department or departments you have worked in. ‘ ____Advertising ____Business ____Circu1ation __ Editorial ___.Production 5. How long have you been in your present job position: years. 6. How long have you worked for this newspaper: years. 7. From what you can foresee, do you think you will be working for this newspaper a year from now? Place an X beside the appropriate item. ____Yes, I expect to be working for this newspaper ____No, I do not expect to be working for this paper ____I am uncertain if 1'11 stay or leave ____I expect to retire within a year PLEASE GO ON TO THE NEXT SECTION 143 144 THE REMAINING ITEMS ON THIS QUESTIONNAIRE ASK YOU TO RATE CERTAIN ASPECTS OF YOUR JOB ON A SEVEN-POINT SCALE. EACH QUESTION WILL HAVE TWO DESCRIP- TIONS OF A PARTICULAR ASPECT OF THE ORGANIZATION YOU WORK FOR; THE TWO DESCRIPTIONS CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS EXTREME AND OPPOSITE CONDITIONS OF THE PARTICULAR ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECT. PLEASE INDICATE WHERE YOUR NEWSPAPER FALLS ON THE SCALE BETWEEN THE TWO DESCRIPTIONS BY PLACING AN "X" BETWEEN THE APPROPRIATE VERTICAL HASH MARKS. BELOW IS AN EXAMPLE. (Sample) Do your subordinates always work to the fullest of their professional abilities? Subordinates seldom Subordinates always I‘ work to the fullest work to the fullest of their abilities I I. I I I X I I, I of their abilities, can be counted on to give 100% IN THIS EXAMPLE THE PERSON DOING THE RATING INDICATED THAT SUBORDINATES' TENDENCY IS IN THE DIRECTION OF WORKING TO THEIR FULLEST EXTENT BUT THAT. IN RELATIVE TERMS, IT IS NOT A STRONG TENDENCY. PLEASE USE THIS TECHNIQUE - IN SCORING THE QUESTIONS BELOW. E ‘- 1; 8. Your newspaper taken as a whole, how would you rate the quality of lateral, or sideward, communication between managers and supervisors of different departments? Lateral communica- Lateral communica- tion is usually tion processes are poor between depart- excellent between ments because of I I I I I I I I departments internal conflict.and resulting hostility 9. To what extent is cooperative teamwork present within the newspaper. That is, to what extent do personnel from different departments get together to work out solutions to mutual problems? There is a very There is virtually substantial amount no teamwork in of teamwork in I I I I I I I I evidence throughout evidence throughout the organization the organization 10. When a problem arises at the newspaper that affects your department and one or more other departments, is the solution decided upon the best one possible out of a number of alternatives or is it usually an inferior solution, implemented because it seems an easy way around the problem? Solution decided Solution decided upon upon is usually the I I I I I I I I is usually inferior best alternative and easiest way out 145 11. Are decisions made at the best level in the organization as far as availability of the most adequate and accurate information bearing on the decision? Overlapping groups Decisions are usually and group decision made at levels ap- processes tend to preciably higher than push decisions to levels where most point where infor- I I I I I I I I adequate and accurate mation is most ade- information exists quate or to pass the relevant infor- mation to the decision-making point 12. Do you think things would work smoother at your newspaper if people in other departments were more conscientious than they are about keeping you informed of changes in events that could possibly affect your end of the operation? Yes, things would Not really; personnel go a lot smooter in other departments if personnel in I I I I I I I I do as conscientious a other departments job as can be expected did a better job of in keeping us informed keeping us informed 13. To what extent are decision-makers aware of problems, particularly those at lower levels in the organization? Generally quite Often are unaware or well aware of I I I I I I I I only partially aware problems of problems 14. Is decision-making in the organization based on man-to-man or group pattern of operation? Does it encourage or discourage teamwork? Man-to-man only Largely based on discourages team- I I I I I I I I group pattern, en- work courages teamwork 15. In regard to decisions affecting your area of operation, do you think you are provided adequate opportunity to offer information and advice to those making the decisions? Decision-makers Decision-makers always seek out my seldom, if ever, advice and any in- I I I I I I I I seek me out for formation that might advice or informa- be beneficial to the tion decision-making process 146 16. How would the managers and supervisors at your newspaper rate in regard to their attitudes toward one another? Favorable, coopera- Subservient attitudes tive attitudes toward superiors throughout the I I I I I I I I coupled with hostility organization with toward peers and con- mutual trust and tempt for subordinates; confidence distrust widespread 17. When managers or supervisors in your department get into disagreements with those in other departments with which they must coordinate some phase of the work routine, do such disagreements usually result in only short-lived irritation between the people involved or do they more often cause long-term interpersonal friction between people? Disagreements between Disagreements between managers from dif- managers from differ- ferent departments ent departments often usually result in I I I I I I I I result in long-term little more than hostility between them temporary irritation between them 18. How would managers and superivsors rate in regard to the kinds of attitudes they have developed toward the organization and its goals? Attitudes are Attitudes are usually strongly favorable hostile and counter and provide powerful to organization's stimulation to be- I I I I I I I I goals havior implementing organization's goals 19. To what extent is responsibility felt by each member of the newspaper for achieving the organization's goals? Personnel at all High levels of manage- levels feel real ment feel responsibility; responsibility for lower levels feel less; organization's I I I I I I I I rank and file feel goals and behave little and often welcome in ways to implement opportunity to behave in them ways to defeat organiza- tion's goals 147 20. From what you have observed in your department and from what you know about the way things are run in other departments, to what extent are subordinates involved in decisions related to their work? Subordinates are Subordinates are never involved in fully involved in decisions, occa- I I I I I I I I all decisions related sionally consulted to their work 21. Within the newspaper in general, to what extent is technical and professional knowledge used in decision-making? Used only if Most of what is possessed at available anywhere higher levels I I I I I I I I within the newspaper is used 22. Please indicate how the managers and supervisors at your newspaper rate in regard to the motivational forces you think are behind their behavior at work. Most managers and Most managers and supervisors are supervisors are moti- primarily motivated vated by departmental by a need for econ- I I I I I I I I and organizational omic security and goals in addition to personal status their personal economic and status needs 23. When a decision is made affecting two or more departments, is the decision usually perceived as fair to all departments concerned or does it more often happen that personnel in one department will feel they have not been given due consideration? Decisions are Such situations usually usually perceived result in at least one as fair to all de- I I I I I I I I department feeling it partments concerned has been abused or inconvenienced 24. When you confer with a manager or supervisor in another department over some problem in your end of the operation which his department could help overcome, how sincere do you perceive them to be in making an actual effort to help you out? Managers in other Managers in other de- departments might partments are usually listen to my prob- genuinely interested lems but discussions I I I I I I I I in helping solve a are seldom followed problem of mine and up by any constructive take prompt action action on their part 148 25. Are decisions made at the best level in the organization as far as the motivational consequences; i.e., does the decision-making process help to create the necessary motivations in those persons who have to carry out the decisions? Substantial con- Decision-making con- tribution by tributes little or decision-making I I I I I I I I nothing to the moti- processes to moti- vation to implement vation to implement the decision, often yields adverse r motivation 26. How adequate and accurate is the information available for decision- making at the place where the decisions are made? Information is Relatively complete 1 generally in- and accurate informa- * adequate and I I I I I I I I tion available based inaccurate both on measurements L and efficient flow of information within the newspaper FOR QUESTIONS 27 THROUGH 36, DO NOT SCORE THE TWO QUESTIONS THAT REFER TO YOUR OWN DEPARTMENT. 27. How well do managers and supervisors in the business department understand the work-related difficulties and problems faced by personnel in your department? They know and They have little or understand the no knowledge or under- difficulties and I I I I I I I I standing of problems problems very well and difficulties in our department 28. How well do managers and supervisors in the production department understand the work-related difficulties and problems faced by personnel in your department? They know and They have little or understand the no knowledge or under- difficulties and I I I I I I I I standing of problems problems very well and difficulties in our department 149 29. How well do managers and supervisors in the editorial department understand the work-related difficulties and problems faced by personnel in your department? They know and They have little or understand the no knowledge or under- difficulties and I I I I I I I I standing of problems problems very well and difficulties in our department 30. How well do managers and supervisors in the advertising department understand the work-related difficulties and prdblems faced by personnel in your department? They know and They have little or understand the no knowledge or under- difficulties and I I I I I I I I standing of problems problems very well and difficulties in our department 31. How well do managers and supervisors in the circulation department understand the work-related difficulties and problems faced by personnel in your department? They know and They have little or understand the no knowledge or under- difficulties and I I I I I I I I standing of problems problems very well and difficulties in our department 32. When you consider the normal goals that your department wants to achieve, whether they involve completing your part of the production task on time each day, getting an important late-braking story into that day's edition, meeting projected goals for increases in circula- tion or ad lineage, or whatever, how interested in those same goals do you believe the managers and supervisors in the production are? Managers and super- Managers and super- visors in the pro- visors in the pro- duction department duction department don't seem to be are strongly inter- very interested in I I I I I I I I ested in our depart- the goals my depart- mental goals and are ment things are usually willing to important assist us to achieve those goals 150 33. In that same regard, how interested in your departmental goals would you say the managers and supervisors are in the editorial department? Editors and their assistants are strongly interested in our departmental I I I I I I I I goals and are usually willing to assist us to achieve those goals if possible Editors and their assistants don't seem to be very inter- ested in the goals my department things are important 34. How interested in your departmental goals would you say the managers and supervisors are in the circulation department? Managers and super- visors in the cir- culation department are strongly inter- ested in our depart- I I I I I I I I mental goals and are usually willing to assist us to achieve those goals Managers and super- visors in the circu- lation department don't seem to be very interested in the goals my depart- ment thinks are important 35. How interested in your departmental goals would you say the managers and supervisors are in the business department? Managers and super- visors in the busi- ness department don't seem to be very interested in I I I I I I I I the goals my depart- ment things are important Managers and super- visors in the busi- ness department are strongly interested in our departmental goals and are usually willing to assist us in achieving those goals 36. How interested in your departmental goals would you say the managers and supervisors are in the advertising department? Managers and super- visors in the ad- vertising department don't seem to be very interested in I I I, I. I. I I I the goals my depart- ment thinks are important Managers and super- visors in the adver- tising department are strongly inter- ested in our depart- mental goals and are usually willing to assist us achieve those goals 151 37. From what you know as a member of the organization, how sufficient a job does top management--those managers and executives above the department level--do in passing down to department-level personnel information about developments in other departments or developments within the newspaper at large? Top management is Top management seldom always conscientious bothers to inform de- about keeping all partmental personnel departmental per- about developments at sonnel informed I I I I I I I I the newspaper, except about developments in cases where it has within the news- a direct bearing on paper the day-to-day opera- tion of a particular department 38. How would you characterize the amount of influence that managers and supervisors in your department are able to exert over the goals, activities and methods of the department? Managers and super- Managers and super— visors in my depart- visors in my depart- ment have very strong ment have little influence in deter- influence in deter- mining departmental I I I I I I I I mining goals and goals and the methods methods; they usually to be used in accom- just follow orders plishing them 39. To what extent is there an effective struCture within the newspaper that enables one part of the organization to exert influence on other parts of the organization? An effective struc- A highly effective ture for exerting structure exists such influence is I I I I I I I I enabling exercise of virtually not pres- influence in all ent directions 40. Where are the review and control functions concontrated in the organization; that is, who usually decides if policies are being properly followed, sufficient progress being made toward goals, etc.? Review and control Review and control are highly concen- occur at all levels trated in the hands in the newspaper with of top management, I I I I I I I I lower levels at times those above the imposing more vigorous department level reviews and tighter controls than top management 152 41. At your newspaper, to what extent is there an informal organization present and supporting or opposing the goals and policies of the formal organization? Informal and formal An informal organiza- organizations are tion is present and one and the same; works to oppose goals hence all social I I I I I I I I of formal organization forces support efforts to achieve the newspaper's goals 42. When there is some significant change of events either within the newspaper or in the world outside which calls for a change in the work routine of your department or other departments, how quick and effective a job does the organization do in getting the new informa- tion distributed to departments so that you can go ahead and plan changes accordingly? It takes too long The organization does for new information a fast and quite com- to spread through- plete job getting new out the newspaper; information distributed as ahresult, changes I I I I I I I I to Ellipgrsonj who need n t e wor routine as. w— to e n orme so t at are seldom imple- necessary changes can mented as fast as be implemented quickly they could be APPENDIX B INTERDEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIP SCALES APPENDIX B Interdepartmental RelationshipgScales IT IS NATURAL WITHIN A NEWSPAPER THAT, BECAUSE THERE IS A RELATIVELY HIGH DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE IN THE TYPE OF JOB EACH DEPARTMENT MUST DO, SOME DEPARTMENTS HAVE A GREATER NEED TO BE IN TOUCH WITH ONE ANOTHER ON A RELATIVELY ROUTINE BASIS THAN DO OTHERS FOR PURPOSES OF PLANNING, COORDI- NATION, SCHEDULING OF WORK ROUTINES, ETC. BELOW THE FIVE DEPARTMENTS ARE LISTED IN COMBINATION OF PAIRS. PLEASE INDICATE HOW STRONG THE INTER- DEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIP IS BETWEEN YOUR DEPARTMENT AND THE OTHER FOUR DEPARTMENTS IN TERMS OF HOW STRONG THE RELATIONSHIP IS NOW AND HOW STRONG YOU THINK IT SHOULD BE IDEALLY. "1" INDICATES A WEAK RELATIONSHIP AND "7" INDICATES A STRONG RELATIONSHIP. CIRCLE THE APPROPRIATE NUMBER ON THE SCALE. SCORE ONLY THOSE PAIRS THAT INCLUDE YOUR DEPARTMENT. 45. Advertising-Business relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 46. Advertising-Circulation relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 47. Advertising-Editorial relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 48. Advertising-Production relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 49. Business-Circulation relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 50. Business-Editorial relationship: a) How strong is it now? (min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (max) b) How strong should it be? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 153 51. 52. 53. 54. 154 Business-Production relationship: a) How strong is it now? b) How strong should it be? Circulation-Editorial relationship: a) How strong is it now? b) How strong should it be? Circulation-Production relationship: a) How strong is it now? b) How strong should it be? Editorial-Production relationship: a) How strong is it now? b) How strong should it be? (min) (min) (min) (min) —I (max) (max) (max) (max) APPENDIX C JOB DESCRIPTION INDEX APPENDIX c Job Descr_iption Index BELOW ARE FOUR LISTS OF WORDS OR PHRASES THAT MIGHT BE USED TO DESCRIBE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF YOUR JOB REGARDING THE TYPE OF WORK YOU DO, THE PEOPLE YOU WORK WITH, THE PAY YOU RECEIVE AND PROMOTIONS. IF YOU THINK IHE ITEM DESCRIBES AN ASPECT—OF YOUR JOB PLACE A "Y" NEXT TO IT: IF IT DOES NOT DESCRIBE THAT ASPECT OF YOUR JOB PLACE AN "N" NEXT TO IT. IF YOU CANNOT DECIDE BETWEEN EITHER YES OR NO, PLACE "?" NEXT TO THE ITEM TO INDICATE YOU ARE UNCERTAIN. Work ' People L _Fascinating _Stimulating ' _Routi ne __Bori ng ~ _Satisfying _____Slow E _Boring _Ambitious . _Good _Stupid ___Creative Responsible ___Respected _Fast ____Hot ___Intel 1 igent _Pleasant Easy to make enemies _Useful _l'alk too much __Ti resome Smart ___Heal thful ______Lazy _Chal lenging ___Unpl easant ___On your feet _No privacy ___Frustrating _Active ____Simple _Narrow interests _Endless ____Loyal _Gives sense of accomplishment ___Hard to meet 2.9.1 Promotions ____Income adequate _Good opportunity for advancement “Satisfactory profit sharing _Opportunity somewhat limited ___Barely live on income _Promotion on ability __Bad _Dead—end job ___Income provides luxuries ___Good chance for promotion _Insecure . _____Unfair promotion policy _____Less than I deserve _Infrequent promotions ____Highly paid ____Regular promotions _Underpaid Fairly good chance for promotion 155 APPENDIX D PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT SCALES APPENDIX D PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT SCALES BELOW ARE TWENTY PAIRS OF ADJECTIVES USED OFTEN BY PSYCHOLOGISTS TO DESCRIBE PERSONALITY. USING THE APPROPRIATE ABBREVIATION, PLEASE INDICATE HOW YOU WOULD RATE THE PERSONNEL IN THE TWO DEPARTMENTS CIRCLED. IF YOU THINK THE PEOPLE IN THE TWO DEPARTMENTS RATE THE SAME ON A PARTICULAR ITEM SIMPLY WRITE ONE ABBREVIATION OVER THE OTHER ON THE SCALE. A--ADVERTISING E--EDITORIAL B--BUSINESS P--PRODUCTION C--CIRCULATION v—V ‘1' 1. Silent (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Talkative 2. Secretive (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) Frank 3. Cautious (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Adventurous 4. Reclusive (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Sociable 5. Irritable (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Goodnatured 6. Jealous (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) (_) Not jealous 7. Headstrong (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) Gentle 8. Negativistic (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) Cooperative 9. Undependable (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Responsible 10. Unscrupulous (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Scrupulous ll. Fickle (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Persevering 12. Careless (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Tidy 13. Nervous (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Poised l4. Anxious (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) (__) Calm 15. Excitable (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) Composed 16. Indecisive ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (__) (__) ( ) Resolute 17. 18. 19. 20. Simple Unreflective Boorish Artistically insensitive 157 _— (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) (__) (_) (__) (__) (__) (_) (_) (__) (__) (_) (_) (_) (_) Imaginative Intellectual Refined Artistically sensitive a g.) APPENDIX E SCORES FROM ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE APPENDIX E SCORES FROM ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILEa m Median Score Item U value Variable Description No. Dayton Grand Rapids (Z) Quality of lateral 8 5.30 5.00 759.0 communication (-l.10) Existence of coopera- tive teamwork through— 9 5.62 4.77 612.0* out newspaper (-2.4l) Appropriateness of 10 6.08 5.55 564.5* solutions (-2.81) Adequacy of informa- tion at decision- 11 5.38 4.66 689.0 making level (-l.60) Effectiveness of exchange of task- 12 3.50 3.16 771.5 related information (-0.83) Decision-makers' aware- ness of problems at 13 5.35 5.00 805.0 lower levels (-0.53) Extent to which decision-making fol- 14 5.41 4.90 692.0 lows group pattern (-l.58) Opportunity to advise 15 5.83 5.00 618.0* decision-makers (-2.27) Peer attitudes toward 16 6.20 5.73 594.0* one another (-2.54) Duration of inter- 17 6.20 5.92 698.0 personal conflicts (-l.58) Peer attitudes toward 18 6.11 5.57 587.0* organization (-2.74) Peer responsibility 19 ,4.88 4.65 719.5 toward organization (-l.32) 158 W 159 Median Score Item U valueb Variable Description No. Dayton Grand Rapids (Z) Subordinates' involve- ment in decisions 20 5.23 4.78 756.5 affecting their tasks (-l.12) Use Of technical knowledge in decision- 21 5.91 5.67 695.0 making (-l.47) Motivational forces 22 5.88 5.27 667.0* behind peers' behavior {-1-95) Satisfaction with 23 5.70 5.00 685.5 decisions (-l.75) Genuineness of others' 24 6.10 5.87 783.5 resolve to help (-0.88) Supportive motivation- al consequences of 25 5.60 4.91 604.5* decision-making (-2.39) Quality of information at decision-making 26 6.06 5.22 538.5* level (-3.12) Business personnel's understanding of 27 4.33 4.33 792.5 others' problems (-0.54) Production personnel's understanding of 28 4.25 3.90 875.5 others' problems . (-0.04) Editorial personnel's , understanding of 29 3.66 2.00 648.0* others' problems (-2.07) Advertising person- nel's understanding 30 4.60 3.78 721.0 of others' problems (-l.41) Circulation person- nel's understanding 31 5.28 3.50 791.0 of others' problems (-0.80) ' '2'” ‘ VEETI “" “ 160 Median Score Item U valueb Variable Description No. Dayton Grand Rapids (Z) Production personnel's interest in others' 32 3.85 2.90 790.5 goals ((0.79) Editorial personnel's interest in others' 33 4.05 1.83 587.5* goals (-2.6l) Circulation person- nel's interest in 34 5.00 4.78 797.5 others' goals (-0.60) Business personnel's interest in others' 35 4.58 4.64 875.0 goals {-0.04) Advertising person- nel's interest in 36 3.87 4.50 877.5 others' goals (-0.02) Quality of downward 37 5.58 4.90 734.5 communication (-l.30) Amount of departmental control over goals 38 5.95 5.61 766.5 and methods (-l.03) Potential for inter- 39 5.03 4.30 608.5* departmental influence (-2.33) Hierarchical level where review and con- trol functions 40 4.06 3.38 810.5 concentrated (-0.61) Existence of opposing formal and informal 41 5.65 5.50 752.5 organizations (-0.90) Effective distribu- tion of information 42 5.72 5.07 697.0 affecting task activity (-l.66) aRefer to Appendix A by item number for complete description of variable. bAn asterisk indicates statistical significance at .05 level. APPENDIX F INTER-ITEM CORRELATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL PROFILE - ‘fl . ' '7 o.— me. Fe. mm. o.~ me. me. o.— mm. o._ om mp mp up om. ow. mm. pm. o.~ mp mm. mw. mm. mm. no. o.~ mp mm. kc. mm. sq. mm. om. o.~ ep mm. we. mv. pm. pm. mm. me. o.” my mm. pm. mp. Np. ow. mm. mm. Fa. o._ NP om. pm. pm. mm. mm. mm. um. pm. cw. o._ FF mm. m¢. om. mm. mm. ~¢. Se. Nm» my. mm. o.p op MAHmoma 4