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AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OF FOODS PURCHASED BY FAMILIES IN CALI, COLOMBIA presented by Wilma Jean Jackson ' '4 -H ‘v.--4ql 4.. "" has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Fagily Ecology Major professor _t Date jgidjfli/Z/f’zi 0-7639 ABSTRACT ECOLOGICAL FORCES AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OF FOODS PURCHASED BY FAMILIES IN CALI, COLOMBIA BY Wilma Jean Jackson The purpose of this descriptive study was (1) to evaluate the protein-calorie content of primary foods obtained during a specific week by 236 Colombian families included in a Market Basket Survey; (2) to determine the adequacy of these food choices for meeting the protein- calorie requirements of each individual family; and, (3) to analyze the data within a framework of selected ecological forces which could contribute to a more holistic view of the family's nutritional needs. The sample was selected from a sub-sample of a 1969 Colombian Consumer Survey co-directed by the Latin American Planning Center of Michigan State University and various institutions in Cali, Colombia. The families were classsified into income per capita levels according to the monthly pesos available per person in each family. The four levels were: I (less than $125 pesos); II ($126-240 pesos); III ($241+500 pesos); IV ($500 pesos and above); and Unknown (mixed level, income unknown). Wilma Jean Jackson The families were then described on the basis of such socio-economic characteristics as residential area, monthly income and eStimated per cent of income spent for food, employment status, education, newspapers read, dwellings and possessions, child-feeding practices, the participation of family members in decision-making, the reaction of the ama de casa (female responsible for the family purchases) to new food products or different markets, market forces affecting food purchases among the socio- economic levels, and modes of transportation used by the families. The Market Basket analysis was concerned with the percentages of families purchasing meat, animal products, grains, vegetables, fruit, and processed foods; expenditures for each food category; animal products purchased by families with preschoolers; determination of protein- calorie content of the foods, and the comparison of this indicator with requirements estimated for each family. The findings presented the differences between the proteins and calories of the selected purchases and the estimated daily protein-calorie requirements calculated for each family (100 per cent was used as the standard for comparison). In general, the lower IPC families selected a smaller variety and quantity of food products but spent the greater proportion of their income for food. The demand for animal proteins and fruit increased as the IPC level Wilma Jean Jackson increased. A different preference pattern for certain grains and vegetables was exhibited by lower compared with upper IPC levels. The percentage of families meeting 100 per cent of their estimated protein-calorie needs was very low, even though many households exceeded their animal protein requirements. The percentage of all families meeting 80- 100 per cent of their needs increased throughout the ascending IPC levels. The per cent of the total sample meeting 100 per cent of their estimated requirements was: calories, 7 per cent; total proteins, 27 per cent; and animal proteins, 60 per cent. None of the low IPC families, both with or without preschoolers met their estimated calorie needs. The percentages of families at all levels in each of these sub- groups that met 100 per cent of their protein requirements increased throughout the ascending IPC levels. In general, families with preschoolers did not meet their nutritional needs as adequately as did thosewithout young children; however, there was variation within the IPC levels. The research recommends future studies based on the interrelationships and strengths of ecological forces influencing the nutrition situation, in order to provide guidelines for remedial programs and nutrition education. ECOLOGICAL FORCES AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OF FOODS PURCHASED BY FAMILIES IN CALI, COLOMBIA By Wilma Jean Jackson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in.partia1 fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family Ecology 1972 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful appreciation is-extended to Dr. Carol Shaffer, my major adviser, for her empathetic encouragement. and guidance, and to Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, Dr. Vera Borosage, and Mr. Harry Perlstadt, who offered valuable support as members of my guidance committee.. During the early planning stages, Dr. Dena Cederquist served as a resource person in the area of nutrition. Dr. Kelly Harrison and Dr. Harold Riley made available both their advice and the research materials from the Michigan State LAMP Center. Dr. A. G. Pradilla, from the University of Valle in Cali, Colombia, gave helpful direction. Needless to say, the support, assistance and under- standing of family, friends and Owesso College have been invaluable assets in the development of this thesis. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................ LIST OF TABLES .......................................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................................... CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...................................... The Problem ....................................... Purpose of the Study .............................. Importance of the Study ........................... Definitions of Terms Used ......................... Plan of the Report................... ............. II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE PERTINENT TO NUTRITION III. STUDIES ......................................... The Malnutrition Problem .......................... Emphases of Research in Problems of Malnutrition .................................... Assessment of Nutrition Status .................... A Field Approach .................................. Nutrition Education ............................... Protein-Calorie Requirements ...................... The Evaluation of Essential Nutrients............. DATA COLLECTION AND METHOD OF ANALYSIS ............ Selection of the Sample ........................... Brief Description of the Sample ................... Determination of Calorie and Protein Allowances ...................................... Procedures Used to Analyze the Proteins and Calories in the MB Foods ........................ iii PAGE ii vi ix “DOC/«INF 10 10 15 22 28 32 34 38 42 42 44 48 50 CHAPTER PAGE IV. VI. THE MARKET BASKET FAMILY .......................... 55 Socio-Economic Characteristics .................... 55 SE Levels ....................................... 55 Education ....................................... 64 Newspapers ...................................... 65 Dwellings and Possessions ....................... 66 Child- Feeding Practices ......................... 68 Participation in Decision- -Making ................ 70 Reaction of Amas de Casa to New Food Products or Differentharkets .............. 71 Market Forces Affecting Food Purchases Among the SE Levels ................................... 72 ANALYSIS OF THE MARKET BASKET ..................... 74 Foods Purchased by MB Families .................... 74 Meat Products ................................... 76 Animal Products ................................. 80 Grains.......................................... 84 Vegetables ...................................... 87 Fruits........... ............................... 91 Processed Foods ................................. 95 Animal Products Purchased by Families With Children Under Five Years of Age ................ 97 Animal Products ................................. 97 The Food Pesos .................................... 101 Determination of the Calorie and Protein Content ~ of the MB Foods ................................. 103 Difficulties Encountered ........................ 103 Comparison of the Protein- Calorie Content of the Market Basket With the Requirements Estimated for Each Family ................................. 105 The Total Sample ................................ 105 Families With Children Under Five Years. of Age ........................................ 107 Families Without Children Under Five Years of Age........ .......................... 112 Comparison .................... . ................. 116 DISCUSSION OF BASIC FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 118 Discussion of Results ............................ 118 Ecological Forces Influencing the Nutritional Quality of the Market Basket .............. ..... 124 Family Characteristics............... .......... 125 Economic Accessibility...... ................... 128 Physical Availability.......... ................ 129 Cultural Attitudes ............................. 130 Present Choice Situations ...................... 130 iv CHAPTER PAGE Limitations of the Study .......................... 131 Recommendations for Research ...................... 133 Implications for Education ........................ 135 LITERATURE CITED ........................................ 137 APPENDIX A: LIBRO DE CODIGO PARA IH.ESTUDIO TECNICO DE CONSUMIDORES .......................... 141 APPENDIX B: LIBRO DE CODIGO PARA EL ESTUDIO TECNICO DE CANASTA DE MERCADO ..................... 147 APPENDIX C. THE MARKET BASKET ANALYSIS. KEY TO UNITS OF MEASUREMENT, CALORIES AND PROTEINS IN 100 GRAMS OF FOOD ................. . . .......... 148 Table 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES DAILY MINIMUM NUTRIENT ALLOWANCES FOR CALORIES AND PROTEINS (20° C AREA). ................ ..... COLOMBIAN DAILY RECOMMENDED ALLOWANCES FOR CALORIES AND PROTEINS (20° C AREA) ....... ....... DISTRIBUTION OF ALL MEMBERS OF THE MB HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF THE AMA DE CASA ....... DISTRIBUTION OF MB FAMILY MEMBERS ACCORDING TO IPCL AND HOUSEHOLD SIZE...................... DAILY CALORIE AND PROTEIN ALLOWANCES FOR MB POPULATION OF MIXED AGE AND SEX. ......;.. ...... DISTRIBUTION OF THE MB FAMILIES ACCORDING TO SOCIO- ECONOMIC LEVEL OF RESIDENCE AND MONTHLY IPCL....................... ......... .. DISTRIBUTION OF THE MB HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO IPC, RESIDENCE, AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC LEVEL OF MONTHLY INCOME (N=188)............... ........... DISTRIBUTION OF THE MONTHLY IPC FOR THE 188 MB FAMILIES REPORTING IN COME ......... . .......... DISTRIBUTION OF ESTIMATED BI -MONTHLY FOOD EXPENDITURES PER CAPITA FOR THE 236 MB FAMILIES. 0.... 00000 00.0000 00000 O O O 0.... ...... PER CENT OF INCOME THE MB FAMILIES ESTIMATED SPENDING EACH MONTH FOR FOOD.... ....... ... ...... WORK STATUS OF BOTH MALE AND FEMALE MB JEFES DE FAMILIA WITHIN EACH IPCL ............. .°'°°°°°9°" PERSON WITH MOST EDUCATION IN- THE MB FAMILIES BY IPCLO’OOO ooooooo ooood ooooooo oeooooeoooeo oeooo EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF JEFES DE FAMILIA, AMAS DE CASA, SON OR DAUGHTER, END OTHER FRMIL Y MEMBER WITH THE MOST EDUCATION ................. ."'°°°°- vi 41 46 58 61 63 63 65 66 Table Page 14. PARTICIPATION OF OTHER MB FAMILY MEMBERS IN ASSISTING THE AMAS DE CASA AS TO WHAT FOODS TO PURCHASE—KND_WHERE TO PURCHASE THEM ............................................ 70 15. DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD PESOS AMONG THE CATEGORIES OF FOOD PRODUCTS ..... . .......................... 16. CATEGORIES OF MEAT: PER CENT OF FAMILIES BUYING AND AVERAGE AMOUNT PURCHASED ON THE DATE INTERVIEWED.... .................... ... ... .... 77 17. PER CENT OF FAMILIES PURCHASING A VARIETY OF MEATS. ...................................... 80 18. EGGS, MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS: PER CENT OF FAMILIES BUYING AND AVERAGE AMOUNT PURCHASED.... 81 19. NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FAMILIES BUYING GRAINS ..... 85 20. NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FAMILIES BUYING VEGETABLES ...................................... 88 21. NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FAMILIES BUYING FRUITS ..... 92 22. NUMBER OF FAMILIES BUYING PROCESSED FOODS ......... 96 23. DISTRIBUTION OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN AMONG THE MB FAMILIES. . . ..... . ......... . .......... 98 24. PERCENTAGE OF MB FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE THAT PURCHASED EGGS, MILK, AND MILK PRODUCTS.. ............................. 99 25. COMPARISON OF THE FOOD PESOS SPENT PER FAMILY AND PER CAPITA WITH THE AMOUNTS THE MB FAMILIES ESTIMATED THAT THEY SPENT..............102 26. PERCENTAGE OF THE ESTIMATED DAILY PROTEIN- CALORIE REQUIREMENTS MET BY FOOD PURCHASES OF ALL MB FAMILIES..................... ......... 106 27. PER CENT OF DAILY CALORIE REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE..TTTT. ......... 109 '28. PER CENT OF DAILY TOTAL PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES EIIE CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE ........... 110 vii Table Page 29. PER CENT OF DAILY ANIMAL PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE.. ......... 111 30. PER CENT OF DAILY CALORIE REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES WITHOUT CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE........... ..... 113 31. PER CENT OF DAILY TOTAL PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES WITHOUT CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE ........ 114 32. PER CENT OF DAILY ANIMAL PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS MET BY WEEKLY FOOD PURCHASES OF FAMILIES' WITHOUT CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS OF AGE........ 115 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page 1. ECOLOGICAL FORCES INFLUENCING THE ' NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OF THE MB FOODS ............ 132 ix CHAPTERAI INTRODUCTION 'Ihe Problem An assessment of the nutritional needs.of a people is both a timeeconsuming and expensive operation.. In developing countries, where resources are scarce, detailed or extensive nutrition surveys may not be feasible. The required information may need to be assembled by careful observation, conversation. and simple inquiries regarding some specific problem (1:91). At times, costly research is not used in an advantageous manner due to lack of personnel, knowledge,.funds. or equipment. Often research which is broad in scepe has data which, when analyzed from a different perspective, can contribute-information relevant to allied professions. Such a study was the PIMUR project'CProzectO Integrado de Mercadeo Urbano Rural), which was.directed in 1969 by the Latin American Planning Center of Michigan.State University in cooperation.with various institutions in Cali, Colombia. The General Consumer Survey (Encuesta General de Consumidores), one of the technical studies of the PIMUR project, sought to describe and analyze the conduct of the Cali consumer in order to relate the findings to the distribution system, and to provide information which could I 2 be used as a basis for further socio-economic studies in Cali. The Market Basket Survey (EncueSta‘de‘Canasta'de Consume) was a sub-sample of the General Consumer Survey. Its.primary purpose was to measure food,consumption as a means for partially judging the overall performance of the economic system, especially the food subesystem (2:36). A suggestion originating from the Market Basket Study was that further analysis of.the data should be under- taken in;order to more clearly identify the nutritional, conditions in.the city of Cali (2:36). This further analy- sis was especially requested by Pradilla of the Universidad del Valle where he and his staff were involved in clinical studies in which patients were returned to nutritional balance using 100 per cent protein from plant sources, with highelysine corn as the principal source. Purpose of the Study h It was the purpose of this present descriptive study (1) to evaluate the protein-calorie content of primary.foods obtained during a specificweek by the 236 families included in the Colombian Market-Basket Survey; (2) to determine the adequacy of.these food choices for meeting the protein: calorie requirements of each individual family; and (3) to alialyze the datawithin a framework which could contribute tc’ a more.ho1istic view-of the ecological forces influencing the nutritional adequacy of the Market Basket foods- to meet thfib estimated needs of the families. Importance of the Study Protein-calorie deficiency, which affects chiefly infants and young children, is a major problem in the economically underdevelOped countries of the world. This deficiency is evidenced in the high infant mortality rates and poor growth rates of children (3). In Colombia, infantile malnutrition due to protein-calorie insufficiency is the cause of an elevated rate of mortality and morbidity in children under five years of age. According to INN, the Colombian National Institute of Nutrition, the mortality in the age group of one to four years was 13.3 per thousand in 1964 (4). It is estimated that in Colombia 82 children out Of every 1,000 die before the age of one (5:18). INN also reported that the deaths of children less than five years of age represented 50 per cent of the general mortality. Each year more than 90,000 children die before reaching five years of age. More than one-third of these die directly or indirectly from causes attributable to malnutrition. Investigations undertaken in pediatric hospitals in Colombia reveal that one-fourth of the children die in an advanced stage of malnutrition, and that more than 90 per cent of the children hospitalized present Signs of malnutrition regardless of the precipitating cause of their hospitalization (4)° Scrimshaw related research in the area of malnu- trition and infection which reveals that the combination of the two often results in a severity greater than the sum of it an EU in CC 11 4 the two individual processes. An infection can precipitate an acute deficiency disease in a person with a borderline nutritional status, or if the malnutrition is sufficiently severe, it reduces the individual's resistance to most infections. This phenomenon, known as synergism, is considered a major cause of high morbidity and mortality in. the underdeveloped countries where nutrition is poor and infections are-common (6). Coursin cites-extensively the increasing body,of. evidence relative to the effects of undernutrition on, central nervous system activity--neuromuscular function,. behavior, andintelligence—-in_the preschool child. Children with a poor post-natal dietary intake . . . may begin to show a decline in their neurological competence by four to six months of age. Breast milk is the only source of nutrition of these babies and serves- them well until their needs begin to exceed supply. This may occur within a matter of months, even though nursing may continue for several years. The inadequate milk supply is then supplemented with substances of. local origin . . . that supplies primarily carbohydrates- for calories.. Hence, the infant's ongoing growth and development evolves on a restricted nutritional intake that contains progressively smaller amounts of necessary nutrients for normal cellular metabolism (7:6). In 1960, the Interdepartmental Committee of Nutrition for National Defense (ICNND) conducted a nutrition study in Colombia which revealed, along with the high level of infantile malnutrition, noticeable retardation in the, growth of Colombian children. These children follow the: growth pattern of North~American children up to the ages of six or eight months; then, due to deficiencies in-their alimentation after weaning, they present curves of growth 5 that decline and continue below normal throughout the following years (8). Although the effects of protein-calorie deficiency may be more marked in children, Berg reported that the effects upon the adult population can result in a limited life expectancy which in turn limits the number of productive years. Malnutrition can also decrease a worker's product- ivity, lower his resistance to diseases and increase his proneness to accidents. These and other such factors result in,a monetary loss to economic development (9:2-3). Studies with adults in Central America showed that the benefits of a diet adequate in protein were equal to those for children. The adults gained "energy, ehthusiasm and ability to stay at strenuous.tasks"‘(10:37). Due to the serious and oftenirreparable effects of malnutrition upon both children and adults, which have far-. reaching implications for the nation, knowledge of the foods. urban families purchase may serve as a partial indicator of the kind of diet the families actually consume. Although the prevention of proteinrcalorie deficiency in families- appears to be dependent upon a combination of ecological variables,at the most obvious level it is dependent upon making available enough food of adequate protein value at a price the family can afford. It is also dependent upon the preparation and distribution of the food in a suitable, equitable, and uncontaminated manner (1:10). According to FAO, the primary indicators of the nutritional quality of a 6 diet are its protein-calorie content (11:33). Therefore, in this study, an attempt was made to assess the protein- calorie content of the food in the Market Basket and relate the findings to the estimated requirements of the families. Definitions of Terms Used Definitions of some of the terms used in this study are presented in alphabetical order. Only those terms which. would appear to require a more narrow or specific definition are included. Ama de casa.--This person is the adult female generally responsible for the management of the household. Her relationship to the igfe de familia is not known. In the study she is the chief decision-maker relative to food purchase. “Barrio.--The Spanish word for suburb, precinct, or district seems to be more descriptive and so is used instead of the English term. Family and household.--These terms are used synono-. mously. Since relationships within the homes are not known, family refers to the nucleus of persons living and eating together regardless of sanquine ties. The basic element_is the act of eating together, although there may also be combining of incomes. Food:pe§os.e-That part of the money income‘which the ama de casa estimated as the approximate amount used to buy‘ 7 foods. It also refers to the amount actually spent in the_ purchase of the Market Basket foods. Income.--This refers to the total money available monthly to the family. According to the PIMURdefinition, this money was almost always the total salary of the-persons working in.each family and generally it.exc1uded other extra incomes such as interest or dividends (12:12). Income is expressed using the dollar sign as in the United States, but followed by pesos to avoid confusion. Thus 3 refers to Colombian pesos, unless otherwise indicated. Income.per capita,--This term, symbolized by IPC, is used primarily as the criteria for the four levels used throughout.the study for descriptive purposes. It refers to that part of the income obtained per person when the total family income is divided by the number of persons, both adult and children, in the family. Jefe de familia,--In 204 cases out of 236, this term refers to the maledesignated as head of the household by. the person interviewed, that is, the‘ama'decasa. Unless otherwise indicated, the term means the male head (jefe). His relationship to the'ama de casa is unknown., Levels;of income per_capita.r-The division of income JPer*capita into four levels, symbolized by IPCL, provided a leasis of comparison.. The ranges within each level were; es tablished by the-.PIMUR Consumer Survey when it was. found that a sufficientnumber of.observations. fell within each ca tegory topermit more reliable estimates in each range- 8 (12:15). The IPC Levels include the following income ranges: I'- less than $125 pesos monthly II - from $126 to $240 pesos monthly III - from $241 to $500 pesos monthly IV,- more than $500 pesos monthly Unknown.- mixed level, income unknown Malnutrition.--In this study, the term refers to a- pathological state caused by the consUmption of an inadee quate quantity of food over an extended period of time. There is a deficiency of dietary nutrients, principally protein-calorie deficiency which results in undernutrition. The term is also used to refer to an imbalance among essential nutrients in the diet (13:8). Market Basket.--This term, symbolized by MB, is generally used to indicate the foods obtained by the families during the survey week. However, it is also used to indicate the.sample, such as the MB families, or the total survey.. ‘Sgcio-economic level.--Nine classifications.of the barrios were made by the Municipal Planning Office of Cali. These were based on such factors as income, transportation, educational services, community action, sewagefacilities, trash collection, water, lights, and types of streets. These nine classifications were reduced to six socio- economic levels.(SBL) by the Consumer Survey (12:16). 9 _Plan of the Report_ This chapter has presented an introduction to the problem, the purpose of the study, its importance, and definitions of terms used. Chapter II reviews literature pertinent to nutrition studies from the stance of the mal- nutrition problem, research emphases, assessment of nu- tritional problems, a field approach to the problem, nutrition education, protein-calorie requirements, and the evaluation of essential nutrients in a diet. Chapter III is concerned with data collection and method of analysis with the discussion centering around the selection and description of the sample, the determination of the calorie and protein allowances for the sample and the analysis procedure. Chapter IV presents a description of the MB families while Chapter V analyzes the contents Of the Market Baskets according to types of foods, expenditures, and the percentage of the families estimated protein-calorie requirements supplied by the MB foods. The final chapter discusses the basic findings, and the ecological forces which influenced the nutritional. quality of the Market Basket. It concludes with recommend- ations for research and implications for nutrition education in Cali. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE PERTINENT TO NUTRITION STUDIES Much has been written regarding the nature and prevalence of malnutrition, its etiology, treatment and prevention.. This chapter discusses the nutrition problem,_ the emphases of research in problems of malnutrition, the assessment of nutritionalproblems, a field approach to the_ problem, nutrition education, protein-calorie requirements, and the evaluation of essential nutrients in a diet. lhe Malnutrition Problem Bengoa, in 1940, referred to human malnutrition as; an ecological problem resulting froma multiplicity of over- lapping and interacting factors,in the physical, biological. and cultural environments of the community (14:106). At the Colombian Universidad del Valle, researchers found that family instability, unemployment,.and poverty were eco- logical factors correlated with malnutrition. . . . more than half of the children suffering from serious malnutrition come from homes where the father is. absent and does not contribute totheir support. Sibling rank.was also found to be an important factor when rations are limited; where there are three or four older brothers or sisters, the younger.children.are more likely to be undernourished (5:18). This was because the younger children were not quick enoughx nor large enough to fight for their share Of the meager food. 10 ll Jelliffe wrote that cultural influences, such as cooking practices and food classifications, affect the distribution or restriction of foods for vulnerable age groups. Also of increasing importance in the protein- calorie malnutrition of children are the non-nutritional conditioning diseases (13:106). Two diseases resulting from malnutrition are marasmus.and kwashiorkor. Nutritional marasmus is produced by a diet low in both protein and calories and is often termed "balanced starvation." It occurs primarily during the infant's first year of life and usually results from attempts to artifically feed the infant with very dilute milk or substitutes (13:186). Kwashiorkor, the clinical end-result-of protein malnutrition, occurs mainly in the age-group 1-3. Growth failure, edema, hepatomegaly and anemia are the clinical evidences of restricted protein intake. Lesions of the-skin and mucous membranes resembling pellagra-may also be present. Vitamins A, thiamine and, pyridoxine are also deficient. Changes in hair pigmentation are due to sulfur-containing amino acid.deficiences and from defects in the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine. If there is severe calorie deprivation along with protein deficiency, the symptoms of extreme wasting or marasmus appear (15:2039). Children with kwashiorkor and marasmus also show alterations in the pattern of enzymes which is responsible for the oxidation of amino acids and for other bedy functions (10:37). 12 Jelliffe specified that kwashiorkor is never exclusively dietary in origin--infections, psycho-cultural, and other such factors are operative (13:106). Observations have shown that the disease is produced by stoppage of maternal milk and a post-weaning diet which has a low protein content., The protein is deficient in quantity as well as quality. However, diarrheas, infections, a child's refusal to eat following the traumatic experience of weaning, habit, taboo and simple ignorance which often exclude available protein-rich foods from the diet of young children are also precipitating causes of malnutrition (1:7-8). Riley found that the diets of 120 Colombian children under five years of age were deficient in proteins but high in carbohydrates. Their menu consisted primarily of rice, beans, and pOtatoes (16:97). Surveys by FAO revealed that the weaning foods normally given in the developing countries are chiefly roots, tubers, and cereals, with negligible amounts of milk, eggs, and other animal foods (11). The approximate mean daily intakes of calories and proteins in the less-developed and developed countries are given by Swaminathan. Calories: The mean daily per capita intake of calories Ifi—YHE_Iess-developed countries is about 2,150 as com— pared with 3,060 in the develOped countries. Proteins: The mean daily per capita proteinintake in the less-developed countries is only 58 grams as com- pared with 90 grams in the developed countries. The in- take of animal proteins is very low, i.e., only 9 grams in the less-developed countries as compared With 44 grams in the develOped countries (17:6). 13 - In 1965 FAO gave_the estimated per capita daily calorie and protein contents of net foodstuff supplies in some developing countries as compared to the United States. It was estimated that there were 3,100 calories per person. in the United States as compared to 2,170 in Colombia. The total protein was 49.3 grams, with 22.8 grams animal protein in Colombia, as compared to 91.2 grams in the United States, with 64.2 of these in.anima1 protein. Cereals consumed in Colombia were 181.4 grams with 188.6 grams consumed in the United States. In Colombia, per capita supplies of pulses were 14.8 grams; meat, 100.5 grams; eggs, 9.5 grams; fish,, 3.4 grams; milk, 176.1 grams; and Oils and fats, 10.4 grams, as compared with the United States'.supplies of pulses, 22.1; meat, 267.4; eggs, 51.5; fish, 13.4; milk, 688.7, with oils and fats at 57.9 grams per capita daily (18). Elaborating on the food consumption of seven food categories, Swaminathan gave comparisons between developed and less-developed areas as follows:. Cereals: The mean daily per capita consumption of cereaIs (including millets) in the less-developed countries is about 389 grams as compared to 328 grams in the developed countries. Cereals are the main sources of calories, proteins and B vitamins in the diets of the people in the less-developed countries. Starch roots: These include potato, sweet potato and cassava. The daily per capita consumption of starch roots.is 189 grams in.1ess:developed countries as com: pared with 316 grams in.developed countries. Sugar and fats:, The daily per capita consumption levels 6 ~sugar and'fats inlessedeveloped countries (29 grams and 12 grams, respectively) are very much less than those (88 grams with 47 grams, respectively) in the developed countries. 14 Pulses and nuts: These foodstuffs are good sources of protein. TEe consumption of pulses.and nuts in the, less-developed countries (53 grams) is greater than that (16 grams) consumed in the develOped countries. These foods supply appreciableamounts of proteins in the diets of people in the less-developed countries. Milk and milk produgts: The daily per capita con- sumption of miIkTInTless-developed countries is only 79. grams as compared with 573 grams in developed countries. Milk is an essential food for feeding infants and is a most valuable supplementary food to the diets of weaned infants and pre-school children, school children, and expectant and nursing mothers. The diets of these segments of many populations in less-developed countries are highly deficient in various dietary essentials due to the shortage of the milk supply. Meat and fish: The mean daily per capita intakes of meaf and fiSh in the less-developed countries are 30 grams and 24 grams, respectively, as compared with 152 and 34 grams, respectively, in the developed countries. E : The mean daily per capita intake of eggs is only 4 grams in the less-developed countries as compared with 33 grams in the developed countries (17:5). The FAO target requirements for some of the Latin American countries are to decrease the amount of starch roots and sugar consumed, with levels for pulses and nuts, vegetables and fruits remaining essentially the same. The remaining food items.must-be considerably increased to supply the calorie and protein levels needed per capita (11). The World Health Organization stated that the amount of foods and nutrients available to the age-groups of a_ population is dependent upon those environmental factors which produce an acute shortage of animal protein.coupled with inadequate quantities of total protein and protective vegetable foods. Some of the environmental factors.are a large increase in population, a low national income resulting in low purchasing power, illiteracy, low per 15 capita availability to cultivable land, low productivity of soil, and of milk cattle due to primitive methods of agriculture, and animal husbandry, and low levels of industrialization (3). Emphases of Research in Problems of Malnutrition Modern nutrition, according to Rusoff, is more con- cerned with the Specific essential nutrients and their molecular configuration than with food constituents. For example; the concern is with amino acids rather than pro- 'teins, specific fatty acids and phOSpholipids rather than fats, and calcium; phosphorus, iron, and others, rather than minera15'(19;l7*18). 'The emphasiS'is upon the complexity of 'interrelated factors: This is of extreme importance in the field of amino acid metabolism where very delicate balances exist between individual amino acids and between amino acids and other.essential nutrients. Howe reviewed many of these complex interrelationships in his article on amino acid supplementation (20). ‘Siedler emphasized that foods drOpped from a diet must be replaced by foOdS*containing the same nutrients, or additional foods must-be added to compensate for the loss of nutrients in order that adequate nourishment may be achieved: For example, foods of the meat group furnish adequate amounts of high quality protein to the diet. Dried beans, peas, and'nuts, when used as alternatives, should be 16 selected carefully to prevent amino acid imbalance problems if they are used extensively as substitutes for meat, eggs, and fish in the diet (21:40). Byrnes wrote that the value of a protein in the diet is determined by the essential amino acid--usually lysine and tryptophane-rand.the value of the protein is only as. great as the amino acid in shortest supply in the food (5:10). Berg envisioned this phenomenon as a bar chart in, which the value of the total protein is only as great as they shortest bar with the remainder of the input lost through the urine since the body.cannot store the essential amino acids. In corn and most other cereal grains, lysine is the~ limiting amino acid--the shortest bar. This then becomes a fatal food chain which steadily accentuates malnutrition among people in developing areas. By depending on starchy foods low in lysine, they suffer a consistent loss of other proteins in their diet (9:4). In 1964, nutritionists and agriculturists began to weigh the implications of the discovery that high quality protein can be bred into corn. They immediately formulated plans for applying this knowledge to the world food crisis. In 1965, the Rockefeller Foundation programs began to focus on two areas: research with Opaque-2 corn, and bio-chemical research on other basic food crops, with the aim of improving their protein content. It granted the Universidad del Valle funds.for analysis of the amino acid content of Colombian plant.foods in conjunction with studies in infant and child 17 malnutrition.. Hopes are high that improvement in the, nutritional status of the infant population can be accomp- lished through radical improvement of the very food grains that_have comprised the diets of peoples in South America since ancient times (22:16). In the Universidad del Valle, medical history was made when seven children, critically malnourished, quickly achieved a normal nutritional balance on,a diet Using the newly developed high-protein corn (5:7)., Without genetic manipulation, corn,is a poor protein source because it almost lacks the two essential amino acids, lysine and tryptophane. Opaque-2 corn contains increased amounts of these two essential amino acids and thus is more correctly described by the term "high-lysine" rather than "high- protein" (5:10). Krehl and Hedges indicated that the ideal objective in the development of new products to treat or prevent malnutrition is to provide enough protein containing the proper ratio of essential and non-essential amino acids so that they can be used optimally for growth.and maintenance of tissues. Sufficient carbohydrate and fat foods are.also necessary so that the protein will be used minimally as a source of calories. In this way the physiological wasting of valuable protein is reduced (23:47). Jelliffe recommended that the diet of a family con- sist of as full a range.of essential amino acids at each individual meal as possible. In this way, there is a mix- r-O E" 18 ture of ingredients which can complement and mutually reinforce one another. He suggested a double mix, a triple mix or a quadrimix of foods (24:264-265). Thedouble mix would be the staple which the family regularly used plus an available legume, or animal protein, or a dark, green, leafy vegetable (DGLV). The legume, which lacks the methionine available from the staple, supplies the essential amino acid lysine, which is deficient in the staple (24:265). The triple mix begins with the family staple plus two foods which could be a legume plus either animal protein, or a DGLV, and animal protein. Jelliffe stressed that only a small amount of animal protein is necessary to change.a double mix to,a triple mix and that even an occasional consumption of such a combination is-preferable to none,at all. The small amount of animal protein in combination with other foods, supplies more calories and also makes available more essential amino acids to reinforce those of vegetable origin. The quadrimix is the third type of combination. It- consists of the preferred staple plus a legume, DGLV, and some animal protein (24:264-265). Research on-high-protein food mixes has resulted in a number of such products. The Maizena Company of South. America claimed its product"Duryea" to be the first product in Colombia and in the world to be made with high-lysine Corn. Duryea, composed of high-lysine corn, soya flour, PGWdered nilk, vitamins A, C, and B complex, andminerals, is an infant food mix used as a cereal or in the bottle as a l9 milk substitute (25). Incaparina, a product of theruaker Oats Company, is an exclusively plant protein mixture com-. posed of the flours of maize, cottonseed and sorghum, with yeast, calcium carbonate and vitamin A (24:205). Berg elaborated on other technological possibilities such as treating grains with lysine during milling or commercially adding it to cereals, drinks, breads,and soups (9:4-5). The advancements of technology in amino acid re- search are furnishing products which may do much to alleviate the problem of protein malnutrition. Neverthe- less, the interrelationship with other elements must be considered. Berg remarked that besides being palatable, the product must be inexpensive, similar to known products, and utilize ingredients which are available within the country (9:5). Jelliffe suggested that the promotion of the high. protein foods elaborated on above, should be aimed at all, economic levels of.the community and be promoted so as to give the image of a high protein food for the entire family, with added benefits for the preschool Child (24:207). The1969-l970 Foundation Report cited research by Cravioto, Sanjur, Mockeberg, and Zamenhof.. In Mexico, Cravioto focused on the family within the home. Observation of variables in the families which would influence the nutrition of the children included sanitary facilities, the Size and type of home, family size, the mother's reading ability, and the presence of a neWSpaper or radio, the imOther's attitude toward the food she prepared, method of 20 preparation, and amount of a newly introduced food eaten by the child. 'Cravioto felt that the mother and the home are the two major factors~in the nutrition of the child. He remarked: The mother is the primary educator of the child, and her attitudes toward her family and the food she pre- pares are critical influences. They are much more important, ultimately, than some Vague thing called nutrition (26:16-17). In New York, Sanjur studied preschool children using a questionnaire designed to measure the social correlates between such factors as:' . . the mother’s place of birth, her educational level, her'awareneSS'of'current news events, her shOpping, cooking, and eating habits and her knowledge of nutrition ‘and the diet her preschool child receives. (26:49). Sanjur felt that'the regional origin and education 'of the mother are important'since they determine her food ideology. His study sought'tO‘measure "all the possible channels of communication that the mother receives and uses to decide what foods she will serve." Also considered were the foodS‘the mother thought best for pregnant women, nursing mothers, sick children, the prevention of "tired blood" and those foOds which should be avoided. Foods the mother and the child like, dislike, or had never tasted were recorded from a list of'fifty foods (26:48-50). Monckeberg of the University of Chile reinforced the theory that‘nutrition is a "vague thing"--a combination of <30unt1ess inesparable influences.' He stated: Unfortunately, the social groups that suffer from malnutrition'are'precisely those with very low edu- 21 cational, cultural and sanitary levels. It is obvious that the high frequency of mental retardation in this segment of the population is not a consequence of only malnutrition (26:18-19). Nonetheless, Monckeberg and colleagues have endeavored to separate malnutrition from such factors as growth and development to determine the amount of mental and motor retardation malnutrition actually causes (26:19). Studies on the intelligence of the mothers of mal- nourished children showed that "in the slum area studied, only six per cent of the mothers had an I.Q. over.90, and 77 per cent had an 1.0. less than 75. Monckeberg reported: It_is quite probable that the scales used to determine intelligence mightnot be entirely adequate for this group, but it cannot be denied that this low 1.0. is a conditioning factor of malnutrition, since a very close relationship was found between the mother's I.Q. and the nutritional status of their children:. the lower.the mother's 1.0., the worse the nutritional. status of the child. This means that malnutrition produces not only low intellectual performance, but at the same time actually aggravates malnutrition. This vicious circle explains why malnutrition persists from one generation to another with very few possibilities for the individual to improve his condition (26:20-21). Another study which could have important impli- cations for humans has been conducted by Zamenhof at the University of California. He found that one Of the results of long term, chronic protein malnutrition seems to be a baby monkey that cannot cope effectively with his environ-. ment. The conclusion was that the monkey "is frightened of change and novelty and responds by clutching himself and. withdrawing. He is deficient in his ability to socialize and interact with the world around him'(26:3l). 22 Another area under investigation is that of taste. The researchers involved in these studies feel that interest in regulating and measuring taste and smell is important for one major reason: "Taste influences food selection and intake" (26). Assessment of Nutrition Status To achieve the potential benefits from food and nutrition research, it is necessary to determine what foods people eat and to identify those segments of the population where diets need improvement. The Department of Agriculture suggested that current food consumption patterns can be determined by studying food choices, habits, and con- sumption (27). In planning locally appropriate preventive programs, Jelliffe indicated it is essential to make an ecological diagnosis of the various causative or coexisting factors present within the environment of the individual or family which are responsible for malnutrition (13:106). Jelliffe also recommended direct assessment of human groups by clinical examination for physical signs (both. internal and external) of malnutrition and associating these signs with biochemical and_other tests to identify the nutrient(s) responsible for the manifestation (13:10-11). He remarked that the interpretation ofclinicalsigns should be made by using a "grouping of-signs" which are commonly seen.forming a pattern with respect to the deficiency of the 23 particular nutrient (13:42). Nutritional anthropometry has as its concern "the measurement of variations of the physi- cal dimensions and the gross composition of the human body at different age levels and degrees of nutrition" (13:50). In developing countries, nutritional anthropometry would appear to have its greatest value in assessing the growth failure and undernutrition resulting from protein-calorie deficiencies. In young children, early protein-calorie malnutrition is probably best detected by deviations from the usual rapid growth rates of this age group. These signs are detected by "a low body weight and by depletion of protein stores, as indicated by a subnormal muscle mass” (13:52); Jelliffe stated that "valuable nutritional surveys ofklimited scope can be undertaken with a small team by means of clinical assessment, anthropometry, dietary inquiry, and with no laboratory investigation other than haemoglobin estimation" (13:79). Rajalakshmi cited variousymeans to gain information ofdietary intake which can be correlated with other data in, the assessment of the nutritional status of an individual or community. These were: the oral survey; measurement of quantities of food consumed; measurement of raw ingredients and cooked product; survey of availability of food to different members of the family; food intake of a particular group such as adolescents; andtinstitutional diets (28:274- 282). Swaminathan enlarged upon the above. He included 24 agricultural data, socio-economic data, information on marketing, distribution and storage, food consumption patterns and cultural-anthropological data, diet surveys, special food studies, vital and health statistics, physical development studies, clinical nutritional surveys,.bio- chemical studies and prevelent disease patterns (29:123). Ritchie counseled that "time and effort should not be wasted in assembling large amounts of miscellaneous and irrelevant data" (1:87). She emphasized that base-line information should be systematically obtained from existing sources. Additional surveys and studies should be initiated only in those areas where they are essential. Some of these would include information on demography, information on services and leadership patterns, the role of women, and work habits (1:88). Burk suggested such additional socio-economic~ factors as income, urbanization, home facilities, historical influence of early settlers and migrants, and the adjust- ments to imported food habits (30:65). She wrote that other economic and social factors may be viewed as intermediate and primary. Among the intermediate factors-she placed the "influences of past levels, patterns, and standards of Iliving from the macroeconomic point of view.". Also included was the "influence of family food preferences from the micro-. economic point of view." Other intermediate factors were the family's knowledge of food and nutrition, and their way of life. Burk stated: 25 These intermediate factors are influenced by a wide range of more primary factors with their interactions. In this category, one may place family composition and size; occupation; the homemaker's age, employment, and education; home food production; ethnic background; technological changes; extent of eating out; education, merchandising, and promotion; and psychological factors (30:90). Mead emphasized that nutrition research needs a multi-dimensional code so that a formal description of a people's dietary pattern can be obtained. This code should be so constructed "that comparable units can be used both to provide stimuli and to record reSponses, and it should be so organized that the responses can be suitably referred to individual differences, specific kinds of experience, emotional disturbance, disease, etc" (31:22). She further insisted that if this is not accomplished "the science of food habits will remain essentially what it is today-~a fragmented set of associations casually related to the relevant disciplines" (31:22). Gottlieb and Rossi wrote that attention has focused on the physical components and psycho-physical attributes of food, yet more attention should be given to the social- psychological aspects. They suggest that the "centrality" of foods may be of considerable importance. This concept refers to the degree to which foods are considered important to the diet; "in their perceived nutritional value; and in their prestige" (32:40). The code which Mead proposed above would allow for the description of food in its varied aspects: 26 1. in physiological sensory terms, including such factors as fESte, smeIl, texture, temperature control, resistance to chewing, etc. 2. in terms of its chemistry 3. IE nutritiOnaITterms, Ific1uding methods for cal- culating—The significant ratios of nutrients to one another in a diet (FAO, 1955) 4. in cultural terms a. ‘a ricuIturaIT'including the nutritionally reIevant details of.soil.conditions, planting, growing, and harvesting, the use of fertilizers, and methods of storing, processing, and preparing foods for use. economic, including the economic arrange- ments surrounding food distribution and provision, its relation to the transportr ation system (particularly important in countries where a basic item in the diet is produced only in one region; also in countries with poor interregional communi- cation, where abundance of food in one region may be no indicator of the presence or absence of supplies-in another), etc. socio-cultural, including those aspects of social organiiation which significantly affect.nutrition, wuch as-differential. access to food by sex, age, special state (e.g., puberty, pregnancy, lactation,, mourning, illness), caste or class, region, occupation, etc. 'educational, including methods of teaching and leErnIfig the dietary pattern, the extent to which weight, growth, and aging are in- ‘ volved with prestige patterns, social approval and disapproval, etc. 'related to food handlin , including styles of serving (511 the cu ural factors that enter into meal style), use of color, types of fixed combinations, eating utensils, disposal of leftovers, garbage disposal, and the disposal of human feces. related to‘dietary‘patterning, including the EEOgraphic“§ndfiotfier origins of specific patterns and the seasonal character of each version (31:22). Mead suggested that the problem today is 'a model Which will ensure the building of an open system--one which 11111 remain responsive to new knowledge in every relevant field" (31:23). 27 Burk stated that the "whys"in nutrition research can only be answered by using a series of coordinated studies of cultural factors. The planning, the making, and the analysis of such studies will require extensive assistance from other social science disciplines. The relationships of food consumption to-social factors are extremely difficult to identify and evaluate (30:110). Among several approaches to this problem, Burk suggested: Still another approach might be duplication and amplification of Kurt Lewin's research which used methods of cultural anthropology and psychology (a) to measure the homogeneity of food.habits of’ households grouped according to economic and-social character-. istics; (b) to develop frames of reference for evalu- ating particular foods, such as expense, health, taste, and status; (c) to determine how groups of households put foods into these frames of reference; (d) to study conflicts in motivations of consumer buying (30:111). Lewin suggested that a "field-theoretical approach" be taken to clarify . . . exactly where and how psychological and.non- psychological problems overlap. Any type of group life occurs in a setting of certain limitations to what is and what is not possible, what might or might not happen (33: 170). He stated that "nonpsychological" data must-be studied to determine the boundary conditions of the life of, an individual or group. When this has been accomplished then the factors "which determine the actions of the group or individual-in those situations which have been shown to be significant" can be determined (33:170). 28 'A Field Approach From the preceding disCussions concerning the problem of malnutrition, emphases in research, and data needed for the assessment of the nutritional status of a peeple, it has become-very apparent that a multiplicity of forces are involved.and that in order to conceptualize these relationships a frame of reference is needed, The problem of malnutrition involves both psychological and non-psycho- logical factors. Lewin's "channel theory" attempted to show the intersection of these psychological and non-psychological forces. He stated that "non-psychological" data must be studied first to determine "the boundary conditions of the life of the individual or group." When this has been accomplished then the factors "which determine the actions. of the group or individual in those situations which have been shown to be significant" can be determined (33:170). Lewin defined "field" as the "life-space" of an individual or group. In determining this field or life- space at any given time, a frame of reference must be established so that the "field" as-a "whole" or as a "part" of a broader field is clearly delineated. The inter- dependence of the parts in the field, as well as the location of the event with respect to its depth in time-— that is, all those things which are to be included in the representation of any given life-space at any particular time must be specifically determined (33:xi). 29 Concerning Lewin's theory of "life-space,” Chaplin and Krawiec wrote: The person's life space is the totality of all pgssible events that influence the individual. Thus, the Individual's life space contains a past, present, and future; for psychologically, each of these three aSpects of life determines behavior in a given situation. The goal-directed individual looks to the future and is influenced in his present behavior by future life space toward which he is striving. The past, of course, influences the individual in terms of his experiences of success and failure, attitudes, etc., which are im- portant in determining present goals, methods of approach to goals, and reactions to failure (34:334). In considering the problem of what should be in- cluded within the life-space of an individual or group, Cartwright said of Lewin: He indicates that it is reasonably easy to decide to include many things, such as needs, goals, cognitive structure, and the like, and to exclude many others, such as physical and social events occurring at a remote distance having no direct effect on the individual. There is, however, a boundary zone of events and processes which are ordinarily thought of as physical, economic, political, legal, etc., which, nonetheless, do have direct effect on the individual. Such events and processes must be included within the life space of the individual. Many of Lewin's contributions to the under- standing of human behavior consisted of showing that a wider and wider realm of determinants must be treated as part of a single, interdependent field and that phenomena traditionally parceled out to separate "disciplines" must be treated in a single coherent system of constructs (33:xii). Lewin called the task of "discovering what part of the physical or social world will determine during a given period the 'boundary zone' of the life space, 'psychological ecology'" (33:59). Actually, the boundary conditions of the field during any given period of time is determined in part by the action of the individual(s)° Consideration of those 30 areas of the physical and social world which may not form a part of the life-space of the family in.a present situation or which do not at the time affect_its boundary zone must be taken into consideration, for it is the only way to predict the situation(s) in which a family may find itself in the fUture as a result of-its decisions (33:58-59). The behavior of-a family or of its individual‘ members is always dependent upon its present field.. This present field is characterized by its time depth for every present situation has both its past and future aspects. Lewin spoke.of these as the "psychological past," the psychological present," and the "psychological future" (33:27). The behavior of individuals in any present field is a function of the person and the environment (33:25). For Murphy, the continuity in time is a field continuity as well. He stated: As soon as emphasis is placed upon the time dimen-, sion and the organism is seen to be in ebb and flow with its environment, both locally and generally, and to be‘ pursuing cycles of interaction .'. . attention swings to the life span as a whole (35:70). The field in which the family is studied is composed of the family and its environment with these considered as one constellation of mutually interdependent factors. The totality of these coexisting factors becomes the life space (LSp)of the family (33:240). In terms Of family behavior, any form of behavior becomesa function of the family in transaction with its physical, social and psychological environments. These in turn equal the life-space of the 31 family and can be expressed in the equation B = F(Fam,E) = F(LSp). The behavior (B) of the family in :unrpresentfield is a function (F) of the family (Pam) and the environment (E), and the totality of these coexisting factors becomes the life space (LSp) of the family. In terms of management, only those factors which are part of the family's present field at a given time can affect its managerial behavior. The actual behavior is related to the forces--"directed entities"--acting on the family at any given time (33:83). These forces may be physical, physiological, social or psychological, and the meaning of any single fact is dependent upon its position in the field, that is, upon its mutual interdependence (33:150). Nor is this behavior dependent entirely upon whatever the present situation may be, but also upon the family's needs, motivations, values, and goals as these relate to both the past and the future. In describing a situation at a given time period, also designated ”period of events," the relative position of the parts of the field at that time, along with the direction and velocity of the changes occurring must be included (33:50). Lewin discussed food habits as an example of how to analyze a field for the purpose of changing cultural habits (33:170-187). In summarizing his discussion he stated: Food behavior is determined by the dynamics of the food situation which includes the channels through which food comes to the table, the gatekeeper governing the channels at various points, and the food ideology of the gatekeeper. A system of values is the basis of some of 32 the forces which determine decisions about food and bring about conflicts of varying intensities (33:185). ’ Lewin considered that his theory had general appli- cation. By identifying social and economic channels and gatekeepers, social changes in large measure could be. produced"by changing the constellation of forces within these particular segments of the channel" (33:186). The relation between social channels, social per-, ception, and decision is methodologically and practically of considerable significance. The theory of channels and gatekeepers helps to define more precisely how certain "objective".sociologicalproblems of loco- motion of goods and persons intersect with "subjective" psychological and cultural problems. It points to sociologically characterized places, like gates and social processes and where individual or group decisions have a particularly great social effect (33:187). Nutrition Educatien_ Education in nutrition is characterized as,a learning-teaching process, in which nutrition information is disseminated, and efforts are made to induce changes.in attitudes, values and habitual practices. These and other- efforts are then evaluated to determine their effectiveness. (24:220). Besides the physical availability:of,foods to a family, education in nutrition must also consider the* "cultural availability" of foods (33:178). Included in this factor are many of the conditions which Jelliffe cited as necessary for acceptable education: 1. The prOposed action must appear logical to the people concerned. 33 2. The proposed action must not clash with other beliefs and values. 3. The prOposed.action must be in accord with local standards of behavior. ‘ 4. The action proposed must fit in with the organi- zation of other aspects of the life of the community. 5. The proposed action must be advocated and_ practiced by someone with prestige in the eyes of the people concerned. 6. The proposed action must have a clear con- nection with the desired result--in this case, improve- ment in the child's health. 7. The proposed action must be within the resources of the time, money and effort of the people concerned (24:220-223). Consistent with Jelliffe's fifth condition is the identification of an influential group to disseminate the new ideas and practices. Rogers developed a classification of people according to their willingness and rapidity in the adoption of new ideas and ways of doing things. These were called: Innovators: "venturesome;" willing to accept risks; Early adopters: “respect;' regarded by many others in the social system as.a role-mode1;. ‘ Early majority: ”deliberate;" willing to consider. innovations only after peers have adopted; Late majority: "skeptical;V overwhelming pressure from peers needed before adoption occurs; Laggards: "tradition;" oriented to the past (36:185). Rogers also suggested many generalizations which. influence the speed of adoption of an innovation. Among these were: its relative advantage, as seen by the members of the society, over their present practice; its compati- bility with their way of life; its complexity, discouraging if too difficult; its divisibility, whether it could be adOpted in stages; its communicability, whether it can be shown to people or explained simply to them (36:312). 34 Lewin felt that the strength of the forces which resist changes in food habits in a stated direction required the investigation of actual attempts to change food habits, although the use of questionnaires is helpful in planning the experimental approach (33:184). According to the Nutrition Foundation, current emphases in the area of nutrition education focuses upon the preparation of teachers for presenting nutrition in classroom teaching with special emphasis concentrated on the youngest grades Since this is where attitudes are develOped (26:58-59). Pye of Columbia University concentrated upon black and Puerto Rican children in Harlem and sought to identify their nutrition problems in order to develOp educational materials best suited to their Specific nutritional situation (26:58). Berg reported on a study of changes in Israeli food habits, whiCh concluded that the most important influence in the introduction of new foods was the exposure of the children to nutrition education in the school. This was greater than the influence of such forces as neighbors, newspapers and radios. Second to formal nutrition instruction was the provision of a school lunch, even though no formal nutrition instruction was included (9:7). Protein-Calorie Requirements Although the prevention of protein-calorie deficiency in families appears to be dependent upon a combination of 3S ecological forces within the family field, as stated earlier, at the most obvious level it is dependent upon making avail: able enough food of adequate protein value at a price the family can afford. And, according to Ritchie, it is also dependent upon the preparation and distribution of the food in a suitable, equitable, and uncontaminated.manner (1:10). The nutritive value of a diet has two broad aspects; quantitative and.qualitative.. According to FAO, the quanti- tative aspect is measured by the calorie content of the diet; however,.there is no single and simple measure available for the qualitative aspect of the dietjbecause the latter_ consists of a balance between many nutrients and other factors. The two indicators of the nutritional quality of. the diet which researchers widely accept are its protein content, with special reference to animal protein, and the_ percentage of.total calories derived.from cereals, starch roots, and sugar.(ll:33)._ Rajalakshmi of India wrote that a diet containing insufficient protein or protein of,poor.quality generally decreases the absorption of calcium (28:24). It also affects the absorption of iron (28:31), the conversion of carotene to vitamin A, the utilization of the bodyfis store of vitamin A (28:44), and the amount of riboflavin required. Riboflavin is a vital factor in the metabolism of protein and carbo-. hydrates,(28:53-54). Nutrient requirements are usually based on a reference standard formulated to include such factors as 36 physical activity, body size and composition,_age, climate, and environment. Pregnancy and lactation needs are also considered (37:28). The term "reference man" is the basic concept of the calorie-requirement scale established by FAQ. The refer- ence man requires 3,200 calories daily, is twenty-five years of age with a weight of sixty-five kilograms and lives in a temperate zone where the mean annual temperature is 10° centi- grade. He receives about eight hours of Sleep per day, is sedentary four hours and spends-about one and onerhalf hours in recreation or household chores. The term "reference woman" may also be used to describe a woman twenty-five years of age, with a weight of fifty-five kilograms and a home to manage. She is assumed to need 2,300 calories daily plus additional calories to care for the stress of pregnancy and lactation (38:11-12). The amounts of different-nutrients recommended in. dietary standards usually exceed those found to be needed for metabolic requirements. Rajalaksmireported that thirty grams is the-minimum amount of protein required for an adult. man weighing sixty kilograms, but the amount recommended is often more than double this figure. These extra amounts- represent margins of safety to account for human variations in the absorption and utilization of—the nutrients. By adding liberal amounts, the requirements become adequate for more.than 95 per cent of the relevant population (28:94-95). Rajalaksmi also noted that the estimates of require-_ 37 ments vary according to the criteria used to establish them; and, even though estimates may be agreed upon, different figures result for the recommended amounts because of the safety margin. It is for these reasons that standards are considered as rough approximations and guides toward better nutrition rather than final and accurate guides. She also pointed out that no extensive studies have been conducted for several groups, such as infants, expectant and nursing mothers, and the aged. Thus, the amounts recommended for them are based on even more approximate estimates (28:94-95). Hegsted remarked that even though standards of, recommended allowances may-be based upon inadequate infor- nation that is later discovered to be erroneous, experience has demonstrated that they are necessary and useful. Standards are-revised from time to time as new data become available. Hegsted warned that the danger in using standards lies in their universal acceptance without taking into account their limitations (39:14). In her study of Columbian families, Florencio developed a "minimum standard." She used the term "minimum" to indicate a point below which the normal physiological needs of an average person cannot be sufficiently met. Florencio stated that her standard was designed for the average person in the population, while the‘majority of the pOpulation would be covered by the allowances established by the Colombian Institute of Nutrition (40:25). This latter standard was formulated from data obtained from the 38 established standards of various countries (4i). As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the Colombian allowances are consistently higher than those of Florencio's "minimum standard." The Evaluation of EsSential'Nutrients The translation of foods to their nutrient content is made possible by tables of food composition which have been compiled from laboratory analyses of the chemical composition of various foods. Howe stated that the value of tables of food composition lies in_the fact that food habits and patterrusare relatively constant. The variations which occur are in the quantities of individual foods consumed by a group within a particular season or geographic area (42:514). The limitations of food tables are given by» Rajalakshmi. She noted that it must be recognized that the figuresare based.on casual samples and the nutrient contentL of the same foods may vary from sample to sample due to such factors.as the genetic strain-of-the seed or animal, the method of farm management, and the processing and quality of: the soil or feed. Rajalakshmi asserted that the primary purpose of the tables is to present approximations ofo nutrients which facilitate the assessment of the nutritional adequacy of a given diet. She also indicated that other variables which must be taken into consideration are losses which may occur during processing or cooking, or gains which may occur by using iron utensils, as well as the different 39 rates of absorption of nutrients by the body, and also, the amounts of a particular food actually consumed (28:103-109). Various food composition tables are presented in the literature and many countries have their own tables of food composition compiled from data from their own laboratories or from nutrition research in various parts of the world. For example, the Colombian Food Composition Tables present figures obtained from a statistical study of more than 50,000 analyses of Colombian foods made since 1944 by the laboratories.of the National Institute Of Nutrition. A small part of the data came from the tables of the United States Department of Agriculture (43). TABLE 1. 40 DAILY MINIMUM NUTRIENT ALLOWANCES FOR CALORIES AND PROTEINS (20°C AREA)* m 8 8 A d) C: can: C: ‘9‘“ m H 0H -H H WIN H H .G H Uri u m ore n m m lwr\ o. +tmrs E +1mr~ E 410 -Ht» F4 <3+1E ESTA atganiva Groups 2.33 £5 3 3383 v: cad-«v v< a a Infants 0- l 800 20 20 20 20 Children Both Sexes l- 3 13 1100 25 8 35 -- Both Sexes 4- 6 18 1260 30 10 39 -- Both Sexes 7- 9 24 1440 40 13 48 -- Male 10-12 33 1650 50 17 60 -- Female 10-12 33 1550 50 17 60 -- Adolescents Male 13-15 45 1960 65 22 82 -- Male 16-19 60 2420 60 ”20 75 -- Female 13-15 47 1860' 60 20 79 -- Female 16-19 53~ 1760 55 18 70- -- Adults. Male 20-29 65 2600 50 17 68 -- 30-39 65 2550 50 17 68 -- 40-49 65 2350' 50 17 68 -- 50-59 65 2250 50 17 68~ -- 60-69 65 2000 50' 17 68 —- Female 20-29 55 1750 40 13 60 -- 30-39 55 1650 40 13 60 -- 40-49 55 1600 40 13 60 -- 50-59 55 1500 40 13 60 -- 60-69 55 1400 40 13 60 -- *Represents a portion of the standard formulated by Florencio The letter "a" refers to the following footnote: (40). "The biological value is actually greater than 80 (or 60) because the total protein allowance for infants is to be derived solely from animal protein." 41 TABLE 2: COLOMBIAN DAILY RECOMMENDED ALLOWANCES FOR jCALORIES AND PROTEINS (20° C AREA)* ‘ m 215‘ 8 f" C) 6: mm C ‘0“: U) «H -H 0H :r-I "-45 H a .: $4 era u m 0.4 u m to bar-w O +-1 mn E H on E 8% BE 3 28552 8835“ Groups 4;... 3: U u nae-w- U< a. HV'Vg Infants 0- 1 900- 27b 27 27b 27 Children Both Sexes 1- 3 13 1300 31 10 39 -- Both Sexes 4- 6 18 1600 36 12 50 -- Both Sexes 7- 9 24 2100 43~ 14 59 -- Male 10-12 33 2400 61 20 72 -- Female 10-12 33 2300' 60 20- 72 -- Adolescents Male 13-15 45 3100 78 26 94 -- Male‘ 16-19 60 3300 78 26 90 -- Female 13-15 47 2700 73 24 90 -- Female 16-19 53 2400 65 22 80 -- Adults Male 20-29 65 2850 68 23 86 -- 30-39 65 2800 68' 23 86 -- 40-49 65 2600 68 23 86 -- 50-59 65 2500 68 23 86 -- 60-69 65 2250 68 23 86 -- Female 20-29 55 1900. 60 20 78 -- 30-39 55 1800 60 20* 78 -- 40-49 55 1750 60- 20 78 -- 50-59 55 1650 60‘ 20 78- -- 60-69 55 60 20 78- -- .1500 *Represents a portion of the standard as given by Florencio (40). not in the original standard established by the Colombian Institute of Nutrition but were added by Florencio. be derived solely from animal protein. The a116wances for animal protein (a) were As in Table l, the total protein allowance for infants (b) is to div I f‘ \- COT. 51:1 301 0f CHAPTER'III DATA COLLECTION AND METHOD OF ANALYSIS, The discussion of the data and method of analysis is divided into four parts: selection of the sample, de- scription of the sample; determination of calorie and protein allowances for the sample; and the procedure used to analyze the calories and proteins in the Market Basket foods. Selection of the Sample As stated earlier, the sample used in this study consisted of 236 familes selected from the Market Basket Survey--a sub-sample of families in the Colombian Consumer Survey known as the PIMUR Project. Although the inclusion of families in.the MB Survey was dependent upon their. voluntary participation, their selection for this present research was based upon the following criteria: (1) the family was comprised of two or more persons; (2) the family furnished information on the amount of money spent on food purchases; and, (3) the family furnished a record of its food purchases during the survey week. Because of their voluntary participation in the MB Survey, these families do not represent a random sample, even though they were originally selected for the broader / 42 th at GE 43 Consumer Survey by the method of Monte Carlo, which involved the selection of a home every 170. The data on the 236 families were selected by first obtaining from the MB computer tape, the code numbers of each family. In this way a print-out of the data pertaining to these families could be obtained from the General Con- sumer Survey tape. The original Consumer Survey described‘ the families on the basis of the total sample of 629 families, whereas this present research was a pooling of all the information deemed relevant to a description of the 236 MB families. ‘To simplify the MB analysis, the raw data was printed out by computer so that each family could be. analyzed individually by studying the total list.of its purchases. The original programming detailed each item separately for each of the 236 families. The services of GTE Data Services,.Inc., in the City of,0wosso were con- tracted because they provided easy access to the researcher and the cost was minimal. General Consumer data were analyzed first in order to obtain descriptive data (see Chapter IV). Each household unit was placed within an age group according to the age of the housewife and also within one of the four. income per capita levels (IPCL). When the IPC was unknown, the family unit was placed in a fifth group and labeled Unknown. 44 Brief Description of the Sample All of the MB families were residing in the City of Cali. Cali is the capital of the State of Valle and is one of the country's fasting growing cities in terms of pOpu- lation increase. Located in the Cauca Valle, it is the dominant commercial center in the southwestern area of Colombia, and the Cauca Valle is its major source of food. In February of 1969, the PIMUR researchers estimated the population of the city to be around 865,000 (12:23), with around 41 per cent of the population under fifteen years of age (12:29). It is from this universe that the 236 MB families were chosen. In the 236 families there were 1,533 family members representing 6 SE levels ranging from upper class to lower- lower class. The sample consisted of 236 amas de casa, and 204 male jefes de familia. Thirty-two of the amas de casa were also designated as the jefe de familia. The ages of the amas de casa ranged from 17-70 with an average age of- 37.4; the average age for the male jefes de familia was 40.8. Nearly two-thirds (61 per cent) of the amas de casa were under 40 years of age. There were only 3 who were teenagers and only 1 ama de casa who was 70 years of age. All family members were divided into one of three age ranges: 15 and above (818 persons); 5 up to 15 (485 persons); and under 5 years of age (230 persons). The number of male and female members in the households was not 45 determined by the General Consumer Survey. Over half of the total members were in families where the ama'de casa was. under 40 years of age. The highest percentages of family members in the total sample and in each age range were located in families where the'amade casa was 30-39 years old. Table 3 shows thekdistribution of the family members according to the age of the ama de casa. Table 4 summarizes the distribution of family members according to the IPCL and household size. The MB» sample consisted of an average of 6.6 persons per family. However, the two lover IPC Levels had a higher number of persons per family, while the two upper IPC households had fewer.than the sample mean. The average family size de- creased through the ascending IPC levels from 8.5 to 5.5 members. The Unknown IPCL, with a mean. of‘ 6.0 family members, was more representative of the total sample mean. The sample consisted of more lower than upper IPC family members, with the highest number of persons (386) located in Level II. Levels I and III were.very similar in size (315 and 319), although there were fewer families in Level 1. Level IV had the fewest family members (224). It is assumed that many of the families in the Unknown IPCL, which had 289 members were also low income householdsi The jefes de familia, both male and female, were born in various areas of Colombia. The percentage distri- butions for these areas were small except for one notable exception: 42 per cent of the MB jefes listed Valle as TABLE 3. 46 DISTRIBUTION OF ALL MEMBERS OF THE MB HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF THE AMA_DEACASA 4* Age of Household Members’ ama de Persons 15 Persons 5 Persons Total C333 and over to 15 under 5 Persons. No. % ' No. % No. .% .No. 8 16-19 7 1 -- -- 3 1 10 1 20-29 164 20 76 16 70 31 310' 20 30-39 248 30 236 49 97 42 581 38 40-49 226 28 126 25 35 15 387- 25 50-59 126 15 32 7 21 9 179 12 60-70 47 6 15 3 4 2 66 4‘ Total 818 100 __485 100 230 100 1533 100 Percent 53- 100 100 100 32 100 15 100 47 TABLE 4. DISTRIBUTION OF MB FAMILY MEMBERS ACCORDING TO IPCL AND HOUSEHOLD SIZE Number of Percent Total Percent Average. IPCL Families of Sample Members of Sample Size of Range Family I 37 16 315 21 8.5 4-13 II 54 23 386 25 7.1 2-15 III 56 24 319 21 5.7 2-11 IV 41 17 224 15 5.5 2-12 Unknown 48 20 289 18 6.0 2-14 Total 236 100 1533 100 _ 6.6 2-15 48 their place of origin. The majority (78 per cent) of the iefes were born in urban areas while 17 per cent were originally from rural areas. The rural or urban origin of the remaining 5 per cent was not known. The length of time the families had resided in the same barrio was known for only 153 households. Most of these had lived in the same barrio an average of 7 years and many had lived there an average of 17 years. Only 36 per cent of the jefes de familia had always resided in Cali. Determination of Calorie and Protein Allowances A handicap in the determination of the protein- calorie allowances for the families was the lack of data on specific ages, sex, height, weight, and position in the family life cycle. According to Wold it is well-known that consumption habits are influenced by the age and number of children in the family. Thus in comparing the consumption habits in family groups that differ by income level, one of the difficulties encountered is to make allowance for the size and age structure of the family (44:221). Manuals on food surveys have suggested that nutrition units for esti- mating the dietary allowances for a population sample of mixed sex and ages can be expressed as the fractional per- centage of the allowance for the reference man. These fractional percentages then become the basis for determining the total number of nutrition units in a family or pOpulation. 49 In Florencio's Colombian study, "the daily nutritional allowances of a family was computed as the sum of the individual allowances of the average number of persons eating per day" (40:24)., In this MBstudy, instead of using fractional per- centages of the reference man, a mean was established for protein and calories for each of the three age groups included in the PIMUR Project. This method of.adjusting for sex and age was assumed to be more representative of family needs. The following procedure was used: 1. The allowances were calculated from the Colombian Daily Recommended Allowance for a 20° centigrade area, as given.by Florencio (Table 2, page 41). 2. The sum of the allowances for each age group, including male and female as separate factors, was computed for each of the three age ranges. The sum was divided by the total number of factors to obtain the mean for the ages under 5, 5 to 15, 15 and_above. Lactating and pregnant women were not included in the calculation. The separate units for male and female, which begin at ages9-12, were averaged to arrive at one standard for both sexes. 3. The calorie and protein requirements for a family were calculated by adding the total number of allowances for all family members according to their age group and dividing the sum by the total number of factors to obtain the mean. 4. The daily estimated protein.and calorie require- ments of a family were then compared with the total value of 50 these nutrients as calculated from the MB analysis. In Table 5, the Colombian reference man of 25 years of age in a 20° C area is shown requiring 68 grams of total protein, 23 grams_of animal protein, and 2,850 calories. Due to the above method used to arrive atpa standard for each group of varied age and sex, the calories for the 15-70 age range are considerably less than those for.the reference man. The computed requirement of 2,510 calories represents 88 per cent of the reference man's requirements as given by the Colombian Standard, but this quantity is only 90 calories less than the amount given in Florencio's minimum standard as shown in Table 1 (page 40). The proteins needed by the reference man and the 15-70 age group are es— sentially the same due to the higher protein requirements of the teen-agers included in the adult calculation. Procedure Used to Analyze the Proteins ——’ and Calories'Ih the MB FOOHS Both long and short methods of calculating the nutrients in diets have been used by various researchers. Harper, in a 1956 study of dietary practices of women used the Food Composition Table for Short Method of Dietary Analysis develOped by Leichsenring and Wilson which was supplemented by the United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 8 (45:55). Florencio used both her "minimum" standard and the COIOmbian standard to analyze the diets of her sample. 51 TABLE 5. DAILY CALORIE AND PROTEIN ALLOWANCES FOR MB POPULATION OF MIXED AGE AND SEX* Age Total Protein Animal Protein Range Calories Grams Grams 0- 5 1,280 31.20 13.80 5-15 2,347 57.73 19.06 15-69 2,510 68.15 22.85 Reference Man 2,850 68.00 23.00 *Calculated from the Colombian Standard as given by Florencio (See Table 2, page 41). 52 Since the "minimum" standard was considered already set at a limit below which the normal physiological needs of an average person could not be adequately met, the recommended amount of proteins and calories to be consumed was set at. 100 per cent. She expressed the average daily intake as a percentage of the "minimum" standard (40:25-26). Sims, in her analysis of the nutritional status of preschool children, converted the estimated quantities of food consumed to their corresponding nUtrient values by means of a coding system and conversion factors for the computer. Developed by the Consumer and Food Economics Research Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, this method uses the quantities of foods con- sumed and the nutritive values for each food unit. It obtains the products of quantity times nutritive value then sums these to obtain the nutritive value of the diet (46:96-97). In this present research, analysis of.the proteins (P) and calories (C) in the MB foods was made according to the following equation: P or C = 453:6 G I; 100 G " 'N lb. 'NP or NC I 15 ° X "“ X 100 G wt. NP or NC N 1b In this equation, the proteins and calories were calculated by first finding the number of 100 Gram (G) units in a pound. This amount (4.536 100 G units) was then multiplied by the various weights (edible portion) given for 53 each of the MB foods. The factor thus Obtained was then multiplied by the number of grams of protein or number of calories represented in 100 G of each food analyzed. The amount of protein and calorie inva food item was established by using the purchase weight where stated, by estimating an average size for the vegetable or fruit, or by converting liquids to grams. These were then:converted to 100 Gram units and the above equation was followed. Since the sizes of items purchased.b)tthe unit were not given, the estimation of the size was made-by‘consulting with one of the PIMUR researchers, and by comparing sizes in various composition tables. Various items in the composition tables, such as bananas and potatoes, consisted of several varieties, each bearing its own nutritional value. These values were reduced to one common value by obtaining the‘ mean number of proteins and calories for the items. In presenting the results of the MB survey, the admonition given by Reh was followed. The findings are not presented in terms of "undernourished" or "malnourished," but on the difference between the proteins and calories found in the selected purchases and the calculated protein- calorierequirements for each family. The basis-for comparison is the percentage of families found to.fall below 100 per cent of their estimated protein-calorie requirements (47:83-84).. Florencio indicated that 100 Per cent represented a minimum adequacy of nutrients (40:25). Although her study used a minimum standard and this present 54 research is based on themore generous Colombian standard, the difference between the allowances was not great. Thus in this study 100 per cent is assumed to be the adequate amount the MB families required. This information is, according to Jelliffe, "at best only qualitative, giving an extremely approximate outline of-the general dietary pattern.". He felt that methods used to assess.the nutri- tional status of a sample are "individually imperfect, inaccurate and subject to their own technical errors." He recommended the avoidance of sweeping conclusions based on limited evidence (13:169-170). CHAPTER IV THE MARKET BASKET FAMILIES In this chapter the MB families are described on the basis of their socio-economic characteristics. This includes: SE levels, employment status, educational level, the newspapers they read, their dwellings and possessions, their child-feeding practices, the participation of family members in decision-making, the reaction of the ama de casa to new food products or different markets, market factors affecting food purchases among the SE levels, and modes of transportation utilized by the ama de casa for her last principal food purchases. Socio-Economic Characteristics The SE data were selected from the Colombian Consumer Survey. SE Levels The MB households represented the six SE levels established by the PIMUR Survey. These levels, ranging from upper to lower-lower class were: Level 1 Upper Class $10,000 pesos or more Level 2 Upper-Middle 6,000 - 10,000 pesos Level 3 Middle Class 2,000 - 6,000 pesos Level 4 Lower-Middle 800 - 2,000 pesos Level 5 Upper-Lower 500 - 800 pesos Level 6 Lower-Lower Less than $500 pesos (12:53) 55 56 SE level of residence.--As Shown in Table 6, over half (58 per cent) of the households resided in upper-lower class barrios, while the second highest number of families (20 per cent) lived in the lower-lower class areas. Ten and 7 per cent of the families were living inlower-middle or middle class sectors of Cali, while only 2 and 3 per cent resided in the upper or upper-middle class barrios. IPCL IV was the only level in which the households were distributed throughout all the SE levels of residence with the greatest number of these families living in the middle-class barrios. SE level of income.--With respect to the SE level of income, Table 7 shows that 50 per cent of the MB families received monthly incomes ranging from $800-2,000 pesos. With 27 per cent of the families receiving $2,000-6,000 pesos monthly, it was apparent that over 75 per cent of the sample could be classified according to income as middle or lower-middle class. Only 11 and 3 per cent were upper-lower or lower-lower class households with incomes of $500-800 pesos or less than $500 pesos. Only 4 per cent Of the families were upper class with incomes of $10,000 pesos or more and 5 per cent were upper-middle class Since their income was $6,000-10,000 pesos per month. Comparison of SEL.of.residence and income3--When the SEL of the residence was compared with the SEL of income (as shown in Table 7), only twenty-eight (15 per cent) of the 188 families giving income information had.the same SEL for both residence and income. In general, for each IPCL, the ON mm OH 5 m N can Deon one 57 ow wma mm NH 5 m 0mm Hooch w mm c m -- Y. we czocxca m m I. a an o m Ha momma coma coco moo: - >H 0 mm m m H -- om momma com» oo Home -.HHH an . cm s -- , -- -- em women ovum oo sun” 4 HH ma NN -- -- -- -- um momma mNH» casa mmoH - H c0303 oozes ; «seen: «Hoes: «neon: cone: menognmsom -oozoq -ooao: -oozog -oooo: mo conaoz o n e n N a AUAH ooowwmmoovmo.wo>oa oflEooooo-ofioom. qomH >quzoz Oz< muzmQHmmm mo Am>mq quozoum-oHuom OH qunmoou< mquHz choosing their shopping centers. The upper class households tended to exhibit the.oncerperrweek.major.shopping trip pattern found in developed countries, while the lower income and slum residents.shOpped.in.nonrneighborhood centers approximately once.every.three.to.four.days. Other purchases were made in.neighborhood.tiendas, small stores with less choice and higher.prices. -Thus the lower income families, who.could.least afford to do.so, had to spend a substantial percentage.of.their.limited.pesos.on consumer transport because of.the.lack.of.adequate:food retailing facilities in their immediate.neighborhoods;~:The.purchasing patterns of the middle.class.groups.appeared:to be con- sistent with.the premise.that.accessibility:andglocational convenience are important.determinants.of;where foods will be purchased (2; 12). CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF THE MARKET BASKET The analysis of the Market Basket is concerned with the percentages of families purchasing items from six major fOOd categories, and the expenditures for each category; the animal products purchased by families with preschoolers; a discussion of the food pesos; the determination of the calorie and protein content of the MB foods; and, the comparison of the protein-calorie content of the Market Basket with the reQUirements estimated for each family. Food Purchased by MB Families. The six major food categories are discussed in the following order: meat, animal products, grains, vegetables, fruits, and processed foods. The sub-items within each of these groups are presented in descending order according to the percentage of families purchasing them. The expenditures fOr each food category shown in Table 15 are presented in the discussion of each category. It should be noted that the percentages for meat, animal products, and fruits showed an increase from the lowest to the highest IPCL. The reverse was true for grains, vegetables, and processed foods with the highest percentages spent by IPCL I and the lowest by IPCL IV. 74 75 amm am am ama sea tam woos Mommuzv os.wom.msm ma.osm.m a sw.asa.¢ » oe.mmw.e a No.4mm.A % mo.mmo.mfia mo.wfis.mmw fiance wow so aHH ama was awm aooa Ameuzv AH.NNN.N oe.oas om.mmm no.mmm.fl aw.mAH.H ma.wmm.~ o¢.oom.w excess: amN LHH mm was was tom woOH magazv om.mmm.m No.mmm.H Aw.me.H mm.omm.H 4H.aav.~ Hm.w¢¢.¢ am.amm.sfi >H tom we at ama aOH son LOOH nomuzv ee.omN.m wo.mma om.~mw aw.mom.H me.oao.m om.oma.m mm.meo.~H HHH aoN at was ans ama ”wN Loos Asmuzv Ao.HmA.N mo.m¢a Ao.mmo.fi 54.4mm.fi Aw.aw~.fl om.wmm.~ m~.m~a.c~ HH new so ama amfl «a *ON «OOH Hamuzv om.omo.H % me.amm a ma.aoa a os.mHH.H » Hm.amm ” mm.o¢m.H a mH.mHa.m » H wommooopm muwsum moanmuowo> mnfimuo mauswoum umoz pnogm, Haawa< undead gumH Haooe .......... ......... mHUDQOmm Doom mo mmHmowmhfim mfi wan: came one .ufics onu xn wommsohsm ego: mowwmsmme -- m - N -- NH -- N -- ON -- w Hmauo oo.m v oo.m N 00.5 N oN.m m - -- «oo.N m mommmsmm NH.H H -- -- NH.H N -- -- -- -- -- -- pmoz gonna mm. m mN. N oN.H NH om. v -- -- -- -- Ewm mm.N mN oo.N NN mm.m NN oo.H NN Ho.H mm mH.e NN ocom en.a HH oo.N o No.H ma v¢.a 0H mm.H N om.N ea whoUmN> om.m ea om.N v mN.m He oN.m NH oo.o v .om.N m coxuficu oo.N mm oo.N mN Nm.H av om.H me m<.N om ww.H mm swam No.0 mm .mw.e mm om.m OOH mm.o om Hm.m ooH .oo.m um moom mo.N we om.H Hm em.m Ho ov.a mm .eo.H He wo.H Nm Much .mna.mcflxnn .mnH wcflzmn .mnH mcfixsn .mnH mcfixsn .mnH mcfixsn ..mnH maflxsn %Momoumu new: N cam: N new: N :moz N can: N new: N onEmm czocxc: >H HHH HH Hmuoy qumH QmZmH>mmHzH mH< Qz< mmHmoomHH - H H H H H r. H II. kuph . .\ HUNH nmm< az< 02H»Dm mquHzH HHH HH H . onEmm Hench HumH mmHHHZ mHaeam ezoemezx >H HHH HH H . Hmuoe . HUQH F F mmHm quwbm mmHHHZ< N NQHNHE. N NHHHINHE N NHHHgn 1w NHHHNHHNH N NHHWNHE N N555 .3852 Honesz Honasz . H0852 ..Henmezz .8955 “HP; NHNENN ezoexes >H HHH HH H HNNNN HNNH mHHDMm oszam mmHHHz Total IPCL 1 T415 2 as 3 as 4 :15- : No. % I 9 34 8 31 6 23 . 2 8 l 4 26 19 (N=26) II 14 44 9 28 8 25 -- -- l 3 32 23 (N=32) III 28 74 7 18 3 8 ~- .-- -- .-- 38 28 (N=38) IV 15 78 2 11 2 ll .-- --.-- -- 19 14 (N=19) Un- known 10 45 10 45 1 5 1 5 -- -- 22 16 (N=22) Total 76 56 36 26 20 15 3 2: 2 1 137- 100 99 N m m H -- -- -- -- m H « H 0:02 H N -- -- HH N -- -- -- -- -- -- . Hoepo NN NN NH N NN NH NN NH N N -- -- omooeu NH NH N H NN N NH N N N N. N Nouosm NH NN NN N NN N NN NH N N N_ H NNHNNNNNZ NN HN NN NH NN HH NV NH NN NH NN NH NHHe NNNHNNNHNNN NH NN NH N N H NH N NH N NN N NHHe.NNHoN30N N N -- -- HH N N H -- -- .- -. NHHe Newsweeou Ne NN NN N Na N NN NN NN NH NN NH NHHe :NN NN NN NN NH NN NH HN NN NN NN NN NH NNNm N Nqusn N NGHN5n N NnHNDH N NeHN5n N NGHNDH N NGHNSH Homesz HoHE32 Homemz Hones: Honsmz Honasz Npomoumu HNNuzN HNHuzN HNNuzN HNNuzN HNNuzN mHmEmm czoqxdpi. >H HHH .HH H- HNHoN HUNH -1 NHUNHONN NHH: Nz< .NHHz .NNNm omNKmuNNN NHN.NmHz= sznHHmu NHH: NmHHHzH:m HoESNeou HmHoeoo may EOHH :oxmu mm: mououHeqmaxo voom mo :oHumeHumo one .HmHHoe mmumgm eopch Hon memom NHN we: No>H=m may mo oEHu.o:u um.ouwn omqmnoxo ease 102 om m.o« N on N mmmH «NN N omN Hmuoe HN o.om NN mNN NNH N« czoqus om m.NN mo «NN omm H« >H «m N.N« o« mHm NNN om HHH ca o.Hm NN NNN NNH «m HH Nm m.mH N NH N mHm ooH N Nm . H moHSHchomxo HumH Hmsuom mo ucoo mmHspHeeomxo muHmmu mcomuom m2 :anHHamm moHHHamm Non mm momma eoom woquHpmo Hon momma voom mo Hones: Hon momma woom mo . eoom NoumeHumm Nonoz onHm>< NHHooz onHm>< HNHOH NHHooz owmno>< Honsaz A4 «HZMQm >mzh HHH2H HHH HH H 0:00 Mom onEmm . +1 Hmuoe HumH mm< mo mm m>Hm mmmz: zmmaHHmu :HHz mmHHHzH HHH HH H N HNNoN HUNH . mu< mo OmHm mmnz: zmmanmo :NHz NmHHHzoN< N N -- -- HN N NH N -- -- -- -- NNN-NNN NH NH N N NN N NN NH N H -- -- NNN-NNN NN NN NN N NN N NN HH NN NH NH N NNH-NNH HH NH N H -- -- NH N NH N NH N NN -NN N NH NH N -- -- NH N N N NH N NN -NN N NH N N -- -- N H NH N NH N NN -NN HH NH NN N -- -- N H N N NN N. NN -NN N N N H -- -- N H N H NH N NH onNN N NNHHHNNN N NNNHHENN N NNHHHNNN N NNHHHNNN N NNHHNENN N NNHHHNNN mo Honesz mo Hanssz mo Honasz mo panesz mo ponesz mo umnssz omcmh NHmaNN czoqxcs >H HHH HH H Naou NNN HNNNN HNNH mo< mo mm m>Hm mmOZO ZmOOAHIU :HHZ OmHHH2AHH HHH .. HH: H omcma H 8mm . A 3 -TJ . adou .Hom E: 3e; mo< mo Om m>Hm mmnza ZmOOHHmU HDOIHHB mquHZ/E mo OmONEUOOm Ooom waxmmz >m Em: thmzmmHOomm mHmoqHHH HHH HH uuuu H ucoo pom onEmm . II HNHOH AOOH . mo< mo mm m>Hm mmOZO ZmOQHHmU HOOIHHZ OmHAH2H¥mm2 >O Hm: thmzmmHOOmm szHomO H4HNN< N N NH N N H N H -- -- -- - NNN-NNN NH NH N N NN NH NN N -- .- -- - NNN-NNN NN NN NN NH NN N NN NH NN NH NH N NNH-NNH N N N N -- -- -- -- NN N -- - NN -NN NH NH NN N N H N H NH N NH N NN -NN NH NH NH N -- -- -- -- N N NN m NN -NN N N N H -- «a -- -- N N N H NN -NN H H -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- N HW , NH onom .N NNHHNNNN N NNNHHeNm ,N NNNHHNNN N NNNHHNNN N NNHHHNNN N _NNNHHNNN. mo Honesz mo Nonesz mo nonasz mo nonasz mo Nonazz. mo ponsnmf ownmp onamm czocxcs LHH H u ammo pom HNNNN HNNH . mu< mo Om m>Hm mmmz: ZmOOHHmU HOOIHHZ OmHHHZHH ATTITUDES Ama de Gaga in Present Choice Situation Y Purchase*Decision (Food Choice) V7 PROTEIN-CALORIE FAMILY CONTENT OF MARKET BASKET CHARACTERISTICS NUTRITIONAL ADEQUACY OUTPUT: ‘__‘——' OF THE MARKET BASKET FOODS 133 A primary limitation of the study; which originated from both the nature of the.data.and the research design, concerns the ecological forces which.appeared to influence the nutritional adequacy of the MB:foods; There existed no clear delineation of the degree.to which the various forces influenced each other (degree;of:overlapping). It was apparent that the.ama de casa reacted to ecological forces and was herself a force, but the strength or relative weight of these variables could not be:determined. .This was also true for the degree.of influence.existing between the protein-calorie content of the Market Basket-and family characteristics. Recommendationsafor-Research. The recommendations for fUture.research center primarily around those forces which ultimately influence the nutritional status of the MB‘families.’ I l. The ecological force fields should be studied to determine the weight the various forces within each field have upon food practices such as food purchase decisions, food preparation, and the distribution of fOOd within the family. 'This should.also include evaluation of the relative importance.of.the ecological forces. 2.-:A.study should focus upon the ama de casa.as the "gatekeeper" who.controls.the flow of.food into and within the family-field. .This.wou1d include the ecological forces which influence her decisions during her food purchases. 134 The term ama de casa should be clarified so that the exact relationship to other family members is known. 3. Research.emphasis.could also be placed upon the influence of such forces as the mother’S'I.Q.,.her edu- cation, and food ideologies and the influence of these upon the nutritional status of her preschool children. 4. Educational innovations in school should also be. explored to determine their effect upon the food decisions of the family (or the adOptionof innovations). S. A descriptive study should be conducted to determine the type of nutrition-instruction given through the various levels of the educational.system. Some forces for consideration would be the validity and appropriateness of the instruction to the means and.needs of the families, and an attempt should be made to determine the influence.of the children upon the food purchases of their families. '6; The type of education which would enable the ama de casa to.more adequately utilize her available resources or which would influencelmn:food ideologies also needs to be explored. 7. What.happens.to the food once it enters the family field is a basic concern- it is recommended that studies be performed to determine the;basic stapleCs) and food combinations which the families customarily use. This should include an evaluation of the amino=acid quality of the food combinations and the way the types of foods reinforce each other with reSpect to amino acids. It 135 should also include those ecological forces which would influence the ability of the families to avail themselves Of these combinations. For example: Are the dark, green, leafy vegetables which Jelliffe recommended for a food mix available to the families in Cali, or would different combinations be more advantageous? Implications for Education. .IIt is recommended that education for nutrition focus on the basic Staple(s) which a family uses and upon the food combinations used throughout the day for various members of the family. Special emphasis should be given to the need of the preschool child to have a portion of the preferred animal proteins. The family needs to be instructed in the value of its basic staple relative to the protein quality. The mixes available to the family according to its economic means should also be stressed (see previous discussion on Jelliffe's mixes, pages 17-18). Education needs to consider the value of protein from all sources. In the MB analysis, few families purchased the high protein supplementary foods, even though many had used these at some time for their children. If the basic foods a family uses were enriched with the essential amino acids, or if a way were found to make supplementary products desirable to the peOple, then commercial promotion and nutrition education could effectively supplement each other. Government agencies also need to be educated as to 136 the needs of the Colombian.people, since policy also affects physical availability, cultural attitudes toward foods, as well.as their economic accessibility. It should also be stressed (as shown in the review of the literature, pages.32~333, that all education should be within the resources of the time, money, and‘effort of the Colombian consumer. With.respect to educational innovations, the dissemination of new ideas and practices have been shown to spread from their source to opinion leaders and then to their followers through personal communication channels. Thus, educational thrusts need to determine the identity of the influential groups in order to maximize the educational outcomes.. All applied nutrition programs must have those qualitieS'suggested earler by Jelliffe and Rogers.(see.pages.32r33). In-essence, they must be acceptable to the peoplerconcerned, compatible with their beliefs and values, not too.complex, adoptable in stages, communicable, and clearly'connected with the desired end-results of improved nutrition. I To provide a more.holistic view of the nutrition situation within the Colombian homes, the writer recommends that additional research following recommendations cited in this thesis, be undertaken on the same MB sample. Such an input would provide additional guidelines for remedial programs and nutrition education. LITERATURE C ITED 10. 11. LITERATURE CITED Ritchie, Jean A. S. Learning Better Nutrition: A Second Study of Approaches and Techniques. Rome: Food andAgricuItural Organization, 1967° Riley, Harold, et a1. Market Coordination in the Development of the Cauca Valley Region,CoIOmbia. ResearchReport No. S, LatinFAmefican Studies Center, Michigan State University. World Health Organization. Malnutrition and Disease. FFHC Basic Study No. 12. Geneva: WHO, 1963. Instituto Nacional de Nutricidn. E1 Programa Integrado de Nutricidn Aplicada (PINA) en Colombia, PINA--66- 15, T} I. 51, Bogota Byrnes, Francis C.. VA Matter-of Life and Death," Rockefeller Foundation Quarterly 1L 1969. Scrimshaw, N., Taylor, C. E., and Gordon, G. E. Interactions of Nutrition and Infection. Geneva: . .World Health Organization: Monograph Series, No. 57, 1968. Coursin, David Baird. "Undernutrition and Brain Function," Borden's Review of Nutrition Research, Vol. 26_(Jan.-Mar., 1965), 1316.. Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense, Colombia Nutritional Survey,_December, 1961. Berg, Alan D.b "Malnutrition and National Development," Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, Vol. 5_ (January, 1968T,M1-9. Nutrition Foundation._ Nutrition Foundation Report, 1967-1968. If F.A.O. Third world Survey. FFHC Basic Study No. 11 Rome, 1963. 137 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 138 Proyecto Integrado de Mercadeo Urbano Rural del Valle. Informe de Consumidores. Cali, Colombia, 1970. Jelliffe, Derrick B. .The Assessment of thegNutritional Status of the Community_. IGeneva:;Wor1dHea1th FTCI OrganizatiOn, 1966 Bengoa, J. M. Medicina Social en el Medio Rural Venezolano. Caracas. Litografia del Icomercio, Ic1ted in Derrick B. Jelliffe. The Assessment of the Nutritional Status of the Community. Geneva World Health organizat1on,—1966, 1U6. Scrimshaw, N. N. and Behar, M. ”Protein Malnutrition in Young Children ," Science, Vol. 133 (1961) Riley, DorOthy H. '"Child Feeding Practices Among LOw Income Households in Cali, Colombia." Unpublished Master' 5 thesis, Mi ch 1 gan State UnivIersity, 1971. Swaminathan, M. '"Nutrition and the World Food Problem, " Borden's Review of Research, Vol. 28 (Jan. -IMar. , 1967), 1- 31. F.A. 0. Production Year Book, cited in M. Swaminathan "Nutrition and _he WOrld Food Problem, " Borden‘ 5 Review of Resea1ch, Vol. 28 (Jan. -Mar. ,I1967) Rusoff, Louis L. ”The Role of Milk in Modern Nutrition,U Borden's Review of Nutrition Research, Vol. 25 (April-Sent., 1964). Howe, E. E.~ "Amino Acid Supplementation,” Borden's Review of Nutrition Research, Vol. 19 (MarEh- April, 19587, 19 34. Siedler, Arthur J. "Nutritional Contributio s‘of the Meat Group to an Adequate Diet, ” Borden's Review of Nutrition ResearCh, Vol. 24 (July- Sept. , 1963). 'The Rockefeller Foundation Quarterly 1. "The The Rockefeller Foundation Krehl, W. A. , and Hod ges, RRob‘ert E. "Sixth Inter-' national Congress of NutritiOn in Retrospect, " Borden' 5 Review of Nutrition Research, Vol 24 (OCt. :Dec., 1963), 43- 60° ‘Jelliffe, D. B. ”infant Nutrition in the TrOpics and -. Subtropics," World Health Organization Monograph No. 29. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1955. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 139 Maizena, S. A. Duryea. Paper presented at the Symposium-Presentation of the Product "Duryea" in the auditorium of the Universidad del Valle by the Maizena, S. A., Co. Nutrition Foundation. Nutrition Foundation Report 1969-1970. U. S. Department of Agriculture. A National Program of Research for Food and Nutrition. Preparedby a joint task’force of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State Universities and Land Grant Colleges,IDecember, 1967. Rajalakshmi, R. Applied Nutrition. Baroda, India: Baroda University, 1969. Swaminathan, M. I"Assessment of the Nutritional Status of the Community,” Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, Vol. 6 (April, 1969), Sri H” AvinaShilingam Home Science College, Coimbatore, India, 122:151. Burk, Marguerite. Influences of Economic and Social Factors on U. S. FoodConsumption.IIMinneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company, l961.I Mead, Margaret. Food Habits Research: Problems of the 1960's., National Academy of Sciénces, National Research Council, Pub. 1225. Gottlieb. D., and Rossi, P. H. A Bibliography andI Bibliographical Review of Foodiand Food HabitI Researcht Progresngeport: Study of the Bases for‘Changing Food Habits. Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces, Research I and Engineering Command. Quartermaster Corps, U. S. Army, Chicago, 1958. (Mimeographed.) Lewin, Kurt.' Field Theory in Social Science: ISelected TheoreticalgPapers. IEdited by Edwin Cartwright. New York: Harper, 1951. Chaplin, J.P., and Krawiec, T. S. Systems and Theories . Iof Ps cholo .I New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1936. Murphy, Gardner. 'Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1966. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 140 Davidson, Sir Stanley, and Passmore, R. Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 3rd ed. .Baltimore: The Williams anduWilkins Company, 1966. F.A.O."Nutrition Studies No. 15. Rome, 1957. Hegsted, D. Marck. "Establishment of Nutritional Requirements in Man," Borden's Review of Nutrition Research, Vol. 20 (MarcHFApril, 1958). Florencio, Cecelia A. "The Efficiency of Food Expendi- ture Among Certain Working- Class Families in Colombia. " Unpublished Ph. D thesis, Department of , Foods and Nutrition, Michigan State University, 1967. Instituto Nacional de Nutricion, Division de Investigaciones. "Recomendaci6n Diaria de Calor1as y Nutrientes Para la Poblacion Colombiana. " Publicacion EPI--65- 03. Bogota, 1965. (Mimeographed.) Howe, Paul E. "Nutrition Accounting for Large Groups," Journal of the American Dietetic Association, V61} 26 (July, 1959), 514-516. Instituto Nacional de Nutricion. Tabla de Composicion de Alimentos Colombianos. Ministerio’de Salud Pfiblica,Bogota, Colombia, 1959. Wold, Herman_.‘ Demand Analysis: A Study_inAEcono- _ metrics. New York: John Wiley 6 Sons, Inc., 1966. Harper, Laura Jane. "Dietary Practices of Three Samples of Women: A Longitudinal and Cross- Sectional Study. " Unpublished Ph. D thesis, Department of Foods and Nutrition, Michigan State University, 1956. Sims, Laura Sm'aiil."Nutritiona1 Status of Preschool Children in Re lation to Selected Factors Characterizing the Family Environment: An Ecological Approach. " Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, 1971. Reh, Emma. Manual on Household Food Consumption Surveys. ’ROme: 'Food and Agricultural Organi- zat1on, 1962. Proyecto Integrado de Mercadeo Urbano Rural del Valle. Sistema de Produccidn_y Distribucion de Leche en la Zona de Influenc1a de Cali, Colombia, 1970.1nforme Técnico No. 1?. Cali, Colombia,51970. APPENDIX A APPENDlX A LIBRO DE CODIGO PARA EL ESTUDIO TECNICO DE CONSUMIDORES* Estudio Técnico 07-1 ‘Columa Contendio del Estudio Codigo Tarjeta 1 I 1-2 Numero del Estudio 07 3 Numero de Sub-Encuesta 1 4-6 Numero de Entrevista 001-692 12 Estrato 1-7 (Ver lista Nivel Socio-Econdmico) 13 Acostumbra Ud. en general . 1. Si ensayar sitios diferentes en- 2. No donde mercar? 3..A;veces 14 Participan los miembros de su 1. S1 familia con Opiniones sobre que 2. No y ddnde se deben comprar 105 3. A veces viveres? Diciden sobre alimentos I . 15 E1 ama de casa‘ 1. 81 2. No 16 , E1 jefe de la familia 1. Si 2. No 17 E1 ama de casa y el jefe de la 1. S1 2. No ,familia ' g ‘ 18‘ Todos los miembros de la familia 1. S1 2. No 19‘ _Los hijos majores 1. Si- 2. No 20 La sirvienta 1. Si 2. No 21 Otros familiare5" 1. Si_ 2. No 22 Otros 1. S1 2. No Diciden sobre lugares de compra 23 El ama de casa 1. SI 2. No 24 El jefe de familia 1. Si 2. No 25 E1 ama de casa y el jefe de la 1. Si 2. No familia 26 Todos los miembros de la familia 1. si 2. No 27 Los hijos mayores 1. Si 2. No 23 La sirvienta 1. Si 2. No 29 Otros familiares 1. Si- 2. No~ _ 30 Otros 1. S1 2. No *Se incluye solamente e1 contenido del estudio usado en, esta tesis. 141 142 Coluna . fContendio del Bstudio ~ C6digo INFORMACION DEMOGRAFICA ‘ 31-32 Composici6n de la unidad familiar 01-89, total deepersonas. De cuintas personas se compone esta familia y que viven actualmente en esta casa? (incluyendo e1 servicio) Guantas de estas personas son mayores de 15 afios, cuantas entre 5 y 15 y cuantas menores de 5 duos? 33-34 Adultos (mayores de 15 afios) 01-98 35-36 Niflos (entre 5 y 15 aflos) 00-98 ' 37 Nifios (menores de 5 afios, 0-8 incluyendo hijos del servicio) EDUCACION Guantos afios de educacion complet6 e1pje£a de esta familia? 38 Escuela primaria 0-5, afios_ 39 Secundaria 0-5, dies 40 Universidad 0-8, ages 41-42' Total de educacidn 00-19, anos 43 Escuela especial (u industrial, 0-8, ahos comercial, agricola,etc.) 44-45‘ Total de educacion (con escuela 00-27, afios especial , ~ 46-47 Cuél es 1a.edad-del jefe de la 01-98, anos familia? ' 48 Tiene trabajo actualmente 61 jefe de la familia? 1. s{- 2. No» 53 E1 jefe de la-familia trabaja 1. Por cuenta‘ ‘ pr0p1a (o acostumbra trabajar)por 2. Empleado cuenta propia o empleado? 3. De ambas- formas. LUGAR DE NACIMIENTO 60 El jefe de familia nacio en el 1. En el campo campo 0 en la ciudad? 2. En la ciudad 3. No sabe' 61- Ha vivido siempre en Cali e1 1. Si 2. No jefe de la familia? 3. No sabe 143 Columna Contenido del Estudio C6digo, 62-63 Guanto hace que el jefe de la familia vive en Cali? 01-96, afios 97, de 1 a 3 meses 98, de 4 a 11 meses 64-65 Cuanto tiempo 11evan viviendo en 01-96, afibs el mismo barrio? 97, de 1 a 3 meses 98, de 4 a 11 meses 66 E1 jefe de la familia es hombre 1. Hombre o mujer? 2. Mujer Cuahtos ahos deeducacion completd e1 ama de-casa? 67 Afios de primaria 0-5, afios 68 Afios de secundaria 0-6, afios 69 Afibs de Universidad 0-8, afios 70-71 Total de afios deeducacion 00-19, afios 72 Afios de escuela especial 00- 8, afios (industrial, comercial, hogar, etc) 73-74 Total de afios de educaci6n 00-27, afios. (con escuela especial) 75-76 Cual es la edad de la ama de casa? 01-98, afios 77 Sin contar a1 jefe de familia, 0-8, personas- cuéntas personas de esta familia CERO, si no estin trabajando actualmente? hay personas trabajando Tarieta 2 9 De los miembros que componen 1. E1 jefe de. esta familia quién es el que‘ familia mas educacion ha recibido? 2. E1 ama de casa 3. Hijo - Hija‘ 4. Sobrino - Sobrina 5. Otro En caso de con- testar 3, 4,-u 0, complete 10 siguiente: Cuéntos afios de educacion complet6 (o esta completando) esta persona? 10 Primaria 0-5, afios 11 Secundaria 0-6, afios 12 Universidad 0-8, a505~ 13-14 Total de educacion 00-19, afios 15 Afios de escuela especial 0-8, afios (industrial, comercial, etc.) 144 ' Columna Contendio del Estudio Codigo 16-17 Total de afios de educaci6n 00-27, afios (con escuela especial) Tarjeta 7 13 Alguna vez ha alimentado a sus 1. Si 2. No ninos con Incaparina, Colombiarina, Cerelac, Pochito? 14 Que hace Ud. cuando aparece un 1. Trata de nuevo producto alimenticio en ensayarlo tan Cali? pronto como puede. 2. Trata ensayar- lo cuando oye buenos comentarios de fuentes en las cuales Ud. conffa. 3. Usualmente no le interesan mucho los nuevos productos alimenticios 4. No sabe 36-40 Se puede saber cual es el ingreso total de esta familia 00001-99999, mensualmente? pesos/mes 41-44 De este dinero, approximadamente cuanto se utiliza en comprar 0001-9998, alimentos? pesos/quincena 45 En los ultimos 30 dias ha ido a comprar en los dias de ventas especiales de tiendas 0 super- mercados 0 de ciertos almacenes como Ley, T a, en que ofrecen desguentos para determinados ’ art culos alimenticios? 1. Si 2. No 46 La ultima vez que hizo su compra 1. A pie, ida y principal de alimentos, qué vuelta transporte utilizo? 2. En bus, ida y vuelta 3. En taxi, ida y vuelta 4. Ida a pie, regreso en taxi 5. Ida en bus, regreso en taxi 145 Columna Contendio del Estudio C6digo 6. En automdvil particular de un pariente o amigo / 7. En vehiculo prOpio 8. Servicio a domicilio 0. Otros Tarieta 8 INFORMACION -10 Cada cuanto leen peri6dicos en esta casa? 1. No leen 2. Diariamente 3. Los fines de semana 4. Los fines de semana y dias feriados 5. De vez en cuando Cuiles peri6dicos acostumbra leer en su casa? 11 Colombiano 1. Si 2. No 12 Crisol 1. Si 2. No 13 Espacio 1. Si 2. No 14 Espectador 1. Si, 2. No 15‘ Occidente 1. Si_ 2. No 16 Pa1s 1. Si 2. No, 17 Siglo 1. Si 2. No 18 Tiempo 1. Si 2. No 19 Otros 1. Si 2. No Pertenencias de la FAMILIA En esta casa tienen. . . .? 1. si 28 Aspiradora 2. No 3. No funciona 29 Bicicleta para transportarse a1 trabajo Como 1a columna 28 30 Carro Como la, columna 28 31 Estufa (electrica 0 de gas) Como 1a columna 28 146 Columna Contendio del Estudio Codigo 32 Estufa de petr61eo Como la columna 28 33 Lavadora Como 1a columna 28 34 Licuadora Como 1a columna 28 35 Maquina de coser Como 1a columna 28 36 Muebles de comedor Como 1a columna 28 37 Muebles de Sala Como 1a columna 28 38 Nevera Como 1a columna 28 39 Plancha Como la I columna 28 40 Radio electrico Como 1a columna 28 41 Radio de pilas Como 1a columna 28 42 Radiola (Tocadisco, equipo Como 1a estereofdnico) columna 28 43 Televisor Como la columna 28 APPENDIX B APPENDIX B LIBRO DE CODIGO PARA EL ESTUDIO TECNICO DE CANASTA DE MERCADO* Estudio Técnico 07-2 Columna Contenido del Estudio Cddigo 1- 2 Ndmero del Estudio Tgcnico 07 3 Nfimero de Sub-Encuesta 2 4- 6 Nfimero de Entrevista 001-692 10 Nivel Socio-Econdmico (Estrato) 0-7 1. Alta 2. Media alta 3. Media 4. Media Obrera 5. Obrera 6. Tugurio 7. Otras 11-15 Que cantidad compra para cada alimento? 00000-99998 16-18 Que’ alimentos compra 101-686 21-25 Cual es el precio unitario 00000-99998 del alimento comprado? centavos por Unidad 26-30 Cuél es el valor total per 00000-99993 cada alimento comprado pesos 34 Quién compra los alimentos? l. Ama de casa 2. Esposo 3. Ama de casa y esposo 4. Servicio 5. Otro *Se incluye solamente e1 contenido del estudio usado en esta tesis. 147 APPEND I X C APPENDIX C THE MARKET BASKET ANALYSIS: KEY TO UNITS OF MEASUREMENT, CALORIES AND PROTEINS IN 100 GRAMS OF FOOD PCalories Proteins Category Measurement* 100 G 100 G Meat Beef Pound 279 17.7 Pork Pound 283 16.0 Fish Pound 100 19.2 Chicken Pound 178 20.2 Viscera Pound 150 21.5 Ham Pound 400 24.0 Lunch meat Pound 210 14.8 Sausages 40 Gram Unit 362 13.3 Animal Products Eggs 50 Gram Unit 82 6.4 Raw milk 995 Gram Bottle 60 3.4 Condensed milk 404.3 Gram Can 138 .7.0 Powdered milk Pound 407 25.2 Pasteurized milk 995 Gram Bottle 50 3.4 Margarine Pound 719 0.6 Butter Pound 732 1.2 Cheese Pound 239 25.0 Grains 1ce Pound 350 8.2 Peas Pound 308 23.9 Kidney beans Pound 262 18.2 Chick-peas Pound 339 19.6 Green beans Pound 29 2.1 Lentils Pound 315 23.5 Corn Pound 326 14.2 Ve etables irracacha Unit -- -- Cebolla: bulb Pound 33 1.4 green 100 Gram Bunch 26 1.2 Corn-on-the-cob 100 Gram Unit 136 4.7 Potatoes Pound 86 2.1 Beets 42 1.4 Pound 148 149 Calories ’Proteins Category Measurement* 100 G 100 G Cabbage 2 Pound Head 20- 1.4 Tomato Pound 17 0 9 Yuca. Unit -- -- Carrots Pound 36 0.7 Fruits Avocado 225 Gram Unit 127 1.6 Bananas 200 Gram Unit 84 1.2 Lemons 100 Gram Unit 26 0.3 Lulos .45 Gram Unit 23, 0.6 Tangerines 50 Gram Unit 38 9.7 Mangos 100 Gram Unit 58 0.5 Blackberries Pound 23 0.6 Oranges 125 Gram Unit 35 0.7 Plantain: ripe Pound 113 1.5 Plantain: green Pound 125 1.3 Papaya 453.6 Gram Unit 30 0.5 Pineapple 907.2 Gram Unit 51 0.4 Tomate de arbol 100 Gram Unit 30 1.4 Grapes Pound 33 0.5 Zapote 100 Gram Unit 100 1.2 * The calculations were made using 4.536 units of 100 Grams in one pound. ux1111111WWu 9