l I I 'Ii M 1 / alum" I I J NWWWW l~ m 93 01079 0685 ,Wc L"“fii? F 5...-..4 “at f «I 9 __fi_ 0 r .1 “.8. .fi. 343—- §———-J—-'a -“‘~ L' -.:I-r:::r:.2y This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A SURVEY OF THE KNOWLEDGE, COMPREHENSION, RESPONSIBILITY AND INTEREST OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE PHILIPPINES presentedby Leticia P. Corte’s has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree“, Fisheries and Wildlife flflmm Major prof or Date February 21, 1986 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 “BRANES remove this checkout from Jun-zs-uun. your record. ‘FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 4"; ‘ “é .. «'3‘ “‘51: I a. n 5., -" “y b,“ \_ J JAN 25 00 (I 4 2.8 n z. 2 MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to A SURVEY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE, COMPREHENSION, RESPONSIBILITY, AND INTEREST OF THE SECONDARY LEVEL STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE PHILIPPINES by Leticia P. Cortes A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Fisheries and Wildlife 1986 ABSTRACT A SURVEY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE COMPREHENSION, RESPONSIBILITY AND INTEREST OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE PHILIPPINES by Leticia P. Cortes Our environmental consciousness determines the way we relate to our environment. This study inquired into the knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest of secondary school students and teachers about local conditions, natural process, and environmental issues and problems as a means of measuring their environmental consciousness» The study also identified.the independent variables that significantly affected the dependent variables knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest, correlated the dependent variables, and identified topics for inclusion in an environmental education curriculum for the secondary schools in the Philippines. A questionnaire and an interview schedule were developed and administered to the subjects of the study. A multivariate analysis of variance using SPSS MANOVA was performed.on.the dates In addition, the responses to the items in the questionnaire were analyzed. The Findings of the Study The variables community, section, and school interacted significantly to explain the variance in environmental knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interest in the students' scores. Based on the community, section, and school interaction, four major groups of students were formed: (1') special urban group composed of the private and public schools in the special community (2) urban high group composed of high sections in the urban-industrialized communities. (3) urban low/rural high group composed of low sections in the urban-industrialized communities and the high sections in the rural-agricultural communities (4) rural low group composed of the low sections in the rural-agricultural communities. The majority of the students were aware of pollution, pesticides, typhoons, dams and volcanic areas: could explain blast fishing and its environmental effects and age characteristics of the population in the Philippines but did not know about the effects of forest destruction, new techniques of fish culture and the total population of the Philippines. The students environmental values were not consistent. The high section students were not as interested in learning more about the environment as the low section 9. 10. students were. The students had difficulty making scientifically correct cause-consequence relationships. The teachers' knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest were significantly affected by community but not by school and subject taught. The teachers were aware of many events in their environment but could not explain many of them. The teachers' environmental values were inconsistent. The teachers were interested in learning about energy, population dynamics, conservation and recycling. To my parents for their unwavering faith and moral support ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful appreciation is extended to all those who had helped in seeing this study to its completion. I very sincerely thank my major adviser, Dr. R. Ben Peyton for his invaluable guidance in the writing of the dissertation, and my other advisers, Dr. Harold Stonehouse, Dr. William Mehrens, and Dr. David Johnson for their sug- gestions on the statistical treatment and organization of the written material. ' This Study could not have been conducted without assistance from the Institute for Science and Mathematics Educational DevelOpment, University of the Philippines which funded the data gathering and collation phase; and from the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University which provided aid for computer services. Sincere thanks are extended to the Philippine American Educational Foundation, the Institute for International Education, and the Michigan State University for the scholarship grant which made it possible for me to pursue a doctoral program. Finally I wish to thank my parents, relatives and friends for their encouragement throughout the duration of my studies. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 The Problem Introduction ‘ 1 Background of the Study 3 Objective of the Study 10 Significance of the Study 13 Limitations of the Study 14 'Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature The Psychological Basis of Environmental Consciousness 16 Educational View of Environmental Consciousness 26 Cognitive and Affective Objectives and the Goals of Environmental Education 33 Related Studies on the Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Environmental Learnings and Behavior 37 Summary of the Review of Related Literature 63 Chapter 3 Method and Procedure Research Strategy 59 Instrument Development 70 The Questionnaire 71 The Interview Schedule 74 The Pilot Study 74 Final Instruments 75 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments 76 Sampling Design 78 Subjects of the Study 83 Procedure for Analysis of Data 85 Chapter 4 Presentation and Analysis of Student Data - Frequency Distribution of Student Sample on the Four Environmental Constructs 87 Testing for Group Differences by Multivariate Analysis of Variance 90 Correlations of the Dependent Variables in the Students' Data 100 Multivariate Contrasts of Communities 101 Identifying Environmental Topics Needed for Secondary School Education Analysis of the Knowledge Test Items Analysis of the Comprehension Test Items Analysis of the Responsibility Test Items Analysis of the Interest Test Items Analysis of the Interview Results Chapter 5 Presentation and Analysis of Teacher Data Frequency Distribution of the Teachers' Scores in the Four Environmental Consciousness Tests Testing for the Significance of Group Differences by Multivariate Analysis of Variance Multivariate Contrasts of Communities Identifying Environmental Topics for Teacher Education Analysis of the Knowledge Test Items Analysis of the Comprehension Test Items Analysis of the Responsibility Test Items Analysis of the Interest Test Items Analysis of the Interview Results Chapter 6 Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations The Environmental Consciousness of Secondary School Students The Environmental Consciousness of Secondary School Teachers Summary of the Findings of the Study Recommendations 106 106 111 112 118 122 126 130 133 136 136 140 143 149 152 158 169 173 177 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Statistics of the Frequency Distributions of Students' Scores in the Environmental Consciousness Tests Summary of the Significant Effects by MANOVA on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, ReSponsibility, and Interest. Summary of the Significant Univariate Tests on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility, and Interest. Mean Knowledge Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data. Mean Comprehension Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data. Mean Responsibility Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data. Mean Interest Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data. Correlation of Dependent Variables Based on the Students' Data. Means and Ranks of Communities Based on the Students' Data. Significant Multivariate Contrasts of Communities ( a: .01) on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest. Significant Univariate Contrasts of Communities ( u= .01) on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest. Students' Observed and Expected Frequencies in the Knowledge Test Expressed in Percent. Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Students' Observed and Expected Frequencies in the . Comprehension Test Expressed in Percent. Distribution of Frequencies in the Students' Responsibility Test. Distribution of Frequencies in the Students' Interest Test. Statistics on the Frequency Distribution of the Teachers' Scores in Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility, and Interest. Multivariate Tests of Significance of the Main and Interaction Effects of Community and School. Univariate Tests of Significance on the Teachers' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest. Teachers' Mean Knowledge and Comprehension Scores Showing the Main Effect of Community. Teachers' Mean Comprehension Scores Showing Community x School Interaction Effects. Teachers' Mean Interest Scores Showing Community x School Interaction Effects. Means of Community in the Responsibility Test. Significant Multivariate (<1: .05) of Communities on the Teachers' Environmental Consciousness. Significant Univariate Contrasts (u = Communities on the Teachers' Consciousness. .05) of Environmental Teachers' Frequencies of Correct Answers to the Knowledge Test. Teachers' Observed and Expected Frequencies in the Comprehension Test Expressed in Percent. Distribution of Teachers' Frequencies in the Responsibility Test Expressed in Percent. Distribution of Teachers' Frequencies in the Interest Test Expressed in Percent. Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, and Responsibility Mean Scores Listed in Decreasing Order. Table 30. Students' Interest Mean Scores Listed in Decreasing Order. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure LIST OF FIGURES Frequency distribution of the students' scores in the knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest tests. Mean Knowledge Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects a. Mean knowledge scores of community across section x school groups tn Mean knowledge scores of section x school group across communities Mean Comprehension Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects a. Mean comprehension scores of community across section x school groups b. Mean comprehension scores of section x school group across communities Mean Responsibility Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects a. Mean responsibility scores of community across section x school groups b. Mean responsibility scores of section x school group across communities Mean Interest Scores Showing Community x Section x School Interaction Effects a. Mean interest scores of community across section x school groups tn Mean interest scores of section x school group across communities Frequency Distribution of the Teachers' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest Scores CHAPTER 1 The Problem Introduction Environmental consciousness was an unknown entity until about the last decade. Generations the world over had always used the environment and the resources in it. To survive, humankind must avail of nature's wealth. Yet by the middle of the 19603 it became clear that certain sectors had become unwise users, and even abusers, of nature. Now we read and hear about environmental degradation and des- truction. The environment needs to be protected. Nations had met to discuss ways and means of protecting the environ— ment and of developing environmental consciousness asin the 1972 Stockholm Conference. International conferences such as the Belgrade Workshop of 1975, the Tbilisi Conference of 1977 and the various regional workshops in Asia, Africa, North America.and Europe from 1970 to the present concen- trated on environmental education as the recommended venue for developing environmental awareness. ' It was in support of the environmental education movement that the present study was conceived. The results of the study would provide baseline information toward the formulation and implementation of any environmental program, project, or activity that would involve Filipino adolescents and teachers.‘ This study focused on secondary school students' and teachers' mental constructs concerning the environment with the goal of providing information and direction for an en- vironmental education curriculum. It sought to identify and characterize these mental constructs by inquiring into the knowledge, comprehension, interest, and perception of res- ponsibility of students and teachers about: (1) local condi- tions and natural events, (2) practices in the development and use of natural resources, (3) causes and consequences of environmental processes, and (4) environmental issues and problems. Only when the characteristics of these mental constructs were known would it be possible ”to create cor- respondence between concepts and constructs,"1 or more specifically in the school context, between the curriculum. and students' ideas, ideals and expectations. Only then could a relevant and rational curriculum be developed -- relevant because students and teachers, and not only top level educators, had become "sources of educational 1 Mark R. Shedd, Norman A. Newberg, and Richard H. deLone, "Yesterday's Curriculum/Today's World: Time to Re- invent the Wheel,” in The Curriculum: Restrospect and Pros- pect, ed. Robert M. McClure, The Seventieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971, p. 158. 3 n2 enerQY. and rational because the end users of the cur- riculum shared in its development. Background of the study The period from 1970 to the present was one of con- tinuous reform in the Philippine school system in all aspects -- curricula, teacher skills, and equipment and facilities. It began with the report of the 1970 Presiden- tial Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE)3 which found the quality of education in the system in need of upgrading and the secondary school as the “weak link in the educational ladder.” The school curriculum was not attuned to the national development goals. In practice it prepared the students for the next higher year of schooling instead of preparing them fer their most appropriate place in society by developing their talents and potentials to enable them to contribute their best to the attainment of national goals. This was made evident by the insufficiency of manpower to feed into the new industries and into modern farming, livestock raising, and fish culture. ‘The survey also showed that 83% of vocational high school graduates 2 Ibid 3 Presidential Commission to Survey Education (PCSPE), Education Survey Report: Education for National_gevelopmentz NgwyPatternsL New Directions, Makati, Rizal, 1970, pp. 70-71. enrolled for‘college courses instead of furthering their vocational skills or entering the labor force. The poor quality of education was attributed to in- adequate equipment and facilities for teaching, outdated and insufficient number of textbooks and other reading mate- rials, and outmoded teaching skills. .Among the recommenda- tions of the PCSPE that were immediately given attention were curriculum revisions, development of printed instruc- tional materials (textbooks, workbooks, etc.) and in-service training of teachers. A requirement of then Department of Education and Culture (now called Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports) that all "textbooks to be used in schools be of Filipino authorship"4 and still another re— quirement that "the content of all subject areas at all levels be related to the conditions of the times, to the, actual needs of the people, the national and local situa- tion, and the problems facing the country"5 gave further impetus to curriculum development. Previous to this, schools used mostly imported textbooks and other reading materials. 4 Department of Education and Culture, Manila, Depart- ment Order No. 1, series 1973, Reiterating the Policy on the Use of Locally mublished Textbooks of Filipino Authorship, January 5, 1973. 5 Department of Education and Culture, Manila, Depart- ment Order No. 6, series 1973. A US $25 million World Bank loan in 1976 specifically to fund a Textbook Development Project led to the develop- ment of 109 titles in communication arts, science, mathema- tics, social studies and vocational education.6 By 1981 thirty-six million books were distributed to the public schools all over the country. By all signs the time was ripe for environmental teachings in the formal school. Yet the environmental education dimension in the textbooks dev- eloped was incidental and unorganized. On the national scene, population growth (38 million in 1970 to 44 million in 1977 to 54 million.in 1985) out- pacing economic growth called for government thrusts toward industrialization, mechanization and modernization to in- crease national productivity. More infrastructure projects opened jobs to the unemployed. Policies to attract foreign capital were adopted. As a result more industrial concerns_ were established. Food processing plants, textile and gar- ment factories, oil exploration and mining companies, and electronics assembly plants sprang up in the 1975-80 period. Thousands of hectares of land were turned into banana and pineapple industrial farms. Similarly, hundreds of hectares of swampland were converted into fishponds. Mountain areas were dug up and tunneled in mining activities to increase 6 Pacifico N. Aprieto, "Textbooks for the Masses," in Philippine Yearbook 1979, Manila: The Fookien Times Year- book Publishing Co., Inc. 1979, p. 310. mineral production. Coastal areas were explored forloil. From 1968 to 1977 three million hectares of forest land or about 10% of the total land area were deforested through logging, mining, and road construction. In the effort to attain self-sufficiency in rice, a Rice Production Program was launched in 1973 to encourage farmers to use high- yielding varieties developed by the International Rice Research Institute. But these high-yielding varieties re- quired the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides. In 1976-77 over 63,000 hectares of riceland included in the Rice Production Program used up about 200,000 metric tons of fertilizer and several hundred thousand kilograms of pesti— cides.7 By 1977 a national environmental assessment declared at least 19 rare Philippine wildlife species, mostly coastal marine and forest inhabitants, endangered.8 Terms such as. pollution, misuse of 1and,energy crisis, soil erosion, and siltation of dams and reservoirs, apparently effects of industrialization, mechanization, and modernization, started appearing more frequently in newspapers and being broadcast 7‘ National Environmental Protection Council, Philippine Environmental Quality, 1977, Department of Natural Resources, Philippines. 8 Jesus Alvarez, ”Conservation of Wildlife,” in Philippine Environmental Management in the Seventies, Speeches delivered during the National Conference on Envir- onmental Management, NEPC, 1977. in radio and television shows. Through mass media, aware- ness of the price of economic development began to trickle down to the people. The majority of the population was hardly conscious of the environmental consequences of development. The government was not without a response to these changes. hMost of the steps taken in education however, were directed to the professional and the tertiary levels. A series of cooperative workshops on development and envire onmental concerns was held jointly by the Philippines' National Development Board and the US' National Academy of Sciences. The last in the series (1974) took for its theme Education and Training for Philippine Environment Programs.9 It looked into the long- and short-term requirements for professional and technical manpower for the conservation and management of the environment, and considered ways of devel¥_ oping greater awareness on the part of the general public, especially businessmen and industrialists, of the physical, social and economic assaults on the environment. A five-day international conference was held in Manila in 1976 on Survival of Mankind. The following topics were I 9 Workshop on Education and Training for Philippine Environment Prpgrams, a report, National Science Develop- ment Board, Philippines and National Academy of Sciences, US, 1974, p. 76. discussed: Environmental Protection; Health and Nutrition; Education and Communication; Technology and Science Trans— fer; and Industrialization and the Environment. By about 1970 a few universities had started reorien- ting some courses toward environmental awareness and con- servation. For instance, what was once Sanitary Engi- neering, was called Environmental Engineering to give empha- sis in its program not only to disease organisms in the environment but to all conditions that predispose to envi- ronmental degradation such as pollution, urban crowding, waste disposal, forest denudation, soil erosion and conser- vation of natural resources. Courses titled Environmental Chemistry, Current Issues and Problems, Environmental Science, Forest Ecology. and Wildlife Ecology began to proliferate. In April 1977, the National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC) was established.10 Its main function was, and still is, the development and implementation of a ra- tional and effective environmental protection program that seeks to control pollution and conserve natural resources. Barely a year after the creation of the NEPC the Philippines observed its first National Environment Weeks ‘This was "to call attention of the general public to the simple truth 10 National Environment Protection Council, Primer on the National Engironmental Protection Council, Quezon City, Philippines, 1977. that the protection of the environment is everyone's task."11 A number of presidential decrees on environmental matters followed -- a policy requiring an environmental impact statement on all proposed action, project, or under- taking of all government-owned and private corporations; an environment code which set the guidelines for establishing air and water quality standards, noise standard and basic policies on the country's natural resources and waste management and similar other decrees intended to protect the environment. These cited events and actions indicate an environmental consciousness among the Filipino national leaders. Yet, environmental laws notwithstanding, air and water pollution in the country, particularly where the industries were located, continued to worsen: land was still misused and abused; forests continued to be denuded; and exploited areas were left unrehabilitated. This state of affairs indicates a lack of cooperation and respect for law on the part of industry and the general public. Perhaps adults with their set value systems and established mental constructs are not the best targets of environmental campaigns. Perhaps environmental conscious- ness campaigns are best directed to children and adolescents who are still in the process of developing their value systems and mental constructs. 11Philippine Daily Express, June 17, 1978. 10 At present the Philippine school system has no envi— ronmental education program. This is not to say, however, existing curricula are bereft of the environmental education dimension. But if an environmental education curriculum is to be developed it would certainly be helpful to find out what the children already know. How aware are our children of the present environmental changes that will surely affect their future? How well do they understand the significance of the environmental processes now taking place around them. These questions pave the way for the present study on the environment consciousness of adolescents in formal school. Objectives of the study This study investigated the mental constructs about the environment held by secondary school students and teachers. It was designed to obtain information and direc- tions for the formulation of curricular programs and devel-‘ 0pment of instructional materials in environmental education in response to the recommendation made at the Belgrade Workshop in 1975, the regional meeting for Asia on environ- mental education held in Bangkok, Thailand in 1976, and the Tbilisi Conference in 1977. The logical first step toward the development of programs and instructional materials was to measure and describe the environmental learnings acquired in the present set-up, incidental and unorganized though they may be. The study centered around the following questions: 11 1. How aware are the Filipino secondary school students and teachers of the natural environmen- tal processes observed in the Philippines, the human intervention in these processes, and the issues and problems resulting therefrom? 2. How well can they explain observed environmental events? 3. 'What is their perception of their responsibility toward the conservation, management and protec- tion of the environment? 4. How interested are secondary school students and teachers in learning more about their environment? People of the same race, national group and culture within very similar natural environments may still live in different communities -- often made different by the*way people obtain a living from the environment. It is hypoth-' seized in this study that the main occupation or trade of a community or the means of earning a living of the majority of people in a community influences the way the peOple relate to their environment. Do people in a fishing community conceptualize the environment differently from people in an industrial community? Do people in a farming community react differently from those in a cottage industry community to the same natural phenomenon? These are some of the questions this study had sought to answer. 12 The objectives of the study are more concisely stated as follows: 1. To measure the environmental consciousness (in terms of knowledge, comprehension, perception of responsibility, and interest) of secondary school students and teachers; .To compare the environmental consciousness of secondary school students and teachers from representative types of communities; To measure correlations among the four aspects of environmental consciousness under study, namely, knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interest: To identify topical areas of minimum and maximum .knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest of the respondents; To identify errors and weaknesses of interpreta- tion about environmental processes, practices, issues and problems; 13 Significance of the study A decade of developmental thrusts through industrial- ization and modernization had shown that despite laws, mass media, and education, human action on the environment could still be undisciplined and self-serving. This points to the need for better planning, organization and implementation of programs‘and projects concerning environmental change and environmental consciousness of peOple. The findings of this research could well serve such programs and projects. Furthermore, the study answers a call for research useful to environmental education. A global survey of pri- orities and needs in environmental education listed research as one of three priority areas, the other two being curric- ula and training of personnel. At present there are not enough research studies to provide a solid body of informa- tion when needed. This study is seen to contribute to the “ meager research-based information in the field. The strongest motivating force for this study is the eventual formulation of an environmental education curric- ulum model for the secondary school. It is hoped that such a curriculum model would encourage the production of appro- priate and meaningful instructional guides for the teaching of environmental education concepts. At present, the dearth of environmental education programs and instructional mate- rials has been pointed to as the reason for the lack of 14 interest among teachers to vigorously pursue the environmen- tal education dimension in their particular subject areas. Research-based curricular inputs such as that obtained through this research on the more personal and less overt environmental cognition and sentiments of students and teachers may excite interest and lend credibility to an environmental education program. Limitations of the study The study samples only three regions out of thirteen in the country, and the findings can therefore be gen- eralized validly to these sampled regions surrounding Metro Manila. A generalization to the national level or to other regions would be unwarranted unless it can.be shown that the conditions obtaining in the unsampled regions are very simi- lar to those sampled. The questionnaire as an instrument for information-_ gathering is certain to have inadequately sampled the domain of environmental consciousness. Certainly more items on other environmental themes would increase the reliability of the instrument. However, considering the breadth, depth and facets of environmental concerns, no questionnaire intended for a single administration, as done in this study, could possibly be that adequate. The questionnaire was not constructed to obtain information on the higher cognitive levels such as analysis, synthesis, problem-solving and evaluation skills of students 15 at the secondary school level. The findings, therefore, should not be'generalized to include them. CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature The Psychological Basis of Environmental Consciousness An underlying assumption of the study is that people's consciousness of their environment determines to a great extent their reaction and relationship to it. But what is consciousness? Posner defines consciousness as an internal state of awareness; a state of knowing. He maintains that we are "not conscious of the stimulus events themselves but only the results of the abstractions performed by the nervous system." He delineates two kinds of abstractions: (l) the selection of stimuli on which to focus attention from the myriad of stimuli in the environment, and (2) the categori-‘ zation of the perceived stimuli into the relevant and more general groupings already anchored in the mental structure.1 The results of abstractions could be sensations (e.g., image, sound, taste, feel, smell, or combinations of them) and symbols and codes (e.g., words and numbers). Sensa- tions, symbols and codes are essentially meanings that structure the mind. 1 Michael I. Posner, _ggnition: an Introduction, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1973, pp. 124- 125. 17 In Piaget's formulations, consciousness is the indi- vidual's mental structure. Selected elements in the envi- ronment are incorporated or assimilated into the existing mental structure which, itself, is transformed by its accom- modation of the new elements.2 One's consciousness of the environment is therefore the result of selective perception of the environment and the assimilation-accommodation of the selected'stimuli. G. Kelly"s personal construct theory carries the same idea of uniqueness of a person's consciousness as those of Posner and Piaget. Consciousness, according to Kelly, is a construing of events by replication to make possible the anticipation of events.3 An individual's reaction is seen by Kelly as an anticipation, an expectation, or a prediction of his/her own nature and the nature of the environment encountered. In behaving, individuals are testing their own understanding of the environment they experienced. Their ‘ behavior is their continual experiment with life. Such individuals are, by nature, scientists. To E. G. Boring, meanings are the data elements that structure the conscious mind. He considered meanings as 2 John Flavell, The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1963, ppe 6-11e 3 D. Bannister and F. Fransella, Inquirinngan, The Psycholggy of PersonalIConstructs, England: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1971, pp. 161-169. 18 synonymous to relations since they become part of the con- scious mind only when they find relationships with other data elements already lodged in the mental structure.‘4 One becomes conscious of things, events and their qualities when one has abstracted them from the environment because they have meanings. The_conscious mind cannot continually assimilate and accommodate, abstract, or construe more and more information or data elements or meanings without losing some of them. The conscious active mind has a limited capacity. Informa- tion that is not in active consciousness is either forgotten (lost) or stored. The less impactful, the less meaningful elements could be stored only in the short-term memory for a few minutes, a few hours, or a few days. The more meaning- ful elements (those with more and stronger relations in the mental structure) are stored for months, for years, or for a‘ lifetime in the long-term memory.5 It is not uncommon to encounter something in the environment which would suddenly bring to the conscious mind memories of events or objects experienced back in childhood. The return to consciousness of long-stored data elements or information or mental con- structs is recall (called retrieval by psychologists). 4 E. G. Boring, The Physical Dimension of Conscious- ness, New York: Dover Publications, 1963, pp. 222-223. 5 Posner, Qggnition, pp. 161-169. 19 The implication of the long-term memory to education is that if information is to be learned for use in some future time then it must be very meaningful to be stored in the long-term memory and be retrievable when the need arises. This long-term memory storage is known in education as retention. Retrieval may be done at will with a great deal of attention (commonly called concentration when trying to remember) whenever stored information is needed. We re- trieve stored information when we make deliberate associa- tions, comparisons, analogies, and evaluations; in short, when we solve problems. Retrieval can also be triggered by some external stimuli or by another thought.6 Consciousness has a cognitive, an effective, and an inactive or psychomotor dimension. While maintaining that behavior is itself cognition, Piaget admits to the interde-_ pendence of cognition and affect.7 Actions or behavior performed by an individual are the raw materials of all intellectual (cognitive) adaptation. The effect provides the energy of behavior while the cognitive aspect provides the structure of conscious behavior. An individual focusing on a particular element of the environment, e.g., a river, 6 Posner, Qggnition, pp. 40-43 7 Flavell, Developmental Psycholggy of Jean Piaget, pp. 80-82. 20 questions the quality of its water and proceeds to find out its characteristics (cognitive functioning) because of curiosity and interest (the affect providing the energy to carry through his cognitive functioning). Internal (mental) behavior is more common among adults. For example, thinking out which of the known pollutants in a river could have caused fish kill, and mentally matching the characteristic effects of a suspected pollutant on organisms with those observed on the dead fish constitute behavior in Piagetian terms. Adolescence (age 13-15) is the stage at which the individual begins to develop capabilities for formal thought and societal cognition. Formal thought is characterized by starting with a theoretical synthesis, some hypotheses, in which are stated the possibilities of certain relations, and proceeding from there to verify the statements empirically. For formal thought, verbal and numerical elements rather. than concrete objects are of prime importance because they make it possible to carry out operations mentally with great facility and an economy of time. It is also at the age of adolescence that the individual begins to take a role in the adult social framework, not simply relating to others on a person-to-person basis. Instead, a person-to-society relationship is developed. Thus, the individual tends to increasingly participate in the ideas, ideals, and ideologies of a wider group, as a community member, as a 21 citizen of a nation, and as a citizen of the global community.8 In George Kelly's personal construct theory, the cognitive and the affective differentiation is considered invalid because, for him, constructs are discriminations of internally replicated elements of the environment. One could have a personal construct of a concrete object, a situation, the quality of an event, a relationship, or an emotion. Behavior is not a reaction but a proposition based on earlier formulated constructs. Behavior is not an answer but a question. Man's behavior is his experiment, his try- out on how to make sense of his environment. It is his experiment to find out if his constructs make him better adapted to his environment.9 Studies of the affective dimension include those on effective arousal, motivation, attitudes, and values. Young defines affective arousal as a pleasantness or unpleasant- ~ ness in conscious experience. He cites investigations in neuropsychology which pinpointed intracranial stimulation as the source of feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness. On the basis of affective arousals we develop motives, attitudes, traits, or expectancies. Sensory stimulations 8 Barbel Inhelder and Jean Piaget, The Growth of ngical Thinking from gildhoog toLAdolescenceMewYork: Basic Books, Inc., 1958, pp. 251, 334-351. 9 Bannister and Fransella, Inquiring Man, pp. 43-44. 22 such as odor, tone, taste, touch, image and cognitive aware- ness of events such as good or bad news, stories of victory or defeat, frustration or elation, jokes, and funny situa- tions evoke pleasant or unpleasant emotions depending on developed dispositions.10 Emotional dispositions laid down in the form of mo- tives, attitudes and expectancies direct, regulate, and evaluate all cognition and therefore all learning. McClelland, in an attempt to formulate a theory of motive acquisition, successfully conducted a program de- signed to develop achievement motivation in adults. His program was premised on the proposition that an achievement motive is likely to successfully develop in an individual if: 1. a commitment to achieving is made a goal in that person's life, 2. the achievement motive is perceived as consistent ‘ with reality and the improvement of self-image and the prevailing cultural values, 3. the achievement motive is related to action, 4. the motive-action complex is linked to events in everyday life, 10 Paul Thomas Young, "Affective Arousal: Some Implications,” reprinted from The American Psychologist, vol. 22, no. 1, January 1967, in Readings in Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, ed. L. L. Cummings and W. E. Scott, Jr., Illinois: Richard R. Irwin, Inc., and the Dorsey Press, 1969, pp. 104-116. 23 5. the person is warmly supported by others as capable.11 Environmental education should find utility for McClelland's proposition in efforts to develop. attitudes of concern and motivation to participate in the protection and management of the environment. Katz defines attitude as a predisposition of the individual to evaluate some symbol or object of his world in a favorable or unfavorable manner. Attitudes have an effective or feeling component shown by liking or disliking and a cognitive component or belief which describes the object of the attitude, its characteristics and its rela- tions to other objects. Behavior expressing favorableness or unfavorableness is its overt manifestation. Opinion is a verbal expression of an attitude. The intensity of an attitude refers to the strength of the affective component.12 A According to Katz, attitudes perform four functions for the individual: 11 David C. McClelland, "Toward a Theory of Motive Acquisition,” reprinted from The American Psychologists, vol. 20, 1965, pp. 321-333. in Readings in Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, ed.lh In Cummings and W. E. Scott, Jr., Illinois: Richard R. Irwin, Inc., and The Dorsey Press, 1969, pp. 143-158. 12 Daniel Katz, The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes, The Bobbs-Merrill Reprint Series in the Social Sciences, 1960, pp. 168-169. .24 . 1. adjustive, instrumental, or utilitarian function -- We develop favorable attitudes toward objects that pro- vide satisfaction of our needs, or enable us to adjust satisfactorily to our environment and unfavorable attitudes toward objects that thwart us or punish us or divert us from our perceived objectives. 2. ego-defensive function -- We develop attitudes that defend our self-image. The behaviors that we adopt to express attitudes performing ego-defensive functions are called defense mechanisms. 3. value-expressive function -- Our attitudes give expression to our cherished beliefs and self-image. 4. knowledge function -- Our attitudes impel us to seek knowledge to find meaning to what otherwise would be a chaotic universe, a muddled relationship, or clouded plans for the attainment of an objective.13 In general, attitude change may be expected if the- expression of the old attitude or its anticipated expression no longer gives satisfaction to its related need state. According to Katz, ”modifying an old attitude or replacing it with a new one is a process of learning, and learning always starts with a problem, or being thwarted in coping with a situation.14 13 Ibid, pp. 170-176. 14 Ibid, p. 177. 25 ch Rotter puts as much significance to external stim- uli (both physical and social stimuli in the environment) as to internal stimuli (needs of the individual), Built into his social learning theory is his differentiation of be- liefs, attitudes and behavior. According to this theory, a person learns to discriminate and simultaneously recognize similarities in the variety of experiences encountered. A person therefore develops and generalizes expectancies re- garding the experienced similar objects and events. A col- lection of generalized expectancies forms sets of beliefs. Additional similar experiences and verbal communication.with others reinforce positively or negatively these beliefs. Beliefs are the bases of attitudes. Social approval and the value the individual places on the social approval influence the eventual behavior of this individual.15 Value, as defined by Rokeach, is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally and socially preferable. It is both a general- ized higher-level belief and a precondition to certain atti— tudes. Values are different from attitudes in that a value refers to a single belief whereas an attitude refers to several beliefs that influence a person's preference of a given object or situation. A value transcends objects and 15 Julian B. Rotter, Applications of a Social Learning Theory of Personality, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1972, pp. 336-341. 26 situations whereas an attitude is focused on a specific object or situation. Values are determinants of attitudes and behaviors.16 Educational View of Environmental Consciousness Developments in education in the last fifty years attest to the strong influencezof'psychology. Conscious- ness, from the point of view of education, is structured and organized through the process of learning. Flamed learn- ing, and consequently, the development of an organized con- scious mind, as happened in formal education, is efficient, meaning effective and economical. The function of education is delineated by Goodlad as follows: "Education is a process of producing change in individuals. Schooling usually seeks specific changes.”17 The desired change could occur when education provides a nurturing environment and learning experiences that propel' and sustain the development of certain capabilities in the growing individual. 16 Milton.Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values, New York: The Free Press, A Division of the MacMillan Company, 17 John I. Goodlad, ”How Do We Learn?" reprinted from Saturday Review, June 21, 1969, pp. 74-75, in Human Dynamics in Psychology and Educatign, ed. Don E. Hamacheck, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1972, p. 9. 27 Bloom proposes a theory of school learning18 which identifies a small number of variables that account for the changes in the individual known as learning outcomes. The two main variables are student characteristics and instruc- tion. The student characteristics most needed for learning are his cognitive and affective entry behaviors. Instruc- tion consists of learning tasks. When the student entry characteristics and the quality of instruction interact favorably, then the learning outcomes are at a premium. It may be inferred that if Bloom's theory holds, than learning tasks focusing on environmental matters can.be so planned as to produce learning outcomes that favor environmental consciousness. Similar to Bloom's theory of school learning is Gagne's conditions, events and outcomes of learning. His conditions of learning include both internal conditions (parallel to Bloom's student characteristics) and external~ conditions such as verbal information, instructional strat- egy, learning task, physical facilities and emotional cli- mate. The events of learning refer to actual processing of the learning material and consist of perception, encoding, storage, retrieval which sometimes lead to transfer of learning, reminiscing, or problem-solving, response genera- tion, and eventually performance. Feedback completes the f8 Benjamin 8. Bloom, Human Characteristics; and Schogl Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976, pp. 10-12. 28 events of learning. It is the learner's observation of the effects of his performance.19 A product of great utility to educational practi- tioners in recent years is the taxonomy of educational objectives.20 The taxonomy is a hierarchical classification of educational behaviors. All the behaviors listed fall into three categories or domains -- the cognitive, affec- tive, and psychomotor domains. The educators who listed the behaviors in increasing complexity (hierarchical order) noted an increasing scale of consciousness in the behaviors in the cognitive domain. As the behaviors become more complex, the individual is bound to be more aware of their operation. While admitting that ”there is no precise scale of consciousness which may be used to test these speculations some of our research on the thought processes involved in problem-solving indicate that students are able to give more complete reports on their attack of a problem as the problem becomes more 19 Robert M. Gagne, The Conditigns of Learning, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977, pp. 19-20, 51-57. 20 Benjamin S. Bloom, et al. (The Committee of College and University Examiners), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: ngnitiye Domain, New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1956, pp. 7-9. 29 complex, that is, as the problem is classified in the more complex classes of intellectual abilities and skills."21 Furthermore, the American educators who constructed the taxonomy'of educational objectives estimate that:”the behaviors in the cognitive domain are largely characterized by a rather high degree of consciousness on the part of the individual exhibiting the behavior, while the behaviors in the affective domain are much more frequently exhibited with a low level of consciousness on the part of the individual.”22 Behaviors, as the educators see them, are intrin- sically bound up with the intellect, with conscious thought. A complex problem generally requires a high level of con- sciousness the first time it is met. Succeeding encounters with similar problems would require simpler behaviors such as recall and replication of known behaviors, and conse- quently demand a lower level of consciousness. The now well-known taxonomy of educational objec- tives, cognitive domain, lists six major behaviors in in- creasing complexity and abstraction, and therefore in- creasing levels of consciousness: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Of these behaviors knowledge and comprehension.are the most developed 751 Ibid, pp. 19-20 22 Ibid, p. 19 30 in education because they are the easiest to attain. Knowl- edge includes those behaviors which require remembering either by recognition or recall of material, idea or phenom- enon. It refers to the acknowledgement of the existence or occurrence of a thing, an idea, or a phenomenon. 1Comprehen- sion is the interpretation, translation into one's own lan- guage, extrapolation of ideas by making inferences, simple generalizations, summarizations, estimates, and prediction of trends.23 Explicit statements of affective behaviors intended for achievement in formal education seem to have lost status among schoolteachers and college instructors when great interest was generated by the proponents of behavioral objectives and the adherents of cognitive psychology. In the words of the committee on effective educational beha- viors (Taxonomy Project) ”A. over a period of ten to twenty years we found a rather rapid dropping of the affective‘ objectives from the statements about the course and an almost complete disappearance of efforts at appraisal of student growth in this (effective) domain; there was a characteristic type of erosion (of affective statements) in which the original intent of a course or educational program becomes worn down to that which can be explicitly evaluated for grading purposes and that which can be taught easily 23 Ibid, pp. 62-77, 89-96. 31 through verbal methods (lectures, discussions, reading materials, etc.). We believe that a number of forces are responsible for the erosion of (affective) intentions.“24 The effect, which persists to the present, was that the attainment of affective behaviors through school experience has come to be regarded as by-products or incidental out- comes of educational tasks with explicitly stated cognitive objectives. The categories and subcategories of behaviors in the taxonomy of affective objectives consist of the fbllowing: (1) receiving or attending -- awareness, willingness to receive, controlled or selected attention, (2) responding -- acquiescence in responding, willingness to respond, satis- faction in response, (3) valuing -- acceptance of value, preference for a value, commitment or conviction, (4) orga- nization -- conceptualization of a value, organization of a value system, (5) characterization by a value or value complex -- generalized set which refers to the integration of attitudes and values so that a persistent and consistent response to related situations or objects is made, charac- terization in which the individual is characterized by a broad range of behaviors determined by internally consistent 24 David Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram B. Masia, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook II: Affective Domain, New York: David McKay Company, Inc” 1964, p. 6. 32 beliefs, attitudes and values.25 The affective behaviors in the taxonomy make more sense when considered against a continuum of internalization which is given the meaning incorporating as one's own.26 The common affective term interest is equated to the range of behaviors in the subcategories beginning with awareness to willingness to receive, controlled or selected attention, acquiescence, willingness to respond, satisfac— tion in response, acceptance of a value, and ending with 27 preference for a value. There is no mention of the term responsibility in the taxonomy although it is commonly considered an affective term as indicated by the expression feeling 9f respons- ibiligy. A responsible person is, according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, one who is "morally accountable for his actions; capable of rational conduct" to which Webster adds "able to distinguish between right and wrong.” It appears A that these definitions parallel a range of behaviors in the taxonomy of affective objectives beginning with commitment at which stage the individual is internally impelled to demonstrate that he holds a particular value through the 25 Ibid,pp. 95, 166-185. 26 Ibid, pp. 89-96 27 Ibid, p. 37 33 subcategories conceptualization of a value, generalized set, and characterization. Indeed the whole affective taxonomy can be rendered into the two broad categories, interest and responsibility. Cognitive and Affective Objectives and the Goals of Environmental Education The Belgrade Charter, recognized as the first global framework for environmental education, states the goal of environmental education thus: "To develop a world popula- tion that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and its associated problems, and which.has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations, and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and prevention of new ones."28 The objectives of environmental education as stated in the same charter are a mix of cognitive and affective behaviors as they would naturally be found in people. These objectives are: 1, Awareness: sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems. 2. Knowledge: a basic understanding of the total environment, its associated problems and human- ity's critically responsible presence and role in it. 23 UNESCO-UNEP, ”The Belgrade Charter," Connect, a UNESCO-UNEP Environmental Education Newsletter, vol. 1, no. 1, January 1976. 34 3. Attitude: social values, strong feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in its protection and improvement. 4. Skills: the competence for solving environmental problems. 5. Evaluation ability: ability to consider and 'recommend environmental measures and educational programs in terms of ecological, political, eco- nomic, social, esthetic and educational factors.29 For the developing and undeveloped nations, most notable in the Belgrade Charter is the recognition as envir- onmental problems not only the destruction and degradation of the natural physical environment but also the human degradation caused by poverty, hunger, illiteracy, human exploitation, and domination. Laudable is its admonition ‘ ”to find ways to ensure that no nation should grow or develop at the expense of another nation and that the con- sumption of no individual should be increased at the expense of other individuals.30 Today more than ever we realize the need for an ethic that would bring to focus concerns for human deprivation and ‘29 Ibid, p. l 30 Ibid, p. 1 35 degradation caused by man's inhumanity to man, paradoxical as the phrase may be. Witness the victims of the Bhopal, India chemical accident, the famine-stricken people of Africa, the refugees of Cambodia, the war-sundered peoples of the Middle East, and the uncountable (usually unknown to most of the world) other pockets of human settlement in utter deprivation and suffering the injustice of being dis- placed from their traditional ethnic lands. As the Belgrade Charter implies, these conditions are just as:much.envi- ronmental problems as pollution and nondisposal of waste, and as worthy of concern and action toward solution. The Regional Workshop on Environmental Education in Asia and the Pacific31 has adopted the Belgrade objectives without change. These objectives do not differ much from the objectives of the RECSAM (Regional Center for Science and Mathematics) Workshop on Environmental Education held in Penang, Malaysia five years earlier. In the RECSAM report32 evaluation was not in the list of objectives of environ- mental education but active participation was a separate item. 31 UNESCO Bangkok, Environmental Education in Asia and the Pacific, Bulletin of the UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific, no. 22, June 1981, p. viii. 32 Regional Center for Science and Mathematics (RECSAM), Workshop on Environmental_Education, Final Report, Penang, Malaysia, SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1976. 36 Antedating the Stockholm Conference and the Belgrade Workshop, W. 'Stapp and his colleagues in the University of Michigan in 1969 articulated their definition and objectives of environmental education. According to Stapp, ”Environ- mental education is aimed at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems and aware of how to help solve these problems.33 Stappfls statements of objectives of environmental education were intended to help the individual acquire -- 1. a clear understanding that man is an inseparable part of a system, consisting of man, culture and the biophysical environment, and that man has the ability to alter the interrelationships of this system, 2. a broad understanding of the biophysical environ-_ ment, both natural and man-made, and its role in contemporary society, 3. a fundamental understanding of the biophysical environmental problems confronting man, how these problems can be solved, and the responsibility of citizens and government to work toward their solution, 3T? _ William B. Stapp, et al., ”The Concept of Envi- ronmental Education," Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 1, no. 1, Fall 1969, pp. 30-31. 37 4. attitudes of concern for the quality of the bio- physical environment which will motivate citizens to participate in biophysical environ- mental problem-solving.34 These pronouncements, meritorious for their pioneer- ing nature, led to a nationwide environmental education movement in the United States. This was then a new thrust in education which other nations found worthy to imitate. It is not difficult to glean from these statements of objectives the cognitive and affective behaviors. Of utmost importance is the realization that environmental education should engage in developing both the cognitive and affective aspects of environmental consciousness. Related Studies on the Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Environmental Learnings and Behavior The researches in the 19603 in environmental educa- tion were preoccupied with the identification of concepts and principles in response to the absence of definitive guide- posts for curriculum construction. Three such research studies were included in a review made by Roth and Helgeson35 in a 1972 ERIC publication. Visher's list of 34 Ibid, p. 31 35 Robert E. Roth and Stanley L. Helgeson, A Review of Research Related to Environmental Education, Ohio: ERIC Information Analysis Center for Science Mathematics, and Environmental Education, 1972, pp. 7-10. 38 conservation principles and concepts which were drawn from textbooks, journals, professional publications, and doctoral dissertations. was submitted to conservation education spe- cialists for pruning and refinement. His final list con- tained 477 concepts on soil, water, forest, and human re- sources conservation, and recreation. For his own doctoral dissertation, Roth developed a taxonomy of conceptual objec- tives for environmental management education. His taxonomy included 111 concepts dealing with environmental problems, the sociocultural environment, adaptation and evolution, ecology, resources and environmental management. Glidden sought to identify the principles of soil and water conser- vation which could be developed for instruction at the secondary level. Of the 100 principles sent to soil and water conservation experts, 66 were recommended for sec- ondary level instruction. An objective test of 66 items (one for each principle) was constructed and administered to‘ high school seniors in 33 schools. A mean score of 44.18 was obtained. Glidden's conclusion was that high school seniors were not adequately informed on soil and water conservation. 36 Using the Delphi survey techniques, S. A. Allman prepared a list of 113 environmental concepts for inclusion 36 S. Audean Allman, O. W. Kapp, and David L. Zufelt, Environmental Education, Guidelines and Activities for Teachers, Ohio: Charles E. Merril Publishing Company, 1976, pp. 14-21. 39 in the elementary school curriculum. The list was submitted to 87 participants for their approval and subsequently to a panel of five and the researcher for review. The list covered general concepts, air pollution, balance in nature, forest conservation, water conservation, human resource conservation, noise pollution and natural resource conservation. The extensive lists of concepts and principles had some educators worried over the fragmentation of big con- cepts. Mowbray believed that the fragmentation of concepts could lead to (1) the erosion of the inter-disciplinary approach that the concepts were supposed to offer, (2) loss of meaning, and (3) the incorporation of man-oriented bias into the teaching of environmental education. Fragments tended to be narrow, discipline-oriented, and could be meaningless or misleading when taken out of context of the bigger concepts Sager suggested a concise set of general concepts that could more effectively answer the needs of the teacher who was concerned and anxious to incorporate envi- ronmental education concepts but who had limited experience, or formal course work in the area.37 37 Thomas Mowbray, "Reaction" and Paul Sager, ”Reaction," (both to Roth's Conceptual Scheme for Environ- mental Management Education) in Processes for a anlity Environment, eds. Robert S. Cook and George T. Ohearn, A report of the National Conference on Environmental Educa- tion, The University of Wisconsin - Green Bay, Wisconsin, 1970, pp. 31-37. 40 Studies on the cognitive dimension of environmental consciousness had concentrated on knowledge and under- standing while that on the affective dimension had dealt with beliefs or opinions and attitudes. Glass38 tested the effectivity of an in-service program for teachers in im- proving knowledge and opinion about energy. . Twenty-seven elementary schoolteachers who participated in a National Science Foundation sponsored in-service program on energy education as the experimental group and an equal number of elementary schoolteachers who did not participate in the in- service program as the control group were administered the Energy Inventoryu The knowledge subtest of the Inventory consisted of items on energy resources, use of energy and energy conservation. The opinion subtest covered individual responsibility, collective citizen responsibility, govern- mental/legislative responsibility, and global responsibil- ity. A response on the opinion subtest is judged correcti when it is in agreement with the response selected by a panel of environmentally knowledgeable and responsible professionals. The pretest showed a small difference in means be- tween the experimental and the control groups on the is Lynn W. Glass, ”An In-service Energy Education Program for Elementary Schoolteachers," Journal of Reseggch in Science Teachin , vol. 19, no. 6, 1982, pp. 469-474. 41 “a subtest. The difference in pretest mean in the . subtest was even smaller. The experimental group obtained significant increases in both the knowledge and Opinion post-test. The increase was attributed to the in- service program. Despite exposure to energy information from the press, radio and television, the control group made negligible increases in knowledge and opinion about energy. An analysis of the opinion scores revealed that even in the experimental group the least amount of increase was observed in the area of individual responsibility. Pettus, Frary, and Teates39 sought to determine the extent and nature of differences in environmental attitudes in science and social studies teachers. The teachers were asked to agree or disagree to opinion statements about environmental issues. They were grouped according to sim- ilar response patterns. It was found that the attitude profiles of the group consisting predominantly of science ‘ teachers were more positive than those of the group con- sisting mostly of social studies teachers. The difference is more pronounced on issues concerning individual rights and what should be done for a suitable environment in the future than on other issues. 39 Alvin M. Pettus, Robert B. Frary and Thomas G. Testes, ”The Attitudes of Science and Social Studies Teachers Toward Environmental Issues,” gpurnal of Research in Science Teaching, vol. 15, no. 5, 1978, pp. 367-372. 42 40 Butts used the survey technique on pre-service elementary schoolteachers to determine how effective were the integrated and nonintegrated treatments of the topic energy conservation and the concrete and abstract treatments in causing attitude change. An Energy Conservation Scale developed by the investigator through several generations of testing was administered to the pre-service teachers. In addition, 4 a Divine Fate Control Conceptual Systems Test was used to classify the respondents according to their convic- tion about the control of a divine being on a person's life. The following were the conclusions in the study: 1. Attitude toward energy conservation was changed with as little as a thirteen-minute communication. 2. Attitude change was effected through both inte- grated and nonintegrated treatments when concrete differentiators were presented and was sustained for at least 3 weeks following exposure. 3. When cognitive styles were considered, abstract thinkers exposed to integrated treatment and concrete thinkers exposed to nonintegrated treat- ment, sustained a changed attitude to a greater 40 David P. Butts, "The Survey--A Research Strategy Rediscovered," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, vol. 20, no. 3, 1983. 43 degree than other combinations of treatment and cognitive styles. Ramsey. and Rickson 41 tested a prevailing belief that increased knowledge leads to favorable attitudes toward pollution abatement which, in turn, leads to action pro- moting better environmental quality. A knowledge and atti- tude scale was administered to 482 high school students. The study showed that (1) most of the students who had a high knowledge of pollution-related facts also had a high knowledge of the trade-off costs, and (2) the favorable attitudes toward pollution abatement were positively related to each other, and both were negatively related to attitudes of resignation to pollution and of giving a high priority to trade-off costs, (3) both ecological and trade-off knowledge led to moderate rather than extreme positions on both pollu- tion abatement and consideration.of trade-off costs. The most significant of these findings to educators was that knowledge appeared to lead to moderation. Alaimo and Doran42 investigated students' concern for the environment, their locus of control (1&1, their percep- tion of whether an event is contingent upon their behavior 41 Charlie E. Ramsey and Roy E. Rickson, ”Environmental Knowledge and Attitudes,” Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 8, no. 1, 1976, pp. 10-18. 42Samuel J.Alaimo and Rodney L.Doran, ”Students' Perception of Environmental Problems and Sources of Environ- mental Information,” Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 12, no. 1, 1980, 17-21. 44 or that the event is due to luck, chance, fate or powerful others), their knowledge about the environment, and their sources of information. An Environmental Survey was adminis- tered to 615 students ranging from seventh grade through twelfth grade. The findings of the study were as follows: 1. All students had a high level of concern for the ”environment and environmental problems although grades eight and twelve had higher levels of concern than did students in other grades. The twelfth grade students strongly believed that they could do something about solving environ- mental problems while the seventh through tenth grades had a low perception of their chances for solving environmental problems. In general, students believed they had little knowledge about the environment. Among the stu-- dents, the twelfth graders felt they knew more about the environment. All students appeared to have a high perception of television as a source of information. Maga- zines and parents were not considered good sources of environmental information. Only the eleventh and twelfth grade students had high perception of newspapers and magazines as sources of environmental information. 45 Curriculum content and approach in environmental education, because of its broad scope, pose many problems to curriculum specialists. The choice of whether to pursue an ”immediate environment" approach or opt for a ”broad spec- trum of key environmental concerns” in curriculum develop- ment is one such problem. Leftridge and James43 decided to precede curriculum development with a research to gather empirical evidence on differences in environmental percep- tions of urban and rural secondary school students. Grades ten and eleven students selected from nine Kansas high schools were asked to respond to a questionnaire to provide demographic data, view 40 slides on air and water pollution, waste disposal and land use, and to mark one of the blanks on each of four scales associated with each slide, and to answer a 40-item multiple choice test to identify the envi- ronmental issue depicted on each slide. The rural students consistently obtained higher means than urban students in the four topics, air pollution, water pollution, waste disposal, and land use. However, of these comparison between means of rural and urban students, only the two on urban water pollution and rural land use were significant. The results imply that the rural students were 43 Alan Leftridge and Robert K. James, "A Study of Perceptions of Environmental Issues of Urban and Rural High School Students," ggurnal of Environmental Education, vol. 12, no. 1, 1980, pp. 3-7. 46 more sensitive to environmental issues regardless of geo- graphic setting. The higher means of the rural students were attributed to their greater interaction with the out- doors, and the fact that urban students were seldom taken on field trips into urban environments. Field trips for urban students were usually carried out in "natural" places. The study recommended curricular effort toward iden- tifying the immediate milieu as the "natural environment” in order to help the student understand the immediate world in which he lives. 44 In a 1976 ERIC publication, Roth reviewed research on the cognitive and affective dimensions of environmental education spanning the Years 1973 to 1976. Among these research studies were those conducted by Perkes, Bohl, Richmond, Horvat, Parker, Zacher, Noeske, Swan, Trexler, and George which are presented in condensed form in the foregoing. Perkes, using an inventory developed by the staff of ERIC Clearinghouse, determined the relationship of the envi- ronmental knowledge and attitudes of tenth and twelfth grade students to variables of interest such as sex, grade level and size of community; IHe found that males scored signifi- cantly higher than females on items requiring knowledge of 44 Robert E. Roth, A Review of Research Related to Environmental Education, ERIC Center for Science, Mathema- tics, and Environmental Education, The Ohio University, Ohio, 1976, 47 facts but not on general environmental concepts. Twelfth graders scored significantly higher than tenth graders on environmental concepts but not on items requiring knowledge of facts. The size of the community where the respondent lived and went to school was not significantly related to knowledge of facts and concepts but was significantly related to knowledge of the major environmental concern of the community. Attitude differences due to sex and grade level were insignificant. Bohl made a parallel study to that of Perkes. He identified three sub-populations: (1) a small number of students possessing a high amount of cognitive information and positive attitudes, (2) a majority of students posses- sing a low amount of cognitive information and positive attitudes, and (3) a small number of students possessing a low amount of cognitive information and negative attitudes. From the scores, he concluded that the average high school ‘ student possesses a limited amount of cognitive environ- mental information and positive attitudes but not firm beliefs. A survey of environmental knowledge and attitudes was conducted by Richmond on fifth year students in England in 500 schools. He found that students responded poorly to factual knowledge items, demonstrated a good understanding of environmental concepts, and possessed positive attitudes toward their environment. 48 Horvat, using semantic differential and Likert agree- disagree instruments, found eight graders to be less opti- mistic toward the future than the fifth graders. High 141 and grade level showed significant relationships to environ- mental orientation. Wilderness preservation and population control were the main.concerns of the high socioeconomic- status children. Noise and water pollution were of greater concern to the low socio-economic status children. Using a semantic differential technique, Parker found significant grade level differences in environmental atti- tudes and discovered an upward trend of attitude/strength toward pollution problems from grades four to ten but de- creased in attitude/strength in grade twelve. A change in attitudes toward aesthetic aspects occurred from grades four to twelve. No consistent attitude patterns were found for sex, area of residence, and level of intelligence. Zacher measured the environmental knowledge of thei eleventh grade Montana students, using the Syracuse environ- mental Awareness Test. The Montana students scored higher than the norm for the test; He also found that males scored higher than females; students from smaller families scored higher than students from large families; and regular readers of three or four periodicals scored higher than those reading two or less. 49 Fifth graders from three geographic areas in Milwaukee -- center city, mid-city and suburbs -- were taken on a field trip and simulated city environment of the future via slide and tape presentation. Noeske gave these students a semantic differential test to sample their attitudes. .All students were found to have a more positive attitude toward the city of the future. Field trips significantly enhanced positive attitudes toward the city of the future. Swan developed instruments for assessing attitudes and coping responses to environmental problems and tested them on senior high school boys. According to Swan, the boys considered air pollution a relatively serious environ- mental problem yet they knew little about it or about efforts to control air pollution. Trexler found a low correlation between children's testimony and their actual conservation behavior, and none of the personal factors tested (i.e., I.Q., sex, academic achievement and type of house they lived in) could be shown to affect the consistency of the children's responses. George, using a Likert-type attitude scale, found significant differences in attitudes among three groups of people: high school students, college students and adults. He was also able to establish that factors such as personal characteristics and extracurricular activities in school affected conservation attitudes. He found that attitudes 50 toward conservation changed, and that the changes were asso- ciated with interest motivation, exposure to conservation knowledge and educational experience. 45 Horsley tested the hypothesis that American stu- dents' attitudes toward their physical environment were significantly more positive (pro-environment) than those of non-American students. Being pro-environment meant that one had a positive level of concern for the preservation and conservation of the natural environment. The respondents were asked what they knew about their physical environment, how they felt about it, what commitments they made, and which ones they intended to make concerning the future of their own physical environment. Two hundred four (204) American high school students and 818 foreign students in England, Hongkong, Taiwan, India, Switzerland, Nigeria, Kenya, Virgin Isles,and China- were administered a questionnaire which contained 40 state- ments requiring agreement/disagreement in 5 choices on the Likert scale. The questionnaire items were designed to measure seven values. The social value items referred to feelings of social responsibility for the preservation and conservation of the natural physical environment. The 45 A. Doyne Horsley, "A Comparison of American and non-American Students' Attitudes on Issues of the Physical Environment,” Journal ofignvironmental Education, vol. 15,no. 3, Spring 1984, pp. 37-42. 51 powerness items measured feelings of power or control over what was happening in the environment. The political value items tested the political ideals that dealt with environ- mental issues. The punitive value items were concerned with penalties imposed on misusers of the environment. The items on economic values dealt with economic benefits and costs. The health items measured attitudes toward environ- mental c-Onditions affecting the health of the general public. The items on the beauty value referred to feelings for the beauty of the natural physical environment. The Americans were found to have higher mean scores than the foreign students on six out of seven values, i.e., all values except beauty. The foreign students obtained a higher mean score on beauty. The investigator ascribed the higher American scores mainly to the fact that Americans had analyzed, discussed, viewed on television, and summarized environmental issues, and had longer experience, greater~ knowledge, available data and sympathy for the variety of environmental concerns. The Americans, grouped into urban, rural, and subur— ban, also varied significantly from each other. The urban group generally had lower average scores on the seven values while the suburban group obtained the highest average scores. The least variance among the three groups was on the beauty value. The greatest variance was on the politi- cal value. The suburban group had the greatest variance on 52 the seven values while the urban group had the least variance» It was evident that urban, rural, and suburban students in America held statistically different environ- mental values. Bunting and Cousins46 tested the values and attitudes of children ages 9 to 16 years toward their external envi- ronment using the Childrenfls Environmental Response Inventory'(CERI). CERI, which was based on the assumption that all individuals possessed a set of stable and rela- tively enduring dispositions, was comprised of self- report and 5-point Likert scale questions. The findings were as follows: 1. On pastoralism or the enjoyment of the natural environment and urbanism or the attraction to man-made environments: Females had more affinity with the natural environment than males. Rural children were more predisposed to the pastoral type environment than urban children. Grades did not significantly affect the pas- toral predisposition but childhood and adolescent distinctions did in the sense 46 Trudi E. Bunting and Laurence R. Cousins, ”Development and Application of the Children's Response Inventory,” The Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 15, no. 1, Fall 1983, pp. 3-10. 53 that the adolescents, having greater free- dom of movement, developed a positive affinity for the density and diversity of urban living. 2. On environmental adaptation, the belief in man's right to use technology to adapt to or dominate nature: No difference was found between male and female responses to environmental adaptation. Urban.children.had.higher scores than rural dwellers who tended to select non- intervention of nature. 3. On stimulus seeking, the affinity for unusual and adventurous environmental settings: Males and older children possessed more of the stimulus seeking trait than females and younger children. 4. On environmental trust, the competence and secu- rity on man-made and natural environments: No significant relationship was found between environmental trust and geographic setting (rural, urban). Higher grade levels were positively asso- ciated.with the ability to cope indepen- dently in a variety of settings. 54 5. on antiquarianism,responsiveness to the histo- rical past and traditional environment: 'Rural children scored higher on antiquaria- nism than the urban children. 6.need privacy, the need to control stimuli impinging from the environment: Need privacy was positively associated with higher grade level and with males. (The researchers found it hard to explain the latter.) 7. 0n mechanical orientation, the attraction to mechanized structures and the enjoyment of mani- pulative skills: Mechanical orientation was positively asso- ciated with male subjects and was found to peak at grade six. According to the researchers, the peak reflected a Piagetian shift from concrete operations to formal operations. Strickland47 et al., conducted a 3-week energy educa- tion program for 3-, 4-, and 5-year old children to find out if their knowledge about energy could be improved. Signifi- cant gain scores were obtained in the pre-post test; .All 47 Martha P. Strickland, et a1, ”Pretest and Posttest Comparisons of Preschool Children's Knowledge About Energy," Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 15, no. 2, Winter 1984, pp. 33-36. 55 the groups benefited from the program significantly but the 3-year olds made greater gains than the 4- and 5-year olds. Jaus48 investigated the effects of instruction in environmental education using five lessons on recycling, pollution, and conservation of third grade children toward the environment. The lessons were presented in the form of discussions stimulated by a series of questions and appro- priate pictures. Pre- and post-tests using the same atti- tude questionnaire were administered before and after instruction. The same questionnaire was again administered to the same group two years later when the students were in the fifth grade. The purpose was to measure retention over time. It was concluded from the study that : 1. minimal instruction in environmental education was effective in producing highly positive atti- tudes toward the environment in elementary school children; 2. these positive attitudes were retained over time; 3. elementary school children were found to have slightly positive attitudes toward the environ- ment without the intervention of formal instruc- tion in the subject. 48 Harold H. Jaus, ”The Development and Retention of Environmental Attitudes in Elementary School Children,” ggurnal oftgnvironmental Education, vol. 15, no. 3, Spring 1984, pp. 33-36. 56 To Kupchella and Hyland49 the hypotheses that (1) the principles of ecology constitute the paradigms upon which all environmental education is based: (2) the family unit is the appropriate target group in environmental programs; (3) environmental education is a process and not a discipline, could be simultaneously validated and evaluated through weekend programs. The two researchers conducted family weekend programs at King Center in Kentucky in which field study and discussion/argumentation from ecological princi- ples were the strategies used to analyze and recommend solutions to present-day environmental problems. These programs were tried, tested, and found to be effective. The effects of situational factors such as residen- tial location (rural/urban) and life cycle conditions (age level, marital status, family size),ion the one hand, and environmental quality concerns, on the other hand, on people's involvement in pollution-abating activities was studied by Kronus and Van Es.5o The study was conducted in a community where the economy was heavily dependent on the agricultural processing plants which depended on local farm 49 Charles E. Kupchella and Margaret C. Hyland, ”Essential Curriculum Components in Environmental Education," Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 8, no. 3, 1977, pp. 11-16. 50 Carol L. Kronus and J. C. Van Es, ”The Practice of Environmental Quality Behavior," Journal of Environmental Education, vol 8, no. 1, 1976, pp. 19-25. 57 production. The plants were perceived as creating urban pollution of water supply. The data was collected by way of telephone interviews. Urban men were found to express more concern about local pollution than did farmers since they lived closer to the polluted condition. The urban men were also willing to spend more tax money to correct polluted conditions,willing to collect bottles and newspapers and to use low-phosphate detergents and nonleaded gas as indications of their posi- tive pollution-related household behavior. However, both farmers and urban men revealed about the same degree of voluntarism or preference to rely on personal responsibility rather than government regulation to achieve environments; improvement. These findings confirmed the common assumption that closeness to the effects of polluting agents was more power- ful in stimulating concern and action than closeness to the source of pollution. Simmons51 made a comparison.of an on-site visit and a simulated visit through slide viewing as techniques of pre- senting environmental information in a conference which involved community leaders. The purpose of the conference 51 Deborah Anne Simmons, "Community Involvement in Hazardous Waste Management, A Comparison of an On-Site Visit and a Simulated Slide Visit,” Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 15, no. 3, Spring 1984, pp. 25-32. 58 was to identify the options open to local officials and citizens which would give assurance that hazardous waste facilities would enhance theiquality of life. ‘Unaware of the difference in presentation method, participants were asked to choose a Monday session (simulated visit) or a Wednesday session (on-site visit). A 43-item, 5-point Likert scale attitude questionnaire was administered to the participants. It was found that the community leaders participating in the conference were not overly concerned with the poten- tial effect of a hazardous waste facility on the community's image or general welfare. But they were concerned about the specific treatment or disposal methods and their effects on health, and the safety risks involved in deep well injection and landfills. The participating community leaders were not particularly convinced.that a facility located in the commu- nity would provide new jobs or a net economic benefit. They favored private ownership over government ownership of hazardous waste facilities. The participants had little confidence in public hearings as a decision—making process. Stamm and Bowes52 studied the relationship of envi- ronmental attitudes with other variables in environmental decision-making, while also reevaluating a finding in an 452 Keith R. Stamm and John E. Bowes, "Environmental Attitudes and Reaction," Journal of_Environmental Education, vol. 3, no. 3, Springl972, pp. 56-60. 59 earlier study that the concept of conservation was not perceived in the absence of extant or impending scarcity. The two dimensions of this ”scarcity orientation“ as veri- fied in the previous study were: (1) functional substitu- tion, an attitude which favor replacement when faced with scarce resources, and (2) reversal of trends, an attitude favoring actions that would lead to a reversal of the trend toward scarcity. A community issue involving anticipated construction of flood control devices was viewed by the investigators as a functional substitution rather than a reversal of trend action. The issue was used as the context of the question- naire items to test the following hypotheses: A. Persons scoring high on the reversal of trends attitude scale will (1) show less support for the project, (2) know more disadvantages of the pro- ject, and (3) perceive less agreement with the implementors of the project than those with lower scores on the same attitude scale. B. Persons scoring high on the functional substitu- tion attitude scale will (1) show greater support for the project, (2) know more benefits of the project, and (3) perceive greater agreement with the implementors of the project than those who score low on this attitude scale. 60 The data did not provide significant evidence to support hypotheses A(l) and A(2) but the relationship between the scores on the reversal of trend attitude scale and the responses to the questionnaire were in the predicted direction. Statistically, significant evidence for hypo- theses B(l), 8(2), and 8(3) were obtained. Support for the project increased as score on the functional substitution attitude scale increased. Hypothesis A(3) was only par- tially supported by data since the benefits perceived de- creased with increasing scores in the reversal of trend attitude test but the disadvantages perceived did not in- crease with increasing scores. In Australia a. .3. Ray53 inquired'into the psychol- ogical traits that characterized the environmentalism sup- porter in the community at large. He found the Australian environmentalism supporter to be consumer conscious, anti- authoritarian, anti-Australia, less interested in personal success, anti-fashion, counterculturally oriented, and hedo- nistic. The Australian environmentalist was also likely to go either way on social conservation, economic conservation, sociability, and misanthropy. ‘33 J. J. Ray, ”The Psychology of Environmental Concern - Some Australian Data,” Personality and Individual Dif- ferences, vol. 1, no. 2, 1980, pp. 161-163. 61 Iwata54-in Japan conducted a study on conservation, community size, child-bearing intention, and driver's license as determinants of environmental concern. He ob- tained data from 97 male and 111 female undergraduate stu- dents by means of a questionnaire. From his study, Iwata concluded that less conservative females, females who did not intend to have a driver's license, both males and females from larger communities, and both males and females who desiredto have smaller families tended to have a high environmental concern. In the Philippines, a nationwide survey was conducted by the Department of Public Information55 in 1976 on the public's awareness or knowledge of and attitude toward pol- lution, and their exposure to media channels. A total of 2400 respondents sampled from the 13 regions in proportion to regional population were interviewed. It was concluded from the survey that: l. The majority of the respondents (65%) had heard 54 Osamu Iwata, ”Conservation, Community Size, Child- Bearing Intention and Driver's License as Determinants of Environmental Concern,” Psychologia, an International Journal of PsychologjLin the Orient, vol. 24, no. 3, 1981, pp. 157-163. 55 Department of Publ ic Information (DPI ) , Philippines, Awareness of the Environment Survey, a mimeo- graphed report of the Monitoring and Evaluation Group of the Planning Service, Department of Public Information, Philippines, 1976. 62 of the word ”pollution" while 33.8% had not heard of it. Only'49.3% had used the term, 42.7% had not used it. Twenty-nine percent (29%) gave vague definitions, 36.8% could not define the term ”pollution." 'The rest of the respondents (19.5%) associated pollution with air. Almost half or 46.8% of the respondents con- sidered the air around them clear, 33.9% des- cribed it as not so dirty, and 13.5% said it was dirty. Of the total respondents 41.8% considered the streets clean, while 42.6% considered it dirty. Waterways were rated by almost equal proportions of interviewees as dirty, not so dirty, and clean. Land was described as clean by 37.4% and not so dirty by 37% and dirty by 10.6%. According to 46.8% of the respondents land was made dirty by domestic waste. Air pollution was caused by motor vehicles according to 50.2% and by trash burning according to 39%. Water pollu- tion was caused by domestic waste and sewage according to 50.4% of the respondents. Other causes of water pollution named were oil spills and industrial discharge. Noise pollution was caused mainly by industrial machinery, motor vehicles, and air transport. 5. 6. Summary of A. 63 Government efforts to preserve the quality of the environment was recognized by 56.1% of the res- 'pondents, while 32.8% claimed no awareness of such efforts. In contrast, 70.8% were unaware of efforts of the private sector to preserve the environment. An average of 87.8% of the interviewees had positive attitudes toward the environment. The media most available to 77.1% of respon- dents was the radio: next most available to 69.6% was newspapers, and comics to 60.5%. Maga- zines accounted for the exposure of 54.2%, tele- vision for the exposure of 47.3%, and movies for 34.9% of the respondents. the Review of Related Literature Psychology views consciousness as an internal state of awareness made possible through selective assimila- tion of stimuli from the environment and accommodation of the selected stimuli by the mental structure. It further delineates 1. human consciousness as follows: The data elements of consciousness are meanings which are stimuli that have found relationships with other elements in the mental structure. Consciousness has three aspects or dimensions -- cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Cognition 64 is the rational or the thinking and reasoning dimension of consciousness; while affect is the feeling or the emotion which serves as the energizer of the conscious mind. Behavior is the external expression of consciousness. Repeated conscious experiences with similar ob- jects and situations develop expectancies which,' when generalized, form beliefs. Beliefs, in turn, when further confirmed, develop into en- during values. Both beliefs and values influence the formation of attitudes, and consequently, behavior. A value is a single enduring belief which transcend objects and situations whereas attitudes refer to several beliefs and/or values to influence a person's preferences. Education views consciousness as being structured and organized through the process of learning. Conscious- ness is heightened and developed under the following conditions: 1. Nurturing external conditions, erp, providing the necessary verbal information,appropriate instructional strategy, the right learning task, and facilitating physical environment. Encountering learning materials at the time the individual is ready for it. 65 3. Engaging in complex, demanding thought processes. Problem-solving, evaluation, decision-making, and the creation of something new require complex thought processes as compared to recall and receiving information which require simple thought processes. 4. Behaving with more cognition than affect. Beha- viors in the cognitive domain demand a higher level of consciousness than behaviors in the affective domain. C. The goal of environmental education require the development of both the cognitive and the affective dimen- sions of environmental consciousness. l. The Stockholm Conference, the Belgrade Charter, the regional workshops on environmental education conducted in various parts of the world, and school environmental programs stress the develop- ment of environmental consciousness through in- creased awareness, knowledge, understanding, attitudes of concern, skills in problem-solving, and evaluation skills as regards the environment. D. Research studies on the cognitive and affective dimensions of environmental learnings and behaviors have yielded the following findings: 1. In each of four studies, from sixty-six to over a hundred, principles and concepts were 66 identified and approved by environmental specialists for inclusion in environmental educa- tion programs. The large number of principles and concepts attested to the broad coverage of environmental education. Studies on teachers showed that in-service pro- grams were effective in improving the knowledge and opinion of teachers on environmental issues relating to energy:that any exposure to concrete or abstract and to integrated or nonintegrated presentations were equally effective in changing attitude toward environmental conservation. Secondary school students were found to possess a high level of concern for the environment yet had a low level of knowledge about it. They demon- strated a good understanding of environmental concepts but held few firm beliefs about environ- mental conservation. ‘Wilderness preservation and population control were the main environmental concerns of the high socioeconomic status stu- dents while noise and pollution control were of greater concern to the low socioeconomic status students. In comparison to Americans, non- American secondary school students were less concerned about their natural physical environ- ment. In the United States, rural students were 67 predisposed to the pastoral type of environment, nonintervention of nature, and the historical and traditional environment. Urban students tended toward the use of technology to adapt to or to dominate nature, the mechanized and modern structures, and the enjoyment of manipulative skills. 4. Elementary school children, as young as three 5. years old, could gain knowledge and develop posi- tive attitudes about the protection and conserva- tion of the environment from minimal instruction. They were found to have slightly'positive atti- tudes toward the environment even without the intervention of formal instruction on the subject. Studies on adult community members confirmed the hypothesis that those who lived close to a source of pollution were not overly concerned about it, but those who lived closer to the area affected by pollution were very much concerned about it. Theconcept of conservation was acutely perceived by adults in.the presence of an impending scar- city but not in abundance. In Australia, individuals who supported environ- mental issues tended to be anti-establishment and counterculturally oriented. But in Japan, the 68 environmentally concerned people were likely to be conservative. In the Philippines, the majority of the people had heard of pollution, but could not adequately define or explain it. Yet, an overwhelming majority (87.8%) held posi- tive attitudes toward the environment. CHAPTER 3 METHOD AND PROCEDURE Research Strategy The survey research was the strategy adopted in this study to investigate the perceptions and the thinking and behavioral inclinations of secondary school students and teachers concerning environmental conditions, problems, and issues. As a research strategy the survey has been de- scribed as "a significant way of generating knowledge of what is."1 Being an empirical research technique, it was considered most appropriate for gathering information of the current, the here and now. This survey research sought not only a description of the status quo but also inquired into relationships of the variables community, kind of school, ability grouping, year- level and gender to mental constructs about the environment through statistical analysis. It was desired that the rela- tionships to be described would be as they were found in natural settings, in natural communities. The investigation of the relationships of variables obtained by means of a 1 David Butts, "The Survey -- A Research Strategy Rediscovered,” Journal of Research in Science Teachin , vol. 20, no. 3, 1983, p. 187. 70 survey research, although.noicontrols were built into the designias in-experimental research, were justified by the use of large sample size and appropriate statistical analysis.2 For the attainment of the objectives of this research it is essential for reasons of relevance and validity to obtain ideas from the very audience to which the programs would be addressed. The need for relevance becomes doubly acute in the absence of precedent research studies in the Philippines on the subject matter. The groundwork for a relevant environmental education program was laid down in this study through the questionnaire items which used the environment problems of the Philippines as the context for measuring environmental consciousness. Instrument Development Preparatory activities. .Preparatory to the construc-' tion of the survey instruments, an examination of a year's news reports from 1979 to 1980 in local daily and weekly publications (i.e., newspapers, magazines) was conducted to identify the most impactful and/or pressing environmental events, problems and issues in the Philippines, particularly t 2 Debold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research, Fourth edition, New York, MCGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979, p. 286. 71 those affecting the communities of interest to this study. From these news reports, it was gathered that the main environmental concerns of the nation center around: (1) natural phenomena and formations (e4L, typhoon, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, rivers, mountains, seas), (2) the exploitation of natural resources (e.g., mining, fishing, farming), (3) application of science and technology that degrade the environment and result in environmental issues and problems (ery, use of pesticides, pollution, mining, resulting in destruction of land) and (4) social problems resulting from the concurrence of rapid population increase and slow economic growth. The items in the ques- tionnaire and the interview schedule were gathered from these local environmental concerns. Thefiguestionnaire. Four types of questionnaire items were constructed: (1) items that measure environmental knowledge, (2) items that measure comprehension of‘ environmental events, problems, and issues, (3) items that reveal perceptions of responsibility toward environmental conservation, and (4) items that measure interest in learning more about the environment. The knowledge items were intended to measure awareness of the existence or occurrence of environmental phenomena, problems, and issues. Correct responses to the knowledge items could be made even in the absence of a thorough understanding of the events and issues. The comprehension items were constructed to measure 72 understanding of environmental phenomena, problems and issues through seeing relationships and inferring causes or consequences. Both the knowledge and comprehension items were written in the multiple choice format with four options of which only one was acceptable. The responsibility items were designed to measure willingness to assume responsibility for the protection and enhancement of the environment. In the questionnaire, the responsible respondent identifies with the person or group who personally takes action to improve or rehabilitate a particular environment after it has been exploited or ravaged, who made choices that benefited more than self, or accepted rules of law aimed to protect the environment, or preferred the long term use of a natural resource over the immediate and large but short term gain. Each responsibility item was a condensed situational problem with four options of different weights for its. solution. The weight of the option increases with the willingness to assume greater and more direct responsibility; .Any chosen option was acceptable but was counted in accordance to its assigned weight. The weight assigned to an option in a responsibility item was based on: (1) the collective decision of the UPSEC Environmental Education Workshop staff of four persons, (2) the comparative frequencies obtained for the options from the responses of 16 science education specialists and 73 researchers of the University of the Philippines Science Education Center who had worked on environmentally oriented curriculum projects. In the first, each UPSEC staff member rated all four options of each responsibility item by giving weights of l to 4. A discussion and decision-making among the four persons yielded one set of weights for all options of all responsibility items. In the second, each of the 16 science education specialists selected only one option per item. After a tally of their responses, the option in each item that was most frequently chosen was given a weight of 4 and so on, so that the least frequently chosen option was given a weight of 1. The weightings made by the two groups (the environmental education workgroup staff and the science education specialists) were pooled. On the two items where there was disagreement between the two groups, the principal researcher made the final decision. .Although the 16 science education specialists performed in the manner of the respondents, in reality they served as judges whose ratings were used as a basis for the assignment of weights to the options of the responsibility items. The purpose of this procedure was to minimize the bias that could be introduced by a single rater or judge. The interest items differed from the other items in that they consisted of topics not questions. Interest was equated to an expressed feeling of need to learn the topic. The respondent indicated his need for learning a topic by 74 selecting one of four options identified by the weight given it. Weight 1 was Not needed; Weight 2 Somewhat needed; Weight 3 Needed; Weight 4 Very much needed. The first draft questionnaire consisted of 18 knowledge items, 14 comprehension items, 16 responsibility items, and 45 interest items. The Interview Schedule. The first draft interview schedule censisted of 15 items each of which was made up of a group of related questions. The items dealt with the same issues and problems identified from local publications as described earlier. The intention in grouping related questions was to probe into the perceptions, opinions, feelings, and values of the interviewees in order to verify and supplement the answers obtained through the questionnaire» The interview also allowed the respondent to freely express himself, articulate his knowledge and comprehension, reveal his perception of responsibility by freely stating what he was willing/not willing to do to protect his environment, and talk about his interests without being forced into selecting from a set of prepared answers. The Pilot Study. The questionnaire and the interview schedule were run through a pilot test in a school. The objectives of the pilot testing were: (1) to find out what difficulties could crop up in the conduct of the survey, (2) to determine the amount of time needed to respond to the 75 instruments, and (3) to observe the reactions of the respondents. A public school situated in the outer fringes of Metro Manila was selected for the pilot study. The public school and the community around it, although urban by geographic location, possessed some rural characteristics. The school ground was large but the schoolhouse small by urban standards. The houses in the community were mostly of nonpermanent materials and widely spaced with untended grassy areas between them, much like the houses found in the rural areas. The students came mostly from low income families. The questionnaire which.was written.in.English was administered to two second year classes and two fourth year classes. The students were instructed to ask for clarification of terms and phrases not familiar to them. (English is the medium of instruction in all secondary~ schools in the Philippines but it is a second or third language to most Filipino students.) The requests for clarification provided clues on which items should be revised. The interview schedule, also written in English, was administered to two second year students, two fourth year students, one social studies teacher and one science teacher in a face-to-face, one-on-one session. All the four students requestedto give their answers in Filipino the 76 the language in which they could express themselves with facility. Final instruments. An item analysis made on the pilot questionnaire resulted in the rejection of four knowledge items and four responsibility items which were found to be very difficult with extremely low discriminability (the power of the item to differentiate the high-scoring from the low-sooring respondent). All the comprehension items were retained but many of them were revised, taking into consideration the unfamiliar terms and phrases pointed out by the students. Two responsibility items found to have very low discriminability were dropped. The interest inventory portion of the questionnaire was considered 'long but easy' by many students. It was reduced from 45 to 40 items by combining some items. The final questionnaire consisted of 14 knowled e items,l4 comprehension items, 12 responsibility items, and 40- interest items. Validity and Reliability of the Instruments The search for the commonly reported environmental topics and issues in local newspapers and magazines mentioned earlier was a step toward content validity. The check with local print media gave assurance that the topics included in the instruments concerned issues and problems which had actually been encountered in the Philippines and therefore relevant to Filipino students. Additionally, the 77 questions were submitted for analysis and sorting out to four science education specialists and researchers who had worked on environmentally-oriented curriculum materials. Questionnaire reliability was established with a test-retest measure of stability (5-month interval, 139 respondents, all students) which gave the following Pearson rxx: 0.55 for the knowledge test, 0.61 for the comprehension test, 0.38 for the responsibility test,and (L60 for the interest inventory. Difficulties in arranging a schedule for the retest due to urgent intervening activities of both the school and the researchers stretched the originally planned 3-or 4-week interval to 5 months. The retest took place about a month before the end of term. The students were preoccupied with the preparation of course requirements (reports, essays, etc.) that they were not disposed to put their minds on answering a questionnaire that was not needed to pass the course. Retest correlation attenuating with lengthened interval was therefore attributed to both internal (within the respondent) and environmental changes.3 The rather low reliability (0.38) of the responsibility test was considered admissible for the reason that the students'*va1ues and attitudes concerning environmental problems and the actions to take in responding to these problems had.not sufficiently firmed up to enable I 3 Anne Anastasi, Psychological Tegting, 3rd edition, London, The MacMillan Company, 1971, pp. 78-79. 78 them to take a strong position for or against such situations as those included in the questionnaire. The KR-20 was used on the knowledge and the comprehension tests to obtain a measure of internal consistency. The KR-20 yielded an r of 0.53 for the xx knowledge items and an rxx of 0.54 for the comprehension items. Since the responsibility and the interest items were of the multiple response type, the more appropriate coefficient alpha was used on them to determine their internal consistency. The responsibility items yielded an internal consistency of 0.33 while the interest items obtained 0.88. Sampling Design Ten provinces close to Metro Manila, four of which had been intruded into by the expansion of the old city of Manila in 1975, were selected sites of the survey for three reasons: (1) these areas were the most affected by human intervention, (2) convenience in traveling (better and more available means of transportatioh than any other part of the country; closest to the home base of the researcher), and (3) financial constraints (venturing farther away would have entailed more traveling expenses even ifthe number of sampling sites were maintained). Two each of the following types of communities were selected for sampling: farming, fishing, cottage industry, mining, light industry and heavy industry. The sites were 79 well known for the particular economic bases for which they were chosen in the study. The majority of the community people were engaged in the type of economy or livelihood for which it was chosen. For instance, a fishing community selected forthe study would have a predominance of fishermen, fish middlemen, fishboat owners, fish processors and fish Vendors. One fishing community situated on the outer fringes of Metro Manila was included because it was the best known of this type of community. A farming community was one in which the majority of the community people were engaged in farming as the main source of livelihood. In the two farming communities chosen forthe study,the main farm crop was rice but most families also raised vegetables and fruit trees mainly for theirown use. To augment their income many families also engaged in fishing with simple hand fishing gears during the slack‘ periods in farming (i.e., when the soil had been worked over, the seedlings transplanted, and there was little else to do but wait). The fishing communities selected for the study engaged in marine fishing, the more common type of fishing in the Philippines due to its long sea coast. The little farming observed in these communities could be described as backyard farming, implying the small land area given to farming and the supplemental function of the activity. 80 One cottage industry site specialized in furniture making, while the other site produced small household items and specialty foods such as baskets, wooden kitchen utensils, and fruit-based sweets. Cottage industry production was conducted in the family residence with the members of the extended family system as workers. Sometimes a few neighborhood youths would be taken.in as additional workers.‘ The cottage industry communities usually possessed more amenities for modern living than either the fishing or the farming communities. A The mining communities were isolated in mountain areas. But within their territories huge machines used in mining operations, electricity and gas fuel, and very modern homes and facilities rivaling those found in the upper middle class communities of highly urban Manila were highly visible. It was not unusual to see helicopters and small planes ferrying officials of the mining company. In‘ material accoutrements, the mining communities were more modern and more industrialized than the cottage industry and were at par with the light and heavy industry communities. Shoe, textile, tire and cigarette manufacturing and food processing plants on the assembly line system (implying large scale production) characterized the light industry communities. Both the selected sites were located in cities. In addition, there were large industrialized poultry and hog farms which fed into allied meat processing 81 and packing plants. Life was fast-paced.and.the ambience definitely urban. A huge electrical generation plant and its tall smoke stacks dominated the skyline in one heavy industry community, and a sprawling oil refinery also with tall smoke stacks and giant spherical oil and gas tanks in the other heavy industry community were selected for the study. In addition, there were a steel mill, a flour mill, a number of food processing plants, an animal feeds mill, and an electronics parts manufacturing plant. Their level of technology and size of industry far outmatched those found in the light industry communities. A group of urban schools with high achieving students was also sampled. For the purposes of this survey, they were considered a type of community yet not one that is economic-based as the other communities were. For this reason it is called a special community. The inclusion of the special community was intended to provide data on the peak of environmental consciousness achievable in the existing curriculum. The 14 communities included in the study were selected by the researcher from foreknowledge about them. They were among the best known in the country for farming, fishing, cottage industry, mining, light industry, and heavy industry. The regional offices of the Ministry of Education and Culture responsible for the educational administration 82 of these communities were also consulted to confirm or modify the list of communities for study. Of the original 14 communities listed by the researcher only one, a fishing community, was replaced with another which was more accessible to land transportation. In each selected community, one private school and one public school were chosen for their closeness to the hub of activity of the trade or means of livelihood or industry for which the community was chosen. A total of 28 schools were included in the sampling. Upon request and specifications of the researcher, the school principal in a selected school assigned the classes to undergo the testing. Two second year classes consisting of one high section and one low section, two fourth year classes also consisting one high section and one low section» one to four science teachers and one to four‘ social studies teachers were selected to respond to the questionnaire. A total of 56 second year classes and 56 fourth year classes participated in the study. From each class to which the questionnaire was administered, two or three students were selected by the teacher for the interview. Hence 116 second year students I and 114 fourth year students were interviewed. One hundred eleven (111) teachers were also interviewed. 83 Subjects of the Study A total of 4292 students of which 2201 were in their second year (ages 13 to 15 years) and 2091 were in their fourth year (ages 16 to 18 years) responded to the questionnaire. Of these students, 2078 were male and 2214 were female. Exactly 111 teachers participated in the survey. Of this number 50 were social studies teachers and 61 were science teachers. All the teachers responded to the ques- tionnaire and were interviewed. Willingness and availa- bility finally decided who among the social studies and science teachers in a school participated in the study. In the Philippine public school system the six-year elementary school was immediately followed by a four-year high school. The study included only the second year and the fourth year for two reasons: (1) financial constraints, and (2) the two-year levels would enable interpolation for‘ the other years. The choice of science teachers and social studies teachers was deliberate. Some environmental education studies had preselected the science and social studies teachers4 because their subject matter for instruction was more concerned with the environment than those of any other subject teachers. 4 Pettus,Frary,and Teates, Journal of Research in J Science Teaching, vol. 15, no. 5, 1 78, pp. 367-372. 84 Procedure for Analysis of Data The dependent variables in the study were the four mental constructs -- knowledge, comprehension, respon- sibility, and interest in environmental matters. The four together were designed to obtain a measure of environmental consciousness. The independent variables were type of com- munity (7 types: farming, fishing, cottage industry, mining, light industry, heavy industry, special community), kind of school (2 kinds: public, private), year level of students (2 levels: second year, feurth year), class section (2 sections: high, low), and sex (male, female). A description of the entire sample's environmental knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interest was made using frequency distribution, range of scores, central tendencies, and variances on each of the four mental constructs. Then a comparison of various groupings on the independent variables using cell means was made. Cross’ tabulation facilitated the comparison. To determine the significance of the effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables, both multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were conducted. Subsequently, post-hoc contrasts of the selected pairs of communities were performed. All the different answers to the same interview question were listed separately. A tally of the same or similar answers was made. Then the different answers to 85 each question were categorized by the investigator. The tallies under each category were added up and converted into percent of the respondents. .And this percent of the res- pondents in a category within a topic or question was reported and analyzed. Further elaborations of the procedure for analysis of data are given in Chapters 4and 5. Chapter 4 Presentation and Analysis of Student Data A primary concern of this survey research was the measurement of environmental consciousness of secondary school students. The purpose was to assess, the need for strengthening of the environmental dimensions of the school curricula. In this chapter the environmental consciousness of the entire sample is described in terms of the frequency distributions, central tendencies, and variances of scores in the four tests used to measure it. Then follows a presentation of the multivariate analysis of variance results to find the optimal combination of independent variables that significantly affected the four dependent variables. Comparisons were made among mean scores of the groups categorized according to the identified optimal combination.of independent variables. .An analysis of the frequencies obtained on the questionnaire items is then made to identify topics for inclusion in an environmental education curriculum. The last section deals with the interview results to test the preceding analyses. 87 Frequency Distribution of the Student Sample on the Four Environmental Constructs Environmental consciousness was measured by means of tests on environmental knowledge, comprehenmuwh responsibility and interest. The knowledge test measured awareness of the existence or occurrence of environmental phenomena, problems and issues. Comprehension measured understanding of environmental phenomena, problems and issues through seeing relationships and inferring causes or consequences. The responsibility test measured the willingness to assume responsibility for the protection and enhancement of the environment. Interest was equated to an expressed feeling of need to learn environmental subject matter. Scores on these four tests were drawn into frequency polygons to depict the frequency distribution of the entire sample (Figure 1). The range of scores (0-14) in both the knowledge and comprehension tests was small enough to make it feasible to plot the frequency of each possible score. Since the range of possible scores for the responsibility test was 0-48 and for the interest test, 0- 160, these scores were rendered into 15 class intervals. The frequencies obtained in these class intervals were plotted with knowledge and comprehension frequencies for comparison. From the height and the location farther to the right on the abscissa of the responsibility (R) and the interest (I) frequency polygons, it was inferred that a larger proportion of the students obtained high scores in the 88 - knowledge .A. moo - ' ,I" -_cemnrellenslen l,’ \\ 5 mo I ---respenslhlllty I," \“\\ g 600 . ._..|nterest//’\\ . \:\‘“ "' and 200 0 I 2 34567891011121314 Scores Figure 1: Frequency distribution at the students’ scores In the knowledge, eemnrehenelen. respenelhlllty, and Interest and comprehension tests. A larger proportion of students scored high in the knowledge test than in the comprehension test. This was also indicated by their respective modes (Table 1). In all four tests the mean and the median were nearly equal. Therefore, approximately 50% of the students scored below the mean and approximately 50% scored above the mean in the four tests. The mean scores indicate the level of environmental consciousness of the average secondary school student in the entire sample. Converted into percent these mean scores were 54.5% for knowledge, 45.9% for comprehension, 70.2% for responsibility, and 70.3% for interest. A 95% confidence interval was established around 89 Tablel. Statisticsoftheneqlaicybistributiaisof Students' SooresinfiaeEmiramentalQnscims- ness Tests Statistic Knowledge mam Respmsibility Interest Min. score 0 go 6 21 Max. score l4 14 48 160 than 7.629 6.420 33.673 112.455 Pbde 8.0 6.0 34.0 108.0 Median 7.646 6.308 33.732 112.073 Std. dev. 2.763 2.506 4.846 17.023 Std. error ‘ .042 .038 .074 .260 Coef. of variatim 36.22% 39.03% 14.39% 15.14% .‘95-‘ocnf. lim.» 7.547 6.345 33.528 111.945 to 7.712 to 6.495 to 33.818 to 112.964 N 4292 4292 4292 4292 each of the computed means. From the standard deviation, it was known that about 68.26% of the students scored between 4.8 and 10.4 in the knowledge test, between 3.9 and 8.9 in the comprehension test, between 28.8 and 38.5 in the responsibility test, and between 95.4 and 129.5 in the interest test. A comparison of the degree of variation of the sample population on the four environmental constructs was made by computing the coefficient of variation expressed in percent for each test using SD/X (100), where SD was the standard deviation and x was the mean.1 As the coefficients of variation indicated, the sample population was most homogeneous on the responsibility test and most heterogeneous on the comprehension test. “ Harvey J. Goehring, Jr. Statistical Methods in Education, Virginia, Information Resources Press, 1981, pp. 85-86. 90 Testing for Group Differences by Multivariate Analysis of Variance Five factors were used in grouping the entire sample for the study. The five factors were community, year level, class section, type of school, and sex. This study sought to determine whether or not these five factors or independent, variables significantly affected the dependent variables knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest. To accomplish this a multivariate analysis of variance using the SPSS MANOVA was performed. The main and interaction effects found significant at the .01 level are displayed in Table 2. Table 2. Summary of the Significant Effects by MANOVA on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility, and Interest (a==.01) ! Source of Variation Error df F Main effects: Com (Community) 14573.02 102.11084 Yr (Year) 4177.00 141.17665 Sec (Section) 4177.00 216.60840 Sch (School) 4177.00 16.39155 Sx (Sex) 4177.00 15.91439 Interaction Effects: Com x Yr 14573.02 3.02440 Com x Sec 14573.02 9.00068 Com x Sch 14573.02 5.46971 Com x Sx 14573.02 2.38355 Yr x Sch 4177.00 6.44384 Sec x Sch 4177.00 8.87459 Com x Yr x Sec 14573.02 4.05177 Com x Yr x Sch 14573.02 ' 4.17001 Com x Sec x Sch 14573.02 6.80324 Com x Sch x Sx 14573.02 2.70940 Com x Yr x Sec x Sch 14573.02 2.82041 Com x Yr x Sec x Sx 14573.02 2.06708 91 All main-effects were significant, each with a statistical zero significance of F, although more realistically, an extremely low probability of error close to zero. This meant that each of the five independent variables had significant effects on the four response variables. At this point it was unwise to form generalizations on the basis of the main effects because a number of interaction effects were also found to be highly significant. From the list of significant interaction effects (Table 2) it was evident that community was involved in more interactions than any of the other factors. Six two-way, four three-way, and two four-way interactions were significant in the multivariate tests. The univariate analyses of these significant multivariate interactions were further examined to identify which of the four response variables were most and least affected by each interaction. The F statistic served as a guide in determining the magnitude of the effect on each response variable. It was, therefore, the multivariate test that was used as the basis of the decision to inquire deeper into a main effect or interaction effect by means of the univariate analysis. Table 3 presents a summary of the significant univariate tests. 92 Table 3. Summary of Significant Univariate Tests on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility, and Interest (a . .01) Dependent Source of variation Variable F Main effects: Com (Community) knowledge 263.17 comprehension 309.13 responsibility 146.08 interest 14.79 Yr (Year) knowledge 473.27 comprehension 194.73 responsibility 136.71 interest 67.06 Sec (Section) knowledge 610.88 comprehension 430.99 responsibility 235.78 interest 117.14 Sch (School) knowledge 32.47 comprehension 22.03 responsibility 40.85 interest 9.13 Sx (Sex) knowledge 11.55 interest 38.79 Interaction effects: Com x Yr knowledge 7.23 Com x Sec knowledge 17.60 comprehension 10.12 responsibility 9.02 interest 16.24 Com x Sch knowledge 9.93 comprehension 11.72 responsibility 6.56 interest 3.23 Com x Sx comprehension 4.25 Yr x Sch responsibility 9.18 interest 15.47 Sex x Sch knowledge 19.40 comprehension 27.13 93 Sch Sx interest 9.39 Com Yr x Sec knowledge 9.10 comprehension 7.13 responsibility 5.26 Com Yr x Sch knowledge 7.12 comprehension 6.09 interest 4.54 Com Sec x Sch knowledge 16.71 comprehension 8.25 responsibility 6.12 interest 7.13 Com“ Sch x Sx interest 4.34 Com Yr x Sec x Sch knowledge 4.78 interest 4.06 Com Yr x Sec x Sx interest 3.11 The F statistic indicated that community had the greatest effect on comprehension and the least effect on interest. Year level and section had the most effect on knowledge and the least effect on interest. School affected responsibility more than the other response variables. Interest was most affected by the factor sex. In studies with fewer independent variables, the highest order interaction found significant would be used to explain the variance or the differences between groups. In this study, however, the-highest order significant interaction were the four-way interactions. Four-way 94 interactions are too complex to interpret accurately.2 It was also observed that one four-way interaction significantly affected only two out of four dependent variables, and the second four-way interaction significantly affected only one dependent variable. For these reasons, the four-way interactions were not interpreted. Four three-way interactions were found significant. The community x year x section interaction significantly affected three out of four dependent variables. The community x year x school interaction significantly affected a different combination of three dependent variables. The community x school x sex interaction significantly affected interest alone. Only the community x section x school interaction significantly affected all four dependent variables. The F statistics on the four dependent variables in this last-mentioned interaction were also the highest among the three-way interactions. For meaningful interpretations, therefore, it was reasonable to accept the community x section x school interaction as most significantly affecting the four dependent variables. Part of the variance was explained by the non- orthogonality (uneven N's) of the groups. The interaction of community, section, and school explained most of the F. Krishnan Namboodiri, Lewis F. Carter & Hubert M. Blalock, Jr. Applied Multivariate Analysis and Experimental Designs, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975, p. 486. 95 remaining variance in the mean scores. In knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility it was obvious that the special community obtained the highest means, and this fact set it apart from the other communities. The six other communities were more similar on these variables. The breakdown of each community into (1) private school high section, (2) private school low section, (3) public school high section, and (4) public school low section demonstrated the interaction effects of the factors community, section, and school (Tables 4-7). The mean scores of these groups were graphed to show their relationships (Figures 3 a and b to 6 a and b). The interaction of community, class section, and type of school resulted in the following: 1. The high mean scores of the special community in knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility set it apart from the other communities, but this condition was not observed in the interest test. 2. The mean differences in knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility between the high and the low section in both the private and the public schools in the special community were very small compared to those in the other communities. 3. Among the six communities (excluding the special communitY). the private school, high section tended to have higher mean scores in knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility than the public school, high section. 96 Table 4. Mean Knowledge Scores Showing Communi x Section x School Interaction Effects n the Stu ents' Data Private Public N=2221 N=207l High Low High Low N=1181 N=1040 N=1107 N=964 Special 10.91 10.20 11.08 10.55 N=163 N=150 N=118 N=110 Heavy 9.45 7.16 8.70 5.87 Industry N=139 N=83 N=189 N=l46 Light 8.33 6.59 7.94 6.72 Industry N=183 N=182 N=176 N=170 Mining 8.74 5.80 6.52 7.19 N=182 N-169 N=118 N=70 Cottage 8.36 7.09 7.02 6.18 Industry N=162 N=l6l N=174 N=l84 Fishing 7.59 5.79 7.73 5.73 N=180 N=163 N2207 N2192 Farming 7.82 5.33 6.60 6.23 N=172 N=132 N=135 N=92 97 Mean Knowledge Scores Showlng Community x Section x School Interaction Ellecl legend: a Sn Speclel annually 0 lle lleeyy Industry commuelty Ill llghl Industry communlty All Mlnlng community one college Industry communlty ofl Flshlng community xfe fermlng communlty --Prll Prlvele school, hlgh seclloe --- Pull Puhllc school, hlgh sectlee ---Prl Prlvele school. low secllee — I'll. Puhllc school. low secllon -e -e a —e I l Knowledge Scores 99919-9 I ‘V e ‘CL Prll PIIII Prl. I'll. School )1 Sectlon Flgure 2e: Knowledge mean scores at Communlty across Sectlee s School ll. " 3 10. ~ I- 6 ,9, 0. ~ I s s- - O - 3 7. - B B " e. - 5. - ,V 4 L l l 1 1 1 _l Sn lle ll ll Ce ‘ Fl re Communlty figure 2b: Knowledge mean scores el Secllon s School across communllles 98 Table 5. MeanComprehension Scores Showing Community or Section 1: School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data Private Public N=2221 N=2071 High Low High Low N=1181 N=1040 N=110? N=964 Special 9.78 9.14 10.29 9.63 N=l63 N=150 N=118 N=110 Heavy 8.10 5.63 6.79 4.71 Industry N=139 N=83 N=179 N=146 Light 7.91 5.19 6.63 5.70 Industry N=183 N=182 N=176 N=170 Mining 7.29 5.37 6.08 6.02 . N=182 N=169 N=118 N=70 Cottage 6.94 5.84 5.88 5.27 Industry N=162 N=161 N=174 N-184 Fishing 6.07 5.20 5.88 5.03 N=180 N=163 N=207 N=192 Farming 6.40 4.35 5.21 4.98 N=172 N=132 N=135 N=92 98 99 Mean Comprehension Scores Showing Community II Section x School Interaction Eilect legend: a Sn Special community to, - Clio Iieavy Industry community on ‘ I ll light industry community g g, b Alli hlining community 9 DCo Cottage Industry community 2 g *- oFl Fishing community 2 x Fe Farming community 2 1 - --Prii Private school, high section 2 —--Puli Public school, high section 8 g - ---Prl Private school, low section 2 —Pul Public school. low section . 5. l u 4 . r l L 1 I Prll Pull Prl Pol School a Section Figure 3a: Comprehension mean scores oi Community across Section 1 School Comprehension Scores .1- s- .0 .~I .- 9 i xvi Sp lie . ll ll Ce Fl Fe Community Figure 3h: Comprehension mean scores et Section I School across Communities 100 Table 6. Mean Responsibility Scores Showing Community 2: Section 3 School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data Private Public N=2221 N=2071 High Low High Low N=1181 N=1040 N=110? N=964 Special 38.22 37.86 39.29 38.05 N=163 N=150 N=118 N=110 Heavy 36.72 33.76 34.88 31.18 Industry N=139 N=83 N=l79 N=146 Light 34.67 32.41 34.62 32.09 Industry N=183 N=182 N=176 N=170 Mining 35.23 33.10 33.32 32.86 N=182 N=164 N=118 N=70 Cottage 34.51 32.66 32.36 31.93 Industry N=162 N=16l N=l74 N=184 Fishing 33.75 32.57 33.73 30.99 N=180 N=163 N=207 N=192 Farming 32.98 30.89 30.83 31.67 N=172 N=182 N=135 N=92 100 101 liiean Responsibility Scores Showing Community II Section 1: School Interaction Etiect 3°. , “I'M: A Sp Special community ' 0 lie iIeavy Industry community 38. _ Ill light Industry community A ll Mining community 37. F DCo Cottage industry community 3 0 Fl Fishing community 3 30. - X Fa Farming community 3 "Prll Private school, high section 5‘ 35. - ' ”‘ PIIII Public school, high section .._. "-Prl Private school, low section '5 34. _ — Pol Public school, tour section 2 a as. b a O c 32. . 32. ~ 30. b J} j l I l PrII Pull Prl Pul School )1 Section Figure 4a: liesponslbllity mean scores ot Community across Section I School 39. r SS. - 37. - SS. r 35. a. Responsibility Scores 33. b 32. '- 31. b 30. - \L “ Sp lie ll II Co Fl Fe Community Figure 4b: Ilesponslbillty mean scores at Section I School across Communities 102 Table 7. Mean Interest Scores Showing Community or Section 1: School Interaction Effects in the Students' Data Private Public N=2221 N=2071 High Low High Low N=1181 N=1040 N=1107 N=964 Special 111.53 120.07 117.38 112.30 N=163 N=150 N=118 N=110 Heavy 119.33 109.31 121.64 105.14 Industry N=139 N=83 N=179 N=146 Light 121.64 108.95 119.36 114.36 Industry N=183 N=182 N=176 N=170 Mining 113.70 106.00 111.41 112.64 N=182 N=l69 N=118 N270 Cottage 117.12 113.20 108.71 109.20 Industry N=162 N=161 N=174 N=184 Fishing 113.11 107.86 111.29 108.36 N=180 N=163 N=207 N=192 Farming 114.63 106.11 110.74 105.93 N=172 N=132 N=135 N=92 Interest Scores 103 idean Interest Scores Showing Community II Section I: School Interaction Fliects I21 legend: .3. Clio III. P Ill ' All 3 m.L oco = "5 o? 3 . x a a 3 m. _ b 8 5 111. ~ 100. - iil'l. - "Iii PrII . Pull Prl Pul School II Section Special community Iieavy Industry community light Industry community lining community Cottage industry community Fishing community Farming community --PrII Private school, high section . -°-Puii Public school. high section ---Prl Private school. low section —Pul Public school, low section Figure 5o: Interest mean scores oi Community across Section I: School 121. i "7. l- l“. - "3. '- III. - 109. - 107. ,- 105. - KL “ 3! III ll II Cl Fl Fl Community Figure 5!: Interest mean scores oI Section I: School across Communities 104 4. Comparisons between the private school, low section and the public school, low section and the public school, low section showed no definite trend in knowledge and comprehension. One was as likely as the other to get the higher scores. In responsibility, however, the private school, low section tended to have higher mean scores than the public high section, except in the special community and the farming community. 5. No trends were observed in the interest test. Correlations of the Dependent Variables The multiple analysis of variance was used in this study on the assumption that the dependent variables environmental knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interest interrelate to compose the individual's environmental consciousness. A correlational analysis was conducted to help substantiate this assumption. Using the Pearson product-moment correlation equation, the correlation coefficients of all combinations of the dependent variables were computed (Table 8). Table 8.Correlation of Dependent Variables in Students' Data Correlated Variables N rxy* Knowledge x Comprehension 4340 .5912 Knowledge x Responsibility 4349 .4956 Knowledge x Interest 4350 .2814 Comprehension x Responsibility 4340 .4813 Comprehension 3 Interest 4340 .2452 Responsibility x Interest 4349 .2269 *all significant at .61 105 A relatively strong relationship (rxy a .59) was found between knowledge and comprehension. The knowledge- comprehension relationship is in accord with the well—known Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom et a1, 1956) where knowledge and comprehension are the first two of six."mental acts" or thinking processes in hierarchical order in the cognitive domain. Knowledge is a necessary step to comprehensidn. It is likely that environmental knowledge is a prerequisite to environmental comprehension. This was supported by the data in this study in which all groups obtained higher mean scores in knowledge than in comprehension. Responsibility's sufficiently strong correlation with knowledge and comprehension (“#9 and .48, respectively) indicated support for the assumption that it is another component of environmental consciousness. But interest appeared to be distantly related as its low correlation with knowledge (.28), comprehension.(.25), and responsibility (.23) indicated. Multivariate Contrasts of Communities It must be recalled that curriculum development in environmental education was the ultimate goal of this research. Type of community could be a basis for differentiating curricula to serve that goal. The multivariate analysis of variance confirmed that community did have significant effects on the four 106 Table 9. Means and Ranks of Communities Community K C R I Rank Special 10.81 9.68 38.32 115.11 1 N=541 Heavy Ind. 7.87 6.39 34.04 114.18 2 N854? Light Ind. 7.52 6.11 33.46 115.59 3 N=7ll Mining 7.21 6.26 33.52 110.43 4 N=534 Cottage Ind. 7.13 5.96 32.56 111.91 5 N=681 Fishing 6.75 5.68 32.77 109.96 6 N=742 Farming 6.58 5.33 31.69 110.02 7 N=531 Legend: K Knowledge C Comprehension R Responsibility I Interest environmental constructs. considered in the study. Seven types of community were To determine which of them significantly affected the environmental knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interests of secondary school students post hoc multivariate contrasts of the repeated design in the SPSS package, were performed on the community levels. of pairs of communities to be contrasted. The procedure required the identification The means of the 107 communities on the four dependent variables (Table 9) were used as basis in the selection. The means of the communities in each construct were ranked and the ranks in the four constructs averaged. The overall rank of each community was based on its average rank in the four constructs. This was done instead of summing the means in the four constructs in order to assure equal weights to each component of the overall rank. Successively ranked communities were paired for contrast in order to obtain the smallest mean differences and tested multivariately for significance. Table 10 displays the results of the multivariate contrasts of communities. Table 10. SignificantMultivariate Contrasts of Communities (a - .01) on the Student's Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest. Contrasted Communities Error df F Special vs. Heavy industry 4282.00 470.52728 Heavy industry vs. light industry 4282.00 16.64776 Light industry vs. Mining 4282.00 16.97656 Mining vs. Cottage industry 4282.00 11.78725 Cottage industry vs. Fishing 4282.00 5.91623 Fishing vs. Farming 4282.00 5.69148 Univariate tests of significance were done to identify which of the four constructs could best be explained by the difference between the contrasted communities. Table 11 shows the significant contrasts in the univariate tests. 108 The first three contrasts showed significant differences to explain the‘variance in all four dependent variables. But the last three contrasts gave significant differences to explain the variance in less than four dependent variables. It was indicated, therefore, that the special, heavy industry, and light industry were more different from each other than the cottage industry, fishing, and farming were from each other. Mining was not as different from the cottage industry as the first three communities were from each other but it was more different from the cottage industry than the last three communities were from each other. Table 11 Significant Univariate Contrasts of Communities (a: .01) on the Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, Responsibility and Interest. Contrasted Dependent Communities Var. F Special-Heavy industry knowledge 1041.55602 comprehension 1416.05536 responsibility 670.78226 interest 15.34967 Heavy industry- Light industry knowledge 52.36854 comprehension 26.82045 responsibility 34.31306 interest 10.03726 Light industry- Mining knowledge 32.92292 comprehension 10.99667 responsibility 18.63443 interest 48.28440 109 Mining—Cottage industry knowledge 9.6267 comprehension 30.54856 responsibility 26.50978 Cottage industry- Fishing knowledge 14.64036 comprehension 16.90687 Fishing-Farming comprehension 8.26315 responsibility 18.25036 Looking into the F statistic, the special and the heavy industry communities differed mostly in comprehension, then in lessening degrees in knowledge, then responsibility, and least in interest. The heavy industry and light industry communities differed mostly in knowledge, less in responsibility, even less in comprehension and least in interest. The light industry and the mining communities differed mostly in interest, less in knowledge, even less in responsibility and least in comprehension. The mining and the cottage industry communities differed mostly in comprehension and in decreasing degrees in responsibility, then in knowledge with no contribution from interest. This meant that the two communities were not at all different in their environmental interests. The cottage industry and fishing communities differed mainly in comprehension and, less in knowledge. They were not significantly different in responsibility and interest. The difference between the fishing and the farming communities was due largely to responsibility and, to a lesser extent, to comprehension. 110 Identifying Environmental Topics Needed for Secondary School Education Analysis of The Knowledge Test Items The topical content of the test items used in the measurement of environmental consciousness were analyzed in terms of the frequency of correct answers in order to obtain a profile of environmental topics responded to by students. The procedure adopted was to take a count of the frequency of correct answers to each item, sorted out into community levels. The total number of students in a community responding to each item was also counted. The frequency of correct answers divided by the number of students responding to the item gives the observed frequency (0) in percent. The observed frequency of the entire sample was computed in a similar manner. The number directly below the observed frequency enclosed in parentheses is the expected (E) frequency. The following steps were taken to compute the expected (E) frequency: 1. The average observed frequency of each community was obtained by adding the observed frequencies on the 14 items and dividing by 14. 2. The index of performance of each community was computed by dividing the average observed frequency of a community by the average observed frequency of the entire sample. 3. The expected frequency was computed by multiplying the index of performance of a community by the 111 observed frequency of the entire sample on the item. The observed frequency of a community in an item should be compared to its expected frequency to see how well it had done under the constraints or facilitating conditions of its environment. Thus it is seen that in item 2, the farming community attained the lowest frequency among the communities but actually did better than expected. The expected frequencies of the special community in items 2 and 11 were computed at higher than 100% but the realistic expectation could not be more than 100 percent. The number below the expected frequency is the significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies. No number means the difference is not significant; The significant difference lies outside the limits of a percentage set at the .95 confidence level. The confidence interval for each observed frequency is computed as follows: observed .95 confidence interval a percentage 1 1.96 (6%) 0% (standard error of a percentage) = M where p = observed frequency q==lrp N = size of sample from which the observed frequency was taken. 112 Table12. smu'mumdmmummmndmm Winmt 76pm- 1btal Sp a: 1.1 Hi 66 a1 Fa n-4292 n-541 It-547 n-711 n-539 rt-661 ll-742 N531 1. new tedmiqae in 0 33.2 55.2 34.0 32.2 29.0 32.1 24.5 26.2 tial: culture E (46.6) (34.2) (33.2) (31.5) (31.2) (26.9) (26.3) 61:: 0.4 2. m for: the . ' o 61.2 96.9 06.0 79.4 77.4 79.7 75.2 75.0 use of pesticide a (100.0) (03.6) (61.2) (77.1) (76.3) (73.1) (69.0) diff 3.2 3.4 6.0 3. ”motive 62- 0 40.0 70.0 3.0 46.2 30.5 31.6 27.2 31.0 fectu of Inning E (56.4) (41.2) (40.0) (36.0) (37.6) (36.0) (34.0) diff 21.6 -4.4 6.2 -7.5 -6.0 -0.0 4. in. of a lilti- 0 61.6 05.2 59.6 59.6 62.0 40.2 54.0 66.7 gnu-pone to E (06.9) (63.4) (61.6) (50.5) (57.9) (55.4) (52.4) diff 4.3 5. effect: of forest 0 20.4 3.9 23.2 27.2 31.0 25.2 25.4 30.1 butt-notion a) E (40.0) (29.3) (20.4) (27.0) ($3) (25.6) (24.1) outer mly diff -6.1 4.0 6.0 6. typhoon unatt- in 0 62.5 64.3 77.7 67.1 63.0 74.6 64.1 42.6 the Philippines E (00.1) (64.4) (62.5) (59.4) (56.6) (56.3) (53.1) diff -3.0 13.3 4.6 15.0 7.0 -10.5 7. there river: 0 50.0 60.7 57.2 52.5 54.7 43.0 39.5 49.9 begin to form E (71.6) (52.3) (50.0) (40.3) (47.0) (45.7) (43.2) diff -10.9 4.9 6.4 -4.0 -6.2 6.7 0. locatim of a 0 61.3 79.2 62.1 65.1 50.5 50.3 40.5 50.7 volcanic area E (06.4) (63.1) (61.3) (58.2) (54.2) (55.2) (52.1) diff -7.2 3.6 4.1 -6.7 6.6 9. effects of earth- 0 51.3 79.4 53.3 49.4 49.4 52.4 30.9 36.1 me- E (72.3) (52.6) (51.3) (46.7) (46.2) (46.2) (43.6) (111! 7.1 4.2 -7.3 -5.5 10. total mum 0 44.6 70.2 39.7 44.2 41.3 36.5 42.0 37.7 of the Philiminu I (62.9) (47.3) (44.6) (42.4) (41.9) (40.1) (37.9) (lift 7.3 -7.6 11. neuron of air 1701- 0 00.9 90.9 00.4 90.5 07.2 00.4 07.0 01.3 lutim 1n citiee a (100.0) (91.6) (00.9) (64.5) (63.6) (60.0) (75.6) diff 4.0 7.0 5.7 113 12. m of the 0 59.5 ”.4 61.3 52.0 57.4 51.9 62.9 46.0 ht'l Plantation I (03.9) (61.3) (59.5) (56.5) (55.9) (53.6) (50.6) untrol a-iaion diff 4.5 -7.5 -4.0 9.3 -4.6 13. trade of! for 0 46.5 71.0 47.3 47.5 40.6 43.5 42.0 32.4 Wt in E (65.6) (47.9) (46.5) (44.2) (43.7) (41.9) (39.5) .0. acimaco diff 6.2 -7.1 14. objectima to 0 54.4 92.5 59.9 52.5 42.9 49.4 52.9 31.6 mtnactim of E (76.7) (56.0) (54.4) (51.7) (51.1) (49.0) (46.2) unclear plat: our 15.0 -0.0 3.9 -l4.6 Marne tram-Icy 54.6 77.1 56.2 54.7 51.0 51.2 49.0 46.3 max of par- ave rm of can - 1 41 1.03 1.00 .95 .05 too-Ice ave freq of total awle hound: 0p firecial munity ti. Fiahing mity He Heavy inmatay mity Pa Farming unity Li tidal: inmatry why 0 (loam trawency Co mttage inmatzy unity E Brpected frequency ' diff aimiticant dittm (O-E): blank means nut-significant: (linemen 114 The hest known topics to all communities were item 11, source of air pollution in cities, and item 2, reason for the use of pesticides. Most communities did better or as well as expected in these two items. But the special and the heavy industry communities attained the highest frequencies. The topics least known to most communities were those on the effects of forest destruction on water supply (item 5) and new technique in fish culture (item 1). Perhaps not too surprisingly, the farming and the mining communities did better than expected in item 5, while the heavy industry community did not do as well as expected. Comparing their observed frequencies with those of other communities, the farming community did better than four other communities in item 5 while the mining community performed better than five communities on the same item. Although the topic, effect of forest destruction on water supply, was the most difficult to all students as indicated by the low frequency of the entire sample, only the heavy industry community performed less than expected. It was in the topic destructive effects of mining that four communities including the heavy industry, the mining, the cottage industry, and the fishing did less than expected. The hypothesis that exposure to the economic activities in a community would lead to a heightened awareness about that economic base was not supported by the data obtained in item 3 and item 1. The mining community was second lowest on the question about the destructive effects 115 of mining, and the fishing community was lowest on the new technique in fish culture. However, the fishing community was more aware of the typhoon months than the farming community although both forms of livelihood were directly affected by this weather phenomenon. Analysis of the Comprehension Test Items The items in the comprehension test were treated in exactly the same way as those in the knowledge test. The frequency of correct answers were likewise expressed in percent of students who answered the item (Table 13). All communities gave their highest frequencies to the topic blast fishing in item 1. In this item, four communities exceeded their expected frequencies, two communities did as well as expected, only the special community did not do as well as expected. Item 5 had a small total sample frequency meaning that it was a difficult question for all students, but six out of seven communities did as well as expected and only the light industry community performed poorly. Item 3 on environmental degradation caused by mining divided the communities into three groups with the special community doing less than expected although its frequency was highest, the farming community at the opposite and exceeding expectation, and the five communities between them doing as expected. In item 14 on the advantage of using solar energy, the special community did not do as expected, posting a big difference while four communities at the opposite end did better than 116 expected. In item 4 on effect of forest denudation the farming and the mining communities which should be more familiar with dams than the communities in urban areas, did as well as expected, while the special had an observed frequency higher than the expected. Item 13, source of geothermal energy, although not lowest in entire sample frequency, was the only item in which four Communities including farming, fishing, cottage industry, and mining posted lower than expected frequency. The reason was the extremely high frequency of the special community which pulled up the entire sample frequency. In contrast to its performance in item 13, the special community's observed frequency in item 14, advantage of using solar energy, was very much lower than expected. Analysis of the Responsibility Test Items The items in the responsibility test, unlike those of the knowledge and comprehension tests had four weighted options which varied from 1 (least responsible) to 4 (most responsible). The number of students in a community selecting an option in an item make up the frequency of that option. The frequency of each option was converted to percent by dividing it by the number of students who answered the item (recorded in columns for each community in Table 14). In a community the total frequency of the four options would therefore be 100 percent. This analysis focuses on: (1) comparison of the highest frequency options in the different communities, (2) 117 the frequency of Option 4 in the different communities. The highest frequency option in 11 out of 12 items were the same for almost all communities with the special community deviating from the general trend in three items and the farming community'in.one item. In six items the highest frequencies were on weight 4 option. These indicated that the students from different communities were very much alike in their reactions to environmental problems and issues but their valuation of environmental conditions differed much from those of the Judges who assigned weights to the options. In this research these judges were considered environmental conservation specialists. In their choices the students had at times shown a preference for voluntary action or an action imposed upon the general public even when it was evident that a particular group was guilty of causing environmental degradation and should be held responsible for its rehabilitation. In other similar situations, however, the violators of the environment had been correctly identified. In items 2, 5, 8 and 10, the special community's highest frequency selection differed from that of the six other communities. In item 2, the special community”s highest frequency choice was for government to pay the owner of the illegally constructed fishponds that blocked waterways for demolishing them, whereas the other 118 Tablel3. Stuntemmhpectedhemmcieainthemimm WinPeroant Topic: attire Sqle Sp He Li Mi Co Pi Fa (II-4292) (II-541) (ll-547) (ll-711) (ll-539) (II-681) (ii-742) (ii-531) 1. httuctia) embed 0 02.4 97.6 04.1 03.5 04.1 03.2 75.0 60.4 by blunt swung a (100.0) (02.4) (70.3) (79.9) (76.6) (71.7) (67.6) diff -2.4 5.2 4.2 6.6 4.1 2. uplmticm ta- 0 30.0 67.1 40.1 33.6 30.5 32.5 34.0 20.0 liltiple m I (50.6) (30.0) (36.9) (37.6) (36.1) (33.0) (31.0) diff 0.5 -3.6 3. autumnal de- 0 27.9 35.6 26.5 24.9 20.3 27.5 25.0 28.4 gradetia) ceased E (42.1) (27.9) (26.5) (27.1) (25.9) (24.3) (22.9) kg minim diff -6.5 5.5 4. effect of first 32.3 50.0 34.3 30.4 27.3 20.3 26.6 24.0 dumdation a: be (40.0) (32.3) (30.7) (30.7) (30.0) (20.1) (26.5) 9.2 -3.4 -2.5 5. coal - fuel 0 33.7 52.0 34.4 26.5 32.0 31.2 30.6 31.9 towered to oil E (50.9) (33.7) (32.0) (32.7) (31.3) (29.3) (27.6) diff -5.5 6. amtmlling I01]. 0 54.6 02.0 53.9 54.3 53.3 49.2 46.1 46.1 eroaim E (02.4) (54.6) (51.9) (53.0) (50.0) (47.5) (44.8) diff 7. Ihy volcanic 0 36.6 75.1 37.3 33.0 36.3 31.9 26.3 19.8 eruption- oocur E (55.3) (36.6) (34.0) (35.5) (34.0) (31.0) (30.0) diff 19.0 -5.5 —10.2 8. CW fanatic! 0 53.9 77.3 54.2 48.4 51.2 45.8 48.5 57.1 5.8 10. effect or rapid _ mlatim 1n— 0 50.0 91.1 59.1 55.0 59.5 53.6 51.7 44.7 crease a) nat'l E (00.0) (50.0) (55.9) (57.0) (54.7) (51.2) (40.2) eonemy diff 11. (dry garbage 0 23.2 30.7 26.0 21.0 20.0 22.9 22.0 5.0 10. effect of mid ”nation in- 0 50.0 91.1 59.1 55.0 59.5 53.6 51.7 44.7 crease a) nat'l E (00.0) (50.0) (55.9) (57.0) (54.7) (51.2) (40.2) eccnmy diff 1.1 oily m 0 23.2 m in uter- E bodiee hills flab diff 12. pollutants given 0 51.0 of! in turning E trash (lift 13. euarce of clergy 0 31.4 of a pothermal E plant diff 14. advantaw of (sing O 57.5 eolar mercy E diff average obeerved (mm 46.2 Indaxot gun'egorcannmity perfume. avefreqof mtire ample 119 30.7 (35.0) -4.3 02.0 (70.2) 69.1 (47.4) 21.7 64.4 (06.0) -22.4 69.7 1.51 MMdntire 26.0 (23.2) 54.9 (51.0) 30.2 (31.4) 56.3 (57.5) 1.00 21.0 (22.0) 51.6 (49.2) 32.0 (29.0) 53.4 (54.6) .95 eqle for the it- 20.0 (22.5) 52.1 (50.2) 24.3 (30.5) -6.2 60.4 (55.0) 4.6 45.0 22.9 (21.6) 44.1 (40.2) -4.1 25.5 (29.2) -3.7 59.1 (55.0) 4.1 .93 22.0 (20.2) 40.3 (45.1) -4.0 24.6 (27.3) -2.7 55.3 (50.0) 5.3 40.1 .07 19.0 (19.0) 30.6 (42.5) 10.0 (25.7) -6.9 55.0 (47.2) 7.0 .02 Brpected Indaxdparfomce MC). etc-nity Legend: Sp Special 06 leavylrnmtry 11 Light Induetry lfl. lflndng 00 Cottagelnamtry 01 Fishing In Fur-ing 0 Oeuved truancy E Wed (m diff udgndficant differencee (0.3), blank mean mimificnt differ-ice 120 Table 14. Distribution of Mind.- in the Sttulute' ”annuity Taat Topics Total 3P 06 Li Iii m 71 Pa 1. the rutoree .1 area #- ornded by Isl-nine? nature 14.0 3.9 16.5 13.7 15.2 16.0 19.0 17.9 ' unluteere 50.0 06.0 56.1 56.9 59.3 52.1 40.0 53.6 all taxpayer-a 7.0 1.1 4.0 7.7 10.2 9.0 11.4 9.3 fining co. 19.1 9.0 22.6 21.7 15.2 22.9 20.0 19.2 2. Dublition of fielpaxh blocking waterways unfair to omen 16.0 1.0 13.9 15.1 17.2 20.1 20.2 24.0 comm to pay fine. no d-Iolitia: 19.6 32.3 19.9 21.3 14.1 17.0 16.4 16.2 pvt to pay me!“ for 10. 20.0 43.6 25.1 26.1 30.0 23.3 24.0 24.4 carer auffera loee 36.5 22.2 41.1 37.4 30.7 29.7 30.5 35.4 3. m poeticidae. fertilizers that pollute atop (me 0.0 0.5 0.6 9.6 10.2 9.3 10.5 12.6 limit eale 57.6 74.5 50.1 50.2 51.6 52.7 50.6 50.1 obeerve effects before we 7.4 3.9 6.0 6.9 7.6 9.5 7.3 9.0 teach correct uee 26.1 21.1 26.6 25.4 30.5 20.4 23.6 27.5 4. In abould referent victi- of flout md drwmt 11.0 2.4 0.2 11.9 13.9 13.0 14.3 12.1 all citizens 33.4 33.0 37.0 30.5 34.9 33.2 33.2 33.1 luber «porters 14.6 1.7 14.0 13.6 13.6 17.4 10.0 21.6 loggers 41.0 62.9 39.9 43.5 37.5 36.3 34.5 33.1 5. 1010 should nintain calamity well rich (Inner 24.0 5.5 23.1 21.9 27.5 20.2 29.4 31.5 int-trial co. 33.6 76.4 20.0 27.0 26.7 27.0 20.3 23.5 find raining 9.9 0.3 10.1 11.1 10.4 11.6 11.1 13.9 failiea in the calamity 30.2 17.7 30.7 39.2 35.4 32.4 31.2 31.1 10. ‘06 control pollution of fishing are. tax all teach about water pollution volmteere to clen‘u‘p area polluters to pay fine '00 nintain typhocn d.- truction wish for change in typhoon path help those who ask for it omtrilnrte to typhoon find organize deaster ectia) groups Maw-Mm!!! volcanicciptim nothing can be done change source of livelihood rich donate to victiae easybto-pay loans to farmers Cement plant pollution: owner should wait for harmful effects charge anti-pollution coat to employees inform people of pollution install anti-pollution device Disposal of solid‘weste dump into river leave in a pile burn it bury'it Squatter homes on streets pay themlto vacate area provide housing demolish houses imprison offenders to ease populationlproblem donate to familybplanning mixt- taach about feedly'planning aerry'late tarheve lees children practice birth control 20.9 43.3 17.9 17.9 60.4 11.9 10.6 17.1 13.7 20.3 29.7 27.0 40.0 16.2 12.6 12.0 31.6 11.4 45.0 29.1 4.4 17.6 40.9 13.0 10.4 23.0 44.7 121 31.0 52.2 7.6 9.1 93.2 2.4 0.7 3.7 1.3 57.0 0.1 41.5 15.0 11.1 73.5 12.1 10.0 21.0 40.1 23.3 42.9 17.0 16.1 59.4 11.0 7.9 12.5 22.2 33.6 31.7 52.2 14.0 10.0 13.0 31.6 9.0 45.6 27.2 3.1 17.7 51.9 10.0 9.3 22.7 30.3 19.3 40.6 15.4 16.7 59.7 10.2 9.7 14.4 26.0 32.5 26.3 47.2 16.2 14.4 12.2 29.9 9.0 40.2 30.1 4.1 16.4 49.4 12.4 17.2 24.7 45.7 24.5 32.0 24.5 10.2 54.2 15.6 12.1 10.1 15.5 34.4 32.0 10.1 39.3 16.0 13.0 30.9 12.4 20.7 7.1 51.9 27.3 2.4 10.4 51.9 15.5 15.3 19.4 49.7 19.4 41.2 10.0 21.4 51.6 10.0 14.2 15.4 16.3 30.6 25.6 27.4 40.6 10.6 14.0 13.7 20.0 12.2 45.3 30.1 5.5 23.2 41.2 10.0 15.9 24.6 40.7 15.4 40.2 10.2 10.2 59.9 11.0 12.1 16.2 15.2 31.9 32.3 20.6 36.5 20.5 14.5 16.4 26.6 10.2 30.0 33.6 7.3 16.7 42.4 14.6 10.4 22.2 44.0 15.4 34.0 24.7 25.1 52.7 14.7 16.6 16.0 17.0 37.5 20.6 17.0 23.7 19.1 13.1 20.5 22.0 43.6 39.2 7.6 10.5 34.6 15.7 16.3 31.9 36.1 122 communities believed the owner should suffer the demolition without remuneration. In item 5, the majority of the students in the special community selected industrial company over families in the community to maintain the community well. In both items, the selection of the majority of students in the special community was considered indicative of less than maximum responsibility for environmental conservation. However in item 8, the special community gave highest frequency to easy-to-pay loans to farmers as a way of helping them recover from the destruction caused by volcanic eruptions. This option was considered "most responsible” from the point of view of the farmers. But since the special community were mostly students from the elite, well-to-do families, it appeared that their selection required less responsibility and reflected self-interest:on the part of such families. In item 10, the special community preferred leaving solid waste in a pile to burying it or burning it, thus reflecting a lack of responsibility over the consequences of that action. Analysis of the Interest Test Items The 40 items in the interest test were condensed into 12 main topics by collapsing three to five closely interrelated items into one. The responses were indicated by choosing one of four weights varying from 1 (not needed), 2 (slightly needed), 3 (needed), to 4 (very much needed). The responses reflected the students' perception of a need 123 to learn more about the topic. Table 15 displays the frequencies obtained for each weight from the seven communities. ' The topics declared most needed by the students were the following: (1) energy, its uses and effects on the environment, (2) population dynamics and the environment, (3) conservation and recycling, (4) farming, use of fertilizers and pesticides, (5)‘water supply, (6) fishing and its effects on the environment, and (7) environmental pollution, its abatement and control. Only the light industry community gave highest frequency to the topic mining and its effects on the environment as most needed. The majority of the students in all seven communities considered the tOpic forests, their denudation and effects on the environment as needed but not most needed. Only the farming community selected the topic natural phenomena: typhoons, earthquakes, etc. as most needed; the other six communities gave it their second highest frequency. 124 Table 15 Distributia) of Wi- in the Students' Interut lest mtire lbpic Suple 8p Be Li Ii 06 Pi Fe 1. Mining md its effects wtl 14.4 9.4 15.7 14.2 15.7 15.0 14.9 15.1 on the nvironmmt wt2 20.5 33.2 27.5 24.9 26.9 29.2 30.9 27.6 wt3 ”.6 36.2 ”.5 ”.5 ”.0 31.9 27.5 ”.5 wt4 ”.5 ”.1 ”.4 31.4 27.4 ”.1 ”.6 ”.7 2. fishing and its wtl 13.9 7.3 14.5 13.3 16.6 14.5 14.9 16.4 effects on the m— wt2 22.2 24.4 ”.9 ”.3 ”.0 22.1 ”.6 ”.7 viraraent wt3 31.0 37.0 ”.2 29.5 32.7 31.7 ”.0 34.1 wt4 32.0 31.4 35.4 ”.0 ”.9 31.0 ”.7 27.0 3. forcing. (me of fer- wtl 0.7 4.9 0.1 9.5 9.5 9.0 9.5 9.6 tilisera: p-ticihs. wt2 19.3 ”.0 10.0 15.6 ”.5 ”.1 ”.2 ”.0 effects of the avi- wt3 33.7 39.4 32.0 ”.9 32.7 34.7 34.0 32.7 rmment wt4 30.3 34.0 41.9 43.9 327 36.1 36.3 37.7 4. cottage indetries. rmr wtl 11.5 0.5 10.0 11.2 12.3 11.9 13.3 12.7 nterials. effect on wt2 27.5 35.1 ”.9 ”.9 27.3 27.2 25.5 ”.2 eoonaiic Melon-1t wt3 ”.2 40.2 34.6 33.7 35.9 37.0 ”.6 34.0 wt4 24.0 16.2 25.6 31.2 24.6 ”.1 24.6 ”.3 5. heavy int-tries. wtl 13.0 10.7 12.4 13.0 13.4 14.0 13.2 13.0 pollutim cost. effect wt2 ”.6 27.7 ”.1 ”.1 ”.0 ”.4 ”.2 ”.4 a) maviromnmu 4‘: eoo. wt3 34.5 37.5 34.0 ”.0 34.6 31.2 33.7 ”.7 davelqmnt wt4 25.9 24.1 ”.7 27.1 ”.3 ”.4 24.9 ”.0 6. population math and wtl 9.7 7.4 7.9 9.1 9.7 10.2 10.9 12.5 control. effect on wt2 16.5 16.1 16.3 13.2 13.2 17.0 16.4 10.1 Wt 0 sec. wt3 ”.3 37.5 24.7 ”.1 31.0 ”.6 ”.9 33.9 davelogarmt wt4 43.5 39.0 51.1 51.5 40.1 41.4 43.7 35.5 7. forests. (mes. dema- wtl 15.6 13.5 15.2 16.1 17.1 15.2 17.0 15.1 tion I”: effects cm the wt2 27.3 37.3 ”.9 24.5 27.5 25.2 26.9 ”.6 Mt wt3 31.7 32.0 ”.7 ”.4 32.2 33.0 31.5 32.4 wt4 25.4 17.3 27.2 29.1 ”.2 ”.6 24.7 ”.9 0. Hater in nature supply wtl 7.6 5.0 5.4 0.2 9.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 to been settluent. wt2 19.1 10.5 17.1 15.7 ”.7 17.5 ”.0 ”.2 effect a) env'mt. wt3 35.6 41.0 34.1 ”.0 34.1 37.7 36.4 35.7 wt4 37.0 35.5 43.4 45.4 35.1 36.7 31.0 36.1 9. Clergy urploration. wtl 6.7 3.3 6.2 7.7 6.9 7.2 7.5 7.3 motreactim. (mu. wt2 17.1 14.2 16.9 14.3 15.9 10.1 ”.1 10.9 effects on the mav‘mt. wt3 32.2 35.0 31.5 ”.0 33.6 33.4 31.2 32.6 wt4 44.1 47.5 45.4 49.2 43.6 41.3 40.3 41.2 10. pollutia). abatamlt wtl 15.6 0.2 15.3 16.6 17.7 16.0 17.7 16.9 costs. effects a: the wt2 ”.4 16.5 ”.5 10.9 24.0 ”.7 ”.0 24.6 muw' mums“! £3 *1 *2 lt4 3335 n.‘ n.‘ 0.7 19.1 35.5 30.7 ”.7 ”.0 ”.6 27.7 125 35.7 39.5 3.5 16.0 37.1 43.1 10.7 ”.0 37.2 24.1 ”0‘ 33.0 4.7 17.0 34.7 42.7 ”.7 ”.0 ”.1 ”.0 ”.7 33.0 0.9 10.0 32.1 44.1 ”.0 22.2 31.5 31.0 ”.6 ”.9 7.2 ”.4 35.0 35.6 22.2 15.7 29.9 ”.0 ”.2 31.1 0.1 19.1 ”.4 ”.4 ”.6 ”.0 32.5 ”.4 ”.9 ”.7 7.9 ”.5 34.9 35.7 ”.7 ”.5 29.9 ”.5 33.0 25.5 0.4 ”.4 30.4 32.6 25.0 10.2 27.9 ”.0 126 Analysis of the Interview Results The interview was conducted to obtain free expression of perceptions, opinions, and feelings of students and teachers on the state of the environment and related issues and problems. It was intended to help identify errors and weaknesses of interpretation of naturalphenomenaand consequences of human action on the environment. The responses to the interview should deepen and amplify insights into needed content and viable approaches and strategies which can be built into an environmental education curriculum for the secondary schools in the Philippines. A total of 346 respondents composed of 116 second year students, 114 fourthlyear students, and 116 teachers were interviewed. This portion of the analysis concentrates on the student responses. The teacher responses shall be taken up in the next chapter. \ Responses to the same question were tallied according to meaning and sorted out into the three groups of respondents. The various meanings given to the same questions were categorized. An overall view was made on these categorized responses. The students' answers to the questionnaire were cross-checked with the interview responses for further interpretation, if warranted. Over several points in the interview, the majority of the students expressed a belief in the abundance of natural resources in the Philippines which remained untapped due to lack of modern technology and equipment as in the case of 127 mineral, fishery, and farming resources, or continually replenished as in the case of water, soil, and also fishery resources. If awareness of an impending disaster due to shortage of an element necessary to life awakens conservation consciousness for that element, as had been observed in the energy crisis, then the reverse condition, abundance, could dull that conservation consciousness. The belief in abundance-in-reserve could have engendered in the students a feeling of complacency rather than urgencyto clarify onefls values concerning the wise use of natural resources. This absence of commitment to values of conservation was demonstrated in the responsibility test when the majority choice placed the responsibility for the rehabilitation of a degraded environment on the user who profited from the natural resource,in one question, and, in another question, on the general public through taxation, even if there was a profit-making user. It was also gathered from the interview that students had difficulty making scientifically correct cause- consequence relationships in natural phenomena. A few examples of this were: (1) 'soil is fertile because of the wide expanse of land', implying that the fertility of the soil depends on the land area; (2)'the loss of forests would decrease the amount of air", when actually it is only oxygen, a part of air, given off by trees that decreases with the decrease in the forest area, and it is the evapotranspiration of water from trees absorbing heat that makes us feel cooler; (3) 'rainwater is absorbed by forests 128 thus decreasing the amount available to manfl, indicating the failure of the students to see the water-storage and flood- preventative value of forests; and (4) 'the use of pesticides in farming increases yield because pesticides give energy to plants', not really knowing that the true function of pesticides is to kill plant pests. On some environmental issues and problems, students were woefully ignorant. Over 90% of the students in the interview sample were superficially aware (awareness that there were objections but not the reasons for the objections) or completely unaware of the reasons for the objection to the construction of a nuclear plant. Some of the reasons given by the students were more socially- oriented: the site took up a large area of farm land bought by the government thus reducing the land area for food production; it required a great deal of expense drawn from the public treasury which barely had enough to keep the government running and would require a great deal more to maintain it; it could have ill effects on human health. Although some students from the special community mentioned radiation leakage and explosion due to heat accumulation, a larger number of students admitted they did not know why some people were objecting to a nuclear plant. Some students did not even know what a nuclear plant was. On the subject of pollution, the majority of the students gave inadequate, partially wrong, or completely wrong definitions of the term: (1) the spread of waste 129 which affects health adversely; (2) a kind of poison to man; (3) anything in excess; (4) illness or death caused by insufficiency of some essential substance. More than a third of the students did not know what environmental conservation was. About a fourth of the students interpreted it to mean the wise (not wasteful) use of electricity, oil, gasoline, and other forms of energy. It was also through the interview that the students were found to be more sensitive to social changes, issues, and problems rather than the biophysical. Asked about the national condition that they wished improved, the students named social problems associated with rapid population growth and social justice. Examples of these social problems were: overcrowding in many city areas; proliferation of squatters in.the suburban areas, extreme poverty of a large proportion of people all over the nation; unequal justice for the poor and the ethnic groups, on the one hand, and the rich and powerful government officials, on the other hand; drug addiction particularly among the youth; the breakdown of moral values of honesty and integrity in the government resulting in corruption in office;and brain drain, the exodus of the professionals and the highly skilled away from the country. The interview, as shown in this section, supported, explained, and amplified the findings in the questionnaire. Together, the two instruments for information-gathering should provide a profile of the environmental consciousness of secondary school students in the Philippines. Chapter 5 Presentation and Analysis of the Teacher Data The teacher data were gathered by using the same questionnaire and interview schedule used in collecting the student data. They were also organized, analyzed, and presented in the same manner as the student data. The variables used, however, differed in some respects. The independent variables were community, school, and subject taught. The levels of community and school were the same as those in the student data. The levels of subject taught were science and social studies. The dependent variables were knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interests, exactly the same as those of the student data. A total of 111 teachers responded to the questionnaire of which 61 were science teachers and 50 were social studies teachers. In the interview, 116 teachers responded. Frequency Distributions of the Teachers' Scores in the Four Environmental Consciousness Tests The frequency distributions of the teachers' scores in the four tests were plotted into frequency polygons (Figure 6) to provide a profile of the teachers' environmental consciousness. 131 / — knowledge (/ \\ \ 3° _ —-compreheneion . :I \‘ 1 25 - ---reeponsihility i! ‘1‘ I ..I " ---|nterest 3 .2o - C 3 B 5.: 15. - 10 ' 5 .- 12 3 4 5 07 0 01111112131415 Scores Figure 0: Frequency distribution oi the teachers’ knowledge. comprehension responsibility, and Interest scores As could be seen in the frequency polygons, the scores in the responsibility test had more high scores than the other three tests, being farthest to the right on the abscissa and tallest. The interest test also had very high scores but the frequencies were less than those in the responsibility test. The teachers obtained more low scores in the comprehension test than in the knowledge test. 132 Table 16 Statistics on the Frequency Distributions of the Teachers' Scores in Knowledge, Comprehension, RespOnsibility, and Interest. - Knowledge Comprehension Responsibility Interest Min.Score 4.000 4.000 29.000 45.000 Max. Score 14.000 14.000 48.000 160.000 Mean 10.748 8.937 38.694 124.757 Mode 11.000 9.000 40.000 136.000 ‘ Median 11.063 9.043 39.000 130.333 Std dev ,. 2.117 2.159 3.227 24.825 Std error .201 .205 .306 2.356 Variance 4.481 4.660 10.414 616.277 Coef. of var‘n 19.696 24.154 8.340 19.899 .95 conf int 10.350 8.531 38.087 120.087 to 11.146 to 9.343 to 39.301 to 129.426 N 111 111 111 111 From the statistics of the frequency distributions (Table 16), we find the mean lower than the median in all four tests. Therefore, more than 50 percent of the teachers' scores were higher than the mean. The teachers ‘were most heterogeneous in the comprehension test and most homogeneous in the responsibility test as their respective coefficients of variation indicated. About 95% of the teachers scored between 6.51 and 14.98 in knowledge, between 4.62 and 10426 in comprehension, between 32.24 and 45.15 in responsibility, and between 75.11 and 174.41 in interset as indicated by the standard deviation of each test. The environmental consciousness means of the sample teachers can be generalized to the population of science and 133 social studies teachers in similar communities as in the study. At the 1.95 confidence level the knowledge mean of the population was between 10.35 and 11.15; the comprehension mean was between 8.53 and 9.34; the responsibility mean was between.38~09 and 39.30; and the interest mean was between 120.09 and 129.43. Testing for the Significance of Independent Variables by Multivariate Analysis of Variance The teachers in this sample were grouped by community, by school, and by subject taught. To find out which of these independent variables produced significant differences, a multivariate analysis of variance using the SPSS MANOVA was performed on the teachers' scores. The results are shown in Table 17. Table 17. Multivariate Tests of Significance Source of Error Variation df F Main effect Com (Community) 280.30 2-12196 Interaction effect Com x Sch 280.30 1.82762 The main effect of community was found significant at lower than .05 level. The main effect of subject and school were both nonsignificant. One interaction effect--community 134 by school--was. significant at .05 level. Accepting the .05 significance level of the community by school interaction rather than .01 was justified on the grounds that the total number of cases (N) of teachers was small compared with the student N. Since the multivariate test on the main effect of community and the interaction effect of community and school on the response variables were significant, the same main and interaction effects were tested to determine the magnitude of the effects univariatelyu ‘The magnitude of the effect was indicated by the F statistic (Table 18). Table 18. Univariate Tests of Significance Source of Dependent Variation Variable F Main effect Community knowledge 3.78360 comprehension 3.92292 Interaction effect Com x Sch comprehension 2.57336 interest 2.34187 The effect of community, as indicated by the F statistic in the univariate test, was significant at the .05 level on knowledge and comprehension and it was greater on comprehension than on knowledge. The means of communities on knowledge and comprehension demonstrate this mainieffect 135 (Table 19). No significant main effect of community was observed on responsibility and interest. Table 19 Teachers' Mean Knowledge and Comprehension Scores Showing the Main Effect of Community Community N Knowledge Comprehension Special ‘ 19 12.21 10.37 Heavy industry 16 10.38 9.88 Light industry 16 10.00 8.13 Mining 16 11.00 9.00 Cottage industry 15 10.53 8.07 Fishing 16 10.31 8.69 Farming 15 9.47 8.07 The highest mean scores in both knowledge and comprehension were observed in the special community, and the lowest, in the farming community. The mining community obtained a higher mean score than the heavy industry and light industry communities in knowledge, and again obtained higher mean score than the light industry community in comprehension. The mean scores of the urban communities (special, heavy industry, light industry, and mining) were generally higher than those of the rural communities (cottage industry, fishing, and farming) in both knowledge and 136 comprehension. The community at school interaction effects on comprehension and interest were significant at lower than .05 level. There were no significant interaction effects on knowledge and responsibility; The community x school interaction effects on comprehension are shown in Table 20, and on interest in Table 21. Table 20. Teachers' Mean Comprehension Scores Showing Community x School Interaction Effects Community N Public N Private Special 11 10.54 8 10.13 Heavy Industry 8 9.50 8 10.19 Light Industry 8 9.88 8 6.38 Mining 6 8.17 8 9.63 Cottage Industry 8 8.63 7 7.43 Fishing 8 9.38 8 8.00 Farming 7 8.29 8 7.88 Table 21. Teachers' Mean Interest Scores Showing Community x School Interaction Effects Public Private Community N School N School Special 11 102.73 8 132.50 Heavy industry 8 134.88 8 145.13 'Light industry 8 136.12 8 119.38 Mining 6 127.50 8 125.75 Cottage industry 8 134.13 7 116.43 Fishing 8 130.25 8 123.25 Farming 7 106.00 8 118.13 137 The interest mean scores did not show the urban to rural trend that was observed in the knowledge and comprehension scores. In the public school group, the special and the farming communities obtained the lowest mean scores, while the other five communities scored about 20 to 30 points higher. In the private school group, the lowest mean score was observed in the cottage industry community, and the highest, which is about 29 points higher, was observed in the heavy industry community. The public school in the special community got the highest mean score in the comprehension test and the lowest mean score in the interest test. The biggest mean difference in the comprehension test between the public and private school in the same community was observed. In the interest test, the biggest mean difference between the public and private school in the same community was found in the special community. Multivariate Contrasts of Communities A priori multivariate contrasts that parallel those in the students' data were performed. The purpose was to identify the communities that differed significantly from each other. Although no significant effects of the independent variables on responsibility were found, yet the means of the communities in the responsibility test varied (Table 22). For this reason all four environmental 138 constructs were included in multivariate contrasts to test for significance of differences in the environmental consciousness of communities. The multivariate contrasts using the SPSS MANOVA package are shown in Table 23. Table 22. Means of Communities in the Responsibility Test Community N Mean Special 19 40.00 Heavy Industry 16 38.56 Light Industry 16 38.63 Mining 14 39.07 Cottage Industry 15 38.13 Fishing 16 38.38 Farming 15 37.80 Table 23. Significant Multivariate Contrasts ( as .05) of Communities on the Teachers' Environmental Consciousness Contrasted Communities Error df F Special vs Heavy industry 101 6.18 Heavy industry vs Light industry 101 3.96 The contrasts between the light industry and the mining communities, between the mining and the cottage industry communities, between the cottage industry and the fishing communities, and between the fishing and the farming communities were found to be non-significant. It is 139 possible, however, that the light industry and/or the mining community sigificantly differed from the fishing and the farming communities, although no contrasts on them were made. The teachers in the special community differed more from the teachers in the heavy industry community in their environmental consciousness than those in the heavy industry and light industry communities did from each other as indicated by their F statistics. Table 24. Significant Univariate Contrasts (c = .05) of Communities on the Teacher's Environmental Consciousness Dependent Contrasted Communities Variable F Special vs Heavy industry knowledge 4.27 comprehension 7.21 interest 5.94 Heavy industry vs Light knowledge 12.51 industry comprehension 11.49 From the univariate test, it was evident that the teachers in the special and heavy industry communities differed more in comprehension than they did in interest and knowledge and slightly more in interest than in knowledge. The teachers in the heavy and light industry communities differed more in knowledge than in comprehension as 14o indicated by their F statistics, but the difference was not significant enough to explain the variance in responsibility and interest. Identifying Environmental Topics for Teacher Education Analysis of the Knowledge Test Items This portion of the study was intended to identify tOpics of greatest and least knowledge to teachers in each community that may be needed for teacher updating in environmental education. The frequency of correct answers to each item was sorted out into communities and then converted to percent by dividing each one by the number of teachers in the community who answered it. This is the observed frequency in percent . As in the students' data, the expected frequency was also computed and given directly below each observed frequency. The significant difference between the observed and the expected frequency was noted. No number under the observed and expected frequencies mean that the difference between them was nonsignificant. The computed expected frequency for some communities exceeded 100 percent. But the realistic expected frequency could not be more than 100 percent. Note that the difference between the observed and the expected frequencies sometimes exceeding 10 percent was yet not significant. The reason was the small size of the 141 community sample (N) which increased the range of the confidence limits. The topics best known to the teachers were item 11, source of air pollution in cities, and item 2, use of pesticides. It may be recalled that these were the same two items best known to the students. The topics least known to the teachers were item 1,new technique in fishmculture, item 9 effects of earthquakes, and item 13, tradeoff for development in medical science. Item 4, uses of a multipurpose dam, was known to less teachers in the urban communities than expected, but it was known to more teachers in the rural areas than expected. On the hypothesis that exposure to a particular community leads to greater awareness of the activities and events in that community--the data obtained from the teachers was not decisive for or against. The fishing community had the lowest frequency among communities and much lower than expected on the topic new technique in fish culture. The farming community performed slightly lower than expected, and its observed frequency was the lowest among the communities on the topic use of pesticides. The mining community did much better than expected on the tOpic destructive effects of mining, but its observed frequency on the topic effect of forest destruction on water suppry was much lower than the expected frequency. 142 Table26.Teachera'Frequencies of Correct Answers To The Knowledge Test Total Topic Sample Sp Re Li Mi Co Pi Fa 1. new technique in 40.1 66.7 50.5 60.0 64.3 33.3 20.0 30.5 0 fish culture 76.0 50.5 44.7 50.5 46.7 43.3 44.7 E -23.3 diff 2. reason for rise of 95.5 100.0 100.0 07.5 100.0 93.3 100.0 06.7 0 of pesticide 100.9 100.3 00.0 100.9 92.6 05.9 00.0 E diff 3. destructive effects 76.9 94.7 07.5 53.3 05.7 70.6 75.0 57.1 0 of mining 07.7 00.7 71.5 00.7 74.6 69.2 71.5 E diff 4. uses of a multi- 06.2 94.7 07.5 75.0 04.6 06.7 07.5 05.7 0 purpose dam 90.3 90.5 00.2 90.5 03.6 77.6 00.2 E diff 5. effects of forest 70.4 94.4 62.5 00.0 57.1 64.3 50.0 00.0 0 destruction on 00.3 73.9 65.5 73.9 60.3 63.4 65.5 E water supply 14.1 diff 6. typhoon months in 79.6 09.5 93.0 06.1 76.6 06.1 66.7 50.0 0 the Philippines 90.7 03.6 14.0 03.6 77.2 71.6 74.0 E -24.0 diff 7. where rivers 71.0 94.7 60.0 56.3 70.6 64.3 50.0 06.7 0 begin to form 01.0 75.4 66.0 75.4 69.6 64.6 66.0 E 12.9 -14.6 19.9 diff 0. location of a 03.6 09.5 93.0 50.0 100.0 00.0 01.3 93.3 0 volcanic area 95.3 07.0 77.7 07.0 01.1 75.2 77.7 E ~27.7 12.2 15.6 diff 9. effects of 61.3 73.7 50.0 50.0 71.4 46.7 62.5 73.3 0 earthquakes 69.9 64.4 57.0 64.4 59.5 55.2 57.0 E diff 10. total population 72.2 72.2 75.0 07.5 69.2 93.3 60.0 35.7 0 of the Philippines 02.3 75.0 67.1 75.0 70.0 65.0 67.1 E 20.4 23.3 -3l.4 diff 11. 12. 13. 14. source of air pol- lution in cities function of the lat'l Pollution Control Comm. trade off for de- velopment in med. science objections to con- struction if a nuclear plant Average frequency Index of performance ' 90.2 94.4 63.1 70.2 77.1 Index of 100.0 111.9 100.0 100.0 04.2 71.9 70.9 09.1 v00.1 E (Expected frequency) - Performance 143 100.0 100.0 100.0 103.1 91.3 0.7 100.0 100.0 99.1 75.0 66.3 93.0 02.1 01.3 gvarage frequegcy of community average frequency of total sample 1.05 Total sample 07.0 43.0 50.7 75.0 72.7 71.7 .93 frequency 103.1 100.0 99.1 71.4 66.3 71.4 02.1 00.7 100.0 95.3 4.7 00.0 91.6 66.7 61.2 71.4 75.9 74.7 .97 93.0 00.4 07.5 04.9 56.3 56.0 60.0 70.4 69.2 .90 93. 07. 92. 07. 40. 50. 06. 72. 71. .90 144 Analysis of the Comprehension Test Items The comprehension test ites were analyzed.in exactly the same way as the knowledge items. Table 26 shows the item frequencies of each community. It was obvious that item 1 was known to all teachers. All communities attained 100 percent frequencies. The most difficult item was that which required a scientific explanation as to why garbage dumping in water bodies killed fish. All the teachers in the mining community answered the item incorrectly. The student frequency on this item was slightly higher than the teacher frequency (i.e. 22.1 vs. 19.8, respectively). However, four communities performed better than expected. The next most difficult topic was about coal as a fuel compared_t01oil. However, despite its low total sample frequency (33.3 percent), five communities attained.better than expected. The student frequency on this item was just 1.1 percent lower. The farming community had the smallest observed frequencies among communities on multiple cropping and soil erosion and these frequencies were much lower than expected. The mining community was second lowest in frequency of correct answers to the item on degradation caused by mining. Five communities excluding special and heavy industry had lower observed than expected frequencies on the item on the 145 Markhachers'msuvedmdhpactedmintheWT-tw in Percent lbtal Topics Suple Sp He Li Mi 0) Pi Pa 1. dutructicm cmmd by 100.0 . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0 blast fishing 100.0 100.0 07.0 100.0 91.0 06.0 93.0 E 13 9.0 14.0 7.0 diff 2. esqalanatim for mlti- 50.7 63.2 60.0 57.7 70.6 60.0 43.0 40.0 0 pie crowing 69.3 65.7 51.1 60.5 53.4 50.5 54.6 E diff 3. “insult” dagra- 42.0 57.9 62.5 40.0 35.0 46.7 37.5 33.3 0 dation cat-ad by mining 49.6 47.0 36.5 43.3 30.2 36.1 39.1 E diff 4. effect of for-at danu- 41.7 57.9 50.0 35.7 42.9 33.3 31.3 35.7 0 dation a: d- 49.2 46.7 36.3 43.0 37.9 35.9 30.0 E diff 5. coal - a fuel med 33.3 42.9 37.5 10.0 35.7 ”.7 37.5 35.7 0 to oil 39.3 37.3 29.0 34.3 ”.3 ”.6 31.0 E diff 6. omtrolling soil 00.0 70.9 01.3 93.0 05.7 00.0 75.0 66.7 0 erosian 94.4 09.6 69.6 02.4 72.0 60.0 74.4 E diff 7. why volcanic eruptian 66.4 09.5 01.3 46.6 70.6 53.3 50.0 60.0 0 occur 70.4 74.4 57.0 60.4 60.4 57.1 61.0 E diff 0. typhoa: forumtion 64.5 73.7 07.5 60.0 50.3 60.0 43.0 64.3 0 76.1 72.2 56.1 66.4 50.7 55.5 60.0 E diff 9. prethdnant age group 06.5 100.0 93.0 07.5 70.6 06.7 00.0 75.0 0 in a fast growing 100.0 96.9 75.3 09.1 70.7 74.4 ”.4 E population diff 10. effect of rapid popula- 00.1 09.5 07.5 60.0 92.0 06.7 62.5 73.3 0 tin: increase a: the 94.5 09.7 69.7 02.5 72.9 60.9 74.5 E national my diff 11. my garbage duping in 19.0 36.0 12.5 10.0 0 6.7 25.0 33.3 0 water-kills fish 12. pollutants givmi off in hurningtrash l3. aourceofuxergyofa gaothar‘lplnt 14. advmtage of wing molar cuergy averagefrequmcy Indaxof 04.4 70.9 57.5 63.3 100.0 99.6 94.7 03.7 61.1 67.9 74.7 146 73.3 79.4 66.7 64.4 71.1 m may of cum—L perform ' average fmq of total ample E(Blpectedfrequancy)-Indaxof Performoa 1.10 1.12 total s-ple frecpmq 17.2 01.3 73.4 60.0 61.7 71.4 50.0 .07 05.7 06.9 70.6 73.0 57.0 59.2 1.03 60.0 76.0 60.0 64.5 50.0 52.3 57.9 .91 17.3 01.3 7206 56.3 61.0 37.5 49.5 54.4 10.4 I diff 06.7 0 70.5 I diff 60.0 0 65.9 I diff 60.0 0 53.5 E diff 50.9 .93 147 effect of forest denudation on dams. The fishing community attained lowest among the communities on the item about typhoon formation. Analysis of the Responsibility Test Items It had been shown by univariate analysis that the dependent variable responsbility was not significant meaning that its variance was due to chance errors. The responsibility test items were nevertheless analyzed to find out how the teachers responded to the topics in the items and infer something of their environmental values. The highest frequencies in the seven communities were usually found on the same option but their valuations of similar situations were not consistent. In some situations, the profit-making user of a resource was selected to do the restoration of an area degraded by his use, as in the case of the mining company to restore an area it dug up, or made to shoulder the cost of abatement, as in the case of the cement plant owner to install anti-pollution device. But in reforestation, 50 to 80 percent of the teachers would hold all citizens responsible instead of the loggers who profited from the deforestation" A similar response was obtained in the case of pollution control of fishing areas where 45 to 75 percent of the teachers preferred to tax all rather than have the polluters pay a fine. 148 Table”. Matrimtimef'reachara' WintheR-pmihilityhst WinPerofit Ibpia mm 0p la Li Ii 00 P1 Pa l. the rotores an area degraded by fining? nature 0.9 5.3 12.5 6.3 14.3 0 12.5 13.3 volunteer. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 taxpayers 10.5 6 3 0 0 0 12.5 6.7 5.4 fining on. 04.2 01.3 93.0 05.7 100.0 75.0 00.0 05.7 2. Dmlition of fishponds blocking waterways unfair to aster 5.4 0 0 0 7 1 0 12.5 20.0 pmaliza tamer; no dmlition 17.9 10.5 ”.5 12.5 ”.6 10.0 25.0 6.7 ant to pay tuner for lma 37.5 36.0 35.3 43.0 14.3 50.0 37.5 40.0 Gazer buffer loss. 39.3 39.3 35.3 43.0 50.0 31.3 25.0 33.3 3. a: pesticide and far- tilizars that pollute stop use 0.0 5 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 limit sale' 0.0 0 0 6 3 0 0 0 0 oilerve affects before use 15.2 15.0 10.0 25.0 7.1 25.0 6.3 6.7 teed: correct use 03.0 70.9 01.3 60.0 92.9 75.0 93.7 93.3 Hho should.reforast7 victims of floods and' droughts all citizens lumber exporters m‘ Hho should maintain the cammnuxy'well? rich donor ind-trial cue-hr fund raising families in colaumdtar To control pollution of fishing areas tax all teach about water poilution' volunteers to clean up areas polluters to pay fines To minimize typhoon destruction wish for change in typhoon path‘ help those who ask contribute to typhoon fund organise disaster action group 3.6 5.4 19.6 7.1 5.4 1.0 3.6 2.7 149 0 0 7.1 6.3 47.4 75.0 07.5 71.4 15.0 0 6.3 0 31.6 25.0 6.3 0 12.5 6.3 0 10.5 0 0 31.6 6.3 6.3 7.1 57.9 01.3 25.0 64.3 60.4 75.0 75.0 57.1 0 0 0 7 1 0 0 10.0 0 31.6 25.0 6.3 35.7 5 3 0 0 7 1 0 0 0 7 1 0 0 0 7 1 94.7 100.0 100.0 70.6 0 6.7 75.0 01.3 66.7 6.3 0 6.7 12.5 10.0 20.0 6.3 0 0 12.5 10.0 26.7 0 0 13.3 01.3 01.3 60.0 56.3 56.3 12.5 10.0 31.3 10.0 6.3 0 6.7 25.0 07.5 93.3 10. Farm crqia astroyad ‘ by volcanic eruption nothing can be done 3.6 change livelihood ”.4 rich rhnata to victim. 56.3 farmer gets say-to- pay loans ‘ 10.0 that cater diould b shout out plat pollutiax? wait for harmful effects 1 . 0 chargewsttoqlayeaa 4.5 inform We of [allu- tion 9.0 install anti-pollution davica 03.9 that to do with piled up solid Imstu. amp into river 2.7 leave in a pile 29.5 burn it 0.0 m it 67.0 Squtter hoses a: streets of the city pay than tovacate areas 1.9 provirh hwsing 3.7 150 0 0 6.3 ”.3 31.3 10.0 73.7 50.0 60.0 0 10.0 6.3 0 0 0 10.5 0 0 0 0 6 3 09.5 1”.0 93.7 0 6.3 6.3 15.0 43.0 25.0 04.2 ”.0 60.0 0 21.4 57.1 ”.4 14.3 7.1 92.0 12.5 0 6.7 10.0 10.0 13.3 31.3 43.0 66.7 37.5 37.5 1.3.3 25.0 10.0 6.7 56.3 01.3 00.0 6.3 0 0 37.5 37.5 40.0 0 0 6.3 56.3 56.3 60.0 0 6.3 6.7 duliah mttu' hues 13.9 imriscnthaof- fmmrs‘ ” .6 12. To ease population hate to fmnily planting projects 7.3 teach about f-ily planning [rejects 59.1 nrry late to have less Ida 10.0 practice birth cmtrol‘ ”.6 151 15.0 0 0 21.4 25.0 31.3 0 73.7 100.0 03.3 70.6 75.0 62.5 93.3 5.3 6.3 0 7.1 6.3 6.3 20.0 42.1 75.0 71.4 57.1 62.543.066.7 5.3 6.3 0 7.1 12.5 37.5 0 47.4 12.5 20.6 20.6 10.012.513.3 'stufints' hidaast fregmcy e..—-".' 152 On violations of the law the teachers were again not consistent. Concerning the demolition of illegal fishponds blocking waterways, about 30 to 50 percent of the teachers would let the owner suffer the loss, but about the same proportion of teachers would like the government to pay the owner for the loss. In the case of squatter homes on city streets, a high majority of teachers selected imprisonment of the offenders, and only a small proportion selected demolition or providing housing. The choice of the teacher majority was not always congruent with the choice of the student majority. Where the teachers chose the mining company to rehabilitate the area it degraded by its activities, the students chose volunteers. The teachers would like all citizens to participate in reforestation projects but the students would limit their sale. The teachers would rather teach the correct use of fertilizers and pesticides to control the pollution they cause but the students selected the loggers for this activity. The teachers selected the families in the community for the maintenance of the community well. The students would let a rich donor to maintain it. The teachers were for taxing all citizens to control the pollution of fishing areas. The students would rather have the public learn about water pollution. To minimize typhoon destruction students would wish for a change in typhoon path but the 153 teachers would organize disaster action groups. To help a cement plant owner resolve his pollution problem, the teachers recommended.the installation of an anti-pollution device, but the students would rather wait for harmful effects before taking action. To ease the population problem, the teachers recommended teaching about family planning, the students recommended birth control. Analysis of the Interest Test Items The interest test items were on the same format as the responsibility test items where no option was declared wrong. .Any one of four options in each item was accepted and counted. The 40 items in the test were collapsed into 12. The responses varying from 1 (not needed) to 4 (very much needed) reflected the teachers' perception of their need to learn more about environmental topics. Table 27 displays the results of the interest test. The topics that were found most needed by teachers in all communities were (1) farming, use of fertilizers and pesticides, and their effects on the environment, (2) population growth and control, (3) energy, exploration, extraction, use and effects on the environment, (4) environmental pollution, and (5) conservation and recycling of energy and materials. All other topics had high frequencies either on both very much needed and needed, or on needed only. 154 Table ”.Mstrihttimcf‘lieachsrs'h'eqmci- Inter-t That ”pm-ed in Par-cam Total Sp Re 1.1 Iii m Pi Pa 1. fining mad its 1 7.9 0.3 2.4 11.9 0.6 4.1 11.4 0.1 effects m the 2 ”.4 31.1 21.7 ”.2 24.3 31.1 ”.5 ”.4 arlvincrnem 3 29.0 34.4 ”.1 ”.6 35.7 25.7 24.1 29.7 4 35.9 ”.0 45.0 33.3 31.4 39.2 43.0 33.9 2. Pishing and its 1 4.0 6.5 0 9.0 2.9 1.4 1.3 12.5 effects on the 2 10.1 17.2 5.0 15.4 17.1 29.7 10.9 ”.0 mirammnt 3 32.4 36.6 ”.0 39.7 27.1 ”.1 31.6 34.7 4 44.7 39.0 65.0 35.0 52.9 43.2 40.1 27.0 3. farming. use of 1 5.3 6.7 0 7.9 20.6 1.7 3.2 12.9 fertilizers and 2 12.9 12.0 1.4 12.7 12.7 23.7 15.9 11.3 puticides. effects 3 24.5 36.0 29.7 27.0 21.0 16.9 12.7 ”.0 on the caviar-mat 4 57.3 45.3 60.9 52.4 61.0 57.6 60.3 50.0 4. cottage inch-tries. 1 5.9 0.5 0 3.2 1.0 0.2 7.9 12.2 r. .tarisls. ef- 2 19.0 32.4 9.4 15.9 5.5 ”.3 12.6 ”.7 facts on mic 3 35.4 40.0 39.1 11.1 43.6 31.1 36.5 50.0 davelcpmt 4 39.7 10.3 51.6 69.0 49.1 39.3 42.0 2.0 5. heavy industries. 1 6.7 5.4 2.1 9.3 4.0 10.4 0.3 6.7 pollutim cost. 2 17.9 16.1 14.6 14.0 40.5 10.4 16.7 15.6 effects on the 3 43.3 46.4 41.7 44.2 ”.6 47.9 37.5 55.6 Wt 4 32.1 32.1 41.7 32.6 ”.2 31.3 37.5 22.2 6. population growth 1 7.4 9.1 0 0.3 6.7 0.7 4.0 15.6 and control. af- 2 13.9 14.5 0.3 12.5 17.0 19.6 12.0 13.3 facts on the environ- 3 17.2 32.7 12.5 14.6 13.3 13.0 10.0 22.2 mat and econanic 4 61.4 43.6 79.2 64.6 62.2 50.7 74.0 40.0 daveloprent 7. for-ta. Imam. dam- 1 13.0 14.0 0 16.7 9.5 9.3 14.6 ”.1 dstion. effects a: 2 ”.7 29.6 7.0 16.7 ”.2 ”.6 10.0 ”.3 the anvirummnt 3 ”.1 24.0 41.2 ”.0 30.1 37.2 25.0 ”.1 4 35.2 31.5 51.0 45.0 ”.2 27.9 41.7 19.6 0.1htarstorspin nature. supply. effects a: the . caergy exploration. extraction. uses. effects on the 10 . mm pol- lutim. want msts. effects at the mime-mt . mtimand recyclingof energy mdnterials QUNH .UNH .1010“ ”WHO-0 .UNH 6.0 11.0 29.5 51.0 2.4 0.7 ”.3 60.5 0.0 12.9 ”.0 59.1 3.6 6.1 ”.0 61.5 0.0 12.7 40.9 37.6 0 ”.6 ”.2 47.2 16.7 37.0 46.3 5.1 ”.5 ”.2 46.2 0.0 5.5 47.3 47.3 7.1 ”.6 44.6 19.6 3.2 19.4 77.4 6.3 12.5 01.3 9.4 3.1 10.0 60.0 2.1 ”.0 77.0 ‘C2 50.0 45.0 155‘ 3.2 6.5 ”.0 67.7 2.0 2.0 24.5 71.4 9.4 3.1 10.0 60.0 6.3 6.3 ”.0 66.7 2.1 6.4 34.0 57.4 10.7 14.3 17.9 57.1 6.0 ”.7 70.5 10.7 ”.4 10.7 57.1 2.4 26.2 71.4 14.3 7.1 30.1 40.5 9.7 16.1 41.9 32.3 2.3 6.0 30.6 52.3 6.3 9.3 10.0 65.6 6.7 6.7 35.6 51.0 ”.7 43.5 54.3 ‘03 3.1 37.5 53.1 6.1 6.1 30.6 57.1 3.1 9.4 15.6 71.9 2.1 16.7 01.3 17.0 10.6 46.0 25.5 16.7 10.0 43.3 ”.0 6.0 15.9 31.0 45.5 13.3 ”.3 ”.7 ”.7 9.1 ”.7 31.0 ”.4 ”.4 29.5 ”.3 ”.7 156 Analysis of Interview Results The high frequency responses obtained from the interview was the main source of information in the discussion that follows. The teachers' phrasing of their definition of the term environment as "all things around us” or ”totality of creation" sound too book-learned and less of a personal view of it. The teachers' personal environment was bounded by geographical limits, the areas they had reached and personally encountered. The desire for a global or universal view was with them but the experience and the knowledge were limited. This was further confirmed by some misinterpretations of environmental phenomena which.sha11 be taken up later. About half of the teachers, like the students, also believed in the rich natural resources of the nation. But they were more aware than the students of the consequences of a rapidly increasing population, and the pollution, depletion, and degradation that could result from hastening the development and processing of these resources to support the increasing population. The teachers' explanations of certain environmental phenomena and grasp of environmental issues lack depth knowledge, although they were better than those of the students» More than 14 percent of the teachers could not 157 explain how mineral oil was formed. About 17 percent of them were not knowledgeable about the raging nuclear plant controversy, and about 3 percent of the teachers could not even tell what a nuclear plant was. About 3 percent of the teachers could.not see the connection between forests and water supply. One teacher actually believed that water absorption.by forests decreases water supply. Very few were well-informed about typhoons, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, the natural phenomena that commonly occur in the Philippines. The teachers were more socially than scientifically literate. They could discuss knowledgeably about interrelationships among national Filipino values, rampant corruption.in.government office, and national discipline. They were aware of the consequences of the conversion of farmlands into human settlement areas, of rural migration into the cities, and of the high unemployment rate and the increasing gap between the rich and the poor, but very few of them could explain why dumping solid waste into rivers kill the fish in it or why earthquakes occur. All these put together could be the reason why the teachers' environmental values were not too firmly internalized. They lacked the solid informational background to support these values. CHAPTER 6 The Environmental Consciousness of Secondary School Students Boys and girls from high and low sections in the second and fourth year high school in both public and private schools of each of seven types of communities were tested for their environmental consciousness. To find the optimal student grouping that would yield significant differences, multivariate and univariate analysis of variance were performed on the data. From the multivariate and univariate analyses of variance, the following conclusions were made: 1. The factors community, type of school, year level, class section, and sex had significant main and interaction effects on the dependent variables knowledge, comprehension, responsibility, and interest. Of the twelve different interaction effects found significant, the higher order interaction that yielded the most significant effects as indicated by the univariate F tests on knowledge, comprehension,:responsibility; and interest was the community by section by school interaction. Therefore students grouped into high and low sections in the public and private schools in the seven types of 159 communities included in the study differed significantly in their environmental consciousness. The classification ofstudents according to the significantly interacting factors boommunity x section x school) resulted in 28 categories. The knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility mean scores listed in decreasing order are shown in Table 29. Table 29. Students' Knowledge, Comprehension, and Responsibility Mean Scores Listed in Decreasing Order (In x Sec x Sch Krmledge Oarprehensim Responsibility Means mars Means Outstanding GI'QJP: special, urban 1. special, high, pdbiic 11.08 10.29 39.29 2. special, high, private 10.91 9.78 38.22 3. special, low, pdbiic 10.55 9.63 30.05 4. special, low, private 10.22 9.14 37.86 Hufilmemignmpztnbmx hurt saniam 5. heavy industry, high, private 9.45 8.10 36.72 . mnung,hum,;niwfie (L74 1L29 3555 7. hangwflibsuy,rugm pink: 830 ($79 341m 8. cntbgp:uflumzy,rigm deaua (L36 6AM. 34in 9. 1nfim:waazy,huyylmiwfie 1133 1L91 344W £1.1nfii:Udmazy,tigr pdflic 1L94 (L63 3412 Mutueneaignxpzrunn,tigi canine. mdnn,1ow seflion 11. farming, high, private 7.82 6.40 32.98 12. fishing, high, pUblic 7.73 5.88 33.73 13. fiShing, high, private 7.59 6.07 33.75 14. ruining, low, public 7.19 6.02 32.86 15. heavy industry, low, private 7.16 5.63 33.76 16. cottage industry, low, private 7.09 5.84 32.66 17. cottage iniustry, high, public 7.02 5.88 32.66 18.1tym:kflu§:y,lom,pmnic 650 5J0 321» 19. farming, high, public 6.60 5.21 32.98 20. light industry, low, private 6.59 5.19 32.41 21.nimug,rigm panic 6£R 6&3 1&L32 160 22.1%nflng,lcm,pmflic (L23 ELZl 3L67 23. cottage inhs‘izy, low, pablic 6.18 5.27 31.93 24.muung,lam deaua £180 £137 33J0 25.11dung,lcw,prumme £i79 ELZO 32£W 26. heavy industry, low, public 5.77 4.71 31.18 27.fi§ung,lcm,pmnic £173 £103 305E 28.fanfing,low,priw¢e £133 4J§5 301E The listing regrouped the 28 categories, henceforth referred to as the subgroups, into the (1) outstanding group, (2) high mean group, (3) middle mean group, (4) low mean group. The four subgroups in the special community, called special urban, held the first four ranks in the knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility tests. The group was named outstanding since its means were much higher than any other group in the study. The rank of each subgroup did not change in the three tests. The high mean group, renamed urban high, consisted of the high sections in the urban-industrialized communities in either the public or the private school. The exception was the cottage industry, high, private subgroup which by its location and community characteristics was originally classified as rural. Its mean scores in knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility placed it in the high mean group. The middle mean group called urban low/rural high consisted mainly of rural, high section and urban, low section subgroups. The variants were the mining, high, public subgroup which was dislodged from its place in the 161 urban, high section group because of its low mean scores in the three tests, and the cottage industry, low, private subgroup which was pulled up from the rural low section because of its high mean scores. The low mean group called rural low, was formed mainly by rural,low section subgroups. The exceptions were the mining, low, private subgroup and the heavy industry, low, public subgroup both of which obtained extremely low mean scores. It is obvious that the special community possessed the best developed environmental knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility. All the four subgroups of the community were the four highest in these three dimensions of environmental consciousness. But this pattern was not observed in the interest dimension (Table 30) which is consistent with the low correlation of interest with each of the other three dimensions. Listed in decreasing order, the interest mean scores yielded three groups: (1) high meg; group, (2) middle mean group, and (3) low mean group. No outstanding group was observed as in the other tests. The special community subgroups formed the high mean and the middle mean groups. It could be that the high-achieving ambitious students of the special schools found the topics presented in the interest test too mundane for their tests. It may be due to their adolescence that these students tended to give expression to their more esoteric interests such as nuclear 162 physics, biochemistry in their desire to learn more rather than to such every day matters as environmental effects of human activities, pollution and recycling, etc. Table 30. Students' Interest Mean Scores Listed in Decreasing Order Com x sec x sch Interest means High mean group: urban, high 1. heavy industry, high, public 121.64 2. light industry, high, private ' 121.64 3. special, low, private 120.07 4. light industry, high, public 119.36 5. heavy industry, high, private 119.33 6. special, high, public 117.38 Middle mean group: rural, high and urban, low 7. cottage industry, high, private 117.12 8. farming, high, private 114.63 9. light industry, low, public 114.36 10. mining, high, private 113.70 11. cottage industry, low, private 113.20 12. fishing, high, private 113.11 13. mining, low, public 112.64 14. special, low, public 112.30 15. special, high, private 111.53 16. mining, high, public 111.41 17. fishing, high, public 111.29 18. farming, high, public 110.74 Low mean group: urban, low and rural, low 19. heavy industry, low, private 109.31 20. cottage industry, low, public 109.20 21. cottage industry, low, public 109.20 22. light industry, low, private 108.95 23. fishing, low, public 108.36 24. fishing, low, private 107.86 25. farming, low, private 106.11 26. mining, low, private 106.00 27. farming, low, public 105.93 28. heavy, low, public 105.14 Inconsistent results of the interest measurement may reflect the nature of the instrument. The extent of 163 interest in a topic was inferred from the_extent to which a respondent indicated a "need to know more" about the topic. It may be that this does not reflect an interest but simply a need to know based on several factors independent of interest. The high mean group in the interest test includes the special, low, private subgroup. As in the other tests, the high mean group was also characteristically urban and high section. The middle mean group consisted of rural, high sections and urban low sections. 'The exceptions were the special, high, private subgroup, the mining, high, private subgroup, and the cottage industry, low, private. The first two were expected to be in the high mean group but their lower means brought them to the middle mean group. The low mean group was characteristically made up of low sections. This group differed from the similarly-named group in the knowledge-comprehension-responsibility tests in that it included not only the rural, low section but also a number of the urban, low section. Therefore more subgroups had low mean scores. The classification formed here may be a useful alternative to the single-curriculum system adopted by the public schools and most private schools. The recognition of the significant differences of students in different communities, sections, and schools in the development of curricula would be a step toward improving education in the 164 country. For environmental education, curricula could be designed for the four groups that resulted from the empirical clustering of the 28 community x section x school categories. The four groups are (1) special urban, (2) urban high sections, (3) rural high and urban low sections, (4) rural low sections. It must be kept in mind that these groupings resulted from data with highly cognitive content. To produce a balanced cognitive-affective environmental education curriculum, consideration must be made of the groupings resulting from the interest data. The data point to a low interest or more specifically a low need to learn environmental matters among the special urban and urban high section groups. One important task for curriculum developers would be to create a "need to learn” about the environment even among those whose environmental consciousness is already high. The goal of this task would be to prevent attenuation and, instead, further raise the level of environmental consciousness of these adolescents as they begin to assume their adult roles in society. The content of the environmental education curriculum could be drawn from the results of the item study. The special urban group could be presented with a more imaginatively developed earth science curriculum as its lower-than-expected response to the items on typhoon months, river formation, volcanic areas indicate. This would provide the background information necessary for the 165 environmentally related cause-consequence relationships. The more complex of these relationships were those caused by human intervention in nature's processes. The special urban group would benefit from an awareness and understanding of the consequence of forest destruction, mining degradation, trade offs such as that for development in medical science, and population dynamics. The development of'values concerning penalization of the irresponsible user of a public resource, positive action in times of disaster, helping the poor, and preference for teaching as a preventive coping technique over remediation should be built into the environmental education program for the special urban group. This group had expressed a need to learn about energy, pollution, and population and their effects on the environment, and also about conservation and recycling. Since the frequencies of their responses in all the topics in the questionnaire were highest compared to other communities, what is needed is treatment at greater depth and breadth to bring out the complexities and interrelationships in the environment. Among the communities included in the study, the heavy and the light industry communities come closest to the characteristics of the urban high group. The responses of these two communities suggest content for an environmental education curriculum for the urban.high group which would be the same as those for the special urban plus a few more. These are the topics on multipurpose dams and the nuclear 166 plant issue. The big different in the curriculum of the two groups is that in the urban high group most of the basic informational material will have to be presented before the group could properly assimilate the content in meaningful form. For the rural high/urban low group the material to be suggested for inclusion in their environmental education curriculum-were drawn from the responses of the mining and cottage industry communities. These two communities approximate the qualities of the rural high/urban low group. With the exception of air pollution and pesticides, all topics in the questionnaire could be suggested for inclusion in an environmental education curriculum for the rural high/urban low group. Attention of the students, however, should be drawn to the most essential aspects that could lead to improved awareness and understanding of the processes going on in the environment. Emphasis on the scientific explanations is recommended. The group should be taught thinking skills and values clarification to improve their competencies in dealing environmental problems. Multiple-stepped thinking processes such as that required in understanding the effect of forest denudation on water supply and on dams could be given emphasis. The rural low group represented by the fishing and farming communities could benefit from scientific explanations of earth processes like earthquakes, geothermal energy source, nuclear plant issue. The complexities and 167 sophistication of trade-offs and effects of forest denudation should be preceded with meaningful information. Since their environmental consciousness is oriented toward the rural-agriculture, it would be good strategy to start the scientific» technological, and industrial topics from the rural-agricultural setting. In short the content for the environmental education curriculum for the rural low would.not differ much from the rural high/urban low. The difference would be in the instructional strategy used and the locales of the topics, problems, and issues discussed. More informational materials written in a language that is easy to digest and lesson exercises that develop thinking skills could hasten the improvement of the environmental consciousness of this group. On the average, the secondary school students' environmental consciousness was attuned more to the readily observable conditions and the readily perceived relationships in the environment not requiring higher order mental processes. Evidence for this was found in the high frequencies on the items concerning sources of pollution in cities, uses of pesticides, predominant age group in a rapidly increasing population, typhoon months, river formation, and location of volcanic areas. If they are to improve their environmental consciousness, the Filipino secondary level students should develop their capability for more complex abstractions and for thinking through relationships as in predicting consequences when only the 168 causes could be observed or vice verse, of tracing back to the causes when the consequences were encountered. The responsibility component of the students‘ environmental consciousness was not consistently applied to all similar situations. This was interpreted as manifestations of values-in-development and therefore not completely clarified nor fully internalized at the time the test was taken. Examples of these values were voluntarism or the initiative to bring about environmental enhancement, penalization as a socially acceptable reaction to violations of natural resources, and positive action in the face of adversity. The students indicated their interest to nurture the growth of their environmental consciousness. They tended to choose topics of interest to all types of communities, e.g. (1) energy, its extraction, use, and effects on the environment and the economy; (2) population, its growth and effects on the economy and the environment; (3) water in nature and its supply to human settlements and effects on the environment; (4) farming, food production, use of fertilizers and pesticides and its effects on the environment; and (5) conservation and recycling of energy and materials. Of the topics closely associated with community types (i.e. mining, fishing, farming, cottage industries, heavy industries) only farming and fishing were selected by a large proportion of students as "most needed." Apparently the stark reality of the need for food for 169 survival had created a need to learn these topics. The Environmental Consciousness of the Secondary School Teachers The environmental consciousness of teachers that is described in this paper reflects only those of science and social studies teachers in the secondary schools since they comprised the teacher sample in the study. Following up the findings in the multivariate and univariate analysis, the teachers were grouped by community to study the relationship of this factor with their knowledge and comprehension, and by community and school to reveal the interaction effects of these factors on comprehension and interest. The most environmentally aware teachers (highest mean knowledge scores) were the special community teachers, followed by the mining community teachers, and then by the cottage industry community teachers. The least environmentally aware teachers were those in the fishing community, the light industry community, and the farming community, in high to low order. The group that best understood its environment was the special community as evidenced by its high mean scores in the comprehension test, followed by the teachers in the heavy industry community, then by the teachers in the mining community. The teachers in the farming and the cottage industry, obtaining equal mean.scores, were least able to explain and understand the environment. The teachers in the 170 light industry community did slightly better than those in the farming and the cottage industry communities. Teacher groupings according to community and school were also compared. The teachers in the public school, special community could best explain and understand the environment. Next highest were the teachers in the private school, heavy industry community, followed by the teachers in the private school, heavy industry community; .At the opposite extreme were the teachers in the private school, light industry who least understood the environment. Slightly higher in the environmental comprehension were the private school, cottage industry teachers. The fishing and farming groups were in the lower middle position of the ranks. It is seen that the teacher groupings whether by community alone, or by community and school did not follow the urban-industrialized and rural-agricultural continuum as the student groups did. In the interest test, the public school, heavy industry group of teachers were the most interested in learning more about the environment, followed by the public school, light industry, than by the public school heavy industry. The least interested were the teachers in the public school in the special community, then those in the public school in the farming community. In the item study, the topics that most’teachers knew about (were aware of) as indicated by their high frequencies were the same topics that were assessed earlier for students 171 as easily perceived and required single step reasoning. The same reasons applied to the teachers. The low frequency on the item about a new technique of fish culture could be explained by the insufficient lead time for the news about it to filter to the various locations of the teachers. The low frequency on the effects of earthquakes were not uncommon in theiRhilippines, and their effects were usually featured in print media. The inadequacy of mass media to reach a large proportion of the population could be a reason. Another possible explanation could be the neglect of the earth sciences in the secondary level curriculum. The low frequency on the item about the trade off for development in medical science was more likely due to a lack of sophistication in the consideration of development effects along the lines of Barry Commoner's ”no free lunch" and.”everything is linked to everything else)’ In the comprehension test, all teachers understood the effects of blast fishing. This piece of information had been over-emphasized in print media and in courses of study both in social studies and in science. The questions on population refer to concrete and very visible conditions that teachers could not but be aware of them. These explained the high frequencies on the cited topics. The topics in the comprehension test that most teachers found difficult were those requiring scientific explanations. Most teachers would know that fish die in a river or lake that was used as a garbage dump but the 172 scientific explanation of why they die was not within their their knowledge. To know the effect of forest denudation on dams, one needs to know about the relationship of forest and soil, about soil erosion in denuded forests, and about deposition of water-transported soil particles when water stops flowing as in a dam. This three-step reason could be difficult to follow through if one or more of the necessary information was not within the repertoire of the teacher. Similar 2- or 3-step reasoning was needed to answer most of the questions with.low frequencies. The teachers need to improve their scientific literary and their cognitive skills to enhance their environmental consciousness. The results of the responsibility test indicated the most teachers were not consistent in their application.of the values associated with the responsibility to restore an area one uses and benefits from. They were also inconsistent in their answers as to what should be done to violators of the law, and the action they selected for coping with disaster was the least commendable. The teachers' lack of conviction as regards these values points to the need for environmental education not only for the students but also for the teachers. The interest test indicated that the teachers felt their consciousness of the environment could be improved by learning more about energy, population, pollution, recycling and.conservation, 'These topics would be suitable for any community or type of school. Not too many teachers (about 173 37%) expressed a strong desire to learn about natural phenomena such as typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. This low frequency was unexpected, considering the poor showing of the teachers on the subject in both the knowledge and comprehension tests, and the common occurrence of these phenomena in the Philippines. Forest depletion and mining degradation were some of the worst problems of the country. But the phenomena did not awaken sufficient interest probably because they are not directly experienced by most teachers, occurring as they do in isolated areas whereas energy crisis, pollution, and crowded population are. Summary of the Findings of the Study 1. The independent variables community, class section, and school interacted significantly to explain the variance :U1 the environmental knowledge, comprehension, responsibility and interest of the Filipino secondary school students. 2. Ordering the mean knowledge, comprehension, and responsibility scores of students, based on the community, section, school interaction, formed 4 major groups: (1) special urban group -- composed of the high and low sections in the public and private schools in the special community (2) urban high group --composed of the high sections in some private and some public schools in the heavy industry, light industry, and mining 174 communities. (3) urban low/rural high group -- composed of the low sections in some private and some public schools in the heavy industry, light industry and mining communities and the high sections in some private and some public schools in the cottage industry, fishing, and farming communities. (4) rural low group -- composed of the low sections in some private and some public schools in the cottage industry, fishing, and farming communities. 3. Ordering the mean interest scores of students, based on the community, section, school interaction, formed 3 major groups: . (1) urban high (2) urban low/rural high (3) rural low These are similar in composition to their counterparts in the preceding but with the inclusion of two special subgroups in the urban high group and the other two special subgroups in the urban low/rural high group. 4. From the item study of the knowledge test, it was found that the majority (60-800) of the students were aware of pollution, pesticides, typhoons, dams, and volcanic areas but only a small percentage of them knew about the effects of forest destruction, new techniques in fish culture and the total population in the Philippines. 175 5. From the item study of the comprehension test it was found that the majority (63-82%) of the students could explain blast fishing, age characteristics of a population but few could explain fish kills, mining degradation, geothermal energy, fuel properties of coal and oil, volcanic eruption and multiple cropping. 6. A large proportion (36-58%) of the students inconsistently applied environmental values such as penalization of irresponsible users, teaching as a preventive coping technique, voluntarism in conservation action, and positive action in times of disaster. 7. About 40% of the students felt a great need to learn about population dynamics and energy; about 30% expressed a need to learn about conservation and recycling, pollution, the effects of farming and fishing on the environment; about 30% expressed a slight need to learn about natural phenomena, water resources, forest resources, and the effects of industry and mining on the environment. About 20% felt no need to learn about disaster-causing natural phenomena; about 15% had no need to learn about forest denudation and pollution, and about 11-14% felt no need to learn about fishing, cottage industries, heavy industries, and mining. 8. From the interview it was found that the secondary school students-- a. had difficulty making scientifically correct cause-consequence relationships, 176 tn were sensitive to the social climate and social changes particularly those brought about by rapid population growth, social injustice, and corruption in high office. 9. From the multivariate analysis it was found that the independent variable community had significant main effect on the teachers' knowledge and comprehension, and that community and school interacted significantly to explain the variance in the teachers' comprehension and interest. 10. From the item study, it was found that most teachers (83-98%) were aware of pollution, pesticides, multipurpose dams, and volcanic areas and only about 48-68% were aware of new techniques in fish culture, and effects of earthquakes. 11. About 80-100% of the teachers could explain blast fishing, population.growth and itsieffect on the national economy, and soil erosion control but only 19-42% could explain fish kills and effects of forest destruction and mining degradation. 12. A large proportion of the teachers (70%) were inconsistent in their application of certain environmental values such as penalization.of the irresponsible users of public resources and voluntarism in conservation action. 13. About 60% of the teachers felt a great need to learn about energy, population dynamics, and conservation and recycling. About 45 to 58% expressed some need to 177 learn about pollution, farming and pesticide, water resources, and fishing. 14. The teachers were found to be more socially than scientifically literate. Recommendations The findings of the study suggest follow-up actions in curriculum development and further research. Recommended are the following: 1. Design separate environmental education curricula suitable for the four types of secondary school students identified in this research. 2. Include "need to know or to learn more" as an objective of the environmental education curricula. The planned curricula should address the low state of ”need to know or learn more" of the students in the special urban group and the urban high group. 3. Utilize the results of the item study in this research for selecting specific content for the different student groups. 4. Emphasize in the environmental education curricula the learning of scientific information and explanations of natural processes and environmental changes. This is particularly important in the curricula for the urban low/rural high group and the rural low group. 5. Use environmental education lessons as a medium for developing increasingly complex thinking skills, the 178 requisites for coping with complex environmental problems. 6. In-service training in environmental education should be made available to teachers. The in-service training program should develop those environmental values and ethics which were found weak or non-existent in teachers. Recommended for further research are the following: 1. Conduct a study to identify the environmental dimensions of the existing curricula of the Philippine secondary schools. 2. Inquire into the higher levels of mental processing needed for learning environmental matters and for solving environmental problems. 3. Refine the instruments used for measuring the environmental consciousness level of secondary school students and teachers. 4. Inquire into secondary school students' and teachers' capabilities and predisposition to environmental action. Appendix A Questionnaire Part I. Choose the correct or the best answer for each item. Give your answer by putting a cross [x] in the space on the answer sheet corresponding to the item. Fishermen who catch fish in lakes and rivers can increase their fish harvest by a. investing in projects changing swamps into fishponds. b. raising fish in fishpens and feeding them with ipil-ipil leaves and rice bran. c. growing rare and expensive varieties of fish. d. exporting bangus. Pesticides are sprayed on plants to a. make the soil fertile b. improve the size of fruits. 0. kill harmful insects. d. kill weeds. Mining operations necessarily dig up soil and rocks resulting in a. decrease in areas available for housing. b. imbalance between land and water areas. c. destruction of natural vegetation and animal habitat. d. loss of water in the mining area. Pantabangan, a multipurpose dam in Nueva Ecija, was constructed to improve water supply, generate electricity and a. prevent forest destruction b. control soil erosion. c. provide for irrigation. d. stop the river from flowing to the sea. The cutting of forest trees on mountains cause floods in lowlands during the rainy season, soil erosion, and '9 10. 11. 12. a. water shortage in summer c. typhoons b. forestfires. d. land pollution During what months are there more typhoons? a. October to December c. March to May b. January to February d. June to September Where will you find the beginning of rivers? a. plains c. mountains b. seas d. cities Which Of these areas is mostly volcanic? a. Bicol region c. Ilocos region b. Central Plains of Luzon d. Cagayan Valley Which of the following may happen in an earthquake? a. lava flows on the earth's surface. b. ground surface breaks open. c. level of sea water rises. d. strong winds circle the sea. The Philippine population in 1978 is about a. 35,000,000 c. 53,000,000 b. 44,000,000 6. 60,000,000 What is the main source of air pollution in cities? a. factories c. burning of garbage b. motor vehicles d. firewood for cooking The National Pollution Control Commission is authorized to a. destroy dikes and fishponds that prevent the outflow of river water to the sea. b. arrest kaingeros and illegal loggers. c. close industrial plants that give low wages to laborers. d. regulate the amount of waste given off by industrial plants to the environment. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Medical science and medicines have resulted in less deaths and longer life span, but another problem has arisen--that of ' a. decrease in available raw materials for manufacture of medicines. b. greatly increased population. c. overproduction of medicine. d. concentration of population in certain areas. The construction of a nuclear plant which changes the energy of radioactive materials into electrical energy was stopped because a. it is too expensive b. the area is too small. c. there are no qualified scientists to manage it. d. it is not safe enough. Blast fishing or the use of dynamite in fishing is not allowed because a. it disturbs the peace and quiet in nearby fishing towns. b. it forms shock waves in water displacing normal fish locations. c. it kills young fishes which could still grow to provide food later on. d. it causes landslides from the coast into the water. When two kinds of plants are grown in alternate rows in one hectare of land the harvest is better than when only one kind is planted in the same area. Why? a. Two kinds of plants give nutrients to each other. b. Competition for soil nutrients is less between plants of different kinds. c. One plant protects the other from pests. d4 Two kinds of plants adjust more easily to each other. Mining makes the environment poorer because it removes minerals and rocks from land and a. pollutes the land with mine wastes. b. the tunnels formed cause land to sink. c. allows the growth of unwanted vegetation. d. reduces the fertility of the soil. 10. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Continued forest cutting shortens the usefulness of dams because a. deposition of eroded forest soils in reservoirs. b. clogging of rivers with logs. c. increased amount of water in the reservoirs. d. faster evaporation of water from rivers and reservoirs. Coal is not as good a fuel as oil because a. there is less coal in the Philippines. b. an equal weight of coal will produce less heat. c. it needs processing before it can be used. d. it is bulky and transporting it is difficult. About 30% of topsoil in Central Luzon are eroded yearly. Which of the following is being done to control soil erosion? a. irrigation c. logging b. reforestation d. building dikes Volcanic eruptions happen because the a. shaking of the ground makes the hot materials underground to boil over b. surface soil needs to be changed and made fertile again c. sand and rocks underneath have become too tight that they need to be loosened up (L. hot materials underneath expand and are thrown out Typhoons usually begin when a. winds rise over mountains. b. winds circulate over an ocean. c. winds spread out and weaken. d. winds move closer to the ground. A fast growing population tends to have a large number of a. old people. b. working people. 0. children. d. women. 24. Poor countries which have started to industrialize continue to suffer economic difficulties because their populations a. remain the same. b. are decreasing. c. increase too rapidly for the economic resources to support them. d. do not provide enough working people to process 25. Garbage thrown into bodies of water kill‘z‘the fish in it foods and manufacture goods. because the decaying garbage a. b. c. d. give off a bad smell. removes minerals needed by fish. uses up oxygen needed by fish in respiration. adds carbon dioxide to water. 26. Open burning of garbage in dump sites adds to air pollution by giving off large amounts of a. b. c. d. oxygen and nitrogen. sulfur dioxide. carbon dioxide and fine ash. mercuric oxide. 27. .A geothermal plant generates electricity from the energy of a. b. c. d. waterfalls. radioactive substances. steam from underground. burning coal. 28. For the Philippines, the use of solar energy or energy of a. b. c. d. sunlight would release dangerous radioactive fumes. be too costly. be a safe source of electricity. be technologically impossible. Part 11. Give your answer by putting a cross [x] in the space on the answer sheet corresponding to the Mining digs up soil and rocks and displaces or kills animals and plants. Who should restore the surface area to its natural state after mining operations are over? a. The mining company that used the land. b. All taxpayers through the government. c. Nobody. Let nature restore itself although it may take a few hundred years. d. Those who volunteer to do it. In Pampanga and Bulacan about 500 hectares of illegally constructed fish ponds and dikes were destroyed by order of the government. What do you say about this? a. Unfair to owner who spent hundreds of thousands of pesos to build them. b. Destroying them is necessary but the government should pay the owner. c. Destroying them is necessary. Let the owner suffer the losses. d. Owner should pay a fine but dikes and fishponds should remain. Pesticides and fertilizers can cause skin allergies, pollute waters and kill fish, farm animals and soil organisms. What should be done now? a. Totally stop the use of pesticides and fertilizers. b. Find out the effects of pesticides before using them. c. Educate farmers to the correct use of fertilizers and pesticides. d. Limit the sale of fertilizers and pesticides. Destroyed forests and the floods and droughts they cause is our worst environmental problem. Who should reforest them? a. the exporters of lumber. b. the loggers who destroyed the forest. c. the people who suffer the floods and droughts. d. all citizens of the country. A well that serves a community should be paid for and maintained by a. fund-raising campaigns. b. the families in the community c. a rich donor d. the industrial company situated in the community. Fishing area near the shore are becoming more and more polluted. What is the first thing to do to control pollution? a. Teach the public about water pollution through newspapers, radio and tv. b. Anyone caught dumping pollutants should be heavily fined. c. The fishermen should volunteer to clean up their fishing grounds. (L. All citizens should pay taxes for cleaning up polluted fishing areas. Many lives are lost and properties destroyed by typhoons yearly. How may you help lessen the destructive effects of typhoons? a. Contribute to a typhoon calamity fund. in Organize community peOple into disaster action groups to help during such times. c. Help those who come and ask for it. d. Wish for a change in the direction of typhoons. Some farm crops were destroyed by a volcanic eruption. The fields cannot be planted for 6 months because of poisonous gases in volcanic matter. Most of the owners of the destroyed farms have no other source of income. What can you say about this? a. It is unfortunate but nothing can be done about it. b. The owners of the destroyed farms should go into business rather than farming. c. The owners should be allowed to get easy-to-pay loans. (L. The more fortunate families in the community should help support the victims. 10. 11. 12. Suppose you are an owner of a cement plant. Your cement plant gives off pollutants of fine particles that cause lung diseases to employees and townspeople. Which of the following would you do? a. Put up a sign informing people of the dangers of inhaling the fine powder. b. Set aside a part of the employees' salaries to pay for anti-pollution device. c. Put up an anti-pollution device. d. Wait for signs of bad effects of the polluted air before taking action. Garbage is not collected in your community. However there is a river nearby. Each has a backyard. What will you do to your own garbage? a. Burn it. b. Bury it. c. Throw it in the river. d. Leave it in a pile. Some squatters settle their houses in a street in Metro Manila preventing traffic flow and garbage collection, and causing health and drainage problems. What should be done? a. Construct houses in which to resettle them. b. Tear down houses and evacuate squatters to the provinces. c. Offer cash rewards to those who will leave peacefully. ' d. Tear down their houses and imprison the offenders. Philippine population increases too fast so that increased production is not enough to improve the life of the average Filipino. In your adult life, which of the following will you be willing to do to ease the population problem? a. Marry late in life (at 30 years or older) so as to have only a few children. b. Practice birth control such as pills, vasectomy, and others. c. Contribute to family planning projects. d. Teach people about family planning. Part III. Do you feel a need to learn about the topics given below? Consider how much you need to learn each topic. Then circle the number corresponding to the amount of your need to learn it. 1. kind of minerals and the estimated amounts of deposit found in different parts of the country 2. where the mines are located 3. how mining is done 4.- pollution caused by mine wastes 5. economic importance of minerals such as copper, gold, oil, coal and limestone. 6. where the rich fishing grounds are 73 common fishing methods and how they may be improved. 8. amount of fish harvested yearly and how to increase it 9. fishery problems such as dynamite fishing, overfishing, fish dying in large numbers, storage and preservation difficulties 10. sources of water pollution and pollution effects on fish production 11. new farming techniques to increase harvest 12. side effects of the use of fertilizers and pesticides l3. controlling soil erosion 14. new methods of raising livestock and poultry 15. different kinds of cottage industries in the country 16. what raw materials for cottage industries are found in the Philippines 1?. marketing problems of cottage industries 18. how cottage industries affect the economic development of the country 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. heavy industries such as steelmaking, copper smelting and cement production how heavy industries affect the economic development of the country problems of heavy industries how our population grows and how to control it effect of population growth on the environment effect of population growth on economic development where the forests are the loss of forests and its effects on the environment such as floods, drought, soil erosion where water is stored by nature and how it reaches human settlements water treatment to make water safe sources of energy such as hydroelectricity, geothermal energy, nuclear energy, solar energy, petroleum energy needs of the country oil exploration, extraction and refining environmental pollution: land, water, air, noise waste disposal wise use and recycling of energy and materials protection and management of the environment Rules and guidelines for protecting and managing the environment typhoons and other weather disturbances earthquakes and tsunamis volcanic eruptions Appendix B Interview Schedule Interviewee'sname Interviewer Home address Time started Date of interview Time finished 1. 2. What is the meaning of environment? What composes it? (What does it include?) How far does it extend? What would you wish for most of all to improve your own life? Describe the kind of life that you consider ideal or best for you. What do you wish for your family? What is most undesirable in your immediate environment? What will you do to improve this condition? What conditions in the country should be improved? In your opinion, who is in the best position to take action toward improving these conditions in the country? What Shag this person/group done to improve these conditions? Farming and livestock. Are our food resources producing enough to feed the people? What is being done to improve food production? What do you know about pesticides? How does it help in improving farming or agricultural production? Do you know of any harmful effects of pesticides? What are they? What projects has the government launched to improve the lot of farmers?.....to improve farming? .... to improve livestock raising? (In a farming community: Are you involved in any of these?) Forestry. What are the country's problems about forestry? What projects have been initiated by the government and the private sector to solve these problems? In what ways can the loss of forests affect our lives adversely? What can you do to help solve these problems? Mining. Does our country have enough mineral resources 10. 11. 12. 13. for our needs? Should more mines be developed? What is the government doing to encourage more mining in the country? Do you know of any harmful effects of mining on the environment? What are they? Soil. Do we have rich or poor soils in the country? What is your evidence of it? If soil has been degraded by long use, what can be done to improve it? Do our farmers need to learn modern methods of soil erosion control and soil fertilization? What conditions and practices aggravate soil erosion? What can be done to prevent soil erosion? Water. Do you have any problem about water supply in your area? Tell us something about it? Would you be willing to pay to get a regular water supply? What large water development projects have you heard about? In what ways can these water projects improve life and the environment? Do you know how forests are related to water supply? Describe it. Fishery, Do we have rich fishing grounds? Is there enough fish catch for our people? What are some of the problems of inland fishing, near-shore fishing and open-sea fishing? What are some of the government projects intended to improve fishing and increase fish harvest? Why is dynamite not allowed for use in fishing? Energy. What are the sources of energy used in the country? What energy source is needed most in our country? From what areas of the world does petroleum or crude oil come from? How can you conserve energy? Why do some people object to the installation of a nuclear energy plant? What can you say of the population in the Philippines? Is it increasing, decreasing or not changing? Can our country support a continuously increasing population? What can you say of family planning and birth control? How many children would you like to have? If you were advised not to have any more children, what method of birth control would you use? What do you know of pollution? What part of the environment can be polluted? What could pollute the air? What could pollute rivers, lakes, and seas? What could pollute land? Is there any pollution in your immediate environment? Where? What kind? What can you do to eliminate it or reduce it? 14. 15. What can you say of industrialization and technology in the country? In what way is it helping economic development? Would you like to have more of industrialization and technology than we already have? Why? What is the meaning of environmental conservation? 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