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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
DRESS OF THE CHIPPEWA (OJIBWA) INDIANS:
AN ANALYSIS OF CHANGE
FROM 1640-1940
presented by
Kathy Schimke Cyr

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M.A. Clothing and Textiles

 

degree in

flaw/M. [mtém/

Major professor

Date flit/j. 71 /7/i

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© 1978

KATHY ANN SCHIMKE CYR

ALL RI GHTS RESERVED

© Copyright by
KATHY ANN CY R

1978

DRESS OF THE CHIPPEWA (OJIBWA) INDIANS:
AN ANALYSIS OF CHANGE

FROM 1640-1940

BY

Kathy Schimke Cyr

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Human Environment and Design

1978

ABSTRACT

DRESS OF THE CHIPPEWA (OJIBWA) INDIANS:
AN ANALYSIS OF CHANGE
FROM 1640-1940

BY

Kathy Schimke Cyr

A survey of the articles of dress and adornment worn by the
Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians was undertaken to determine when changes
occurred in their dress and, if possible, to discover what those
changes were and to relate them to cultural influences.

A search of primary documents, journals and diaries, about the
Chippewa and museum artifacts yielded information which was analyzed
for changes, and for possible cultural influences that might have
caused those changes. Based on the analysis of the information, the
most changes occurred for both male and female dress during the periods
of 1815-1860 and 1900-1940. More changes occurred in type and style
of dress than in materials used or motifs. The cultures of Western
European origins appeared to have had a collective influence on the

Chippewas dress.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The investigator would like to express her gratitude for the
encouragement, guidance, and support given throughout the project by

the committee and the two people who served as consultants.

Dr. Anna M. Creekmore - Major area Professor
Dr. Daniel Jacobson - Minor area Professor
Dr. Barbara S. Stowe - Committee Member

Committee Member

Curator Val R. Berryman
Mary Berryman - Consultant
Richard A. Pohrt - Consultant

The investigator would also like to thank Dr. Holly L. Schrank
and Dr. Joanne B. Eicher, former members of her committee, for their
guidance, Elaine Pedersen and Nancy Thompson, fellow graduate students,
for their encouragement and support, and a special thank you to her

husband, Rodney, for his patience and help.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND . .
Linguistic Stock and Group Name . . .
Movement and Cultural Contact . . . .
Fur Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Missionaries . . . . . . . . . . . .
Land Cessions . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cultural Life of the Chippewa as Viewed

Economic, Social, Political, and Belief

Slmary . O O O O O O O C 0 C O O O C
III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . .

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV 0 PROCEDURES 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O 0

Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . .
Data from Written Literature . . .
Data from Museums . . . . . . . . .

Development of Classification Systems
Time Periods . . . . . . . . . . .
Assigning Data to Time Periods . .
Classification of Articles of Dress

and

Through

Systems .

Adornment

Analysis of Articles of Dress and Adornment . . .

Classification of Acquisitions . .
Analysis of the Acquisitions . . .

V. ANALYSIS OF DATA ACCORDING TO OBJECTIVES

Survey of Articles of Dress and Adornment

Changes that Occurred in the Dress of
Indians 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

iii

the

Chippewa

Their

Page

vi

23

23
24

26

26
26
27
36
36
37
38
41
45
46

48
48

50

Chapter Page

Changes in Dress Related to Cultural Contact . . . . . . . 64
smary O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 71

VI 0 SUMMARY O O O O O O O I O C O O O O O O O O O O O O C C O O 73

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Recommendations for Further Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

APPENDICES
Appendix

A. Letters of Intent Sent to Museums and Private Collectors
in MiChigan O O O C I O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 78

B. Information Pertaining to Categories on Artifact Data
Collection Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

C. Names, Addresses, and Locations of Museums and Private
COllectorS ViSited O O O O O O O O O I O 0 O O O O O O I 88

D. Transformation of Data Collected About Article of Dress
and Adornn‘en t O O O O O O O O O O O I O O C O O O O O O O 9 l

SOURCES CONSULTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Time Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Classification System of the Articles of Dress and

Adornment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Sources Used for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Changes in Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The Analysis of the Cultural Contact that Occurred in

Acquiring Articles of Dress and Adornment . . . . . . . 66
The Analysis of the Change in Articles of Dress and

Adornment Across Time Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Map of Northern United States and Southern Canada . . . . 10

Silver Brooches and Crosses. Worn during the French
and English Contact Periods, 1640-1760 and 1760-1815.
Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey Memorial Museum. South Haven,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Silver Hatband. Worn by men during the English Contact
Period 1760-1815. Richard A. Pohrt Collection, Flint,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Calico Shirt, Wool Leggings, and Animal Skin Moccasins
decorated with ribbons and beadwork. Man's attire for
the I American Contact Period 1815-1860. Mackinac
Island State Park, Mackinac Island, Michigan . . . . . 58

Skirt. Blue wool decorated with ribbonwork. Front view.
Worn by women during I American Contact Period 1815-
1860. Mary Shurtleff Collection, Cross Village,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Breechcloth of calico and beadwork trimmed velvet. The
breechcloth was lapped over approximately 18 inches at
the top of the photograph in order to show both front
and back flaps. Historic Fort Wayne, Detroit,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Leggings of velvet decorated with beads, buttons, and
ribbon. Two views of legging shown. Worn by men during
the Modern Contact Period 1900-1940. Historic Fort
Wayne, Detroit, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Garters woven of yarns with beads inserted during the
weaving process. Worn during I American Contact
Period 1815-1860. Cranbrook Institute of Science,
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Moccasins with black velvet cuffs and vamp decorated
with ribbons and beads. Worn during II American Contact
Period 1860-1900. Grand Rapids Public Museum, Grand
Rapids, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

vi

Figure Page

10. Black buckskin bag decorated with porcupine quills.
Used by men during the French and English Contact
Periods, 1640-1760 and 1760-1815. Cranbrook Insti-
tute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan . . . . . 61

11. Bag made of black wool decorated with beadwork. Used
by men during I American Contact Period 1815-1860.
Grand Rapids Public Museum, Grand Rapids,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

12. Bag made of black wool and beads, trimmed with braid
and yarn. Worn by men during the II American Contact
Period 1860-1900. Historic Fort Wayne, Detroit,
Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

13. Bag made of wool with beads applied to the surface,
trimmed with braid and yarn. Worn by the men during
Modern Contact Period 1900-1940. Historic Fort Wayne,
Detroit, Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

14. Sash made of loom woven beadwork with yarn fringe. Used
during II American Contact Period 1860-1900. Richard
A. Pohrt Collection, Flint, Michigan . . . . . . . . 63

15. Sash made by netting yarns. Worn during Modern Contact
Period 1900-1940. Historic Fort Wayne, Detroit,

Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

16. Map of Michigan Showing Locations of Museums and Private
Collectors Visited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9O

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians, one of the largest tribes north
of Mexico, inhabited a territory stretching from the lower peninsula
of Ontario, around the eastern western, and northern shores of Lake
Huron, across the upper peninsula of Michigan, around the entire Lake
Superior region, across the northern parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota,
and into the plains of Saskatchewan and eastern Montana. This vast
territory, acquired gradually over a period of approximately 200 years,
was previously inhabited by other groups of Indians. The Chippewas
came into contact with these Indians as well as the Europeans who were
explorers, traders, missionaries, military personnel, and settlers.
Most of the Indian groups inhabiting the Great Lakes region did not
possess a written language, however, the Europeans were able to record
their experiences with them either in the form of formal reports sub-
mitted to superiors or as personal memoirs. Later, writers of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries who had lived, worked, and observed
the Chippewa Indian during that time combined their firsthand experi-
ences with the earlier accounts written by the explorers, traders, and
missionaries; thus producing a literature with an expanded time per-
spective. Both these types of written accounts serve as primary
literature for ethnohistorical analysis.

1

Articles of dress and adornment worn by the Indians were dis-
cussed in both types of these works. The information given about dress
is usually descriptive and oftentimes is a discussion of the preparation
of the materials and the manufacture of articles of dress and adornment.
Changes occurring in dress were sometimes mentioned, but exactly what
the changes were, was not made clear. These accounts, in discussing
the changes in the dress of the Chippewa Indians, also create a sense
of time by using such phrases as "in former times" or "in early times,"
resulting in a then-now, earlier-later time sense which does not define
the intervening years, nor tell when then/earlier or now/later occurred
in time.

No one, to my knowledge, has attempted to document when the
changes in Chippewa Indian dress occurred or has described what the
changes were. Were there changes in style, materials, or decorative
treatment of the dress? Nor has there been any attempt to relate
changes in dress to cultural influences. The purpose of this study is
to record and analyze the changes that occurred in Chippewa (Ojibwa)

Indian dress over time.

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

This study covers a time period of 300 years, from 1640, when
contact first occurred between the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians and
Europeans, to the 19403. The following discussion will be limited to a
brief history of the political, economic, and religious events of the
300 year period and the cultural life of the earlier years of contact
with Europeans. This history serves as a background for an analysis of
the changes that occurred over time in the dress of the Chippewa Indians

as they came in contact with other cultural groups.

Linguistic Stock and Group_Name
The Chippewa or Ojibwa Indians derive from the Algonquian
linguistic stock1 and were one of the thirty major tribes that spoke
the Algonquian language.2 The Chippewa (Ojibwa) possessed neither an

alphabet nor a written language, therefore their name was spelled the

 

1Linguistic stock refers to a family of people who speak an
original language or any of the languages and dialects that were derived
from it. Commission On Indian Affairs, The Indian In Michigan: Ottawa,
Chippewa, Potawatomi (Lansing, Mich.: Commission on Indian Affairs,
Nos. 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, November 1971). P. l.

 

2Robert E. Ritzenthaler and Pat Ritzenthaler, The Woodland
Indians of the Western Great Lakes (Garden City, NJ. :‘ The Natural
History Press, 1970), p. 2.

 

way it sounded to the Frenchmen and Englishmen who had an occasion to
write it down. Consequently, there are a variety of spellings present
in the literature. Some of these are: Achipoes, Ochipay, Chepeways,
Tschipeway, Otchipwe, and Odjibwa.3 The name Ojibwa, was probably a
descriptive term given to the group by neighboring tribes and was later
corrupted into Chippewa by the English.4 This is the name under which
the tribe has been designated by the United States government in
treaties and other negotiations.5 Older members of the tribe have
never accepted the name Chippewa and prefer to be called Ojibwa. Cur-
rently, Native Americans interested in their cultural heritage also
prefer Ojibwa to Chippewa.

Also appearing in the literature are names such as Saulteur,
Noquet, Marameg, Napeming, Mississake, Nispissing, and Amikwa.6 These

names were given to them by others or were used by the group in

 

3See Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929; reprint ed.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Ross & Haines, Inc., 1970), p. S; "Handbook of
American Indians North of Mexico" Bureau of American Ethnology
Bulletin 30(1912): 280-81.

 

4Carrie A. Lyford, Ojibwa Crafts (Chippewa), Edited by Williard
W. Beatty (Washington, D.C.: Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian
Affairs, United States Department of the Interior, 1943), p. 12.

5Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, reprint ed.,
Minneapolis, Minn.: Ross & Haines, Inc., 1970). p. 5.

6See James Edward Fitting, Archaeology of Michigan: A Guide to

Prehistory of the Great Lakes Region (Garden City, N.Y.: The Natural
History Press, 1970): pp. 194-5; W. Vernon Kinietz, The Indians of the
Western Great Lakes: 1615-1760 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, 1940; Ann Arbor Paperbacks, 1965, 2nd printing 1972). p. 317.

 

 

reference to themselves. The names may possibly refer to a geographical
location of a group of Chippewas or a clan designation of the
Chippewas.7

Lyford presents three possible origins and meanings of the
word Ojibwa.

The origin of the word Ojibwa (O—jib-way) is thought to have

been a corruption of "o-jib-i-weg" meaning "those who made
pictographs" a word which was in turn derived from the expression
"nind-o-jib-i-wa," meaning "I mark or write on some object."

The engraved rolls or scrolls of birch bark which bore the
records of the Midewiwin society of the Ojibwa were the nearest
approach to written documents achieved by the Indians of the
United States or Canada and were a distinctive feature of the
tribal culture. Similar records on birch bark were kept by the
Menomini, the Potawatomi, and the Ottawa.

An earlier explanation of the name, now considered incorrect,
derived the word from "o-jib-ub-way" meaning "to roast till
puckered up," referring to the tribal style of moccasins that
has a puckered seam on the instep.

Another meaning given to the tribal name, Ojibwa, is, "he who

sips soup or porridge with a sucking-in sound," which is regarded
as a sign of appreciation."8

Movement and Cultural Contact

 

The Chippewa (Ojibwa) are said to have migrated from both the
northwest and the northeast. George Copway states that

the migrations of the Ojibwas has been traced from the upper part
of Lake Superior, and even several hundred miles above its head,
along the shore of Lake Superior, down to Lake Huron, St. Clair,
the foot of Lake Michigan, north of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and
some distance down the St. Lawrence.

 

7James Edward Fitting, Archaeology of Michigan: A Guide to
Prehistory of the Great Lakes Region (Garden City, N.Y.: The
Natural History Press, 1970). p. 195.

 

8Lyford, p. 12.

9George Copway, The Life, History, and Travels of Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-
Bawh (George Copway) A Young Indian Chief of the Ojibwa Nation, A

 

 

Another source states that they came from the east, originating near
the Atlantic coast north of the St. Lawrence River.10 From whatever
direction they came Kinietz feels that they arrived in the vicinity of
Sault Ste. Marie about the same time as the French.11

The French, under the leadership of Samuel de Champlain,
founded Fort Quebec in 1608. By 1615 their explorations had reached
as far west as Georgian Bay. Two of Champlain's protegés, Etienne
Brule and Jean Nicolet headed later expeditions into the region of the
lakes country. Brule supposedly reached the vicinity of Sault Ste.
Marie in the winter of 1618-19 and in 1621-22 paddled up the St. Mary's
River into Lake Superior. Jean Nicolet, in search of a passage to the
east, passed through the Straits of Mackinac in 1634, onto Lake
Michigan, and down the western arm of Green Bay, landing in the present
state of Wisconsin.

French missionaries had established a mission among the Hurons
on the southeast end of Georgian Bay and called the mission Ste. Marie.

Two Jesuit priests, Isaac Joques and Charles Raymbault, traveled from

the Ste. Marie Mission to the rapids of the St, Mary's River in 1643.

 

Convert to the Christian Faith and a Missionary to His People for Twelve
Years; With a Sketch of the Present State of the jSbwaLgin Regard to
Christianitygand Their Future Prospects. Also Anqupeal; With All the
Names of the Chiefs Now Living Who have been Christianized and the Mis-
sionaries Now Laboring Among Them (Albany; N.Y.: Weed and Parsons, 1847),
p. 58.

 

10Ruth Murray Underhill, Red Man's America (Chicago: The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 141.

11W. Vernon Kinietz, Chippewa Villgge: The Story_of Katikitegon
(Bloomfield Hills, Mich.: Cranbrook Institute of Science, 1947),
p. 14.

There they found a group of Indians, the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.
This was the first contact the French had with them. The place was
christened Sault de Ste. Marie12 and the Indians found there were
named Saulteurs.

During the seventeenth century the Iroquois Indians located
in the central and northwestern areas of the present day state of New
York, began a series of campaigns against the groups of Indians living
near them, the Hurons, Neutrals, and Eries. Once these tribes were
dispersed the "Iroquois turned on the more distant tribes, the upper
Algonquians of the Great Lakes and the tribes in the Ohio Valley."13
The Ottawas were the main target of attack by the Iroquois, but they
also succeeded in driving the Ojibwas from their settlements along the
northern shore of Lake Huron and the Algonquians and Tobacco Hurons
from the lower peninsula of Michigan into Wisconsin. As a result of the
Iroquois campaigns the lower peninsula of Michigan remained unclaimed
territory for a number of years, and an unexplored territory since the
Europeans generally went where there were numerous populations of
Indians. In 1653 a group of Saulteurs, Missisakis, and people of the
Otter Tribe defeated a party of Iroquois in the vicinity of present

day St. Ignace. The Saulteurs fled northward settling at Chagouamikon

(Chequamegon) and eventually Kionconan (Keweenaw). Some of the

 

12Sault in french means fall or rapid. W. Vernon Kinietz,
The Indians of the western Great Lakes: 1615-1760 (Ann Arbor, Mich.:
The University of Michigan Press, 1940; paperback reprinted ed. 1965,
2nd printing 1972). P. 317.

13George E. Hyde, Indians of the Woodlands: From Prehistoric
Times to 1725 (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962,
3rd printing 1973), p. 176.

Saulteurs returned to the Sault in 1662-67.14 From the latter part of
the seventeenth century to the mid-eighteenth century settlements of
Chippewas were reported at the following locations: along the southern
shore of Lake Superior (Chequamegon and Keweenaw), l703-village near
Detroit, l723-villages along the Saginaw, l729-Mackinac, the Chippewas
settled with the Ottawas and when a major part of the Ottawas moved to
L'Arbre Croche in 1740, the Chippewas expanded at Mackinac, l734-River
Aux Sables, and l747-LaGrosse Ile (Bois Blanc Island).15
The two Jesuit priests, Joques and Raymbault who had visited the
Sault in 1643 heard of the Sioux who were reported to be at war with
the Crees at that time.16 Exactly when the Chippewas came into contact
with the Sioux, is not known. According to Hickerson, from 1680 to
1736 the Chippewa at Cheguamegon and Keweenaw Bays were peacefully
entering Sioux country, located at the western end of Lake Superior in
northwestern Wisconsin and northern Minnesota, to hunt and trade with
the Sioux as middlemen traders for the French. After 1736 this rela-
tionship between the Chippewa and Sioux changed. The French had

bypassed the Chippewa in trade and as a result the Chippewa broke their

. . l7 ,
agreement Wlth the Sioux. A new alliance was formed between the

 

14Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes: 1615-1760,
p. 318.

15Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes: 1615-1760,
p. 319.

16Hyde, pp. 96-97.

17Harold Hickerson, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors: A Study
in Ethnohistory (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970),
p. 71.

Chippewas, Crees, and Assiniboin leaving the Sioux without allies near
at hand to help defend their territory. Gradually the Chippewa expanded
their hunting range into the Sioux territory to acquire food and pelts
which could be exchanged for the highly desired trade goods on which

the Indians had become dependent. The expansion was prompted by the
depletion of game in their own territory. Hickerson describes a buffer
zone, a sort of no man's land, that was established between the Chippewa
and Sioux territory. The size of the zone fluctuated throughout the
years but in general it covered a 340 mile range stretching from the
Chippewa River in Wisconsin to Otter Tail Lake and Red River in western
Minnesota.18 The Chippewas and Sioux as well as other neighboring
tribes made frequent hunting excursions into this zone where game
flourished because the zone was not inhabited.19 Sporadic warfare
occurred between the two tribes and either tribe entering the buffer
zone to hunt had to use a great deal of caution and be alert to danger

from the other.

‘Fur Trade
French explorers penetrated the lakes country in the hopes of
discovering the long sought passage to the east. However, their explo-
rations were not devoted exclusively to that task. They also searched
for a raw commodity that could be sold on the French market. Fish
taken from the coastal waters of Newfoundland were proving a profitable

venture but other commodities that would provide a source of wealth for

 

8Hickerson, p. 98.

19Hickerson, pp. 80-81, 83-85.

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11

France were sought. The new source of wealth proved to be fur pelts.
To obtain the right to trade for fur in the new world a French trader
made a flat payment of money to the French government with the additional
stipulation that the person or persons buying the right would transport
a group of colonists to the new world and support each of the colonists
up to three years after their arrival.20 This form of licensing (the
payment of a flat fee) continued throughout the existence of the fur
trade by the successors of the French, the British and the Americans.

The Indians, possessing the skill to hunt animals for a liveli-
hood (food and clothing), played a vital role in the fur trade. The
French, and later the British and Americans, depended on them to trap
the animals and bring the pelts to established trading centers. Since
the Indians preferred European goods and considered them far superior
to goods of their own handiwork, they discarded traditional items and
adopted those obtained from the trader, thus creating a dependency on
European goods and establishing a way of life to acquire those goods.
The economic system of the French was imposed on the Indians and the
Indians were thrown into a credit/deficit economy very different from
the economic system they had known.

The first trading centers were set up at Montreal and Three
Rivers. Groups of Indians would bring their furs to one of these two
places to exchange them for cloth, blankets, kettles, articles of
silver, and ammunition. On one of the return trips to the lakes

country the Indians were accompanied by two voyageurs (canoe men),

 

2 . . . . . . .
OWillis Frederick Dunbar, Michigan: A History of the Wolverine

State (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Erdman's Publishing Company,
1965). P. 88.

 

12

Radisson and Grosseilliers. These men spent several years (1650-1660)
living among the Indians in the regions of Green Bay and Lake
Superior, wandering inland and learning the woodland routes.21 In 1665
Nicolas Perrot conceived the plan of carrying the trade goods to the
Indians living in the lakes country.22 Later, other trading posts were
eventually established at Detroit and at the Straits. The posts were
garrisoned to provide protection for the traders and the missionaries.
Shifting alliances between the various tribes of Indians caused dis-
ruptions to the fur trade. As a result established posts were either
destroyed by the Indians or abandoned by the troops for several years,
then rebuilt or reopened when the hostilities had come to an end. There-
fore, a post opened at one point in time did not necessarily continue in
operation, nor exist in the same location to the end of the fur trading
era. For example, the post at the Straits was moved to Mackinac Island
during the American Revolution.

Additional disruptions that led to the decline and demise of
the fur trade include: the take over of the French Inner Empire by the
British at the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, the French
Revolution in 1789, the relinquishing of British forts to the Americans,
the whims of fashion, and the depletion of the animal whose pelts were
in demand.

Many of the French traders intermarried with the Indians. The

close relationship that developed between the French and the Indians was

 

ZlLouise Phelps Kellogg, ed., Early Narratives of the Northwest
1634-1699 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1917; reprint ed., New
York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1967), p. 5.

22Kellogg, pp. 5, 6.

13

not shared by the British. The British did not mingle with the Indians
freely; they assumed a rather condescending attitude towards them. This
attitude, coupled with the fact that allegiance must now be given to the
British Sovereign led to a revolt by some of the Indians of the Great
Lakes. An Indian Chief, Pontiac, organized the Indians of the Great
Lakes area to simultaneously attack forts and trading centers held by
the British. When the revolt had been subdued, trade was resumed, but
the political dominance of the British over the Great Lakes region was
short lived and was relinquished to the Americans in 1796.

At the end of the American Revolution the British did not give
up the forts and trading posts in the Great Lakes area. The decision
to withdraw from the United States territory came later and was based on
a number of reasons: the cost of maintaining the forts had become a
burden to the British, the demand for furs on the European market had
declined, (the French Revolution was occurring at this time and the
French aristocracy who purchased large quantities of fur were fleeing
France or losing their lives), and in 1793 England found herself involved
in another war with France. Even though the British gave up their forts
located on American soil they continued to trade with the Indians in the
Great Lakes region under the North West Company which was based in
Montreal until 1816.

Soon after the revolution the United States government esta-
blished a factory system. (A factory was simply a place where Indians

. . 23
"traded furs for neceSSities.") The purposes the system served were:

 

23James D. Horan, The McKenneyéHall Portrait Gallery of American
Indians (New York: Crown Publisher's Inc., 1972), p. 31.

l4

diplomatic, to weaken foreign influence, Spanish or British, over

the tribes; economic, to force out British traders; military, to

keep peace on the frontier and control the Indian nations through

dependency; and humanitarian, to supply the Indians the goods they

needed and to prevent whiskey from debauching them.24
George Washington "insisted that trade must be conducted honestly and
with a steady flow of reliable goods at reasonable prices."25 In 1796
Congress passed a bill which legalized the government factory system, by
establishing an Indian Trade Bureau and giving the president the
authority to "appoint the factors and set their salaries."26

Thomas Lorraine McKenney, who became one of the Superintendents

of Indian Trade was appointed by President Madison in 1816 and served
under Presidents Madison, Monroe, Adams, and Jackson until his dismissal
by President Jackson in 1830. McKenney was responsible for bringing
many Indian delegations to Washington for purposes of meeting the Presi-
dent and viewing the military strength of the "Great White Father." The
hope was that the Indians would think twice before creating a distur-
bance against white settlers invading their territory. During the
Indians' visits McKenney showered them with gifts, which included items
of clothing, and persuaded many of them to pose for portraits. Some of
these portraits were eventually published in McKenney and Hall's History
of the Indian Tribes of North America. McKenney was an honest and .
dedicated public servant in spite of the several attempts by Congress-

men, whose loyalties were purchased by wealthy and influential men such

as John Jacob Astor, to prosecute him on charges of fraud.

 

24Horan, p. 32.

25Horan, p. 31.

26Horan, p. 31.

15

John Jacob Astor, who became one of the wealthiest men in
America, had formed the American Fur Company in 1808. Two years ear-
lier several owners of the North West Company, (the company which had
dominated the fur trade at Mackinac until 1806) joined with others and
formed another fur trading company, the Michilimackinac Company or
-Mackinac Company as it came to be known. The two companies divided the
trade between them, with much of Michigan being assigned to the Mackinac
Company. As Astor's American Fur Company began to trade in the Mackinac
area bitter rivalry developed between it and the Mackinac Company. In
1811 Astor persuaded the North West Company to confine its trade to
Canada, and the Mackinac Company and the American Fur Company to form
a new company called the South West Company, sharing equally in the
trade in the Mackinac area. Headquarters of the South West Company
were set up on Mackinac Island.

Astor was described as being "both friend and creditor of many
influential statesmen in Washington including Presidents of the United
States" and "was never reluctant to collect debts owed."28 Under
Astor's influence Congress passed a bill in 1816 that restricted trade
within the United States to American citizens. The passage of this
bill made it illegal for the South West Company to continue operating
because it was jointly owned by Americans and foreigners, so Astor
bought out his foreign partners. To insure that the Indians would

continue to trade with Astor's company and not one of the government

 

27Dunbar, pp. 192-93.

28Horan, p. 33.

l6

factories, whiskey was offered as a trade item to the Indians. Govern-

ment factories were not allowed to trade whiskey to the Indians.

Missionaries

 

The visitation to the Sault in 1643 by the Jesuit priests,
Joques and Raymbault, was the first contact the Indians in that vicinity
had with missionaries. Joques and Raymbault were only passing through
the area and it was almost 20 years later before a missionary came to
the upper Great Lakes region to work among the Indians. As shifting
alliances and petty feuds among the Indians had disrupted the fur
trade, it also affected the continuance of missionary work. A mission
was established at St. Ignace and served as the center for missionary
work in the upper Great Lakes region. Other missions were established
throughout the region. However if a priest left a locality, he was
not likely to be replaced and his work was not continued.

The available literature suggests that the Catholic Church was
the dominant religious influence in the Great Lakes region, but by the
first quarter of the nineteenth century one finds references to
Protestant missions and schools being established among the Indians of
this region. Unlike the Catholics who sent priests into the area to
convert the Indians, the Protestants sent ministers to convert the

Indians and recruit some of them to become ministers and work among

their own people.

Land Cessions

 

The Indians were involved in a number of land cession treaties

that began in the late 17803 and continued through the 18605. Large

l7

tracts of land in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were ceded to the
United States. Several small tracts of land, reservations, were
retained by the Indians in each state for habitation. After the deple-
tion of animals and the demise of the fur trade in the area the Indians
who remained in the area turned to the next boom industry which was
lumbering. With the destruction of the forest cover of their land,
many Indians were left with few natural resources to exploit for a
livelihood. Indians left the reservation in search of jobs. Those who
remained did a little farming and continued to exist on hunting,
fishing and manufacturing traditional articles for selling to the
tourists.

Cultural Life of the Chippewa as Viewed Through

Their Economic, Social, Political,
and Belief Systems

 

 

 

The Chippewa, at the time of first contact with the French were
located at Sault Ste. Marie. Some of them settled there year round,
living primarily on the abundant supply of fish in the St. Mary's
River. Other bands settled in the areas north and west of Lake
Superior and between Lakes Superior and Huron. The Chippewa were
primarily nomadic hunters, but because the group inhabited such a large
geographical area each band adapted to a specific locality within that
area in a slightly different way. Those bands living north of Lake
Superior obtained their food by hunting, fishing and gathering. Bands
living west of Lake Superior moved to the shore of the lake during
the warmer months planting and harvesting crops of corn and squash.
Then, in the colder months they returned to their hunting grounds. The

bands residing between Lake Superior and Lake Huron planted crops in the

l8

spring and then left their villages to gather wild foods and fish,
returning in time to harvest their crops. In the winter months this
band hunted game along the shores of the lakes.29

Their primary means of livelihood, hunting, necessitated the
dispersal of small groups of people over a large territory. Family
groups that composed a band separated from each other during the fall
and winter months and returned to their designated hunting grounds. In
the spring, usually around March, the family journeyed to their custo-
mary grove of sugar maple trees to collect sap from which they made
sugar. They were joined there by two or three other families who
shared the grove with them. By June each family had moved to its summer
location, an area which contained a body of fresh water and an abundant
food source. Again, the family was joined by other family groups. Sum-
mer was the time for gathering and preparing foods, preparing skins,
and for games and religious ceremonies. In late summer, crops, if they
had been planted were ready to be harvested as was the wild rice that
grew in and around Lake Superior and the northern shores of Lake
Michigan. Completion of harvesting signalled the breakup of communal
social life and each family group returned to their winter hunting
ground.30

Bands were composed of extended families who were members of the

various clans. An extended family "consisted of a man, his younger

 

29Kinietz, The Indians of the Western Great Lakes: 1615-1760,
pp. 321-324.

30George Irving Quimby, Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes
11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1800 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1960). PP. 122-124.

 

19

brothers, his father and mother, his wives, his younger brothers'
wives, and their children."31 Clan membership was based on patrilineal
descent. Marriage between members of the same clan was prohibited,
therefore one married a member of another clan. Clans were often named
after birds, fishes, and animals and members of the clans thought that
a special relationship existed between the bird, fish, or animal for
which the clan was named. Some of the clans among the Chippewa were
Crane, Hawk, Gull, Pike, Sturgeon, Whitefish, Otter, Bear, and Caribou.
Clan symbols or totems representing these animals were placed on
various possessions.

Although clan and band chiefs existed, their primary function
was civil. They maintained peace and order, and made decisions re-
garding the general welfare of the group. Oftentimes the chief was not
the most prestigious individual in the group and influence could be
exerted through other notable individuals such as a shaman or war
leader. When a chief died he was replaced by his son.3

A war leader was a self-proclaimed leader who depended on his
personality and reputation as a warrior to persuade other band members
to join him in a raid. His leadership was of short duration, lasting

only as long as the conflict.34

 

31Quimby, p. 122.
32Quimby, p. 126.
33 .

Ritzenthaler, p. 52.

34Ritzenthaler, p. 53.

20

The Chippewas believed in the animation of most natural
objects and paid homage to them by making offerings of tobacco, goods,
food, and prayer. In order to achieve success in life they felt they
must be aided by the spirits. Therefore, at puberty, each individual
acquired a guardian spirit. The spirit revealed itself to the child
through a dream and the dream was invoked through a period of fasting.

The Chippewa also had shamans who controlled the good and evil
forces in nature. They worked individually and were not connected with
the other religious organizations of the Chippewas culture.

Two religious organizations that were a result of cultural
contact were the Midewiwin or Grand Medicine Society and the Drum or
Dream Dance. The Midewiwin began soon after contact with the Europeans
in the early 17003.35 The society healed the sick through a performance
of a religious ceremony. Initiation into the society was possible at
birth or when one became ill. A shell which was imbued with super-
natural power was shot from the mouth of each member at the initiate.
The shell as well as other "medicines" were carried in a medicine bag.
The society was composed of four grades or levels that represented the
four layers of the earth and movement through them was achieved by
making a large payment. Each grade or level was recognized by a certain
style or manner of painting the face and by the type of medicine bag
one carried. Face painting and medicine bags for each level varied
from locality to locality. The Drum or Dream Dance was initiated in the

latter half of the nineteenth century and was introduced to the

 

5Hickerson, p. 59.

21

Wisconsin and Minnesota Chippewa in the 18703 by the Sioux. The cere-
mony promoted social responsibility for one's self and toward one's

. 36
fellow human beings.

Harold Hickerson concluded in his book, The Chippewa and Their

 

Neighbors: A Study in Ethnohistory, that aspects of the Chippewas cul-

 

ture, kinship, religion, and warfare were undergoing change as a result
of contact with Europeans.37 Therefore, since they were continually in
contact with other cultures, both Indian and European, their life style
and clothing, which reflected their life style, would also change

through time.

Summary

The Chippewa Indians, a name they acquired from the English and
one of the many names by which they are known in the literature were
derived from the Algonquian linguistic stock and at the time of direct
contact with Europeans were inhabiting the region around Sault Ste.
Marie located on the St. Mary's River in the upper peninsula of
Michigan. During the 300 year period covered by the study the Chippewas
encountered other Indian groups, such as the Ottawas, Iroquois, and
Sioux and Non-Indians, the French, English and Americans. Long term
contact with the European economic system through trade influenced their
way of life. Material goods obtained as an immediate result of trade
changed the type of material objects used by the Chippewas which in

turn affected their life style, and their social, political, and

 

36Ritzenthaler, pp. 93-95.

37Hickerson, pp. 37-119.

22

religious structures. Since articles of dress and adornment are
considered part of their material culture it is probable that they also
changed as a result of contact with other cultures. A survey of the
articles of dress worn by the Chippewas could be analyzed for changes
and for the cultural influences that might have caused the changes to

occur .

CHAPTER III

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The Chippewa or Ojibwa Indians that dwelled in the Great Lakes
Region were selected for study in order to combine the writers areas of
interest, clothing and textiles, ethnohistory, and museology. As the
writer became acquainted with the primary literature, diaries and
journals, about the Chippewas it was discovered that many of the
sources did not deal effectively with dress and the passage of time or
the changes that occurred over time. Since few primary documents could
be found that discussed the same group of Chippewas at the same point
in time for the same location, it was difficult to validate one authors
observations against anothers. Therefore, the writer had to assume that
the information recorded in the primary literature was accurate. This
study provides a record of the time when changes occurred in Chippewa
Indian dress, what the changes were, and the relationship of those

changes to possible cultural influences.

Objectives

 

The objectives of the study were:
1. To survey the articles of dress and adornment worn by the

Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.

23

24

2. To establish when the changes in dress occurred and the
forms the changes assumed.

3. To relate the changes in dress to cultural influences.

Definitions

 

Culture.--1. The way of life of a group of people. Culture is every-
thing a group of people thinks, says, does, and makes.
Culture is learned, it is transmitted from generation
. l
to generation.
2. The entire way of life of a group of people is referred
to as their culture, while at the same time the group of
2
people themselves is referred to as a culture.
Dress.--l. Articles of clothing worn by people to cover their bodies.
2. Clothing and adornment articles worn or applied to the body
by people to cover their bodies.
Adornment.--l. Altering the body by ointments, coloration, texture
changes, reshaping of the body, and the use of
3
ornaments.
Form.--l. As used in Objective 2, form is defined as a general term

to include three facets: the type and style of dress,

 

1Keith F. Otterbein, Comparative Cultural Analysis: An Intro-

duction to Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1972), P. l.

2Otterbein, p. 3.

3Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne Bubolz Eicher, ed., Dress, Adorn-
mentigand the Social Order (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965),
p. 1.

 

25

materials from which the dress was made, and the decorative
motifs applied to the dress.
Style.-- 1. Specific names within types of articles. For example,
hats are a type of headwear, but bowler, derby, and heater

are specific "styles" of hats.

CHAPTER IV

PROCEDURES

The selection of sources for data about Chippewa Indian dress

and an explanation of the procedures used in acquiring the data are

discussed in this chapter. Also discussed is the development of the

classification systems needed to analyze the data.

Data Collection

 

The data were obtained from written descriptions of dress
found in the primary literature and from examining artifacts of Chippewa
Indian dress that are held in collections of museums and by individuals
in Michigan. Since it is difficult to visualize an article of dress
from a written description, artifacts were examined and included as

part of the data collection.

Data from Written Literature

 

Much of the literature surveyed was located in the University
Library, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, and the
Michigan State Library, Lansing, Michigan. Other references were
obtained through the University Library's Interlibrary Loan Division.

The types of literature surveyed comprised both primary and
secondary source material. Primary source material consisted of
diaries, journals, autobiographies, histories, and studies that

26

27

combined original research with previously written literature. Secon-
dary source material consisted of political and economic history of
Michigan and the Great Lakes Region.

Literature that contained any information about the articles of
dress and adornment of the Chippewa Indians was gathered. Special
attention was given to the author of each work, especially his
nationality and occupation, and the geographical area and time period
in which he wrote or wrote about.

Primary and secondary source materials were sought, read, and
noted over a period of seven months, from January to June and August

1976.

Data from Museums

 

The names and addresses of museums in Michigan were obtained

from The Official Museum Directory 1973 and the Reference Encyclopedia

 

of the American Indian and from them, museums were selected on the

 

basis of key terms that appeared in a description of their collections
holdings.1 These key terms were: Indian artifacts, Indian material,
Indian culture, Woodland Indians, archaeology, ethnology, anthropology,
natural history material, Indian garments, clothing, costumes, and
textiles.

A survey letter was sent to the museum explaining the intent

of the study and requesting information on the amount and type of

 

1The Official Museum Directory 1973 (washington, D.C.: The
American Association of Museums and New York: National Register Pub-
lishing Co. Inc., 1973), pp. 323-46; Bernard Klein and Daniel Icolari,
ed., Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian (New York: B. Klein
and Company, 1967), pp. 31-33.

 

28

Chippewa Indian artifacts of dress. Permission to examine and photo-
graph those artifacts was also requested as well as the names and
addresses of private collectors in their locality. For ease in replying
to the request, a questionnaire and a self—addressed, stamped envelope
were enclosed. An additional enclosure was a cover letter written by
Mr. Val R. Berryman, Curator of Historical Artifacts, The Museum,
Michigan State University. (See Appendix A)

During February and March of 1975, 86 survey letters were sent
to museums and eleven to private collectors in Michigan. Sixty-two
replies were received, 56 from museums and six from private collectors.
Although the writer had requested that they reply by the end of the
month, replies were still being received up to a year later.

As replies were received they were filed into the following
categories: (1) museums that definitely had Chippewa Indian artifacts
of dress, (2) museums that had Indian artifacts of dress, but were
uncertain of their tribal origin or affiliation, and (3) museums that
had Indian artifacts of dress but were not identifed as Chippewa, or
museums that had no Indian artifacts of dress. Museum staff members
and private collectors who had answered the survey letter indicating
that they definitely had Chippewa artifacts or Indian artifacts of
unknown tribal affiliation were contacted by telephone or letter to
arrange a specific date and time for a visit.

Since many of the museums did not know the tribal affiliations
of their Indian artifacts it was necessary to contact experts in the

field to identify and date the unknown artifacts. Two knowledgeable

29

people, Mrs. Mary Berryman and Mr. Richard A. Pohrt gave their per-
mission to be consulted on these matters.2

-An Artifact Data.Collection Sheet was developed during June of
1975, (see pages 31-34) and was tested in August on a small sample of
Chippewa Indian artifacts held by The Museum, Michigan State University.
As a result of the pretesting,revisions in the data collection sheet
were made. The revised Artifact Data Collection Sheet consisted of
four major divisions, which were: artifact data, photograph data,
article of dress, and design area. The divisions were arranged so
that the writer could record the photographic data without having to
flip pages. This layout necessitated placing the remainder of the

artifact data division on the second page of the data collection sheet.

 

2Mary Berryman served as a board member of the Michigan

Indian Benefit Association from 1972 to 1978. Part of that time was
spent as chairman of the arts and crafts committee. Her emphasis has
been on the accurate reproduction of traditional Indian crafts and in
the Spring of 1976 she demonstrated the making of traditional woodland
yarn bags at the American Folklife Festival held at the Smithsonian
Institution in Washington, D.C. In addition to serving as a board
member she has given presentations to school groups, and has designed
and prepared slide shows and traveling exhibits on Woodland Indian
culture. Richard Pohrt a well known authority of Indian material cul-
ture in his own right has increased his knowledge through his long
association and friendship with Milford G. Chandler, a noted authority
on Indian artifacts and culture. Mr. Pohrt actively collects Indian
artifacts and has an extensive collection which he displays at his
museum, the Great Lakes Indian Museum in Cross Village, Michigan. He
has organized exhibits on Indian culture for the Flint Institute of
Arts, "Arts of the Great Lakes Indians" in 1973 and "The American
Indian and the American Flag" in 1976 for the bicentennial celebration
and has served as a consultant for other exhibits on Indian culture
throughout the United States and Canada. He has also written numerous
articles on Indian culture for various periodicals.

30

All of the categories under artifact data are self explanatory
with the exceptions of the condition of the article and measurements.
The category, condition of the article, was based on a condition rating
scale that the writer developed while working with the Historic Costume
and Textile Collections of The Museum, Michigan State University.

The condition rating scale evaluated three aspects: (1) the condition
of the construction of the fabric or garment, (2) the cleanness of the
fabric or garment, and (3) the work to be done on the fabric or garment
to bring it up to displayable standards. The condition rating ranged
on a continuum from excellent, good, fair, poor, to extremely poor.

(An explanation of this scale is located in Appendix B.)

In order to determine the measurements to make of each artifact,
a listing of all the possible types of artifacts that would be encoun-
tered was drawn up. Many of the measurements were based on basic
fitting measurements that the writer acquired in a basic clothing con-
struction course, while an undergraduate at Michigan State University.
(The list of artifacts and the measurements to be taken for each is also
included in Appendix B.)

The responses to the remaining divisions of article of dress
and design area and their categories of colors, materials, techniques,
and designs were based on a survey done by the writer of the existing
literature for classifications and terms used to identify the colors,
materials, techniques, and designs used on the articles of Chippewa

Indian dress.3 Additional technical information about the artifacts

 

3The major references used in the survey were: Dick Conn,
"Braided Sashes Part I," American Indian Tradition 52 (1963): 5-13;
Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs (1929, reprint ed., Minneapolis,

 

31

ARTIEACT DATA COLLECTION SHEET

Name of museum/Private Collector
Address
Phone Number Date Visited

Artifact Data
Catalog’Number
Name of Article

Date of Article

Justification for Identification

 

 

 

 

 

Condition of Article

Exoellent Poor
Good Extremely Poor
Fair

Photograph Data

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Film TRI-X Pan A War
in ASA 160)
Background White Poster Board , White Poster~Board
or Dis la Case or Dis 1a Case

Roll Number
Frame Number

Front

ck
Iggide
Details

 

Shutter Setting

 

I Stop

 

Lights

 

Lighting Condition

 

Size of Extention Tubes
ysgg for Close-ups

 

 

 

 

 

Sex of wearer
Male
Female

Number of Garment Pieces

32

Adult
Child

 

measurements

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

new and where it was worn on the body
(Sketch on figure)

 

 

 

 

Article of Dress
Color
Name of Hues

33

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. of Hues
Materials
Cloth Plant or vegetable
Yarn Other
_______Skin
Describe
Technique
Cut and Sewn Twined
Hand Stitched Plaited
Machine Stitched Other

 

woven
Describe

 

 

 

 

Design of Article (Shape)
Describe Construction Details

 

 

 

Sketch Article - Identify and label the various materials used in the article.

Design Area
Number of Design Areas

to

4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Color
Name of Hues
NO. or 3033
Materials
Grass Ribbon
Hoosehair Tinkling Cones
Paint Silver Ornaments
Quills Yarn
Beads Other
Describe
Technique
Applied Other
Woven
Describe
Designs
Floral Human
Geometric Conventionalized Unit
Animal Other
Describe

 

 

 

 

Additional Cements

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

35

was also gained from the two people who served as consultants, Mrs.
Mary Berryman and Mr. Richard A. Pohrt, and from Mr. Robin Odle who
served as a contact person when examining the Indian artifacts held by
Cranbrook Institute of Science.

Photography was part of the data collection and consisted of
making black and white photographs and color slides of each artifact.
The black and white photographs were taken with a 35mm Pentax Spotmatic
camera and the film used was Tri-X-Pan. Color slides were taken with
a 35mm Honeywell Pentax camera. Film used in the Honeywell Pentax was
High Speed Ektachrome Tungsten and Daylight. An artifact to be photo-
graphed was illuminated with 3200K floodlights. Both the Tri-X-Pan
and the High Speed Ektachrome Tungsten were used under this lighting
condition. When an artifact was in an exhibit case, an automatic
flash attachment was added for extra illumination and the film was
changed from High Speed Ektachrome Tungsten to High Speed Ektachrome
Daylight for color slides. The Tri-X-Pan black and white film did not
need to be changed when using the flash attachment. Extension tubes

were used if closeups were needed of the artifact. To ensure accurate

 

Minn.: Ross & Haines, Inc., 1970), pp. 68, 155, 163, 172, 188-189, 191,
194; Carrie A. Lyford, Ojibwa Crafts (Chippewa), ed. by William W.
Beatty (Washington, D.C.: Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs,
United State Department of The Interior, 1943), pp. 11, 13, 77-83, 85,
109, 116-117, 120, 122-123, 125, 131-132, 137-147, 149, 151; Robin
Odle, "Quill and Moosehair Work in the Great Lakes Region," Art of the
Great Lakes Indians, ed. Flint Institute of Arts (Flint, Mich.:

Flint Institute of Arts, 1973), pp. xxxi-xxxviii; Richard C. Schneider,
Crafts of the North American Indians: A Craftsman's Manual (New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1972), pp. 144-148, 150-151, 160, 179;
Andrew Hunter Whiteford, North American Indian Arts (New York: Golden
Press, Western Publishing Company, Inc., 1970), pp. 61, 90, 148.

 

36

reproduction of colors and tones a color separation guide and grey
scale were placed in each slide and photograph that was taken.

The background used for the artifacts in storage was a white
poster board with black lines drawn in one inch squares. For those
artifacts on exhibit or display, that could not be removed from the
case, the case treatment served as the background.

Photographic data were recorded on the first page of the Arti-
fact Data Collection Sheet. A 6 1/2" x 3 5/8" envelope was attached
to the last page of each collection sheet for storage of the black
and white photographs. Color slides were stored in standard plastic
slide storage pages and kept in a notebook separate from the Artifact
Data Collection Sheets.

Visits to museums and private collectors began in mid-August

and continued through December 1975, March 1976, and May 1976.
Development of Classification Systems

Time Periods

 

A large quantity of data were collected from the artifacts and
written literature for this study. In order to analyze the data, a
systematic approach had to be developed. Since the purpose of the
study was to record and analyze the changes in Chippewa Indian dress
over time, designations of time periods were needed. The literature
surveyed for articles of dress and adornment, covered the geographical
area where the Chippewa Indians dwelled. Changes in their dress would
not necessarily occur at the same point in time over the whole of the

area. Because of this, style change criteria could not be used as a

37

basis for determining time periods. George Quimby, in his book
entitled, Indian Culture and European Trade Goods: The Archaeology of
the Historic Period in the Western Great Lakes Region "divided the
historic period into three temporal segments (1) the Early Historic
period, from about A.D. 1610 to 1670, (2) the Middle Historic Period,
from about 1670 to 1760, and (3) the Late Historic period, from 1760

to 1820."4 James Fitting expanded Quimby's time periods to include a
Pre-Civil War period and a Post-Civil War period.5 These periods coin-
cide to some extent with the changes of the political groups dominant
in the Great Lakes Region. For use in this study the periods of Quimby
and Fitting were extended, reorganized, and renamed after the political

group of the region as shown in Table l.

Assigning Data to Time Periods

The designated time periods were used as the major, (first)
division in the classification of articles of dress and adornment and
acquisition of the articles of dress and adornment that were developed
to facilitate the analysis of the data. Since time periods were the
major criteria, only data, artifacts or written literature, that were
dated could be used in the analysis. Museum dated artifacts were
validated by Mrs. Berryman and Mr. Pohrt as were undated artifacts.
In order to determine the date of the written literature it was

necessary to locate information on the author. Usually a brief life

 

4George Irving Quimby, Indian Culture and European Trade Goods:
The Archaeology of the Historic Period in the Western Great Lakes
Region (Madison, Wis.: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 7.

 

5James Edward Fitting, Archaeology of Michigan: A Guide to Pre-

history of the Great Lakes Region (Garden City, N.Y.: The Natural
History Press, 1970), pp. 223-26.

Table l.--Time Periods.

38

 

As Found in the Literature

Reorganized and Renamed as

 

Quimby - Early Historic period
A.D. 1610-1670
Middle Historic period
A.D. 1670-1760
Late Historic period
A.D. 1760-1820

Fitting - Pre-Civil War period

1820-1860

Post-Civil War period
1860- ?

French Contact period-
1640-1760

English Contact period
1760-1815

I American Contact period
1815-1860

II American Contact period
1860-1900

Modern Contact period
1900-1940

 

history of the author which gave information about his nationality,

occupation, the geographical area, and the time period in which he

wrote or wrote about was included in the work.

If this information

could not be found the reference was not used in the study.

Classification of Articles of Dress

and Adornment

 

The framework that was developed for categorizing articles of

dress and adornment was based on three existing classification systems.

Two of the systems dealt with the study of Historic Costume and the

third was from a Master's Thesis for clothing artifacts of the Potawa-

tomi Indians.

In Carolyn Bradley's book, Western World Costume:

 

An Outline History, an outline appeared which consisted of the following

categories.

"Dress

39

A. Sources of information

B. Men (or women)

1.

mmqmmbwm

Garments

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Hair

Outer upper

Outer lower

Under

Cloaks and overgarments
Neckwear and wristwear
Additional garments

Headdress

Footwear

Accessories

Jewelry

Typical Colors

Typical Materials

6
Make up"

Sandra Van Metre Judy, a graduate of Michigan State University, classi-

fied and cataloged the Historic Costume Collection for the College of

Home Economics based on the system she designed for cataloging historic

costume. The system consisted of a general category which in turn

encompassed subcategories.

"Headgear--Hats, Bonnets, Hat pins, Combs, Hair pieces,

Caps, Curling iron

Neckwear--Collars, Ties, Ascots, Jabots, Scarves, Fischus,

Guimpes, Neckbands, Cravats

Wraps--Coats, Capes, Shawls

Outer garments--Dresses, Skirts, Bodices, Trousers, Vests,

Shirts, Suits, Aprons

Underwear--Nightwear, Foundation garments, Lingerie,

Bustles

Handwear--Gloves, Mitts, Muffs, Purses, Fans, Handker-

chiefs, Cuffs

 

qCarolyn G. Bradley, Western World Costume: An Outline His-
tory (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954), pp. 212-16.

4O

Legwear--Spats, Hose, Garters
Footwear--Shoes, Slippers, Buttonhooks
Ensembles--Complete Outfits

Particular Function--Wedding, Uniforms (military and occu-
pational), Recreation
Miscellaneous Accessory--Parasols, Umbrellas"
Several of her general categories designated areas of the body where
an article was worn (head, neck, hand, leg, foot) while other categories
did not (wraps, outerwear, underwear, ensembles, particular function,
miscellaneous accessory). When considering an article of dress one
usually associates the article with the area of the body on which it is
worn. Margaret Miller, in her Master's Thesis, "Traditional Clothing
Artifacts of the Forest Potawatomi" divided the body into areas and then
proceeded to identify and describe the articles of dress worn on those
body areas. Her divisions were:
"Male

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Head Region

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Neck Region

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Region of the Torso and Arms

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Waist Region

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Region of the Lower Body

Female
Clothing Artifacts worn in the Head Region
Clothing Artifacts worn in the Neck Region

Clothing Artifacts worn in the Region of the Torso and Arms
Clothing Artifacts worn in the Region of the Lower Body"8

 

.gandra Van Metre Judy, "A System.for Classifying and Cata-
loging The Historic Costume Collection for the College of Home Economics
of Michigan State University" (6 credit problem, Michigan State Univer-
sity, 1969), p. 12.

£Margaret T. Miller, "The Clothing Traditions of the Forest
Potawatomie" (Master's Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1972),
pp. 39-138.

41

Elements from each of these systems were selected in
developing the categorization of articles of dress and adornment. In
addition to the five periods of time (see p. 38), the male/female
dichotomy, the area of the body on which the articles were worn and
dress categories were used. Areas of the body were based on Miller's
classification and dress categories were based primarily on Judy's
categories combined with a few from Bradley's outline. Several of
Judy's general categories were dropped (ensembles, particular function,
and miscellaneous accessories). The other categories were used with
some of the same types of articles remaining as subcategories. Since
Judy's system did not contain any categories on hair, jewelry, and
make up, more adornment types of articles not usually found as arti-
facts, these were obtained from Bradley and were expanded and renamed.
(See p. 42.)

Analysis of Articles of Dress and
Adornment

 

The data collected about articles of dress were classified
according to the categories of the "Classification of Articles of Dress
and Adornment." (See p. 42.) However, in order to analyze the data
through time it was necessary to reorganize the categories of dress
and adornment articles according to position on the body for each of
the five time periods.

The data in each of those categories were then analyzed for
characteristics ofdress, i.e., type and style of dress, sources of
materials from which each was made, and motifs applied to the dress.

(See Appendix D.) In instances where neither a type or style

42

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unanswcm
:OMumuoHou
was: >00m
umm3uoom
acmsooa
mucmsummuopca
mucmsummumuso

upon one .mmmH .Aumwmz ecu mcwpsaocwv newmmu amuou Hm3oH one on meadows no sea: ucmEGHOpm one macho mo mmaowuwc

mmwuommoooc
mucmsccuo

mafi00uume

ocaucwcm
cowumuoHou
was: >pom
Hemspcmm
mucmsummwooco
mucosummumuso
mamas

moses one .msum .Aumflmz on» any scamou Onwou woman on» On pmaammm no :wo3 ucmscuopm pom ammuo mo mmH0fluH<

mmwuommoooc
magmaccuo
mcwoODums
mcwucwmm
acaumuoaoo
was: Hewoem
muceaucao
oasum
wear one:
near
ocwuc>ou no mmeuppmox

defiomu omen on» O» pmwammm no cap: unmEGMOpm mam mmmuo mo moaowuu‘

 

mamaom can: powwow mafia

 

.ucmficuop< one mmmuo mo mmaofiuum on» no Emumhm cofiumofimwmmmao mnaul.m wands

43

name were given a brief description of the article was used. However,
in order to keep the data uniform within each type of dress and adorn-
ment item, either all type and style names were used or brief descrip-
tions. Type and style names were never combined with brief descriptions.
Materials from which the articles of dress were made were ob-
tained from two sources, the environment and from trade with Europeans,
or a combination of the two. Therefore, under "source of material"
entries were categorized as:
Environment--Interpreted as coming from the environment
European trade goods--Materials obtained through trade with
Europeans
Combination environment and European trade goods--Interpreted as
being made from both the environment and
European sources
Environment or European trade goods--Meaning that a European
material could be substituted for a material
obtained from the environment
Garments and accessories were decorated in various ways. These
were observed and coded according to any of the following types of
motifs or a combination thereof:
Geometric--Straight lines, zigzag lines, diamonds, squares,
rectangles, circles, and triangles
Conventionalized unit--Designs composed of abstracted floral and
leaf motifs using geometric elements
Floral--Rea1istic portrayal of recognizable foliage

Human--Figures representing humans

44

Animal/Reptile--Figures representing animals, reptiles, or birds

Curvilinear--Designs in which a continuous line delineates
intricate curves

Biomorfic--Designs in which a continuous line delineates simple

indentations

Once the data had been transformed into the above format with
its emphasis on the three characteristics or forms of dress, type and
style, source of material, and motif, frequency counts could be made of
the items listed in each category. (See "The Analysis of the Change in
Articles of Dress and Adornment Across Time Periods" in Appendix D.)

The final analysis consisted of an evaluation of the frequency
counts and, based on the descriptive and numerical information pre-
sented, a determination was made as to whether change in dress had
occurred, and if it had, when in time and what forms it assumed. The
decisions relative to the data were recorded as:

No information--Represented by a blank space in the table, and

meant that nothing in the literature or among
the artifacts was found.

Information--Represented by an "I." Indicated that information
was present and that it was the first appearance of
information for that dress category for type and
style, source of material, or motif, for either male
or female.

Unspecified information--Represented by "U" and meant that infor-

mation was found but it gave no indication
of type and style, source of material, or

motif.

45

Change--Represented by a "C." Change could only be determined if
information from a previous time period existed and then
by a comparison of the characteristics recorded for the
forms of dress and the frequency with which they occurred.

No Change--Represented by a dash (--). No change was determined

again by a comparison of the characteristics recorded

and the frequency with which they occurred.

Classification of Acquisitions
Keith F. Otterbein in a synthesis of the works of other authori-
ties viewed culture as a system of overlapping subsystems.

Four subsystems are usually distinguished: economic, social, poli—
tical, and belief systems. An economic system consists of the
means by which the physical environment is exploited technologically
and the means by which the products of this endeavor are differ-
entially allocated to the members of the culture. A social system
is composed of the relationships between kinsmen and the groups
formed by kinsmen. A political system consists of organizational
units, their leaders, the relationships leaders have with members
of their units, and the relationship between units. And finally,

a belief system is composed of the knowledge which people have of
the world around them and the practices and customs by which people
utilize that knowledge. Each subsystem forms a system in the

sense that it is not possible to understand any aspect of a sub-
system without knowing something about the other aspects of that
subsystem. For example, it is not possible to understand how pro-
ducts are differentially allocated until one knows how each product
is produced, who produces it and what materials from the physical
environment are utilized in its production. By the same token,
each subsystem can only be completely understood when something

is known about the other three subsystems.9

The writer concurs with Otterbein's view that in order to understand
the operation of a culture, one must recognize the overlapping of the

subsystems.

 

9Keith F. Otterbein, Comparative Cultural Analysis: An Intro-
duction to Anthropology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1972), p. 3.

 

46

Since it was beyond the scope of this study to present an
analysis of the complete culture of the Chippewa Indians and how it
changed through time (1640-1940), the economic subsystem of their cul-
ture was selected for use in analyzing change in dress. Because the
Chippewas first came into contact with the European economic system
through trade, before actual contact with Europeans, the economic system
had a longer period of time in which to affect the Chippewa's culture.
Also many of the accounts found in the primary literature were written
by traders and since they dealt primarily with the economic system
there is more information available about the system. The analysis of
the economic system is limited to the Chippewa Indians acquisition of
articles of dress and adornment. However, aspects of the other sub-
systems in their culture also appeared in the analysis. Similarly, one
will see how outside cultural subsystems most likely influenced and
changed the subsystems of the Chippewa Indians and the material objects
produced by them.

The classification of the patterns of acquisition of the arti-
cles of dress and adornment resulted from an organization by time

periods of all references that referred to a transaction. (See p. 38.)

Analysis of the Acquisitions

 

In order to determine the source of cultural influence, the
citations taken from the literature were organized by the five time
periods and within each time period, five types of information were
recorded. (See Table 5, pages 66-69.) The first type consisted of
identifying the cultural subsystem, belief, economic, political, or

social which appeared to have motivated the transaction. (Refer to

47

page 45 for definitions of these subsystems.) The second identified
the cultural group that the Chippewas contacted. The third, the
initiator of the transaction and their roles as either confiscator/
owner, giver/receiver, buyer/seller, or trapper/trader. The fourth
is the result of an analysis of the type of transaction that occurred.
Confiscation, credit, donation, gift, payment, purchase, presentation,
and trade were identified as the types of transactions. The fifth and
last category recorded the articles of dress and adornment received
from the Europeans and the Indians.

‘The classifications of articles of dress and adornment and the
analysis of acquisitions enabled the investigator to relate changes

in dress to time and extra-cultural influences.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF DATA ACCORDING TO OBJECTIVES

The information about the dress of the Chippewa Indians was
analyzed according to the objectives of the study. The objectives were
to survey the articles of dress and adornment worn by the Chippewas, to
establish when changes in their dress occurred and the forms the changes
assumed, and to relate the changes in their dress to cultural

influences.

Survey of Articles of Dress and Adornment

 

To discover what items of clothing and accessories were worn
and used by the Chippewa Indians a survey of the primary literature
written during 1640 to 1940, and artifacts held by museums and collec-
tors in Michigan was conducted. The information about articles of dress
and adornment and the acquisition of articles of dress and adornment
were classified by the five contact periods.

The information came from many sources, but the number for each
time period varied considerably and not all sources within each time
period were used in the identification and acquisition of the articles
of dress and adornment. Table 3 lists the type and number of data
sources used for each time period for the articles of dress and adorn-

ment and their acquisition.

48

49

Table 3.--Sources Used for the Study.

 

Used for Articles

 

of Dress and ,Used for
Time Periods Surveyed Adornment Acquisitions
French n n n
1640-1760
Literature 2 2 l
Artifacts 8 8
English
1760-1815
Literature 6 6 5
Artifacts l7 17
I American
1815-1860
Literature 11 8 7
Artifacts 21 21
II American
1860-1900
Literature 4 3 3
Artifacts 40 40
Modern
1900-1940
Literature 11 ll 5
Artifacts 28 28

 

Much of the information found in the literature about dress was
insufficient and consequently not all of the categories in Tables 5 and
6 could be filled in for each transaction or item of dress that was
described. For example, an author would sometimes give a type or
style name for a clothing item, but not describe the material from
which it was made, or the motif used. In these cases the information
given on type or style was used but nothing was recorded for source of
material or motif. Similarly, in the analysis of acquisition of arti-

cles of dress the investigator was not always able, because of the

50

lack of full descriptions of the situation, to determine the cultural
subsystem, cultural group, initiators of the transaction and their
roles, type of transaction, or articles of dress exchanged for every
citation used. Another limitation of the literature was that more
observations were made and recorded about male attire than female.
However, when information was found about female clothing it was
usually more fully described than that given for the male. In addi-
tion, the artifacts examined for the study consisted of predominantly
accessory type items rather than body garments. The majority of
actual artifacts were of the later time periods, I American 1815-1860
through Modern 1900-1940. When written descriptions and artifacts
attributed to the same time period were compared the written descrip-
tions did not seem to describe or relate to many of the artifacts
found. In spite of these limitations the writer was able to conduct
a survey and gather information on the dress of the Chippewa Indians,
meeting the first objective of the study.
Changgs that Occurred in the Dress
of the Chippewa Indians
In order to analyze the data that was collected about the
dress of the Chippewa Indians to establish when the change in dress
occurred and if changes occurred, the form the changes assumed, the
categories of the classification of the articles of dress and adornment
were reordered according to position on the body and expanded to in-
clude the characteristics of types and styles, sources of materials,
and motifs. The descriptive information dealing with the forms of

dress were coded to a single term or brief description for type and

51

style, source of material and motif. Frequency counts were then made
for each. This categorization of the data along with frequency counts
is given in Appendix D.

Changes in dress could only be determined when information
about the item was present in the previous time period so that com—
parison of items along with their frequency counts could be made. When
changes in dress occurred and the forms the changes assumed are recorded
in Table 4. Changes were indicated by a (C) and if change did not
occur it was represented by a dash (--). The presence of information
was indicated by an (I), but if no information was available then a
blank space appeared. When the information given was not descriptive
enough to be analyzed, it was classified as unspecified information
which was indicated by (UI).

Based on the information presented in Table 4 the most changes
in dress occurred during the I American 1815-1860 and Modern 1900-1940
Contact Periods for all areas of the body for both male and female.
More changes occurred for the male during the I American Contact Period
than for the female, whereas in the Modern Contact Period the opposite
was true. The higher incidence of change that occurred for the male
during I American period could possibly be attributed to the fact that
more descriptions of male attire appeared in the literature than female.
The higher incidence of change that occurred for the female during the
Modern Contact Period can be attributed to the fact that the male
attire described was worn in conjunction with a ceremony and consisted
of traditional Chippewa clothing items, whereas observations recorded
about female attire were everyday wear, the same type of clothing being

worn at that time by the Non-Indians.

52

 

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55

Also revealed in Table 4 was the fact that more changes occurred
for both male and female dress regardless of position on the body across
the five time periods in type and style of dress than for source of
material or motif. Since there was more information about the types
and styles of garments worn than about the source of materials or
motifs this result must be viewed skeptically.

Both Chippewa men and women used animal skins, shells, and
other materials obtained from the environment in their attire during
the French Contact Period, 1640-1760. The men wore a skin shirt,
breechcloth, leggings, moccasins, and at times appeared clothed in
only a blanket of skins. The women generally wore a garment made of
two skins joined at the shoulders and at the sides. A flap, created
by folding over a portion of the skin at the neckline, extended to the
belted waist. This flap was decorated with paint, porcupine quills,
bird claws and small pieces of copper. Detachable sleeves and leggings
were also worn. Around 1700 silver ornaments were obtained from the
traders and in some instances were substituted for the stone and shell
ornaments worn by both men and women. Various sizes of circular
shaped brooches were found among the artifacts examined. (See Figure
2.)

During the English Contact Period 1760-1815 materials such as
calicoes, strouds, and meltons, and trims of ribbons and beads were
being obtained from the Europeans. These items were used along with
the animal skins and other materials of the previous period. Men still
wore skin shirts, but during this period many of them had shirts of

calico as well. Breechcloths were also made of cloth. A breechcloth

56

consisted of a piece of cloth about twelve inches wide and a yard and
a half long and was worn by passing the piece of cloth between the
legs, bringing the cloth up to the waist in front and back and securing
it with a belt, allowing the additional yardage to fall over the belt
forming a flap. This flap was usually decorated. (Similar garment
shown in Figure 6.) Leggings were made of cloth and usually had a
decorative flap or wing on the outside of the leg which extended from
the knee to the ankle. (Similar pair of leggings shown in Figure 4.)
Leggings were secured with a garter below the knee. (Similar pair of
garters shown in Figure 8.) A woman's dress was cut in the same style
as that of the skin dress with the detachable sleeves worn in the
French Contact Period, but now out from cloth. The detachable sleeves
are similar to a raglan sleeve and are set into a wristband. However,
the underarm seam was left open. The two sleeves were secured at the
back of the wearer by tying them together. Silver ornaments were
prolific during this period, but pieces of tin and hawkbells were also
mentioned as being used along with porcupine quills and strings of
wampum and barley corn. (See Figures 2 and 3.) Blankets of wool were
used by both men and women for wraps.

The I American Contact Period 1815-1860 was characterized by
changes in the style of garments worn by the Chippewas. Both men and
women were adopting clothing worn by the Non-Indians. Indian men were
wearing coats, pantaloons, or trousers, with other items such as a
calico shirt, breechcloth, and a pair of leggings. (See Figure 4.)
Some women were still wearing the detachable sleeved dress, the sleeves

being fastened in back with a silver gorget, while others had adopted a

57

 

Figure 2. Silver Brooches and Crosses. Worn during the
French and English Contact Periods, 1640-1760 and 1760-
1815. Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey Memorial Museum. South
Haven, Michigan.

 

Figure 3. Silver Hatband. Worn by men during the English
Contact Period 1760—1815. Richard A. Pohrt Collection,
Flint, Michigan.

58

.cmmߣowz .mmMHHM> mmouu
.nonuomamoo unmanagem sum: .oomaumamfi
poflumm uomucou cocawmaa H madman c0803
>3 cuoz .3mfl> acoum .xuozconnwu :ua3
pmumuoomo H003 ozam .uuwxm .m shaman

Svfl‘fld‘flf

 

.cmmflnOAz .ocmHmH omcflxomz .xumm oumum

ocmamH omcwxomz .owmaumama oonom pomucou
cmofiumam H on» new mufiuum w.cmz .xwozpmmn one
mconnflw no“; omumuoomo mcammuooz seam Headed
one .mmcflmmmq H003 .uuwnm OUHHMU .w muomflm

59

.nmmflnowz

.unonuon .onxms anon onuoumnm .ovma
-ooma tongue uumuqoo cameo: one unease
:05 an nnos .nsonm mnnmmma mo w3mfl>
039 .noanfiu one .mnouunn .momon nuns
ooumnoomo um>Hm> mo mmnwmmmq .h munmfim

 

“— ‘ . .I . I I.t.!r LIIJ
_

5

7:01. . 1,.

 

it.s NI.~.'.\'._\ .

.nmmASOAE .uwowuon

.mnwmz unom unnoumam .mmme some one unonm
noon Bonm ou Hmono nw nmonmouonm onu «0 non
can an mononfl ma haoumnnxowmmm um>o oommca
mmz nuoaonuwonn one .uw>ao> omEEHHu rue:
nommn one ounamo mo nuoaunoomum .o madman

 

60

 

Figure 8. Garters woven of yarns with beads inserted
during the weaving process. Worn during I American
Contact Period 1815-1860. Cranbrook Institute of
Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.

 

Figure 9. Moccasins with black velvet cuffs and vamp
decorated with ribbons and beads. Worn during II
American Contact Period 1860—1900. Grand Rapids Public
Museum, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

61

.nemflnowz .monmem oneuo

.Enmmnz unansm nonmem oneuo .oomH
ImHmH oOAMmm poeunou neonucsm H mnauso
noE SQ owns
H003 roman mo eer oem .HH ennmam

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.xuo3oeoa nuflz oeueuoomo

o-... ,
e

.nemfinonz .maanm oHeHmEoon .eoneflom no menu
InumnH xoounnewo .mamalomna one oonauowoa
.woOHnem uoeunoo nmwamnm one nonenm mnu
mnfinno nos an oemo .maanoo enamoouom sues
omueuooeo men nflxmxonn goeam .oa madman

 

 

.nemflnofiz .unouumo .onhez unom owuou
Imam .ovmauooma ooHnom uoeunoo nnoooz
mnnuso nee one an nnos .nue> one oflewn
nufiz oOEEHHu .moemnnm on» 0» ownamme
moeon nuns H003 mo woes mem .MH madman

62

 

 

.nemfinuwz .ufiouuwo

.mcsez unom onuoumnm .oomauoema eonuem
uoeunoo neoflwmsfi HH 0:» onfluno :05 In
ago: .cues use ensue nuns eosnnuu .meewa
one H003 xoean mo oer men .NH enough

 

63

.qmaneonz

.uwonueo .on>e3 unom oeuoumnm .ovma
looma ocenem noeunoo nnwooz mnnnno nnoz
.mnne> onfluumn >9 eer nmem .mH eunmfim

  

.neoflnoaz .unflam .noHuomHHou

unnom .d onenofim .oomalowwa ooflnom noeunoo
neoauofin HH mnfludo oomD .mmnwnw nuem Suez
xnosoeon ne>03 Eooa «0 eer nmem .va ewnmflm

 

64

short gown and petticoat. (See Figure 5.) Accessory items that were
used from the first, were those of the bag and sash. The type of bag
used during the I American Period was made of cloth and decorated
with beads. (See Figure 11.) Sashes could be made of beads or
brightly colored yarns. Both bags and sashes continued to be made
and worn through all the time periods. (See Figures 10-15.)

During the II American Contact Period 1860-1900 men continued
to wear more Non-Indian clothing and women were described as wearing
calico dresses. Older styles of clothing were worn by Indians
inhabiting less populated areas.

The Modern Contact Period 1900-1940 saw another change in
dress. Indians were dressing more like their white neighbors than
ever. Traditional items of dress such as the decorated calico shirt,
breechcloth, leggings, moccasins, sashes, garters, and bags were re-
served for ceremonial occasions. (See Figures 6, 7, l3, and 15, and
for similar garments, Figures 4, 8, and 9.) These traditional items
were still being made by hand and were worn over the man's European
type clothing. The everyday clothing was being purchased by both
men and women from local trading houses or mail order catalogs.

Changes in Dress Related
to Cultural Contact

 

 

Culture was viewed as a system of overlapping subsystems con-
sisting of economic, social, political and belief subsystems. Since
the subsystems are not mutually exclusive any change that occurred
from contact with other cultural subsystems would be reflected in
that of the recipients culture and would in turn affect the other

subsystems of the culture. The aspect of obtaining clothing, which

65

was viewed as part of an economic subsystem was selected for analysis.
In order to relate the changes in dress to cultural influences the
cultural group with whom contact had occurred, the subsystems which were
affected by the contact and the type of transaction had to be identi-
fied. This information was derived from the literature by establishing
the nationality of the participants and their roles, and determining
the likely subsystem which could have held the motivation back of the
transaction as well as the type of transaction. Whether contact
influenced changes in the dress of the Chippewas was determined by
looking at the articles of dress received from the Non-Indians as well
as those received from the Indians.

The transactional aspects of acquiring clothing were analyzed
to reveal whether other subsystems of the Chippewa culture were
affected, the cultural group the Chippewas came into contact with,
which party initiated the transaction and the role they played, the
type of transaction, and the articles of dress and adornment that were
received from the Europeans as well as those received from the Chippe-
was. These categories were used to classify the data obtained on
acquiring items of dress and to meet the third objective of relating
the changes in dress to cultural influences through the analysis of
the classified data. Frequency counts were also made on the items in
each of the categories and appear to the left of the categories in
Table 5.

Even though information given in Table 5 is rather scant for
three of the time periods, French 1640-1760, II American 1860-1900,

and Modern 1900-1940, changes in dress can be related to influences

once oneness
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scanned

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«baseman undo

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H

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HHHM

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HQOVH

 

mHmHIoohH OOHNOQ uoeunou cmaamcw

conga so»; no manage a
anode H
noxeeam a

mneomonnm scum oo>aeoem oonanheueona H oenwaueueon: H noneum H owfionoom H

 

oeaauovoa conned poeucoo gunmen

 

uneanuooa modem Mamas one oouoeunoo meaemmwnu noduuemnenh oeue>wuoz
one mmeno no moaoauufl neauoemnewa mo omxa newuuemneua mo muouewufinu mmoouo Heunuano sown: aeum>mnsm Heusuasu

 

.unosnuood one mmouo mo meaowuud mnduwnoon nw oeuunooo uenu uoeunoo Heunuaso on» no mwm>aen< mn9||.m canes

67'

mmnHm

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eonunoonmco
mo ueHHoo .Ennsez
0mHm one nonom oooenoa
nooooez
kuuo
ne>eom
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saunas
fiancee .ecnucnen
nHmeooo:
mmenooeo:
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mmH>um HHem
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one woman no meHOHunn

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noHuoemnewB mo 09>?

uo>Hm oonHaueueonD o
ooanuouoonn me
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oweHHeu me
muo>Hooeu we
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Means me
neHonH esemmHnU
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mno>Hm me mneHoeneo m
neoenu me H
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omelmHmH oOHHOm nonunoo :flOHHOEd H

 

eoscnucoonnmamuuoeaa scenes poeucoo auHHmcn

omuoeunoo mesemanU

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noHuoeoneuH ooue>HvOI
none: souusansm HeusuHso

 

.eosnaueoonn.m oHnIa

6E3

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oownom oeanuoueon: noun oo>Heoem

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moonmzonm H
nouuo H
neon H
oonm

mHm3efl omoz H
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mxuen uHenu
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.mnoHnusu nHm .mmenxuoz H
”uneamano mnHaom .
neemounu scum oo>Heoen

 

.emacnucouuuoemnumamn eonuma poeucoo aeonnusa H

 

unoanuood aeHom uHenB one oeuoeunou ueaemmHnu noHuoemneua ooue>HuOI
one «mean no uoHoHuu< noHuoemneua uo em>a nOHuoemneHa no uncueHanH museum HeunanO noan neumxmnsm HeusuHsO

 

.eosanuaoocu.m canes

69!

nacho ooneo scene H
mnedonH scum o9>Houau

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moanr no eHhuo “Hen
neHHomHHen one

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omenounn

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mocha.
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ueHHou we H
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m uoHHoe

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oomHloomH oOHNom uoounOU neOHHOEd HH

 

unoanuood
one mocha uo moHOHuun

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oouoeunoo mereamHnu
umnowu Hennano

:oHuooueuue eoue>Huos

nUan neumannnm HeunanU

 

eoasHucoouu.m oHnee

70

from other cultures. Contact with a dominant cultural group was esta-
blished for the English and I American Contact Periods. The majority
of the contacts made during 1760-1815 were with the English and those
made during 1815—60 were with the American. Although the act of ac-
quiring clothing was considered primarily an aspect of the economic
subsystem, other subsystems were found to have been involved in moti-
vating the acquisition of dress. Again, using the data from the
English and I American periods found in Table 4 the dominant subsystem
that motivated the transaction in those time periods reflected the
roles of the initiator and the type of transaction in which the ini-
tiator was involved. The data shows that for the English period the
subsystem which motivated the transaction was the economic and that
the Chippewa Indian as trapper was engaged in trade. During the I
American period the emphasis shifts to the political subsystem with
Americans as givers and the dominant transaction as gifts.

Regardless of the dominant culture with whom the Chippewas
had the most contact or the most prevalent type of transaction that
occurred within each of the time periods, the articles of dress obtained
from the Europeans were essentially of the same type. Apparently a
stock of similar items was dispensed by those who dealt with the
Chippewas regardless of their cultural affiliation or the type of
transaction. Although a change in dress was not revealed in Table 4
for the French Contact Period, it is evident from the data in Table 5
that items of European manufacture were being given to the Chippewas
during that time. By the English Contact Period a larger assortment

of European items had been received by the Indians and some of these

71

items such as, blankets and silver brooches were in turn being given

by the Indians to other parties. The data about the articles of dress
for the II American Contact Period continued to show the same trend,
that of the Chippewa redispensing previously received articles of
European manufacture. As shown in Table 5 the articles of dress and
adornment received from Non-Indians were accepted by the Chippewas and
became part of their wardrobe. By the later contact periods, II Ameri-
can and Modern, Indian clothing and accessories, such as the beaded
bags and dream dance dress, which were made from items of European

manufacture became known as articles of traditional Indian dress.

Summary

Articles of Chippewa Indian dress were identified through a
survey and analyzed for changes and the cultural influences that may
have caused those changes. A survey of the literature and artifacts
for information about Chippewa Indian dress was conducted although
insufficient descriptions were often found about articles of dress and
adornment and their acquisition. The literature contained more infor-
mation about male dress than female. However, when female dress was
described it was a more detailed description than that given for the
male. The majority of artifacts examined were from the later time
periods, I American 1815-1860, II American 1860-1900, and Modern 1900-
1940, and consisted of more accessory type items than garments.

Based on the data in Table 4 the most changes in dress for both
men and women occurred during the I American 1815-1860 and Modern
1900-1940 Contact Periods, with more changes for male than female

during I American and more changes for female than male during Modern.

72

More changes were recorded for type and style than for the other
forms of dress, source of material and motif.

The acquisition of dress by the Indians was analyzed for possi-
ble cultural influences. Because of limited information for the French,
II American, and Modern Contact Periods, dominant culture, cultural
subsystem, type of transaction and initiator of the transaction were
not determined. However, the above information was determined for the
English and I American Contact Periods. When articles of dress and
adornment were examined for all five of the Contact Periods the data
revealed that regardless which Western European culture (French or
English) or cultures derived from Western European origins (American
or Canadian) had come into contact with the Indians the articles re-
ceived from them were the same type. Dress of the Chippewa was
influenced collectively by all of these cultures and the proof of this
statement exists in the fact that articles of dress and adornment
received from Europeans were accepted by the Chippewa Indians and

incorporated in their wardrobes.

CHAPTER VI

S UMMARY

A study of Chippewa Indian dress materialized with the realiza-
tion that no one had dealt effectively with the changes in their dress
through time. This study was undertaken to determine when changes
occurred and, if possible, what those changes were, and to relate them
to cultural influences.

The Chippewa or Ojibwa Indians inhabited an area of land
ranging from the lower peninsula of Ontario, around the shores of lakes
Huron and Superior, across the upper peninsula of Michigan and the nor-
thern portions of Wisconsin and Minnesota, and onto the plains area of
Canada and the United States. During the 300 years covered by the
study, 1640-1940, the Chippewas came into contact with many other cul-
tural groups. Two of the Indian groups were the Sioux and the Cree.
They also had contact with the French, English and Americans, who were
explorers, missionaries, traders, and eventually settlers. Contact
with Europeans first resulted indirectly from a network of trade
established among the Indians long before any direct contact had
occurred. The European economic subsystem exerted its influence through
trade, resulting in acquisition of material objects by the Indians.
These objects along with the economic subsystem from which they came

were thought to have influenced the life style of the Chippewa Indians.

73

74

The data for the study of the Chippewa's dress was collected
from the written literature and from the examination of artifacts in
museums and private collections. Written descriptions of their
clothing were obtained from primary documents, journals and reports,
located in the University Library, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan and the Michigan State Library, Lansing, Michigan.
Additional sources were obtained through Interlibrary Loan Division
of the University Library.

The physical characteristics of dress described in the litera-
ture and artifacts found in Michigan collections were examined speci-
fically for their overall style features, the materials used in their
construction and the decorative designs applied to them. The data
were organized for analysis according to five identifiable periods,
called contact periods, which were based on time periods developed for
archeaological findings, and roughly coincided with a cultural groups'
political dominance over the Great Lakes Region.

After the data about articles of dress and adornment were
separated by contact period, the major division in the classification
system, articles of dress were classified according to the various areas
of the body on which each was worn or applied by either male or female.
Then, in order to analyze the information on dress the data were reor-
dered according to the types of dress worn on each body position across
all time periods. Forms or characteristics of dress, type and style,
source of material, and motif were added. Frequency counts were made
of types and styles, sources of materials, and motifs. The frequency

counts and the verbal descriptions allowed the investigator to evaluate

75

when in time the changes occurred and whether the changes were in type
and style, source of material, or motif of the garments.

Acquisition of articles of dress were classified by simply
listing the citations from the literature about transactions for each
contact period. These citations were then analyzed for cultural group,
cultural subsystem appearing to motivate the transaction, type of
transaction, initiators of transactions and their roles, and the arti-

cles of dress and adornment received from Europeans and Indians.

Conclusion

 

The data were analyzed according to the objectives of the
study and the results are presented as follows.

Objective 1. To survey the articles of dress and adornment
worn by the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.

A survey of the primary literature and the artifacts of dress
held by museums and private collectors in Michigan was conducted. The
information gathered through the survey was not as complete as desired
but was used in classifying the articles of dress and adornment and
the acquisition of those articles in order to meet the second and
third objectives of the study.

Objective 2. To establish when changes in dress occurred and
the forms the changes assumed.

Based on the data given in Table 4 the most number of changes
occurred in both the I American 1815-1860 and Modern 1900-1940 Contact
Periods for both male and female Indians. More changes were recorded
for the male than female during the I American period and can be
attributed to a limitation of the data in that more descriptions of

male attire and artifacts of dress were available. In the Modern

76

Contact Period the female exhibited more changes than the male, even
though the same number of entries for each were recorded. This finding
can be attributed to the fact that males were described wearing tradi-
tional items of dress, whereas, females were described in their every-
day clothing which was similar to contemporary dress being worn by
Non-Indians.

The form of dress in which the most changes occurred was type
and style. However, this finding was questioned due to lack of infor-
mation in the other categories of form, that of source of material and
motif.

Objective 3. To relate the changes in dress to cultural
influences.

The data in Table 5 records the analysis of the citations found
in the literature about transactions that involved clothing. In com-
paring the various cultural groups as to articles of dress received
from them it was discovered that regardless of the cultural affiliation
of the initiator all articles were similar and that as a whole, Euro-
pean cultures or cultures derived from European origins had a collective
influence on the dress of the Chippewas. Articles of dress received
from the Chippewa Indians (given or traded to other Indians or Euro-
peans) reflected articles of dress and adornment which were previously
received from the Europeans. This can be interpreted as acceptance
and adoption of European articles of dress and adornment by the

Chippewas.

Recommendations for Further Study

 

The study conducted on the dress of the Chippewa Indians was

limited by the source materials readily available to the investigator.

77

Unpublished manuscripts and artifacts from earlier time periods, as
well as sketches, drawings and paintings of contemporary artists could
be sought for further information and incorporated into the present
study. If more data is collected about the articles of dress and
adornment an attempt could be made to do a functional analysis of the
Chippewas dress.

In addition, the classification systems developed for the
study could be used to analyze dress and how it changed through time

for other cultural groups.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

LETTERS OF INTENT SENT TO MUSEUMS AND PRIVATE

COLLECTORS IN MICHIGAN

'78

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY mum - moms

 

mewmlcowor
serum 0' m mom AND DIS!!!”

February 10, 1975

Dear Sirs:

I am a Graduate Student in Clothing'and Textiles and Anthropology at
Michigan State university. Currently, I am in the process of planning my
thesis proposal for my Masters degree. I hope to combine my interests in
dress artifacts and Chippewa Indians through my thesis. My work experience
at the University's Museum has made me aware of the additional knowledge that
can be obtained from studying'the artifacts themselves.

I would like to study items of dress identified as Chippewa by Museums and
private collectors located in Michigan. I want to examine the artifacts,
studying the materials, construction, and design. Also, I would like to
photograph them. This type of study would provide a description of the
remaining artifacts of Chippewa dress and the location of those artifacts
in MCMWI

In order to do this study I must first determine if there are enough
Museums in Michigan that contain items of dress identified as Chippewa and
second I must determine which items of dress are most plentiful. In addition,

I would appreciate it if you could give me the names and addresses of
private collectors in your area that have items of dress identified as Chippewa.
I will contact them for permission to study their collections.

To make things more convenient for you I have enclosed a questionaire and
a self-addressed stamped envelope. I would sincerely appreciate it, if you
would complete the questionaire and return it by February 28th.

Thank you for your assistance in this project.
Maia/£4
7““
Kathy A. Cyr
(Mrs. Rodney R. Cyr)

79

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

THE MUSEUM EASTLANSING'MICHIGAN'M

February 10 , 1975

Kathy Cyr has wcrked in our historical artifacts storage area in a part-time
capacity since April, 1972. During most of that time she has been responsible
for cataloging, identifying, sorting and storing our clothing and textile
collections. She has been very conscientious in assuring proper handling and
storage techniques. She has also carried out a competent program of dating,
organizing and conserving the collections.

For the above reasons, I feel that if you were to allow her to view your
collections she would handle them with the utmost professional care as she has
handled our own. Kathy and I would also appreciate any responses you can make
to her enclosed request for information on Chippewa clothing in Michigan.
Thank you very much.

Sincerely,

   

Curator of Hist ica
Artifacts

8C)

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY m1 LANSING - MICHIGAN «823

 

WI O! m ECOLOGY
DDAITNENT 0' m MONKENT AND DESIGN

March 28, 1975

I am.a graduate student in Anthropology, and Clothing and Textiles at
Michigan State university and am interested in studying the artifacts of
dress which have been identified as Chippewa. Recently I sent out a
survey letter to all Michigan museums in which I requested information on
Chippewa dress and artifacts, and permission to examine and photograph
them. I am aware of the value of private collections and therefore also
requested information concerning private collectors. I received your name
from

My thesis is concerned with the materials, construction, and design of
Chippewa dress. Information on Chippewa dress is relatively scarce and
therefore the value of my study will increase with the number of artifacts
I am able to study.

I would like your permission to examine and photograph the portion of your
collection that is identified as Chippewa for my study. I have enclosed
a self-addressed stamped envelope and a questionaire listing many of the
items of dress that I am interested in studying. If it is more convenient
for you, you may use the questionaire if not, a note will do. I would
sincerely appreciate your response by April 11th.

Thank you for your assistance in this project.

Sincerely,

Kathy Aem
(ms. Rodney R. Cyr)

81

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

THE MUSEUM EAST LANSING ° MICHIGAN ' «In

March 28, 1975

I am writing to you on behalf of Mrs. Kathy Cyr, a graduate assistant of mine
here at the MSU Museum. She is gathering information for a graduate study of
Chippewa clothing styles and techniques. We would certainly appreciate any
response you can make to her enclosed request for information on Chippewa clothing
in Michigan. It would also be most helpful if you could allow her to view and
photograph items from your collections.

Kathy has worked in our historical artifacts storage area in a part-time capacity
since April, 1972. During most of that time she has been responsible for cataloging,
identifying, sorting and storing our clothing and textile collections. She has been
very conscientious in assuring proper handling and storage techniques. She has
also carried out a competent program of dating, organizing and conserving the
collections .

For these reasons, I feel confident that if you were to allow her to view your
collections she would handle them with the utmost professional care as she has

handled our own. Thank you very much.

Sincerely,

flJKCWSJZ ' MR

Val Roy Berryman
Curator of Histori l
Artifacts

1.

Questionnaire

I would like to know the amount and type of artifacts that you have identified

as Chippewa.

Please indicate by checking the various categories. If you can give an estimate of
the various artifacts, place the numerical figure in the space provided.

Headwear MEN

turban

caps

hoods

hair wraps

roach

nose rings

earrings

Other items not listed

WOMEN

hair wraps
earrings

 

 

Neckwear

rabbit skin scarf
silver pendants

peace medal

gorgets

bearclaw or birdclaw
necklaces

silver Jewelry

Other items not listed

necklaces
silver jewelry

 

 

Wraps

buckskin robe
blankets

coat (made from a blanket)

molton coat or capotes
Other items not listed

fur robe (rabbit skin)

 

 

Outerwear

sashes

breechclout

shirt

brooches

belts

aprons

bandolier bags

pipe bags

Other items not listed

sleeveless dress of two deerskins fastened at the
the shoulders(hide or cloth strap dress)

sashes

belts

separate sleeves or cap sleeves
bags
blouses
skirts

 

 

 

 

2.
3.
4.

Underwear MEN

chest protector of muskrat skin

Other items not listed

83

WOMEN

underskirt of woven nettle fiber

 

 

 

M

mittens
bracelets
Other items not listed

rinse
braclets

 

 

Leggear

knee bands/garters
leggings

doe toe knee or leg rattles
Other items not listed

knee bands/garters
leggings

 

 

Footwear

moccasins
moccasin liners
Other items not listed

moccasins
moccasin liners

 

 

Heuld you permit me to examine some of the artifacts? Yes No ~

would you permit me to photograph some of the artifacts? Yes No

Do you know of any private collectors who have items of dress they have identified
as Chippewa. If so, please give their names and addresses. I will contact them
for permission to study their collections.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

INFORMATION PERTAINING TO CATEGORIES ON ARTIFACT

DATA COLLECTION SHEET

APPENDIX B

INFORMATION PERTAINING TO CATEGORIES ON ARTIFACT
DATA COLLECTION SHEET

CONDITION RATING SCALE

Used on the Historic Costume and Textile Collections at The Museum,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.

The Historic Costume and Textile Collections of the museum are primarily
used for exhibits and displays. Since the museum lacks a conservation
laboratory and trained personnel, very little can be done to clean

and repair the costumes and textiles. Therefore, it is better to

choose a costume or textile that has no rips, tears, holes, missing
trim and no soiling or staining of the fabric, over a similar style

of costume or textile that has those defects.

This system involves three aspects: (1) the construction of the fabric
or garment, (2) the cleanness of the fabric or garment, and (3) work
to be done on the fabric or garment to bring it up to displayable
standards.

Excellent No rips, tears, holes, missing trim, etc.
No soiling or staining of the fabric
Perfect condition, like new
The item may be loaned or used for display with no
additional preparation.

Good Slight rips, tears, holes, missing trim, etc.
Slight soiling and staining
The item may be loaned or used for display with
little additional preparation.

Fair Minor rips, tears, holes, missing trim, etc.
Minor soiling and staining
With repairs and cleaning the item could be loaned
or displayed.

Poor Bad rips, tears, holes, missing trim, etc.
Badly soiled and stained
Definitely needs to be cleaned and repaired before it
can be loaned or displayed.

84

85

Extremely Poor Fabric has deteriorated to the extent that it is in
shreds
Fabric is extremely discolored with age, soils and
stains

Beyond hope--needs a great deal of repairs and
cleaning.

MEASUREMENTS

Measurements to be taken on:

Shaped Textiles

 

Caps

Shirts
Vests
Blouses
Dresses
Coats

Skirts

Breeches

Leggings

Mittens

Moccasins

86

Measure

Circumference of opening
When folded in half so that it lies
flat, measure the length and width

Shoulder length, right and left

Upper back, measure from intersec-

tion of armcye and shoulder seam

straight across back to intersection

of opposite armcye and shoulder

seam

Sleeve, length of sleeve to hem,
right and left;hem circum-
ference, right and left

Center back

Center front

Waist or hem circumference

Waist

Center front
Center back

Right side

Left side

Hem circumference

Waist
Crotch depth, crotch seam from CF
waist seam to CB waist seam
Length, waist to hem
side seam, right and left
inseam, right and left
Hem circumference, right and left

Length, right and left
Circumference of top and bottom
openings, right and left

Length, right and left

Width, right and left
Circumference of opening, right
and left

Length and width of sole, right and
left

CF of vamp, right and left

CB height, right and left
Circumference of opening, right and
left

Flat Textiles

 

Hair wraps

Turbans

Scarves

Robes

Blankets

Sashes

Belts

Breechcloths
Aprons

Pipe and bandolier bags
Garters/knee bands

Jewelry

Nose rings
Earrings

Silver pendants
Peace medal
Gorgets
Necklaces
Brooches
Bracelets

Leg rattles

87

Measure

Length

Width

Measure separately from article,
fringe or other details

Measure

Diameter
Length
Width

APPENDIX C

NAMES, ADDRESSES, AND LOCATIONS OF MUSEUMS

AND PRIVATE COLLECTORS VISITED

APPENDIX C

NAMES, ADDRESSES, AND LOCATIONS OF MUSEUMS
AND PRIVATE COLLECTORS VISITED

List of Museums and Private Collectors Visited

Center for Cultural and Natural History
S. Main Street
Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 48858 *

Con Foster Museum
Grandview Parkway
Traverse City, Michigan 49684 *

Cranbrook Institute of Science
500 Lone Pine Road
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan 48013 *

Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey Memorial Museum
S. Bailey Avenue
South Haven, Michigan 49090 *

Fort St. Joseph Museum
508 E. Main Street
Niles, Michigan 49120

Grand Rapids Public Museum
54 Jefferson
Grand Rapids, Michigan 49502 *

Historic Fort Wayne
6053 W. Jefferson Avenue
Detroit, Michigan 48209 *

Houghton County Historical Museum Society
Hwy M-26
Lake Linden, Michigan 49945

Baraga County Tourist Center and Museum
L'Anse, Michigan 49946 *

88

89

Mackinac Island State Park Commission
Box 370
Mackinac Island, Michigan 49757 *

The Marquette County Historical Society
213 N. Front Street
Marquette, Michigan 49855 *

Midland County Historical Association Museum
1801 W. St. Andrews
Midland, Michigan 48640

The Museum, Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 48824 *

Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan
University Museum Building
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104 *

Richard A. Pohrt

1407 W. Patterson

Flint, Michigan 48504 *
Max Robinson

1002 Brown Street
Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 48858

* Indicates Museums and Private Collector's whose artifacts

were used in this study.

9O

 

 

Traverse.
cm, [

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mi. Mid/an
0/: :4
Grand '.
. PafidS FIJI}
Ear! Lansing glwfrell
Iii/'5 '
Sou”) ,-
Haueh Doha ’
Ann It'lror‘
Niles
' " “ I..- I. m... 5-
“Th?" .~

Figure 16. Map of Michigan Showing Locations of Museums and Private Collectors Visited.

APPENDIX D

TRANSFORMATION OF DATA COLLECTED ABOUT

ARTICLE OF DRESS AND ADORNMENT

91

Odhags A

UAHU’IOOU H

swoon. ouch» soon—83— a

3506 0.3.3 sconce...“ M

£62.. ensue Evacuzm u
chghd>CH d

usuzuuofl a

Esau

000: a
accuses: a

33.800 H

343% 5:.
ouuuoloeo sodas—3800 A
3ng u

if 0:1 01:

race} alas. cod vocab-loo H

.0000 in» cuss—On?» a
nip-«>5 v

.9000 salsa 503039 A
veal-0.32.6 n

cocoa cola... ices» a
ails—«>5 m

.0000 0003 50902 .—
ugaecfl n

Uflghfla H

usages a
moo a
on: «

accuses-n a

59.8. a
3333.. n

808 u
cane—fl. A
locus...- n

v4
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In

FINISH—Celt

35

:3
30%.:
3:03 a

.0030: u
90030.48 d

oeounoooa coated
uueusoo eases:

coon-coma nausea
uoeucoo soon-l1 an

oomalmdod 8:..—
ubuucou :InJuold H

maaaucosu cannon
uueucoo reasons

0051013 nausea
aususoo noses.—
§u0>8 no music:

 

uqut

“causes: uo sou—sow

3 Es..—

ousam o:¢ seas

uwuox

nous-us: no 0035»

.3.

easy» use case

Good»..- oldh ‘3 sound»:

cosmos econ are on caused. so can: ace-cuss: use been: no .oauauue

 

 

.282: as; cook} uses-Zoo: one :95 no .303: 5 09.1.6 05 no 3.322 051:6 03-h
\

92

can: «0 scan queen «and. ooeuuooma condos
us veaqou one oooeeun « success“ so ucoECOua>cu a uncenmfluum uueucou :eoauoE4 nu

N

cacao you was: w
xuen :300 0:5:

 

one neuron cosy use: a
nuooasose noon
uo>o 0:40:45 eeoo~ cue! n
cause 0:0 :4 caused
no onoo~ sacs 9:3: 100: as oennsuo no oeuqeaa a
us one: as unoreu was: w arena
soooo ensue oceans so uusu ”Hula «0 scan oooaumuma oedema
:GeAOusu no acols0u«>su a a: ooaasuo no meow-dd u mecca ocean secesssn w secure as“) use: oexosaa a noeusou ceoauosd H
caucuses:
one some or» ozone
prov mesons: eased sue: A
season as oregano «
eoeu uo>o
2:40 moose omega ceeaousm one masons: exec“ or» rear
aeoauvc«a>u case one: uses:o~a>eo convecansou a cacao co snag «a soda namauooha moaned
ace-bouoo a» canoe: a ceases cos» use: ages a .oooo oust» cacaouau a -dooxo and: can: corneas ~ abeucoo cargoes
node
soosuvcaaab 03:. neon coa~.ovoa cannon
u:¢l:0u«>su a ocqsen code has: one; a nodquOAacb a uueucou socouh
o~>um
hue: was:
was:
«and: assumes: no counom oaaum oza ua>e eager acetone: .0 obuaom casum use odes
eunlsh ode: eucausa slab use soaouuud

.ooocqucoo a rogue: use:

 

lags. ~~~~~~~~ wrl'aMcNInaW-Is_gzkbbfiOzl‘Qifillifllilti.~OIAJ-EP‘-1.'.'IH.IIAII§ ll ll

.eoscaucoo--.o canes

alt... VIII I

93

u:¢l:0u«>:u a xenoau use auooflm

meniscuu>cm a mercuo one :uoosm

usel20uu>cfl a unseen use nuooaw

unsuccue>su a soaeueeaas xuean

c060)

suds) Casual exam ooaxum
sconce:-

auee ue>o oneJhOu
u5050un eco .eoaeun 01%
use: ya soon

as u6~«00 vce voodoo:
Queen 0:0

:4 no 0000‘ was: 800:

no one: as 0803.0 has:

d

as

.1

F1

ucslconu>cfl a >eno~m one neoclm

scale-use oa dance: a unqum
nauseoue>cm u >sso~o use zuooam

u:|l:0u«>:m ~ auscuo use neoclm

assas0u«>:u A >aoo~o one neoclm

a:0l:0n«>su a annoau use cuoolm

.5835 8.: 3 use
naroqsonn a! an menu
doo~a~eon vow: uo>oz

evooo ovauu
newness“ no uselco»«>:u A

N

N

F‘s-CH

O'OHIOOmA vOAHOL
uoeucou assoc:

oooaloomd moaned
uuaucou soughn§< an

candlnuwu ceased
unsucou conquoad u

maoauooha ceased
uueusou nuuaocu

OohaoOQOA Udauvm
unsucou soceuh
UCOIUCAO
has: one:
was:

32:83 coat”...
UU‘UCOU GNUE
32.50 . 23m
38.. one:
was:

 

«duo:

aqueous: uo seesaw o~>um one ea>h

sue-In

uquox anemone: «0 season o~>um use oa>9

.3.

encased slab use neuuquu<
63330 u :35 one:

.ulanduCOUIl.o sandk

94

.980 ensue .3083 one

exeeao use
.uue: uo cocoa .ne>u a
ooeuauoauca a

requuueAesn a

venouauso menu A
oceanooanca n

Oldudooluca a

noaoeuaSI use evaded a

agam a

donut A

case no shun anon.

scan 00 zoo" can» scan: a

nusam H

mama-Oahu moaned
uuaucou snaaosu

cohanovou coda-a
uusucou accent
oswucaea

cone-hodoo

ovaauooaa season
noeucoo cacao:

OOGAIOOQA v0«u0&
#010600 :10«uol< NH

Goodlmuod oOukom
valance cucunwl< u

mao~.ooa~ venues
eunucou gasses»

oohdlovoa 00«hua
HOCUGOU SUGOuL

hull «Cauch
was:

 

oeuuslooo a usuinduu>ao co«usc«nlou a
give: usaueuex no Qumran
eddies

onsum one ease

Oakullooo A uCOICqu>cfl A
uuuoz «caucus: no seesaw
one:

cease can ease

cease-a nude on. codeine:
.eoacaunoo . canoes can:

.10:c«us00n|.o lunch

95

oauuosooo n

Udhugu H

mayo:

IIIIA'I I'll-I

uceacouaacu a

~ewuousz uo Gounow

eneiom

‘ nub-I. rigs-h" flu.

neaeuue Heeooeao ~
seagu- Asusonuuoz a
soundboa-ca a

wo>m a
ooauaooaucs a

mason can snap

mxdouuu .3 .500 n
conquer Assamese H

cocoa ensue :eoaowsm H
vs: «cede—5 n

equueloso h ans-souuenn N

voauaboanno «

.c«:«:.oe«x ca oceans-a
003 0» soul nooseuouoz 3
so:
eeouus scan fiasco-«a a
even on» ~25
«as eeuuuau no macaw u
soon on» nachos
remakes «susowauor n
:0: eeouoe so .500
as» .533qu uo on:
.32 5 eosu 9002.3 n
voozo~o~ so esa~ “sun-wen
.8313 so nus .598
ecu loan usuusqusu sends»-
.eeas venous eeaouao u
assoc so nemuuum «
usaouuoce noun a

epoch oven» Seances one
vandal—25 «

ouuuosoou an ucslcouaase code-sanlou 9

«duo: nonuouil no loud—Om Ou>um «1.3 E

CHI!

Ilt'l Ii 'r:i,l E- Di... it! I“!

OQOH IOOOA Sausa-
UOIUGOU Fwd—v0!

comanbood ”Oak..—
uoeusou 50:! an

occulmdwa Bu»:
nosusoo 50:! n

.uoncaucoo . seduce-a
6309315

woof—ea slab use 0303.2
.voscuueoo I sodas: use:

.gcuugnvIIJ eunuch.

96

canal-coo a

3 uueloeo a

«duo:

«eaueuel no 0033.

sin

caueoeen one onue
truce» ecu useIueeuu. a

30.7.30: use

essence... ecu «solves: «

soda-ass one case. a
:a:«:.oesx

no eeeuoeo wan 0595!.

even no cues: no.5: A

e~>um use on:

euesqce use vauueloeo
uo moi—3'00 3330a a

use! assuage: no seesaw

Cult

announce

use weaves .eweue .56 a

53.3.03:
no eeeuoeo ecu 9.35!“

cone no once: u.».: a

92!. so .eoez e we no
ceao e 3 mussel-Isl

393:3: Finesse «

alum o5 08F

33.83 3:...
53.80 Scoot

ooodloga garnet
uoeucou .33.»! 3

cording.— oozed
uoeocou .303! a

22:00: nodes...—
uueucou c.305—

Shalozu Vaduz
83:00 rose»..—

9383:.
gaueuoHOU

037002 ooze.—
uueucoo chemo:

60:50:00 I 0:40:qu
scaueugoo

.00de it. ”a... IOHUdUh‘
.easeaucoo . cosmos can:

. OSCAUGOOII . 0 Dane.“

9'7

Oduug N

"squeegee n

Odng H

.6000 even» :eeGOMsu N

.6000 seen..— seexuohfi n

386 ensue seeaouau N
noel—.933.» N

330er ease sea: A
canoe...— uego
ocoIe veg-e: use» a

.03350 a N

.0 EEO H: d

eonoooa n
lug—ECHO OMOZ A
easel-cue a N

:3 n
eucelefio ueu N
veneeue even N

e800 one...» seeaowa one
0.35.9323 533.380 N
aqua-loco N .1000 cosh» $23.16 N

.0000 ensue seen—Owen use
use-39:28 sauuesunloo N
evooo 00!»... Sega m

evooo eve: Senna use
uselcougse conga-.00 N
.800 Queen
51.0.33 no use-20.32..» H
3.600 one: Gel—obi n
33; v use-c0323 N

.0000 even» seek-93a N

330er e05.» coo: N

easel-sue nae: N
Hassle—Bo Men N

useless :5. N
accuser N
evils—no one: n
eucguo he» N
con-ens seen .-

9.3 as. a
05.330 30:93..— N
euselefio .33. N
eezoooan m
nus-Issac one: N
easeleFuo wen N

eezoooun n
so: seal-echo

eeo: one veouea :02 N

conned- eueu .-

ovmu IOomA 004.40.—
u03 sou assoc:

comatooma cone“
003.50 .303er :

oomaunaaq guest
00eucou 50:22 N

32.9w: voted
uoeusou 53:05

00:63: Bane“
uueucQU zuceum
euseIecuo

 

wave!

113:. no 898

oi.-

eNNum use out.

uauuolooo n veal-33>...» N
use: def-eel! «0 830m
sue:

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83.5. It. 93 .3332
6.33:8 . 333. 3:.

6.335036 .38

98

u:¢l¢°u«>:d no
swoon noon» clenchau and
ucnlcoufl>co coauccunloo a

acaoooo :O:m «

ovodloooa acauon
uoaucoo shove:

oooanooma noduln
nonucou cucuuol< an

ooaalmaod noduom
uouucou adequcl< u

nacanoopa acquam
eunucou guanocu

OONHIOVOH acquom
uocucou nuzcum
noduoouooo¢

 

naval

aqquoucx No cousow

can-In

o~>um can quay

mayo: nauuouq: No cou50m

gang

oaxum and oa>9

IQONHOQ Ildh ‘61 ICAONUH¢
.voanaucoo I ceauoa v10:

 

.uoacqucou.-.o canny

99

0‘000 Quin» alonouflu N

.0000 nanny adoaouzu
can unaccouN>c0 coNuchnloo N
0:18.512“ N

.0000 0000a cacaousu N

.6000 (aqua cacaonnn N
uuolflouN>sfl N

.uaoo ou-uu ccouonsu N

uo>ooNn
0Nndnuquoc a»«: 0.000 N

uuNnm N
00>00N-
oNndcoauov nuN) 00000 N

noxchn N

nuuxchn N
VONNNOOQICD N

.uoucnan a

00000 ovauu :ddtOuflu N
u:0l¢0u«>:u N

.1000 ouch»
adoaouau no ucoacouN>cu N

.0000 ouluu cdoAOusn N

00000 000.5 500933 N
unincouN>nu N

.6000 ooouu cacaouza n
u:0|:0~N>:u N

acolcouN>zu N

condo n
uuNnm v

uuugm a

UQKCUNQ N

nxqouu m
uaannu N
uuoxcuan ~
uuauqooauco N

uoxflde n
9901 N

uoxcdan N

mumduconu venues
uonucoo zudaocm

00NNIOvON nouuom
uuaucou nucmum
nucoflhnououao

ovoa-oooN nouuom
unaucoo cacao:

ooleoooN vONhon
0010:00 CHUNuofl< NN

oooNumNoN ooNuom
youucou :duNuoad N

nNQNloohN vONuOA
uoaucou gnuNocu

ooNNuovoN voNMOA
uuuucou nocoum
and»:

 

uNuOI NdNuOuIl No ouuaom

.d'fi

0N>um can oaxh

«Nye: NaNuouax no condom

can:

sauna and oaxe

uuoNuon olNh Bed IoNuNuh<

:0N0ca Ochoa noun: 0:» 0» uINNaaq no :00) undicuond cal cache «0 noNoquut

 

.vcscaucoOIu.o candy

100

00000 000.3 000002 N 0300.6 N

0.8«UUOA H

§N|80N 8N0!—
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000N100: 00an
003000 0030! NH

GOONIMNON 8N0:
0000600 SON: N

3078: 03.30
00308 .3305

SNNIOVON 8N0:
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SOURCES CONSULTED

SOURCES CONSULTED

Literature

 

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Barrett, Samuel Alfred. "The Dream Dance of The Chippewa and Menominee
Indians of Northern Wisconsin." Milwaukee Public Museum
Bulletin, 1, Pt» 2 (1911); New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations
Area File, Inc.

 

Bradley, Carolyn G. Western World Costume: An Outline History. New
York: Appleton-Century—Crofts, Inc., 1954.

 

Cameron, Duncan. "The Nipigon Country." In L. R. Masson, ed. Les
Bourgeois de la Compagnie due Nord-Ovest. V.2. Quebec:
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Coleman, Sister Bernard, O.S.B. Decorative Designs of the Ojibwa of
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Conn, Dick. "Braided Sashes Part I." American Indian Tradition 52
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Commission on Indian Affairs. The Indian in Michigan. Lansing, MI:

Commission on Indian Affairs, Nos. 132, 133, 135,
136, 137, 138, 139, 140, November 1971.

Copway, George. The Life, History, And Travels, of Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bawh
(George Copway) A Young Indian Chief Of The Ojibwa Nation, A
Convert To The Christian Faith And A Missionary To His Pelee
For Twelve Years; With A Sketch Of The Present State Of The
Ojibwa, In Regard To Christianity And Their Future Prosgects.
Also An Agpeal: With All The Names Of The Chiefs Now Living
Who Have Been Christianized And The Missionaries Now Laboring_
Among Them. Albany, N.Y.:.Weed and Parsons, 1847.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Copway, George. The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of
the jSbway Nation. Boston: Benjamin B. Massey & Co., 1851.

113

114

Culkin, William B. "Tribal dance of the Ojibway Indians." Minnesota
History Bulletin Vol. 1 (1915): 83-93.

 

Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Customs. 1929, reprint ed., Minneapolis,
Minn.: Ross & Haines, Inc., 1970.

 

Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Music V. 2. Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1913; New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area
File, Inc.

 

Dunbar, Willis Frederick. Michigan: A History of The Wolverine State.
Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Erdman's Publishing Company,
1965.

Fitting, James Edward. Archaeology of Michigan: A Guide To Prehistory
Of The Great Lakes Region. Garden City, u,y,; The Natural
History Press, 1970.

Flint Institute of Arts. ed. Art of the Great Lakes Indians. Flint,
Mich.: Flint Institute of Arts, 1973.

Gilfillan, Joseph A. "The Ojibways in Minnesota." Minnesota Histori-
cal Society Collections 9 (1901): 55-128.

Grant, Peter. "The Sauteux Indians about 1804." In L. R. Masson, ed.
Les Bourgeois de la Compangie du Nord-Ovest. V. 2. Quebec:
Imprimerie Generale A. Cote, 1890; New Haven, Conn.: Human
Relations Area File, Inc.

"Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico." Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 30 Pt. 1 (1912): 277-281.

Henry, Alexander. Attack At Michilimackinac 1763: Alexander Henry's
Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories
between the years 1760 and 1764. Edited by David A. Armour.
Mackinac Island, Mich.: MaCkinac Island State Park
Commission, 1971. '

Hickerson, Harold. The Chippewa and Their Neighbors: A Study in
Ethnohistory. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1970.

 

Hilger, M. Inez. "Chippewa Child Life and Its Cultural Background."
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Hoffman, W. J. "The Mide'wiwin or 'Grand Medicine Society' of the
Ojibwa." U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Annual Report, 7 (1885/
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Hollands, Hulda T. When Michigan Was New. Chicago: A. Flanagan
Company, 1906.

115

Horan, James D. The McKenneyrHall Portrait Gallery of American Indians.
New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1972.

Hyde, George E. Indians of the Woodlands: From Prehistoric Times to
1725. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962,
3rd printing 1973.

 

Jenness, Diamond. The Ojibwa Indians of Parry Island, their social
and religious life. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1935;
New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area File, Inc.

 

 

Jones, Peter. Life And Journal of Kah-ke-wa-quo-na-by. Toronto:
(Published under the direction of the Missionary committee,
Canada Conference) Anson Green, 1860.

 

Jones, Peter (Kahkewaquonaby). History of the gjebway Indians; with
Especial Reverence To Their Conversion To Christianity. London:
A. W. Bennett, 5 Bishopsgate Street Without. Houlston and
Wright, Paternoster Row, 1861.

 

 

Judy, Sandra Van Metre. "A System For Classifying and Cataloging The
Historic Costume Collection For The College of Home Economics
of Michigan State University.” 6 credit problem, Michigan
State University, 1969.

Kellogg, Louise Phelps, ed. Early narrative of the Northwest, 1634-
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New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1967.

 

Kenton, Edna. ed., The Indians of North America selected and edited
from "The Jesuit Relations And Allied Documents: Travels and
Explorations Of The Jesuit Missionaries In New France, 1610-
1791." Edited by Reuben Gold Thwaities. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & Company, Inc., 1927.

Kinietz, W. Vernon. Chippewa Village: The Story of Katikiteggn.
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1947.

Kinietz, W. Vernon. The Indians of the Western Great Lakes: 1615-1760.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1940; Ann Arbor
Paperbacks, 1972.

 

Klein, Bernard and Icolari, Daniel., ed. Reference Encyclopedia of the
American Indian. New York: B. Klein and Company, 1967.

 

Kohl, J. G. Kitchi-Gami: Wandering around Lake Superior. London:
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Landes, Ruth. Ojibwa Sociology. New York: Columbia University Press,
1937; New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area File, Inc.

 

Landes, Ruth. The Ojibwa Woman. New York: Columbia University Press,
1938; New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area File, Inc.

 

Long, John. John Longls Voyages and Travels in the_years 1768-1788.
Edited by Milo Milton Quaife. Chicago: The Lakeside Press,
R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 1922.

Lyford, Carrie A. Ojibwa Crafts (Chippewa). Edited by William W.
Beatty. Washington, D.C.: Branch of Education, Bureau of
Indian Affairs, United States Department Of The Interior, 1943.

McKenney, Thomas Loraine. Memoirs, official, andppersonal: with
sketches of travel among northern and southern Indians:
embracing a war excursion and description of scenes along the
western borders. New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846.

 

McKenney, Thomas Loraine. Sketches Of A Tour To The Lakes, Of The
Character And Customs Of The Chippeway_Indians, And Of
Incidents Connected with the Treaty Of Fond Du Lac. Baltimore:
Fielding Luccas, Jun'r., 1827.

Miller, Margaret T. "The Clothing Traditions of the Forest Potawatomi."
Master's Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1972.

The Official Museum Directory 1973. washington, D.C.: The American
Association of Museums and New York: National Register
Publishing Co., Inc., 1973.

Otterbein, Keith F. Comparative Cultural Analysis: An Introduction to
Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1972.

 

Quimby, George Irving. Indian Culture and European Trade Goods: The
Archaeology of the Historic Period in the Western Great Lakes
Region. Madison, Wis.: The University of Wisconsin
Press, 1966.

Quimby, George Irving. Indian Life in the Upper Great Lakes: 11L000
B.C. to A.D. 1800. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1960.

 

Raudot, Antoine Denis. "Memoir Concerning The Different Indian Nations
Of North America." In The Indians of the Western Great Lakes:
1615-1760, pp. 341-410. By W. Vernon Kinietz. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 1940; 1972.

Ritzenthaler, Robert E. and Pat. The WOodland Indians of the Western
Great Lakes. Garden City, N.Y.: The Natural History
Press, 1970.

 

117

Roach, Mary Ellen, and Eicher, Joanne Bubolz, ed. Dress, Adornment,
and the Social Order. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965.

 

Rutherfurd, John. "A Journal of an Indian Captivity during Pontiac's
Rebellion in the year 1763." American Heritage (April 1958):
65-81.

 

Sagatoo, Mary A. Wah Sash Kah Mogua; or Thirty-three years among the
Indians. Boston: Charles A. White Company, 1897.

Schneider, Richard C. Crafts of the North American Indians: A Crafts-
man's Manual. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1972.

 

Skinner, Alanson. Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux.
New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1912; New Haven,
Conn.: Human Relations Area File, Inc.

Tanner, John. A Narrative Of The Captivity And Adventures of John
Tanner (U.S. Interpreter At The Saut de Ste. Marie) During
Thirty_Years Residence Among the Indians in the Interior of
North America. Edited by Edwin James, M.D. Minneapolis,
Minn.: Ross & Haines, 1956.

 

Underhill, Ruth Murray. Red Man's America. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1953.

Whiteford, Andrew Hunter. North American Indian Arts. New York:
Golden Press, Western Publishing Company, Inc., 1970.

Museums Visited

Baraga County Tourist Center and Museum, L'Anse, Mich. 49946.
Visitation, 18 March 1976.

Center for Cultural and Natural History, S. Main Street, Mt. Pleasant,
Mich. 48858. Visitation, 23 October, 1975.

Con Foster Museum, Grandview Parkway, Traverse City, Mich. 49684.
Visitation, 15 March 1976.

Cranbrook Institute of Science, 500 Lone Pine Road, Bloomfield Hills,
Mich. 48013. Visitations, 20, 26 August 1975 and 13
November 1975.

Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey Memorial Museum, S. Bailey Ave., South Haven,
Mich. 49090. Visitation, 21 October 1975.

118

Grand Rapids Public Museum, 54 Jefferson, Grand Rapids, Mich. 49502.
Visitations, 3-5, 8 September 1975.

Historic Fort Wayne, 6053 W. Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48209.
Visitations, 21 August 1975, 23 January 1976, and 7 May 1976.

Mackinac Island State Park Commission, Box 370, Mackinac Island, Mich.
49757. Visitation, 16 September 1975.

Marquette County Historical Society, 213 N. Front Street, Marquette,
Mich. 49855. Visitation, 17 March 1976.

The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich. 48824
Visitations, 31 July 1975 and 1 August 1975.

Museum of Anthropology, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48104. Visitation, 28
October 1975.

Pohrt, Richard A. 1407 W. Patterson, Flint, Mich. 48504. Visitations,
12, 22, 23 September 1975 and 18, 19 May 1976.

Shurtleff, Mary. Cross Village, Mich. 49723.

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