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IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ROLES
OF A SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER
TRAINING AND SUPERVISING A PARAPROFESSIONAL

By

Joan Marie Jensen Goodship

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

34.511797

Copyrisht by
JOAN MARIE GOODSHIP

1985

ABSTRACT

IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ROLES
OF A SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER
TRAINING AND SUPERVISING A PARAPROFESSIONAL

By

Joan Marie Jensen Goodship

Special education teachers in the severely multiply impaired
classrooms have the responsibility for the instructional program and
coordinating the activities of paraprofessionals and supportive
personnel (Michigan State Board of Education, 1983). Despite the
mandated responsibility the identification and description of the roles
of the special education teacher as related to training and supervising
paraprofessionals has received very limited attention by educational
researchers. This ethnographic study identified and described the roles
of the special education teacher in the performance of the added duties
of training and supervising a paraprofessional.

A case study was selected to develop an in-depth understanding
of the role functions a teacher assumed. when paraprofessionals are
employed. One special education teacher and one paraprofessional,
within a severely multiply impaired classroom, were studied over a
period of seven school months. Data collection during this period of
time included (a) daily observations, (b) structured and non-structured
interviewing 1with the participants and (c) review of internal and
external documents. The process of analysis followed a cyclical pattern
whereby the researcher used feedback from each observation and interview
to modify earlier information. The data collection cycle was repeated
until consistent patterns in the role functions were identified.

81: research questions guided the study focusing on the
conceptual issues of training and supervising a paraprofessional by a
teacher. The research questions included (a) the special education
teacher's and paraprofessional's definition of training and supervising,
and (b) practices evident in providing training and supervising for a
paraprofessional.

Findings of the study indicated that the professional
deve10ped a management process, similar to that of Blanchard and
Johnson's The One Minute Manager, which guided him in training and
supervising a paraprofessional. The elements of training practiced by
the teacher included (a) modeling, (b) feedback and coaching. (c)
written instructions, (d) role-playing, and (e) charting with comments.
The elements of supervision practiced by the teacher included (a) a team

 

Joan Marie Jensen Goodship

approach, (b) joint and individual conferences, (c) feedback, praise,
and redirection, (d) serving as a mentor to his staff, and (e)
evaluation.

Based on effective management practices evident in this study,
it appears feasible to implement a training program for teachers, at
both the preservice and inservice levels, to develop the competencies
for training and supervising paraprofessionals.

DEDICATION

Bill, My Husband
Mr. 8 Mrs. Howard 0. Jensen, My Parents
and My Children:
Paul Michael, Marie, Jane, Carol,
Kirk 0., Helen Tower and Guy Goodship

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This dissertation is the product of collaborative teamwork.
Dr. Banks Bradley first encouraged me in this endeavor when I was
teaching at the high school and supervising a student teacher under his
direction. My life had been suddenly interrupted and I was
contemplating returning to the university. His directions,
encouragement, and faith in me has helped make this dissertation a
reality. Banks favorite phrase, "Hang in there," followed with me
through completion. He not only was my Committee Chairperson, but
mentor and coach. Dr. Robert Hatfield's conceptualization of the whole
study and organization assisted me towards the final product. Without
Bob's help this would have taken much longer. Dr. Susan Melnick's "down
to earth” and specific suggestions started me in the right direction.
Dr. C. Mange realized the importance of an ethnographic study in the
special education classroom training and supervising paraprofessionals.
Dr. C. Henley, who is now retired, encouraged and gave support to an
ethnographic study regarding paraprofessionals. These team members have
been a part of my life for several years and deserve a special, "Thanks
for everything!”

The teacher and paraprofessional in the study deserve special
recognition, but due to the anonymity of the study cannot be
specifically named. However, their cooperation, interest in the study,
and enthusiasm assisted me toward the final product. I will forever be

grateful to them. The other staff in this school and administrators

iii

also deserve acknowledgement. Without the permission of the two Bill's
this would not have been possible. Ton another educator in this
district, Marge, goes special recognition for her commitment and
dedication to the students, parents and staff in this school district.

To the students in this classroom and school, an extra special
”Thanks!" They taught me other things including the importance of touch
and caring. I learned from them the importance of the ”little things”
in life that really count. They touched my life and it has made a
difference.

However, a dissertation is not only the product of a study and
colleagues. One's predispositions are the result of a lifetime. In
that vein, I owe special thanks to my Mom and Dad, Hermaine and Howard
Jensen. My only regret is that my Dad passed away April 16th, and will
not be able to read the completed dissertation. My Mother, being a
retired school teacher, shaped my early notions of excellence. My Dad
instilled in me that ”nothing was impossible.” It all depended upon
one's desire to succeed, accompanied by "hard work,” and confidence in
one's self. My parents' expectations have been a mainstay of my life.
Their expectations are summed up by Epicurus:

The greater the difficulty the more glory in
surmounting it. Skillful pilots gain their
reputation from storms and tempests.

For my sister, Janis, and my two brothers, Howard and Gordon,
a special thanks for being a part of our family and my life. The love

for my children has been the impetus to complete this study. May this

iv

dissertation stand as a reminder to them that it's never too late to
start anew! With God as a companion all things are possible. May they
continue to be lifelong learners in their own field of endeavors.
Thanks to Janie and Helen for their time put in reading pages and
"putting up” with the typewriter constantly for several years. Carol
and Kirk's good sense of humor encouraged me on to the finish. Now may
the typewriter rest . . . at least for a few days!

This dissertation would not have been possible without the
typing and revisions performed by Sandy Beagle. Her understanding and
c00peration will long be remembered. "Thanks, Sandy!"

Finally, to my husband, Bill, I can never repay his support,
time, cooperation and understanding. When I felt like putting it all
aside for awhile, he encouraged me on. His readings and comments
assisted me in keeping the reader in focus. He not only is my husband,
but my best friend . .. . and "Chef” for several years. Thanks, Bill,
for being there and putting aside our other pursuits until this was

accomplished.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CMHER I The Pr0blem O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedures and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER II The Review of Literature . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teacher Roles and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
General role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special education teacher roles . . . . . . . .
Summary of teacher roles and functions . . . . .
Paraprofessional Roles and Functions . . . . . . . .
Summary of paraprofessional roles and functions
Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of professional development . . . . . .
Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Team approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manager as Deve10per . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of management . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adult learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experience as learning . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of adult learning . . . . . . . . . .'.
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

15

15
16
16
17
21
22
31
32
40
44

50
52
52

61
61
65
70

74

CHAPTER III Methodology . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Study Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Ethnographic Research Cycle . . . .
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observation . . .1. . . . . . . .
Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conferences . . . . . . . . . . .
Documents . . . . . . . . . . . .
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability and Validity . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER IV Presentation of Data . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Context of study . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personal Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . .
The special education teacher . . . . .
Paraprofessionals in the classroom . . .

Special Education Teacher's Definition of Training. . .
Paraprofessionals Definition of Training by the Teacher .

Practices Used in Providing Training . . . .
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feedback and coaching . . . . . . . . .
Posted written instructions . . . . . .
Written handouts . . . . . . . . . . . .
Role-playing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Charting and comments . . . . . . .
Summary of training practices evident in

the

classroom

Special Education Teacher's Definition of Supervision . .

Paraprofessional's Definition of Supervision by the Teacher.

vii

77

77
77
79
79
81
81
81

83

86
87
88
89
91

92
93
97
97
100
102
103

.104

104
109
112
120
127
129
133
134
137

Practices Used in Providing Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Team approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Joint conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Individual conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Problem solving feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Written feedback: praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Reprimand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Mentor..........................177
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Individual educational plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Summary of supervision practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

CHAPTER V Definitions, Practices and Conclusions . . . . . . 190

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Purpose and Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Special education teacher's definition of training . . . . 191
Paraprofessional's definition of training . . . . . . . . 19S
Practices in providing training . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Special education teacher's definition of supervision . . 200
Paraprofessional's definition of supervision . . . . . . . 202
Practices in providing supervision . . . . . . . . . .-. . 205
Conclusions and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Implications for Further Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

viii

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX

22!!!“7§¢ah43363Hlfllc:C)UI>>

Job Description - Paraprofessional . . .
Job Description - Teacher . . . . . . .
First Interview Set - Teacher . . . .

Second Interview Set - Teacher . . . . .
Third Interview Set - Teacher . . . . .

First Interview Set - Paraprofessional .

Second Interview Set - Paraprofessional
Research Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethical Principles . . . . . . . . . . .
Classroom Equipment . . . . . . . . . .
Lesson Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One Minute Manage£_Mode1 . . . . . . . .
Rotation Schedule . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

215

229
232
236
237
238
239
241
243
244
246
248
253
254
255

LIST OF FIGURES

Proper Body Mechanics When Handling The Handicapped Child . . . 121
Written Instructions: Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
vestibular stimUIat 1m 0 O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 125

Student's Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

CHAPTER I

The Problem

Introduction

 

Special education programs throughout the country are
demonstrating that the paraprofessional is a successful part of the
delivery of instruction to handicapped children. As the range of
handicapped students in schools increases and the need for
individualized instruction to promote learning is emphasized, the role
of the paraprofessional becomes more critical and important. Within
this context the responsibilities of training the paraprofessional, of
determining aide functions, and of managing and supervising the aide
have fallen on the shoulders of the teachers (Kiser, 1981). This study
addressed the Aconcerns that prior to employment special education
teachers are inadequately prepared to train and supervise
paraprofessionals. Using an ethnographic approach the roles of a
special education teacher for training and supervising a
paraprofessional were identified and described.

This chapter provides background for the study, identification
and description of the problem, identification of the general research
questions, and states the purpose of the study. Also included are

definitions of terms used, assumptions and limitations of the study.

Background

 

During the 1970's the U. 8. Congress enacted two piece,“
legislation that opened wide to all handicapped individuals the
opportunity to participate more fully in the mainstream of American
Education. This legislation is Section 504 of the Vocational
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (P. L. 93-516) and the Education for All
Handicapped People Act of 1975 (P. L. 94-142). Public Law 94-142
represents one of the most significant commitments ever made in American
public education. The law mandates (a) equal educational opportunity
for all handicapped children, (b) free and appropriate education, (c)
placement in regular public school settings with their non-handicapped
peers to the extent that it is feasible, (d) c00peratively written
individualized educational plans, (e) provision of special education and
related services as needed, and (f) observance of handicapped children's
and their parents' due process rights.

Prior to the passage of Public Law 94-142, the educational
needs for many institutionalized mentally impaired students were not
being met. Once this law was enacted, in 1975, states were required to
provide services for all handicapped students, including the
institutionalized papulation. This act mandated that paraprofessionals
be used along with certified teachers based on the assumption that
paraprofessionals enable teachers to be more effective in providing
individualized programming for students. It has been assumed that

teachers trained to use paraprofessionals effectively can improve the

educational opportunities provided to handicapped students (Riser,
1981).
All schools in Michigan are mandated to abide by the Michigan
Special Education Rules, effective August 12, 1983. The Michigan
Special Education Rules are very significant for handicapped individuals
as they provide higher standards than to P. L. 94-142. Based on these
rules handicapped individuals in Michigan have a right to a free and
apprOpriate education to age twenty-six. These rules also include
directories for administration of programs and services. The Severely
Multiply Impaired program is governed by these rules.
The Severely Multiply Impaired classroom in this study
(located in the Spartan Intermediate School District*) is governed by
the following rules from the following rules from R 340.1747:
SEVERELY MULTIPLY IMPAIRED PROGRAMS
1. An instructional unit for the severely multiply impaired shall
consist of at least one teacher and two instructional aides
for a maximum of nine students. At least one full-time
teacher and one full-time aide shall be employed in every
severely multiply impaired program. The supportive services
of a physical therapist, an occupational therapist, a teacher
of the speech and language impaired, and a nurse shall be
reasonably available.
2. A school year for the severely multiply impaired shall include
a minimum of 230 days and 1,150 clock hours of instructional

activities.

*Any name used in the study is fictitious.

3. The program shall emphasize treatment of the total person
rather than service to any single handicap in isolation.

4. Persons employed in severely multiply impaired programs shall
have the following responsibilities:

a. Teachers shall be responsible for the instructional
program, shall coordinate the activities of instructional
aides and other supportive personnel, and shall maintain
a systematic method of home-school liaison.

b. Instructional aides shall work under the supervision of
certified teachers, shall assist in the daily program,
and work with not more than three students.

Prior to 1974 Spartan Intermediate School District primarily
served its community's handicapped students by implementing and
operating classrooms for the community trainable and severely mentally
impaired. Educable classrooms were operated by the three local school
districts within. their public schools. Spartan. Intermediate School
District was responsible for the local schools abiding by P. L. 94-142
and gave consultative assistance to local districts.

In 1974, Spartan Intermediate School District assumed
responsibility for the institutionalized students housed at The Regional
Center for Developmental Disabilities by establishing -the Kennedy
School. Special education teachers and paraprofessionals were employed
to teach the institutionalized students. The teachers were assigned the
responsibility for training and supervising the paraprofessionals

assigned to their classrooms. Each teacher had two to four

paraprofessionals, depending upon the number of students assigned in the
classroom.

Rule 340.1793 of the Michigan Special Education Rules (1983)
states that, "Paraprofessional personnel employed in special education
programs shall be qualified pursuant to requirements established by
their respective intermediate school district plan.”

Job requirements for paraprofessionals in the Spartan
Intermediate School District were set forth in a Job Description for
Paraprofessionals (Appendix A). These requirements included:

I. Requirements

A. The paraprofessionals must be high school graduates.

B. Passed a minimum of two years of successful experience as
an aide in a program serving the mentally and/or
physically handicapped. (Prior to 1975 this requirement
was not in effect. All the paraprofessionals presently
employed received this experience at Spartan Intermediate
School District.)

II. Policy Requirements
III. Job Performance

A. Communications and Interpersonal Relationships

B. Management and Organization

C. Application of Job Knowledge

IV. Specific requirements for the side are Programmatic
V. Other Requirements
Paraprofessionals at Spartan Intermediate School District were

not required to meet any standards of training such as are required of

the special education teacher. The job description for
paraprofessionals (Appendix A) does not require any specific training
beyond a high school diploma. In addition, the special education
teacher is not usually formally trained or provided inservice in
techniques or content needed to train paraprofessionals or to
specifically supervise their work while implementing the instructional
program. Yet, the system used by the administration to evaluate the
successful performance of special education teachers (Appendix B)
included supervision of the paraprofessionals. The job description for
teachers (Appendix B) includes (a) supervises subordinates as assigned,
(b) knowledge of proper use of subordinates, and (c) assist in the
evaluation of all non-certified personnel through prudent supervision.
It is clearly recognized that paraprofessionals are needed to meet the
mandates of P. L. 94-142 and the special education teacher is charged
with the responsibility of training and supervising their work as they

assist with the implementation of the educational program.

Problem Statement

The identification and description of special education
teacher roles related to supervising and training paraprofessionals has
received very' limited attention by' educational researchers. Boomer
(1980) conceptualized the teacher's role as the program manager of the
instructional team. The program manager must define the program goals
and manage the resources to reach those goals. As program manager, the

teacher' must possess specific skills in interviewing and selecting,

orienting, supervising, and evaluating the paraprofessional. Teachers
must be mature enough to provide direct supervision and secure enough to
accept honest feedback from the paraprofessionals. Boomer (1980)
concluded that effectiveness as a program manager as well as effective
use of the paraprofessional occurred when teachers were well organized,
self disciplined, and possessed good work habits that served as a model
for the paraprofessional. Special education teachers had not reCeived
training either to prepare them to use aides or to prepare them for
other role functions they assumed when aides were employed.

Riser (1981) has identified and analyzed competencies
perceived as important for special education teachers to enhance
effective utilization of teacher aides. This study demonstrated that
special education teachers continue to be a population identified as
inadequately trained for aide utilization. The conclusions reached with
respect to aide training indicated that little attention was given to
the appropriate training of the employed aides in the counties studied.
Training of the aides was given to the teachers who did not realize this
responsibility. Thus, the majority of aides had received little or no
preservice or inservice training. However, the responsibilities of
training and supervising the paraprofessionals was given to the special
education teacher. Key elements of the responsibilities involved
additional knowledge of training and supervision. Special education
teachers in the trainable, severely mentally impaired, and severely
multiply impaired classrooms have the responsibility for the
instructional program and coordinating the activities of

paraprofessionals and supportive personnel. This represents an

additional responsibility to the usual duties of planning and
implementing the instructional programs for the students. The Job
Description at Kennedy School directed the teacher to:
1. Supervise subordinates as assigned.
2. Provide all instructional materials and knowledge of
prOper’ use to subordinates for implementing and
monitoring performance objectives (Appendix B).

The addition of supervising, coordinating the instructional
activities and providing the necessary training for the
paraprofessionals represented a significant added responsibility for the
special education teacher. Therefore, this ethnographic study examined
the added responsibility of the special education teacher by way of
identifying and describing the roles of a special education teacher in

guiding the training and supervision of a paraprofessional.
Pur se

This study identified and described the roles of a special
education teacher while guiding the training and supervision of a
paraprofessional at Kennedy School. To provide the most detailed
information about these roles an ethnographic approach was utilized
because human nature is too complex and subtle to be described by the
use of rigid procedures (Davidson 8 Costello, 1969). The primary intent
was to understand the informant's world from the informant's point of
view. The primary purpose of the study was to identify and describe the

roles and tasks of a special education teacher' while training and

supervising a paraprofessional. This study provided one example of how
these roles are carried out and adds insight into knowledge regarding
necessary preservice and inservice training for special education

teachers and paraprofessionals.

Research Questions

The researcher began by asking questions focused primarily on
the training and supervision of a paraprofessional by a special
education teacher. The research questions that guided the study were:

1. How does a special education teacher define his/her role

in training a paraprofessional?

2. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the

special education teacher in his/her training?

3. What practices are evident in providing specific training

for a paraprofessional by a special education teacher?

4. How does a special education teacher define his/her role

in supervising a paraprofessional?

5. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the

special education teacher in supervising his/her work?

6. What practices are evident in providing specific

supervision for a paraprofessional by a special education

teacher?

10

Definition of Terms

 

The following terms were defined within the context of this

study. These definitions may not be those accepted as descriptions in

other educational settings.

1.

2.

Special Education. 'Teacher: A teacher' with legal
certification for teaching as required by the State of
Michigan, who has completed all certification
requirements for endorsement as a special education
teacher of the Severely Multiply Impaired, and who is
employed in such a capacity.

Paraprofessional: A person who has met the minimum
requirements for employment as a classroom aide in
conformity with the requirements of the Spartan
Intermediate School District, and who is employed in such
a capacity.

Roles: Role as defined in this study are those assumed
parts of organizing and managing the classroom, which
described the content (curriculum) and process
(strategies) through which the teacher instructed,
supervised and organized the work of paraprofessionals.
Tasks: Tasks are defined as those observable or
described activities by which the teacher completed the
roles required to train and supervise the work of the

paraprofessionals.

11

5. Training: Training as defined in this study were the
actions or methods by which the teacher instructed so as
to make the paraprofessional proficient.

6. Supervision: Supervision was defined as those observable
or described activities by which the teacher monitored,
directed, and managed the paraprofessional.

Role identification and description were accomplished by

describing the actual tasks (processes) completed by the teacher while

training and supervising the paraprofessional.

Procedures and Methodology

The researcher used a qualitative approach, leading to the
careful identification and description of the roles of the teacher while
training and supervising a paraprofessional. The descriptions were rich
in detail with an interpretation from the perspective of the
participants being studied. Care was taken to make inferences about
what was going on and what the local meanings were in ways that could be
supported by evidence reflecting the interpretations of the informants

under study (Erickson, Florio & Buschman, 1980).

Assumptions

The following are key assumptions held by the researcher:

1. The teacher and paraprofessional in a classroom of pupils

who are severely multiply impaired had responsibilities

Limitations

 

12

which were unique to the educational setting and differed
from paraprofessionals working in classrooms of
heterogeneous papulations.

A participant-observer will acquire more detailed
descriptions of behaviors than could be obtained by a
person not involved in the setting.

The researcher's eighteen years of educational experience

in special education may have influenced her perceptions.

The following limitations were recognized as factors which may

limit the generalizability of conclusions from the study.

1.

The role descriptions of the special education teacher
from this handicap area may not be applicable to teachers
not working with the severely multiply impaired.

This is a case study with two informants. Therefore, the
results may not be applicable to other informants within
this or other school settings.

The teacher has over five years of teaching experience
with handicapped: students; therefore, the descriptions
may not be applicable to beginning teachers.

The teacher has over five years of experience in training
and supervising paraprofessionals; therefore, the
descriptions may not be applicable to a beginning

teacher.

5.

6.

8.

10.

13

The paraprofessional in this study, although new to this
classroom, had nine years experience working with other
special education teachers through Spartan Intermediate
School District; therefore, the descriptions may not be
applicable for a beginning paraprofessional.

The study was conducted in a school where all pupils live
in an institutional setting. It is, therefore, possible
that this type of setting may be uniquely situated and
descriptions ‘would not be the same in settings ‘where
pupils live in home situations.

The predominately rural geographic location may be a
factor in attracting for employment the special education
teacher and paraprofessional, which could result in
unique role descriptions for only this type of setting.
When one generalizes from a study in the social sciences
(whether his N is one or one thousand), generalizations
will always be weak, and although field studies when done
well, are always valid, they cannot be depended upon to
be reliable in a traditional sense (Cusick, 1978).

The study was conducted by a participant-observer whose
perceptions and influence could affect the actions of the
study participants. Although the researcher did not
teach in the classroom in the study, the researcher was
employed as a special education teacher at the school.
The researcher was employed by the Spartan Intermediate

School. District for eighteen years and had access to

information that to other researchers could be limited.

14

Overview

This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One has
provided an introduction to the study. In Chapter Two the relevant
literature is reviewed with regard to teacher roles and general teaching
responsibilities. Supervision and professional development are next
discussed as they add meaning to the study. Specific responsibilities
in supervision and training are reviewed. Adult learning is reviewed
for a thorough understanding of its relation to professional development
and training. Chapter Two concludes with a review of paraprofessional
roles, tasks and activities.

Chapter Three includes the research design, an explanation of
the ethnographic research cycle» discussion of the case study, and
description of the pOpulation studied. The chapter includes the design
used for data collection and the instruments used in the study and
concludes with a review of ethical principles, and analysis and validity
checks of the data.

The Fourth Chapter presents the relevant data which has been
collected and the analysis of the data by way of role descriptions.

Chapter Five includes the problem statement, an explanation
and analysis of the roles discovered, conclusions from the study, and a

discussion of the implications for further research.

CHAPTER I I

The Review of Literature

Introduction

 

The literature regarding teacher roles, paraprofessional
roles, professional development, supervision, training, and adult
learning are combined to demonstrate a need and foundation for the
identification and description of the roles of a special education
teacher training and supervising a paraprofessional. The relevant
literature regarding teacher roles and functions provided a basis for
analysis of the general, supervisory, and training responsibilities of
the teacher in this study.

The literature related to paraprofessional roles indicated the
need for management and training skills for teachers to work with
paraprofessionals. Thus, this research review analyzed the roles of the
special education teacher while training and supervising a
paraprofessional.

The area of professional development was reviewed as a means
to discover how teachers learn and develOp on the job. The literature
also included information on how' professional development could be
enhanced. Adult learning was reviewed for a thorough understanding of

its relation to training and supervision.

15

16

This chapter provides a review and synthesis of the literature
in six areas (a) teacher roles and functions, (b) paraprofessional roles
and functions, (c) professional development and training, (d)
supervision, (e) management, and (f) adult learning. The literature in
this area contributed to the identification and description of the roles
of special education teachers for guiding the training and supervision

of paraprofessionals.

Teacher Roles and Functions

General role. Hatfield (1982) described functions of teaching

 

based on the perspective of job responsibility and a set of more
specific teaching tasks for each of the functions. This literature
assisted the researcher by providing a taxonomy of functions and tasks
of teaching. The functions include:

1. Formulate curriculum content and goals.

2. Provide for the educational needs of individual students.

3. Develop and manage instructional programs.

4. Develop and execute teaching-learning processes.

5. Assess and report student learning and growth.

6. Contribute to institutional activities and operations.

7. Participate in professional and scholarly' inquiry’ and

development.

This literature provided the researcher with a base for

classifying data and role identification. Teaching tasks were

identified corresponding to the function. The teaching tasks in this

17

study reflected major activities of the teacher and provided a framework
in which to relate practice and research.

The art of decision making in educational practice (Hatfield,
1982) was described as a necessary skill in teaching. Dealing with
individuals, all of whom have unique attributes, presents situations
which call for varied responses (Hatfield, 1982). Thus, the teacher
needs the capability to make the best decisions possible on behalf of
the students, the institution, and one's self. Some decisions can be
preplanned, some can be made by drawing on extensive data, and some need
to be made with limited data at a moment's notice (Hatfield, 1982). The
researcher examined data analyzing the manner in which the teacher and

paraprofessional made daily decisions in the classroom.

Special education teacher roles. Boomer (1980) detailed some ideas

 

specifically intended to help the special education teacher with the
added responsibility of working effectively with paraprofessionals. He
stated that one of the most apparent needs is to train special education
teachers to work effectively with paraprofessionals. He conceptualized
the teacher's role as the ”program manager” of the instructional team.
The program manager* must define the program goals and manage the
resources to reach those goals. «As program manager, the teacher must
possess specific skills in interviewing and selecting, orienting,
supervising, and evaluating the paraprofessional.

Boomer (1980) concluded his article by reiterating that
effectiveness as a program manager as well as effective use of the

paraprofessional occurs when teachers are well organized, self

18

disciplined, and possess good work habits that serve as a model for the
paraprofessional. He also stated that teachers must be mature enough to
provide direct supervision and secure enough to accept honest feedback
from the paraprofessionals.

The one study which directly related to this project was
conducted by Kiser (1981). Kiser identified and analyzed competencies
perceived as important for special education teachers to use in
enhancing effective utilization of teacher aides. Data was obtained
from 159 teachers, 106 aides, and 15 supervisors, employed in the
education of handicapped children by three Intermediate Units servicing
eight counties in Pennsylvania. The study demonstrated that special
education teachers continue to be a population identified as
inadequately trained for side utilization. This study identified those
competencies which were perceived as important for how teachers use
aides effectively and those competencies in which teachers need training
for this purpose. Data were presented in the study which indicated that
80.9! of the teachers and 73.31 of the supervisors had not had any
training specific to side utilization. A total of 712 of the aides had
not received training to be an aide; 262 had received some kind of
training; and 31 were undecided as to whether or not they had been
trained. Five aides, who reported "no training” wrote comments which
indicated that mothering, life experiences, inservice, and substituting
in classrooms served in their preparation to become an aide. More than
half of the teachers (59.4%) had worked with one or two different sides;
30.4% had worked with three or four different aides, and 10.1% had

worked with more than five different aides. One teacher noted that she

19

had worked with 27 different substitute aides in addition to the seven
assigned aides. Almost half of the aides (47.8%) had assisted one or
two special education teachers; 5.4% were shown to have assisted eight
or more special education teachers.

In the same study (Kiser, 1980), teachers and aides rated each
competency for importance in training. Competencies which received the
most responses by the teachers were the following:

Demonstrated knowledge of state regulations and policies
concerning permissible and nonpermissible duties of an aide.
Competency rated important by aides:

(a) DemonstratesOknowledge of the role of special education
in the paraprofessional movement.

(b) Demonstrates the ability to identify the functions or
parts of functions, which may be appropriately assigned
to an aide.

A total of 67 comments were obtained which indicate that
teachers had not received any or enough training related to side use.
Coments suggesting the means by which participants felt that teachers
could be trained were shown to include: being an aide, observing;
taking courses; preservice; inservice; and learning on the job. Other
responses were shown to suggest a need for role definition. A total of
thirty-one responses were shown to relate to the need to train teachers
in the use of aides and seventeen comments indicated the need to train
teachers in supervisory skills. The most frequent comments indicated

that aides had not been given any orientation or training to be an aide.

19

had worked with 27 different substitute aides in addition to the seven
assigned aides. Almost half of the aides (47.8%) had assisted one or
two special education teachers; 5.42 were shown to have assisted eight
or more special education teachers.

In the same study (Kiser, 1980), teachers and aides rated each
competency for importance in training. Competencies which received the
most responses by the teachers were the following:

Demonstrated knowledge of state regulations and policies
concerning permissible and nonpermissible duties of an aide.
Competency rated important by aides:

(a) Demonstratesknowledge of the role of special education
in the paraprofessional movement.

(b) Demonstrates the ability to identify the functions or
parts of functions, which may be appropriately assigned
to an side.

A total of 67 comments were obtained which indicate that
teachers had not received any or enough training related to aide use.
Comments suggesting the means by which participants felt that teachers
could ‘be trained. were shown to include: being an. aide, observing;
taking courses; preservice; inservice; and learning on the job. Other
responses were shown to suggest a need for role definition. A total of
thirty-one responses were shown to relate to the need to train teachers
in the use of aides and seventeen comments indicated the need to train
teachers in supervisory skills. The most frequent comments indicated

that aides had not been given any orientation or training to be an aide.

20

The most frequently mentioned topics included (a) need to
train teachers, (b) need to identify the aide's role, (c) need to train
teachers to use aides effectively, (d) need for interpersonal relations
training, and (e) need to train paraprofessionals. Comments suggested
that neither teachers nor aides were fully aware of the legalities
associated with role functions.

The results of the data obtained (Kiser, 1980) in respect to
side training indicated that little attention was given to the
apprOpriate training of the employed aides in the counties studied.
Training of the aides was given to the teachers who did not realize this
responsibility.

These findings were similar to those detailed in an account by
the New Career Training Center (1977), and by Rittenhouse (1969) and
Gutridge (1972). These studies show that the majority of sides received
little or no preservice or inservice training. The responsibilities of
training the side, of determining aide functions, of managing the aide,
and supervising the side has fallen on the shoulders of the teachers.
Special education teachers were not known to have received either
training to prepare them to use aides to the best advantage or training
to prepare them for other role functions they assume when sides are
employed (New Career Training Center, 1977).

Hoeksema's (1975) dissertation addressed the teaching
competencies of teachers for the mentally impaired. He used a survey
research procedure to identify those competencies selected as important
by teachers of the educable and trainable mentally' impaired. .The

competency, "Working with Teacher Aides," was rated as being more

21

important by teachers of the trainable impaired than by teachers of the
educable. When considered in conjunction with ratings given to other
competencies in the broad area of, "Dealing and Relating with Other
Professionals," Hoeksema concluded that the development of interpersonal
skills would facilitate working both with aides and other teachers and
would be germane to effective relationships with children, parents, and
administrators as well. Hoeksema (1975) recommended that competencies
which are perceived to be important for teachers of the mentally
impaired should be validated through the observation of teachers in
educational settings, to determine which competencies are, in fact, used
in teaching retarded persons. Hoeksema's study (1975) lends support for
the need of an ethnographic study to observe and record specific
activities of the special education teachers in educational settings as

they train and supervise the tasks of paraprofessionals.

Summary of teacher roles and functions. The researcher reviewed
(a) general role and (b) special education teacher role to demonstrate a
need and foundation for this study. The general roles included (a)
formulate curriculum content and goals, (b) provide for the educational
needs of individual students, (c) develop and manage instructional
programs, (d) develop and execute teaching-learning processes, (e)
assess and report student learning and growth, (f) contribute to
institutional .activities, and (g) participate in professional and
scholarly inquiry and development. These general roles were also the
responsibilities of the teacher in this study in addition to training

and supervising a paraprofessional.

22

The special education teacher roles included program manager,
knowledge of appropriate aide assignments, define the goals and manage
the resources to meet those goals, and specific skills in orienting,
supervising, training, and evaluating paraprofessionals. It was
reiterated that the special education teacher had not received enough
training related to side use, which was consistent with the special

education teacher in this study.

Paraprofessional Roles and Functions

 

The literature supported the effectiveness of
paraprofessionals but revealed little about the paraprofessional's role.
A study by Ramseyer (1980) identified and analyzed the role of
paraprofessionals in special education as perceived by paraprofessionals
and their supervising professionals. In this study the Paraprofessional
Inventory, consisting of 99 competency statements, was developed to
collect responses from professionals and paraprofessionals in special
education classrooms in. ‘Minnesota. Competency statements were
classified into three categories: performance non-instructional,
performance instructional, and knowledge. The inventory was completed
by 354 respondents (184 professionals and 170 paraprofessionals). The
study reported that professionals and paraprofessionals had significant
disagreement on role dimensions within all three competency categories.
Least agreement between professionals and paraprofessionals on any
single competency, concerned knowing the role of the paraprofessional in

the classroom setting. Recommendations for practitioners in the field

23

included the statement that inservice training for professionals should
be increased to facilitate more effective utilization of
paraprofessionals. Training programs should assess the real world of
practice and formulate program outcomes accordingly. Thus, inservice
education for paraprofessionals should meet perceived needs of their
assigned roles.

The conclusions of this study (Ramseyer, 1980) stated that
paraprofessional roles appeared to include:

1. Administrative duties such as completing routine reports

and planning with the teachers.

2. Supervision of students such as assisting students about
the physical plant or while the teacher is out of the
classroom.

3. Instruc tional impl ementat ion , such as ass is ting
one-to-one with individual students (individualization),
assisting with group educational activities, when
specifically guided by the Special Education Teacher.

4. Preparation of classroom materials.

5. Maintaining classroom (housekeeping).

6. Preparation of classroom environment for learning
activities.

Fafard (1975) focused on updating information on the
utilization and training of paraprofessionals and provided
reconnendations for future directions. She reported that participants
in workshops and conventions have confirmed that the paraprofessional is

accepted as a successful part of the delivery of instruction to

24

handicapped children. Fafard (1975) identified three critical areas as
needed in the training and utilization of paraprofessionals:

1. Organized dissemination of materials. .

2. Management and training skills for professionals to work
with paraprofessionals.

3. Closer examination into training models for
paraprofessionals to work with severely handicapped
children.

Emphasizing the importance of the paraprofessional in the
special classroom Fafard (1977) stated that, ”It is critical that
professional teachers receive training in the management of
paraprofessionals within special education delivery systems" (p. 24).
She recognized that community colleges have made vast contributions to
the training and upgrading of skills of paraprofessionals in special
education at both the preservice and inservice level, but it was
considered necessary that more energy and resources be given to
disseminating-information about paraprofessionals and to upgrading the
preparation of teachers so as to effectively utilize paraprofessionals.
Fafard (1975) also suggested that research indicates paraprofessionals
working *with handicapped children have a direct/positive effect on
children's .academic performance. She concluded by' stating that the
support for trained paraprofessionals delivery of instruction directly
to handicapped children is overwhelming (Fafard, 1975). As the need for
individualized instruction to promote learning is emphasized, the role

of the paraprofessional becomes more critical and important.

25

Boomer (1980) wrote that the paraprofessional works alongside
and under the supervision of the teacher and assists with the
development of the program and instruction. He defined the
paraprofessional as one who is a member of the instructional team, but
who works under the direct supervision of the special education teacher.
Further, the paraprofessional must work alongside the teacher and assist
in implementing the instructional program. Together the
paraprofessional and the teacher form a team, separately they may
undermine each other's efforts. Only by advanced planning, regular
review, and constant communication can they work as an effective team.

The review of special education projects indicated that
paraprofessionals are apparently employed as an integral part of the
special education programs. The literature relating to their training
appeared to confirm that the profession has recognized that trained
sides are needed as part of the implementation process for the
instructional program. Yet, the literature also confirmed that precise
and well defined training programs, if developed, have not been
described in the literature. The writer found one program which
appeared to involve not only training sessions but also attempted to
evaluate the effectiveness of the training programs as paraprofessionals
worked with the special education teacher. Due to its direct
relationship with the prOposed study, it is reported in some detail.

Havlicek and Kelly (1981) reported the results of a three year
project to evaluate the training of phraprofessionals in Kansas. The

program's purpose was fourfold;

26

(1) to develop an increasing awareness of the professionalism

of the paraprofessional in the total educational system;

(2) to present an overview of P. L. 94-142;

(3) to discuss legal implications of the role of the special

education paraprofessional; and

(4) to provide an opportunity for special education

paraprofessionals to attend miniworkshop sessions on a
variety of special education topics.
Findings from each of the three annual evaluation reports are presented
in terms of project, objectives. The annual results indicated that
workshops were effective in training paraprofessionals, teachers and
facilitators.

Seventeen supervising teachers who were interviewed indicated
that their role in the training of paraprofessionals should be
on-the-job training so as to help the paraprofessionals work with the
teacher in their classroom, with special student problems, and complete
day-by-day activities. Only three of the teachers interviewed indicated
that they had formalized training in how to work with paraprofessionals.

When the teachers were asked what additional information they
needed to work more effectively with their paraprofessionals (Havlicek
and Kelly, 1981), the following responses were given:

1. Interpersonal relations skills

2. Know capabilities and skills of paraprofessionals

3. Changes and variety of roles of paraprofessionals

4. Ideas from other areas

5. Legal limits

27

6. How to train paraprofessionals

7. Evaluation materials

8. Current do's and don'ts.

The study provided insight for the problem prOposed in the
current study and the questionnaires used have been useful as a base for
initial interview guides for this study.

The gap between paraprofessional training and subsequent
utilization. was recognized by ‘Brantlinger (1978). In a report of
experiences at the DevelOpmental Training Center at Indiana University
she expressed that while teachers want and need the services of parapro-
fessionals, there is difficulty in utilizing them as effectively as
possible. The report reiterated that the issue of paraprofessional
utilization has been a perplexing one for administrators and teachers.
In some cases the paraprofessional appeared to have a competitive rather
than a couplementary role in the classroom. In other cases, teachers
felt that they spent as much time planning for paraprofessionals as for
the students, and it was an added burden and responsibility for the
special education classroom teacher.

Four interrelated problems appeared to be the cause of these
difficulties (Brantlinger, 1978):

1. Confusion regarding the appropriate role responsibilities

of paraprofessionals;

2. Failure to build training programs for paraprofessionals

based on actual classroom needs;

28

3. Lack of systematic efforts to involve teachers in the
actual training of paraprofessionals to make sure that
the training is consistent with their practices, and...

4. Failure to build training programs for paraprofessionals
which do not interfere with the ongoing job demands of
paraprofessionals and teachers. (Brantlinger, 1978,
p. 14)

The report (Brantlinger, 1978) addressed the issue of role
definitions for the special education teacher and the paraprofessional.
It stated that role definitions are in a state of transition and
expansion. Child advocacy and program management are new roles assumed
by teachers as the role of paraprofessionals has been expanded. No
longer can we view paraprofessionals as responsible for only
non-instructional activities, such as house and record keeping. With
appropriate training, the report reiterated, paraprofessionals can
assume complementary roles to teachers in the instruction and
instructionally related areas. It was the belief that while the teacher
and the aide ‘have different functions and roles in the classroom,
together they formed an instructional team.

A study by Epstein and Nieminen (1983) examined the
inter-rater and intra-rater reliability -of the Conners Abbreviated
Teacher Rating Scale. Teachers and classroom aides of L. D. pupils were
asked to complete the CATRS on two separate occasions, one month apart.
Two related questions were posed in the study:

1. Do teachers and teacher aides differ in the reliability

of their ratings across time?

29

2. Do teachers and teacher aides rate their learning
disabled students in a similar‘ and reliable fashion?
(9- 12)

Inter-rater reliability was determined on the extent to which
two raters, a teacher and her aide, would score each item on the scale
similarly for a given student at a given point in time. The high
reliability coefficient obtained between the raters indicated that
although they have different roles within the classroom, teachers and
sides do agree on the behavior being exhibited by a particular student.

In a study by Crawford (1978) on the need for training aides
assisting with the implanentation of vocational education courses for
disadvantaged students it was concluded that training for the sides role
and understanding of the aide's role by the teacher is a problem. In
this project aides completed open-ended questionnaire items relating to
inservice needs, contributions of the program, and recommendations for
improving the program. Comments from the item ”How could the program be
improved" included, ”Improving the teacher's understanding of the aide's
role." (p. 16). When teachers were asked how the program could help
them work more effectively with their aides, the most frequent response
was that no assistance was needed in working more effectively with their
sides. Sixty-five percent of the teachers were in agreement of this
item. This view' contrasted significantly' with the aides' frequent
mention of the need for role clarification and joint workshops for aides
and teachers. Crawford (1978) concluded that the scope and limitations
of the role of aides were not always clear to teachers, administrators,

and vocational education supervisors.

30

Overall the literature provided information from sixty-six

programs on the purpose of training paraprofessionals. These training

programs tended to include the following ideas:

1.

4.

5.

8.

10.

ll.

12.

Trained paraprofessionals are effective change-agents in
the learning behaviors of exceptional children.

Inservice training was effective in training
paraprofessionals.

Workshops for paraprofessionals were well received.

The role of the paraprofessional must be clearly defined.
Training was necessary to insure the effective
utilization of paraprofessionals.

Better communication between professionals and
paraprofessionals should be fostered.

Training programs should assess the real world of
practice.

Inservice training for professionals should be increased
to facilitate more effective utilization of
paraprofessionals.

Training programs included developmental skills and how
handicaps affect development.

Training programs included the importance of the legal
rights of handicapped children.

The use of paraprofessionals reduced the average salary
expenditure level and staff-student ratios.

A large number of paraprofessionals were not aware of

training programs.

31

13. Recommendations to colleges and universities concerned
the institutional role in meeting the training needs of
teachers and supportive personnel who work with special
education students.

14. Guidelines for conducting training sessions were
provided.

15. Evaluations were done on the training programs.

16. Programs focus on interpersonal skills.

l7. Competencies are listed for paraprofessionals.

18. Resources for paraprofessionals working in educational
settings with handicapped students.

19. The paraprofessional was an important member of the
classroom team.

20. Concerns of aides.

Summary of paraprofessional roles and functions. The literature is
replete with proposed training programs for paraprofessionals. It is
obvious that the professional is vitally concerned with helping the
paraprofessional to be an effective part of the instructional team. It
also appears that the literature supports the role of the teacher as a
vital factor in successfully training and supervising the
paraprofessional. However, there has not been a systematic study to
define the roles of either the teacher or the paraprofessional of the
severely mentally impaired and/or severely multiply impaired. These
roles have been studied only minimally. Rather, it appears these roles

are assumed to be identifiable. It is, therefore, the intent of this

32

study to contribute to a clearer and more precise description of these

roles as actually practiced by a special education teacher.

Professional Development

 

The last five years at the state level have been characterized
by a greatly increased interest in developing systematic approaches to
professional development. Public Law 95-561, Titles IV and V required
that each state submit a plan for coordinating state and federal
resources for preservice and inservice training. While all the states
ultimately complied with the mandate, probably very little statewide
coordination actually resulted. Perhaps the most valuable outcome of
the PL 95-561 requirement was that it caused the states to inventory
their staff development resources and to begin to develop strategies for
making more effective and efficient use of them.

Conceptually, staff development is not something the school
does to the teacher, but something the teacher does for himself or
herself. Staff development does not assume a deficiency in the teacher,
but rather assumes a need for people at work to grow and develop on the
job. Inservices are provided so teachers can grow and develop on the
job. It is necessary, therefore, to provide inservice activities or
development strategies which are related to individual teacher needs.

There are definitional problems regarding an inservice
program. The term "program” means different things to different peOple.
An inservice program may be a one-day workshop, a-leadership training

institute for team leaders, a school-based, college offered course or

33

curriculum, a total school staff development project aimed at curriculum
revision, a summer institute, or a model identifying the interrelation-
ships among the components of a continuing education program for
teachers (Yarger & Galluzzo, 1983). "Simply stated, the language of
inservice teacher education is so vague as to be almost unusable for
research purposes” (Yarger and Galluzzo, 1983, p. 163). Yarger and
Galluzzo (1983) also stated that inservice teacher education, because it
actually does occur, obviously has some form, operates within some
structure(s), and delivers some content. Due to the language problem,
it would appear that the only "safe" unit for analysis is the individual
program event or single activity.

Gage (1978) stated that when it comes to providing employed
teachers with ”knowledge how", we know that practice is required. Yet,
research results have shown that practice alone is not enough. At least
nine studies have shown only a very low correlation between years of
teaching experience and the average achievement of the teacher's
students (Rosenshine, 1971).

Smith (1980) stated that no one can justifiably argue that
inservice education should be eliminated, as the requirement of improved
schooling has been documented by achievement data. He stated that a
more plausible justification for the emphasis upon inservice programs is
that over the years beginning teachers have been ill-prepared to meet
the requirements of the day-to-day classroom tasks. To continue this
syndrome of inadequate preservice preparation followed by efforts to
make up the deficiencies by inservice education can only accentuate the

present state of affairs.

34

The data from a comprehensive inservice study (Yarger, Howey,

and Joyce, 1979) suggested the following general concerns.

1.

3.

Inservice needs to be more comprehensive in scape and
intensive in nature. It appears that much inservice is
fragmented in nature and distant from the professional
lives of teachers and the settings in which they work.
More conceptually coherent inservice schemes are needed
which attend both to the school as an organization and a
social system and the teacher as a person and a
professional.

Not only more, but more effective inservice is needed for
a great many teachers and other educational personnel.
Inservice appears to be largely an undifferentiated
concept. More research and development is needed
relative to forms of advisory approaches, psychological
consultation, clinical supervision, organizational
development, cooperative problem solving, child study,
modeling behavior, observation and feedback, and
self-directed instruction.

Teachers should be more centrally involved in all facets
of the process. This involvement must transcend current
"needs assessments."

Inservice must be consonant with the value systems held
by teachers and this addresses especially' the where,
when, and how of these activities. More personalized and

individualized forms of inservice are needed.

35

6. There needs to be more powerful incentives for teachers
to participate in more authentic ways in growth
activities. For example, inservice opportunities must be
perceived as powerful enough to improve teacher
competence and/or alter conditions in the school in
significant ways.

Lawrence (1974) pointed out that staff development programs
tend to be more successful if they have an ongoing character, as Opposed
to being onetime, single-shot activities. Sergiovanni & Starrat (1980)
stated that the most essential commnent of inservice should be a
purpose whereby all professionals are expected to engage in a lifelong
co-itment to self-improvanent. Sergiovanni (1982) stated that rather
than reduce the range of alternatives, staff development should be
composed of five critical components: intents, substance, competency
areas, approach, and responsibility. He stated further that the most
innovative and provocative approaches to professional development are
those that rely on exploration and discovery by teachers. Two teachers
sharing ideas, a team or family of teachers working and planning
together, teacher involvement in an in-building resource center, and
participation in district or area teacher centers are recommended
informal approaches. Personal and professional growth must be
emphasized as open-ended processes rather than goals that are reached
when the proper number of degrees or additional approved college credits
are amassed (Furey, Ambrose, 1978).

The literature included an extraordinary variety of needs that

teachers in service seem to acquire. As lortie (1975) stated, the

36

cellular structure of the ordinary school shuts the teacher up with the
class and away from outside interference. From day to day the teacher
relies on subtle, vague clues as to how well things are going. Often
these behaviors are misconstrued as signs that learning has taken place.
In such cellular circumstances, all sorts of idiosyncratic difficulties
come to surface. Some teachers need help in what to teach, some in how
to teach, and some in what to teach with. The beginning teachers needs
are as real as the experienced teacher, and different.

An example of an empirically constructed theory of teacher
development is the work of the late Frances Fuller. Fuller (1969)
identified similarities in teachers’ concerns over time which could help
teacher educators choose more appropriate course content and
experiences. The concerns that should be addressed according to Fuller
(1969) are:

I. Early Phase Concerns about self (nonteaching)

II. Middle Phase Concerns about professional expectations and
acceptance.
Concerns about one's own adequacy; subject
matter and class control.
Concerns about relationships with pupils.

III. Late Phase Concerns about pupils' learning what is
taught.
Concerns about pupils' learning what they
need.
Concerns about one's own (teacher's) con-

tributions to pupil change.

37

In the pre-teaching phase, education students tend to identify
with pupils and are sometimes quite critical of classroom teachers. As
soon as they have actual teaching experience, their idealized concerns
for pupils are replaced by an intense concern with their own survival as
a teacher.

Teacher assessment should lead to improved teaching, student
learning, and school operation. It is necessary, therefore, to provide
inservice activities or development strategies which are practical and
related to individual teacher needs (Hatfield, 1977). Although
inservice programs appear effective in showing short-term change, most
studies fail to look at change beyond the termination of the training
program. One wonders if program effects are maintained once the
reinforcing .agent is removed. An analysis of studies on inservice
(Yarger & Galluzzo, 1983) showed only one study in which reinforcement
was provided after the inservice activity ended, and these results were
less than conclusive.

It appeared that much of the perceived appropriateness
documented in the research focused on the conditions surrounding
inservice education rather than the specific content of the programs.
Teachers wanted inservice that was (a) accompanied by the time and
support for implementing that which was learned, (b) would operate in a
supportive environment, and (c) focus on the individual rather than on
large groups (Yarger & Galluzzo, 1983).

The Rand (1978) study on teacher attributes found that the
more effort that was required of project teachers and the greater the

overall change in teaching style that was attempted by the project, the

38

more likely the project was able to attract and commit teachers. More
complex and ambitious projects were more likely to elicit the enthusiasm
of teachers than were routine and limited ones. These data suggest that
the problem of inservice is not so much one of instructor
ineffectiveness, per se, but rather that the wrong content may well be
offered by the wrong person, in the wrong place, and at the wrong time
(Howey, 1983).

Inservice education is seen by many as a common catalyst for
institutional change (Walker, 1979) and necessary to improve instruction
at the classroom level. The process approach to inservice training has
shown that what teachers actually want and need is not what universities
have offered them, and what teachers say they want is quite different
from what they actually need once the process is completed. Two-thirds
of what teachers need is directly related to specific day-to-day
problems: Their need is not a ten day workshOp or three-hour course on
a Tuesday night (Petrie, 1978).

Self-directed change and focusing on the individual holds the
most promise wherein all educators could become lifelong learners for
the continuous pursuit of excellence in a given field of expertise as
reflected in the achievement of personal, student, and institutional
goals. These perspectives are based on basic beliefs or assumptions
that:

1. All school personnel need inservice throughout their

careers o

39

2. Educators are motivated to learn new things when they
have some control over their learning and are free from
threat.

3. Educators vary widely in their competencies and readiness
to learn.

4. Significant improvement in educational practice takes
considerable time and long-term inservice programs.

5. School. climate influences the success of professional
development.

6. Educators will put new knowledge and skills to use.

7. PeOple will have ”ownership" in self-determined change.

It appeared that inservice education operates at a point where

not enough is known, but probably what is known is not used effectively
in program initiation and development (Yarger & Galluzzo, 1983). The
literature emphasized that effective change will never occur until the
role of the user in the process is radically altered so that he/she is
ultimately involved in all stages of the innovative process.

Despite its problems, two factors are suggested (Korinek and

McAdams, 1985) which contribute to the need for continuing staff
development. The first factor is that college training is but an
introduction to the world of teaching. Only entry skills and knowledge
can be deve10ped in the time allotted preservice training. The
competent teacher is developed over time and in the crucible of
experience. Secondly, our accelerating acquisition of knowledge makes
some teaching strategies and tactics obsolete while creating a need for

new ones. Teaching is a profession in which the individual must

4O

continually regenerate to be effective and inservice is a medium for
stimulating this regeneration (Korinek & McAdams, 1985).

A survey by Korinek and McAdams (1985) was used to identify
and describe (a) the kinds of inservice education most frequently used
with classroom teachers, and (b) the most commonly stated guidelines for
producing effective inservice programs. The results showed that three
inservice types were most often described or implied in the documents
examined:

1. Information transmission

2. Skill Acquisition

3. Behavior change

If "effective” is interpreted as meaning that preselected
goals are accomplished, then primary attention must be focused on these
goals as they govern the types of staff development offered. (Korinek &
McAdams, 1985). If the purpose is to increase awareness, boost morale,
or explain policy, then Type 1 or 2 inservices should be successful. If
the goal is to change teaching behaviors, Type 3 would be the more
appropriate choice. Each recommendation for best practicesumust be
viewed in relation to the features of the particular inservice model
(Korinek, Schmid, and McAdams, 1985). Overall this literature produced
recommendations for effective inservice and types of staff deve10pment

commonly used with teachers.

Training. Trainees learning a new teaching strategy probably need
fifteen to twenty demonstrations over the course of the training

sequence and a dozen or more opportunities to practice the skills (Joyce

41

& Showers, 1983). Not until the teacher can select the strategy when it
is appropriate to do so, modify it to fit the characteristics of the
students, implement it, and assess its effectiveness can we say that he
or she has achieved an adequate degree of executive control.

According to Joyce and Showers (1983) analysis of inservice
studies, the content of the training of teachers cannot be organized
just by referring to a set of standard operating procedures. When a
teacher is taught a range of teaching strategies and the appropriateness
of those strategies to various kinds of objectives and students, the
transfer of these skills into the work place is under the governance of
that individual teacher. High transfer teachers could readily’ find
appropriate uses for teaching strategies that stressed conceptual and
analogic student thinking. The teachers who could not think
conceptually about what they taught, and how and why, were unable to use
the new models; but cited other reasons for nontransfer than in thinking
of ways to use the models. Inservice education programs that have
differentiated training experiences for different teachers
(individualized) are more likely to accomplish their objectives than are
programs that have common activities for all participants.

Teachers must organize themselves into groups for the express
purpose of training themselves and each other and to facilitate the
transition from skill development to transfer of skill (Joyce & Showers,
1983). On a practical level, most coaching should be done by teams of
teachers working together to study new approaches to teaching and to

polish their existing skills. The most effective training activities,

42

then, will be those that combine theory, modeling, practice, feedback,
and coaching to application (Joyce & Showers, 1980).

The process of coaching has four major functions:

1. Provision of companionship.

2. Provision of technical feedback.

3. Analysis of application.

4. Adaptation to the learner.

The development of a skill alone does not ensure transfer, but
needs continuous feedback, practice, and the companionship of coaches to
enable even highly motivated persons to bring additional skills to their
repertoire under effective control (Joyce & Showers, 1983). Familiarity
is the key in transfer. The greater the degree to which a new skill
fits into already familiar patterns, the less adjustment is needed.
Thus, isolated workshops or inservices have little transfer, especially
if they involve a new skill that would not be already in the teachers'
repertoire.

Joyce and Showers (1983) identified at least five techniques
available to accomplish the new’ learning involved in the transfer
process. These techniques included:

1. Forecast the transfer process throughout the training

cycle.

2. Reach the highest possible level of skill development

during training.

3. Develop "executive control," that is, an understanding of

the appropriate content for the model and how to adapt it

to different types of students.

43

4. Practice in the work place.

5. .Institute a process of coaching during practice in the
work setting. (Joyce and Showers, 1983)

Formal university programs appear as a terminal degree with
little guidance given in how to structure further learning experiences
for the individual (Rosenfield, 1981). The responsibility for
strengthening deficits must come from within, thus motiVating the
individual to grow. Festinger (1957) sees a person as continually
striving for cognitive consistency. His basic hypotheses can be related
to self-directed learning.

1. The existence of dissonance, being psychologically
uncomfortable, will motivate a person to try to reduce
dissonance and achieve consonance.

2. When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to
-reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and
information which are likely to increase the dissonance.

Wilson's (1981) findings suggested that:

1. Even when teachers have previously rigorously assessed
their own classroom performance, their self-perceptions
are apt to change as a result of receiving feedback from
others.

2. Feedback data that are externally analyzed and reported
appear to have a somewhat stronger influence on
self-perceptions than comparable data that are analyzed

and reported on by the teachers themselves.

44

3. Teachers change their self-perceptions in accord with the
direction and magnitude of the difference between their
original self-perceptions and the feedback they receive.

Wilson clearly indicated that feedback from others has a
powerful influence on teachers' self-perceptions. The results suggested
that self-analysis by itself is an inadequate basis for decisions about
one's professional development. Thus, these findings confirm that as
external evaluators, supervisors and other teacher educators may have a
greater impact on teacher perception and behavior than we have
previously assumed (Wilson, 1981).

Wilson's findings are supported by evidence from the teacher
survey of 12 case study centers (Weindling and Reid, 1983) where none of
the teachers believed they were the major influence on the center, and
in all cases they saw the center leader and advisors as having the most
influence. This is an example of teachers feeling that someone other
than themselves had the most influence. This would confirm Festinger's
(1957) hypotheses that ‘when dissonance is present individuals ‘will

change to gain consonance.

Summary ofgprofessional development. The literature indicated that

 

staff development is something the teacher does for himself/herself to
grow and develop on the job. Thus, it is necessary to provide
professional development activities or programs related to individual
teacher needs. Smith (1980) stated that over the years teachers have
been ill-prepared to meet the responsibilities of the daily classroom

tasks. The review' suggested that more research .and deveIOpment is

45

needed regarding forms of advisory approaches, supervision,
organizational development, problem solving, modeling behavior, and
observation and feedback. The training supported by Joyce and Showers
(1983) included (a) modeling, (b) practice, (c) feedback, and (d)
coaching to application. It was stressed in the review that continuous
feedback, practice and the companionship of coaches was essential in
training. This study addressed these functions by identification and
description of the roles of the special education teacher while training
and supervising a paraprofessional within a classroom setting.

Sergiovanni (1982) indicated that the most innovative and
provocative approaches to professional deve10pment are those that rely
on exploration and discovery by teachers. The literature review
included an extraordinary variety of needs that teachers in service seem
to acquire.

The literature indicated that (a) college training is just the
beginning of the world of teaching, (b) only entry skills and knowledge
can be deve10ped in the time allotted preservice training, (c)
accelerating acquisition of knowledge makes some teaching strategies and
tactics obsolete while creating a need for new ones, and (d) teachers
must continually regenerate to be effective. The researcher utilized
this foundation of professional development literature in the study to
broaden her perspective while conducting field observations and

interviews.

46

Supervision

 

To create a professional environment in schools, supervisors
need to provide more opportunities for teachers to make choices, observe
each other, discuss their work, and help beginning teachers ease into
their responsibilities (Glickman, 1985). Supervisors must take on the
task of changing those characteristics of the teaching environment that
stifle the improvement of instruction (Glickman, 1985). Every major
research study on effective schools has noted the organizational
phenomenon of collective action, agreed-upon purpose, and belief in
attainment. Teachers of effective schools see themselves as part of the
total action with an agreed upon purpose and belief that as a group they
can attain their goals and objectives (Glickman, 1985). Glickman (1985)
included suggestions for supervisors for moving teachers from isolated
classrooms toward a purpose beyond oneself: (p. 40)

1. Gradually increase the responsibilities of beginning

teachers:

a. Plan with experienced teachers ways to make the
first year of teaching a situation of lessened
responsibilities involving peer support and
assistance in easing the beginner into the
profession.

b. Plan. and implement a "buddy system" of matching
experienced teachers with beginning teachers so that
the beginner has someone to turn to for help and

information.

47

2. Increase visibility among teachers:

Encourage teachers to visit each other and find out
what others are doing. This could result in the
visiting teacher observing and giving feedback on
particular classroom concerns of the teacher
visited.

Hold after-school meetings in different classrooms
where teachers are asked to present the what and how
of their instruction. Barth (1980) wrote of how
teachers in his school presented their instructional
plans to each other. They attempted to discover in
which ways their teaching supported each other or
contradicted each other. Thus, teachers more easily
observed the inconsistencies from teacher to teacher

and grade level to grade level.

3. Increase professional dialogue among teachers:

a.

Provide time-for teacher talk among teachers during
faculty meetings. Allow teachers time to propose
plans for what they can do to change current
problems.

Invite teachers to help interview teacher
candidates. This involvement not only' gives
recognition. to their experience but also enables
them to examine and explain the workings of their
school. to outsiders. This involvement creates a

need for teachers to articulate school purpose.

48

4. Increase teachers' professional choices:

a. Encourage teachers to work in groups where they can
control part of their own teaching schedules,
materials, and curriculum. The power to implement
as a group can help build collective action.

b. Research on effective schools has shown that faculty
members in effective schools clearly know their
priorities. Continually ask staff members to think
about an active philosophy, not a theoretical
philosophy. Teachers work should clearly reflect
those priorities.

Supervisors should work towards these goals to eliminate
factors in the school environment that impede improvement. The
literature supported for helping teachers move out of isolated
classrooms toward peer support, feedback and increased communication.

Supervision used in its broadest sense was defined by Harris
(1975) as what school personnel do with adults to maintain or change the
school operation in ways that directly influence the teaching processes
employed to promote pupil learning (p. 10). While broad definitions are
useful in examining the total supervisory function, they are too
comprehensive for the research study, which is concerned primarily with
the supervision of classroom instruction. Glatthorn (1984) defined
supervision as a process of facilitating the professional growth of a
teacher, by giving the teacher feedback about classroom interactions and
helping the teacher make use of that feedback in order to make teaching

more effective (p. 2).

49

Glatthorn (1984) was concerned with a differentiated system of
instructional supervision, one that gives the teacher some choice about
how instruction is supervised. The third argument in favor of
differentiated supervision appeared to be relevant to this study as it
addressed teachers' different growth needs and learning styles.
Teachers differ' in the type of interaction they' prefer. Young and
Heichberger (1975) reported that 62 percent of teachers preferred a
"helping relationship,” while 36 percent wanted a ”colleague-ship"
relationship. Copeland's study’ (1980) concluded that some teachers
prefer a directive supervisory style, while others prefer non-directive
interactions. After studying several thousand teachers, Joyce and
McKibbin (1982) concluded that vast differences exist in the extent to
which teachers pull growth-producing experiences from their environment
and exploit personal and professional activities (p. 36). The irony of
this condition is that administrators and supervisors who urge teachers
to individualize their teaching rarely individualize their supervising
(Glatthorn, 1984).

Clinical supervision is an intensive process designed to
improve instruction by conferring with the teacher on lesson planning,
observing the lesson, analyzing the observational data, and giving the
teacher feedback about the observation. The research on clinical
supervision does suggest the following findings that can be useful for
supervisors:

1. Teachers favor a supervisor who is supportive and close

(Gordon, 1976),

50

2. The majority of teachers and administrators agree with
the basic assumptions of' clinical supervision (Baker,
1972).

3. Teachers appear to prefer clinical supervision to
traditional supervision and believe that the techniques
of clinical supervision are worthy (Reavis, 1977; Shinn,
1976).

4. Clinical supervision can alter a teacher's behavior in
the desired direction (Garman, 1971; Kerr, 1976;
Krajewski, 1976; Shuma, 1973).

5. Supervisors using a clinical approach appear more Open
and accepting in post-observation conferences than those
using a traditional approach (Reavis, 1977).

6. Teachers differ in the type of supervisory interactions
they prefer; there is some evidence that experienced
teachers prefer non-directive supervision, while
beginning teachers appear to prefer a more direct style

(Copeland, 1980) .

Team approach. The team approach at West Junior High described by

 

Graebner and Dobbs (1984) has proved to be a non-threatening source of
help for teachers towards problem solving in the classroom. An
unwritten but widely recognized code says that teachers who must appeal
to the principal or higher authority to enforce classroom discipline are
admitting weakness, if not total failure. To counter this problem, West

Junior High School started a Teacher Assistance Team, four years ago.

51

This team approach has three significant advantages as a source of help
for troubled students and their teachers: its members are professional,
the team places no extra burden on building administrators, and it is
not threatening to teachers. This team responds quickly to a teacher's
request for assistance. The details of the request remain confidential.
Time is provided during regular school hours for a conference between
the team and the teacher who seeks help. When the team meets to con-
sider a case and plan its strategy, the administration hires substitutes
to supervise the classrooms of team members. The teacher' who has
requested the help usually confers with the team during his or her
planning period. Members of the team are elected by the faculty with
the team composed of three teachers, and a fourth teacher -- the one
most recently elected -- serving an apprenticeship and only gradually
taking an active role as he or she becomes familiar with the process.
Each year the senior member of the team steps down and a newly elected
teacher becomes the apprentice.

When the teacher with the problem meets with the team, he/she
discovers that the members are already well-informed on his/her case.
Using the commsite flow chart, the case coordinator explains to the
teacher the team's view of the factors that prompted the problem. If
the teacher has nothing to add, the team moves to the center of its
function: to brainstorm ideas, from. which the teacher can choose
his/her future strategies. The teacher' does not take part in the
brainstorming session, though he/she listens carefully. However, the

choice of which suggestions to implement will be his/hers alone.

52

Summary of supervision. The literature review on supervision

 

included (a) definitions, (b) a differentiated system of instructional
supervision, (c) clinical supervision, and (d) a team approach. The
supervisory roles included a process of facilitating the professional
growth of a teacher by feedback regarding classroom interactions.
Suggestions included helping teachers move out of isolated classrooms
toward peer support, feedback and increased communication. The team
approach illustrated a non-threatening source of help for teachers
toward problem solving in the classroom. The team approach concept also

was consistent with this study.

Management

The teacher in this study' was heavily influenced by the
literature in management as it relates to supervision. The literature
review on management is directly related to those areas referred to by
the teacher.

The One Minute Managgr's symbol -- a one minute readout from
the face of a modern digital watch -- is intended to remind each of us
to take a minute out of our day to look into the faces of the peOple we
manage, and to realize that they are our most important resources
(Blanchard & Johnson, 1982). The first discovery in this managerial
approach is to set one minute goals. One minute goal setting works as
the number one motivator of people is feedback on results (Blanchard &
Johnson, 1982). It is feedback that keeps individuals moving. The

philosophy behind this literature is:

l.

2.

3.

53

Everyone is a potential winner.
Some people are disguised as losers.

Don't let their appearances fool you.

The second approach in this model is one minute praising. The

one minute praising works well when you:

1.

Tell people up front that you are going to let them know
how they are doing.

Praise people immediately.

Tell peOple what they did right - be specific.

Tell people how good you feel about what they did right,
and how it helps the organization and the other people
who work there.

Stop for a moment of silence to let them ”feel" how good
you feel.

Encourage them to do more of the same.

Shake hands or touch people in a way that makes it clear
that you support their success in the organization

(Blanchard & Johnson, 1982).

This literature illustrates that the most important thing in

training somebody to become a winner is to catch them doing something

right -- in the beginning approximately right and gradually moving them

towards the desired behavior. The manager may even create situations in

the beginning where one minute praising can be given. Many managers

wait until their people do something exactly correct before they receive

praise. As a result, many people never get to become high performers

because their managers concentrate on catching them doing things wrong.

54

Eventually these individuals do as little as possible. They are afraid
to take risks. The author states that much of the reason for this poor
performance is simply because the people are managed' so poorly
(Blanchard & Johnson, 1982).

The third managerial approach advocated in this literature is
one minute reprimands. The one minute reprimand works well when you:

1. Tell people beforehand that you are going to let them

know how they are doing and in no uncertain terms.

The first half of the reprimand:

 

2. Reprimand people immediately.

3. Tell people what they did wrong -- be specific.

4. Tell peOple how you feel about what they did wrong - and
in no uncertain terms.

5. Stop for a few seconds of uncomfortable silence to let
them feel how you feel.

The second half of the reprimand:

 

6. Shake hands, or touch them in a way that lets them know
you are honestly on their side.
7. Remind them how much you value them.
8. Reaffirm that you think well of them but not of their
performance in this situation.
9. Realize that when the reprimand is over, it's over.
The authors feel that there are several reasons why the one
minute reprimand works so well. The feedback is immediate. You
reprimand the individual as soon as you observe the "misbehavior.” Most

managers store up information of poor behaviors and then ‘when the

55

evaluations come they tell people all the things they have done wrong
for the last few weeks or months or more. Managers should intervene
early, deal with one behavior at a time, so the individual receiving the
discipline is not overwhelmed. The important rule the authors stress is
to reprimand the behavior only. The purpose with this type of
discipline is to eliminate the behavior and keep the person. The One
Minute Manager asked brief, important questions; spoke the simple truth;
laughed, worked, and enjoyed. Thus, most important of all, he
encouraged the people he worked with to do the same.

The special education teacher in this study utilized Ea; 2‘23.

Minute Manager (1982) as his guide for managing his paraprofessional.

 

The second book in this literature, Putting the One Minute Manager £2
2255 (1984) described how the three secrets of one minute management can
be turned into daily skills and illustrated how they work in real- life
situations.

The managerial approach described recommended the KISS method:
Keep It Short and Simple (Blanchard & Lorber, 1984). The ABC's of
Management described how the three secrets of the One Minute Manager
(1982) fit into the scheme of this managerial approach. Goal setting is
the most important activator for managers to remember. It starts the
whole management process (Blanchard & Lorber, 1984). One minute goal
setting should be stated in behavioral terms; behaviors that can be seen
(observed) and counted (measured). The authors stated that this is very
important as it determines how to respond. Responding refers to

consequences. Consequences follow or come after some performance.

56

The literature stressed that one never reprimands learners.
Learners are never reprimanded as it may immobilize them and make them
even more insecure. Reprimands do not teach skills. Reprimands can
just change attitudes and get skilled individuals back to using their
abilities (Blanchard & Lorber, 1984). Five steps to training a learner
to be a good performer included:

1. Tell (what to do)

2. Show (how to do)

Then

3. Let the person try

4. Observe performance

And

5. Praise progress or redirect (Blanchard & Lorber, 1984)

A fundamental tenet of the Japanese managerial approach is to
develop extraordinary qualities in ordinary individuals (Pascale &
Athos, 1981). The Japanese understand that a manager's behavior is a
powerful form of symbolic communication to peOple down the line, telling
them what he really cares about. The key to success has been their
ability to get to the employee seven levels down and motivate him to
decide energetically and creatively to pursue the organization's
objectives. When the executives in Japan meet with their managers it is
seldom formal. The executives refrain from giving orders. They respect
the pride of different individuals and honor the traditions of their
companies (Pascale & Athos, 1981). Managers are strongly encouraged to
spot the talent and potential within the ranks and put the right man in

the right place. While this approach does not fire people, it regularly

57

rotates those in trouble into other jobs. Criticism is viewed by this
approach as one of the disciplines of personal develOpment. They work
on a philosophy that a lot of "little" brains are superior to a few
"big” brains when it comes to making organizations work properly
(Pascale & Athos, 1981).

Praise and positive reinforcement are an important part of the
Japanese philosophy. The message is: ”Think about your job; deve10p
yourself and help us improve the company” (Pascale and Athos, 1981, p.
56). The Japanese see each person as having economic, social,
psychological, and spiritual needs. But Japanese executives assume it
is their task to attend to much more of the whole of the person, and not
leave so much to other institutions (such as government, family, or
religious ones). They believe it is only when the individuals' needs
are met within the subculture of a corporation that they can largely be
freed for productive work. The Japanese accept ambiguity, uncertainty,
and imperfection as much more of a given in organization life (Pascale 8
Athos, 1981). They see themselves as far more interdependent. Thus,
they are willing to make far greater investments in peeple. They
conduct their dialogues in circles, widening and narrowing them to
correspond to the other's sensitivity to the feedback. For example, the
executive might say, "I'd like you to reflect a bit further on your
proposal." This approach allows the recipient to exist with his
self-esteem intact. Japanese culture explicitly encourages, throughout
an individual's lifetime development, the ability to understand without
words, not just the situation, but the intention of the individuals.

The difficulties American managers face are made more complicated by the

58

U.S. culture's fear of dependence on other people and by the high value
placed on being independent.

The ”Japanese" approach pays great attention to the
socialization of its employees. It makes certain employees embrace the
”family” concept by emphasizing it in training programs and at meetings.
Applicants are carefully screened to determine their sense of
cooperativeness or sense of teamwork. The most significant outcome of
the way' Japanese organizations manage themselves is that to a far
greater extent than in the U.S. they get. all employees in the
organization to be alert, to look for opportunities to do small things
better, and to strive by virtue of each small contribution to make the
company succeed (Pascale & Athos, 1981). "It is like building a pyramid
or watching a colony of ants: thousands of '1ittle people' doing
'1ittle' things, all with the same basic purpose, can move mountains”

(Pascale and Athos, 1981, p. 56).

Manager as developer. Managing for Excellence (Bradford and Cohen,

 

 

(1984) explains why the traditional concept of "Manager as Hero" is
outmoded, why it leads to overresponsibility on the part of managers and
actually results in employees performing at levels far below their
capability. As an alternative, Bradford and Cohen (1984) introduce;a
new concept of leadership called "Manager as Ibveloper," which brings
together some of the most important breakthroughs in management thinking
of the last decade.

This new model of leadership is the key to raising mere

adequacy to excellence. The focus is on quality, on genuinely

59

collaborative team effort, on confronting differences about work without
infighting, and on continual attention to the development of members as
integral to achieving the task. In this new model, everyone worries
about the whole and takes initiative to see that problems are dealt with
and objectives met. Task couplexity insures that no one person can have
all the necessary knowledge, which forces a higher degree of
interdependence among subordinates, a much greater demand for
coordination, if work is to be successfully accomplished. Information,
cooperation, agreement, and assistance from many areas are needed
(Bradford & Cohen, 1984). Manager and leader are used interchangeably
in this literature, as the authors think that excellence can be achieved
only through simultaneously taking care of the present and planning for
the future.

In training programs and courses the authors conducted they
discovered that about twenty-five percent of the managers reported that
they used less than a third of their ability. Over half of the managers
said they were using between thirty and sixty percent of their skills.
Thus, the problem of utilization of abilities and competencies and to
challenging employees.

An entirely new definition of leadership is required if a
department is to be led into new .and unanticipated areas (Bradford 8
Cohen, 1984). This new definition is a fundamental reorientation as
shared responsibility and control take the place of the individual
carrying the burdens alone. Within this model the manager must first
believe in the concept and then act in the creation of a team of key.

subordinates who are jointly responsible with the manager for the

6O

department's success. At the same time that the manager* works to
deve10p management responsibility in subordinates, he or she must help
develop the abilities of the subordinates to share management of the
unit's performance (Bradford & Cohen, 1984). Skills have to be learned,
common goals accepted, expectations changed, and norms modified
(Bradford 8 Cohen, 1984). This management model was created by work
with over 200 managers from leading corporations and government
agencies. Bradford and Cohen observed managers trying to deal with
difficult situations, explored their reasoning and strategies, and
applied what they learned to their thinking on leadership.
Developer-managers learn to have impact without exerting total control,
to be helpful without having all the answers, to get involved without
demanding centrality, to be powerful without needing to dominate, and to
act responsible without letting others out (Bradford & Cohen, 1984).
The answer then is for the manager to build a team that shares in the
responsibility of managing the department. Building such a team, whose
members are involved in the decisions and share responsibility for the
working of all the parts, should lead to greater subordinate commitment
and motivation as well as better performance. Learning that occurs on
the job, in ongoing interactions, is likely to be the most relevant to
its members (Bradford. & Cohen, 1984). Tasks can. be assigned that
broaden the subordinate's knowledge and skills, coaching can occur that
builds competencies, and feedback can be given on an ongoing basis. In
addition, the subordinates learn from how bosses go about deveIOping,

how they ask questions, provide support, confront, and make suggestions.

61

Summary of management. The literature review on management

 

included (a) The One Minute Manager's approach to management, (b) five
steps to training a learner to be a good performer, (c) the Japanese
managerial process, and (d) manager as a developer. The literature
reiterated management alternatives replacing the traditional concept of
the manager assuming the responsibility alone. The focus was' on

collaborative team effort which was consistent with this study.

Adult Learning

Although interest in adult development has grown in recent
years, the concept of adults as learners appeared to be enigmatic to the
population under study. Since special education teachers are involved
in training of aides and involved with parents, the need to learn about
adults is especially important.

How and why do adults learn? If the researcher can answer
this question then a part of the problem of training paraprofessionals
would be answered. Bova and Phillips (1984) discussed the ways that
adults learn through mentoring. The literature described possible roles
and functions for the special education teacher as a mentor. These role
descriptions included:

1. A non-parental career role model who actively provides

guidance, support and opportunities for the protege. The
function of a mentor consists of role model, consultant,

and advisor (Sheely, 1976).

62

2. One who personalizes the modeling influences for the
protege by a direct involvement not necessarily implied
by a role model. Thus, in addition to being a role
model, the mentor acts as a guide, a tutor or coach, and
a confidant (Bolton, 1980).

3. One who possesses sincere generosity, compassion and
concern. They listen in the best Rogerian sense,
displaying feelings as well as ideas (Woodlands Group,
1980).

4. One defined not in terms of the formal role, but in terms
of the character of the relationship and the function it
serves (Levinson, 1978).

5. One who is receptive to looking objectively at
accomplishments and giving encouragement, and also
running interference for proteges (Thompson, 1976).

According to Phillips & Jones (1982) mentors can assume a

variety of educational roles in their proteges' careers. One of the
roles is a supportive boss. This mentor is usually an immediate boss,
but it's a role that can be taken by anyone in a direct supervisory
position, such as a teacher, coach or director.

The National Center For Research In Vocational Education (Ohio

State university, 1984) described guidelines to consider when developing
educational programs for adults. Adults possess characteristics that
influence how they learn and that should be considered when developing

instructional programs. Critical adult characteristics are as follows:

3.

63

Adult Life Cycle: Each adult progresses through a series
of life phases. In each phase of life, certain behaviors
and skills -- known as developmental tasks -- need to be
learned. Life-cycle phases influence how individuals
approach learning as well as what they want or need to
learn. In considering instructional programs, it is
necessary to consider the develOpmental needs of adult
learners at specific developmental stages.

Immediate Time Orientation: Adult learning is motivated
by the need to learn .a new' task. or make a specific
decision. Adults are primarily interested in acquiring
information, learning knowledge and skills for immediate
application.

Broad Base of Experience: Adults have extensive
experiences that influence their ability' to perceive,
process, and use information. Their experiences result
in knowledge that provides a broad base foundation for
gaining additional knowledge. Adults learn by relating
new material to what they already know and by relating
the new information to past experiences.

Independent Self-Concept: By adulthood, individuals have
developed an independent view of self and rely less on
others for direction. Learning situations for adults
should be designed to allow adults to retain as much

autonomy as possible.

64

5. Social Roles of Adults: The role of learner is a
secondary one for adults. Since adults must attend first
to their primary roles, such as wage earner, spouse,
parent, or citizen, they frequently have limited amounts
of energy and time to devote to their roles as learners.

Since adults have an independent self-concept, it is very
important for them to assume responsibility for their learning.
Otherwise, they may resist the learning situations in which they feel
they have no voice. The challenge is to create a non-threatening
atmosphere in which adults have permission and are expected to share in
the responsibility for learning (Ohio State University, 1984). This can
be accomplished in several ways:

1. Listen to learners' concerns.

2. Learn the names of participants so that they feel

involved.

3. Relate the learning content to the participants' real
life problems and situations.

4. Ask for feedback on previous lessons or sessions.

5. Respond to learners' feedback in a positive way.

6. Create opportunities for participants to reflect on

, proposed solutions to problems and situations.

Sharing the responsibility' for learning provides the
Opportunity for adult learners to have ownership, to participate, and to
feel that the activity is related to their needs. Instructional
techniques that draw upon adult experiences are particularly appropriate

for use in carrying out learning objectives, for they call upon the

65

stored knowledge and attitudes of learners and encourage them to
participate in class sessions. They also help establish a relationship
between the learner and the new material. The teacher's role is to
enhance and reinforce existing motivation. These methods included (Ohio
State University, 1984):

1. Group discussion

2. Role playing

3. Simulation exercises

4. Skill practice exercises

Modeligg. Bolton (1980) presented a conceptual analysis of the
mentor relationship as an aspect of social learning and the career
development of women. Research tends to support the idea that there are
no significant differences between men and women that would limit the
capacity of women to perform effectively in managerial and supervisory
jobs (Reif, Newstrom, and Monczka, 1975). Reif (1975) explored one
aspect of the socialization process in the career develOpment of women
as the presence of a mentor. The definition of role models, the process
of modeling and imitation, and their influence on learning were
discussed to provide a background for conceptual analysis of the term
mentor and its role in social learning.

For decades sociologists have made reference to ”taking the
role of the other" as a primary explanation in relating the acts of the
individual to the social context of his actions. Kemper (1968)
described the role model as an individual rather than a group and

suggested that the model demonstrate how' something is to be done.

66

Therefore, it is most important that the modeler possess the skills and
qualities that are presumed by the person to be lacking in his or
herself. It is, thus, by observation and comparison that learning takes
place. One of the primary means by which new behaviors are acquired and
existing patterns are modified entails modeling and vicarious processes
(Bandura, 1973). It is evident from informal observation that human
behavior is to a large extent socially transmitted, either deliberately
or inadvertently acquired through the examples provided by influential
models.

Modeling can produce various effects on observers: new
patterns of behavior can be acquired through observation; behavior
already learned can be strengthened or weakened; and similar behavior in
observers can be facilitated by the actions of others serving as social
prompts (Bolton, 1980). There are also several important reasons why
modeling influences play a paramount role in learning in everyday life:

1. Models demonstrate how required activities are to be per-

formed.

2. Modeling provides a faster way of learning than that of

direct experience.

3. Some complex behavior can be produced only through the

influence of models. (Bandura, 1973)

Within the context of social learning and the influence of
modeling on career development emerges the more specific concept of
mentor. The mentor, like the role model, demonstrates how an activity
is to be performed and can enhance the learning experience. In addition

the mentor personalizes the modeling influences for the individual by a

67

direct involvement not necessarily implied by a role model. Therefore
in addition to being a role model, the mentor acts as a guide, a tutor
or coach, and a confidant.

Similarities of mentoring to the early apprenticeship method
of training illustrate the significance of a master or expert in the
career development of a newcomer to a profession or trade. Roberts
(1965) stated that an apprenticeship consists of "learning a trade on
the job under supervision and according to established specification.”
In almost every occupation there is a practical aspect which occurs
after the classroom learning has ceased, e.g. internships for medical
doctors and practice teaching for school teachers. It is the practical
aspect of training that has as its purpose to assimilate all the
knowledge and facts into a workable organized collection of occupational
competencies. It is the purpose that relates apprenticeships to mentor
relationships.

Apprenticeships and mentor relationships both serve to deve10p
the individual in a beginning state through experiences provided by a
more experienced individual. The basic difference is that mentor
relationships imply a more personal relationship than do
apprenticeships. A mentor is defined in terms of the character of the
relationship between two individuals rather than the function it serves
(Levinson, 1978). The mentor relationship is much less formal and more
personal than the apprenticeship. Perhaps equally as important in a
mentor relationship as the learning that takes place in the individual,
is the impression that is created on others (Bolton, 1980). The

unspoken message is that ”this person is O.K. because I have taken

68

responsibility for him/her. They are worthy of my attention and are
therefore worthy of yours" (Bolton, 1980). Dalton, Thompson, and Price
(1977) and Ard (1973) suggest the necessity of such a relationship
during the beginning stages of a career. There is a similarity between
the career development stages described by Dalton (1977) and the roles
of supervision as described by Ard (1973). Both authors look at working
relationships as a continuum of develOpment in which those relations
with significant others in the work environment change considerably.
Each stage involves at least two people who have different roles or
functions. The functions of the person in the superior role were role
model, mentor and sponsor. This was designated as a superior role
because one person provides something to the (subordinate) person,
either directly as mentor or indirectly as a role-model. The
subordinate role, the other half of the relationship, has three
corresponding functions: observer, mentee, and protege. As this
continuum occurs the person in the subordinate role may assume the
superior role in a relationship with another individual. For example,
he/she may be a mentee in one relationship but a role model in another
or a protege in one and a mentor in another. The final stage of the
career development relationship continuum is that of a peer. In this
stage there is no superior, subordinate role implied but a relationship
of equality.

These stages and the functions and roles implied are not
discreet and it is difficult to label the two relationships within each
stage with enough specificity to clearly indicate the nature of that

aspect of the relationship (Bolton, 1980). Many individuals never reach

69

the mentor/mentee stage. The significance of the mentor is that it is
in this stage when the guidance is close, personal and directed toward
the mentee. This is contrasted to the role model who demonstrated how
something is to be done but who may not even know the observer. The
position of an individual in the organization's hierarchy should not be
used as an indicator of his/her ability to help promote or advance
another individual. The assumption of a mentor role relationship is
that a certain amount of expertise has been accrued. The most important
element in this development is the willingness to share accumulated
knowledge with another individual in the beginning stage of development
whether on the same occupational level or from a higher position
(Bolton, 1980).

Three approaches to adult learning are advocated and used as
bases for research and theory development. These frameworks were
determined as having value since they were considered learner-centered.
The emphasis in these three approaches is on the adult learner.

1. Instruction should be personalized to fit the learner.
Activities are preplanned, unitized and based on the
learning required of the student. This approach develops
out of a Skinnerian philosophy as instruction requires
the development of a set of specific behavioral
objectives. Strengths of this approach are reflected by:
(a) what is to be learned is very clear, and
(b) evaluation is based on measurement of expected

outcomes. This approach has proven effective for

7O

learning of specifiable skills and efficient for
Adult Basic Education programs (Davies, 1981).

2. Knowles' (1970) work represents a second approach. This
approach begins ‘with the identification of needs and
resources by learners followed by objectives and
individual or group projects (or contracts) for meeting
the learning needs which are developed. The emphasis is
on the activities and behaviors that are appropriate for
meeting learning needs. Thus, plans, activities, and
behaviors are important in fostering adult learning.

3. The personal learning project is based on the intentional
activities of the learner. Tough (1978) discovered that
individuals spend many hours carrying out personal
learning projects -- sustained efforts to learn something

that is fairly clear to the learner.

Experience as learnipg. Dewey (1938) was one of the first
philosophers to redirect education to a consideration of the experience
of the learner. He suggested that attention should be directed to the
perceptions of the experiences of learners. This approach does not
discredit the utility of other approaches, but indicates that the study
of adult learning should be based on the experience -- the emotions,
feelings, thoughts and the body state of the learner. Therefore, from
an awareness of these experiences, learning can proceed to activities,
behaviors and analysis. This approach calls for a shift in emphasis to

the perspective of the learner (Davies, 1979).

71

Dewey (1938) stated that the principle of continuity of
experiencemeans every experience takes up something from those which
have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which
come after it. He continued to state that every experience is a moving
force. Its value can be judged only on the ground of what it moves
toward and into. Dewey felt that care must be devoted to the conditions
which give each present experience a worthwhile meaning. Dewey also
stressed collateral learning and the importance of the attitudes
learners acquire as critical to further problem solving. He stressed
that if we stifle the desire to learn then we also rob the student from
learning from. his experiences in his world --' which should be a
priority. Thus, positive collateral learning operates to assist the
learner' in getting out of further experiences the fullest, richest
potential. Dewey stressed that collateral learning is the formation of
enduring attitudes, likes-dislikes -- and is more important than the
subject that's learned. Deny felt that attitudes are fundamentally
what count in the future. He stated that the most important attitude
that can be formed is that of the desire to go on learning. If this is
not present the learner is robbed of his/her native capacities which
otherwise would enable him to cape with situations he meets in the
course of his life. However, he stated that care should be devoted to
reconstruct conditions which give each present experience a worthwhile
meaning. According to Dewey continuity and interaction is the criteria
of the value of an experience.

Teachers, according to Dewey (1938), should be able to judge

what attitudes are conducive to continued growth and which are

72

detrimental. The teacher is responsible for the total social set up
which must take into account the needs and capacities of the individual,
or it may cause an experience to be miseducative. It is the quality of
the experience that is important and allows for expansion and meaning of
further problems and experiences.

Reich (1973) suggested that from a biological perspective
humans are constructed to expand from within to the outside. Friedman
(1974) described how psychotherapy, a form of personal learning, should
start from the client's -- the learner's -- experience. Ferree (1983)
discussed self-knowledge as crucial in personal planning. The self-
knowledge of which he speaks requires a person to know a great deal
about the world. How can one really know whether he really desires to
engage in various pursuits, if he has had no experience with these
things? Ferree stated that the individual needs the kind of experience
that gives him/her a fair sample of multiple pursuits. Thus, having
experienced a wide array of alternatives the individual can compare his
experiences to discover which ones offer him the highest satisfaction.

Research on learning from this perspective draws attention to
the phenomenological, heuristic and hermeneutical studies.
Phenomenological studies involve descriptions of experiences from the
participant's perspective. Heuristic studies are based on the
experience of a concern or crisis in the experience of the researcher
which leads to reflective discovery and further exploration of the
meaning of experience. Hermeneutical studies involve interpretation or

finding the meaning in a learner's words or expressions and explaining

73

them to others. These kinds of studies, similar to this study, lead to
greater understanding and new dimensions of the process of learning.

Buber (1947) stated that educators need to consider the most
effective learning style based on the learners' experience. Buber
reiterated that in learning what the individual needs and does not need
at the moment, the educator is led to an even deeper recognition of what
the person needs in order to grow. Paulo Friere (1973) described the
educator's role as one in which he enters into conversation with the
learner about concrete situations from the learner's experience.
Teaching, he stresses, can not be done from the top down, but only from
the inside out. Griffin (1979), teaching courses in adult education at
the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, taught that the
experience of the learner was the beginning point. She was aware that
she didn't really comprehend a principle until she discovered it from
the inside out.

What is required is the ability to see into oneself, to know
one's experience, one's being. One must acknowledge their experiences
-- what they feel, what they care about, what they know, what they don't

know, what they see and what they learn (Davies, 1981).

Summary of adult learning. The review of adult learning included

 

(a) characteristics of adult learners, (b) modeling, and (c) experience
as learning to better understand how and why adults learn. The
literature described possible roles and functions for the teacher as a
role model and mentor. The literature suggested that life-cycle phases

influence how individuals approach learning as well as what they want or

74

need to learn. The function of assuming responsibility for one's own
learning was reiterated. Thus, creating a non-threatening work climate
for adults was supported. Mentoring relationships were found to be
important in developing the adult learner. Proteges learn many
important skills from their mentors. These skills are learned in
different ways and under many different circumstances. The definition
of role models, the process of modeling and imitation, and their
influence on learning were supported by the literature. The literature
indicated that learning can take place by observation and commrison.
Modeling influences play a paramount role in learning in everyday life.
Three approaches to adult learning were highlighted and used
as bases for research and theory development for adult learners: (a)
Dewey indicated that adult learning should be based on experience, (b)
Reich, Friedman, Friere and Griffin described how humans are constructed
to expand from within to the outside, and (c) Ferree indicated that the
individual needs the kind of experience that gives him a fair sample of

them for comparison.

Summary

The overall literature review included (a) teacher roles and
functions, (b) special education. teacher roles, (c) paraprofessional
roles and functions, (d) professional development and training, (e)
supervision and (f) adult learning as a basis for the study. The review
indicated a definite need for role clarifications for the teacher and

paraprofessional.

75

The teacher roles and functions identified teaching tasks
which related to the functions. The teaching tasks provided a framework
in which to relate practice and research. The special education teacher
roles reiterated the need to train special education teachers to work
effectively with paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals were usually not
given any training for their functions. However, the teachers were not
known to have received either training to prepare them to use
paraprofessionals to the best advantage or training to prepare them for
other role functions they assumed when paraprofessionals were employed.
One role definition as the "program manager” of the instructional team
was consistent with this study.

Supervision was defined as a process which facilitated the
growth of the teacher, by providing the teacher with feedback about
classroom interactions and assisting the teacher to utilize that
feedback, in order to make teaching more effective. Some teachers
preferred a direct supervisory style, while others preferred non-direct
interactions. Clinical supervision was defined as an intensive process
designed to improve instruction by conferring with the teacher on (a)
lesson planning, (b) observing the lesson, (c) analyzing the
observational data and (d) giving the teacher feedback.

‘While teachers want and need the services of
paraprofessionals, there has been difficulty' in utilizing them as
effectively as possible. It appeared that much inservice was fragmented
in nature and distant from the professional lives of teachers and the
settings in which they' worked. The .most innovative approaches to

professional deve10pment were those that relied on exploration and

76

discovery by teachers. Thus, the review indicated that staff
development was something the teacher did for himself/herself to grow
and deve10p on the job.

Training included the combination of (a) theory, (b) modeling,
(c) practice, (d) feedback, and (e) coaching to application (Joyce and

Showers (1980). The review indicated that continuous feedback,

 

practice, and the companionship of coaches was necessary to enable the
learner to bring additional skills to their repertoire under effective
control. Feedback from others had a powerful influence on teachers'
self-perceptions.

Management was reviewed as it was referred to in the data for
the study. The Japanese approach focused on the socialization of its
employees. The family concept was emphasized in the Japanese managerial
process. Another model of management by Bradford and Cohen (1984)
focused on collaborative team effort. Bradford and Cohen's (1984) model
included shared responsibility' and control replacing the supervisor
carrying the responsibilities above.

The reviews of adult learning included guidelines to consider
when developing educational programs for adults. The definition of role
models, mentor, the process of modeling, and their influence on learning
were included to provide a basis for analysis of the mentor role. Three
approaches to adult learning were reviewed for additional basis and
added meaning to the study. The six research questions addressed what
were the practices ongoing in the classroom along with interpretations

and definitions of roles by both the teacher and paraprofessional.

CHAPTER III

Methodology

Introduction

 

A case study method was selected for an in-depth understanding
of practices evidenced by a: special education. teacher training and
supervising a paraprofessional. It was the purpose of this chapter to
describe the method and procedures that the researcher’ utilized to
discover role definitions, meanings and interpretations that the special
education teacher practiced while providing specific training and

supervision for a paraprofessional.

The Case Study

 

This case study involved the researcher conducting a detailed
investigation of a special education teacher and a paraprofessional, new
to the classroom, within a severely multiply impaired classroom at
Kennedy School. To ensure anonymity, all proper names of individuals
and schools are fictitious.

The aims of the case study were understanding, extension of
experience, and increase in. meanings in that which is 'hnown. The
approach used in this study was intense participation in the experiences
of a special education teacher focusing on training and managing a

paraprofessional in a severely multiply impaired classroom.

77

78

The main purpose for the study was to explicate and understand
the roles and tasks of a special education teacher while training and
managing a paraprofessional. The study appeared useful for further
identification and clarification of the concepts of training and
supervising as roles carried out by a special education teacher. The
results of subjective research should not be taken as conclusive
evidence (Borg & Meredith, 1983). The utility of this work will be
judged when the reader turns to other cases and encounters fresh data
that may be assessed within this framework (Labov, Williams and Fanshel,
1977). Once a significant number of case studies have been compared, it
_ may be possible to interpret their results in order to identify
potentially significant variables whose validity and reliability could
then be verified by way of experimental research.

The following research questions were asked at the beginning
of the study, and have guided the data collection and interpretation.

1. How does a special education teacher define his/her role in
training a paraprofessional?

2. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the special
education teacher in his/her training?

3. What practices are evident in providing specific training for

a paraprofessional by a special education teacher?

4. How,does a special education teacher define his/her role in
supervising a paraprofessional?
5. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the special

education teacher in supervising his/her work?

79

6. What practices are evident in providing specific supervision

for a paraprofessional by a special education teacher?

Study Group

The population of this study included one male special
education teacher and one paraprofessional new to the Severely Multiply
Impaired classroom at Kennedy School. This paraprofessional was
selected as she was under the direct supervision of the teacher in the
study and new to the classroom beginning August, 1984. Although not a
central focus, two other female paraprofessionals in the classroom, who
had been with this teacher the previous school year. Eight severely
multiply impaired students in the classroom under study provided
additional context for the study.

The researcher selected the informants at the direction of her
committee members and chairman. In a previous study the researcher had
gathered data from four classroom special education teachers and six
paraprofessionals at Kennedy School. The researcher selected this
particular teacher since from previous data he was performing training

and supervision with a paraprofessional new to his classroom.

The Ethnographic Research Cycle

While other social science researchers usually follow a linear
pattern of investigation, the ethnographer tends to follow a cyclical

model (Spradley, 1980). The researcher in this study’ followed the

80

cyclical pattern which meant that the major tasks of data collection
were repeated many times until patterns were established from practices
evident in the classroom. The cyclical concept means that the
researcher used feedback from each observation and interview to modify
earlier information. It was a longitudinal study consisting of seven
school months as interpretations led to new questions and subsequently
additional observations and interviews. This research cycle consisted
of (a) asking ethnographic questions, (b) collecting ethnographic data
by field observations and interviews, (c) making an ethnographic record,
and (d) analyzing ethnographic data (Appendix H). Observations in the
classroom were spontaneous and also at the invitation of the teacher
into his classroom for a minimum of five hours per school week.

Interviews were primarily unstructured arising from new
questions to ask following classroom observations. The study involved
an open-ended inquiry and required constant feedback to give the study
direction. Thus, the researcher interpreted the field notes after each
period of field work in order to know what to look for during the next
period of participant observation. The data collection was influenced
by the six research questions which guided the study. The research
cycle continued until the study was completed.

Guided by the primary research questions the researcher made
broad descriptive observations, attempting to get an overview of the
training and supervision of the paraprofessional. Then, after recording
and analyzing the initial data, the researcher narrowed the scOpe and
began to make selective focused observations. The special education

teacher informed the researcher when meetings and conferences were held

81

during the school day. The researcher also observed the classroom at
times when the teacher was absent, and varied the observations
throughout the day between 8:00 A.M. and 4:00 P.M. Finally, after more
analysis and repeated observations in the field, the researcher narrowed
the investigations still further to make very selective observations.
However, even as the observations became umre focused, the researcher
continued making general descriptive observations until the end of the

field study.

Data Collection

 

Observation. Observation was one important mode to obtain valid

 

inferences about the individuals ‘under study and the meanings they
share. The researcher had permission from the teacher to observe at any
time during the school day and was invited to observe at special times
for two hours per week. Many data were collected from field notes made
in the classroom and/or reconstructed at the earliest opportunity after
the occurrence of the interaction.- Data were also collected in the
school when the teacher and paraprofessional met together as in the

lounge and conference room.

Interview. At the site, the researcher regarded all conversation
between herself and others as forms of interviewing. Brief,
situational, or "incidental" questioning or conversation was utilized
throughout the study. The researcher also used on-the-spot questioning

when verbalizations or observations were unclear. Questioning was

82

postponed when the researcher felt the classroom under study would be
interrupted by making her presence more obvious. Questioning took place
as soon as the researcher felt it was appropriate and necessary to
clarify behaviors. Interviewing and observations were used to interpret
prior data and to validate inferences. The majority of informal
interviews did not use a specific, ordered list of questions or topics
because this amount of formality would have destroyed the conversational
style.

An initial interview guide was formulated after the researcher
had completed the cycle a minimum of four times and needed additional
participant perspectives. The initial guide was based on inferences
arrived at from data collection. The guide was develOped over a period
of time by beginning with the most unstructured exploratory interviews
and then gradually structuring the interview schedule as the information
became more precise. Thus, in the beginning of the research cycle the
procedures were not preplanned, while in the final phase of exploration
the interview guide was refined and structured. (Appendices C-G). The
informal interviews were completed individually and not jointly. The
researcher needed from time to time to:

l. Clarify the intent of the question.

2. Probe for any clarification or elaboration of the

responses so as to meet the objectives of the interviews.

3. Motivate the participants by demonstrating appropriate,

attitudes toward the task, the answers received, or the

participant himself.

 

 

83

Interviewing allowed the researcher to gather descriptive data
in the subject's own words. While observation was the center of the
field research, the interview was used to provide context or meaning and
to obtain people's beliefs, attitudes, values, knowledge, or any other
subjective orientations or mental content (Garden, 1980). Questioning
the participants regarding the what and why' of their behavior' was
necessary to avoid unwarranted inferences and imputations by the

researcher.

Journal. The special education teacher wrote in a journal his
definition and perspectives toward training and supervision. This
written information was then checked by observations, informal, and
formal interviews. The teacher volunteered to write these descriptions

and definitions for the researcher.

Conferences. Cultural meaning is complex, therefore the researcher

 

focused on conferences with the special education teacher and
paraprofessional as an additional means to better understand the roles
of the teacher while training and supervising a paraprofessional. The
conferences included informal and formal meetings before and after the
students left and discussions during the school day regarding
activities, students, or goals and objectives. The researcher observed
how the teacher shared and disseminated ideas and information to the
paraprofessional. Following the conferences the researcher questioned
the informants when in doubt or was uncertain regarding what' was

happening. The researcher also inquired informally following the

84

conferences to gain the participant's perspectives of what actually
occurred during the meeting. This provided a check for the researcher
as to the meanings she discovered. Mainly the inquiries followed the
conferences, but there were times when it was not feasible for the
participants, and time was arranged as soon as possible to get back with
the informants. The researcher also gained permission from the special
education teacher and paraprofessional to attend the small conferences
whenever they were held. The teacher volunteered to make the researcher
aware of the time and place of joint conferences with the
paraprofessional and gained permission to attend these whenever they
were held. The data collection included:
1. Observed the conference.
2. Recorded data as to the purpose of the conference,
discussion that occurred, and closure of the conference.
3. Questioned the participants regarding their
interpretation of the conference, thus, adding a validity
check as to the researcher's derived meanings.

4. Recorded and analyzed the conference data.

Documents. The researcher reviewed official documents to obtain
information on how training and supervision were defined at the Kennedy
School and its relationship and meaning to the participants in this
study. Job descriptions and the school curriculum assessment aided the
researcher in the initial interview and further probing. Questioning
the teacher and paraprofessional regarding their job description added

meaning to observed behaviors in the classroom and conference notes.

85

The researcher studied the school Functionally-Based Curriculum Model
which was used by the special education teacher and paraprofessional.
This document provided more questions to ask participants regarding
training the paraprofessional to perform the goals and objectives with
the students.

Internal documents were memos and other commmications that
were circulated inside the school and classroom. These documents
revealed information about the official chain of command, and internal
rules and regulations which effected training and supervision within the
classroom. The researcher had access to most internally produced
documents including:

1. Minutes of teachers meetings

2. School bulletins

3. Memos to the special education teacher or

paraprofessional in the study

4. Teacher's lesson plans

5. Teacher's schedules within the classroom

6. Evaluation of the paraprofessional by the teacher, with

her permission

7. Data collection by the teacher and paraprofessional on

students

8. Assignments posted in the classroom by the teacher

9. All. other' postings, information that the special

education teacher or paraprofessional share with the

researcher

 

 

 

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10. Other classroom documents that are readily observable for
the researcher
11. Other school documents that are readily observable for
the researcher
External communication refers to materials produced by the
school system for public consumption. These included:
1. News releases
2. Notes to parents-guardian-Regional Center
3. Public statements of philosophy
4. Spartan Intermediate School District Plan
5. Evaluation forms
6. Job descriptions
7. Incoming materials received from other schools
In addition to the official documents already discussed, the
school had individual files on every student and in most cases on each
employee. The researcher approached student records not for what they
told about the student, but rather for what they revealed about the

individuals who wrote the records.

Media. The tape recorder was used by the researcher for
interviewing with preplanned structured questions. The more complex the
information, the less the researcher depended on memory or field notes.
The greater the significance of the exact words used and the order in
which the ideas were expressed, the more necessary it was to use a tape

recorder.

87

The following precautions were followed in these instances:

1. The use of the tape recorder was explained to the
participants in a forthright and matter-of-fact way.

2. The researcher was thoroughly familiar with the machine
so that she did not feel insecure in its use or devote
too much attention to it.

3. Once the interview began, the researcher showed no
awareness of the tape recorder's presence.

An example of the explanation for the usage of the tape

recorder was:
”I am very interested in getting all the details
of exactly what you say, and do not want to
distort them. The best way to do this is for the
tape recorder to do all the work. In this way I
can listen to it over and over again and type the
relevant material. If you have any objections I

can take notes, but this method is much more
accurate.”

Ethics

Ethics are understood in terms of their lifelong obligations
to the people who have touched their lives in the course of living the
life of a qualitative researcher (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). The great
complexity of fieldwork sites makes it difficult, if not impossible, to
adOpt a single set of standards for all ethnographers. However, ethical
principles based on those adopted by the American Anthropological

Association served as a useful guide (Appendix I).

88

The principles did not interfere or restrict obtaining data or
analysis of data and the researcher was not looked upon with suspicion
and distrust as she protected the rights of the informants in this

study.

Reliability and Validity

 

It is clear that for observations to be valid they must be
reliable, but the fact that the observations are reliable is no
guarantee that they will be valid (Gorden, 1980). Thus, the researcher
was guided by the Ethnographic Research Cycle, a minimum of seven times,
searching for patterns in the practices used by the subjects. Thus,
important parts of the analysis were made while still obtaining data.
The analysis was ongoing throughout the study.

To provide cross checking field notes were checked against
interviews, documents, and conference notes for consistencies and
discrepant cases. The researcher compared the information obtained in
varied forms of interviews. Thus, the conclusions were obtained and
checked against the experiences and understandings of the teacher and
paraprofessional. The study extended over seven months, providing a
longitudinal perspective not present in most educational research. The
theories developed were grounded solidly in observational data gathered
in a naturalistic setting. An essential prerequisite was the
researcher's conviction that what she was writing was an accurate
interpretation. This conviction rests upon necessary and credible

procedures performed, as well as upon the sense of certainty that the

89

observer did in fact see what she says she saw (Schatzman & Strauss,
1973). The researcher was charged with developing a descriptive
narrative that was sufficiently valid in order that the categories used
would be well substantiated, and the event defined shown to be true by
giving evidence. "One may then say that 'This is the way the
participants make sense of their world' and when one can say that,

validity is assured" (Cusick, 1978, p. 18).

Analysis

Following the previously described research cycle the
researcher systematically searched and arranged the fieldnotes,
interview data, and other relevant materials that were accumulated to
increase her understanding of them and to present what was discovered to
the reader. This analysis included:

1. Werked with data

2. Organized it by roles

3. Sorted it into manageable units

4. Synthesized

5. Searched for patterns

6. Discovered what was important

7. Discovered what was to be learned

8. Decided what to tell the reader
Therefore, the analysis was actually a process of data reduction. The
researcher started analyzing very early in the study. This allowed her

to adjust observational strategies, shifting some emphasis towards those

90

experiences which bore upon the development of her understanding, and
generally exercised control over her emerging ideas by virtually
simultaneously ”checking” or "testing" of these ideas. Thus, the
researcher continued shifting grounds and changed roles, until all the
inferred discovered roles were displaced by those based upon
observation.

Finally, the researcher included an overview of the cultural
scene and statements that conveyed a sense of the whole setting.
Although the study was an in-depth analysis of two informants, the
analysis consisted of a search for:

l. The parts of a culture

2. The relationship among those parts

3. The relationship of the parts to the whole

Concepts, models, and data drawn from examination of secondary
sources were used by the researcher to facilitate her understanding of
the data. A substitute (floater) paraprofessional and the school
psychologist provided the researcher with additional definitions and
meanings. Individual Educational Plans and behavior treatment plans for
students were examined as they related to exactly what the staff was
performing in the classroom. The Individual Educational Plans and
behavior treatment plans were provided by the teacher and school

psychologist.

91

Summagy

This chapter presented the methodology for the study. The
research cycle was reiterated as the framework for gaining conceptual
entry into the subject matter, and for raising relevant questions
quickly. Reliability, validity and analysis were described in regard to
the study. Chapter Four includes a presentation of the descriptive data

collected for the study over a period of seven school months.

 

CHAPTER IV

Presentation of Data

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to explicate and understand the
roles and tasks of a special education teacher while guiding the
training and supervision of a paraprofessional at Kennedy School. The
two primary subjects in this study, a special education teacher and one
of his paraprofessionals, provided a rich and extensive source of
information related to these roles. The six research questions of the
study are used for the organization and context presentation of the
data. Dates and field note references are used for identification
purposes. Thus, the form 2-5 means February 5. The study was organized
by the research questions which included:

1. How does a special education teacher define his or her

role in training a paraprofessional?

2. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the

special education teacher in his or her training?

3. What practices are evident in providing specific training

for a paraprofessional by a special education teacher?

4. How does a special education teacher define his or her

role in supervising a paraprofessional?

S. Haw does a paraprofessional define the role of the

special education teacher in supervising his or her work?

92

93

6. What practices (are evident in providing specific
supervision for a paraprofessional by a special education

teacher?

Context of Study

The study' was conducted in Kennedy' School in the Spartan
Intermediate School District located in the south central part of a
midwestern state. The City of Spartan is centrally located in Spartan
County, and is the focal point for all Intermediate School District
activities. Spartan County is a rural agricultural area with small
industry. The Regional Center for Developmental Disabilities has long
been an economic asset to the community as well as a key educational
setting for the special education student.

Within the boundaries of the Spartan Intermediate School
District, there are three local school districts. These districts
represent a total (K-lZ) pupil papulation of approximately 6,000. The
Center for Developmental Disabilities has approximately 400 residents,
of which 110 are enrolled in special education programs operated by the
Spartan Intermediate School District.

The site of the study, Kennedy School, provides services for
students, to 26 years of age, who are enrolled in the Severely Mentally
Impaired and Severely Multiply Impaired Programs. These classrooms are
mandated by the state Rules and Regulations to have additional

paraprofessionals in the classrooms.

94

Kennedy School services the Center for Developmental
Disabilities and is staffed and operated by the Spartan Intermediate
School District. Twelve certified special education teachers and
approximately 33 non-certified paraprofessionals operate eleven special
education classrooms. Each teacher supervises two to four
paraprofessionals per classroom.

The clientele in the program includes two classifications:

1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Residents in this program have significant developmental
and adaptive training needs generally with a
classification of moderate, severe, or profound mental
retardation. The major program emphasis is the
development of communication, self-care, socialization,
and daily living skills. Residents' ages range from
infants through 26.
2. BEHAVIOR TREATMENT
This program classification is for residents with a
. common program need that cannot be met in other program
areas. Residents who have serious maladaptive behaviors
that make it difficult to program them with other
classifications and groupings of residents are assigned
to this program for interim periods.

The students at Kennedy’ School. were all institutionalized

students. Residence halls 'with appropriate professional care were

provided when the students were not in school. The educational program

b

95

extends through the summer months for a total school time of 230 days

per year.

Students. The special education teacher in this study was
responsible for eight Severely Multiply Impaired students with

assistance from three paraprofessionals. The students included:

Student A: 1-29-60 Birthday, age 25, male;

Handicaps: Profound mental retardation, infantile
cerebral. palsy, aphasia, spastic quadriplegia .and
severe deformities of the feet, myopic astigmatism,
nonverbal.

Maladaptive Behavior: Aggressive self abuse and
screaming.

Behavior Treatment Program and Data Collection
Present.
Wheelchair--Physical Therapy and Occupational

Services.

Student B: 2-9-61 Birthday, age 24, Female;
Handicaps: Blind (no eyes), spastic cerebral palsy with
mild diplegia, nonverbal and mental retardation.
Maladaptive Behavior: Treatment for stripping of
clothesnbehavior has not occurred but once since
May 4, 1984.

This student can ambulate independently, but is

blind.

96

Student C: 4-5-60 Birthday, age 25, Male;
Handicaps: Profound mental retardation with albinism,
rubella, nonverbal and spastic diplegia seizures
Maladaptive Behavior: Finger and hand sucking-Vestibular
Stimulation program

Wheelchair student

Student D: 4-12-63 Birthday, age 22, Male;
Handicaps: Major motor seizures, diplegia, nonverbal and
mental retardation
Maladaptive Behavior: More difficulty in feeding self
due to spasticity, walks with bent knees

Partially ambulatory

Student E: 4-9-60 Birthday, age 25, Male;

Handicaps: Profound Mental Retardation, seizures,
spastic quadriplegia, severe epilepsy, aphasia,
nonverbal, scoliosis, brittle bones and a wheelchair
student

Maladaptive Behavior: Cries

Student F: 6-31-61 Birthday, age 24, Male;
Handicaps: Congenital hydrocephalus (shunt), seizures,
quadriplegia, nonverbal, wheelchair student, and
mental retardation

Maladaptive Behavior: None

97

Student G: 11-18-62 Birthday, age 23, Female;
Handicaps: spastic quadriplegia, seizures, nonverbal but
for a few words and severely mentally retarded

Maladaptive Behavior: None

Student H: 3-29-63 Birthday, age 22, Male;
Handicaps: Spastic diaplegia, cerebral palsy, scoliosis,
nonverbal, seizures and severely mentally retarded
Maladaptive Behavior: None

(9-12 field notes)

Personal Descriptions

 

Descriptions of the two participants include Bill, the special
education teacher, and Carol, the paraprofessional, new to his
classroom. Two other paraprofessionals, Carol and Janie, in the
classroom are described to reflect the classroom organization and

climate.

The special education teacher. In order to describe accurately the

 

special education teacher in the study the researcher asked the teacher
to describe himself. In response he volunteered to write a description

of himself answering the question: Who am I?

98

"Who Am I?"

"I am a teacher who brings to the classroom a
broad scope of experiences. My college education
and two years after were dedicated to developing
my talents and self into a knowledgeable, loving
person who could be in the special service of the
Lord as a priest in the Roman Catholic Church. In
my two past graduate years in the seminary I was
an assistant chaplain at the Plymouth State Heme
for the retarded (1970-1972). I also taught
religion to all levels in school and to the deaf
and retarded children.

Up to this time, before I went on to a
different life, I already had achieved a BA degree
in my major of theology and philosophy with minors
in language and Social Studies. I also had two
years of post graduate work for a MA in theology
with internship as a Religious Education
Coordinator at a local parish.

My experiences with the deaf and with
teaching led me to achieve a Master's degree in
Special Education K-12 for the deaf and Regular
Education K-8 grades, at Eastern Michigan
University.

Presently I am thirtyrseven years old,
married to a loving-caring wife, Carol. We have
three children, Anna, age seven, Andy, age four
and Christy, age two.

I have been at Spartan School for ten years -
since 1975. My different roles began with being a
Hearing Consultant for approximately fifty
students along with other coordinating duties. My
role then expanded to covering a school, soon two
schools, next three schools, plus two community
Severely Multiply Impaired Deaf classrooms. My
duties included inservice training, therapy,
coordinating and reporting audiological testing
and otological appointments. I assisted with ear
treatments and evaluations. I did testing of
students hearing as a preliminary conditioning
before final testing.

99

During the first five years with Spartan
School I had no aides under my direction. I was
active in C. E. C. and became President one year.
During my tenure as president our chapter won the
Most Outstanding Chapter in the State. We also
raised over three thousand dollars for Special
Olympic uniforms.

My experiences include one year as a resource
room teacher for the Severely Multi-cap deaf at
Spartan School and did have two training aides.
This first experience with aides was positive.
They were both cooperative and energetic as we
worked more as therapists with specific students.

My next experience was being assigned as a
teacher of a community classroom at a grade school
with four multi-cap deaf students and four POHI,
EI, LD, MR students. This conglomeration of
students did have such a mixture of two or more
handicaps that it was truly a potpourri. This
classroom had several different teachers before I
arrived. The two aides had remained on the scene
and were many year veterans. Their abilities,
routines and knowledge of the students were well
entrenched. My working experience with these two
aides became very stressful and unc00perative.
They disliked change or new ideas and became at
times belligerent. Any efforts on my part to
bring us together in a working relationship were
met with criticism and going about what they
wanted done. Many times my authority and position
was threatened or rebuked.

After one year this room was disbanded and
merged into other classrooms. The last three
years I have been at Spartan School in a Severely
Multiply Impaired room. During this period the
three aides that I began with, who were also
veterans of those students, had reached a 'burn
out' and were allowed the opportunity to transfer.
They transferred and since then I have received
three new aides. These have worked well into a
team and in cooperation with programming and
changes. They have been nothing but the best."

Bill
(2-5 Journal)

100

Paraprofessionals in the classroom. Carol, the paraprofessional

 

included in the study, was new to this classroom. She was very quiet
and usually ate lunch by herself or with the teacher. She seldom
initiated a conversation although if asked questions would volunteer
conversation. She was very cooperative and when the researcher asked if
she would like to be involved in this study she appeared very pleased
that she was selected. Carol was very conscientious and was always
observed to be working with students, charts, art projects, or classroom
preparation. She was approximately five feet eight inches, 120 pounds,
and dressed very neat, but conservatively. She told the researcher that
she enjoyed her work, the teacher and staff, but especially the
students. Carol. was elated when. hired by' the Spartan Intermediate
School District. (9-24 field notes) She had nine years experience in
other special education classrooms for Spartan Intermediate School
District before being transferred to this classroom. Carol volunteered
to write the following description of herself by answering the question:
Who am I?
"Who Am I?"
I have worked for Spartan Intermediate School
District for ten years. I have worked under five
different teachers and classrooms. I am really at
home in the Ortho room. The children are like
overgrown infants, who love the attention and
affection that they get from us. I have seen much
progress from my two students that I work with.
Whether it's a smile or the final response you
get, for what you have been working on for so

long, wondering whether they can do it or not, or
if it's worth it.

101

During my senior year in high school I
decided I would like to work with mentally
handicapped children. I graduated from high
school in 1970 and began work in a factory, which
I hated. Five years later my dream came true and
I was hired by the Spartan School District.

I have two boys ages nine and eleven, in
grades fourth and fifth. My husband is a 'jack of
all trades.' If he can't fix something, he will
figure it out, until he can.

I enjoy doing tri-chem painting on material.
I also have made many quilts. I make homemade
bread and cookies 'from scratch.' I try to do
things the old-fashioned way} and to stretch .a
budget.

My boys have brought home art projects from
school, which I have capied and made a complete
set of art ideas by the month for the classroom I
am in now. I have made three copies of these for
other teachers I have worked for.

I am from a family of nine and grew up in a
small town. I have been a shy and quiet person
ever since I can remember. I still am in a lot of
ways. I have learned a lot by being quiet with my
eyes open! I can hear and see more of what is
going on around me." Carol. (2-8 Document)

The two additional paraprofessionals working in the classroom

were Helen and Jane.

Helen, the youngest of the paraprofessionals, had been
employed with the Spartan Intermediate School System for eight years.
Twenty-six years old, married and with no children, she was hired by the
Spartan Schools shortly after graduation from high school.

This aide had a very good sense of humor and was very
talkative. She enjoyed children and would like to have children of her
own. She had an outgoing personality and enjoyed peOple. Helen
described Bill, the teacher, as very patient and helpful in any given

situation.

102

In her spare time Helen enjoyed reading, crocheting, and bike
riding. (2-5 field notes) She did not remain in the background in
contrast to Carol who was quieter and reserved. (2-5 field notes)

Jane, the third paraprofessional, was very active throughout
Kennedy School. She was on the Social Committee, had many close friends
throughout the school and was the oldest of the three paraprofessionals
in the classroom. She appeared to relate well with both the young and
older paraprofessionals in the building as others went to her for advice

both personal and professional. (2-7 field notes)

Special Education Teacher's Definition of Training

The definition of training described by Bill, the teacher, included
(a) examples, (b) demonstrations, (c) discussions, (d) reading material,
and (e) refinement. The training was organized by use of a team
management approach. The teacher's philosophy behind this approach was
that by good management a new paraprofessional could be trained.
Bill defined how' he was training Carol in the following
description from the first interview: how do you define your role in
training a paraprofessional?

"Training is defined by my teaching through
examples, demonstrations, discussions, reading
material, and refinement of what I want happening
in the classroom with the students. This training
is organizational in manner which is spelled out
by 'Teamwork' in reality. It is learning by our
mistakes, refining and redefining programming. To
be ready for change and move on it. This is all a
part of training for new and old aides. There is
much for a new aide to learn and adjust and that
will come with time and good management." (10-9
Interview)

103

The teacher's definition of training emphasized that teamwork
was the overall concept and the process the teacher followed to train
his aides. Elements of his definition included role model, conferences,

handouts, coaching and practice at the work site.

Paraprofessional's Definition of Training by the Teacher

 

Carol, the paraprofessional, assumed a complementary role to
the teacher within the classroom team. She defined the role of the
teacher in her training as (a) worked beside us, (b) showed us what to
do, (c) I watched him, (d) explained at conferences, (e) prompted us
when necessary, (f) feedback was reciprocal, (g) offered encouragement,
(h) training was ongoing, and (i) a comfortable atmosphere. These
practices were used by Carol to define the role of the teacher in her
training.

"Bill works right beside us. He shows us
what to do so if we don't know we can watch him.
If it's something new, he explains it at
conferences with all of us so we can ask
questions. He prompts us at times when he
observes us doing something incorrectly, as with
gross motor therapy. He doesn't make a 'big deal'
out of our mistakes, but tells us what we did
right and what we should change. I feel
comfortable in asking him questions and offering
advice. I enjoy art work and he encourages me.
Training goes on all the time as he observes us
and offers suggestions." (10-12 Interview)

Carol's definition of training was consistent with the
teacher's definition of a team management concept. It appeared there

were no inconsistencies between definitions as the teacher worked beside

the paraprofessionals daily. The researcher observed the teacher on

104

eighty-two observations working directly with students in the classroom.

(3-27 field notes)

Practices Used in Providing Training

Practices, used by Bill, that were evident in providing
specific training for’ a paraprofessional included (a) modeling, (b)
feedback and coaching, (c) posted and written instructions, (d) role
playing, and (e) charting and comments. ‘ The teacher and
paraprofessionals worked as a team with ongoing reciprocal feedback.
Although they' worked as a team, the teacher was the manager, and
initially modeled the behavior or techniques he desired from the aide.
Bill's practices were supported by research. The most effective
training activities are those that combine theory, modeling, practice,

feedback and coaching to application (Joyce and Showers, 1980).

Modeling. The model demonstrates how something is to be done as it
is by observation and comparison that learning takes, place. It is
evident from informal observation that human behavior is to a large
extent socially transmitted, either deliberately or inadvertently
through the examples provided by models.

Bill, the teacher, demonstrated for his paraprofessionals
methods of reinforcing the students in the classroom. Observations and
interviews assisted the researcher in describing and identifying the
role of the special education teacher as a model for his

paraprofessionals.

105

Reinforcers were used with special education students by the
special education teacher and paraprofessionals daily. (The researcher
noted reinforcers used continuously in the classroom.) Accepted
definitions and beliefs practiced at Spartan Intermediate School
District regarding reinforcers included:

1. A reinforcer is a consequence that immediately follows the
behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will

occur again.

2. You cannot motivate a student if you cannot identify at least
one reinforcer for them.

3. A. consequence that follows a response and increases the
likelihood of that reaponse occurring again is a reinforcer.

4. When starting a reinforcement program, reinforcers should be
delivered for each and every appropriate behavior.

5. Once the appropriate behavior is established, the frequency of
reinforcement delivery can be lessened.

6. A variety of different social, edible, and tactile reinforcers
should be used to increase apprOpriate behaviors. (2-27 field
notes)

The interview with the school psychologist included reference
to the importance of reinforcers.
”A behavioral program for a student must contain
his/her reinforcers. Several reinforcers are
defined for each student that will be used to
reinforce appropriate behaviors. If there are no
known reinforcers, the teachers and aides do

reinforcer sampling to discover them.” (2-1 field
notes)

106

This observation showed the teacher himself being the positive
reinforcer for a student by talking with her, stroking her hair, and
smiling when she was sitting properly. Bill was observed doing this by
three other paraprofessionals in his room. The following day the
researcher observed the teacher assisting another student and Carol was
with the student he had the previous day, doing what he had modeled. He
did not give her any verbal instructions, but instead modeled the
reinforcers for his aides. When the student would sit apprOpriately she
was talked to and her hair was stroked. When the student would throw
herself to the floor, she was ignored by the aide. (2-13 field notes)

The researcher later informally' met with the teacher and
paraprofessional independently. Bill expressed that the easiest, most
efficient, and least bureaucratic method of teaching his aides ways to

reinforce was for him to demonstrate them himself. It appeared to the

 

researcher that by demonstration he showed them exactly what he wanted
them to do. They worked as a team and there was respect between teacher
and aides in the classroom. The concept of modeling demonstrated that
the teacher, in this case, was independently attempting to teach his
paraprofessionals. Although they worked as a team, the teacher was the
manager and initially modeled the behavior. The researcher then met
with Carol to discover if she was aware of ‘what the teacher was
attempting to accomplish. The researcher asked:

Question: "How did you know what to do with the student when
she threw herself to the floor?"

Carol: "I watched Bill yesterday and he ignored her. I
knew that was part of her Behavior Treatment
program as I read it in her folder."

107

Question: ”Did observing Bill previously help you with the
student?"

Carol: "Yes, as he has told us to watch him when he's
working with students. Reading a B.T. program and
carrying it out can be difficult if no one shows
you what to do. (2-13 Interview)

Carol supported the researcher's reflections of respect
between paraprofessional and teacher (2-27 Interview) eXpressing that,
”He's a great teacher and he supports us. He shows us what to do by
doing it himself. He's not distant, but works with us. He's not afraid
to work with the students himself." Helen added, ”He wouldn't ask us to
do something that he couldn't do himself."

Another example of the teacher modeling reinforcers was the
teacher seated beside a desk with a student where several puzzles, pegs
and games were set out for the student to complete. Whenever the
student finished one task he was given an edible reinforcer, a pretzel,
and the teacher said, "Good." The researcher observed this exact
activity and procedure used by the teacher each A.M. for a week in this
class. The following week the teacher rotated students to another aide.
Carol was assigned this same student. The researcher observed Carol
following the teacher's demonstration. Bill related to the researcher
that this was an aggressive student and he was training Carol to assist
him. (9-16 field notes and interview)

A third example of the teacher modeling reinforcers was the
teacher doing tactile nurturance with a student. Bill rubbed the
student's hands while putting lotion on, and gently rocking him in the
rocking chair. He did this for several days himself. Bill was observed.

by all the paraprofessionals in his room performing these reinforcers

108

for this student. Later in the week Bill explained that he had a short
meeting and asked Carol to assist Johnny. (The researcher was observing
when the teacher left the room.) Carol followed through exactly as the
teacher had modeled. The teacher did not give any verbal directions
when he left as to what to do with Johnny. Carol, it appeared, knew
what to do ‘with the student, due to the modeling the teacher had
previously done. (3-4 field notes)

The researcher later met with the teacher and asked him if he
had given any verbal directions to the aide in assisting Johnny and he
expressed:

”Not specifically. We discuss student needs at
our morning conferences and if it's a new
objective I usually initially implement the
program (danonstrating to the aides my method of
following through). Next, I leave it up to them
to follow through. Sometimes they are more
creative than I am in carrying out objectives.”
(3-4 Interview)

The researcher questioned Bill for an example of this
creativity and he responded:

”For example, it was Carol who asked if we could
put a mobile on a wheelchair to get a student to
reach and grasp. It was an excellent idea and it
has helped this student. Previously I was putting
items in the student's hand and now he has this
mobile all the time." (3-4 Interview)

The paraprofessional observed the teacher being a positive
reinforcer for the student. The teacher demonstrated for Carol what he

wanted her to perform with. the student. The modeling was ongoing by the

teacher and Carol continually had a role model to observe.

109

Feedback and coaching. Training involved feedback between the

 

teacher and paraprofessionals continuously. Following was a typical
example:
Bill was assisting the student to take off his jacket.

Bill: "Thought we'd put him on the standing table first
today."

Carol and teacher assisted the student (each held him under one arm) to
the standing table. Next Janie came over to assist the teacher and
Carol in putting student on the standing table. (Janie puts standing
board at angle.)

Another student was on the free floating swing platform,
holding on with both hands, rocking back and forth. (The student was
not screaming and appeared very content.)

Bill: "Always get him calmed down before he goes on the
platform swing, as then it will have a calming

effect on him."

Janie: "It might not be a good idea with Student C close
by the table. She could vomit.”

Bill then moved student back away from the table.
Carol went in front of the student in the swing, and then
after fifteen minutes went over to the board to mark a student chart

objective completed for the day.

_ Bill: ”Get ice, Carol."
Janie: "I'll do Student D with ice."
Bill: "I've ‘noticed you are doing it a little

different.”

110

Janie: "The P. T. showed me how, but the student won't
let you do it correctly. (Janie appears taken back
that the teacher questions if she is doing it
correctly.) Judy taught me and that's her field.”
(Judy is the Physical Therapist for Spartan.)

Bill: ”Anyway, bring the ice pack back and I'll try it.”

The teacher applied the ice pack to Student D on his lips at
midline of the lips and brushed off to the side like a mustache. Janie
watched Bill demonstrate the ice pack.

Bill: Today he's in a good mood and it's easier. There
will be some days when it's impossible if he's
real upset so then just stop and try again later."
(1-22 field notes)

The observation (1-22 field notes) tied in with Boomer (1980)
who stated that teachers must be mature enough to provide direct
supervision and secure enough to accept honest feedback from the
paraprofessional. The feedback from the paraprofessional in this
instance was treated with respect and the teacher modeled the proper
technique for Janie. Bradford and Cohen (1984) reiterated that learning
that occurred on the job, in ongoing interactions, was likely to be the
most relevant to its members. The learning that occurred in this
classroom was ongoing and feedback was given on an ongoing basis. The
coaching by the teacher ‘helped improve the paraprofessionals
competencies. The teacher respected Janie's suggestion and moved the
student away from the table. The teacher not only listened to his
staff, but followed their suggestions. He did not tell her she was

wrong, but "doing it a little different." (1-22 field notes) Bill

coached by verbally giving directions and suggestions.

111

The teacher asked for the P. T. to assist himself or the aides
when he felt he needed help. A typical example included the following
situation. The physical therapist was discussing with Carol and the
teacher proper' positioning of a student for ‘placing in. an. upright
position using the standing table.

Teacher: ”I want to make certain that we arrive at the
proper alignment."

P. T.: "It looks fine to me and the straps are correct."

Carol: ”I was wondering since he just had surgery if what
we were doing would hurt him?”

P. T.: ”We must continue with D using the table for a
straight alignment. Overall I have observed
improvement in his flexibility and stretch.”

Carol: "I really have some problems putting on his shoe."

P. T.: "Let me watch you." (Carol attempts to put shoe
on student and has very difficult time.) ”Bend
his knee and his foot will come forward to you."
(She demonstrates, bending his knee and putting
the shoe on much easier.)

Teacher: "That sure is easier. I never thought of bending
his knee."

Training for Carol by the physical therapist was shared with
the teacher. They worked as a team and Carol did not feel alone as Bill
was learning, too. The teacher stated, "I never thought of . . ." Bill
had positive rapport with his paraprofessional as he was ”down to earth"
and respected her questioning and input. (2-13 field notes)

Feedback and coaching in the classroom was ongoing, not
formally structured, but spontaneous as the situations arose. Carol in
turn felt comfortable in giving feedback to Bill. The natural situation

appeared to assist the teacher with ongoing daily feedback. This was

112

supported by Bradford and Cohen (1984) who reiterated that learning that
occurred on the job, in ongoing interactions, would probably be the most

relevant to participants.

Posted written instructions. Posted written instructions was

 

another method the teacher used to train his paraprofessionals. The
researcher observed six different large posters, three feet by three
feet, regarding instructions for staff. Written instructions,
continually posted in the classroom to train his paraprofessionals
included (a) a tactile program, (b) vestibular precautions, (c)
positions and movements, (d) relaxation-rotation, (e) fine motor
developmental stages and (f) swallowing-lip closure techniques. The
instructions comprised skills that the staff practiced in the study.

The tactile program involved (a) using inhibition as a means
to stop tactile defensiveness, (b) using prOprioception or weight
bearing activities for increased sensations, (c) importance of touch,
(d) most sensitive tactile area, and (e) most noxious tactile
stimulations. (9-26 field notes)

Data collected on fourteen observations indicated that Bill
and Carol practiced these skills. Carol was observed firmly and slowly
rocking a student for several minutes, three times weekly. Bill had a
student wrapped in a blanket, like a cocoon, over a bolster once daily
for three school months. Thus, the activities in the study' were
consistent with the posted written instructions. (2-26 field notes)

Vestibular precautions to staff, printed on a large poster,

comprised (a) verbal protest, (b) blanching of skin, (c) nails turning

113

blue, (d) clamminess or cold, (e) ear lobes turning red, (f) nystagmus,
(g) dizziness and nausea, (h) respiration shallow and rapid, (1) student
is limp or faint, and (j) seizures. Staff was alerted to watch for
these symptoms in students up to one half hour after the stimulation was
provided by swing, scooterboard, or other devices used by staff. (9-26
field notes)

Vestibular stimulation was practiced in the study and
comprised a part of several students' daily activities. Thus, the
posted instructions were reminders to the paraprofessionals of the
necessary precautions when using vestibular stimulation activities.

The position and management poster contained the following
positions with the accompanying movements for staff to perform on the
student. (10-5 field notes)

1. Tailor or long sit involved (a) rotating shoulders from
side to side, (b) rotating head, and (c) rotating each
arm while crossing midline.

2. On back included (a) moving both knees that are up from
side to side, (b) alternating each knee downward, and (c)
rotating each arm while crossing midline.

3. Rolling involved assisting the student in leading with
either the leg or head making him/her do most of the
moving.

The positions and movements were performed by Bill and Carol

daily with certain students. One typical example included:

114

Bill: "Carol, don't forget to rotate his head. You're
doing a good job with the shoulders and arms. See
if you can keep it up for an additional 3-4
minutes today. We'll begin to increase the time
in the tailor sit until he gets frustrated or
tired."

Carol: "I think he'd sit with me for a half hour if we
let him. He enjoys the movements."

Bill: ”Okay, but let's increase the time gradually."
(10-18 field notes)

Bill, although he worked with another student, did coaching on
the job and offered directions. While Bill worked with another student,
he monitored the activities of all staff in the classroom. The posted
directions in the classroom were performed daily by staff with specific
students. The researcher observed the positions being implemented four
out of five days a week, with the same students. (10-18 field notes)

The relaxation-rotation therapy poster included directions for
relaxation of the arms, hips, neck and legs of students. Therapy skills
comprised (a) slow and rhythmic movements, (b) making the student feel
secure, (c) assisting with movement and (d) allowing the student to move
on their own as much as possible. (9-11 field notes)

The researcher questioned Bill about the posters and was
informed that he had his paraprofessionals print them for him so they
would better understand the directions. Bill said that he printed out
what directions he wanted posted and then the paraprofessionals made the
posters with the directions. (9-27 field notes) In this way, the
teacher used auditory and visual means to train and give directions to
his paraprofessionals. The paraprofessionals were verbally directed and
referred to the posters if they had further questions. (9-27 field

notes)

115

Fine motor developmental grasps were explained by a poster

comprising zero-12 months stages.

FINE MOTOR
0-4 months Reflexive Grasp No eye-hand
coordination
4-8 months Conscious Grasp Pronation
a. Crude

b. Between palmar/fingers-ulnar
c. Thumbs Abducted - not utilized

6 months Eye-hand coordination
7 months Radial Palmar Grasp
8 months Scissor Grasp

9 months Crude Pinch -- Pincher Grasp

11 months Pincher Release

12 months Opposition - Supination
Cortically-(Hisler Brain

Function)

Controlled

(ll-8 field notes)

Bill appeared to be reminding the aides of the developmental
stages and ages for fine motor tasks with this poster. Thus, if a
student was at the 7 months level one would not expect him to have a
pincher grasp. The activities would be at the 7 months level until
he/she had accomplished and passed that stage. (ll-8 field notes)

Bill expressed, ”It's taking the students where they are at
and by repetition attempting to assist them in reaching a higher stage.”
He felt it essential that activities were developmental for the students
in his class. (ll-8 Interview)

The following poster was made by Carol for the classroom.

Bill printed out directions for her to recopy on poster board.

116

SWALLOWING-LIP CLOSURE'

Place your thumb and finger, slightly apart;
place under the chin; and gently stroke downward
to the base of the throat. Repeat until a swallow
occurs.

Place finger edge-under chin; just behind
chin bond: and provide pressure, until a swallow
occurs.

Place one finger between upper lip and nose
and provide pressure. Repeat for lower lip.

Place your fingers at midline of student's
upper lip, and stretch in an outward direction.

Gently pull upper lip out and let it spring
closed.

Wipe top lip upward and bottom lip downward
to facilitate lip closure.

(2-8 field notes)

The teacher demonstrated to the three aides the swallowing and
lip closure by actually feeding a student at lunch time. Bill put food
in the student's mouth and then proceeded to stroke downward to the base
of the throat with his thumb and finger. After doing this three times
the student swallowed. While stroking Bill explained, ”Be sure you
stroke gently and downward. Don't hurry it as swallowing will happen."

Bill: ' "Tomorrow, Carol, I want you to feed Student E.
We'll take turns until you all get a feel for this
and are comfortable with it." (2-8 field notes)

Bill was training by coaching and modeling on-the-job with a
student in the classroom. The training was practical and very relevant
as they would put it to use immediately. It would be repeated daily.

(2-8 field notes) The posted directions were a constant reminder to the

paraprofessional as to correct procedures to use.

117

Observations revealed that Bill followed what Joyce and
Showers (1983) recommended in their research. Continuous training was
ongoing in the study. The teacher was consistently modeling for the
aide what the posted written instructions stated. Skills in strategies
of gross motors for individual students were performed ongoing by the
teacher. Bill gave feedback. to the aide, corrected her tactfully,
prompted her and demonstrated how to do techniques correctly. The team
approach was evident between Bill and Carol. They worked as a team --
no real hierarchy appeared when it came to working with students. Bill
had good rapport with students and aide. The majority of training was

on-the-job spot“ training. Transfer of learned skills ‘was easily
accomplished by the aide as the needs of the students were similar.
When a new technique was introduced, the aide could add it to her
repertoire without much additional learning, as the context was
approximately the same every day. Although the aide learned to adapt
skills to individual student needs, it appeared easily transferred to
"fit” the student. Familiarity with the students appeared to be the key
in easy transfer of learned skills. With eight students in the
classroom the aide and teacher made daily judgments about the student
they were working with. Bill stressed the importance of anticipation.
(9-5 field notes) *
Carol was respected for her ideas. She was given praise by
the teacher when she came up with a creative idea. Carol had some
latitude in reference. to new' activities to perform. objectives, but

primarily, the goals and objectives for each student were set and the

aide was to carry them out. Bill wrote up the goals and objectives for

each student with input from the paraprofessionals who worked with the

 

118

student. The teacher was responsible for annual IEP goals and
objectives and also seeing that the objectives were implemented. Carol
kept data on students posted charts daily. Bill checked the data by
recording it in each student's notebook at the end of each day.

The teacher explained purposes behind the objectives to Carol.
For example, a student was rocked over' a bolster’ and the teacher
explained exactly what this would do to help the student. Bill coached
on the job as deemed necessary by Joyce and Showers (1982). A
comfortable climate was established as the teacher was working alongside
Carol. Carol could easily transfer skills that she learned in her past
classroom to the present. Carol explained that this was true, but that
each classroom had special students with special needs. (9-12
Interview) Training involved helping the aide to understand each
student in the classroom. (9-12 Interview)

The pace of the classroom was slow and had a calming effect on
the students and participant. The classroom was similar to a family
group - in contrast to a rigid classroom structure. The teacher
controlled the problem setting where a judgment-applied repertoire was
necessary. For example, the teacher laid out in advance what to do for
seizures or‘ emergencies. If puzzled, Bill called on the physical
therapist, the school psychologist, or other specialists as needed. In
addition, he called on other colleagues for assistance or information.
In emergency circumstances, Carol applied routines that had been
organized well in advance. It appeared that at times Bill had to look
for solutions to many problems immediately. (Student continually

screaming in classroom -- Bill directed Carol to rub his back-hands --

119

walk him in the wheelchair -- "See if that helps." The teacher provided
for coaching by a more experienced paraprofessional, showing her respect
and giving him some time for necessary’ written reports. Bill. was
continually monitoring the entire classroom, looking over all aides and
students. Aides gave feedback to one another (peer coaching). The
teacher modified skills to accommodate different student needs.

When new skills were learned for gross motor activities they
were immediately adapted in the classroom. The skills were then
practiced daily. Joyce & Showers (1983) stated that if much time
elapsed before practice in workplace conditions, there would be a
serious loss of skill. This was not possible in this classroom as these
same skills were performed daily. Four major functions of coaching were
identified: provision of companionship, provision of technical
feedback, analysis of application and adaptation to the students. The
classroom climate displayed much interpersonal support between the
paraprofessional and teacher -- genuine support as Bill was working
alongside Carol. Paraprofessionals questioned the teacher and offered
him suggestions providing reciprocal feedback. The teacher constantly
solved problems as they arose for aides and himself. Responsive caring,
training, ongoing demonstration, teamwork, coaching, and feedback were
the keys to training.

Coaching was also performed by the entire team. Skills in
working with students were broken down into discreet steps and a
paraprofessional worked on one small discrete step. For example, the
goal was for the student to learn to brush his teeth. Helen was'working

on the student taking the top off the toothpaste and squeezing it to

120

apply on the brush. Carol offered ways to make it easier for Helen to
perform the skill with the student. (10-29 Field NOtes)

Supervision and training was performed indirectly and
directly. Seldom did Bill give specific directions, as usually he had
planned out in advance specific responsibilities and schedules. Carol
followed the schedules and skills that she was directed to perform. The
teacher monitored daily activities and specific skills performed by the

paraprofessionals.

Written handouts. Written instructions were distributed to the

 

paraprofessionals at the joint conference in the .A.M. (9-25 :field
notes) Five handouts were distributed to the aides by Bill from August
1984 through March 1985. The handouts provided information and
knowledge to the paraprofessionals regarding:

1. Proper body mechanics when handling the handicapped child

2. Language instructions for students

3. Tactile Stimulation

4. Vestibular Stimulation

5. Gross Motor Activities

Written instruction by using handouts was another method Bill
used to train his paraprofessionals. Bill handed out the sheet, asked
his aides to read it and they discussed it at the next A.M. conference.
Thus, he permitted the aides time to reflect on what they had read and

asked questions at the next monthly meeting. (9-25 field notes)

121

FIGURE 1
(September 20, 1984)

Written Instructions
(Handouts)

 

PROPER BODY MECHANICS WHEN HANDLING THE HANDICAPPED CHILD

Liftigg

The general rule of lifting, lowering, carrying and
transferring (keep the back as straight as possible and bend the knees;
lift by straightening the knees) apply whether one is lifting a
wheelchair into a car trunk or transferring a non-weight bearing child
into another conveyance.

1. Understand that general principles are always the same,
but the easiest method varies with the capabilities of
the helper, as well as those of the patient.

2. Find out how much the disabled individual is able to do
for himself.

3. Determine how' much he can cooperate in the proposed
change of position.

4. Have him take part in every change of position as much as
possible.

5. Assist him to move with as little lifting, carrying, or
lowering as possible. Use a mechanical aid whenever
possible, such as transfer board, grab bar, hydraulic
lift.

Principles of Good Lifting:

 

1. First, plan the job.

2. Be sure that there is ample room for good footing and
that the path is cleared for the carry and transfer.

3. Stand so you do not have to twist your body as you lift
the patient.

5.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15._

16.

17.

18.

122

Stand close to the load, with one foot ahead of the
other; the forward foot should usually be in the
direction you are going.

Do not try to lift from a kneeling position, as this
takes away the power source. However, with smaller
children or loads, it may be advantageous to start to
lift with one knee on the floor.

Get a good grasp before starting to lift.

Make a preliminary lift to see if the load is within your
capacity.

If the weight of the load is more than one-fourth of your
body weight or if it is awkward, you should get someone
to help you.

 

Lift one end of the load slightly, if necessary, so that
you can place one hand underneath it in order to get a
firm grasp.

Get your legs ready for the lift by bending them. Do not
attempt to lift a load with your legs bent beyond a
right-angle position.

Lower“ your body' near the level of the object to be
lifted.

Be sure your back is straight. If it is neither rounded
nor arched, and is near the vertical position as possible
you will avoid strain. Also, "Keep your shirt loose".

Be sure your shoulders are directly over your knees and
your hands reach straight downward to the load.

To be in a proper position, let your back muscles hold
your back steady as your leg muscles get ready to work.

Lift by straightening your legs in a steady upward
thrust, and at the same time move your back to a vertical
position.

Keep the weight of the load close to your body and over
your feet.

As your legs straighten, keep your back straight.
To change direction during a lift, step around and turn

your whole body, without twisting at the waist or lower
back.

123

Assistingythe Child Who Has Lost His Balance

If a child starts to fall while walking, step close to him and
place your leg next to him for support or to break the fall. Grasp his
clothing or trunk and as his body is lowered, shift your weight away
from the direction of his fall and draw him against your supporting leg.
If the child is falling toward you, crouch and place one leg under him
or place your thigh against hhn while supporting his upper trunk with
your hands. The goal is to prevent injury, not to regain balance. Do
not reach outward or lean over to catch him. He should be wearing a
protective helmet at this stage of walking.

Assisting a Child to Walk Downstairs or Down a Ramp

 

1. At the top of the stairs, place the child's hand or hands
on the rail, and while steadying him, move to step below
and face him.

2. Grasp the child's waist and move to the next lower step.
Stay close to the railing. Keep your weight forward.
Rest your arm and hip against the rail.

3. Guide the child as he moves to the step below him. Let
him steady himself on each step. Let him lead with
weaker leg.

4. Move to next lower step and repeat. Caution: Keep your
entire foot on the step if possible. If balance is lost,
lean toward the railing and grasp it with one hand while
holding the child with the other hand. Have him sit down
and rest if he becomes over excited during the descent.

Principles of Good Carrying
1. Avoid carrying whenever possible by using household chair
with wheels added; tricycles, wheelchairs or hydraulic
lifts.

2. When carrying is absolutely necessary, hold the load as
close to your chest as possible.

3. Keep a firm grasp. If your grasp becomes loose, rest the
child against something while you secure a firmer grasp.

4. Keep your back straight, not arched - either forward or
backward.

5. Do not twist; turn whole body.

 

 

124

Principles of Good Lowering
1. Make sure there is ample room for good footing.
2. Make sure your grasp is firm before lowering.

3. Spread your legs to hip width and lower your load between
your feet.

4. Hold your back straight and steady, even when you lean
far forward.

5. Lower in a slow even manner by bending your legs.

6. Extend your arms straight downward and keep load close to
your body.

7. Do not twist your body. To turn, move your feet.
Carol was responsible for language programs for specific
students. Her tasks involved completing language forms for specific

students. A typical example included:

FIGURE 2

Written Instructions: Language
(Handouts)

Object - Person Recognition: 2 step command

Given 2 or more objects the student chooses the object asked and gives
it to person named: Please list object and person. 1 - y 2 =- no
refused 3 - assist i.e., "Give the apple to Grandma” (3 trials
before marking) (9-26-84)

Date: Week of

 

i.e. apple 1 Grandma 3

 

 

 

 

125

Tactile stimulation therapy' for specific students ‘was
explained in an additional handout comprising (a) stimulation as
brushing, (b) discrimination between textures, objects, and forms and
(c) body awareness as pointing and naming parts, describing functions of
parts and showing me something you can do with your: hands, feet, etc.
(10-4-84 field notes)

Bill and Carol performed tactile stimulation therapy on a
consistent basis with specific students. (10-30-84 field notes) Thus,
the handout was additional reinforcement that Bill used to train Carol
in specific therapy techniques for the students.

The vestibular stimulation handout was consistent with the
posted written instructions for vestibular precautions. Various objects
and devices the staff could use to accomplish stimulation were

explained. (10-18-84 field notes)

FIGURE 3
1. (a) Stimulation (b) Balance Awareness
Spinning-net-scooter Beach Ball
ramp, banging into boxes Scooter
(c) Extensor Tone (d) Eye Tracking
0n Stomach Flashlight
than sitting, Chase
kneeling, etc Pointing to

with finger

126

2. Contraction of neck, shoulders, trunk, hips, prone in net,
prone scooter with band, all fours

3. Balance
Stomach, back, sitting, all fours, knees, standing (see
card file)

4. Bilateral activities band, hanging ball, bleach bottles,
bolster

5. Integrate balance with other motor planning activities

6. Directionality
Right, left, up, down, over, under, around, through

7. Form discrimination
Round, square, etc.

8. Visual Rotation
Still triangle
Still square
Can fit forms into holes and match shapes

9. Letter recognition

10. Spacing

A relaxation-rotation therapy’ handout complemented the
relaxation-rotation therapy poster in the study. The handout reiterated
the four skills necessary (a) slow rhythmic movements, (b) making the
student secure, (c) assisting with movement, and (d) allowing the
student to move on his/her own as much as possible. (10-29-84 field
notes)

Written handouts reinforced what the teacher was daily
modeling for the paraprofessional. The handouts assisted the teacher
with training as the directions were specific and questions could be
answered at the A.M. conference. Thus, the teacher used the handouts to

.verify what he daily modeled for the paraprofessionals.

127

Role-playing. Role-playing was used in the classroom as a training

 

technique for the staff to better understand the needs of the blind, as
a student in the classroom was blind. Bill directed the staff to write
up their experiences and return to him as soon as possible. The
following two papers illustrated that staff appeared to empathize with

the blind fbllowing their experiences. Carol submitted the following

paper:
”What It's Like to be Blind"

”Have you ever been blindfolded before? If
you haven't, you should try it, walk around
outside, take a ride in a car, or some other kind
of task.

Here is what our classroom at Evergreen felt
when we were blindfolded for an hour while doing
our blind student work. Helen said that the tasks
were fairly easy but you need a system for
sorting, also for stacking. Janie said she found
the table work easier if you use both hands, one
to feel with the other to help guide, to finish
the work.

We also went for a ride on the bus. Helen
said it was quiet, but really informative because
you could tell where we stopped by the sounds of
the lift when they loaded the kids.

Bill said he had the feeling of helplessness
and dependence which makes you rely on the person
with you. When left on the bus, a feeling of
boredom, restlessness, fear of sitting alone
caused a thought that something might happen.
There was also a sense of coldness.

I thought going to the bathroom was fun but
frightening. There are many doors just waiting
for you to bump into. I found myself wanting to
use both hands to feel my way along the walls.
Being a seeing person, I know how far to go down
the hall to our room. It would be different if I
were born blind.

128

When blind you have to rely on your other
senses. And when you can see you don't really pay
any attention to what is going on about you. We
all should be more thankful that we have sight and
be more understanding with those that do not have
this wonderful gift." Carol. (2-20 Paper)

Another theme was written by an Occupational Work Experience
Student who was also new to the classroom.
”How I Felt Being Blind"

”At first I had strange feelings when I first
had the blindfold on. I wondered how peOple would
react toward me. I began to get some feeling for
blindness before we went to the store. When we
got to the store, Bill (teacher) asked me if I
realized where I was. I said, 'In the store.' He
said, 'You are right.’

When we went dam one aisle Bill had me touch
something and asked me what it was that I just
touched. I said, 'A plant.‘ He said, 'You are
right again.‘ Then with a sense of humor he
remarked, 'I can't trick you at all.‘ Next we
went down by the fruits and he handed me an orange
in my hand and asked me what it was. I said an
orange and I was right. I knew it was an orange
because it is the only fruit that feels rather
rough. Next he had me feel a bag with something
in it, and it was apples. Then we went down by
the bulk foods and Bill asked me what I smelled
and it was peanut butter. Then Bill let me stand
with a student by ourselves to see how it feels to
be alone and be blind. I was scared that someone
would harm me or ridicule me in some way. It was
a terribly lonely feeling.

Next we went to the fabric shop to get some
thread. While taking a student's wheelchair down
the curb, I got very nervous, as I was afraid that
we might fall. Bill guided me for a few minutes
in the store, and then let me go to find my way
back out of the store. I had a little trouble,
but I managed to find my way out.

We then went back to school and got the
student in the classroom and hung up my coat.
Then I found my way over to the table and did some
blind tasks. I thought I did a good job on
everything except the puzzle.

129

This experience was valuable for me because
it lets me in on how blind people must feel and
how much blind people have to depend upon others.
(3-13 Paper)

To: Bill and His Staff:

Thanks for the experience of being blind and
letting me to be a part of your room for the past
nine weeks. I have learned a lot. Good luck to
you and hape to see you all again some day. I

will miss you and the kids.“ (3-13 Note by (ME
student)

Comment by Bill (teacher):
"Grade A on submitted report above. This is
an. exceptional report. It is graphic and
expressive. You not only learned much, but were
able to remember and put it in writing
effectively!
”Great job! (3-14 Note by Bill)
Bill Charles”
The teacher used role-playing as another training technique
for the paraprofessional. Role playing assisted the paraprofessional to
better understand the needs and problems of the students in the

classroom. Rather than lecture, Bill had the paraprofessionals actively

involved while learning in the classroom.

Chartipg:and comments. Charts were made for each student by the
teacher listing the activities to be performed daily. (Appendix L).
These charts were always posted in the classroom. The activities were
performance objectives that were written by Bill to meet annual goals

selected at the I. E. P. conference for each student. Bill posted the

130

activities with spaces provided on the sheet for completion of the
activity that day. After the student had completed the activity for a
particular day the paraprofessional or teacher filled in the square with
pen or marker. Bill then examined the eight charts daily and this kept
him informed of activities completed that day or those not completed.
Charts with comments were one of the methods he used to ensure that his
paraprofessionals were daily performing the activities for the student
they were responsible for.

Spaces beside each activity were provided for written comments
by the paraprofessional or teacher. (Appendix L) The teacher
encouraged the paraprofessionals to write comments if there was
something new going on, problens or progress. In this way Bill could
get back to the paraprofessional when there was time and answer
questions or discuss the activity.

Bill related to the researcher that it was the best method he
knew to check on his paraprofessionals and progress of the students.
(9-18 field notes)

.Typical examples of comments written by paraprofessionals
regarding activities that day included:

”Said Janie Help Me. Go outside." (2-21 field notes)

This comment was written in response to the activity: ”Any
questions or demands expressed.”

Talked to Paul M. about going to the toilet. (2-21 & 22

field notes)

131

Jean told Grandma -- Paul, Bus, McDonald's on her board.
(3-8 field notes) These comments were written in response to

the activity: "Where are you going?"

Leisure Activities:

Story time is a period when an event that has happened or
a short story that is heard is reenacted through action or
play acting. Data & Description: "Told Lynn about Grandma's

birthday present.” (3-18 field notes)

Gross Motor Program:

Sidelyer - 20-30 min. each side, strap chest and legs
with wedge in between knees. Support head with folded
blanket.

"Anticipated being placed in sidelyer by looking for it

and tried to get in himself." (ll-7-84 field notes)

Palmar grasp:
”Palmar grasp built up spoon used. This is the first

time he has allowed a spoon in his hand.“ (ll-5-84)

Find and Assemble:

Nut bolt washer find and put washer on bolt and assist in
turning nut on bolt.

"Can find if all are placed towards the center as she

does not feel the edges. She has trouble putting the nut on.

132

But given enough time she puts it on and turns it once."

(10-16-84 field notes)

Scooterboard:
”Christine and Michael on scooterboard in hallway, when
the door went shut Michael pushed himself over to the door and

tried to open it." (2-3 field notes)

Puts hands in water:
”Watched me play in the water. Put one hand in the

running water." (1-31 field notes)

Rotation therapy:

"I experimented a lot with Tom in a lot of different
positions to find one that looked good and would feel
comfortable with.” (10-11 field notes)

"We did a lot of rotation and stretching which Tom
fights. He'll whine that it bothers him and wants me to stOp.
He needs to continue with the rotation and stretching. Also,
if we could find a better way to make Mark more relaxed and
comfortable. (10-23 field notes)

Sue was sitting down where she works and she was messing
with some of her work. I didn't want her to start and I said
Sue N9_don't touch it yet. I am not ready for you to start.
She put her hands down. I said to her ”Thank you.” (4-22

field notes)

133

Everyone in the room was talking about swimming. Sue
stood up and I asked her if she had to go to the bathroom.
She pushed me to the door. I told her if she finished fast
maybe she could go swimming. She went to the toilet and was
back here in five minutes. (4-23 field notes)

Sue was working with a square peg board. She picked up
532 pegs. I told her just one Sue. She dropped one of them

and went on working. (4-24 field notes)

The written comments by the paraprofessionals were another
form of feedback to the teacher, other aides and provided (a)
information to the next staff person working with the student, (b) a
means for the teacher to check that the activity had been attempted or
completed that day, (c) a method of providing additional data on each
student, and (d) assisted in evaluating the student's progress.
Training by the teacher was provided if there was a problem indicated in

the comments by the aide. (9-18 field notes)

Summary of training_practices evident in the classroom. Training
practices that were evident in the classroom included modeling, feedback
and coaching, posted written instructions, role playing and charting
with comments. Joyce and Showers (1983) indicated that most coaching
should be done by teams of teachers. In contrast this classroom had a
team comprised of three paraprofessionals and one teacher. Bill and
Carol coached and worked -collaboratively' to find new' approaches to

meeting student needs.

134

Special Education Teacher's Definition of Supervision

 

Bill's definition of supervision included self-management and
self-discipline. Feedback was stressed as integral within his
definition of supervision. His role was defined primarily as the team

manager. The One Minute Manager helped him to better understand his

 

role in the study. The paraprofessionals looked to Bill for supervision
and information. Bill's perspective was compared to a ”mini-business”.

Boomer (1980) defined the aide's role as one who was a member
of the instructional team, but who worked under the direct supervision
of the special education teacher. The teacher in the study changed this
definition to one who worked alongside the special education teacher.
(1-24 field notes)

Bill volunteered to write down on paper for the researcher his
definition of supervision. He was going to do this January 23, 1985 and
completed the following definitions on January 24, 1985. (Bill appeared
to enjoy being selected for the study.) (1-24 field notes)

Written by the teacher in response to: How do I
define supervision with my sides?

It is self managenent and self disciJline.
My staff and I have weekly meetings, which they
have voluntarily agreed to coming in fifteen
minutes early to review and analyze: what they
have accomplished, the problems they had, and what
further direction to take. (Some of this overlaps
into training.) Our plans and schedules are
developed and all decisions that are made at these
meetings are binding by all. It is by this
establishment of what is expected, what are their
responsibilities, and what are the rules, that
standards are set for all to meet. If praise is
given it is given immediately. I try and catch my
staff doing something right, innovative, or
helpful in teamwork. I also reprimand or tell my

 

 

 

expressed:

In response to:

135

aides when an event or behavior is not acceptable
-- immediately - "while it takes place. The
biggest asset in my supervision is feedback and
when I don't do enough of it, it is noticed. I
share all the classroom responsibilities and
activities with my aides, with the exception of
two responsibilities:

1. The final draft of all objectives and lesson
plans I do. However, aides are involved and
have necessary input into their development.

2. They are not responsible for the actual
supervision, scheduling, planning and
training that is done in the classroom.

William Charles

"I am the manager of the team in the
classroom. I am the person that they must look to
for specific ideas and help with problems. The
aides in my classroom look to me to supervise the
entire situation and give them information. I am
not a leader but a manager of a team. I feel that
feedback is very important and I must continue to
motivate them that they've done a good job. I try
to catch them doing good things and praise them
for it. I talk with them individually and tell
them what a good job they have done. I look at my
classroom as a 'uuni-business' in a sense. I am
asked to take these students and aides and
organize their time to reach the full potential of
all the students. It is not packaging boxes as in
a business, but packaging students correctly. It
is very important that I manage their time and
activities appropriately to meet each student's
needs. The book that has helped me to understand
my role as the teacher in this classroom is the
One Minute Manage: by Blanchard and Johnson. It
has given me good specifics in how to manage. I
read and reread the book sometimes daily. I write
down notes from the book and use that as my basis
for management. As a manager I also must deve10p
a team approach in my classroom. All of us must
work together as a team and this is accomplished
by mutual respect for one another. All of us have
strengths and weaknesses and it is my job as a
manager to bring out the best in each of my

 

What are your duties in supervision?

Bill

136

paraprofessionals. We compliment each other and
help one another out. If a problem comes up in
the classroom we all 'pitch in' to solve it or
work together to look at causes. It is a team
approach and I am the manager of the team. I
respect their ideas and many times together we
come up with activities that alone I would not
have developed. It is a helping relationship for
everyone on the team." (l-lS Interview)

The researcher interviewed the teacher regarding how he had
changed in managing aides as Bill expressed earlier that he had problems
with aides in his classroom. In response to: how have you changed in
regards to working with aides? Bill explained that:

”I have become more managerial in my
approach. People need to know they are doing a
good job right away and to be reprimanded when
not. It is under this design of teamwork that I
work. Before, I looked at aides as just more
helpers. I did assume sometimes too much from
them and other times too little. It is developing
that fine balance between giving them authority
and responsibility and still keeping yours in
perspective. I have changed for the better."

Probe question to Bill: Do the aides support you? Bill
answered:

"I think that some of the behavior management
techniques have been rubbing off on them. When I
see a particular situation, I praise them; now I
see praise initiated from them, also. It's a give
and take; they know the students as well as I do.
I need strokes too, as well as anyone else. My
own professional background can be off. Their
knowledge of the students gives it a particular
perspective; with the give and take, it is
invaluable." (1-20 Interview)

Bill respected the knowledge his paraprofessionals possessed.
The paraprofessionals were not just helpers, but respected team members

with Bill as the manager of the team. -Supervision was a reciprocal

137

process whereby they were not intimidated but reapected for their
individual knowledge. (1-20 field notes)

The teacher's definition of supervision included (a) team
manager, (b) self-management, (c) self-discipline, (d) joint
conferences, (e) feedback, (f) praise, and (g) respect for his staff.
Bill's concept comprised the team members, including himself, as
interdependent. Sharing all the classroom responsibilities with his
paraprofessionals, his definition was consistent with Bradford and

Cohen's (1984) focus on collaborative team effort.
Paraprofessionals Definition of Supervision by the Teacher
Carol's definition of supervision was consistent with Bill's

meaning regarding supervision practiced in the classroom. Her

definition included (a) managed the classroom, (b) used the One Minute

 

Manager, (c) praised his paraprofessionals, (d) worked beside us, (e)
examined charts and comments, (f) scheduled activities, and (g) a team

approach.

In response to: How do you define the role of the teacher in
supervising your work? Carol answered:

”The teacher uses the One Minute Maneggp to
manage the classroom. He has asked all of us in
the room to read it and follow it. It will be one
of our new goals. When we accomplish our goals we
are praised and if they are not met we are told
what we did wrong and encouraged to begin again.
We may change the goal if it wasn't a good one or
keep the same goal. We discuss this together and
agree on goals.

 

138

The teacher examines all the student charts
daily and may ask us questions about the written
comments.

He sets up the schedules for bussing, who

goes swimming and lunches, but we offer ideas. We

all. work. together and are responsible for our

assigned students IEP objectives. He oversees me

as he works right along beside all of us. He

supervises us by being part of the team himself."

(1-24 Interview)

Carol reiterated that Bill worked "right along beside all of
us." Interpretation of his supervision included being a part of the
team. Her definition. was consistent *with Boomer (1980) who

conceptualized the teacher's role as the "program manager” of the

instructional team.

Practices Used in Providing_§upervision

 

The elements of management ongoing in this classroom included
(a) team approach, (b) joint conferences, (c) individual conferences,
(d) assessment, (e) feedback and (f) individual educational plans.

In this management model, everyone was concerned about the
whole and took initiative to see that problems were dealt with and
objectives met (Bradford & Cohen, 1984). Bill attempted to build a team

that shared in the responsibility of managing the classroom.

Team approach. During the observations and interviews the teacher
in this study had as a goal the "family" concept described in Pascale &

Athos (1981). Bill's behavior was a powerful form of communication to

139

his aides, telling them that he really cared about them. A typical

illustration included:

Bill: (Smiling) "You rode the bus for me last night
Carol, so I will ride tonight.”

Carol: ”That's alright, I don't mind."

Bill: ”I appreciated you helping out so I will ride.”

(IO-9 field notes)
Bill shared in the classroom responsibilities and there was a reciprocal
division of daily tasks that were performed including (a) riding the bus
to assist the handicapped students and (b) feeding the students. Bill
assisted in feeding the students during each of the observations during
lunch time, which was thirty-two observations from 11:30 A. M. to 12:00
P. M. The classroom operated similar to a family concept. The
following example highlighted the family concept:
Bill: "The staff I have now works well as a team. It
takes time and we all work on this team approach.
All of us help out one another when the needs
arise." (ll-12 Interview)
Bill followed the principles advocated by Bradford & Cohen
(1984). The principles of management practiced included shared
responsibility and control replacing the individual carrying the
responsibilities alone. One example supporting the teamwork and family
concept was when paraprofessional Helen related:
”We're like a family. We work together as a team.
The classrooms where everyone helps out and
supports each other helps the children the most.
I enjoy working in rooms where the teacher works
right beside me. Aides shouldn't just have to do
the dirty jobs. I collect data on students,

assist the teacher in ideas for student goals and
objectives, and follow through with students

140

working on their objectives daily." (12-3
Interview)

Rapport between staff in the classrooms was of primary importance as
Helen said that she would ”go the extra mile,” in this classroom where
the teacher was willing to work with the aides and students. (12-3
Interview)

The emphasis in the study on quality, on genuinely
collaborative team effort, on discussing differences about work without
infighting, and on continual attention to the development of staff as
integral to achieving the task was consistent with Bradford and Cohen
(1984). This concept of teamwork forced a higher degree of
interdependence among subordinates, and a much greater demand for
coordination. Not one person having all the necessary knowledge was
built into the management model. Each staff person was an important
makeup of the team. Bill had attempted to build a team, whose members
were involved in the decisions and shared responsibility for the working
of all the parts effectively. He demonstrated how to have impact
without having all the answers. The following observation highlighted
this approach:

Bill asked advice from Carol regarding a student's activities.

Bill: "Do you think we should take him swimming today?"

Carol: “He's been swimming three days this week and
probably would like the swing.”

Bill: "That's what I thought, too, but I wanted to check
with you first."

Bill then took the student into a side room where there was a swing

brought in for the winter. (1-16 field notes)

141

Bill respected the aide's idea and wanted to include her in
before swinging instead of swimming. Following Carol's suggestion was
another form of praise, which enhanced the self-image of the
paraprofessional. There appeared to be mutual respect and an atmosphere
of c00peration, understanding, and joint problem solving. It appeared
to the researcher that Bill gave the aide dignity and status by asking
for her input. (l-l6 field notes)

(Later that day the researcher met with the teacher for
further data and verification of notes.)

In response to: "Would you have gone swimming if the aide had
suggested swiming?” Bill answered:

"Yes, I wasn't sure as sometimes this student

becomes too tired and limp, but Carol has been

working with him recently and I felt that she

would know better than I. She agreed with what I

was going to do. If she had suggested swimming I

would have gone as she knows this student's recent

behavior as well as I do. The students in this

room have changes in behavior, and my aides are

'up on this' sometimes better than myself.” (1-16

field notes)
Nor does any member of the team, including the teacher, see himself or
herself as an expert. The paraprofessional's ideas are respected in
line with the professionals. Other practices were evident in the
classroom that described the team approach. The following are typical
examples:

Bill was absent from school today and the researcher made

prior arrangements with the teacher to observe the classroom. (1-8

field notes)

142

Carol was assisting taking a jacket off a student. Next she
went over to assist another aide to cut a student's nails. "Okay,
they're cut now," Carol remarked. Carol then puts a student over a
bolster. (It appeared to the researcher that the aide needed much
strength to perform this task.) Another aide asked Carol, "What time do
we do gross motor with Student C?" She replied, "Ten after."

Carol then marked the gross motor activity chart of student.
(Each student had a gross motor chart) Carol then looked at a chart of
another student and performed "gross motor rotation on student C".
Carol explained what she was doing to the substitute aide in the
classroom as the teacher was absent. (1-8 field notes)

(It appeared to the researcher that Carol was the leader of
the team when the teacher was absent.) Carol kept very busy working
with students and the other aides asked her for answers to their
concerns about certain students. Although Carol was new to the
classroom she had assumed a leadership role within the team. The room
operated smoothly without the teacher, although Carol appeared to
replace the teacher by answering questions for others. The charts on
the bulletin board provided guidance for all the aides to follow in
assisting various students. No need to tell the sides what to do as it
was all on the charts. All they had to do was check the charts
(Appendix L). (1-8 field notes) Teamwork was evident throughout the
daily responsibilities of the paraprofessionals.

Another typical example of the teamwork was evident with the

teacher present in the classroom. (3-7 field notes)

143

9:00 A.M. Female student, blind, rocking in chair. Two foster
grandparents sitting at the table, aide sitting at the desk
writing.

Carol wheels in student, ”Here's Michael."

(Student in wheelchair -- tray attached to chair in
front of him.)

Helen wheels in another student in a wheelchair with
"Skip to My Lou" record playing in the classroom. Student
begins to wave arms in time to music. Helen goes over to
Michael. and assists him in taking off his coat. Teacher
wheels in next student. Teacher directs student, “Take coat
off.” Student complies and Carol remarks, ”Good Job!“

9:05 A.M. Student was on the mat -- aide has the student's legs up --
student is waving his arms.

Carol said to student, "Bend".

Carol was attempting to assist the student in flexing and
bending his legs. She told the researcher this was called
"rotation".

Helen and Janie assisted another student in getting out
of his chair -- Janie with student on mat. Helen in front of
bolster, Janie behind, assisting student over the bolster.

Another student watched me carefully when I wrote --
smiled at me while in his wheelchair. Aide at table now next
to student.

Bill: ”Has anyone found me a bell?"

9:20 A.M.

144

Janie: "I'll go check."
Helen: "I checked last week."
Janie finds the bell -- smiling -- hands it to the
teacher.
Bill: "We're going to attempt to chart today.”

Helen now has the student sitting on a bolster. The
bolster was the shape of a bolster pillow, but green leather
and approximately four feet long, 2-1/2 feet high. Helen was
assisting the student to sit on the bolster by holding on to
his shoulders. Grandma (foster grandparent) was at a table
with a student. She showed him the bell and cracker.
Psychologist entered and smiled. Teacher’ went around the
room, assisting aides and students, complimented aides when
they were doing a good job.

Bill: "I'm taking B for a walk. Let's see if we can wake
you up for Grandma.”

Carol was still with student in rotation and then began tailor

sitting.

Teacher took the student's hands and walked ahead of him,
next had the student hold him around his waist, left the room,
walking student down the hall.

Another grandma and student in back room were using the
swing. Grandma was sitting next to student and together they
were gently' swinging on. a swing that was brought in from

outside for the winter.

145

The researcher asked Carol, with the student in rotation,
how long she worked with the student and she said usually
30-45 minutes.

Occupational Wbrk Experience student to student at table,
”Good job! Good boy!” She gave him three MEMs on the table,
which he picked up and ate.

Another student was then placed in a sidelyer.
(Appendix L) Student was lying -- pillow is between his legs
-- (he was tied in). Janie took out mirror and placed it in
front of student on the floor. He banged the mirror down.
She set the mirror up again and said, ”Heme D, let's look in
the mirror." Student continued to play with two toys.
Teacher went over to student in the chair, "Looks Good,
Carol." She smiled. Student over the bolster says, ”Ah, ah,
ah.”

Bill asked Helen, ”Will you get in front of us?" Bill
and Helen picked up the student from the wheelchair. The
student was placed in a quadruped position. A mirror was
placed in front of him. Bill was standing over the student,
aide at his side.

Bill: ”Doing good, Student C."

Bill directed Helen, ”Just let him go.", when Helen
attempted to move the student in sidelyer.

Teacher was showing another aide rotation. Bill
directed; "Slowly put pressure on his legs - stretch the leg.

(Teacher was on the mat with the student.) (3-7 field notes)

146

The teacher' was the manager of the team. His management
structure included (a) wanted the aides to feel comfortable, (b) allowed
and encouraged much feedback between aides, between teacher and aides,
(c) delegated authority by having OWE and OJT students work with sides,
(d) constantly monitored all staff via ongoing interaction - shared the
same duties they performed, and (e) modeled for his aides what he
expected. Although the teacher was the manager of the team, the lines
of communication were open both ways. Bill respected the ideas and
opinions of his aides and showed this by compliance with their ideas or
suggestions. There may be more than one way to meet an objective and
the aide had this flexibility which allowed for creative and innovative
ways to meet an objective. Carol also suggested new performance
objectives and lesson plans.

Six holiday and student birthday parties were observed and
highlight the climate of the classroom. The following party was
typical:

The classroom was having a birthday party for one of the
students and everyone in the class had brought in some special treat
they wanted to share with the students and staff. Bill had brought in
an apple pie, and they were joking with him about being domestic. (The
climate in the classroom was one of much activity ongoing and shared by
all.) The researcher later observed the teacher talking in the lounge
to Carol regarding going to the career center after school to get her
hair cut. Bill offered to drive her there. He was taking a personal

concern and interest in her outside of the classroom as well as in the

147

school. They were laughing together and exchanging comments about the
past weekend. (There was little rank/role distinction in this
situation.) (9-25 field notes)

The teacher maintained good rapport with his staff by
eliminating as much as possible role distinctions outside of the
classroom. It also appeared that the teacher was not threatened or
intimidated, had much confidence in himself, and had insight into
realizing the merits of working together as a team in serving the needs
of the handicapped students. This tied in with Marriner's (1979)
categories of attributes that peOple bring to the team. Marriner (1979)
expressed that self-image was the most important single characteristic
of any person. Positive self-image was the end result of effective
socialization and represented the kind of personal maturity that was
essential for good teamwork. This teacher possessed a positive
self-image and thus, the joint cooperation in the classroom. (9-25
field notes)

The researcher entered the classroom at the end of the day and
a substitute floater was in the classroom for Janie. She said to the
researcher:

”I substitute in both SKI rooms and this room
is definitely pleasant to substitute in. Any
person can answer questions on the kids in this
room. In this room all the aides are well
informed about positioning and explain it
thoroughly to me when asked. This team approach
helps a substitute. I am comfortable in this
classroom. as someone is always ready' to help.
They are always willing to help and will step in

if asked or they' see a need to." (2-1 field
notes)

148

Since all the staff was well informed on all the students it
had an advantage for substitutes entering the classroom. The substitute
appreciated knowing exactly what to do each day and that other aides
would assist her if necessary. The team approach made it easier for the
substitute to work in the classroom. This has implications for
pre-service training regarding exposing students to a team approach
experience. This ties in with Boomer's (1980) definition of the
paraprofessional role as one who was a member of the instructional team.
Together the teacher and paraprofessionals formed a team, while
separately, they may have undermined each other's efforts. (2-1 field
notes)

The classroom goes swimming two times a week if the
temperature is warm enough for the students. Observations involved
swimming on sixteen occasions. During nine observations the teacher was
swimming and on seven observations he was in the classroom. The
following typical observation highlighted Bill's team approach.

The researcher observed the teacher swimming with a student on
a Monday morning in the pool from 9:30 A.M.-10:00 A.M. The following
Wednesday (January 16) Carol was observed doing the same activities in
the pool with the student, independent of the teacher, who was in the
classroom. The researcher interviewed the teacher regarding this
exchanging of activities, and Bill said that usually they alternate, but
if the student was extremely upset that day, the teacher took over.
(This clearly points out the differentiation of roles, and the added
responsibility the classroom teacher carries with his role as teacher.)

Bill also explained that if there are problems in the pool with the

149

student, the aide was directed to call for him immediately. The aides
were trained to perform emergency restraints, follow behavior treatment
plans, within the classroom and the building. The training he stated
usually comes from naturally occurring incidents in the school or
classroom, whereby the sides observe him, and are asked to assist when
necessary. Later they are capable of performing specific behavior plans
independently of the teacher. (1-14 field notes)

Bill explained to the researcher that he usually assists a new
problem student when they first enter the classroom. He first allows
the paraprofessional to feel comfortable in the pool around the student,
before assigning him/her to the aide. Thus, the aide can observe first
hand the problans they may encounter with the student and how the
teacher handles the situation. The teacher said that he would not
expect an aide to perform something that he couldn't do himself. (1-14
field notes) There seemed to be an attitude of protecting his staff and

helping them, along with the students. (1-14 field notes)

Joint conference. Joint conferences were a process the teacher

 

utilized to accomplish supervision. Clinical supervision was consistent
with the feedback used in the joint conference. The teacher used an
indirect and problem-solving approach, (which was consistent with
clinical supervision wherein it respected the teacher as a competent
adult able to direct his or her own learning (Glatthorn, 1984).

Although the teacher, Bill, defined supervision of his aides
as "self-management" (1-24 Interview), he defined his role as the

manager of a team (1-24 Interview). One of his responsibilities as a

150

manager included holding a joint conference once a week for fifteen
minutes before classes began. All conferences were held between 8:15
AAM.-8:30 A.M. The researcher observed joint conferences weekly from
August, 1984 through 'March 29, 1985, with the exception of school
vacations. Although the aides volunteered to come in early for this
scheduled meeting, the teacher required their attendance. All of his
three aides came in early for this joint meeting and were usually on
time. Once a month they came in at 8:00 A.M. instead of 8:15 A.M. and
took turns bringing in juice and pastries to share prior to their
conference.

The joint conferences ‘were a method of bringing the team
together to go over weekly plans, develop and review schedules, share
information regarding student progress, discuss any’ problems in the
class, or discuss new strategies for students.

The following typical example of joint conferences provided
another method to provide for reciprocal feedback.

Bill and his three aides met this A.M. to discuss a student
whose behavior excesses included screaming, head-banging, and

self-abusive face hitting. (9-6 field notes)

Teacher: ”If Student Y is involved in any maladaptive
behaviors try putting her over a bolster and
rocking her back and forth."

Carol: "Sometimes that doesn't help and she will scream
more.”
Janie: "Straddling her on the bolster sometimes helps

more than rolling her over it."

151

Carol: "She will follow directions. When I told her she
would be taken off the swing if she didn't hang
on, she grabbed the rope."

Teacher: ”I agree that usually' she understands ‘what is
expected of her. Let's not forget to offer her
vestibular stimulation activities when she's good.
Otherwise we may just be reinforcing maladaptive
behaviors.”

Helen: ”That's something we must try to remember. She
really likes the swing and I think we should use
it more for her."

Teacher: "That's a good idea.”

(Conference continued with all participants providing feedback.) (9-6
field notes)

The conferences were informal in approach, but planned
carefully by Bill. All the participants appeared relaxed and ”open”
without fear of intimidation. Bill felt that he could accomplish much
more at this meeting in the ArM. without disruptions from other staff,
students, and was one of the ways he could get his staff all together.
(9-17-84 field notes)

Bill prepared an outline of what he wanted covered at the
conference prior to the meeting. ”That is precious time and I can't
waste it,” Bill responded (9-18 field notes). Carol felt it gave the
aides an opportunity to ask questions and was about the only time they
could all get together without interruptions (9-18 field notes).
Following are typical examples of the A.M. joint conferences.

This conference was regarding a student who is blind.

(Teacher's notes for this conference)

Bill:

Helen:

Bill:

Helen:

Bill:

Helen:

Bill:

Helen:

Bill:

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(Bill and Carol carrying in toy chest together):

"The question is, What new activities should we
use with Student B?"

”Whatever the activities are, if you eXplain to
her before the activity, I think that she
understands."

”After going through her staffing, we've
recommended bolster straddling, marching to music,
and bouncing on the trampoline. Are there other
activities she could use?”

”If you tell her the next thing you're going to do
it sometimes helps.”

”I feel that she needs to hold her plate with her
left hand. We need a separate time for jabbing
and using a fork. We could cook carrots ahead of
time."

”Pineapple squares would also be good.”

"That's a good idea. It was recommended by the
blind consultant that to improve directionality we
use the right and left hand -- have her trace
around press board and felt. We need to set up
actual learning situations, I believe. One idea
the consultant suggested is to teach her which is
her right and left hand. 'This is your right
hand, this is your left hand.' We could put a
felt square on the left side when she sits at the
table. For example, turn left student E - turn
right.” It will be a training situation to teach
her which is her right and left hand and
directionality."

”Even though we do it at school, it may confuse
her at her home.”

"She can succeed in her present home rather than
at the Xon Center where she was previously. I see
this student using her left hand more now. It is
more than we started with. We must give this a

try.”

Conference continues regarding activities:

Bill:

”Any questions so far? We cannot do all this in
one day.”

153

Carol: "I feel that we should introduce these training
activities slowly."

Bill: "That's good! We can sequence the events and let
her get used to them. Then later we can deve10p
these activities into a chart form.”

Helen: ”I think if we meet with the home and tell them
what we're doing, perhaps they can carry over some
of the activities there.”

Bill: ”I 'planned on doing that and scheduled a
conference for all of us to meet with her home
staff. I'll let you know when that meeting will
take place." (3-14 8:15 A.M. field notes)

Bill was giving information to the paraprofessionals regarding
new activities for a student and wanted them to feel a part of his new
programing. By asking the aides for input, he showed respect for their
ideas, although nothing was really altered that Bill had not already
preplanned. He asked them to be at the next conference with the home
along with him and included them in on most meetings. (None of the
aides complained about coming in early and usually took turns bringing
in juice or pastries with coffee at 8:00 A.M.) The researcher brought
in the treat this A.M. and felt like a part of the team. (3-14 field
notes)

Another representative example included when the teacher and
three aides were sitting at a large table in front of the room. No

students are in the room - have not arrived as yet.

Bill: ”Are there any problems this week I can help you
with?"

Janie: ”Johnny is still getting ground food instead of
regular at lunch time. I think we should remind
the nurse that he was to get a regular diet."

154

Bill: "I'm glad that you reminded me, as he was to be on
a regular diet by this time. Would you notify the
nurse that he is still on ground this morning.”

(Teacher gave specific direction to aide to follow up on her
suggestion.)

Janie: ”What are the plans for the Valentine Party?"

Bill: There will be four booths in the gym and our room
will be responsible for the cookie decorating
booth. Carol, I would like you to be in charge of
this booth and I will relieve you. Encourage the
students to be independent, but if they need
assistance, help them. There will be some
students that will just need minimal prompts to
frost their cookies. I will remind the other
teachers to have staff with their students to
assist us, too.

”I appreciate all the comments that some of
you have been making on the student charts. They
really help me when I'm looking over a student's
progress. I hope that all of you will continue to
make comments on daily progress and notify me if
anything is unusual or out of the ordinary with a
student. It's time for the bus, so let's have a
good day.”

Bill then sat at his desk and aides left the classroom to
board the bus to assist students. (Bill also rode this bus alternating
with sides.) (2-5 8:15 A.M. field notes)

Conferences 'were a means for Bill and his aides to keep
informed of new activities, problems and a method that promoted
teamwork. The teacher respected the aides' input and delegated
authority to his aides.

A third example highlighting one of the A.M. joint conferences
was when Bill (9-6-84) reviewed the rotation schedule (Appendix P). He

informed the group,

155

"Rotating eliminates 'burn out' and one person
being assigned to the worst behavior problems. I
feel it is best for the students and us. In this
way I rotate also and can check on student
progress and the progress or problems you might be
having.”

Helen: "I'm working with students G and H now. So next
week I'll work with A and B. Is that right?”

Bill: "You got it! I will also be asking you to help
any Occupational Work Experience students . . . so
this' will give us more one on one with the
students.”

(Conference continued regarding student activities.)

There wasn't much time for anything else at this conference
and not as much feedback as usual. Bill preferred rotating as he could
”coach on the job” -- show the aide what to do specifically in regards
to gross motor activities and check up on them. (9-6 field notes)

Bill: "In Guideposts it reads, 'If we simply do what
comes our way, it will allow things to happen.‘
What's inspired me is the progress that some of
our students are making. We've reached a

milestone with Student G, with your help and
patience."

 

Helen: ”Wouldn't that be great. Her parents would be
ecstatic."

Bill: "She knows eighteen words internalized."
Helen: "What do you mean?"
Bill: "If we say, 'Find this ' he understands. If we

say, 'Who is Helen?‘ he_;nderstands. I also want
to explain why I have been at my desk more the
last two weeks. I have been going over your
assessments for the year and now they are
completed. I have been talking with more staff
people and it's some things I like to get done.
The other thing is the active stimulation program’
has added more activities for me to consider for
the students. I do want to train all of you in
this program, too, and I will go over with you the
workshop that I attended."

156

Bill made the staff aware when noticeable progress was made
and praised them. He also wanted to include them in on all of his
actions, so that they understand what he was doing when at his desk and
not working with students. By sharing knowledge and information with
them regarding workshops that he had attended, his paraprofessionals
were well informed. If there was something new and worthwhile he wanted
them to be as knowledgeable as himself. Everything was out in the open
and there was an elanent of trust that existed between the three aides
and the teacher. Bill believed in prayer, that God can help the team
and sometimes brought this into his conferences. (3-29 field notes)

Bill related the following conference that took place
January 10, 1985. It was very important and he felt that the researcher
would like to be aware of what took place. "The conference involved the
researcher, three aides and the school psychologist." It involved a
discussion of a Behavior Treatment Program for a student (a year-end
report of a student and her progress). All staff gave input to the
psychologist about the student's progress. This was a very self-abusive
student who screamed. Her present program was to rock her with music.
The researcher asked him if he met with his aides previous to this
meeting so they were all in agreement. He explained:

"I told all of them two days ago that we were
having this meeting on Student C and I would like
any ideas or suggestions from them before we meet
and they were to see me before the meeting (day

before). Thus, we exchanged ideas before this
meeting, too.

157

At the conclusion of the meeting all parties,
psychologist and all present, reached agreement.
There was no disagreement. It was Carol's
suggestion to feed the student all day instead of
at one meal. The psychologist, myself and the
other three aides discussed this idea and felt it
very appropriate and helpful. It was then
incorporated into the BT Plan for the coming year.
Another aide offered to bring in food for the
student to try. Also, when he is quiet staff will
do things with the student in the pool -- pool
therapy, warm baths, etc." (1-10 field notes)

Thus, this idea (suggestion) by the aide was used. Teamwork
was emphasized in assisting the student.

The researcher asked the teacher if all were pleased with the
conclusion and he responded, ”Kirk (psychologist) smiled and seemed
pleased with all the input." When asked: ”whose idea was it to have the
group meeting?" Bill answered: "mine. At first the psychologist seemed
defensive - taken affront with the entire staff meeting with him - but
later, pleased."

When asked: "Was this your first group meeting of this type
with the psychologist?" Bill responded:

"No, half way through last year we met
together with the psychologist and he did come in
and help. The sides, in the beginning of this
meeting, were quiet and shy, but now have 'team
spirit', which has grown.”

Bill went on to say that presently he can train and supervise
his sides the way he prefers. It was difficult when the aides were
there before him -- the program was set -- and then he came in. ”It is

difficult for change when the sides are there first, before the

teacher." (1-10 field notes)

158

During the joint conferences the teacher followed the
principles advocated by Bradford and Cohen (1984). These principles of
management are shared responsibility and control replacing the teacher
carrying the responsibilities alone. During the joint conferences the
focus was on collaborative team effort and attention to the development
of all staff as integral to achieving the task. The teacher established
a climate of trust and openness which was consistent with effective
supervision (Glatthorn, 1984). The conferences also provided time for
professional talk and proposed plans for what the paraprofessional and

teacher together could do to change current problems.

Individual conference. Individual conferences were used by’ the

 

teacher as another method to supervise the paraprofessionals. By
reviewing the student folders the teacher could examine if data was
being recorded properly by the aide and offered suggestions in future
data collection on students.

Bill met individually with each paraprofessional a minimum of
once a month and reviewed student charts and folders with the
paraprofessional. The discussion included student progress on
individual goals and objectives. The conferences were usually
spontaneous and initiated by Bill as the following representative
example illustrates. (12-3 field notes)

Bill was sitting at desk and aides are putting out mats and

materials for the students.

159

Bill: "Janie, I want you to shotgun for Carol so that I
can talk with her about Joe."

Janie: "Okay, but I ride tonight, too."
Bill: "I'll have Carol ride for you to make it up this
month."

(All aides leave room except for the teacher and Carol.)

Bill: "I want to review with you Joe's progress and to
determine if there are any performance objectives
that need to be changed due to Joe passing them or
unable to successfully pass.”

Carol: Joe has been going to shop every day without much
self-abusive behavior. I think that since we have
him at shop, his head banging has decreased.
Let's look at the data. Yes, it seems that since
he's been in shop more there is less self-abusive
behavior.”_

Bill: "You have done a good job of getting him in shop
daily. I think we should continue this and Joe
should continually be urged to perform in shOp.
What about his objective for taking his coat on
and off? I notice that it seems we're getting
nowhere with this objective.”

Carol: "He needs more than one physical prompt, but if
staff waits him out he will eventually take his
coat off with several physical prompts."

Bill: ”I want you to record on this sheet approximately
how many prompts Joe needs to take off his coat.”

Carol: ”What if I record the time it takes, too?"

Bill: ”You can do that if you want it for your

information, but I am more interested in how
independent Joe is in taking his coat off. Write
down the number of prompts he needs each day.”
(12-3 field notes)
Bill acknowledged Carol's suggestion, but verbally directed

her to record the number of prompts. Specific directions were given for

her to follow.

160

Individual conferences were also held when the aide was new to
the classroom. The discussion between Carol and Bill after she entered
the classroom was a typical example. This conference occurred outside

of the classroom in the Conference Room.

Bill: ”What are your impressions of the classroom now
that you are in our room?"

Carol: ”I'm more comfortable now in regards to helping
out as a team."

Bill: ”We emphasize the team approach due to all the
physical lifting we must do in this room. My goal
for you is to blend in with the team. What have
you specifically learned?"

Carol: "1 have learned more about seizures, working with
students and hepatitis carriers.”

Bill: ”Here is a paper handout from our school nurse,
dealing more with the hepatitis carriers. I want
you to reread it carefully. I want to review with
you now what you have learned about seizures.”

Carol: ”I have learned to time them, put a blanket on the
student and make them more comfortable, and to
learn how to describe it.”

Bill: "It is very important that you learn how' to
describe the seizure accurately as sometimes a
student has a seizure different from the others
and this is important information we must have for
the nurse. This information is sent to the
Regional Center for the doctor in charge as
sometimes medications must be changed. For the
coming week I want you to be very aware and
familiar with the individual student program and
routines. The schedules are posted on the
bulletin board and I want you to reread the
schedules carefully. Learn the routines and
schedules for the students.

161

It is necessary that you look at the rotation
charts. We rotate staff working with individual
students to avoid burnout as sometimes staff can
get bored doing the same repetitious activities
with students. I do leave creativity up to the
aides. The schedule of students and their
activities are posted, but the tasks can be varied
to carry out the objective. For example, Rick's
goal was to learn the colors and he was seated at
a desk matching color pieces to the appropriate
color on the board. He was getting nowhere with
the task. After three weeks another aide changed
the activity (with my suggestion) and asked Rick
to 'Bring me the red circle.' He walked over and
gave her the circle. He enjoyed getting out of
his chair and responded better to the new
activity. We could check (x1 his knowledge of
colors and if he brought the wrong piece we would
say, 'Rick, the brown one' and he would go back
and look for the brown.

I want you to think up creative 'ways to
perform the student objectives, also. If you are
in doubt, discuss it with me and together we can
come up with some creative ideas. This next week
you will be working with two students. Janie is
very good with these students and I want you to
ask her questions if you need suggestions.

I will be working with two other students as
I rotate with the rest of the classroom staff. In
this way, I can check up on the aides, observe
where problems are, and perhaps, come up with new
ideas. I also observe the progress of students in
this manner as I am working with them directly.”
(9-13 field notes)

Bill was the team manager, which involved working along with
the aide, delegating authority, designing schedules, holding
conferences, assisting individually with students, and maintaining good
rapport during classroom interactions. Although he was the manager,
Bill performed similar tasks as the aides, along with planning
individual IEPs, and classroom schedules. All the staff shared

responsibilities. He wouldn't expect his aides to do something that he

162

could ‘not do ‘himself. His management comprised (a) respecting the
aides' opinions, (b) encouraging creativity, and (c) giving the aide an
outlet for self-expression and responsibility. (9-29 field notes)

Bill asked the researcher to observe an individual conference
between himself and an Occupational Work Experience Student whom he had
in his classroom for six weeks. Many of the methods he used with his
Occupational Werk Experience Students and On Job Training students were
very similar to how he would orient an aide new to this area and felt
the researcher should be present. (1-16 field notes)

An evaluation form was sent to this teacher from the Spartan
Career Center to evaluate his OWE student.

Bill began the conference:

"Some of the marks on this evaluation are
changed from last time and you made some of the
improvements that I wanted to see. Enthusiastic
attitude is now above average. You appear
enthused and I made a comment that in future
employment in this area I felt you would do a good
job. I want to remind you of the deadline of your
report on your blind experience. This is due in
one week and I expect that this assignment will be
completed and handed to me. Remember I want you
to think about this question in your report: 'If
you were a student what would you do in this
situation?’ What did you learn from this role
playing that would help us more than what we are
presently doing? Tell us your frustrations with
being blind. January 22 will be a signed and
nonverbal day for you. You will role play a deaf
student. We'll be asking you questions and you
will have to communicate with us nonverbally. YOu
will be assigned to Aide C that day and she will
assist you. I want you to write up this
experience for me, also."

Bill: "What have you learned in this room specifically?"

163

Marie: "I had no experience with seizures, how to keep
data on it. I never realized what students go
through and I learned how to communicate with

them.”

Bill: "If you were the Teacher what would you do
differently?”

Marie: "I don't know what I'd do different."

Comment: (Teacher is not threatened and asks input.)
Bill: ”What was the worst experience that you had?"

Marie: "When I visited another room. I never realized
how extremely self-abusive some students were. I
didn't think it would be that bad!"

Bill: "I'm pleased with your work behavior and I've
stated that in this report. You have shown much
initiative." (1-16 field notes)

Another typical example was a conference with a new OWE
student and Bill. This conference illustrated the teacher's use of
aides, delegating authority to the aide to assist an Occupational Work

Experience student.

Bill: "You' ll be working with us today, Lisa? Since
you've been here before, what did you learn from
the classroom that you were in?”

Lisa: "I learned that mentally retarded kids can do
things. I learned what to do to try and get them
out in the community."

Bill: ”I've given you the routine of this classroom
today and one job assignment. This is to watch
for Bill to get his coat off and so on. Warm a
washcloth and wipe his face. Tomorrow stick with
me. Get familiar with the student charts -- do
not rotate students now. This week you will be
with me, next week with Janie and you will visit
the hospital for two weeks. Third week you will

Lisa:

Bill:

Lisa:

Bill:

164

' be with Helen to get objectives done with each

student. Some days we do not chart -- just keep
comments, notes only, if extraordinary or unusual.
I will tell you what day not to chart. If there's
a problan with a chart see the person you are
under. You and Janie are one next week. You
should blend and complement each other. The
fourth week you will be with Aide Carol -- get to
know the program and the higher functioning
students. If you have a chance go to the store
with a student to sh0p. In that experience you
will be blindfolded. You will experience being
blind. Use your other senses when you are blind.
I will ask you to write up this experience for me.
What did you learn from this role playing? After
four weeks is done we will sit down again for an
evaluation of progress. How you feel? What did
you learn? After four weeks this will be your
program, also. You will then have more
opportunities to work with all the students. You
are a paraprofessional while here and will be
treated as such. As I keep telling my staff,
'What you do is important to the kids and the
team, to evaluate.' The teacher can then
translate what is going on in paper. Teamwork is
stressed in this classroom.

Anticipation. Anticipating needs to be done.
You are to help as the situations arise. Follow
directions given to you from the teacher and all
three sides. CoOperate and work together. You
are not isolated islands. Ask. the aides, for
example, 'What can I do now with the student?‘
Aides will translate to me what the student
performance is. I expect you to learn by asking
questions. You are a paraprofessional. You will
learn that the language programs for each student
are very different. Grooming is done later in the
day. Any comments?”

"Not yet.”

"Do you agree with what I've said?"

"Yes."

"Do not do actual lifting. You are to do only

minimal lifting. Unless it is a dire necessity
you are not to change underwear for accidents.

165

You can get the supplies for the person and follow
their directions. They have been told that you
are not to clean up student toileting accidents.
We will do this. Also, but very important, there
should be no idle talk and no gossip. Basically,
I've outlined the four weeks and tomorrow we will
go over it again. Although you'll be assisting
other staff I will let you know how you are doing.
We all make mistakes and I will tell you what is
acceptable and unacceptable behavior. I value you
as a person and I want you to learn. I also want
you to know that I value your work. You'll be
making input. Finally, what do you want to 'see

happen?"
Lisa: "I hope to get along with everyone.”
Bill: ”You are part of the team. This is a learning

experience for you so please ask questions.”
(1-28 field notes)

Bill was an organizer and planner. By delegating authority to
his aides for them to accept responsibility, he demonstrated respect for
their assistance and input. Bill stressed teamwork, blending together,
complementing each other for effective instruction (1-28 field notes).
Since Carol had ten years experience as a paraprofessional the
researcher included the meeting between the teacher and work experience
students as beneficial to contrast differences in data.

The teacher shared with his aides the responsibility of riding
the AJM. and P.M. bus to assist students. After returning from the bus
run, Bill met with Carol to discuss student folders. He included the
other aides, "I want to meet with all of you this week and go over
student folders." Bill directed Carol to "record the number of prompts
needed on data, not just 'Y' or 'N'."

Together, Carol and the teacher examine data and Carol

explained to Bill that the student isn't doing well on taking off his

166

coat independently. Bill said, "I'll watch you when he goes home today

and let's see what we can do to motivate him."

(Researcher noted: ”We" -- what we can do together --

implying teamwork, including Carol in the problem solving.)

The physical therapist provided training for Bill and his
aides in regard to gross motor activities for each student. The teacher
invited the researcher into his room when the physical therapy
consultant ‘was present to note specific training with therapy for
various students. (1-23 field notes)

The physical therapist often worked with aides, without the
teacher present, training them specifically with certain techniques.
The physical therapist demonstrated the therapy expected and then
allowed the aide an opportunity to perform. She observed and guided the
hands of the aide into correct positions if not performed properly. The
aides asked questions spontaneously of the physical therapist. Carol
appeared not threatened in this context and was treated by the
consultant as a professional. (1-23 field notes) Thus, the teacher
allowed the paraprofessionals a process of self-directed development by
not always being present.

Individual conferences were used within Bill's management
approach to monitor the progress of students and to provide for
reciprocal feedback. The teacher ensured that paraprofessionals were
prOperly ‘keeping data on students and following through ‘with their

responsibilities to the students in the classroom. Thus, conferences

167

contained (a) noting progress of students, (b) assurance that the
paraprofessional was keeping data on students, and (c) feedback

regarding changes in implementation and data recording of objectives.

Feedback. Feedback. from others has a powerful influence on a
teacher's self-perceptions (Wilson, 1981). The teacher in the study
included that feedback from others influenced how the paraprofessionals
regarded themselves and the other aides. Bill felt that the
self-perceptions of his paraprofessionals could be changed as a result
of receiving positive feedback from others. For example, they felt
worthwhile and very proficient. (ll-8 field notes)

Feedback in this classroom was given by Bill on an ongoing
basis. He generally responded to the paraprofessional's feedback in a
positive way. His positive feedback created a non-threatening climate
in the classroom. Continuous feedback, practice, and the companionship
of the teacher working side by side with the paraprofessional was
consistent with the work of Joyce and Showers (1983).

Bill related to the researcher that all the aides did not want
to rotate, working with different students, as they liked their own
groups and did not want to rotate weekly to other groups as he had done
for the past years. "That's okay; I'm going to let them do this, but I
still will rotate to check on student progress. I also check on the
paraprofessionals' performance with students when I rotate," Bill
responded. (1-7 Interview)

The teacher wanted his aides to be an essential part of the

decision making process in the study. It reminded the researcher of

168

Quality Circles, wherein decisions are made from the bottom-up instead
of tOp down. Bill still wanted control as he would rotate, even though
the aides did not. He allowed the aides to implement this decision for
themselves, but not in regards to him; he would continue rotating.
Thus, in this illustration the aides could make decisions about
classroom management in regards to their own responsibilities, but not
in regards to the teacher. The paraprofessionals enjoyed the students
they were assisting presently and wanted to stay with them. Bill felt
this was a good rationale to change, as in previous years there were
more problem students and it wasn't fair for one aide to have the major
problem student continuously. Bill was comfortable in allowing the
aides to make this decision regarding changing from his rotation
schedule. Thus, he demonstrated respect for their opinions by allowing
his aides an important part of the decisions made in regards to
schedules and assisting various students. Beginning January 8, 1985 the
aides did not rotate to other students, but worked with the same two
students through March, 1985. Bill continued to rotate weekly assisting
students. (1-7 field notes)

The following conference two and a half months later was
significant as it was a compromise in the non-rotation schedule which

the aides suggested in January.

Conference: (Teacher, Carol, Helen and Janie)

Bill: -"Some things ‘have come out of jyour evaluations
that I want to discuss.

169

If we do art work, get the kids involved with
it! Have the student do something to it. It's a
good afternoon activity.

In the afternoon from 1:15 to 2:15 I want to

see activities ongoing. Even if it is just
talking, interacting and touching students.

My suggestion would be music, rhythm play, or
singing. Gross motor activities could be done in
the afternoon, too. These are all suggestions for
more interaction in the P. M.

Back in January all of you didn't want to
rotate students and I said, 'Okay'.

I propose now, because of our nature, kids
get to know us too much, we rotate for now (every
Wednesday). One day a week we will rotate.
Also, when we come back from vacation I want
you to read the staffing notes on students from
now on. In this way maybe you can give me some
further input from the IEP, for goals and
objectives. Are there any questions?"
(The fifteen minutes was up and the aides were anxious to board the
busses to begin the day's routines.) There were no questions. (3-29
field notes)

Since Bill allowed the aides an opportunity not to rotate
every day since January, they now accepted rotation one day a week, and
welcomed the change. The teacher as the manager of the classroom gave
directions and suggestions for improvement, but left room for the aides
to use their own creativity. He wanted them to be thoroughly aware of
what was going on in staffing and gave them directions to read staffing
on students. Bill was relaxed and enjoyed his work. Paraprofessionals

were encouraged to improve and become involved in all aspects of the

educational process. (3-29 field notes)

170

The researcher questioned Carol regarding rotating each
Wednesday and she thought it was a good idea. ”The staff gets too
burned out when working with the same students day after day," she
responded. Initially, Carol enjoyed pp£_rotating, but now was ready for

a change. (3-29 field notes)

Praise. Bill used praise throughout the day to motivate his aides,
provide positive feedback and proceed with success throughout the day.
Following are examples from field notes and conferences which
highlighted his use of praise.

Bill: ”Carol, you are doing an excellent job feeding
Student F. Continue to take your time as he is
eating more of his meal now than previously. I
appreciate your efforts and consistency’ in
following through every day." (12-10 lunch time)

Carol smiled and continued feeding the student.

Bill: "Our bulletin board gives me the Christmas spirit.
I'm glad to see, Carol, that you put up some of
the art works from the students and not just
staff. I hope that we can continue to do this
with our students and have them participate more
in our art projects. Thanks for a great job!”

Carol: "we had fun doing it!" (12-10 field notes)
Conference: Bill and his three aides
Bill: "I want to thank all of you for helping out when
necessary. I realize that many’ times you are
assisting students other than the one assigned to
you. and ‘helping one another» It has not gone
unnoticed." (1-10 field notes)
Bill had a paper prepared before each conference with notes to

himself and topics to be covered. His notes included a reminder to

himself to praise his aides. It was essential that he praise and

171

provide feedback for further cooperation within his management concept.

(1-10 field notes)

Problem solving feedback. Bill related to the researcher that he

 

didn't have time to be a policeman and expected his aides to be
professional. If there's a problem, he expressed, "I ask them to solve
it immediately."

The researcher questioned him further regarding problem
solving and Bill responded:

"For examfle, one day a grandparent in my room
told me that two of my aides were taking too long
a break. I confronted the two aides and told them
it was a problem I wanted them to solve. They
decided they would take a timer to the break room
with them, to remind them when fifteen minutes
were up.”

Bill never attacked the paraprofessional, but the problem. He
respected their integrity and allowed them to solve problems they
created for themselves. (2-14 field notes)

The following week in the staff lounge the researcher observed

Helen and Janie with a timer in the break room and asked them whose idea

it was to bring a timer. Janie responded:

"Sometimes we get talking and forget when ten
minutes is up. It was our idea to bring a timer
to remind us to return to the classroom." (2-19
field notes)

Helen and Janie did not feel threatened or attacked personally

as they solved the problem themselves. (2-19 field notes)

172

Written feedback: praise. A large poster, three feet by three

 

feet was placed on the bulletin board in front of the classroom for

8 even

school months. Bill added written comments to the poster

continuously throughout the study.

HOW I LIKE MY STAFF

Janie, Marie, Helen, Carol, Grandma Alice and Grandma Hermaine

1.

2.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

For always being so considerate and caring for each other and the
kids.

For picking students up gently and working with their legs with
massages.

Anticipating other needs by helping to lift or get materials.

For how well they endure the day with humor and hard work.

For their faithfulness in charting and implementing IEP objectives.
For giving their boss such a hard time and a good time.

For new and innovative ideas with students and classroom.

For putting up with the boss.

For finding Kirk just in time.

For the most generous capacity of radiating warmth to all by a
smile, a touch....

For wonderful surprises!
For their creative talents!
For their wisdom in knowing their students.

When I see the students respond to all the hard efforts my staff
gives them.

For their unselfish giving of themselves.
For a positive attitude.

For looking with tenderness at our students.

173

18. For writing good progress notes.
19. The way they have the washcloths always ready for lunch.

20. The way the little things are done, like getting ready the
toothbrushes after lunch.

21. The way I can trust them while I'm gone or while I'm here.
22. For their dedications in decorating for the holidays.

23. For sharing their special talents and gifts.

24. The way they clean up and organize.

25. When they don't gossip and instead say something nice about the
students.

26. For keeping busy with students.
27. For finding new ways of doing the same old things.

28. For their good cooking and sharing it with all of us.
(1-9 Poster)

Bill made positive annotations on this chart when he observed
something worthy of praise as one of his objectives for the school year
was to improve upon additional positive comments to his staff when it

was due them. (1-9 field notes)

Reprimand. Bill stated that he followed The One Minute Managg};
(Blanchard & Johnson, 1982) which recommended reprimanding people
immediately and telling them specifically what they did wrong. Although
the teacher stated that he used one minute reprimands the researcher
observed only the following two reprimands over a period of seven school
months.

Bill reprimanded his 0. J. 'T. student for her' manner of

interacting within the team. She had invited just Carol to the banquet

174

and the other two paraprofessionals felt offended. "Your approach
should be more team oriented and considering everyone within the team,”
Bill specified. The student expressed that she could not afford to take
all of the three aides. "Then you should have told them that as they
would have paid their own way," Bill responded.

It was difficult for the student to accept that she was wrong
and she appeared disgusted.

Bill expressed, "Always consider everyone within the team and
treat them like you would like to be treated. They like you and would
have paid their own way to attend to honor you at this banquet."

Student: (Silence).

Bill: ”That's all I wanted to say." (He puts his arm

around her.) ”We learn from our mistakes." (2-24 field notes)

The second reprimand occurred while the teacher was sitting at
his desk writing. Carol was sitting next to a student on the mat with
her arm around him, while Janie was lying next to a student on another
mat stroking his arm. Helen was sitting at the table not directly
observed to be doing anything.

Bill: "Helen, let's get off our 'duff' and moving. I

want everyone involved with students or activities
in the P.M.”

Helen: "I just sat down."
Bill: ”Student D could be put over a bolster."
Helen: ”Okay." (She gets up and goes over to Student D

and asked Carol to assist her in placing him over
the bolster.)

175

Carol and Helen put the student over the bolster and then Carol returned
to the mat. Helen continued to rock the student on the bolster. (3-12

field notes)

Bill offered suggestions on ways to improve both incidents.
In the first example it couldn't be remedied as the banquet was over,
but she could apply this suggestion to similar events in the future. In
the second example, Bill told her directly what she could do and Helen
complied. The teacher was direct and clearly understood in both
situations. (3-12 field notes)

The researcher met with Bill to question the discrepancies
regarding reprimands and what was observed in the classroom. The
following questions and answers were provided:

Question: "Although you have told me that you do one minute
reprimands I have observed only two incidents. Is
there a reason I did not observe them?"

Teacher: ”Yes, it is true that usually I will take the aide
aside by herself as this causes less embarrassment
for the person being reprimanded. I wouldn't
appreciate my boss reprimanding me in front of
everyone no matter how tactfully it is done."

Question: ”Do you actually reprimand?"

Teacher: "I guess I try more to redirect the staff person
to what should be done -- or try to get them to
solve it themselves if it is something they can
solve - I want them to reflect on it and see if
they can't solve it themselves. One aide is more
sensitive than the others and usually' I would
always take her’ aside as soon as possible to
discuss my concerns."

Question: "Then you really don't follow the One Minute
Manager in regard to reprimanding?"

 

176

Teacher: "If something is way out of line, that others
observe and aren't doing something about it, then
I. would reprimand on the spot. But usually' I
would take the staff person aside as soon as
possible to discuss with them. what I felt was
wrong. Possibly they may give me more insight
into why they were doing it that way. I feel
taking them aside allows them to keep their
dignity and shows that I care about them, but do
not .approve of their behavior. It's less
threatening for the staff person and doesn't upset
everyone in the room.” (3-27 Interview)

Although Bill expressed previously that he followed the One

Minute Manager, in practice he did not reprimand consistently.

 

Practices demonstrated that the teacher followed Blanchard and Lorber
(1984) in consideration to reprimanding. Blanchard and Lorber (1984)
listed five steps in training a learner that Bill appeared to follow:

1. Tell (what to do)

2. Show (how to do)

3. Let the person try

4. Observe performance

5. Praise progress or redirect

The teacher in this study redirected or demonstrated to the
paraprofessional the way it should be done in contrast to a reprimand.
(3-27 field notes)

Bill used feedback continuously to create a non-threatening
climate in the classroom. Feedback from the paraprofessionals was
treated with respect and their suggestions were usually implanented.
Decision. making originated from. the bottom-up instead of top down.'
Verbal and written praise were included in Bill's feedback. He

typically redirected the paraprofessional rather than using a reprimand.

177

Problem solving feedback skills were used by allowing the aides to
reflect on problems and reach their own decisions. The concept of team
teaching wherein it was built upon the expectation that members of a
team will observe each other and give each other feedback in at least an

informal way (Glatthorn, 1984) was consistent with the study.

Mentor. Mentors and proteges are very much involved in working
together in a wide variety of professional or career concerns. These
relationships are open, informal, and have a high frequency of
interaction. The mentor takes responsibility by caring for the adult
and attempting to .foster their growth and development (Bova and
Phillips, 1984). Mentoring relationships have been found to be
critically important to the developing professional (Bova and Phillips,
1984).

Bill had a unique relationship to this special education
classroom as he was not only the team manager, but friend and helper.
Sincere generosity, compassion and concern for his staff were attributes
he contributed to the team. He picked up items at the store before or
after school for his staff (10-24 field notes) and the paraprofessionals
were comfortable in asking for his assistance. The following typical
example highlights his approach.‘

Another paraprofessional in the school entered the classroom
and asked Jane if she would pick up the bananas as she did last year for
the ice-cream social. Jane responded,

"No, but Bill goes by there every day on the way
to school and I'm sure he will."

178

Bill: "Sure, I don't mind." (Smiles.) (2-26 field
notes)

He demonstrated interest in them personally and had birthday
parties for' all the classroom. staff. Bill brought in the cake or
ice-cream for everyone. (9-6 field notes)

Carol's car was in for repair and Bill volunteered to pick her
up in the morning and drive her home. Carol accepted and offered, ”Let
me know when I can help you out.” (1-17 field notes)

His involved type of relationship assisted him with management
as he was not only the manager, but a sincere friend. The researcher
questioned if this type of relationship was helpful in a classroom
working closely with his paraprofessionals and Bill expressed, ”We're a
team and family. I will help them out and I can call on them to help

me.” (2-15 Interview)

Evaluation. Improvement in teacher evaluation has resulted from

 

legislative mandates in several states which are generating an amount of
data relevant to these problems that has never been available before
(Coker, 1985). In this study the teacher' was responsible for the
evaluation of his paraprofessionals. Since the teacher was a mentor,
role-model, working side-by-side with the paraprofessional, the
evaluation may be unique to this type of setting. ‘Evaluation. was
consistent ‘with the processes described by Copeland and (Jamgochian

(1985) building relationships characterized by openness and trust.

179

Annual evaluation of the paraprofessional . was the
responsibility of the classroom teacher at Spartan Intermediate School
District. Bill was given the paraprofessional evaluation forms at a
teacher's meeting and directed by the school principal to complete the
forms on each paraprofessional in his classroom. He was directed to
complete the evaluation form and discuss the evaluation with the
principal before the meeting between teacher and paraprofessional. (2-7
field notes)

Bill told the researcher that he had shown Carol's evaluation
to the principal and could now discuss it with her. He asked Carol's
permission for the researcher to be present at this meeting and she gave
her approval. The researcher verified with Carol the permission to
attend to ensure that her presence would not threaten Carol. (3-25
field notes)

Bill and Carol met after lunch to review Carol's evaluation
for the school year.

Teacher: "The principal has already seen this and given
approval, so now you can see it. Read my comments
first and see if there's any questions on it."

Carol: "No comments."

Teacher: ”You have been with me almost a school year, so
since September, how do you see your performance?"

Carol: (Silence)

Teacher: "Describe it. How do you describe your actions?"
Carol: "I meet each of the students' needs."

Teacher: "What percent do you give? How do you view it?”
Carol: (Silence)

Teacher: "How do you think that I see you?"

Carol:

Teacher:

Carol:

Teacher:

Carol:

Teacher:

Carol:

Teacher:

Carol:

Teacher:

180

"I am usually busy with the students' objectives
and working with students. I try to give 100%."

Name three things (strengths) you have given to my
classroom?"

"1. Teamwork, the most important.
2. Organization.
3. Art activities."

"I agree with that, too. Now, if you could name
one weakness you have, what would it be? If you
could change one thing since September --
incident? action? performance? We all make
mistakes. What would it be?"

”Net letting the other two aides get to me. I am
not real talkative and don't interact."

"If there was one action or change that would
improve our classroom, what would it be?"

"Stress to everyone not so much lax time. We
should always be working with students in some
way.”

"How would you approach that?"

"There are things that we could perhaps look at or
read." ‘

"The improvements that I would like to see in you
involve praising staff, students and the teacher,
me. It takes only 30 seconds and then you pat
them on the back.

I want you to read carefully The One Minute
Manager. It is in the room all the time and I am
going to urge everyone in the room to read it and
follow it. I want to institute it in the
classroom for all to use.

 

For a reprimand, if something should be
corrected you start with a reprimand and end with
praise.

One never says, 'You're stupid.’ Don't
attack the person. This book will give you good
ideas to use in the classroom and to communicate
effectively with the other staff. In this way we
will have self-management within our team. I want

181

you to get all the other staff involved in art
ideas, too.

Do you have any problems with your
evaluation?"

Carol: "No, I agree.
Bill wrote on Carol's evaluation form the following
considerations and expectations.

"Strengths: Carol has excelled in all areas
of the work objective. She gives IOOZ of herself.
Her extra love and care in her work shows in her
students. She has deve10ped a monthly folder of
art activities which we should take more advantage
of. She anticipates and is always there.

 

She follows directions immediately and gives
valuable comments both to the teacher and on
student charts. Overall the quality of our
classroom is raised with her presence.

Improvements:

1. To praise behavior immediately when it
occurs.

2. To reprimand a bad performance
immediately, giving a fair comment on
one's behavior, and not on one's worth
as a person.

The above will be two new MBO's for the
next school year and will follow the formula
of The One Minute Manager.

 

3. To actively' encourage interaction and
concentration of students and objective
performance during school hours,
especially at lunch time and in the
afternoon." (3-26 field notes)

Bill expected Carol to follow The One Minute Manager, as it

 

was his management guide. Self-management wherein he was not the only
one praising and reprimanding, was inferred from the evaluation process.

He respected the judgment of Carol to carry out this evaluative process

182

of when to praise and reprimand. The teacher included himself in the
team and said he would accept reprimands from his paraprofessionals.
However, the researcher observed the teacher only two times reprimanding
a staff. The teacher had a manner of reprimanding that was regarded as
a "help" and not a ”put down". The researcher questioned if all the
aides would be able to do this as effectively as Bill. (3-26 field

notes) The interview between the teacher and researcher included:

Question: ”Will this reprimanding by paraprofessionals cause
problems in the classroom?"

Bill: "In the beginning, it may with the aides, but I
will work with them, assist them also in learning
this new management process. I feel it is worth
it and will enhance the management of our
classroom into a caplete team approach. I work
with students, attend meetings and cannot be there
all the time. I then will be able to count on
them to follow through with praise and reprimands.
If there are problems we will sit down together
and discuss them, perhaps how' they’ could have
praised more effectively or reprimanded more
tactfully. They will be learning this and I don't
expect them to do this overnight. It will take
time for this to catch on and for them to observe
the benefits themselves. I do know that it will
work as I've seen it work in this classroom. When
I give an aide positive praise it is a motivator
that keeps them moving ahead. Remember the
philosophy behind this is that everyone -- yes,
everyone - is a potential winner. They will be
learners with this approach and I want them to try
it. I will praise their progress or redirect
through on the spot training or conferences.
Hopefully, they will observe me and follow what I
am trying to do. In this way they will also have
a better understanding of what I am attempting to
accomplish in the classroom; teamwork, working
together as an effective team. We will be all
helping one another grow and improve. This last
month I have observed it 'rubbing off' and aides
complimenting each other when a job was well done.
If enough praise is given then the reprimands are
taken as sincere and for their best interests. I

183

tell them we all make mistakes, learn, and change
for the better. I include myself in on this
process and ask them to tell me if they observe me
doing something incorrectly." (3-26 Interview)

The evaluation by the teacher included (a) aide's description
of her performance, (b) reflection of the teacher's perspective, (c)
feedback regarding her strengths, (d) feedback regarding her weakness,
(e) feedback involving classroom improvement, and (f) teacher noting
improvements he wanted for Carol. Carol was directed to read 132.922.

Minute Manager and follow it. Since Bill felt the management literature

 

assisted him, he wanted to share it with Carol. (3-26 field notes)

Individual educational plan. The I.E.P. process is crucial in a
special education student's schooling. The special education teacher is
required to abide by the I.E.Plan and is responsible for its
implementation. The I.E.P process dictates what should be going on in
the classroom to develop the maximum potential for each special student.
(Figure 4)

Bill related to the researcher that basically all management
and training in the classroom was to ensure that I.E.P.'s for each
student were carried out by himself and staff. Data were recorded on
objectives for each student by the paraprofessionals and himself. The
method Bill selected was charting objectives, posting them. on the
bulletin board in his classroom, and the staff person who assisted the
student marked the apprOpriate chart. (l-l4 field notes)

The school psychologist provided more information regarding

I.E.P.'s.

FIGURE 4

184

One representative example of a student's goals and objectives

for the school year contained:

Individualized Educational Program

3.

5.

Annual Program Goals

To increase Gayle's ability

to perform gross motor
activities in adaptive physical
education and in the classroom.

To improve Gayle's dressing
skills.

To improve Gayle's eating
skills.

To improve Gayle's grooming
skills.

To improve communication/
socialization.

2a.

2b.

3b.

4a.

4b.

5a.

5b.

Objectives

Gayle will increase her
independence in selected
positioning and ambulation
activities.

Gayle will become more
independent in putting
clothing on.

Gayle will correctly and
independently discriminate
front from back when putting
on clothing items.

Gayle will become more
independent in drinking skills.

Gayle will use her left hand
functionally as a guide.

Gayle will become more
independent in hand washing.

Gayle will become more
independent in tooth brushing.

Gayle will increase her
receptive vocabulary.

Gayle will increase her

spontaneous communication of
wants or needs.

(3-19 I.E.P.)

185

Kirk said that the use of Individual Educational Plans are
already in practice throughout Michigan for special education students.
”No two students are identical." Each student at Spartan School has an
individual "I.E.P.” Individualized education program means a program
developed by’ an individualized educational planning committee which
shall be reviewed annually. The components of the program are:

(a) A statement of the child's present levels of educational
performance;

(b) A statement of annual goals, including short term performance
objectives;

(c) A statement of the specific special education and related
services to be provided to the child, and the extent to which
the child will be able to participate in regular educational
programs;

(d) The projected dates for initiation of services and the
anticipated duration of the services;

(e) .Appropriate objective criteria and evaluation procedures and
schedules for determining, on at least an annual basis,
whether the short term performance objectives are being
achieved.

Spartan School, like all special education schools and
programs in Michigan, is governed by the Michigan Special Education
Rules, as amended August 13, 1980. Student needs as perceived by staff
at Spartan School is based on each student's goals and objectives, which

are formulated annually by an Individual Educational Plan.

186

However, each paraprofessional could record data differently
on students, but all teachers were responsible for data being recorded
and analyzed on student objectives. (1-14 field notes)

Charts in.‘Bill's classroom, posted on. the bulletin board,
listing performance objectives for each of the eight students were

always posted from August through March in the study. The staff

 

assigned to the student marked the objectives with comments when
attempted. Thus, the paraprofessional knew what was expected of her
daily as one of her responsibilities was to complete student's
objectives. (ll-7 field notes) Thus, another responsibility of the
teacher was to maintain adequate data collection on objectives for each
student. Bill monitored the paraprofessionals to maintain adequate data
collection on performance objectives. (1-14 field notes)

Lesson plans were contained in each student's folder for the
paraprofessional to follow in carrying out an objective. Bill wrote out
each lesson plan to accompany each objective. (Appendix K) (3-19 field
notes) These lesson plans remained until the student had passed the
objective or the objective was changed. Bill wrote out explicit
directions for the aide to complete the objective. The directions
became routine for all the staff and they learned spontaneously what to
do with the student they were assisting. Thus, the I.E.P. and lesson
plans dictated the tasks for the aides to complete with each student.
Bill monitored the aides fulfilling this responsibility by examining the
posted charts for each student, which listed the objectives. However,
since Bill worked "side by side" with his aides, he informally observed

their activities continuously. (3-20 field notes)

187

The teacher posted ‘each student's objectives and the staff
person assisting that student, then marked the appropriate chart. The
I.E.P.'s, for the eight students, was the priority for the professional
and paraprofessional tasks in the study. Thus, the management team
concept was a process utilized by Bill to effectively meet the students'

objectives.

Sumary of supervisionJractices. The teacher at Spartan School
managed to build a team that shared in the responsibility of managing
the classroom. His definition of this role was primarily as manager of
a team. Practices followed in the study supported his definition. The
paraprofessional in the study defined her role as a member of a team,
with the teacher training her on the job. The coaching and modeling was
ongoing, Carol explained. Bill accomplished this by working
side-by-side with his aides using modeling and the coaching process to
train the paraprofessional. He had (a) impact without exerting total
control, (b) was helpful without having all the answers, (c) had
involvement without dananding centrality and (d) was powerful without
needing to dominate. Bill demonstrated respect for the aides'
suggestions and decisions by including them in on student staffings and
conferences once a week, wherein new objectives for students were
discussed. He gave feedback on an ongoing basis and the sides could
learn from observing how the teacher went about developing, questioning,

supporting, confronting, and making suggestions.

188

Another role the teacher assumed in the study was a mentor for
his aide. The mentor role included (a) role model, (b) consultant, and
(c) advisor to her. He had direct involvement with Carol and possessed
sincere generosity, compassion and concern for her well being. Bill
would drive her to places she would have to go after work and she
reciprocated. Carol was a rather shy individual, but the teacher
assisted in bringing her out while in a group.

Bill utilized the guidelines for adult learners that were
described by the National Center for Research in Vocational Education
(1984). The immediate application of new skills for the aide to learn
increased the motivation of the aide to learn them. The teacher in this
study (a) listened to the aides' concerns, (b) asked for feedback on
students continuously, (c) responded to aide's feedback in a positive
way, and (d) acknowledged the aides' responses as he attempted to learn
whether they were correct or incorrect and followed them with accepting
comments.

Sharing the responsibility for management provided the
opportunity for the aides to have ownership, to participate, and to feel
that they' were a necessary' part of the team. The teacher's role
included enhancing and reinforcing existing motivation for the sides to
continuously improve.

The teacher utilized as his model the One Minute Manager and

 

asked his aides to read this book and follow it (Appendix 0). During

the evaluation of the aide he reviewed the One Minute Manager with her

 

and explained how to praise and reprimand. He explained that he wanted

everyone in the classroom to daily utilize this approach. Bill stressed

189

to Carol that you never attack the person, but the particular situation.
He reiterated that if all the aides and himself followed this model
there would be more self-management, which was one of his goals for his

classroom. (3-27 field notes).

Summar

The teacher's and paraprofessional's definition of training
and supervision supported the elements of training and supervision
practiced and used by the teacher. The elements of training used by the
teacher included (a) modeling, (b) feedback and coaching, (c) written
instructions, (d) role-playing, and (e) charting with comments. The
elements of supervision practiced and used by the teacher included (a) a
team approach, (b) joint and individual conferences, (c) feedback,
praise and redirection, ((1) serving as a mentor to his staff, and (e)
evaluation. Bill's philosOphy was that by good management a

paraprofessional could be effectively trained.

CHAPTER V

Definitions, Practices and Conclusions

Introduction

This chapter provides an explanation of the data by answering
the six research questions. In addition, conclusions and their
application for teacher preparation or inservice are described.

The chapter is divided into three sections with section one
including the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research
questions. Section two identifies and describes the roles of the
teacher training and supervising a paraprofessional by responding to the
six research questions. The third section includes the conclusions,
research implications and suggested recommendations for follow up

studies.

The Purpose and Problem

The primary purpose of the study was to identify and describe
the roles and tasks of a special education teacher while training and
supervising a paraprofessional. Boomer (1980) stated that one of the
most apparent needs is to train special education teachers to work
effectively with paraprofessionals. The teacher's roles were
investigated through an ethnographic approach which provided rich

descriptive information.

191

Special education teachers in the trainable, severely mentally
impaired, and severely multiply' impaired classrooms have the
responsibility for coordinating the activities of paraprofessionals, in
addition to the usual duties of planning and implementing the
instructional programs for the students.

The following research questions were asked at the beginning
of the study, and guided the data collection and interpretation.

1. How does a special education teacher define his/her role

in training a paraprofessional?

2. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the
special education teacher in his/her training?

3. What practices in providing specific training for a
paraprofessional by a special education teacher are
evident?

4. How does a special education teacher define his/her role
in supervising a paraprofessional?

5. How does a paraprofessional define the role of the
special education teacher in supervising his/her work?

6. What practices in providing specific supervision for a
paraprofessional by a special education teacher are

evident?

The Explanation

Special education teacher's definition of training. The teacher

defined training with the following statement:

192

"Training is defined by my teaching through
examples, demonstrations, discussions, reading
material, and refinement of what I want happening
in the classroom with the students. This training
is organizational in manner which is spelled out
by 'Teamwork' in reality. It is learning by our
mistakes, refining and redefining programming. To
be ready for change and move on it. This is all a
part of training for new and old aides. There is
much for a new aide to learn and adjust and that
will come with time and good management.” (10-9
Interview)

The professional stated that he had no training in how to
train, manage, or work with paraprofessionals. (Interview I) This
supported Boomer (1980) contention that special education teachers need
to be trained to work effectively with paraprofessionals. The study
illustrated how one special education teacher learned by trial-and-error
and after five years of mistakes and attempts at training and

supervision used the One Minute Manager as his guide. Bill expressed

 

that it was very difficult when the aides were there before him, when
many times his authority and position was threatened or rebuked. The
study by Kiser (1981) concluded that the training of aides was given to
the teachers who did not realize this responsibility. In contrast, this
professional realized the responsibility, but had difficulty until he
referred to a meaningful management model.

Teamwork was the overall concept behind Bill's training. The
team approach described by Graebner and Dobbs (1984) is similar to the
approach used in the classroom in the study. Teamwork was a process the
teacher' used to train his aides. He worked alongside the
paraprofessionals and was a role model for them. For example, the
researcher observed Bill on eighty-two observations working directly

with one of the students in the classroom. Joyce and Showers (1983)

193

stated that trainees learning a new teaching strategy probably need
fifteen to twenty demonstrations and a dozen or more opportunities to
practice the skills. This was feasible in the setting observed as the
teacher was daily modeling for his aides. The teacher worked regularly
with the students and paraprofessionals on repetitive techniques for his
students.

Joyce and Showers (1983) also indicated that most coaching
should be done by teams of teachers. In contrast this classroom had a
team makeup of three aides and one teacher. Collectively they coached
each other and worked together to find new approaches to meeting student
needs. The teacher designed a rotation schedule whereby he could coach
and model techniques for the aides while assisting students.

Bill's definition of training was encompassed under good
management. He followed the management techniques described by
Blanchard and lorber (1984) although he expressed that he followed the
model of The One Minute Managgp (1982). The steps to training a learner
advocated by Blanchard and Lorber (1984) include:

1. Tell them what to do

2. Show them what to do

3. Let the person try

4. Observe their performance

5. Praise their progress or redirect
Bill followed this model and usually did not reprimand his aides. Only
on two occasions did the researcher observe reprimanding by the teacher
to an aide. Thus, he did not use this model consistently, but over a

period of seven months it was his guide.

194

The teacher's role in this study in regard to his definition
of training was a reorientation of the role as a person in authority
over employees. Shared responsibility and control replaced the
individual carrying the burdens alone. Bradford and Cohen (1984)
explained that within this model the manager must first believe in the
concept and then act in the creation of a £222. who are jointly
responsible with the manager of the department's success. Thus, the
teacher in this study was consistent with Bradford and Cohen (1984) that
learning that occurred on the job, in ongoing interactions, was likely
to be the most relevant to its members. The study was also consistent
with Joyce and Showers (1983) that practice should be in the work place.
Continuous feedback, practice, and the companionship of coaches is
essential to enable even highly motivated persons to bring additional
skills to their repertoire under effective control (Joyce and Showers,
1983).

Bill defined his primary role as a manager of the team. This
was reiterated by Boomer (1980) who conceptualized the teacher's role as
the ”program manager" of the team. The manager must define the program
goals and manage the resources to reach those goals. Training his
paraprofessionals was in fact very significant to the teacher in his
role as a manager. When the teachers were questioned by Havlicek and
Kelly (1981) about what information they needed to work more effectively
with their paraprofessionals, one of the responses included: How to
train paraprofessionals. It appears feasible that the management model
Bill used to guide: him in training his paraprofessionals could be

meaningful for other professionals.

19S

Paraprofessional's definition of training. Brantlinger (1978)
included that with appropriate training paraprofessionals can assume
complementary roles to teachers in the instruction and instructionally
related areas. The paraprofessional in this study assumed a
complementary role to the teacher' within the classroom team. She
defined the role of the teacher in her training as:

a. Works beside us

b. Shows us what to do

c. We can watch him

d. Explanation at conferences

e. Prompts us when necessary

f. Reciprocal feedback

3. Encouragement

h. Ongoing training

i. Comfortable atmosphere

Carol explained that there was no confusion regarding role
functions as they were shared by the teacher, with the exception of the
responsibility the teacher had for I. E. P. goals and objectives for
each student. ”The art of sharing the responsibility for finding your
ways to the shared responsibility team is itself more important than
following the model to a T" (Bradford and Cohen, 1984, p. 283). The
teacher rotated working with all the students and modeling for the aides
on .an ongoing basis. The charts, listing student objectives, were
always posted and the aides and teacher implemented them.

Encouraganent was the positive feedback which was ongoing by

the teacher and aides. The teacher felt that the group's efforts to

196

solve problems should be used to expand the group's problem solving and
managerial capacities (Bradford and Cohen, 1984). Joint conferences
included problem solving by the team. Bradford and Cohen (1984)
reiterated that learning that occurs on the job, in ongoing
interactions, is likely to be the most relevant to its members. All of
the learning in this classroom. occurred on the job. Boomer' (1980)
emphasized that teachers must be mature enough to provide direct
supervision and secure enough to accept honest feedback from the
paraprofessional, which was consistent with Bill in this study.

The comfortable setting in the study' was similar to the
Japanese philosophy, ”Think about your job; develop yourself and help us
improve the 'commny" (Pascale and Athos, 1981, p. 56). The Japanese
employees embrace the ”family concept" which appeared similar to the
family group in the study. Within this model a team of workers is
created who are jointly responsible with the manager of the department's
success (Bradford and Cohen, 1984). Within this study a team was formed
in which the teacher and aides were collectively responsible for the

classroom's operation and success.

Practices in providfl training. The most innovative and
provocative approaches to professional development are those that rely
on exploration and discovery by teachers (Sergiovanni, 1982). After
five years of trial-and-error in training paraprofessionals the teacher
in this study finally used a management model, the One Minute Mans er,
that assisted him in providing training in the classroom. Elements of

training that were evident in the study included:

197

a. Medeling

b. Reinforcing

c. Feedback and Coaching

d. Training Activities

e. Written Instructions

f. Role Playing

g. Simulation

h. Charting and Comments

The most effective training activities are those that combine
theory, modeling, practice, feedback and coaching to application (Joyce
and Showers, 1980). Bill explained that he felt. the easiest, most
efficient, and least bureaucratic method of teaching his aides was for

him to demonstrate them himself. Bandura (1973) stated that models

 

demonstrate how activities are to be performed. Modeling provides a

 

faster way of learning then that of direct experience (Bandura, 1973).
In this study the paraprofessional was exposed to modeling with
immediate application in the classroom.

Team development does not render the manager silent. There
are times when the teacher, as manager, has specific information or
expertise that no one else has (Bradford and Cohen, 1984). Although the
teacher and his paraprofessionals worked as a team, the teacher was the
manager, and initially modeled the behavior or techniques he desired
from the aide.

Bill shared the responsibilities with his paraprofessionals.
He performed pll_ the same duties as the paraprofessionals thus

diminishing the hierarchy of role distinctions. There existed respect

198

between the teacher and the paraprofessionals in reference to decision
making .and feedback. For example, ‘Bill changed from the rotation.
schedule in January when the aides asked to work with the same students.
Later in March he suggested they go back to the rotation schedule and
they accepted his advice. ”Trade-offs between making a particular
decision 'correctly' or using it as a developmental experience, will
sometimes have to be made" (Bradford and Cohen, 1984, p. 198). The
paraprofessionals volunteered to come in early once a week for their
weekly staff conference. Questions were answered, plans formulated, and
students discussed at the weekly joint conferences. Bill had good
rapport with his paraprofessionals as he was "down to earth” and
respected their questioning and input. (2-13 field notes) Feedback was
ongoing and reciprocal.

Posted written instructions was another method the teacher
used to train his aides. Six different posters with written
instructions were posted in the classroom during the length of the
study. The posted directions in the classroom were performed daily by
staff with specific students. The paraprofessionals made the posters
with directions from Bill. Thus, Bill used auditory and visual means to
train and direct his aides. The paraprofessionals were told what to do
and it was printed out for them if they had further questions and as a
reminder. The paraprofessionals had ownership in the written posters as
they were responsible for printing and posting them in the classroom.

Written instructions were also distributed to the aides at the
joint conference in the A, M. Five handouts provided information and

knowledge to the aides regarding specific techniques to assist the

199

students. Bill distributed information, asked the aides to read it and
they discussed it at the next A. M. conference.

Role-playing was used in the classroom as a training technique
for the staff to better understand the needs of the blind. Following
the blind experiences aides were directed to write a theme regarding
their experiences. These active empathetic experiences assisted the
staff to better understand the needs of the blind student in the study.

Bill explained that understanding the characteristics of the
special education student they would be working with was an important
competency for teachers to consider when training paraprofessionals.
Thus, by working with each student himself he was continuously modeling
for the paraprofessionals skills important for individual students.
These skills for nurturing the students included:

a. Reinforcing

b. Nurturance

c. Gross Motor Activities

d. Fine Motor Activities

e. Vestibular Stimulation

f. Self-Care Skills

g. Communication

Bill. expressed that anticipation, and love-compassion.'were

 

 

important characteristics for a paraprofessional.

Charting and comments by staff was another method the teacher
utilized to instruct his paraprofessionals. Charts were made for each
student by the teacher listing the activities to be performed daily.

The charts were always posted in the study and it was the staff's

200

responsibility to check the charts daily and write comments. Another
process designed for the paraprofessional. was to provide additional
feedback to the teacher. Bill daily examined the charts and responded
appropriately to the paraprofessional with praise or additional
suggestions.

Carol's definition of her role as a member of a team, with the
teacher training her on the job, was consistent with practices evident
in the study. The teacher accomplished this by working side-by-side
with his aides using modeling and coaching behaviors. Bill gave
feedback on an ongoing basis and the aides learned from how the teacher
went about developing, questioning, supporting, confronting, and making
suggestions. Bill had impact without exerting total control, helpful
without having all the answers, involvement ‘without demanding
centrality, and powerful without needing to dominate.

Bill treated all of his staff with respect and dignity. He
realized the necessity of praising and included it in his joint
conferences. He followed Blanchard and Lorber (1984) by praising the

progress or redirecting rather than a reprimand. Learners are never

 

reprimanded as it may immobilize them and make them even more insecure
(Blanchard and lorber, 1984). Bill was sensitive to the needs of his

paraprofessionals and did not embarrass them.

Special education teacher's definition of supervision. Bill
defined his role as the manager of the team in the classroom. Thus,
management encompassed. both the training and supervision that the

teacher performed in the classroom. Bill referred to effective

201

supervision as good management. He explained that he was not a leader,
but a manager. This role description was very significant with his
classroom management encompassing a team approach. Bill worked beside
his aides and performed all the responsibilities they did in addition to
(a) formulating final I. E. P. goals and objectives for each student,
(b) attending I. E. P. and professional meetings, (c) designing
classroom schedules and (d) evaluating his paraprofessionals. He
expressed that, "They know the students as well as I do,” (1-20
interview) and thus, respected their suggestions and feedback.
Occasionally managers who decide not to rush in are surprised to
discover how much their staff can contribute (Bradford and Cohen, 1984).
Bill stressed teamwork and the need to complement one another. The
paraprofessionals were team members, each bringing her own knowledge and
expertise to the classroom, with the teacher as manager of the team.
The Japanese managerial approach works on a philosophy that many
”little" brains are superior to a few "big" brains when it comes to
making organizations work properly (Pascale and Athos, 1981). Bill's
system in reference to the team approach was very similar to the
Japanese managerial approach. This concept sees the team members as
interdependent. It makes employees embrace the ”family" concept.
Paraprofessional Helen related that, "We're like a family. We work
together as a team. . ." (12-3 Interview)

Bill conceptualized the classroom as a "mini-business." "It
is very important that I manage their time and activities appropriately

to meet each student's needs." (1-15 Interview) His goals for the

 

paraprofessionals were self management and self discipline. He

202

explained that he was not a "policeman" and attempted to guide his aides
in solving problems as they arose in the study. Emphasizing that the
"biggest asset in my management is feedback," (l-lS field notes) Bill
indicated that feedback was essential for his classroom management.

He was a mentor for Carol, being a role model, advisor, and
consultant to her. Bill had direct involvement with her and possessed
sincere generosity, compassion and concern for her well-being. Bill's
role included enhancing and reinforcing existing motivation for the
paraprofessional to continuously improve. This was similar to the
process that Bova and Phillips (1984) indicated that adults learn
through mentoring. In addition to being a role model, the mentor acts
as a guide, a tutor or coach, and a confidant (Bolton, 1980). A mentor
is defined in terms of the character of the relationship between two
individuals rather than the function it serves (Levinson, 1978). Bill
expressed, "I respect their ideas and many times together we come up
with activities that alone I would not have developed.” (1-15
Interview) The assumption of a mentor role relationship is that a
certain amount of expertise has been accrued. The most important
element is the willingness to share accumulated knowledge with another
individual (Bolton, 1980). The focus is on collaborative team effort
and on continual attention to the development of members as integral to
achieving the task (Bradford and Cohen, 1984). The team concept was

supported in this study.

Paraprofessional's Definition of supervision. Carol's definition

of the role of the special education teacher in managing her work

203

emphasized teamwork. She reiterated, "He oversees me as he works right
along beside all of us. He supervises us by being part of the team
himself.” (1-24 Interview) Carol expressed that the teacher used the

One Minute Manager to manage the classroom. She had been directed by

 

Bill to read the book and it was one of her new goals for the following
school year. Joyce and Showers (1983) stated that most coaching should
be done by £232§_of teachers working together to study new approaches to
teaching and to polish their existing skills. The difference in this
study was that the coaching was performed by the teacher and
paraprofessionals as significant members of the team.

Brantlinger (1978) indicated that the role of the
paraprofessional has been expanded. No longer can. we view
paraprofessionals as responsible for only non-instructional activities,
such as house and record keeping. The study supported this perspective
as the paraprofessional performed the same responsibilities as the
teacher, with the exception of the final I. E. P. and evaluations. Bill
shared all the classroom responsibilities and tasks with his aides.
There was present in the classroom a reciprocal division of daily tasks
that were performed. For example, the teacher assisted in feeding a
student during each of the researcher's lunch time observations. The
paraprofessionals were also feeding other students. Paraprofessional,
Helen explained:

I enjoy working in rooms where the teacher works
right beside me. Aides shouldn't just have to do
the dirty jobs. I collect data on students,
assist the teacher in ideas for student goals and
objectives, and follow through with students

working on their objectives daily. (12-3
Interview)

204

Thus, each staff person was an important part of the team. Bill asked
advice from the aide and in this manner increased their self-image and
worth. The team concept has as its basis that no one person can have
all the necessary knowledge. Boomer (1980) defined the paraprofessional
role as one who is a member of the instructional team and this
definition was supported in Bill's classroom. He indicated that only by
advanced planning, review, and communication can they work as an
effective team. The paraprofessional defined the role of the teacher in
supervising her work supporting this concept.

Carol indicated that the teacher set up the schedules for
busing, swimming, lunches, but she presented. ideas .and suggestions.
Bill managed by direct involvement with the students, paraprofessionals,
and other staff in the school. Carol indicated that he was always aware
of classroom activities and staff performance as he was a part of the
team himself. Bill welcomed input from his paraprofessionals and Carol
felt comfortable in offering ideas and suggestions.

Charts were always posted for each student in the classroom
and Carol wrote comments on them for Bill's and the staff's
interpretations. The charts included the I. E. P. objectives for each
student. There was no need for Bill to verbally repeat the routine»
tasks, as they are always posted in the classroom. Carol specified that
Bill checked the charts daily to ensure that I. E._ P. objectives are
performed. In this manner he monitored the performance of his
paraprofessionals. For example, when the teacher was absent frmm the

classroom, the charts on the bulletin board provided guidance for all

205

the sides to follow in assisting students. Carol reiterated that these

charts were essential in the teacher's supervision of their work.

Practices in providing supervision. In this study the teacher
followed the principles advocated by Bradford and Cohen (1984). These
principles of management were shared responsibility and control
replacing the teacher carrying the responsibilities alone. Bill assumed
similar responsibilities as his paraprofessionals in addition to being
the manager of the team. The focus was on collaborative team effort and
attention to the development of all staff as integral to achieving the
task. Within this management model the manager and team members were
collectively responsible for the department's success. This model
differed from the concept of supervision wherein there is a hierarchy of
responsibilities and the supervisor is responsible for the teachers or
other staff members. Bradford and Cohen's (1984) management model was
created by work with over 200 managers from leading corporations and
government agencies, but Bill applied similar methods in the classroom.

As the team manager Bill held joint conferences once a week
for fifteen minutes before classes commenced. He required the
attendance of his paraprofessionals at this morning conference. The
joint conferences provided Bill the opportunity of meeting with all the
team members to review weekly plans, deve10p and discuss schedules,
share student information, and discuss problems or strategies. Feedback
from the paraprofessionals was respected and treated with equal value as
the professional's. This classroom management model demonstrated that

influence between teacher and paraprofessionals can be mutual.

206

Another element of the teacher's management model included
individual conferences. Individual conferences were used by the teacher
to monitor the progress of students and paraprofessionals. Bill met
individually with each paraprofessional a minimum of once a month over a
period of seven school months. Feedback was given by the teacher on an
ongoing basis. The classroom management model was similar to Quality
Circles, wherein decisions are made from the bottom-up instead of top
down. The teacher respected the aides' opinions by allowing the
paraprofessionals an important part of the decisions made in reference
to schedules and assisting students.

Bill used praise consistently to motivate his
paraprofessionals. One of his own personal objectives was additional
praise for his staff. He encouraged his paraprofessionals to solve
their own problems. Bill respected the pride of his aides and allowed
them. to solve problems that they created for themselves. In this
management model decision making was a responsibility of all the team
members.

After seven months of observation the researcher observed only
two incidents of reprimanding. After further probing Bill explained
that usually he tried to redirect the aides rather than reprimand them.
In practice he followed Blanchard and Lorber (1984) and praised the
progress or redirected. Bill still included in the evaluation of Carol
that she learn how to reprimand, which was of interest to the researcher
as he usually never reprimanded himself. It appeared to the researcher

that perhaps this was an area where the aides could complement him.

207

Bill was required to evaluate his paraprofessionals annually.
He respected the judgment of his paraprofessionals to carry out the
evaluative process of’ when to praise and reprimand. Bill. was not
intimidated, but wanted to be treated in the same manner as his
paraprofessionals. He asked for input into the evaluation as, ”Name
three things (strengths) you have given to my classroom?” Overall, the
teacher' was positive and attempted to direct the paraprofessionals
towards self-management and self-discipline. He was the manager of the
team and one of the requirements at Spartan I. S. D. was to evaluate his
paraprofessionals.

Bill. was required to be responsible for' annual goals and
objectives for each of the eight students in his classroom and ensure
that they are carried out by the classroom staff. The method that he
selected was by charting objectives, posting them on the bulletin board
in his classroom, with the staff person assisting the student marking
the appropriate chart. This data was later transcribed to a student
notebook on each student.

Bill was not only the team manager, but a friend and helper.
He possessed sincere generosity, compassion and concern for his staff.
He emphasized, "We're a team and family. I will help them out and I can

call on them to help me." (2-15 Interview)

208

Conclusions and Implications

Bill's management encompassed both training and supervision.
The concepts used by the teacher to train. and supervise a
paraprofessional were:

1. Feedback was essential

2. All staff are significant to the team

3. Praise staff immediately

4. Encourage them to continue

5. Speak the truth

6. Humor makes the work place comfortable

In practice Bill seldom reprimanded his staff as he felt it
could make them insecure. The teacher did follow Blanchard and Johnson
(1982) which indicated staff need one minute praising. The teacher used
praise on an ongoing basis to motivate his paraprofessionals, provide
positive feedback and proceed with success throughout the day. These
skills and techniques could be incorporated into a student's preservice
training, inservice training for professionals and paraprofessionals,
and ongoing professional development activities. It appears feasible
that the elements could be adapted to training situations and on-the-job
training to aid the professional in training and supervising
paraprofessionals.

The teacher's primary role in training and supervising a
paraprofessional was defined and practiced as the team manager. The
teacher indicated that the paraprofessional works beside the

professional and together they manage the classroom. Collectively the

209

professional and paraprofessionals formed an effective team. The
participants comprised an effective team as there was present advanced
planning, regular review’ during the conferences, and constant
communication in the classroom.

The overall element of management that conceptualized the
professional's perspective was a team approach. The teacher and
paraprofessional considered themselves as interdependent. Both
professional and paraprofessional respected and acknowledged each
other's influence in the classroom. The teacher's approach to training
and supervising a paraprofessional was by having him/her blend in with
the team and learn to complement one another. This philosophy included
the belief that no one individual possessed all the expertise and each
individual had strengths and weaknesses. The teacher's management
concept included a reciprocal working relationship.

The teacher developed this management process because the
traditional concept of the teacher as leader or boss did not work for
him in the past. In this new model, everyone is responsible for the
whole and takes initiative to see that problems are dealt with and
objectives met. This could be incorporated in preservice and inservice
for students and teachers whereby the Manager-DevelOper concepts could
be tried and tested in the classroom, discussed, redefined and an
effective workable model developed.

The elements of training that the professional utilized in
training a paraprofessional included: modeling, reinforcing, feedback,
coaching on the job, written instructions, role playing, and charting

with comments. These training activities could be analyzed and

210

practiced in preservice, inservice, professional development activities,
or implemented and coached in the classroom by a Master teacher or peer
teacher.

Written instructions, charts, and posters provided an
additional visual means for the paraprofessional to be trained. The
paraprofessional could verify techniques with the chart or handout if
they were unsure of correct procedures. Since learners are both
auditory and visual these charts complement the coaching and feedback
provided by the professional.

Role-playing assisted the paraprofessional to better
understand the needs of the handicapped student. Role-playing could be
implemented. at the preservice, inservice, and at professional
development activities, as a means for training paraprofessionals or
professionals to understand and empathize with the students in their
classes.

Elements of management that the teacher utilized in the
classroom included: team approach, joint conferences, individual
conferences, feedback, praise, redirection, mentor' to 'his staff and
annual evaluation of the paraprofessional. Joint conferences provided
the teacher a method of bringing the team together to go over weekly
plans, develop and review schedules, share information regarding student
progress, discuss any problems in the class, or discuss new strategies
for students. The conferences were informal in approach, but' planned

carefully by the professional.

211

The researcher observed the importance of the human relations
or group process skills as equally' important as the task-oriented
component. These group process skills included:

1. Team ownership

2. Listening

‘ 3. Clarifying

4. Participation

5. Responsibility for self

6. Group orientation

7. Understand and appreciate individual differences

It is feasible that these group process and human relations
skills could be added to the curriculum in Teacher Education at the
preservice level. Training in communications and team building appeared
significant for teachers who have the responsibility of managing
paraprofessionals.

Individual conferences were used by the teacher to monitor the
progress of students and paraprofessionals. Appreciating individual
differences in paraprofessionals assisted the teacher in gaining support
from his paraprofessional.

An additional role the teacher assumed in this classroom was a
mentor for his paraprofessional. The mentor, like the role model,
demonstrates how an activity is to be performed and can enhance the
learning experiences. Therefore in addition to being a role model, Bill
acted as a guide, tutor or coach.

Inferences from the study included that any needs assessment

or other forms of self-analysis must give attention to the provision of

212

feedback from others. Thus, the evaluation form was another method of
providing feedback to the paraprofessional.

The roles identified and described are specifically intended
to aid the professional in understanding the other role functions a
teacher assumes when paraprofessionals are employed.. This awareness and
insight into the additional role functions should lead to improved
effective use of paraprofessionals. It is feasible at both the
preservice and inservice levels to provide training to students and
teachers in methods of working with paraprofessionals. This training
should be practical and based on effective methods that are already
practiced in the classroom and supported by research. A management
model used as a guide could assist the teacher in training and
supervising paraprofessionals in the classroom. The study illustrated
how training and supervising paraprofessionals can be accomplished by
using a management process. Educators may learn from business and
industry a process to more effectively train and supervise
paraprofessionals that they are responsible for in the classrooms.

It is crucial that a beginning teacher entering a classroom,
with paraprofessionals assigned to him/her, receive training in
effective methods of training and supervising paraprofessionals. Kiser
(1981) suggested that teachers could be trained by (a) being an aide,
(b) observing, (c) taking courses, (d) at the preservice level, (e) at
the inservice level, and (f) learning on the job. It is the suggestion
of the researcher that the actual identification and description of the
roles of the teacher in training and supervising a paraprofessional may

assist in this training.

213

Implications for Further Studies

The study encompassed only one special education classroom

with one special education teacher. Additional studies are necessary to

analyze practices that were evident in the classroom. Following this

study the following questions are asked:

.1.

Would the training and supervision in another disability
area, other than severely multiply impaired, be quite
different for another special education teacher with
paraprofessionals?

Would another classroom in this same school utilize the
same or similar techniques in training and supervising
paraprofessionals?

How would additional studies from another county or state
compare/contrast with Spartan I. S. D.?

What process or management models do other special
education teachers utilize in training and supervising
paraprofessionals?

If training in working with paraprofessionals was
implemented at the preservice level, would the
effectiveness of the professional, with this additional
responsibility, be enhanced? Thus, a study of a teacher
with training in a management process, prior to
employment, would add insight into training and
supervising paraprofessionals.

What should be contained in teacher education programs at
the preservice level to effectively prepare students to
utilize paraprofessionals in the classroom?

What should be included in a proposed inservice for
orienting and training teachers to work with
paraprofessionals?

What should comprise a proposed inservice for orienting
and training paraprofessionals who are employed in
classrooms? ‘

Should programs training regular and special education
teachers at the preservice level be similar or different?

214

Summary

This chapter responded to the six research questions in terms
of data gathered over a seven month period in one special education
classroom. Interpretations by the teacher and paraprofessional were
checked against practices evident in the classroom. To assure validity
the ethnographic research cycle was utilized seven times to identify and
describe the roles of a special education teacher training and
supervising a paraprofessional.

Conclusions and implications of the study’ were expanded.
Additional follow up studies with questions as they related to this

study were enumerated.

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Zeichner, K. M. 8 Tabachnick, B. R. (1981). Are the effects of
university teacher education ”washed out” by the school
experience? Journal of Teacher Education, 32, (3), 7-13.

Zigarmi, P., Goldstein, M. 8 Rutherford, W. (1978). Implementing a new'
approach to discipline in a junior high school: A two- year
study of interventions in a Teacher Corps project. Journal of
Classroom Interaction, 14, 19-27.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

SPARTAN INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICT*

JOB DESCRI PTION

DIVISION SPECIAL EDUCATION JOB TITLE Paraprofessional - SXI

 

CATEGORY Non-certified

I. Requirements

A. The aide SKI must possess the following qualifications:
(Job Title)

 

1. Education and/or certification:

High School Graduate

 

 

2. Experience:
Minimum of 2 years of successful experience as an aide in a

pnngram serving the mentally and/or physically handicapped.

 

3. Other:

 

 

B. Policy requirements (direct from specific categorical evaluations)

The side SH must:
(Job Title)

1. Adhere to all master agreement, district, and/or building
policies regarding

*Any name used in this study is fictitious.

229

5.

230

a) attendance

b) business procedures

c) student discipline

d) safety

e) obtaining parental permission
f) personal appearance

Attend, on time, all required meetings and inservice programs.

Follow administrative or subordinate directives - verbal
and/or written.

Maintain confidentiality.

Not extend allotted breaks and/or lunchtime.

II. Job Performance

A.

C.

Communications and Interpersonal Relationships

The side SXI is expected to consistently

1.

2.

3.

(Job Title)
Communicate clearly and accurately when writing and speaking.
Communicate student concerns to apprOpriate

a) superordinate
b) other school personnel

Follow directions of superordinate

Management and Organization

The side SKI is expected to consistently

1.

2.

(Job Title)

Complete assigments accurately, on time, and without constant
supervision.

Assist other personnel as needed.

Application of Job Knowledge

The side SKI is expected to consistently

1.

 

(Job Title)

Make correct decisions in solving problems.

Demonstrate skill in assisting students to meet objectives and
in utilizing educational equipment, materials and resources.

231

3. Provide positive reinforcement to students.

4. Assist in the maintenance of an environment that is conducive
to student learning.

5. Meet specific performance objectives deve10ped jointly with
immediate superordinate.

III. Specific requirements for aide SKI are

 

(Job Title)

 

PROGRAMMATIC

1. To maintain calmness and control under difficult and stressful
emergency situations.

2. To assist in record keeping and data collection.

3. To follow prescribed building emergency procedures for tornado,
fire, death, acute illness, oxygen therapy, code blue and
abuse/neglect.

4. Adhere to established administrative policy/procedures in dealing
with inappropriate maladaptive behaviors.

5. Assist the teacher in developing realistic goals for students.

6. Assist the teacher in planning activities to develop individual
student performance objectives.

7. To care for the necessities of each student

a) Self-care
b) Adaptive
c) Cognitive
d) Medical

OTHER REQUIREMENTS

1.

2.

3.

To demonstrate accepted ethical standards of professional conduct
in communicating with all district personnel.

To attend all required programmatic staff meetings and be prompt.

Utilize a variety of materials and equipment to enhance each
student's learning experience.

Be flexible and perform other duties as assigned for
transportation, lunch, sanitation and safety.

Reproduced: Spartan I.S.D. (1985)

APPENDIX B

SPARTAN INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICT*
JOB DESCRI PTION
. Teacher of
DIVISION SPECIAL EDUCATION JOB TITLE SeverelynMultiply Impaired - (SKI)

CATEGORY CERTIFIED

I. Requirements

A. The Teacher (SKI) must possess the following qualifications:
(Job Title)

1. Education and/or certification:
Valid Michigan Teaching Certificate with one of the following_
Special Education Endorsement: SA “Mentally Handicapped”
SL ”Education of the Deaf“
SK "Education of the Blind”
SC ”Crippled or Otherwise
Physically Handicapped”
2. Experience:
Be recommended for a teaching certificate/endorsement which
constitutes full approval in one of the above special education
areas by an institution of bigner education, signifying

completion of a teacher education program.

*Any name used in this study is fictitious.

232

B.

233

Policy requirements (direct from specific categorical evaluations)

The Teacher (SKI) must:

1.

4.
5.

6.

(Job Title)

Adhere to all master agreement, district, and/or building
policies regarding

a) attendance

b) business procedures

c) student discipline

d) safety

e) obtaining parental permission
f) personal appearance

Attend, on time, all required meetings and submit, on time,
required reports.

Maintain student records, student objectives, and security and
inventory of equipment and materials according to identified
system.

Follow administrative directives -- verbal and/or written.

Safely supervise students during contact hours.

Maintain confidentiality.

I I . Job Per formance

A.

Communications and Interpersonal Relationships

The Teacher (SKI) is expected to consistently

1.

2.

(Job Title)
Communicate clearly and accurately when writing and speaking.
Communicate student concerns to apprOpriate
a) administrator

b) other school personnel
c) external personnel

Management and Organization

The Teacher (SKI) is expected to consistently

1.

(Job Title)

Complete assignments accurately, on time, and without constant
supervision.

234

2. Use a written instructional plan and operate an organized
program according to identified system.

3. Know whereabouts of students at all times.

4. Recommend tool, equipment, material and resource purchases.
5. Supervise subordinates as assigned.

Application of Job Knowledge

The Teacher (SKI) is expected to consistently
(Job Title)

1. Make correct decisions in solving problems.

2. Demonstrate skill in assisting students to meet objectives and
in utilizing educational equipment, materials and resources.

3. Provide positive reinforcement to students.
4. Maintain an environment that is conducive to student learning.

5. Update instruction, program objectives, courses, curriculum
and instructional materials according to identified system.

6. Practice principle of "how people learn” when teaching.

7. Meet specific performance objectives developed jointly with
immediate supervisor.

III. Specific requirements for Teacher (SKI) are

(Job Title)

PROGRAMMAIIC

1.

To develop performance objectives (P.O.) for each short range
instructional objective (1.0.) in accordance with the Michigan
State Board of Education's ”A Resource Guide to Developing Annual
Goals, Short Term Instructional Objectives and Performance
Objectives”.

To submit P.O.'s for each student to program supervisor or designee
for review and approval within 30 calendar days of each I.E.P.C.

To develop a system of recording each student's responses to each
P.0. a minimum of one time per week.

To orchestrate initiative and creativity in the instructional pro-
gramming for students following completion of required I.E.P./P.O.
programming.

5.

6.

9.

235

To document each emergency, accident, or illness on approved form
and submit to the school nurse and/or building supervisor.

To adhere to established administrative policy/procedures in
dealing with maladaptive behaviors including recording of data as
specified on the individual treatment plan-

To follow prescribed building emergency procedures for tornado,
fire, acute illness, and abuse/neglect.

To maintain calmness and control at all times.
To provide all instructional materials and knowledge of proper use

of subordinates for implementing and monitoring performance
objectives.

EVALUATIVB

 

1.

2.

To complete all preparatory assessments and staffing forms in
advance of the annual educational evaluation date including the
BISD curriculum assessment, staffing report, and specific IEP goals
and objectives for the IEPC. (All required reports.)

To assist in the evaluation of all non-certified personnel through
prudent supervision based upon a management-by-objective framework.

COMMUNICATIVE

 

1.

2.

3.

To demonstrate accepted ethical standards of the profession in
maintaining a high level of rapport with CRCDD and BISD program
personnel and parents/guardians.

To notify the office of the program supervisor of all clothing,
laundry, meals, special diets, transportation needs, medical autho-
rizations for student participation, and other program details
essential for student participation in the school program.

To maintain open lines of communication with non-certified staff.

Reproduced: Spartan I.S.D. (1985)

8.

10.

11.

Nov.

APPENDIX C

First Interview Set
Teacher

How many years have you been teaching? (Date for verification)

For how many years have you had paraprofessionals in your
classrooms? (Date for verification)

Did you have any problems the first year that you had
paraprofessionals in your classroom?

Do you have problems now with the paraprofessionals in your
classroom?

Are your paraprofessionals a big help to you?

What are the three primary duties your paraprofessionals perform
daily?

How do you instruct your paraprofessionals? (Probe for additional
data and clarification)

a) For example verbal instruction?

6) Modeling-example-seeing it performed by the teacher?

c) written hand-outs?

d) Conferences regarding instruction?
e) Individually (these were used as probes)?

Did you have any training in college in how to work with and
instruct paraprofessionals?

Describe to me your role as a special education teacher.
If you had none, would training have helped? How?

What would you recommend to the colleges that they teach regarding
the training and guiding of paraprofessionals?

12, 1984

236

1.

S.

6.

APPENDIX D

Second Interview Set

 

Teacher

How would you define and describe your role in supervising - expand
on this -- are you a leader? (For verification of notes and
clarification of self-management and self-discipline)

I've noticed that special attention is given by everyone in the
classroom to the charts and comments. Is this important? Why? How
do you use the charts and comments? (For clarification and
verification of notes)

How do you use your morning conferences? For what purpose?
(Verification of observational notes and non-structured interviews)

Would you describe the aide's role as one who is a member of a team,
but who works under the direct supervision of the special education
teacher? (For similarities or differences between Boomer's (1980)
description of the aide's role)

Describe and define your role in training a paraprofessional? (For
clarification of notes)
a. Is training an important part of your responsibilities?

b. Why don't you just tell the aide ‘what to do instead of
demonstrating?

c. I've noticed that you ”coach" your paraprofessionals on the
job. Why? Expand on this.

d. What are some areas you train your aides in? (Verification of

observational notes) How do you do this?

Why did you go along with the aide's suggestion not to rotate when
you indicated it was a good method?
How have you changed in regards to working with aides?

(For additional data as he stated earlier that he had problems with
aides in his classroom and could lead to new perspectives)

January 15-20, 1985

237

l.

2.

5.

6.

8.

9.

10.

APPENDIX E

Third Interview Set
Teacher

I've only observed two incidents of reprimands. Is this true? Is
there a reason for this?

The One Minute Manager includes reprimanding -- do you actually
follow that? (For clarification and verification as it appeared he
did not)

I've noticed a special relationship between yourself and the
paraprofessionals as not only a manager, but a friend and mentor.
Is this true? Does this help or hinder you. in training and
supervising?

Praise and positive feedback appear very important in the classroom
- is this true? Can you expand on this?

It seems that your managaaent model from the One Minute Manager
takes in both training and supervising. Is this correct? Would
you expand on this? (verification of data)

The paraprofessionals accepted your suggestion to rotate one day a
week. Why didn't you suggest going back to the original rotation
schedule?

I observed that you indicted on the paraprofessional's evaluation
for her to praise and reprimand. Why?

Training in communications and team building appeared as important
competencies for you while managing paraprofessionals. Is this
true? Would you expand on this? (Verification of analysis)

I've noticed that you work to develop management responsibility in
paraprofessionals - it appears that while developing the strengths
of your aides this helps them work in to the team approach. Is
this correct? would this be easier to do outside of the classroom?

Is it true that professional teachers should receive training in
the management of paraprofessionals. within special education
systems? Would this have helped you?

March 22-29, 1985

238

1.

S.

6.

8.

APPENDIX F

First Interview Set

 

Paraprofessional

Describe the teacher you are presently working for. (For
verification, clarification, and new perspectives)

Describe your roles in the classroom.

a. Do you perform all the same activities as the teacher?

b. What are some things that you do that the teacher doesn't
perform?

c. How do you spend most of your time?
(For additional data, clarification and verification)

Is your role much different than the teacher's? In what ways is it
different? (For verification of notes)

Is your role similar to the teacher's? In what ways is it similar?
(For verification of notes)

Has your role as a paraprofessional changed since you were first
hired? Bow? (Earlier she mentioned this to the researcher)

Would you describe skills that paraprofessionals need in working
with teachers in the classroom? (For clarification .and
verification of observational notes and non-structured interviews)

What are the morning conferences used for? For what purpose? (For
additional data, clarification, and verification)

Does the teacher train you?

a. What has he trained you in?

b. How did he go about this training?

(For verification of notes and non-structured interview with the
teacher)

239

240

9. Does the teacher supervise you?
a. How does he actually supervise you?
b. How does he monitor your work?
(For clarification and verification of notes)
10. When you were first hired who trained you? How? (For additional

background data, clarification, and probing for new perspectives in
the study)

October 14-18, 1984

2.

5.

APPENDIX C

Second Interview Set

 

Paraprofessional
After the team stopped rotating and working with two students, how
did it go? Was this a better method? Why or why not?

a. The teacher suggested rotating one day a week again. Did you
agree?

b. Did you anticipate going back to partial rotation? Why or why
not?

(For additional data, verification and clarification of notes)

I've noticed that your suggestions are put into practice many times
when the teacher needs new ideas. Is this true?

a. Does this happen often or seldom?

b. Are you comfortable in providing suggestions to the teacher?

(For clarification and verification of notes)

Did you agree with your evaluation?

a. What did you agree with?

b. What didn't you agree with?

(For clarification and verification of notes)

What should be changed in regards to the evaluation of
paraprofessionals? (Probe)

Do you feel that you could benefit from additional training as a
paraprofessional? (Probe)
a. What should this training consist of to be of value to you?

b. Should this training be in the classroom -- on the job
training?

241

242

6. If you were the teacher what would you do differently in training
or supervising paraprofessionals? (Probe and for verification of
notes)

a. What methods would you keep as they are effective?

b. A team approach is evident in the classroom -- do you agree
with this approach? Why?

7. The teacher recommended that you read and follow the One Minute
Mangger. Do you think this is a worthwhile approach? Why or why
not?

8. The teacher recommended that you praise and reprimand as the
situations arise.

a. Do you praise and reprimand now on the job? Why or why not?

b. What if you read and don't agree with the One Minute Manager?
Will you still follow it? Would you tell the teacher that you
didn't agree?

(Verification of reciprocal feedback in observation notes and
non-s tructured interviews)

March 22-29, 1985

APPENDIX H

TEE ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH DESIGN CYCLE

TOPIC-ORIENTED ETHNOGRAPEY:

CASE STUDY: TRAINING
Teacher SUPERVISION
Paraprofessional

Collecting

   

Asking ‘Msking an
ethnographic ethnographic
questions record

Writing an
ethnography

The research cycle will be repeated a minimum of seven times to
discover prominent trends and patterns in training and supervision by
the special education teacher of the paraprofessional assigned to him.
This cycle will continue until consistent patterns and linkages are
identified.

Reproduced: Participant Observation (1980)
James P. Spradley

243

APPENDIX I

Ethical Principles

 

In 1971, the Council of the American AnthrOpological
Association adopted a set of principles to guide ethnographers when
faced with conflicting choices. These Principles of Professional
Responsibility had as their preamble that ...in an area of such caplex
involvements, misunderstandings, conflicts, and the necessity to make
choices among conflicting values are bound to arise and to generate
ethical dilemmas. it is a prime responsibility of anthropologists to
anticipate these and to plan to resolve them in such a way as to do
damage neither to those whom they study nor, in so far as possible, to
their scholarly community (Spradley, 1980). The following ethical
principles are those that the majority of fieldworkers abide by in their
research.

1. Consider the informants first:

The researcher mde inquiries regarding the concerns
and interests of the informants, and when choices were
made, their concerns were considered first.

2. Safeguard the informants' rights, interests, and

sensitivities:

All information had the protection of saying things
”off the record” that never found their way into the
researcher's notes. No personal or non-relevant consents

were included in the data analysis.

244

3.

245

Communicate research objectives:

The participants had a right to know the
researcher's goals and objectives.
Protect the privacy of informants:

Informants have a right to remain anonymous. The
researcher secured permission from all parties involved
to conduct the study. Full confidentiality has been
guaranteed. Future publications will not identify the
location by name so as to add to the confidentiality of
the participants. Also, for the sake of anonymity, the
researcher used fake names for the participants studied.
The researcher maintained as a priority that any notes
taken in the presence of the participants is of such a
nature that she would not object to the participants

seeing them.

APPENDIX J

Classroom Equipment
Identification and Description by the Teacher and Researcher

Sidelyer: A padded two piece hinged board with two padded straps
and a front square padded brace, adjustable to student size. A
student is placed on his side between the adjustable brace and the
hinged back. Both pieces are wedged together to hold and keep the
student straight at the hips. Straps are used for the chest and
knees in order to keep them straight. A pillow is used to support
the head. This equipment is used for scoliosis patients in order
to prevent further deterioration of the spine.

Scooterboard: A padded board on wheels that is used to allow
mobility to the student while face down, through the use of his
arms. This equipment strengthens the neck, arm and back muscles.
Used face up, the student uses it for mobility by pushing it with
his legs and feet. It is also used by staff while pulling student
for vestibular stimulation.

Standing Table: A padded board on wheels with a foot plate and
crank. It is approximately six feet long and three feet wide.
Three straps are used for supporting the chest, hips and knees.
Once the student is secured face up on the table he/she is cranked
to an upward (standing) position: positioned at different
tolerable degrees for each student who needs this. It is used to
stretch and strengthen legs and weight bearing. (After three years
of work by one student on this equipment, he bore his arm weight
for the first time and his contracture of his legs have improved
one hundred percent.)

Tilt Table: A padded adjustable device similar to the standing
table except that it tilts forward and the student is placed face
down and then is raised to tolerable degrees. There are adjustable
side pads to hold the student and an attached tray for other
activities or play items. There are foot plates that are
adjustable and strapped to secure the student and rotate ankles and
feet to proper form.

Trampoline: Two trampolines in the classroom -- one approximately
three feet square and the other six feet by four feet. They are
used for vestibular stimulation by bouncing the student in them.

246

7.

8.

10.

11.

12.

247

Swings: There are three kinds. They are used for vestibular
stimulation, calming, exercise and ”fun". There is a sitting
position swing, a hammock net swing, and a board swing, which is a
flat board held by four corner ropes that meet at an apex above.
The student can be sitting, laying, or face down on the board
swing. Using the board swing the student can be swung in all
directions and spun around. Caution is sued to do these gently
especially with seizure students.

Prone Board & Wedge: Both devices are used with the student face
down and for back and neck strengthening. It is also sometimes
used on a student for hip extension. The prone board is similar to
the tile table except that it doesn't lift or adjust to a standing
position.

Walker: This device is adjustable metal, shaped similar to "A
frames”, attached across by several bars and there are handle
grips. The use of a walker is to encourage balance and walking.

Shoulder Strap Chair: An adjustable chair with shoulder and chest
straps, and a hip strap to help support and position a student for
table top activities. It helps in long sitting by extending the
legs and stretching the hamstrings.

Bolster: There are four in a variety of sizes and textures. The
two main purposes are:

Prone rocking on the chest for achieving back and neck strength,
beginning position of a four point stance (hands and knees
position), massage of the abdomen and exercise in rocking.
Straddling - riding it similar to a horse to stretch legs and hip
and to discourage hip dislocation. (Leg strength and balance in
all directions)

Bolster Chair: This is a bolster that is on wheels with a tray.
The student straddles the bolster and it is used as a body walker.
The use of the legs by the student pushing it back or forward for
mobility and leg strength and a sitting supportive position for
activities.

Switches: These are environmental electronic devices which are
devised for the student to best manipulate, in order to
independently activate his environment or communicate a need.

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onno ooou nouns Hun: one ununee anus: enema nen
no can. can so an.e anon so: soon nnn: nunnneu

Annooo nenm amuse noun: neon: enounuonouv

244m acauuallaaoahuz

.eesne «nude eennn due nu uneoneaoonn one! season dams uneunnu

 

.xoen
one unonu unneunmooen
hunosnnoo unqne no ennen

.. no; no use nan: enonneu

.nnmonn deunehnn ono

nuns soon e no neou no:
one: on neumou no: nu

noon one on«« one neon

.n no; snug: nan: auunngo

.uemonn Heuuehnn eno

anno anus oueudnnm

ennuun an“) maul

.« no: anon nan: annnngo

.ennmonn osnulquns

gnu: .noonm no; on

coon ocean on can; unun

.~ no; on: nuns unannnu

.~

Aeoanaon on on annnmv

HDHHUNHQU muz<x¢ommum

.euunae unneeeno one ununee .nonom snug e.hneqnnu «send-u nu

mean .an song: use:

 

humunno

nnDHhDflfiQO AdlcnhuamhmzH lama Hmczm
"accu

Hzmnahm

252

Ao>one an enemy

Ao>one an enemy

.mheo ~oonoe an

no oonnon e no>o
maeunn ooonoosn

fine no Ran

Aeonnounnue

Bzmxum=m<mx

 

yNnnneonomeonn
.aennnum osn non eunenen no: ouon nuns
.n anennnu .unquooenna noneHoA ownefi e no snug:

 

.enuenao ans no nunn n.neeoo one

nenn on eoneousm gel—nun on: -u3 one Aoenneuenn
omen unnnonel oomv oeaean anus: onen- enn

.~ on gonna on humunnu enn>nu dug: noenon «menu 4

.hunnsoneneonn Aonoosn neqmuleu e .noneen

nun—«one .032, enoenon 30.3 .353 cannone
nensonnnen e unusonnou an moon on neon enn

.n on no moonaeeuo onn on nnen a seen and: mneunnu

“sauce saga nuns. eons: nous: .aonnneaooe

Z¢Jh 26mmua1lmnonhmx

.aeqnu>qnoe

oonuomoe seen» nu eonenenon one Ann~«5uxeuu no: eeeenonu an“: unmannu

.asuonusn unannuun
can one ooneaea no;
.n nnennuea Haw: huennno

.nmnoa

can now hunnoonunoonn
moonanefio one nu one:-

.~ on eunu- nnn: nuanneo

.hn«>«noe Heno a nu
oo>~o>nu sauna canon
nemnounnen e unuaoauou

an ocean uuuuoone

.n a cane anus nuannao

.n

.~

Aoonneeu on an uuuxmv

n>Hhomono NUZ<Z§Ohmmm

.aonnu>unoe .u .m one moons-ego nu asunu>nnoe nonoa eeonu nu Annuuaol one unqnunuueau oeeenunn o9

 

“can .An eon-z nnea

 

(Nuunnso

«fliuhu-HQO HozcuauamhmzH lamb enema
u4<co

Hzmaahm

mnnennou

sonooneneonm meannem nmumm< agnneononeonm

madness .n
ennneeeemqo no sun-once oneoa nan a anon .m
Aenoqnno
eueqnn n no nno N
eunno
- neo
onnn
senennm unnununmooon noonno .n
saga
neenu
segue»
Anon!— no .a:ea .emon .«ov
oen "un«:0nel nonou .u
eennnennn
ee—unuo
eenenvn «unnnonem aenenm .n
Join a nnonu eeennuooea Ac.n.~.nv
.neonn annna one nnenoooen .<
.«nn 55. .oo: .15. .8:
one: one:
Acumen .euxooo .«.ev onemen I oennee n .enexon nonno e new: neunu>uuoe eases .n
Anon—e now osnnee 5 none: on 3:4: 03» «none on eeoc .N
>388“...an ta :8 .n
~e>nnn<

Amuse .nh .Hv oneoa nexon gnu: eeunqbunoe enaen non amen“ onenenn

nnonnne on nuenuaeens eeen nae. hoeenenn nun: angel .eennwuem .osone: nnmun nneosnm

 

mhzmxxoo I manau=0m I Hudflo zcmmnd

 

ennomloo one unanneno

A xHQmemd

253

 

 

.AH. dnzaawdnflzuuuuu.

one .eomuu exenm

neunndeeu ennn nanny

noenen any euennoonu

nu unoae deem so» so: one

.unons owo hen» yen: noenen enn «new
ouuuoene en

. noon on on

Aeunnueen eanu nanny

non>enea an» on nneu

mnz<xuumus n ax.uzo

on oeeoon neck

eono eueoo o“ use: on

.Jzzoodnuo

oeaeunue no: eaeoc AMVIIIII_

 

luv‘

eneoo one no sense
a 32.8 :55.

.n .x .noennoo neonanm
.n.nm .onenoneaa snonnox

“woo—v mmuenex ennnux 0:9 ask “oounooneox

IllthVV.llllll¥

 

one eonen axes»

aeunnueeu ennn nanny

noenen an» euensoonu

: nu unoae menu no» he: one

.unnwn ono aenn neg: noenen en» gush
owuquema en

nooe an on

Aennuueeu ennn nanny

nonsene enn eenenn

mGZHmH<¢ ”hazy: uzo

on oeeoonm

_
Jud;

neueou e n no unen ace now
oa>ennu< eneoo

  

Aennnue a nu oeen neene u now
mu<oo “flnznx uzo

e .3. a,

“sauna

 

eueoo be: new All]: I.

.oo no» as one. enn no on sun: anon so» eneoen an» euennoone_one

Sam 38.. £33 :55 an. 3.3

.332 85585. 3335.». Egan-nun . nuns: 3.28 n;
.eaun seen.n« anus-en neneenu unanneu uo sauna on»: enenno one uueennoa e>wm on so:

:z<4n mx<os m.~u¢<z<x manna: man man
. no anennne wanna ane> <

z x~¢zmmm<

254

APPENDIX N

ROTATION SCHEDULE

 

 

 

Month Week
Students Home #1 Home #2 Home #3 Home #4
A & B Janie Bill Carol Helen
C & D Helen Janie Bill Carol
E & F Carol Helen Janie Bill
G 5 H Bill (Teacher) Carol Helen Janie

255