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Newman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D degree in Department Of Administration and Curriculum Major professor Date //’ f’fj MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0712771 PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE . “EEO 41925 (ED «9 ' ‘1 MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution ciwthpMS-pj Copyright by SHARON KERN NEWMAN 1983 CHILDREN'S PROGRAMMING IN COMMERCIAL TELEVISION: THE EFFECT OF THE IMPLICIT CURRICULUM ON PRODUCERS' INTENTIONS By Sharon K. Newman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT CHILDREN'S PROGRAMMING IN COMMERCIAL TELEVISION: THE EFFECT OF THE IMPLICIT CURRICULUM ON PRODUCERS' INTENTIONS By Sharon K. Newman The purpose of this study is to look at commercial children's television through a curriculum frame-of- reference. It is an inquiry into the intentions of children's programmers in the top one hundred markets in America in order to identify the implicit curriculum operating within the television industry. Producers' intentions include their background narratives, attitudes toward education, and their perceptions of factors that influence programming decisions. Media literature is reviewed showing producers as ”gatekeepers of society" whose intentions shape children's programming. Four educational approach visuals anedeveloped from curricular literature as data gathering tools to elicit producers' responses to combining educational curriculum and television production. Each approach represents a major family of curriculum design providing a frame-of—reference for producers to select content, plan strategy, and Sharon K. Newman formulate objectives. A questionnaire/interview schedule, employed during personal interviews, reveals whether or not producers can conceive of combining programming with the following curricular models: 1. Cultural Heritage Approach 2. Personal Experience Approach 3. Skills Development Approach 4. Age-Appropriate Approach The implicit curriculum is.inferred from a content analysis of producers' responses to the visuals from which suggestions are developed for educators interested in children's programming. The following are major conclusions of this study: 1. Television is not an impersonal force creating its own images and ideas. 2. Television content cannot be understood apart from producers' endeavors. 3. Producers' endeavors cannot be understood apart from their intentions and the implicit or hidden curriculum of television that shapes those intentions. 4. The implicit curriculum and television producers' intentions are interactive. 5. Children's producers perceive curricular input in terms of television's implicit curriculum. Their perceptions of the implicit curriculum affect their attitude toward incorporating an educational format into programming design. 6. Sharon K. Newman Producers identify_ten factors of the implicit curriculum affecting programming decisions: \1 U-H-S‘OQH'thO-OU‘QJ Occupational Motivation Economic Technical Structure-—Future Technical.Structure-—Present Personal Needs Need for Training Audience Control Legal Sociopolitical Commitment to Children. Producers point to uSe of educational guidelines in nontraditional television programming, but not present commercial broadcasting. 8. Producers suggest educators and programmers become a networking exchange of information if future change in children's programming is to be effected. . And shall we just carelessly allow children to hear any casual tales which may be devised by casual persons, and to receive to their minds for the most part the very opposite of those which we should wish them to have when they are grown up? Plato The'RépUblic Dedicated to my Producer Laurie Oberman iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While writing this dissertation, I had a powerful influence available to me: people who actively cared and who were always with me on an imaginary balcony in my mind. From this balcony they cheered me on to endure to the finish when I was tempted to quit. A special thanks to my ”balcony peOple" My mother——for her prayers Barbara and John C1ark-—for cheerful encouragement Marlene Rayner-—for unconditional love Debbie Crissman-—for reassuring words of wisdom Lynn McDonald Green——for always being proud of me Kathy Coe-—for elegant inspiration Chris Nicholson-—for gentle support Caroline Nystedt-—for "get away from it all” week-ends in New York Appreciation also goes to my colorful committee Ted Ward——for untiring guidance and patience as chairman and for a vision of the meaning of education. When Ted Ward intersects an endeavor, it is never the same. Geneva Speas-—for compassion in tying up loose ends Don Hamachek and Steve Yelon——for teaching me that the un- polished pearl does not shine . . . and neither does the unpolished dissertation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Background of the Study Statement of the Problem . Purpose of the Study . Need for the Study . . Importance of the Study Limitations of the Study . Research Questions Definition of Terms II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Television as a Curriculum . Producers as Gatekeepers of Society The Production Context . Educational Approach Visuals Cultural Heritage Approach . Personal Experience Approach . Skills Development Approach Age- Appropriate Approach . Summary . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY Quintamensional Plan . Population . . Sample Selection . . Data Gathering Procedures . Questionnaire/Interview Schedule . Summary Page iv vii viii ix Chapter IV. FINDINGS MARKETS l- 25 Questionnaire/Interview Findings Content Analysis Summation of Findings MARKETS 26- 50 . Questionnaire/Interview. Findings Content Analysis . Summation of Findings MARKETS 51- 75 . . Questionnaire/Interview Findings Content Analysis . . . Summation of Findings MARKETS 76- 100 Questionnaire/Interview. Findings Content Analysis Summation of Findings . . Analysis of Market Divisions 1— lOO Summary of Findings . . . . V. CONCLUSIONS Summary of the Research . Presuppositions of the Study Limitations of the Study . Conclusions of Interest to Educators Incidental Observations and Insights Conclusions for Further Research . Final Remarks APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY vi 147 148 157 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Cultural Heritage Approach to Children’s Programming Design . Personal Experience Approach to Children's Programming Design . Skills Development Approach to Children's Programming Design . Age-Appropriate Approach to Children's Programming Design . Quintamensional Plan Interview Schedule: Educational Approach Visuals Interview Schedule: Examples of Programs Based on Educational Approaches vii Page 30 33 37 40 50 52 53 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Questionnaire Data, Attitudes, Educational Approach Choice, and Factors that Influence Production in Markets 1-25 . . . . . . . . 58-59 2. Summary of Questionnaire Date, Attitudes, Educational Approach Choice, and Factors that Influence Production in Markets 26-50 . . . . . . . 74-75 3. Summary of Questionnaire Data, Attitudes, Educational Approach Choice, and Factors that Influence Production in Markets 51-75 . . . . . . . 91-92 4. Summary of Questionnaire Data, Attitudes, Educational Approach Choice, and Factors that Influence Production in Markets 76-100 . . . . . . . 108-109 5. Summary of Findings: Markets l-lOO . . . 125 6. Television Industry Factors Influencing Production According To Children's Programmers . . . . . . . . 129 viii Appendix A. LIST OF APPENDICES Correspondence from the National Association of Broadcasters regarding producer response to "Kids' Stuff—— A Resource Book for Children's Television Programming" The Top 100 Television Markets in America . . . . . . Interview Request Letter Questionnaire/Interview Schedule: Approach Visuals ix Page 148 149—150 151 152 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY This study examines the implicit curriculum operating in commercial television and its relationship to the intentions of producers of children's programming. Oper- ating within the television industry is an implicit or hidden curriculum. Because producers' intentions and the implicit curriculum are interactive, this research probes producers' intentions to help assess major factors of the implicit curriculum. The assessment emerges from media literature which recognizes producers as gatekeepers of society whose values shape children's programming. Four educational approach visuals for designing children's programming emerge from the literature of education. The visuals provide the base of an interview format to elicit producers' responses to the possibility of combining curriculum and production. A content analysis of the interviews indicates ten factors in television's implicit curriculum revealing pro- duction environment and future trends in children‘s programming. Conclusions from the data provide an information framework about the processes behind television production 1 2 for educators who are considering expanding their academic careers into media. Chapter I describes the background, the problem, and the purpose of the study. The need and importance of the assessment are identified. Research questions, limitations, and definition of terms are also included. Chapter II reviews the literature of the study. Chapter III describes the research design, research questions, population, sample selection, data gathering procedure, and questionnaire/interview schedule. Chapter IV presents findings, a content analysis of the findings, and a summation of findings. Chapter V draws conclusions about the implicit curriculum from the intentions of producers with implica- tions for educators who are reconceptualizing careers in terms of television. Background of the Study Television is a dynamic force influencing attitudes and behaviors in American society. It is the major social- izing agent of young children (Cantor, 1980, p. 34). Before the mid-19408, a child's awareness of the world, people, and values was filtered through parents or significant others. In the 19808, children are exposed to the world, people, and values through images on an electronic screen. Children ages two to five watch an average of twenty- nine hours and fourteen minutes per week which, after sleep 3 time is deducted, amounts to approximately 32 percent of their free time or 15,000 hours before high school gradua- tion. If television watching continues at the same rate until age sixty-five, over eleven years of a life is spent before the television set (Nielsen, 1977, p. 10). A staff, under the control of a producer, fills this viewing time. Production is the process of putting images and visions from a producer's mind onto the screen. The producer is in charge of such major creative aspects as scripting, casting, editing, and preparing visual and auditory materials. Consequently, the producer has extensive power over that to which children are exposed. Initial programming ideas are seldom clear-cut with specific objectives; they are, instead, general conceptions based most often on creative intuition. Producers usually have no frame-of-reference, prescribed direction, or guide- lines from which to proceed. There is no basis for selecting appropriate materials, content, or methods. Rather, producers are often left to develop programs by "fumbling through the usual inchoate maelstrom of ideas, images, and feelings in search of theme or substance" (Land, 1971, p. 107). When clearly defined goals are lacking, it is often difficult to evaluate producers' intentions. Currently, there are no solid guidelines to define children's commercial programming. Nor are there formal means of training professionals within the industry who wish 4 to create new children's television (FCC Task Force Report, 1979, p. 1). Furthermore, production and writing methods often remain unrecorded, the exclusive preserve of the creative professionals who ordinarily have no strong reason to describe and analyze what they do and why they do it (Lesser, 1972, p. 111). Of interest in this study is how the implicit curri- culum affects producers' intentions which determines what children ultimately View on the screen. Statement of the Problem Children's programming has been the object of wide- spread criticism from citizen groups, educators, and the press. Following is the concluding statement of a ten year report from the National Institute of Mental Health: Almost all evidence testifies to television's role as a formidable educator whose effects are both pervasive and cumulative. Television can no longer be considered as a casual part of daily life, as an electronic toy. Research findings have long since destroyed the illusion that television is merely innocuous entertainment. While the learning it provides is mainly incidental rather than direct and formal, it is a significant part of the total acculturation process. (Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties, 1982). Television's watch-dog agencies, including the Federal Communications Commission and Action for Children's Tele- vision, tend to accept what appears on the screen as a given. They conduct summative evaluations on content. Although they, as part of the public, are on the receiving 5 end of the philosophies and values of producers whose names appear in the credits, critics do not usually inquire into formative procedures or producers' intentions. Nor do they inquire into producers' backgrounds, educational attitudes, or configurations of the industry which result in an implicit curriculum.that must be accommodated in production. Children's programming cannot be understood apart from these factors because what appears on television is power— fully shaped and constrained by them (Ettema, 1982, p. 69). The Television Information Office asks that where children and television are concerned, the problem be shared by educators (1980, p. 2). Yet, educators who have complaints against the industry have not attempted to make producers aware that academic curriculum.may provide a source of rationales or models to help with program develop- ment and formative evaluations. Marshall Mc Luhan offers a possible explanation: America's educational system, built on the written word, has been considerably affected by television. Perhaps that is the reason why many highly literate people in education find it difficult to examine this situation without getting into a moral panic (Mc Luhan, 1964, p. 85). In school systems, curriculum specialists help shape goals and content in relation to curricular theories and often supervise teachers' program developments. There is no counterpart in the television industry to support and service children's programmers. Courses in curriculum theory required in educator training present curricular 6 models developed from accumulated bodies of research. Such data-based frameworks guide formative development of academic programs. In contrast, there are no frameworks to guide production objectives, content, and strategy in television. Because planning curriculum.is something every producer does who provides a television program farchildren, educational research may offer some structures within which production decisions can be made. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to look at children's television through a curriculum frame-of—reference. It probes producers' intentions in order to identify tele- vision's implicit curriculum. In this study, intentions are determined by producers' background narratives, attitudes toward using curriculum guides as programming tools, and perceptions of industry factors that influence production. A further aspiration is to discover, given the structure of the industry, whether producers perceive four educational approaches synthesizing program and curriculum design as having potential for helping produce and evaluate children's programming. Findings and conclusions are presented so that educators considering diversifying career options into television can be aware of the production framework of producers' intentions and the implicit curriculum. Need for the Study The need for this study is two-fold: first, there is a need to know more about producers' intentions,television's implicit curriculum, and what ultimately appears on the screen. There are few studies of media creators, yet many analyses of television's content. Much has been written about what appears on the screen, but little on how it got there. Few have examined the interlocking connection of the implicit curriculum, producers' intentions, and the social, political, and economic contexts that shape them. Muriel Cantor (1971) notes that researchers concerned with effects of mass communication have repeatedly suggested that research focus on communicators as decision-makers within the structure of the industry. This study provides a frame-of-reference for looking at producers' intentions (decision-making) and television's implicit curriculum (structure of the induStry). Second, there is a need for non-experimental study in television and curriculum. Edward Palmer Vice-President for Research at Children's Television Workshop, emphasizes this View: In practice, it tends to be difficult for researchers trained and experienced in traditional approaches, to adopt an appropriate formative research point of view. In the formative situation, their first responsibility is to improve a specific product or practice, and not to contribute to a general body of knowledge (although the two objectives certainly are not incompatible). 8 Studies must first address the information needs of the product designers and not primarily the individualistic or special theoretical interests of the researchers (1972, p. 185). Arthur Lumsdaine, University of Washington researcher in television programming,concurs: If one looks at most variables that have been mani— pulated on the experimental side of television—— prompting, repetition, color-—the differences, even when somewhat consistent and statistically reliable, tend to be rather small. An increase in programming efficiency (when we have the kind of scores that permit us to speak meaningfully) of as much as 10 or 15 percent is quite a rate. However, when using empirical data to improve programs, it may be possible (e.g., Markle, 1967) to improve the effectiveness of a program by 100 or 200 percent. This use of empirical data as a type of applied research can be a massive factor compared with the results of manipulating most content variables. However, such empirical, non-experimental research is not very popular among researchers. Maybe this is because it does not quite fit the prevailing academic standards for what constitutes a good Ph.D. dissertathna. But in terms of practical realities, I feel (and some of my colleagues agree with me) that more attention should be given to product development research than to fundamental experiments in learning and instruction in television (Lumsdaine, 1972, pp. 93-94). Since Lumsdaine's writing of the above statement, systematic inquiry into those who create television product and content has become a new focal area in academic research. Because little has been done in the past, it is a quickly growing area in education and communications studies. Importance of the Study Given the field of curriculum as a way of looking at television, it is an assumption of this research that the field of children's programming could be made more orderly, 9 precise, and evaluable, if viewed through curricular frame- works. This basic presupposition is tested by asking producers if they can conceive of combining their work with curricular models. The bias of this research is that television and education might be combined resulting in the upgrading of commercial programming. The importance is to discover if children's television producers concur. This study is not testing an hypothesis in the ordinary sense, but is inquiring into whether or not producersthink curricular initiation and development can occur given the working realities within commercial television. By utilizing skills from two different fields, there is potential for improved children's programming with expanded avenues of creativity. Charles 0. Ferris, past chairman of the Federal Communications Commission states the following: We at the Federal Communications Commission are concerned yet hopeful about the present generation of children and lack of services commercial television currently provides them. We must decide whether to simply await the future of programming abundance, to hasten its development, or to affirmatively impose obligations on existing commercial television broad— casters to meet the needs of today's school-age children and others who will reach their formative years over the next decade. We look to educators in particular to provide us with their insights as we undertake this important task (Ferris, 1980, p. 68). Opportunities for uniqueness and diversity in children's programming are increasing. This is due to varied avenues now available in television such as cable, subscription, video cassette, interactive broadcasting, and 10 video disc recording systems. In addition, many new independent broadcasters have entered the field and the Federal Communications Commission has adopted a position of encouraging them rather than legislating the giant networks (FCC Television Task Force Report, 1979, p. 2). At the same time, shifts in the academic world are revealing alternative teacher careers as consultants in media as nationwide economic reductions in education result in expanding television programming as an augmentative input into child development. The National Association of Broadcasters, major industry lobbyist, comprises the three networks and approximately four thousand radio and television stations. At NAB's first Children's Television Programming Conference, June 1980, an idea handbook, "Kids' Stuff," designed with educator input, was made available to producers. Jane Cohen, Vice-President of Television, reports "phenom— enal response" (Appendix A). David Connell, a children's programmer, states the following: When you produce a show, you're exposing yourself to the world . . . We get scared enough at some points to want all the help we can get. We don't have to do anything these people (educators) tell us. We can do precisely what we want to do, but let's hear what they have to say about it (Land, 1971, p. 57). Familiarity with television's implicit curriculum is important to educators who wish to expand career options into television. Those who are cognizant of the limiting and enhancing factors shaping producers' intentions will 11 be more aware of the realities of television production with more probable success. Cognizance of how to negotiate balance between the desirable and the possible is advantageous for the educator who wishes to expand options into media. According to Palmer: As technologically sophisticated forms of instruc- tion come into increasing prominence, it will be necessary to make increased use of production teams whose members possess a diversity of highly specialized talents. In anticipation of this trend, we need to know more about related organizational and interpersonal conditions. These conditions deserve attention in any attempt to establish a working partnership between television research and production groups, and they play a strikingly more prominent role in the formative research context than in the context of more traditional approaches to educational research (p. 182). Daniel Ogilvie, Harvard University, concurs with Palmer. However, he suggests caution and recommends following proper procedures in any pursuit combining television and education. He advises "the need for careful planning, organization in advance, and skillful interaction" (Land, p. 47). This caution bears out Mc Luhan's sentiments, and further hints at the different mind-sets of educators and children's programmers though both have major effects on childhood in America. Limitations of the Study The study is subject to limitations commonly found in descriptive assessment research. One limitation is general- izability. Because producers who volunteer to be 12 interviewed conceivably differ from those who do not,results can be applied to other producers who would grant interview time, but not to the entire population. The sample is limited due to travel costs and related expenses, time constraints of the interview process, and volunteer make-up of the sample. However, because descrip- tive assessment is often used to identify issues for subsequent research, questions need be asked of only a small number of respondents (Payne, 1951, p. 77). It is felt that the sample sets are representative because of commonalities of the production process within the industry structure (Shanks, 1976, pp. 12-18). While this is a rigorously followed pattern of inquiry, the relatively small sets do not allow a quantifiable basiszflmrstatistical analysis. Another limitation is the subjectivity inherent in a one-person inquiry when data gathering, analysis and drawing of conclusions are performed by the same researcher. This introduces an undetectable, systematic bias and occurs in even rigorously standardized single-person research. 13 Research Questions The following research questions are proposed to ascertain the relationship between producers' intentions and children's television production viewed in light of career narratives, attitudes toward educational curriculum, and factors in the television industry that affect production. They Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question are as follows: I: II: III: IV: Does familiarity with or awareness of curriculum concepts affect producers' attitudes about combin- ing educational curriculum with children's programming? Given four educational curriculum approaches as formative guides to programming design, which, if any, is seen as most valid by producers? For what reason? If no choice, why not? What are producers' attitudes toward combining education with television programming? What factors in the present television industry influence producers' attitudes about incor- porating educational approaches into production? Answers to these research questions provide data for a content analysis. Intentions of children's producers are reported in terms of the implicit curriculum of commercial television production. Observations of interest to educators are drawn in the conclusions. 14 Definition of Terms The following terms are defined as they are used in this study: ACT-—Action for Children's Television; a non—profit,national citizens group working to improve quality and public awareness in children's television. Affiliate-—a local television station serviced primarily by network programming. Cable Television-—transmission of signals by coaxial cable or satellite offering multitudinal channels for special— ized and local services; the most threatening future option to conventional broadcasting. Children-—persons two through eleven years of age. Children's Programs—a program intended for viewing by children and for which children comprise over 50percent of the audience. Commercial Television-—non-public broadcasting by networks, station groups, local, or independent stations; charac- terized by competitive advertising and government regulations. Community Access-—channels that give the public, individuals, and groups, access to equipment and help in producing their own television programs. Demographics-—rating data describing audience; breakdown by age, sex, income levels, education, and race. Educational Approach-—a pattern or structure applied to content strategy, and objectives that offers a formula for program development; suggests a focus or rationale for production organization. Executive Producer-the packager, one level removed from working production, involved in administration, fiscal, managerial, and selling responsibilities. FCC——Federal Communications Commission; primary regulatory agency for broadcasting; has no jurisdiction over broad— cast content; exerts residual power to renew or revoke licenses as each station must seek renewal every three years. 15 Implicit Curriculum-—everything intentional or unintentional that has an effect on shaping children; information system in its totality; a total learning system. Independent-—local television station not serviced by network programming; runs locally produced programming, syndicated shows and movies. Informational System-—viewdata, newstext, or teletext systems which allow television stations to transmit up to two hundred pages of textual data (airline schedules, theatre listings, news headlines); viewer can select any page of data and freeze it on his screen. Intentions-—general mind-set of a producer as to how aims, goals, and purposes are regarded in the industry; that which is held in the mind's eye of a producer; inten- tions may either preceed or grow out of action (Eisner, p. 163). Interactive Communications-—two-way cable allowing video and audio communications between two points; enables sub— scribers to respond to incoming messages for polling, at-home shopping, and audience participation; QUBE, Columbus, Ohio, is the first two-way commercial system. Network-—distributes programming to all affiliated stations on the same day, at the same time allowing different stations to broadcast the same program nationwide. Market-—a way to conceptualize and divide up an audience; the broadcast or service area. Public Television——network funded from grants, foundations, contributions and government; provides daily schedule of children's programming. Ratings——percentage of television sets tuned to a program from all possible households in the service area. Satellite-—orbiting space vehicle that receives electronic signals from earth stations, amplifies, and transmits them to other earth stations; network and cable lease satellite time to link stations or cable systems together. Showcase-—prestige show with which a producer wishes to be identified; presenting local talent on cable. 16 Standards and Practices-—department at each network respon- sible for clearing all material to be aired in accordance with industry codes and company's standards of good taste. Syndication-—system where programs are sold separately to stations to be aired in local time according to local needs. Video Disc——video material in disc form that may be played back at will; programs may be purchased, rented, or recorded by video disc owner. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature is organized around the following four areas: 1. Television as a Curriculum 2 Producers as Gatekeepers of Society 3. The Production Context 4 Educational Approaches as Children's Programming Guides. These sections link precedent studies with the research design in Chapter III. Because mass-audience television has only existed since the late 19403, approxi- mately thirty-five years, research boundaries are neatly circumscribed. Television as a Curriculum An examination of television and schools in the literature reveals that each is a curriculum. A curri- culum, according to Elliot Eisner (1979L is a course of study whose purpose is to train and cultivate both mind and character. The literature in education supports the position that schools are curricula. Everything about a school has an intentional or unintentional effect on 17 18 shaping children. All conditions under which learning takes place are referred to as the hidden or implicit curriculum according to Eisner (p. 35). Television, on the other hand, is not usually acknowledged either to have a curriculum.or to be one. Parents and teachers tend to perceive television as an entertainment mediums However if, as in Neil Postman's analysis (1979) of competing learning systems, curriculum is viewed as "an information system.whose purpose in its totality is to influence, teach, train, or cultivate the mind and character of youth," television as well as schools not only have curricula, but are curricula (p. 163). They are both total learning systems. According to Postman, each has a special way of organizing time and space. Each has a characteristic subject matter and style which reflects a unique context within which children have experiences. The implication of Postman's findings is that television is not only a curriculum, but constitutes the major educational enterprise in the United States (p. 163). Producers as Gatekeepers of Society An examination of the literature reveals producers as "gatekeepers of society." Dennis Mc Quail (1969) points out that the study of communicators within their institutions and society has only recently attracted attention in the literature. 19 Work habits of producers first come under scrutiny in D.bL White's pioneering observations (1950). Studies of content selection subsequent to White's research show how a program is conceptualized and carried through various levels of production and dissemination (Cans, 1957; Elliot, 1972). Such "gatekeeper" studies, as they are referred to by their authors, are valuable because they provide the initial inquiries into how the social, political, and organizational contexts of television influence producers thereby influenc- ing what airs on the screen. Grant Noble (1975) in his study, "Producers: Gatekeepers to the Wider Society” asks "Who decides on program content? Whose are those names we see in the credits? What is their conception of a child?" Noble's findings suggest three factors that influence producers. They follow: 1. Producers' conceptions of the needs, interests and capabilities of their target audience 2. Producers' personal values 3. Conformist pressures exerted by the industry on producers. Noble's conclusion is that producers tend to make programs which will be applauded by their workmates and which conform to the ethos of the television industry into which they are socialized. He further suggests that this does not always work in the best interest of the child viewer. 20 These "gatekeeper" studies reveal how television's organizational structures influence the intentions of producers. Such studies of the decision-making influences in programming contexts provide evidence of the complex relationships that exist between producers' intentions, the industry as an implicit curriculum, and what appears on the screen. The White study (1950) cited earlier is reanalyzed by P. M. Hirsch (1977). Hirsch comes to the same conclusion as White that past research has traced media messages to individual producers. He indicates that further research may go beyond original findings and show media messages to be products of production influences and contexts. The Production Context In a review of later studies, there is evidence to support the position that producer intentions are shaped by the structure and culture of television's production context. Muriel Cantor (1980) concludes that what appears on the screen is influenced by legal, political, organiza- tional, and occupational milieus of production. She further reports that few have examined the interlocking connection between television's implicit curriculum as shaped by such influences,and producers' intentions. Herbert Gans (1974) further clarifies this position stating that all creators of art, whether high art or 21 popular art as in television production, have similar difficulties in their relationships with larger social structures. He contends that the image of creators of popular art who suppress their own values to cater to an audience is false. However, the results of Cantor's findings (1980) lead to different conclusions. According to Cantor, the creators of popular television understand that what they create depends on the organizational norms and culture, and that production is primarily controlled by others outside the production process. The most succinct example comes from those who produce animated cartoons for children. They can and do produce all kinds of content from violent shows to high-level artistic and educational offerings (Cantor, 1972, 1974). According to Cantor, most producers are "in tune" with what is expected. Their values are the same as the authority system. They want to create shows which will sell to large audiences. Only a minority, states Cantor, sees television producing as a continuous conflicting struggle for control with values clearly different from those for whom they work. Most people who want to stay in television knuckle under to pressure. They do not create for an audience of home viewers, but for those who control, own, or manage production processes. If home viewers were the programming target, the product might conceivably be different. The real audience is network officials, executive producers, or production company heads who have 22 approval rights. Cantor concludes that producers are primarily creating for the industry and only secondarily for the wider audience which is too large and amorphous to consider seriously. Joan Ganz Cooney, public affairs producer for WNET, has conducted a feasibility study for a child's version of Laughqkrwhich was to become the model for Sesame Street. Cooney (1979) reports that many considerations other than purely programmatic may affect content, depending on whose interests are thoughttx>be affected or whose destinies are tied into what occurs on the screen. Because of her find- ings, Cooney insists that programming elements of Sesame Street be arranged to insulate program production from social, economic, or internal management pressures. The view of industry constraints as a powerful and often destructive limitation imposed by television on the professional automony or creative freedom of producers is the dominant view in the literature. However, it is not the only View. Horace Newcomb and Robert Alley (1982) state that the demands of television production routines and the compro- mises in organizational politics do not so much discourage as increase producers' creative activities. They see opportunity for producer creativity and control within the bounds of complex media organizations. Their studies focus on how producers use these opportunities: 23 Television is a producer's medium. Not only within the industry, but in analytical and descriptive litera- ture about it, the producers' control is cited as a dominant factor in a highly collaborative enterprise. Most discussions of the producers' role focus, not on freedom and creativity, but on the nature of the 'systems' which restrain and prevent individuals from reaching potential goals. Constraints on program design are pieces of a puzzle which the producer as creator is called upon to solve (p. 69). Newcomb and Alley conclude that there is strength in television's constraints. Producers' individual styles, intentions, and visions can be effective within these patterns of constraint. They further suggest thatcmeativity is never a process of total freedom and producers choose the constraints of television as boundaries within which to program special forms and meanings. James Ettema (1982) offers an even more radical inter- pretation of the relationship between producer and industry organization. In his case study of a television producer, he indicates that demands of production routines and necessary compromises in organizational politics do not so much diminish as energize producers' creativity: I happen to believe that setting limits increases creativity. I think if you take a creative person and give him nothing to fight against, nothing to bump up against, he can't flex his muscles. He's flabby. I think restrictions are very good for creativity (p. 104). Emerging from the studies of Newcomb, Alley, and Ettema is the position that those who choose television can experience the medium as open as any other to creative manipulation of the production context. 24 A review of the literature indicates that the task of commercial television producers is to generate programming that can hold an audience for advertisers on an ongoing basis. A study by Robert Pekurny (1982) suggests that use of formulas helps producers cope with the problem of generating new material. What has worked in the past may work again. Formulas provide themes which a producer can play out in slight but endless variations. They can routinize the task of producing content. While producers must create flesh to cover the bones of any formula, there is always the possibility that a particular embodiment of a formula will transcend that formula and become a success (pp. 142-143). Television researcher R. L. Brown (1968) concurs: The usual answer to the problem of chronic shortage of new material has been to reuse the same basic artistic elements again and again, refurbishing and recombining them so as to lend the newer versions the required appearance of novelty . . . The creative task now becomes that of fitting these elements together into a satisfactory gestalt (p. 617). Pekurny and Brown's observation on the use of formulas raises a question of primary importance which anticipates the research design in Chapter III: Can educational curri- culum.offer conceptual frameworks as bases for programming? Their suggestion for using formulas is incorporated into visual guides for children's programs in the following section. This design extends Eisner's conception of implicit curriculum to include the larger interactions of the television industry which are defined by Postman as implicit curriculum. 25 Education Approach Visuals Visual displays of four educational approaches are presented as formative guides for designing children's programming. They are based on the presupposition that curriculum has discernable patterns, structures, and organizations providing frameworks or formulas for consid— ering, in orderly fashion, what can be known. They help perception become selective by cognitively guiding intuition. Each visual in this study has a primary curricular focus to establish boundaries for decisions evolving from the literature of learning and instruction, and child development. They are based on four families of curriculum models developed by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil (1972). They follow: 1. Cognitive disciplines 2. Personal Sources 3. Behavior Modification 4. Human Development. The visuals serve in this study as probes into inten- tions of producers. They are presented in outline form making the essence of their theoretical underpinnings available to producers as a type of formula suggested by Pekurny and Brown. No position is taken that one approach is better than another. Visuals ck) not prescribe content; rather they stand apart from the subject matter. They are a grid through which decisions are made and programming is 26 carried out. Producers make content selections against a backdrop of the visuals. Being formative, they provide the next link to children's programming development. Presently, most program input is summative with evaluations after broadcast. While other curricular models are clearly possible, these four exemplifications are selected becauSe of different orientations of disseminating the world to children, adaption to television programming, and integra- tion of curriculum and production cues for producers. They acquaint producers with academic tools for planning and evaluating both desired and undesired programming effects on a target audience. Each approach has the following components: focus, content, strategy, and objectives. Producer Focus Each approach suggests a producer focus or reference source to guide production decisions. Although each approach is a priority setting design, control resides with producers. This is not developing goals via educators nor imposing choices on producers. Producers retain freedom to decide how workable approaches are in the production con- text . Ernest Hilgard (1964) suggests that curriculum be used as a perceptual screen through which formative ideas can be interpreted. 27 Curriculum is quite likely to be useful even if it is not directly determinative of practice. It is likely to produce some economy in experimentation by suggesting directions in which answers can be sought, thus saving a wasteful empirical search. In the end, a practice must work but if we guide our search for workable practices by theoretical foci, we may save a great deal of time and effort along the way (p. 404). According to Ronald Hyman (1973) a particular focus in any planning process is necessary to give coherence and rationality to the decision-making process. Louise Berman (1968) further suggests that a designer must establish a point of emphasis or priority. "Without such emphasis, curriculum becomes bland and does not provide the means of dealing with problems of conflicting interests" (p. 2). Robert Zais (1976) concurs that a theoretical frame- work, judiciously conceived and utilized, is essential for the rational, orderly, and productive conduct of a planning enterprise (p. 75). Content, Strategy, Objectives Each approach has a grid or frame of reference for selecting content, planning strategy, and formulating objectives. Each approach is visually designed so producers can readily see interrelationships between content, strategy, and objectives. Content refers to what subject matter is presented. Strategy refers to how it is presented. Objectives refers to intended outcomes of the segment, show or production. 28 Four approach visuals are presented, each representing a major family of curriculum design based on the four groupings of Joyce and Weil (1972) and Hess (1977). Each visual provides a framework to help guide programming. The visuals are designed for this study to help assess intentions of producers which in turn reflect facets of the implicit curriculum of television. The implicit curriculum is inferred from a content analysis of responses to the four approach Visuals which are as follows: Cultural Heritage Approach Personal Experience Approach LONH Skills Development Approach 4. Age-Appropriate Approach A major aspect from each approach is adapted for children's programming and incorporated in the visual. Exposure to the best of culture and what is of most worth is adapted from the Cultural Heritage Approach. A child's affective needs and interests, and learner-centered mean- ings are adapted from the Personal Experience Approach. Behavioral, skill-oriented, measurable outcomes are adapted from.the Skills Development Approach. Children's developmental thinking patterns are adapted from the Age-Appropriate Approach. Each visual is preceeded by a descriptive framework of its curriculum base and is followed by implications of applying the curriculum base to children's programming. 29 Cultural'Heritage‘Approach The Cultural Heritage Approach, visualized in Figure l, is a curriculum design based on preserving and passing on a collective culture, truths from the past, knowledge from classical writings, significant traditions, accumulated moral and political wisdom, and literature of great books (Robert Hutchins, 1956, p. 143). Goals of the Cultural Heritage Approach are as follows: 1. To preserve and transmit historic and current heritage 2. To impart aspects of the cumulative knowledge of mankind 3. To stand for something other than what vocal minorities or majorities momentarily demand 4. To connect with roots from the past 5. To promote a wiser and deeper understanding of man, his world, and his destiny (Hutchins, 1945, p. 5). Classical educators, according to Arno Bellack (1962), express substantial agreement on which disciplines are of most importance. They include humanities, art, literature, the study of man, history, philosophy, natural sciences, and mathematics (pp. 42-52). Arthur King and John Brownell (1973) concur that the classical educational aim is to present knowledge, attitudes, values, and techniques that transcend social groups, national boundaries, limited views of time, and local idiosyncracies (pp. 88-100). CUL TURAL HERITAGE APPROACH To Children ’3 Programming Design PRODUCER FOCUS: Expand a child ’s academic and classical knowledge by focusmg on content subject matter STRA TE GIES 1. Present content that will broaden the basic knowledge of audience 2. Present values and cultural experiences that have been tested and verified by society 3. Present universal wisdom and traditions OBJECTIVES AIM TO PRODUCE PROGRAMS THA T: l. Transmit cultural heritage 2. Present classic or historical knowledge 3. Encourage appreciation for art forms 4. Generate respect for tradition Form e emell edvleory commltee o! ouelllled concerned people llke teachers, chlldren'e euthore. peychologtete. parents and ACT' membere. ‘Action for Children 's Telewsion CONTENT LOOK A T IDEAS ABOUT: Cultural heritages, music. art.literature. science, history, holidays. etiquette. fairytales, customs, folklore. the classics, discoveries and achievements of great thinkers V A 0 ii ll Educational Learning Guides for Producers 0! Children’s Television FIGURE 1: Cultural Heritage Approach Visual 30 31 The basic ideal of what constitutes good in society comes from tradition according to cultural heritage proponents; therefore, this approach to heritage trans- mission uses the past to clarify what is important in the present (Report of the Harvard Committee, 1945, pp. 45-51). Implications of Cultural Heritage Approach for Producers Out of the Cultural Heritage curriculum base, the following is extrapolated for children's programmers: If a producer chooses the Cultural Heritage Approach to serve as a grid for producing, he functions as preserver and transmitter of traditional knowledge and common cultural background while being guided by a sense of heritage and his intuitive artistry. Through this approach, producers can offer historic or current truths, appreciations, and knowledge. If a producer chooses the Cultural Heritage Approach, he must focus his thinking on the following: 1. Cultural traditions 2. That which is universally considered good, true, and beautiful 3. What knowledge is worth knowing 4. An appreciation of mankind's heritage. If the Cultural Heritage Approach is applied to television production, the producer's goal is to make available to children, the intellectual traditions, 32 aesthetic heritage, and resources of their own culture and the culture of others in such a way that past heritage becomes a guide for intelligent action in the present. The programming challenge is to focus on bringing to the target audience an awareness of their own place in cultural heritage tradition and a sense of appreciation for that tradition. Personal Experience Approach The Personal Experience Approach, visualized in Figure 2, is a curriculum design based on needs and interests of the child. The emphasis is on everyday experiences and personal meanings. This approach is developed from the learner centered literature of curriculum development. William H. Kilpatrick (1934) early progessive leader and educator, states the following: Experience in which we interact meaningfully with situations is the essence of human life. Being what we are, a situation stirs us chiefly by the meanings it arouses (p. 347). The focus of this approach is on child meanings, understandings, and growth experiences. The chief tenet is preservation of the "whole child." His creativity and spontaneity are emphasized,moving him through the phenomena of his world toward development as a unique personality. PERSONAL EXPERIENCE APPROA CH To Children’s Programming Design PRODUCER FOCUS: Create a TV emphasis on children ’3 life experiences and social activities S TRA TEGIES 1. Use children on the show 2. include audience feed-back via mail 3. Provide variety within a constant positive framework of characters 4. Include an environment that translates the real world to a child’s world of imagination and learning OBJE C Tl VE S AIM TO PRODUCE PROGRAMS THA T: 1. Touch on values, attitudes, and feelings 2. Explore creativity, experiences and problems 3. Enhance self-concept and social skills 4. Provide awareness of child’s personal environment Form e ernell edvleory committee of quelmed concerned people ”he leechere, children's euthore, peychologlete. perente and ACT ' members. ‘Action for Children's Television CONTENT LOOK FOR IDEAS ABOUT: Similarities and differeces of the physical, emotional, spiritual, and intellectual aspects of children Children '3 high interests, experiences. and concerns Common social situations of children Cultural and ethnic characteristics A 0 i ll Educational Learning Guides for Producers Of Children’s Television FIGURE 2: Personal Experience Approach Visual 33 34 The following is curriculum analyst Hilda Taba's (1962) interpretation of a Personal Experience Approach rationale: People learn only what they experience. Only that learning which is related to active purposes and is rooted in experience translates itself into behavior changes. Children learn best those things that are attached to solving actual problems, that help them in meeting real needs or that connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active transaction . . . To pursue active learning, the learner needs to engage in activities which are vital to him, in which he can pursue goals and satisfy personal needs. Learning occurs during the process of overcoming obstacles, in reaching solutions or goals. Only by pursuing personal problems is it possible to activate motivation and effort to experience purposeful activity (p. 401). Needs and interests of children act as selectors of what to study. Skills and knowledge are acquired by- products. Subject matter from many fields is utilized according to task requirements. Implications of Personal Experience Approach for Producers Out of the Personal Experience curriculum base, the following is extrapolated for children's programmers: If a producer chooses the Personal Experience Approach as a reference point for program design, his goal would be to provide programs through which a target audience can develop aspects of personhood and be motivated to actualize potential. Programming possibilities stemfnxmlpersistent situations that recur through a child's life. Lois Coffey Mossman (1940) provides the following programming 35 possibilities: sharing interesting things to read, caring for pets, exploring history for stories and challenges, raising garden products, dramatizing situations, composing music and dances (p. 61). A further emphasis is on helping an audience decide who they are and what they want to be. A meaningful tele- vision experience (external) can assist children toward finding out what is already in themselves (internal) that can be refined or further developed including the following: realizing individual capabilities, understanding social situations, learning how to deal with the environment, and becoming aware of human uniquenesses and similarities. Additional areas of emphases include learning to think critically, developing positive self-concepts, empathizing in relationships, and developing creativity. Skills Development Approach The Skills Development Approach, visualized in Figure 3, is based on Stimulus-Response (S—R) learning theories by which human behavior is shaped into certain patterns by external forces. According to B. F. Skinner (1957), S-R formulations can make substantial contributions to learning. A stimulus is any condition, event, or change in the environment which produces a change in behavior. The S—R approach focuses on observable, verifiable processes in the external world where objective measurement is emphasized as 36 opposed to a child's subjective experience. Skills develop- ment is a conditioning process by which a child acquires new responses and behavior as a result of environmental stimuli. The emphasis on environment makes the S-R approach well-suited to studying conditions under which learning occurs. The learner is either reinforced by natural environmental processes or by someone who manipulates the environment. S-R's major constructs are reinforcement (strengthen— ing the knowledge that one has behaved correctly or adequately), stimulus control (bringing behavior under control of subject matter stimulus), and transfer. Transfer occurs when identical elements are emphasized in different situations. According to this theory, anyone can develop a skill of which he is capable if he will allow himself to be put through the pattern of activity necessary for conditioning to take place. The Skills Development Approach offers guidelines for learning and skills development through modification of the learner's relationship to the external environment. SKILLS DEVELOPMENT APPROACH ' To Children ’3 Programming Design PRODUCER FOCUS: Presentation of content designed to enable viewer to practice a particular thinking or motor skill or acqurre new information through repetion STRA TE GIES 1. Provide new information through repetition using familiar characters, episodes, or formats 2. State behavioral objectives as to what a viewer will be able to do if he masters a particular skill Ex: As a result of this segment, a child will be able to distinguish kitchen utensils from garage tools 3. Evaluate through direct feedback Ex: studio audience, mall, test samples for the classroom Educational Content (Ex: Art) Means 0! Measuring The Behavior (Ex: The studio audience is asked to identify the colors) 9 V CONTENT LOOK FOR IDEAS: Within situations familiar to children in which various skills can be displayed OBJE C TI VE S AIM TO PRODUCE PROGRAMS THA T: l. Enhance and reinforce basic thinking and/or motor skills 2. Allow viewer to demonstrate new knowledge or skill Goal (Ex: Color) Objective (Ex: The child will correctly identify the primary colors 80 per cent of the time after viewing this segment) Form s smell advisory commltee of qualified concerned people like teechers, children's outliers, psycologlsts. perents, ACT' members. 'Action for children ’3 Television A0 W Educational Learning Guides for Producers 0! Children's Television FIGURE 3: Skills Development Approach Visual 37 38 Implications of Skills Development Approach for Producers Out of the Skills Development curriculum base, the following is extrapolated for children's programmers: If a producer chooses the Skills Development Approach to serve as a grid for producing, he focuses on developing skills using television as the stimulus-creator. His task is to define the following: 1. Behavioral objectives and corresponding programming strategies 2. Estimates of target audience competencies 3. Suggestions of situations familiar to children in which various skills can be displayed. According to Gerald Lesser, curriculum consultant to Sesame Street (1974), skills most basic for television development are as follows: 1. Symbolic Representation: letters, numbers, geometric forms 2. Cogpitive Processes: perceptual discrimination, relational concepts, classification, ordering 3. Reasoning and Problem-Solving: problem sensiti- vity, inference and causality, generalizing and evaluating, explanations and solutions 4. The Child and His World: self, man-made environ- ment, natural environment. Lesser reports there are important effects upon a child's self-concept when the child acquires a displayable skill, exhibits it in the presence of a significant other, and receives attention and admiration. The child sees he 39 is capable of learning something worth knowing, acquiring a sense of competence that motivates further learning. Someone taking visible pleasure in a younger person's accomplishments makes the child feel good about himself and what he is capable of learning (p. 121). Age-Appropriate Approach The Age-Appropriate Approach, visualized in Figure 4, is a curriculum design based on a cognitive developmental theory of knowing how children process information. Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget (1923) describes stages or levels of thinking to explain how children come to know their physical and social worlds. According to Piaget, children undergo qualitative changes in the way they organize and use information. There are cognitive levels which characterize children'sthoughtpmocesses at distinct, age-related stages of intellectual development. The progression is universal and children proceed through similar processes of accommo- dating and assimilating new events into each level. Piaget's four major development stages of cognitive abilities follow: 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age two) Preoperational stage (ages two to seven) Concrete operational stage (ages seven to twelve) 4-‘00 Formal operational stage (ages twelve plus). A GE -A PPR OPRIA TE APPR OA CH To Children’s Programming Design PRODUCER FOCUS: Se ments eared to thes ecific develo mental Ievgl of thegiargetaudienc’e ’ p srnA TEGIES 1. Focus in on an age level and stay with children 's thinking patterns for that level 2. Ask what is developmentally sound and unsound for that target level 3. Guard against a script that makes. sense only to the adults who wrote it 4. Refer to books on child development to learn what kinds of thinking tasks can and cannot be performed at the target level CONTENT LOOK FOR IDEAS ABOUT: Any topic appropriately developed for the chosen age division and level of thinking Example Segment: COLOR Levels 07 years: Label primary and secondary colors; combine to form new colors 7—11 years: Combine shades, hues and intensities; mediums: oil, watercolor, tempra 11-16 years: The Masters' use of color OBJECTI VES AIM TO PRODUCE PROGRAMS: Where visual representations on television . correspond to mental perceptions of that age group Where the segment is appropriate to the A 0 information processing ability of the target audience § W Form a smell advisory commltee of qualified concerned people like Educational Learning teachers, children’s authors, psychologists, parents and ACT' members. Guides for Producers ‘Action for Children '5 Television Oi Children’s TQIQyision FIGURE 4: Age-Appropriate Approach Visual 40 41 1. The sensorimotor stage (birth to age two) is characterized by behavioral patterns of thought. There is no symbolic representation of objects. A child reacts to objects and people immediately present. 2. The preoperational stage (ages two to seven) is characterized by the beginning of cognitive reasoning ability, symbolic ability, and mental imagery. The child recognizes the difference between an object and a picture of the same object. Children tend to be egocentric in this stage, seeing the world from their own perspective. 3. The concrete operational stage (ages seven to twelve) is characterized by the child's acquisition of the ability to separate perception from other forms of thought. Although he can separate appearances from reality, the child is still limited in applying cognitive abilities to images of concrete objects or events. 4. The formal operations stage (ages twelve plus) is characterized as the beginning of adult-likethought patterns in that the child develops abstract thought, hypothetical reasoning, and propositional thinking. Piagetian stages of development point out children's transitions to higher levels of thinking, learning and behavior. As they grow older, there is increasingly less reliance on apparent perceptual characteristics of objects and events. Two major dimensions of this process operate in tandem: Children become less tied to the immediate surface characteristics of objects and events, and they 42 become better able to co-ordinate multiple dimensions of phenomena, visual content, and functional distinctions among multiple messages. Implications of Age-Appropriate Approach for Producers Out of the Age-Appropriate curriculum base, the following is extrapolated for children's programmers: If a producer chooses the Age-Appropriate Approach to serve as a grid for programming, he focuses on the develop— mental stage of growth of the target audience. A producer then "narrowcasts" to that age level by programming that which is assimilable to children in accordance with their mental structure. Age serves as the indicator of the child's level of cognitive development and degree of experience with the social world. Both are indicative of ability to judge television reality. Age levels also identify where differences in abilities will occur. Consequently, producers need a basic understanding of target audience age functionings. A key aspect of Piaget's research for television is that a child's intelligence is qualitatively different from an adult's intelligence. The child does not see nor under— stand things as does an adult. Therefore, a major implication is that scripts written for Age—Appropriate 43 programming need to be based on assessed understandings of target audience development; not from an adult script- writer's perspective. Evidence shows that comprehensibility of television's message is important in keeping audience attention. When programming is relatively unintelligible for a target age level, continued attention is unlikely and could affect ratings. Television serves multiple functions throughout childhood. Different uses and meanings come to the fore at different stages of development. Because the main program- ming variable is age, producers need to be aware of what is appropriate for developmentally sound production. A study by Social Research (1960) reports the following: Sensorimotor (Birth to age two) Television is a fun box that never appears to run out of different things to offer. Movement, words, and content place television between the animate and inanimate. People, animals, and cartoons appear, but the child cannot touch them or make them respond to him. His main interest is the stimulation and fantasy offered by various elements. When pictures or sounds are discernable and provide programming at a level of understanding, the child responds as if someone were there attending to his needs. 44 Preoperational (Ages Two to Seven) Children watch television with family or friends. They also often watch alone. Certain characters and personalities become "special friends," much as make- believe playmates. By six or seven years of age, suCh private attachments begin to fade. By the time children are going to school, television has become one of many activities available to them. Television often serves as an inbetween activity breaking up school, play, and family time. In doing so it becomes a very important input to preoperational stage development. Children recite or mimic acceptable and/or unacceptable jingles and slogans. They respond to the medium as an authoritative source of what is real and current in our culture. Concrete operational (Ages Seven to Twelve) Television teaches about the outside world, as distinct from self and family. Television reflects what is highly valued in society. The concrete operational audience absorbs whatever current values are embodied in entertainment. Television shows various forms of family life and informs as to which behaviors and slang expressions n are in.” Children use television as an escape to comfort themselves from hurt, either self-inflicted or otherwise. 45 Children are often innovators who guide and influence family behavior, and television is the innovator that guides and influences children. Children in concrete operations have a wide variety of favorite programs that have strongly ritualized aspects. Children enjoy, relax, daydream, and hold out television watching as a reward for themselves. Parents reinforce this by limiting and circumscribing viewing. This target audience needs ways to relate to peers. Television's content, stars, and stories single out similar- ities and differences and set standards for social relations. Television is talked about and is a way of socialLyrelating to others. While actual viewing cuts down on overt contacts and interactions with others, passive viewing is often sufficient for relationships. Formal operational (Ages Twelve Plus) The status of television as an authoritative source of adult reality becomes more important in formal operations. It is the easiest method of keeping informed on what is current. This stage places great value on currency and on knowing and being informed as a means of fitting into a peer group. Certain groups have favorite stars, shows, commercials, as well as clearly defined dislikes. Informa- tion derived from television and the way it is handled can be an important influence on a teenager's status within a group. 46 Summary In summarizing the literature reviewed on television production and curriculum, the following statements can be made: 1. Schools and television are both curricula, with television constituting the major educational enterprise in the United States. 2. Television producers as "gatekeepers of society" hold positions of power because they determine what appears on the screen. 3. Early research traces media messages to individual producers. 4. Later research traces producers' intentions to the production context or implicit curriculum of television. 5. Research evidence shows conflicting points of view regarding production context and producer intentions. They follows: a. Producer. creativity and intentions are stifled as they must program for their superiors within the context of industry pressure. b. Producer creativity and intentions are the dominant factors in spite of industry pressure. c. Producer creativity and intentions are energized and increased by industry pressure. 6. The task of producers is to generate programming that will hold an ongoing audience for advertisers. 47 7. Formulas help producers cope with pressure of having to continually generate new material. 8. Educational curriculum may have formulas that can be used for designing children's programming. In order to report producers' intentions and under what industry conditions programming takes place (the implicit curriculum), four visual approaches, based on curricular designs, are used as interview probes. A major aspect of each approach most adaptable to programming follows: a. Cultural Heritage Approach: transmission of the best of tradition and knowledge of most worth b. Personal Experience Approach: children's needs and interests c. Skills Development Approach: stimulus-response outcomes and measurements d. Age—Appropriate Approach: developmental thinking patterns. Chapter III presents the design of the study building upon knowledge cited by researchers in Chapter II. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Chapter III describes the research design, research questions, population, sample selection, data gathering procedures, and questionnaire/interview schedule. Research Design Twenty children's television producers are inter- viewed to determine their intentions and the industry context or implicit curriculum in which production decisions are formulated. Four visuals based on educational curriculum orientations are used in the interviews. A questionnaire/interview schedule based on George Gallup's Quintamensional Plan provides a means of reporting producers' perceptions (Gallup, 1947, pp. 112-113). Gallup's plan breaks down a subject's response into five factors. They follow: 1. Awareness or familiarity with the issues Specific perceptions Reasoning behind specific perceptions Expression of attitudes U14>LJON Reasoning behind attitudes. 48 49 To proceed from Gallup's essential features of a response to the research questions includes linking an operational definition of Gallup's points with the questionnaire/interview technique by which answers are ascertained. Figure 5 shows how the Quintamensional Plan is applied in this study. 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