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THE BIRTH OF THE FIRST GRANDCHILD:
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE TRANSITION TO GRANDPARENTHOOD

By

Cathleen Erin McGreal

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology
1984

Copyright by
Cathleen Erin McGreal
198A

ABSTRACT

THE BIRTH OF THE FIRST GRANDCHILD:
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE TRANSITION TO GRANDPARENTHOOD

BY

Cathleen Erin McGreal

This study examined grandparents' expectations for
the grandparenting role before and after the birth of the
first grandchild. The hypotheses investigated considered
whether (1) the timing of this event has an impact on
perceptions of the role; (2) feelings of biological renewal
are stronger for maternal grandmothers and paternal
grandfathers than for paternal grandmothers and maternal
grandfathers; (3) there are sex differences in the
anticipation of this role. Research questions addressed
issues of age differences, lineage differences,
grandparent-grandchild interactions during infancy and
expectations for later interactions. Since previous
research has attempted to differentiate four distinct
grandparental role types, a replication of this research
was performed.

One-hundred-forty-six expectant grandparents completed
questionnaires about grandparenthood. Eighty-six percent
of the subjects continued participation after the birth In
general, the sample was white, middle-class and well

educated.

The results of the study suggested that: (1) timing
influenced eXpectations for interactions with the
grandchild but was not related to difficulty perceiving
oneself as a grandparent; (2) the significance of
biological renewal followed same-sexed lineage patterns
prenatally but conflicting results were obtained after the
birth; (3) women began anticipating the grandparental
role earlier than men and reported expectations for
involvement when assessed prenatally. Men were more distant
from the role until after the birth.

Contrary to previous research, there were no age
differences regarding styles of grandparenting. It is
suggested that the developmental level of the grandchild is
a more important determinant of grandparental style than
the chronological age of the grandparent. Assumption of
the grandparental role increased subjects} perceived age
statuses. Maternal grandparents were more likely than
paternal grandparents to see the grandchild first, but
there were no lineage differences in terms of visits during
infancy. Women were more likely to help the new family
after the birth than were men.

Replication of four types of grandparents occurred as
predicted but the types could not be predicted from life
style variables before the grandchild's birth and were not
consistent longitudinally. Statistical arguments are
presented which suggest a need to reconsider the value of

grandparental types.

THIS DISSERTATION IS DEDICATED TO
MY MOTHER

PATRICIA CAROL MCGREAL
AND
TO THE MEMORIES OF

JOSEPH EUGENE MCGREAL
CATHERINE MCGREAL

DE ESTA MCFARLAND

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation
committee, Dr. Hiram Fitzgerald, Dr. Ellen Strommen,
Dr. Albert Rabin, and Dr. Jane Oyer for the support they
gave me in conducting this research. I also would like to
thank Dr. Elaine Donelson for her willingess to serve as a
committee member during my oral defense. In particular, I
wish to thank Hi Fitzgerald who served as the chairperson
of my committee and as my advisor. Through the years of
comps and courses, teaching and research, he has always
been willing to answer the "one quick question" that I
needed to ask. His assistance throughout my graduate
career In”; always been appreciated though rarely
acknowledged.

The statistical advice provided by Dr. John Hunter and
by the statistical consultants in the Department of
Education was greatly appreciated.

I also wish to express my gratitude to the Association
for Shared Childbirth, the Expectant Parents' Organization
and Lansing General Hospital for allowing me to attend
their childbirth preparation classes in order to recruit

subjects.

ii

I appreciate the willingness of all the grandparents in
my study to share their family experiences with me. After
sharing their experiences as "eXpectant" grandparents I
found myself eagerly scanning the birth announcements
awaiting the births of their new family members.

I am grateful for having the opportunity to share my
graduate years with Esther Dienstag. She is the sister I
wanted throughout my childhood and finally found as an
adult.

I wish to thank my family, Patty, Tim, Michael,
Natalie, and Patrick McGreal for their love and
encouragement. I also wish to thank the family I've grown
to love and call my own, Bud, Gary, Gloria, Frances and
Marilou Miller, Gloria and Dale Vertz, and Ann Moore.

Special thanks to my daughters, Erin and Kaiti.
Without them my graduate career would have been shorter but
not nearly as much fun! I thank them for the smiles and
kisses that made the days of deleted computer files and
lost data seem insignificant.

Finally, I want to express my special appreciation for
the love and support provided by Kerry Miller. He has
continued to be as "conscious of my develOpment as he was
of his own"! I thank him for sharing his life with me and

look forward to all the "transitions" we have ahead of us.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES......... ....... ..........................vii
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................ix
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem... ...... ........ ..... ...1
Review of the literature.........................5

Grandparents: An historial overview.......5
Research investigations on

grandparenthood........................12
Grandfathers..............................18
Biological renewal: A significant

aspect of grandparenthood?.............23
The grandparental role....................26
The timing of first grandparenthood.......32
Grandparenthood: A middle-age

transition.............................41

Objective Of the studyOOOOOOOOOOC0.0.0.000000000uu

II. METHODSOOOIOOOOOOOIOO0.00000000000000000.0.0.0..u7

Subject reoruitment..........................H7
Subjects.....................................H8
Instruments..................................52
Data Coding..................................5u
Analyses.....................................56

iv

III. RESULTSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOO... ..... .061
Expectant grandparents: An overview.........61

Anticipating grandparenthood..............61
Information about the pregnancy...........6fl
Names.....................................66
Sex preferences...........................67
Plans to help during the neonatal
period.................................67

Grandparenting during the newborn period:
An overVieWOOOOO0....00.0.000000000000000068

Information about the birth...............68
Names........ ....... ......................71
Sex preferences...........................72
Help patterns in the neonatal period......73

Cluster anaIYSis 00000000000 0.0.0.00000000000073
Age differences..................... ......... 78

Expected timing of grandparenthood........87
Ideal age to become a grandparent.........89

LineageOOOOOO0..O0..0....00.0.0000000000000009u

Anticipating grandparenthood..............9u
Information about the pregnancy...........9u
Information about the birth...............96
Names....................................1OO
Sex preferences.... ...... ....... ....... ..100
Plans to help during the neonatal
period................................101
Help patterns in the neonatal period.....103
Biological renewal.......................103

sex differenceSOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000000000000106

Anticipating grandparenthood.............107
Information about the pregnancy..........109
Information about the birth..............110
Names....................................111
Sex preferences..........................112
Plans to help during the neonatal
period................................113
Help patterns in the neonatal period.....11u
Daily involvement with the grandchild....120

Grandparental role meaning types ..... .......121
Replication of Robertson's factor

analySiSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0121

Role meaning types.......................128

Role behaviors..............................133

Satisfaction with grandparenthood...........135

IV. DISCUSSION

The timing of first grandparenthood.........138
Biological renewal. ..... ....................1u2
Anticipating grandparenthood................1Hu
Agedifferences.............................11H4
Lineage ..... ................................149
Sex differences.............................152
Grandparental role meaning types............156
Predicting role meaning types...............158
Role behaviors..............................159
Satisfaction with grandparenthood...........161

Summary..... .............. ...... ........... .162
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. Correspondence with subjects ........ ..... ...... 166

B. Sample questionnaires..........................169

C Questionnaire keys......... ........ ............215
D. Computer codebooks .......... . ...... . ..... ......225
E. ReliabilitieSOOOOO0....0.0.0.0...0.0.00.00000002u2

REFERENCES.

....................... ............. ........2H7

vi

Table

13.

1M.

15.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Joint frequency table. Illustration of
eXpected frequencies per cell. Question:
Who told you that you would be a grandparent?.....58

When did you first imagine what it would be
like to be a grandparent?.........................62

What was your first reaction when you found out
you were going to be a grandparent?...............66

Learning of the grandchild's birth: Who told the
grandparent of the baby's birth?..................69

Age of grandchild when first seen by
grandparentOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000 69

Frequency of grandparent-grandchild visits........70
Intercorrelations between clusters....... ..... ....77
Subject distribution by sex and age.. ..... ........78
Prenatal frequencies for perceived age status.....86
Postnatal frequencies for perceived age status....86

Age differential: Comparison of chronological
age and best age to become grandparent............93

EXpected age for grandparenthood by age
differential0.0...OOOO0....00......0.0.0.00000000093

Lineage differences regarding the person by
whom the subject was told of the pregnancy........95

Lineage differences in learning of the
grandChild'S birthOOOOOOCOOOOOOOCOOOOOO0.0....0.0.98

Lineage differences in who told the grandparent
Of the grandChild's birthOOOOOOOOOO ..... O. ........ 99

vii

Table

16.

17.
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.

Page
Lineage differences in age of grandchild
when first seen by grandparentn.n.n.u.u.u.u.99
Lineage and sex preferences.......................100

Lineage differences in plans to help out during
the neonatal periodOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.00000000000000102

Lineage differences in whether plans to help out
the eXpectant parents are dependent on the other
set of grandparents' plans........................102

Sex differences in imagining oneself as a
grandparentooOO...IO...00.0.0.0.0.0.00.00000000000108

Sex differences: Who told the subjects that
they would be grandparents?.......................11O

Subject's sex by preference for grandchild's

seXOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOICOOO0.00.112

Subject's sex by discussion of plans with
Childrenoooooooooococo00000oooooooooooooooooooooo.11”

Description of help patterns during neonatal
periOdOOOOOOOOI0..OO...O00....0.00.00.00.000000000115

Role meaning items and factor loadings............122
Factor loadings: Principle components solution...126
Factor loadings: Principle factor solution.......127
Comparison of grandparental role meaning types....129
Consistent role types................. ..... .......131
Description of consistent role types..............132

Frequency of anticipated role behaviors...........13u

viii

Figure

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Prenatal eXpectations for timing of

grandparenthoodOOOOO0.....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0000......81

Postnatal expectations for timing of
grandparenthOOdOOO.IOOOOIOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOO000......83

Prenatal perceived age status......................8N
Postnatal perceived age status.....................85

Interaction between sex and lineage on feelings
0f biOIOgical renewaJ-OOOOOGOO.0.00.00.00.000000000105

sex patterns in lineage...........................105

ix

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

Prior to this decade the grandparental role was one
that generated considerable discussion but very little
research. In 1980, Troll pointed out that there were less
than a dozen studies in this area. Opinions on the subject
have ranged from viewing the grandmother as a "pernicious
influence"(n1grandchildren(Vollmer, 1937)1x>the notion
that problems in families occur not because the family has
lost its "moral fiber, " but because it has lost its
grandmother (Mead, 1947). It is often suggested that since
many roles are reduced or lost as a person ages, the
grandparental role emerges as an important aspect of the
aging person's life. Havighurst (195”), for example,
states that it is the outstanding new role for older people
and is often a source of great satisfaction. Richardson
(1964, page 51) goes so far as to suggest that, "...being a
grandparent can be a profession in itself. If wisely
handled it can be the greatest happiness in the senior
years." The purpose of the current study was to examine
expectations for the grandparenting role before and after

the birth of the first grandchild.

In order to gain an understanding of the significance

of the grandparental role to first-time grandparents, the

following hypotheses were addressed:

(1)

(2)

(3)

Parents who become grandparents "off-time" in terms of
their expected time-table for this event have greater
difficulty considering themselves as grandparents than
do parents who become grandparents "on-schedule";
Feelings of biological renewal and continuity through
the grandchild are stronger for maternal grandmothers
and paternal grandfathers than for paternal
grandmothers and paternal grandfathers;

Women begin to imagine themselves as grandparents at

an earlier age than do men.

Since the topic of grandparenthood has received

limited research attention, several exploratory research

questions also were addressed:

(1)

Do grandparents of different chronological ages report
different expectations for the role? Research on
experienced grandparents suggested that older
grandparents assume a more formal style of
grandparenting than do younger grandparents (Neugarten
and Weinstein, 196“). However, other evidence
suggested that the developmental level of the
grandchild has implications for appropriate

grandparental styles (Kahana sun! Kahana, 1970b).

(2)

(3)

(‘4)

Since in the present study the ages of the
grandparents vary but the grandchildren are of the
same age, it is possible to assess whether differences
are found for grandparents of different ages.

Does lineage affect expectations for grandparenting
behaviors? Research has suggested that stronger
relationships occur between maternal grandparents and
their grandchildren than between paternal grandparents
and their grandchildren (Kahana and Kahana, 19708).
Therefore, the interactions between maternal and
paternal grandparents and their grandchildren were
compared to assess differences in behaviors due to
lineage.

Do grandparental expectations and interactions vary as
a function of the grandparents' sex? It has been
assumed that the grandparental role is a maternal role
for men as well as for women (Boyd, 1969). However,
men's attitudes concerning this role have received
little attention.

Can four distinct grandparental role meaning types be
distinguished before the birth of the first
grandchild? Robertson (1977) suggested that there are
four types of grandparents that vary in their
interactions with grandchildren. Replication of this
conceptualization is important before it is accepted
as a reliable way to investigate the meaning of

grandparenthood.

(5)

(6)

(7)

Can grandparental role meaning types be predicted from
life style variables before the grandchild is born?
Research on experienced grandmothers and great-
grandmothers suggested that life style variables
differ for different types of grandparents (Robertson,
1977). However, the significance levels used to
determine these relationships were liberal.
Therefore, investigation of whether life style
variables do predict role meaning types (when
traditional levels of significance are used) is
warranted.

Do eXpeotant grandparents anticipate engaging in the
same behaviors that are actually performed by
experienced grandparents?

What aspects of grandparenthood are considered to be
the most and the least satisfying to men and women who

have just assumed the grandparental role?

Through the answers to these research questions more

detailed hypotheses can be generated concerning the

transition to grandparenthood.

Review of the Literature

The purpose of this review is to evaluate the
literature on the grandparental role and thus provide a
framework for an investigation of the transition into
grandparenthood. One difficulty in the literature on
grandparenting has involved the definition of a
grandparent. Presumably one might consider a grandparent
as someone whose child has given birth to (or adopted) a
child. However, Fischer (1983) points out that there are
four meanings commonly ascribed to the term: (1) an older
person; (2) a particular generation (e.g., a generation
might be called the "grandparent" generation in order to
make intergenerational comparisons when the "parent"
generation consists of adults in their uO's or 50's some of
whom are also grandparents); (3) prescribed behaviors; (A)
a social status in society. Throughout this paper the term
will be used as a "relational term", which is Fisher's
alternative to the above definitions. Thus a person is
considered to be a grandparent through a relationship with

a grandchild.

Grandparents: An Historical Overview
Early theoretical articles on grandparenthood often
stressed the influence of the grandparent on problems in
child-rearing. Abraham (1913/1955) reported that in his
psychoanalytic treatment of neurotics and psychotics a

theme that many patients would continue to return to

involved their relationships with their grandparents. He
reached the conclusion that "the Special emphasis given to
the grandfather or grandmother was always rooted in a
violent rejection of the father or the mother (Abraham,
1913/1955, page AM). Ferenczi (1927) supported Abraham's
interpretation of a "grandfather complex". Rappaport noted
that the grandchild's identification with a grandparent
rather than with a parent led to "patterns of distorted,
even grotesque, behavior .u" (Rappaport, 1958, page 518).

Vollmer (1937) viewed the grandmother as a detrimental
influence on grandchildren. He did not think that
difficulties existed in particular grandmother-grandchild
relationships due to the dynamics in the individual
relationship. Instead he suggested that there is a problem
in the very nature of the relationship: "The difficulty,
then, arises not so much from the personality of the
individual as ffimmi something inherent ix: being a
grandmother" (Vollmer, 1937, page 379).

IR) an article entitled, "Grandnma made Johnny
delinquent", Strauss (1943) detailed the cases of two boys
who had appeared hiJuvenile Court. He eXplained how the
cause of each boy's behavior problem could be explained
from '%a psychiatric point cM‘ view" involving the
grandmothers. Bordon (1946) also discussed several cases
in which she determined that the grandparents' involvement

with the grandchild led to the behavior problems displayed

by the child. In particular, she perceived the mother-
adult daughter relationship as having a central role in
the behavioral problems of the child.

Although the majority of early articles concerning
grandparenthood suggested that grandparents did have a
negative influence on child development there were
conflicting Opinions. During the same time period, for
example, there were those who suggested that grandmothers
shouldtnaused to prevent children from spending too much
time with other family members who could negatively affect
the child's development. The child's father was sometimes
viewed as one of the negative influences! VonHentig (19MB-
N6) cited rules concerning the mental health of the
unemployed given in the book Morale by Dr. George K. Pratt:
"It has been said that 'stability and mental health of the
family under present social conditions depend to a
considerable degree on father's not being at home too much.
Since the unemployed can not be asked to stay away from
home all the time, the same appeasing effect will be
produced by removing the children to the grandmother's
home" (VonHentig, 1945—A6, page 391). In this respect the
grandmother was viewed as one who rescued the younger
generation when unfortunate circumstances (such as those
caused by the Depression and World War II) affect family
life.

LaBarre, Jessner and Ussery (1960) reviewed forty-one

cases of children who had received treatment in the

psychiatric unit of a university hospital. They found that
the quality of the grandparent-grandchild relationship and
the characteristics of the grandparent's personality were
central in determining the role the grandparent played in
the child's¢disturbance. Although negative influences on
grandchildren such as those described above were found, the
authors also indicated cases in which the presence of a
grandmother exerted 23 positive influence cm: a grandchild.

In discussing the early literature on grandparenting
Hader (1965) points out that it can be divided into authors
who feel that the influence of a grandparent on a
grandchild is negative and those who feel that this
influence is positive. Hader argued that it is the absence
of a relationship with a grandparent that is deleterious to
child develOpment. Actually the entire nature of this
debate seems somewhat odd due to the vast differences
between individuals performing the same role. For example,
could one say that parental influence on a child is either
negative or positive? The acceptance of this debate as a
legitimate issue for discussion may have been due,
therefore, to the assumption that the problems involved
were inherent in grandparenthood regardless of individual
personality deveIOpment. Streib and Thompson (1960) noted
that the studies in this area were based primarily on
clinical pOpulations and therefore generalization would not

be possible without study of grandparent-grandchild

relationships in the general pOpulation. It has also been
suggested that many of the early studies were not typical
in that grandparents were acting as surrogate parents to
their grandchildren which isrun;a typical grandparental
role (Kahana and Kahana, 1971). Although there appears to
have been no resolution of this matter, discussion of
grandparents in terms of children's behavior problems
gradually waned fix: the 1960's as Imore systematic
investigations began to be pursued.

Despite the numerous theoretical Opinions on
grandparenthood, there were few early research
investigations on the subject. Noting that much of the
literature pertaining to grandparents involved clinical
evidence, Staples and Smith (195a) conducted a study
comparing how mothers and grandmothers actually interacted
with grandchildren in a non-clinical population. The
research questions concerned child rearing practices. It
was hypothesized that grandmothers would be stricter and
more authoritative than would mothers. Each mother had a
child under the agecn?12 living at home. Assessment was
through the Wiley Scales for determining adult attitudes
concerning child behaviors. These scales were used to
obtain information on the women's attitudes toward general
home standards, verbal standards, the amount of hostility
that is considered appropriate to express, techniques for

feeding and weaning children, approaches to thumbsucking

and toilet-training, information given regarding sex, sex-
role differences in apprOpriate rearing, and responses to
crying. The results confirmed the authors' hypothesis that
grandmothers would be stricter. Grandmothers who lived in
separate households scored more permissively than did those
living with the grandchildren. Mothers and grandmothers
with higher educational levels tended in) be more
permissive. There was a significant correlation between
mother and daughter concerning these childrearing attitudes
but only when they lived apart” The relationship between
mothers' and daughters' attitudes was not significant when
the women lived in the same household. Failure to find a
relationship between the attitudes held by a woman and her
daughter-in-law vuns not surprising. Recent research
indicated that the attitudes of mother and grandmother were
not related to whether they had joint or separate
residences (Cohler and Grunebaum, 1981). However, the
investigators pointed out that they did not use the same
scale for measuring attitudes as was used by Staples and
Smith (1954). Staples and Smith (1954) contributed to the
understanding of grandparenthood by investigating the topic
in a more objective manner than had been typical in the
past.

Duvall (1954) studied the grandmother role in the
context of a study on in-laws. Her method of studying
grandparenthood, however, was one that could lead to a

positive bias in terms of the perception of the role.

10

There were two procedures for collecting data. First, data
were collected from 1,337 subjects concerning which in-law
relationship they felt was the most difficult one, what
made it difficult, and what in-laws did to contribute to
family harmony. Second, the content of 3,683 letters from a
national radio contest ("December Bride" show) were
analyzed by two social scientists to determine the
predominant responses of peOple to the question, "Why I
think mothers-in-law are wonderful peOple". Thus, although
both samples were large, there is a methodological problem
due to the biased sampling procedures followed. One of the
categories used to code responses was "Mother-in—law is the
children's grandmother". This was the predominant
sentiment for very few subjects (7 of the 1,337 and 48 of
the 3,683). But many subjects mentioned this as a
secondary tOpic especially in terms of indicating that in-
laws could always be counted (”1 to babysit their
grandchildren. Duvall concluded that the responses in this
area were so casual that the babysitting function of the
grandmother was basically taken for granted by the young
parents. Comments also showed that parents see
grandparents as providing a fullness and breadth to a
child's life that parents often don't provide. Parents
viewed grandparents as those who could step in and rear the

children in cases where the mother died. Very little

11

friction was indicated concerning the grandparent-parent-
grandchild relationship but this would not be expected
given the nature of data collection. The major
contribution of this study does not appear to be in the
results it obtained but rather in the research questions
that Duvall proposed as a result of her findings. Among
the questions she suggested for investigation were the
following (many of uflflxfli are currently being considered):
"Just what is eXpected of grandmother in American families?
Who is a good grandmother and what does she do?". How much
do grandparents feel 'out in the cold' as far as satisfying
interactions with other members of their families is
concerned? In what kinds of families is respect for elders
practiced? In what ways?.HWhat roles may grandmothers
play in the rearing of their grandchildren? Which are
mutually satisfying and why? Which are stressful, and how

may they be avoided?".

Research Investigations of Grandparenthood

Several of the questions posed by Duvall (1954) were
investigated in a classic study conducted by Neugarten and
Weinstein.(1964%. In this study 70 middle-class couples
were studied to determine (1) their degree of comfort in
the role; (2) the significance of the role to each person,
and (3) the style with which each person enacted the role.
The majority of the grandparents (59% of the grandmothers

and 61% of the grandfathers) were found to express comfort

12

and pleasure in their role. Those who were not comfortable
in the role seemed to indicate either that the role was
foreign to their self-image, that they were in conflict
with the parents over the grandchild, or that they were
simply indifferenttHJany responsibility associated with
the grandchildren. When determining the primary
significance of grandparenthood for each subject, the
authors found that the responses could be broken down into
5 categories: (1) Biological renewal and biological
continuity with the future; (2) Emotional self fulfillment
since the person can succeed in a new emotional role;(3)
Acting in the role of a resource person; (4) Achieving
vicariously through the grandchild; (5) Little significance
attached to the role and the grandparent feels remote
from the grandchildren.

Neugarten and Weinstein also differentiated five
major styles of grandparenting: (1) Formal grandparents
who have a constant interest in the grandchildren but
maintain their proper roles; (2) Funseeking grandparents
who are informal and playful in their relationships with
grandchildren; (3) Surrogate parents who assume caretaking
responsibilities for their grandchildren; (4) Grandparents
who are considered tolxathe reservoir of family wisdom
and who dispense Special skills and resources; (5)
Grandparents who are distant figures in the
grandchildren's lives and who emerge for holidays but

ordinarily have little contact with their grandchildren.

13

The formal, funseeking, and distant figure
grandparents were found to be the most common styles. The
formal style frequently occurred in those over age 65,
whereas the funseeking and distant styles occurred more in
younger grandparents (under age 65). Whether these
differences were due to cohort effects, due to the age of
the grandparent, or due to the ages of the grandchildren
cannot be determined from these data. Crawford (1981)
interviewed grandparents with 9-month-old grandchildren to
determine which of these five styles would be endorsed.
Once again the most common style endorsed by both
grandfathers and grandmothers was that of the funseeker.
But in contrasttx>the findings reported abowe(Neugarten
and Weinstein, 1964), the style of teacher (similar to
Neugarten and Weinstein's style of resource person) was the
next most common style. The distant figure was the least
common style.

Boyd (1969) studied four-generation families and
reported the roles played by the grandparents. She
hypothesized that the role that would be valued in today's
society would be different from what a valued grandparental
role was in the past. Furthermore she suggested that at
the current time the grandparent role is one that is earned
by the person rather than automatically acquired. Her
results showed that the valued grandparent was a person who
listened and was available but withheld advice until it was

requested. Boyd (1969) described the grandparent as an

14

indulgent person. She also concluded that the
grandparental role has changed in today's society by
becoming one that is maternal (both for grandmothers and
grandfathers) and it also has become an extended parent
role rather than a surrogate parent role. By this she
meant that the grandparent functioned in terms of extending
help to the parents rather than substituting for them.
Thus grandparenthood was viewed as a supplement to the role
of parent rather than as a competing role.

Kahana and Coe (1969) investigated grandparents living
in the community and those who were institutionalized to
determine if the grandparent role takes on added importance
as other roles are lost. Grandparents who still lived ha
the community met with their grandchildren more often and
had longer visits with grandchildren than did the
institutionalized group. Those grandparents in the
community, however, evidently had higher expectations for
involvement since 47% of them reported that their
grandchildren did not have enough time for them as compared
to only 26% of the institutionalized group who reported
this. Fifty-nine percent of the institutionalized group
reported that there was little importance in being a
grandparent and that the role had little salience for them.
In comparison, only 21% of the community sample felt this
way. Care must be taken in interpreting these results

since most older people are not institutionalized. It

15

could be that institutionalization does not lead to
disengagement from social roles, but instead that another
factor is involved in both (for example, if a person has
had many conflicts with her/his adult children this may
mean that there is no alternative to institutionalization
and that there has been no opportunity to establish an
affectionate relationship with a grandchild).

Information on the involvement of grandparents and
their grandchildren has been obtained in research
investigations that are concerned primarily with family
relationships in later life rather than the grandparent-
grandchild relationship in particular. In 1937, Morgan
studied factors which contributed to the happiness of men
and women who were receiving old age assistance. Forty-
three percent of the subjects who had grandchildren
reported seeing them very often. Many mentioned that
helping out in the daily care of the grandchildren was one
of their regular activities and that playing with
grandchildren was a major form of recreation. Yet these
grandparents did not seem to prefer a surrogate parent
role. They felt the ideal arrangement was for an older
person to live close enough to the children so that
grandchildren could be seen frequently for "a little visit"
but then the person had his or her own home and life to

return to.

16

Research involving 252 family groups revealed that
grandparents frequently developed family rituals that
formed bonds with the grandchildren (Albrecht, 1962).
Usually a couple was the center of the ritual rather than a
single grandparent. Sussman (1954) found that family
continuity was most frequently found when the young adults
chose marriage partners from similar cultural, religious,
educational and social-class backgrounds. In these cases
the deveIOpment and maintenance of family rituals such as
those found by Albrecht (1962) was possible. The
grandparents provided help to the young parents, usually in
the form of major purchases (house, car) and in return
expected to receive affection and "the right to exercise
the grandparental role" (Sussman, 1954, page 120). Exactly
what rights this entailed was not specified.

Research i1] other countries. has investigated
grandparental attitudes. These studies indicate that there
is considerable variation in the role cross-culturally.
Townsend (1957) found that older people in England
preferred living close to their children but not in the
same home. The grandparents reported a high level of
interaction with grandchildren. Sixty-three percent of the
grandmothers and 20% of the grandfathers cared for their
grandchildren in some way on a regular basis. This care
included taking children to the park, preparing meals,
baby-sitting, picking them up from school, etc. Rosenmayer

and Kockeis (1962), however, found a much lower level of

17

involvement with only 10% of the Viennese grandparents in
their study seeing a grandchild daily and 24% seeing a
grandchild on :3 weekly basis. Research conducted in
collective settlements in Israel showed that as older
members began to withdraw from occupations in the
collective, relationships with the grandchildren became a
primary concern, especially for women (Talmon-Garber,
1962). Olsen (1976) studied three-generational Taiwanese
families. The grandmothers had stricter attitudes toward
childrearing than did the mothers, but they were more
indulgent in 'terms of grandchildrean behaviors.
Differences were found between widowed and non-widowed
grandmothers such that the widows were more involved in
nurturant aspects of childcare and the non-widows had more

impact on their daughters-in-laws childrearing attitudes.

Grandfathers

In the past, the role of men in family relationships
often received limited attention by researchers and
theorists. To shed more light on the role of the
grandfather the significance of the role to men as well as
to women was considered in this investigation. Less than a
decade ago fathers were still being conceptualized as
"forgotten contributors to child deveIOpment" (Lamb,
1975). In recent years there has beenzasurge of interest
in the role of fathers (for example, a bibliography on

materials on fatherhood published in the United States

18

between 1975 and 1980 contains over 500 references!«- see
Price-Bonham, Pittman, and Welch, 1981). Currently,
however, it appears that the "grandfather is a forgotten
man in research on intergenerational relations (Hagestad
and Speicher, 1981). Therefore, men's expectations for the
grandparental role and their interactions with infant
grandchildren were considered in the current study.

Clavan (1978) suggested that one reason grandfathers
have been neglected by researchers can be attributed to the
difficulties lower socio-economic middle-aged and older men
have performing parenting activities. Furthermore, she
suggested that by the time the grandfather retired and was
able to devote time to grandparenting, the grandchildren
no longer needed this type of extended parenting. Cavan
(1962) suggested that men may have difficulty with the role
at first because as a social role it seems maternal in
nature. Boyd (1969) supported the view of a maternal role
for grandfathers. However, Hagestad and Speicher (1981)
argued that this assumption has not been tested.

Another assumption concerning grandfathers that
remains to be tested is that men are proud of grandchildren
when they are middle-aged grandfathers but that they don't
savor the role until they have retired (Cavan, 1962). A
study of older men living in rural areas, however, revealed
that men who were working full time actually had a greater

number of face-to-face contacts with their grandchildren

19

than did men who were working part-time or who were retired
(Powers and Brubaker, 1977). Deutscher (1962), commenting
on socialization for the postparental period, suggested
that Americans are socialized to think that change is good
which leads to atnatter-of-fact acceptance of changes in
the family. For example, he cited the following reaction
of a father who was asked how it felt to become a
grandfather: "like most things in my life, it's just a
matter of course. Things can be eXpected, like you expect
changes in jobs and expect children to be married. Natural
events come afterward and you take those things as a matter
of course" (Deutscher, 1962, page 511). Other writers,
however, portray grandfatherhood in idealistic terms: "Why
is it that when Mom comes into the room carrying the baby,
the little tyke reaches out his arms for Grandpa to take
him? Somehow or other he seems to feel the man's strength,
and goes to him at once, snuggling contentedly in his arms
without squirming or fussing, while his mother goes about
her duties" (Richardson, 1964).

Vollmer (1937) considered the grandmother to be a
major problem in raising healthy children but suggested
that grandfathers do not cause problems in childrearing
because they remain remote and do not get involved with
grandchildren. Hence they cause no problems.

Anecdotal evidence suggested that men may show more
active involvement with grandchildren than would be

expected based on their interactions with their own

20

children. Fried and Stern (1948) interviewed 75 older
persons in order to determine the situations with which
aged family members must deal. Three women who reported
that their husbands were more involved with grandchildren
than they had ever been with their own children speculated
that the grandfathers were attempting to provide the
grandchildren with the attention that they had failed to
give to their own children. Research conducted in England
(Townsend, 1957) suggested that grandchildren become more
important to men whose spouses have died. Although older
men, in general, were less involved in regular care and
activities with grandchildren than were grandmothers,
several of those who were widowers expressed the fact that
they derived extreme pleasure from the grandfather-
grandchild relationship. One nu”) remarked that "."Playing
with my grandchildren is my greatest pleasure" , while
another stated that, "I'm a grandfather and that's the only
goodness I get out of life" (Townsend, 1957, page 174).
One of the few studies directly assessing the
relationship between grandfathers and grandchildren was
investigated from the point of view of the grandchildren.
Pihlblad and Habenstein (1965) studied salient kinship
patterns by asking high school seniors whether they knew
their grandfathers' occupations. It was assumed that
knowledge of the occupation meant a closer tie between

grandfather and grandchild. Their sample was equally

21

composed of boys and girls; 10% of the subjects were black,
90% of the subjects were white. Although there were no sex
differences in knowledge of grandfathers' occupations there
were racial differences: 49% of the white students and 21%
of the black students knew the occupations of both
grandfathers; 32% of the white students and 29% of the
black students knew the occupation of one grandfather; 19%
of the white students and 50% of the black students did not
know either grandfather's occupation. When the authors
looked at which grandfather‘s occupation was known (when
only one was reported) 61%(H?the white students knew the
paternal grandfather's occupation whereas 70% of the blacks
knew the maternal grandfather's occupation. Pihlblad and
Habenstein also considered the social class of the students
and found that knowledge of the occupation of one
grandparent was not related to social class but that
knowing the occupations of both grandfathers decreased from
the high social class to the middle and then to the lower
social class. The results of this study suggest that
findings concerning lineage patterns have a strong
likelihood of being influenced by race and thus the race of
the sample should be considered when generalizing results.
Grandfathers have proven to be a difficult group to
study even for those who have an interest in including them
in studies of the family life cycle. Feldman, Biringen,
and Nash (1981) assessed fluctuations in sex differences

for several life stages: adolescents, single adults,

22

married-childless, eXpectant parents, young parents, mature
parents, empty nesters and grandparents. Although most of
their groups had a high acceptance rate for participation
in the study (80-95%) the acceptance rate for the
grandfathers was only 50%.

In the current study efforts were made to include
enough men that an analysis of the significance of the
grandfather role would be possible. In this way the
assumption that women have a wider range of meaningful
grandparental activities associated with their role than do
men (Thompson and Streib, 1962) can be considered.

Biological Renewal:
A Significant Aspect of Grandparenthood?

"No one wants to be a footstep planted in the sand
near the rushing sea, a footprint to be washed away into
eternal waters, 3 sign seen for an instant and then erased
forever" (B.BL Smith, 1973, page 27). Is the continuity
of the family line through a grandchild viewed by
grandparents as significant? In 1937, Morgan asked older

individuals listed in Who's Who what they felt were the

 

chief causes of unhappiness in the aged. A noted
geneticist responded that lack of descendants led many to
feel futile in (HA! age. Benedek (1970) discussed the
depression and frustration experienced by those whose
married children did not have children. Based on her
psychoanalysis of these cases she hypothesized that the

reason for the depression may be "the wish to survive in

23

the grandchild" (Benedek, 1970, page 200). Results from a
study on family relationships in which subjects were
encouraged to free associate revealed that grandparents
were "pleased to see their physical lives continued in
their grandchildren, so to speak.”" (Fried and Stern,
1948).

Neugarten and Weinstein (1964) reported that 42% of
the grandmothers and 23% of the grandfathers in their study
stressed biological renewal as of primary significance in
being a grandparent. This finding suggested that
biological renewal may be more important to women than to
men. This view was supported by research by Crawford
(1981) in which 42% of the women and 26% of the men who
were interviewed when their first grandchild was 9-months-
old stated that the most significant aspect of
grandparenthood was bdological renewal. However, in
considering these data it is necessary to note that in both
studies (Neugarten & Weinstein, 1964 and Crawford, 1981)
more of tflua grandparental couples were 'maternal
grandparents than paternal grandparents. In Neugarten and
Weinstein's research 1H5 of the grandparental couples were
maternal whereas 24 of the couples were related to the
grandchild through their son. In Crawford's study 68 of
the grandparents were maternal grandparents and only 39
were paternal grandparents. Furthermore, Crawford reported

that 18 subjects were not asked the question about

24

biological renewal due to difficulties in the interview.
Thus, the exact number (N? maternal and paternal
grandparents responding to the question cannot be
determined.

An alternate interpretation to the view that women
emphasize the importance of biological renewal through the
grandchildren more than do men would be that this
significance is also affected by lineage. Since the
samples in the studies by Neugarten and Weinstein (1964)
and Crawford (1981) both consisted cu? more maternal
grandparents than paternal grandparents the obtained sex
differences may have been due to the fact that women
perceived biological continuity through their daughters
whereas men tended to view it as occurring through their
sons. Research conducted with three generations of 148
families revealed that there were closer bonds between
paternal grandfathers and their grandsons and between
maternal grandmothers and their granddaughters (Hagestad
and Speicher, 1981). Further support for this
interpretation comes from the fact that similarity between
one's children and one's grandchildren was indicated by 58%
of the maternal grandmothers but only 20% of the paternal
grandmothers in a study of family structure (Kahana and
Kahana, 1969). This study also found that paternal
grandfathers indicated more involvement with grandchildren
than did maternal grandfathers. Results conflicting with

those of Neugarten and Weinstein (1964) were found in a

25

study of grandparents with divorced children. It was
reported that grandparents with divorced sons reported more
feelings of continuity through their grandchildren than did
the grandparents with divorced daughters (Kahana and
Kahana, 1980). In the current study, perception of
biological renewal and continuity of the family ldxue were
obtained from maternal and paternal grandparents in order
to investigate this issue.

Whether other differences in the perception of
grandparenthood also occur as a result of lineage was
considered in the current study. Parsons (1943) suggested
that the terminology used in American society to describe
grandparents reflects the kinship structure. That is,
whether one is on the paternal side of the family or on the
maternal side of the family, the person is called a
"grandparentW. This lack of distinction in referring to
lineage implies an equality between grandparents. Others,
however, do suggest stronger relationships based on lineage
(Kahana and Kahana, 1970a), especially between mothers and

daughters (Kahana and Kahana, 1969).

The Grandparental Role
Breen (1960, page 158) pointed out that throughout
pe0ple's lives they assume roles that "reflect the social
judgments of the larger society within which the individual
lives and acts". Roles have been defined as eXpectations

that are associated with certain positions in society

26

(Wahl, 1968). A certain amount of flexibility is involved
in the assumption of new roles. Donahue, Orbach, and
Pollak (1960) noted that "a given role is characterized by
a series of potentially varying interpretations of the
appropriate role behavior from the different perspectives
and behavioral sources of expectations of the others in the
functional situations wherein the role is performed".
Although some have suggested that American society has no
social role for older individuals:(eg, Clavan and Vatter,
1972) other authors (eg, Havighurst, 1954; Breen, 1960),
have emphasized the grandparental role as appropriate in
the later years. Although this role has usually been
discussed as one of old age, the assumption of the role is
usually a middle-aged occurrence as will be noted below.
Winch (1963) suggested that the grandparental role is
one marked by ambivalence since pe0ple have both the
satisfaction of being released from parental responsibility
now that the children have become adults and yet they also
must deal with the fact that they have begun their
"declining years". Perhaps an even more salient reason
suggesting ambivalence in this role would be the fact that
there are not clear eXpectations for behaviors as a
grandparent. Friedmann (1960), in a discussion of how role
expectations have changed in the past century, pointed out
that there has been a loss of functioning as an elder and

as an instructor to the young. However, he also emphasized

27

the fact that a century ago there actually were few
families that included a grandparent in their home. It has
been noted that the functions involved in the grandparental
role represent reductions from the parental functions since
the grandparent is not expected to socialize the young
children and in this respect the new role may not be valued
as highly by society (Riley, Foner, Hess, and Toby, 1969).

Kahana and Kahana (1971) suggested that when the
person has been able to shape the grandparental role, more
enjoyment has been derived from it. This is12a role,
however, that is defined in many respects, by the young
parents rather than the grandparent (Thompson and Streib,
1962; Robertson, 1975). If discrepancies are found between
persons'conceptualizationcfi‘the grandparental role and
their actual role behaviors, therefore, it may be due to
the range Of behaviors considered apprOpriate by the
grandchild's parents. In her study of widowhood, Lopata
(1973) found that grandmothers who were close to their
grandchildren usually had many opportunities to see the
grandchildren alone, without the parents. The mediational
role Of the parents also may explain, in part, why
involvement with friends has been found to be more closely
related to life satisfaction in grandparents than has
involvement with grandchildren (Wood and Robertson, 1976).
The individual has more Opportunity to shape the role of

friend than the role of grandparent.

28

Grandparental Role-Meaning Types. The role of the
grandparent has been examined in order to develop a
typology of grandparents (Wood and Robertson, 1976;
Robertson, 1977). Two dimensions were considered in this
typology: a personal dimension (eXpectations toward
grandparenthood that stem from personal forces) and a
social dimension (expectations about grandparenthood that
are determined by societyL. High and low scoring Of each
dimension led to 4 role-meaning types: Apportioned,
Symbolic, Individualized, Remote. Robertson (1977) found
that these role types could be predicted by various life
style variables such as education and life satisfaction.
Robertson's sample included grandmothers and great-
grandmothers. Therefore, there was considerable variation
in terms of subjects' experiences as grandmothers. Since
Robertson stated that "Role meaning is a product Of
anticipatory socialization, and an individual assumes the
grandparent role with a host of preconceived attitudes and
expectations regarding the role" (Robertson, 1977, page
167), it was felt that a replication of Robertson's
analysis using subjects assuming the grandparental role
would yield information on the usefulness of her scale for
other groups of grandparents. Therefore, an additional
purpose of the current investigation was to replicate the
factor analysis used1x>develop Robertsonfistypology and,

if replicated, to determine if the grandparental role

29

meaning types could be predicted from life style variables
before the birth of the first grandchild.

Robertson determined the four roles types through
factor analytic techniques. After administering 20 Likert-
type items tO 125 grandmothers, a factor analysis was
performed. From this initial pool of items, 12 items were
found to be significant at the .05 level. Six items loaded
high on Factor ll which Robertson labelled the Social
Dimension. The other six items loaded high on Factor II,
which was called the Personal Dimension. Subjects were
assigned scores for each Of the 12 items creating a
personal dimension score andaasocial dimension score. A
mean split was used to dichotomize subjects into high
scorers and low scorers for each dimension. Thus the four
groups were created.

Robertson studied six life style variables (age of
grandmother, education, number Of grandchildren,
satisfaction \with life, friendship associations, and
community associations) in order to see if the
grandparental role meaning types were associated with
particular life styles. One difficulty with this study has
been the liberal setting of significance levels. Within
the article each type Of grandparent is described in terms
Of characteristic behaviors on each of these life style
variables. Confidence in the value Of these comparisons is
lessened, however, when one considers the significance

levels. Only two Of the six variables, education and

30

satisfaction with life, would be considered significant at
the traditional level of significance (probability = .05).
Therefore, in the current study, conservative levels Of
significance were used to determine whether there were
indeed, differences in life style variables among the four
grandparental role meaning types.

In addition to her research on grandmothers, Robertson
also collected information from 132 grandfathers in order
to determine their role meaning types (Wood and Robertson,
1976). Once the men were divided into four groups their
scores on several life style variables were combined with
the grandmothers' scores reported above. For the entire
group Of grandparents four variables were found to be
significantly different: the person's age, his or her
educational level, the number Of grandchildren, and the
number Of activities the grandparent engaged in with the
grandchildren. However, it is difficult to evaluate these
data due tO the fact that levels for determining the
significance Of these variables were not reported.

Grandparental Role Behaviors. One of the research

 

questions addressed in the current study concerned whether
expectant grandparents anticipated engaging in the
behaviors that experienced grandparents perform. Robertson
(1977) studied role behaviors which grandmothers reported
engaging in with grandchildren. The behaviors that the

majority Of the experienced grandmothers reported included

31

providing gifts, babysitting the grandchild, engaging in
home—recreational activities and drOpping in to visit the
grandchild. A comparison was made to determine whether
expectant grandparents anticipated engaging fill these

behaviors.

The Timing Of First Grandparenthood

Another aspect Of grandparenthood to be considered
concerns when :3 person becomes a grandparent. It was
hypothesized that the timing of grandparenthood influences
persons'reactions to this event. In particular, parents
who become grandparents "Off-time" were hypothesized to
have greater difficulty assuming this role. In determining
the significance of grandparenthood, Neugarten and
Weinstein (1964) found that 27% Of the grandmothers and 29%
Of the grandfathers attached little significance to the
role. Research would be useful to determine whether this
remoteness is due tO role strain (as may occur, for
example, if someone becomes a grandparent at an earlier age
than had been anticipated) or if it evolved after conflicts
with the parents and nonrewarding interactions with the
grandchild.

It has been noted that American society has definite
expectations that are based on chronological age for the
assumption of roles (Tibbitts, 1960; Neugarten and Datan,
1973). Neugarten, Moore and Lowe (1965) called this a

"prescriptive timetable for the ordering Of major life

32

events". Individuals in our society are aware of whether
they are early, on-time, or late in regard to this
timetable (Neugarten and Datan, 1973). In research
conducted with a middle-aged sample, subjects reported that
the best ages to become grandparents were from 45 to 50
years Of age (Neugarten, Moore and Lowe, 1965). Other
writers have speculated that these ages are actually too
early to assume this role. Cavan (1962) suggested that
grandparent self-conceptions become part cfi‘ people's
personalities when the persons reach theirEHPs and early
60's. Waller and Hill (1951) felt that when parents are
in their late 40's they may still consider the role
inappropriate and resist it because it is an overt sign of
their chronological maturity. It also has been noted that
the current middle—aged cohort is overcommitted in terms Of
roles (Hess and Waring, 1978) which may also have an effect
on their feelings toward assuming another role.

However, life events, rather than chronological age,
may be the relevant factors in terms of a person's
expectations for timing of grandparenthood. Neugarten and
Weinstein (1964) suggested that there is a preparatory
period for grandparenthood that occurs (especially for
women) before children are married. During this time
peOple begin to visualize themselves as grandparents. Mead
(1970) also considered the marriage of one's child to be a
key time to begin conceptualizing oneself as a grandparent.

She pointed out that at that time one becomes aware of the

33

new elements that will be brought into the line Of descent
through the daughter- or son-in-law. Richardson (1964)
stated that a joy to many parents at the marriage Of their
children is the anticipation Of grandchildren.

The concept of an expected life-history (Bortner,
1978/79)iJsuseful in considering the significance of the
timing Of grandparenthood. An expected life—history is a
scenario that most adults develOp concerning their
expectations for the future. Some peOple may have a very
general expected life-history while others have a minutely
detailed plan for the future. Culture, social class,
family background, career and individual family events all
may play a role in the develOpment Of the expected life-
history. Family life histories are, by their very nature,
intertwined. A child has tremendous impact on the lives Of
the parents. The parents envision a life-history for their
children. One part Of this scenario for one's children's
future would most likely include marriage and children.
This, in turn, makes grandchildren part of the expected
life—history Of the parents. As family life cycle changes
take place many parents may find that they do not become
grandparents at the time they anticipated in their expected
life-histories. It would be useful to determine when
parents begin to imagine themselves as grandparents to
clarify issues involved in the timing of becoming a

grandparent.

34

F. Cottrell (1960) discussed family Obligations in
low-energy versus high-energy societies. A low energy
society was defined as one that secured its energy from
plants, animals and humans (lesstflunmS horsepower-hours
per day per person). A.high energy society used the above
sources Of energy plus additional sources (more than 5
horsepower-hours per day per person). Cottrell pointed
out that in low-energy societies decisions concerning
conception do not belong exclusively to the husband and
wife. In some societies a‘woman may not be accepted as a
member of a man's family until she has already borne his
child (and in some cases the child must be a male!). Other
groups require young couples to practice sexual intercourse
taboos and infanticide in order to decrease fertility
during periods when the Older family members decide that
there are already enough peOple attempting to live Off the
land. In high-energy, technological societies, however,
Older parents no longer can determine when a couple has
children and how many they will have. Furthermore, the
younger generation has come to expect complete fertility
control due to technological advances in contraception
(Poston and Gotard, 1977). Thus, in American society, the
timing Of grandparenthood is out of the control Of the
grandparents themselves.

When the timing of grandparenthood does not occur
according to society's timetable or within the bounds Of

the person's eXpected life history, there may be more

35

difficulty for the person assuming this role. When an
event occurs earlier than is anticipated then one is out Of
phase (Schneidman, 1967) and the ability to derive
satisfaction from the role may be reduced. Late assumption
Of the role also may cause difficulties especially if the
person no longer has the health to perform those role
behaviors that had been anticipated as part Of the
grandparental role.

Changes in the family life cycle reveal that there are
discontinuities from one generation to the next. These
changes may make it difficult to anticipate when various
life events will occur. Two striking achievements Of
civilization have been the lengthening Of the family life
cycle and the changes to the adult life cycle (Tibbitts,
1965). By reviewing what changes the family life cycle has
undergone in this century it may be possible to determine
what expectations individuals may have formed concerning
their futures. Of particular interest are the marriage and
birth patterns during; the 1950's because today's
grandparents may have formed their eXpectations during
these years as they were becoming parents. Glick (1955,
1977) found several trends in the family life cycle that
have implications for Older members Of the family. In
reviewing the time period from 18801x>1950, Glick found
that the average median age at first marriage for women was

20.9 years. The lowest level was found during the 1950's

36

when the median age was 20.0 years. Men's ages at first
marriage declined from 25.4 years Of age in 1880 to 23.6
years in 1950. Those marrying in the 1950's, therefore,
were marrying earlier than the generations before them. In
addition to earlier marriages, couples Of this decade also
had a shorter interval between marriage and the birth of
the first child. The median age of a woman giving birth to
her first child has ranged from 21.5 years in the 1950's to
23.5 years in the 1930's. Women during the 1950's not only
had their first child earlier, they also stopped having
children earlier than had the generations before them. In
fact, Glick estimated that halfcfi‘these women had borne
their last child by the time they were 26-years-Old. This
reduction in the span Of the childbearing years has made
family roles more distinct. That is, the likelihood that a
person would become a grandparent while still parenting
young children has been greatly reduced. In this respect
the grandparent role has become more distinct.

Longer life eXpectancies and changes in the family
life cycle indicate a longer postparental period for many
couples (GliCk, 1955, 1977). The average married couple in
1890 did not survive jointly to see their last child
married. By 1950 the average couple could eXpect 41 years
Of married life before one died (as compared to 31 years in
1890) and the last 14 of these years would be postparental
years when the couple is once again alone. These

postparental years represent the possibility of extended

37

grandparent-grandchild interactions which were not possible
a century ago. In fact, Hareven (1977) noted that it has
only been in the twentieth century that this meaningful
overlap in the lives of grandparents and their
grandchildren has occurred. Those who have considered this
"empty nest" period as a time of strain for the couple have
suggested that grandparenthood eases the strain (Blau,
1973). However, the strain of this period is questionable.
Treas and Bengtson (1982) stated that these postparental
years may be viewed in a more positive manner than in the
past due to the increased affluence in American society.
Today, parents may be relieved because they have lost a
dependent; in the past parents Often lost a contributor to
the family's income (whether in terms Of actual earnings or
as a source Of farm labor) when a child left. This
positive view of the postparental years has been supported
by research on marital satisfaction during this period.
After reviewing studies on the relationship between marital
satisfaction auui family transitions, Rollins and Galligan
(1978, page 81) concluded that "general marital
satisfaction decreases during marriage simultaneously with
the arrival and develOpment of the Oldest child in the
family until about adolescence, and then as children mature
and leave home, it increases".

Changes in the family life cycle affect roles Older

peOple can assume. These life cycle changes occur quickly

38

when compared to the changes in societal values. Habits
and values are slow to change which places large numbers Of
peOple in ambiguous positions. This is the case with many
Older peOple of today (Tibbitts, 1965). Havighurst (1954)
pointed out that appropriate roles change with age. As
some roles are reduced (for example: parent, spouse,
employee) other roles are intensified (for example:
citizen, neighbor, friend). Role categorizations by age
are useful tn) a society in that they "perform an
'integrative function' to the extent that they lend
continuity through the recruitment and training of younger
persons in the major institutional roles to which they will
succeed" (Friedmann, 1960, page 121). Yet in our
discontinuous society these role categorizations may not be
applicable to many individuals. This places these
individuals in a difficult situation since society has a
lag in providing alternate role expectations. According to
Tibbitts (1960), middle age and Old age are both functions
determined, in part, by how society defines age itself and
by the assignment Of various roles to different age
categories. A traditional role assigned to Older peOple
has Often been that Of grandparent but the timing of this
role is dependent on changes in the family life cycle.
Although it has been predicted that the 4 and 5 generation
family will become the norm by the year 2000 (Beattie,
1975) it seems that there may actually be many alternate

family styles by that year due to the increased acceptance

39

Of delayed parenthood. Considerable variation in timing
of the transition to grandparenthood was expected in the
current study due to present trends which have shown an
increase in the median age at first marriage and an
increase in the number of first births to women in their
late 20's and 30's (O'Rand and Henretta, 1982).

Research on the timing Of grandparenthood has been
conducted in an indirect manner in the context Of
adolescent pregnancy. Bacon (1974) discussed the stressful
effects of accelerated role transitions in terms Of teenage
mothers who deviated from the prescribed timetable for
becoming a parent. This event also would lead to
accelerated transition to grandparenthood on the part of
the adolescent's parents since it is at variance with
society's norms and probably with the person's eXpected
life history.

According to Neugarten and Datan (1973, page 62) age
deviancy in terms Of being "Off-time" is "always Of
psychological significance to the individual". Few studies
inthis area focus directlycnmthe grandparents. Mothers
have been shown tx> react to their teenage daughter's
pregnancy as a crisis which indicates their own inadequacy
as parents (Bryan-Logan and Dancy, 1974). The mothers
usually are themselves young and have begun to anticipate
freedom from the reSponsibilities Of their own children (E.

W. Smith, 1975). When the baby is born there is Often

40

conflict because the adolescent mother does not assume full
responsibility Of the baby, leaving the grandmother in the
position where it. is inappropriate tn) assume the
traditional mother role or the traditional grandmother role
(Bryan-Logan and Dancy, 1974). The grandmother role is not
welcomed because it Ineans the assumption cM‘ more
responsibility for her child and grandchild, as well as
implying her own aging process (Smith, 1975).

Research in this area has emphasized the assumption Of
the grandmother roletnrthe maternal grandmother because
she has traditionally provided the familial support to the
adolescent mother who is unmarried. Comparable research on
the grandfather and the paternal grandparents has not been
conducted. The timing of grandparenthood in terms of late
transition to the role also has not been a focus Of

research.

Grandparenthood: A Middle-Aged Transition

The transition to grandparenthood is usually a middle-
aged occurrence. However, as Troll (1971, page 276)
pointed out, when the focus has been on the nuclear family
"all grandparents tend in) be described as Old". The
stereotype of a grandparent is Often of a person who is out
of the mainstream of contemporary life and out-of—date
(Mead, 1966). Even when they do appear in children's
literature and films they are generally one-dimensional

characters (Davis, 1977). In contrast to this stereotype

41

 

 

of an aged person, most parents become grandparents long
before they are aged. In pointing out the differences
between the stereotypical grandmother and a more accurate
version Brandt (1968, page 26) emphasized that the role is
"one Of the rich bonuses of middle age".

Borland (1978) cited a need for research which focuses
on middle age. lxxparticular she suggested that research
should be designed to determine the "biological,
psychological, and social transition points in the adult
years where middle age begins and ends" (Borland, 1978).
In discussing the awareness Of middle age, Neugarten (1968)
suggested that women defined their status in terms Of
family events whereas men used career and health events in
their definitions of middle age. Although commonly
considered a role of the aged, becoming a grandparent may
actually be one of these transition points which emphasizes
a beginning to middle age. It has been noted that the
birth of the first grandchild denotes another social age
with accompanying alterations in relationships with others
(Neugarten and Datan, 1973). Therefore, in the current
investigation the subject's perceptions of age status was
assessed before and after the birth of the first
grandchild.

Tibbitts (1965) pointed out that in many other
societies there were only 3 stages in life: childhood,

adulthood and Old age. Today, he suggests, there are two

42

additional stages that have been inserted before Old age:
middle age and late maturity; Neugarten and Datan (1973)
pointed out how historical changes such as the delineation
of a stage Of middle age directly influences the life cycle
of the individual. Jackson (1974) studied the perceptions
of middle age as held by adults between 75 and 85 years of
age. It was found that 66% felt that middle age occurred
from 40 to 50 with women's responses clustering at the
younger end Of the range. Drevenstedt (1976), however,
found in a sample of senior citizens and university
students that women tended to judge the transition to
middle-age as occurring later then did men.

Given the ambiguity that exists utilizing only
chronological age as a means of classification, it may be
useful to also consider the roles that the person is
currently enacting in order to determine their perception

Of their own age classification.

43

Objective Of the Study

The objective of this study was to examine the impact

Of grandparenthood on grandparents at the time Of their

transition to grandparenthood. In order to assess this

transition comparisons were made in prenatal and postnatal

conceptualizations Of grandparenthood among first—time

grandparents.

Hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis 2.
Hypothesis 3.

The following hypotheses were investigated:

Individuals who become grandparents "Off-
time", will have greater difficulty
considering themselves as grandparents
than those individual becoming

grandparents "on-schedule".

Feelings of biological renewal will be
indicated more strongly for maternal
grandmothers and for paternal grandfathers
than for paternal grandmothers and for

maternal grandfathers.

Women begin tn) imagine themselves as
grandparents at an earlier age than do

men .

44

In addition, the following research questions were

addressed:

1.

Are there age differences in terms of response to
grandparenthood such that those Of different ages
report different expectations? Although some
researchers have found that age of the grandparents
affects their grandparenting roles (eg, Robertson,
1977), others have suggested that the age differences
may be a result of the developmental level Of the
grandchild (Kahana and Kahana, 1970b). These
contrasting views can be compared by assessing whether
age differences exist before the first grandchild's
birth.

Are there lineage differences in expectations for
grandparenting behaviors and in the significance Of
grandparenthood?) Anecdotal evidence suggests that
maternal grandparents have priority over the paternal
grandparents in caring for the new parents and
grandchild. Whether there is more information flow
through the maternal side also will be investigated.
Are there sex differences in regard to expectations
for grandparenthood? Anecdotal evidence would suggest
differences in terms of whether grandfathers and

grandmothers plan to help out at the time Of birth.

45

Whether men and women are equally likely tO be aware
Of their children's plans for a family also will be
explored.

Can four distinct grandparental role meaning types be
distinguished through a replication Of Robertson's
(1977) factor analytic techniques?

If the above replication occurs as predicted, can the
grandparental role meaning types be predicted from
life style variables before the birth of the first
grandchild?

Do expectant grandparents anticipate engaging in role
behaviors that experienced grandparents report
engaging in?

What aspects of grandparenthood are considered the
most satisfying after the first grandchild's birth?
What aspects are considered to In: the least

satisfying?

Since the tOpic of grandparenthood has received

limited research attention, several aspects of this

research are exploratory in nature. It.is hOped that by

addressing these issues, it will be possible to generate

further hypotheses concerning the grandparental role.

us

CHAPTER 2

METHODS

Subject Recruitment
Due to the need to Obtain subjects who were in the

process of becoming grandparents, the majority Of subjects

 

were recruited from childbirth preparation classes. The
Association for Shared Childbirth and the EXpectant
Parents'CWganization allowed the investigator to attend
their prenatal classes. .Aftertfluestudy was explained to
the expectant parents they were requested to provide the
names and addresses of their parents. The expectant
parents were assured that the involvement Of their own
parents in the study would be strictly voluntary. If an
address was provided then a questionnaire was mailed to the
eXpectant grandparents with a letter inviting them to
participate.

Other participants were recruited from a newspaper
article describing the study. Readers made telephone
contact with the the department Of psychology. They were
then contacted by the investigator who explained the study,
and if they were still interested, mailed them a
questionnaire. Finally, business—reply postcards were

placed in the Obstetricians' Offices so that pregnant women

47

could pass them on to their parents or in-laws. When a
postcard was received the eXpectant grandparents were
mailed a letter inviting them to participate in the study.
Samples of the letters mailed to prospective subjects can
be found in Appendix A. Informed consent forms (also found
in Appendix A) were mailed to and returned by subjects

with their questionnaires in business—reply envelOpes.

Subjects

Full Sample. Sixty-seven percent Of the 218 eXpectant
grandparents invited to participate in the study agreed to
do so. The Full Sample included 146 parents (66 men, 80
women) whose adult children were eXpecting the first
grandchild. Subjects ranged in age from 27- to 77-years—
Old (§==53). 90% were married, 7% were divorced, and 1%
were widowed (2% Of the subjects did not answer this
question). Six of the subjects were becoming step—
grandparents. There was considerable variation in the ages
of the subjects' children. In fact, some of the eXpectant
parents (ages 17 to 39) were Older than some of the
expectant grandparents in the study! The majority Of
grandparents (80%) reported a family income of over
$20,000. The average level Of education was 14 years
(range: 8 to 20 years, mode: 12 years). There were 80
maternal grandparents, 63 paternal grandparents, and 3
grandparents who would soon become maternal and paternal

grandparents.

48

Selected Sample. In several cases it was deemed
apprOpriate to utilize a subsample Of the subjects for
statistical analysis. This subsample (referred to
hereafter as the Selected Sample) consisted of 132
respondents. Excluded from the Selected Sample were:
those who lived outside the United States; those who were
becoming grandparents through a step-child; those whose
children - the expectant parents - were single at the time
the grandparent was contacted. The expectant grandfathers
in the Selected Sample (n = 61) ranged in age from 40- to
77-years-old (E = 53 years). Ages Of the eXpectant
grandmothers (n = 71) ranged from 37 to 71 years (I: = 53).
Twenty-eight of the men and 30 Of the women were becoming
paternal grandparents; 32 of the men and 40 Of the women
were becoming maternal grandparents. One couple reported
that since a son and a daughter both were eXpecting
children at the same time they were about to become
maternal and paternal grandparents. The number Of children
in the subjects' families ranged from 1 to 8 (R = 3.1; mode
= 3.0). Their youngest children ranged in age from 12 to
36 years (i = 22); age Of the oldest child ranged from 20
to 40 years (§'= 28.2). Women's ages at the time of
marriage ranged from 14 tO 38 years (i = 21.8; mode = 19);
mens' ages at marriage ranged from 18 to 34 years (i =
23.9; mode = 23). Ages at the time of the birth Of the

first child ranged from 16 to 39 years for the women (i =

49

24.4) and from 19 to 44 years for the men (56 = 26.2).
There was also considerable variation in terms Of the
educational level Of the subjects. The highest grade
completed by the women ranged from 9 to 20 (x' : 13.8; mode
= 12); the highest grade completed by the men ranged from 8
to 20 (i = 14.8; mode = 12). or the 129 subjects who
provided information on their families' income the majority
reported incomes over $20,000. per year whereas only 15.5%
earned less than $20,000. The majority Of the subjects
reported that they were white h1=:100), 2 were black, 1
was hispanic, and 4 reported other racial or ethnic
categories (e.g., American). Twenty-five subjects declined
to respond to this question.

Longitudinal Full Sample. Subjects who completed a
prenatal questionnaire were mailed a letter and a postnatal
questionnaire requesting their continued participation
after the birth of their first grandchild. Eighty—six
percent of the subjects in the Full Sample continued
participation in the project by returning the postnatal
questionnaire. (One grandmother indicated that her
grandchild was stillborn and that was the reason she was
drOpping out Of the study). These 126 subjects are
referred to as the Longitudinal Full Sample. This group of
70 grandmothers and 56 grandfathers ranged in age from 27
to 77 years (i = 54). Of these, 120 were white, 1 was
black, 1 was hispanic, 2 were oriental and 1 reported other

racial categories (1 declined to answer). A more detailed

50

assessment of subject income was Obtained on the postnatal
questionnaire than on the prenatal questionnaire. It

revealed the following income distribution:

Under $5,000 n = 4 3.2%

$5,000 - $10,000 n = 1 .8%
$10,000 - $15,000 n = 9 7.1%
$15,000 - $20,000 n = 7 5.6%
$20,000 - $25,000 n = 12 9.5%
$25,000 - $30,000 n = 20 15.9%
$30,000 - $35,000 :1 = 16 12.7%
$35,000 - $40,000 n = 15 11.9%
Over $40,000 n = 34 27.0%
NO Response n = 8 6.3%

All but one cfi‘ the grandparents indicated their
current marital status: 114 were married; 8 were divorced;
2 were widowed; 1 was separated. Most of the grandparents
indicated that the parents Of their grandchild were married
(n = 123); one indicated that the parent was single; one
indicated that the grandchild's parents had an "Other" type
Of relationship; one grandparent declined to answer this
question.

The grandchildren of the subjects in the study were
born between the summer of 1982 and the summer of 1983.

Subjects were once again asked how far they lived from

their grandchild. It was found that 342% lived in the same

51

household, 4.8% lived within walking distance, 56.3% lived
within daily driving distance, 27% lived over 100 miles
away and 7.9% lived over 1,000 miles away.
Longitudinal Selected Sample. A Longitudinal Selected
Sample (LSS) was formed by excluding from the Longitudinal
Full Sample those subjects who lived outside the United
States, those who were step-grandparents, and those who
reported that the parent of their grandchild was single.
The 117 subjects comprising this sample were 52 men and 65
women. They ranged in age from 37 to 77 (3: = 54). 90.6%
were married, 6% were divorced; 1.7% were widowed, and .9%
were separated L9% declined to answer). NO grandparent in
the LSS reported a grandchild living in the same household,
5.1% lived within walking distance, 59.8% lived within
daily driving distance, 28.2% lived over 100 miles away and

6.0% lived over 1,000 miles away.

Instruments

Research was conducted through paper-and-pencil
questionnaires (see Appendix B for sample questionnaires).
Although most of the expectant parents lived within the
immediate vicinity i1; was anticipated that Inany
grandparents might live at distances that would make
interviews difficult. This indeed proved to be the case as
indicated in the description Of subjects above.

The questionnaire was constructed using items based

on: themes of biological renewal, serving as a resource

52

person, emotional self-fulfillment, achieving vicariously
through a grandchild, and remoteness from the
grandparental role (based on Neugarten and Weinstein's
categorization Of the significance Of the role); themes
concerning formal, fun-seeking, surrogate-parent, reservoir
of family wisdom and distant styles Of grandparenting
(based on those described by Neugarten and Weinstein,
1964); the personal and social dimensions of grandparental
role meaning (items constructed by Robertson, 1977).
Assessment Of the importance of daily involvement with the
grandchild was based on questions devised by Kornhaber and
Woodward (1981). These items were presented in a multiple-
choice format in which the subject indicated degree of
agreement or disagreement on a four-point scale. Original
questions were develOped based on anecdotal evidence in the
literature and from interviews with grandparents and
expectant grandparents about intergenerational
relationships (see Appendix C for keys to prenatal and
postnatal questionnaires). These Open-ended questions were
designed to elicit information to be used in generating
future hypotheses and in revising the questionnaire for
future studies. This section also was intended to provide
information that might be salient at the time Of the
transition to grandparenthood but which might not have been
expressed by participants in previous studies who were

already accustomed to the grandparental role.

53

Data Coding

Methods Of coding the fixed response data were decided
upon before the questionnaires were printed and computer
coding information was then placed on each questionnaire.
Changes were made when the questionnaires were returned,
however, due to the manner in which many subjects answered
questions 40 to 51 which requested age norms for various
roles. Instead Of giving a particular age many subjects
listed an age range. In part, this may have been due to
the presence Of the computer column coding beside each
question. For example, Question 40 asked the subject to
fill in the best age to become a father and near the
question were the numbers "(52-53)" indicating the columns
this question referred to on the computer. Subjects may
have used this information as an indication that a range
was to be given. Therefore, the computer codebOOk was
revised to allow 4 columns for each Of these questions
replacing the coding on the questionnaires. The revised
computer codebooks are found in Appendix D. These
codebooks also provide a key showing how each fixed
response was coded for each itenh and the method used for
coding missing data.

Babbie (1973) suggested that when the researcher is
not sure Of the variety Of responses that an Open ended
question will produce the coding scheme can be devised
after the questionnaire has been given. This is done by

preparing a list of the first responses, reviewing the

54

list, and then deciding on the kinds Of categories that are
appropriate based not only on the aims of the questionnaire
but on the nature of the responses themselves. Therefore,
in order to categorize the Open ended data all the
responses to an individual item were transcribed so that
patterns in responses would be easier tO detect. In
categorizing the prenatal data two experimenters developed
a classification system independently and then the systems
were combined and duplications eliminated. Two raters then
categorized each response according to the classification
system. The statistic, kappa, was used to assess the
reliability. Those categories that led to lower
reliabilities were redefined for each question and a second
classification system was develOped. Three raters then
categorized each response for every question and three
kappa statistics were determined. Those questions for
which the mean reliability between the raters remained
below .7 after the revision were not categorized.

In categorizing the postnatal data the investigator
formed a classification system and 3 raters categorized the
responses of the first 98 postnatal questionnaires that
were returned. The classification Of questions for which
the mean reliability was below .7 was then redone in an
attempt to reduce the ambiguity between categories.

Reliabilities between 3 raters were once again obtained and

55

only those above .7 were categorized. The prenatal and
postnatal reliabilities are located in Appendix E.

Any Open-ended questions that did not lead to a
mutually exclusive category system were summarized.

Prenatal data were coded from the questionnaires onto
coding sheets by the eXperimenter and then professionally
key punched onto cards. Random spot checks revealed no
errors. Postnatal data were coded on the questionnaires by
the investigator and transcribed onto coding sheets by an
undergraduate research assistant. It was then entered into
the computer interactively by two research assistants.
Random spot checks Of 20% of the subjects revealed
approximately one error per subject. Therefore, the
responses of every postnatal questionnaire were compared to

the responses on the computer and corrections were made.

Analyses

The chi square statistic was chosen as the apprOpriate
statistical test for the Open-ended questions because the
variables were categorical (Runyon and Haber, 1972). Since
the chi square statistic requires a mutually exclusive
category system (Hays, 1973, page 719), the classification
scheme used for coding the Open-ended questions allowed a
subject's response to fall into one and only one category.
A second assumption for apprOpriate usecn?the chi square
test is that "the outcomes for the N respective

Observations in the sample are independent" (Hays, 1973).

56

Therefore, chi square analyses were performed only in those
situations in which each response could be categorized
independent of the other responses (e45, this statistic
was not used in repeated measures involving the same
subject so that only one entry appeared per subject in the
joint frequency table). The final assumption, the
requirement that the number of subjects in the sample be
large” has been called, "the stickiest question of all.u"
lJlChi square tests for association. Since statisticians
do not agree on what constitutes a large enough sample size
the conservative position advocatedtnrHays was used as a
standard in this study:

"".we will simply state a rule that is at least

current, fairly widely endorsed, and generally

conservative. For tables with more than a single
degree of freedom, earninimum expected frequency

CM‘S can be regarded as adequate, although when

there is only a single degree Of freedom a

minimum expected frequency Of‘Hlis much safer.

This rule-Of-thumb is ordinarily conservative,

however, and circumstances may arise where

smaller expected frequencies can be tolerated.

In particular, if the number of degrees of

freedom is large, then it is fairly safe to use

the chi square test for association even if the

minimum expected frequency is as small as 1,

provided that there are only a few cells with

small eXpected frequencies (such as one out of

five or fewer)" (Hays, 1973, page 736).

By following this standard, the chi square analyses
reported in this study were based only on the major
classifications for each question; the most frequent result
was the elimination of the "Other" category in these
analyses. Table 1 illustrates why this was necessary. It

can be seen that expected frequencies are adequate except

57

in the final category, "Other person".

Although these low

frequency categories are informative in a descriptive sense

their inclusion in a statistical test of significance would

result in a high level Of significance that would not

reflect a real difference.

pool

per c

categories in order to increase the expected frequency

ell this procedure was not followed since:

"The whole rationale for the chi square
approximation rests on the randomness Of the
sample, and that the categories into which
observations may fall are chosen in advance.
When one starts pooling the categories after the
data are seen, he is doing something to the
randomness of the sample, with unknown
consequences for his inferences. The manner in
which categories are pooled can have an important

Although it is not unusual to

effect on the inferences one draws" (Hays, 1973,

page 736).

Table 1: Joint Frequency Table.
frequencies per cell.

that you would be a grandparent?

Illustration of expected
Question:

Who told you

Total
Category Label Male Female
Father-tO-be 13 (11) 12 (14) 25
Mother-tO-be 23 (27) 37 (33) 60
Both eXpectant parents 13 (15) 20 (18) 33
Spouse 9 (5) 1 (6) 10
Other person 1 (1) 1 (1) 2
59 71 130

Note: EXpected frequency,

reported in parentheses is

determined by multiplying column frequency times row
frequency divided by the total number of subjects. Full

Sample.

58

In those analyses in which there was only 1 degree of
freedom Yates' corrected chi square was used. Hays (1973,
pages 724-725) points out that this correction improves the

Pearson chi square test. In this correction "the absolute

 

value of the difference between Observed and expected
frequencies is reduced by Jifkn'each category before the
squaring is carried out" (Hays, 1973, page 725). For
example, in an analysis to determine whether there were sex
differences in regard to whether the expectant parents had
discussed the grandchild's name with the grandparent, the
raw chi square = 9.42. After the Yates' correction, the
corrected chi square = 8.34.

Multivariate analysis of variance techniques were used
to examine the forced-choice questions. Cluster analysis
(PACKAGE program developed by John Hunter) reduced the
number Of dependent variables from 31 tOEL In order to
determine a cluster score each item was weighted according
to its loading (”1 the cluster. For example, ES items
contributed to the "Advisor" cluster. Their loadings on
the cluster were: Q22: 61; Q19: 59; Q9: 50; Q26: 44;
02: 38. The sum of the loadings<n1this cluster was 252.
Therefore, each loading was divided by 252 in order to
determine its weighting,(eg, 61/252 = 24%. The equation
used to produce a score on the Advisor cluster for each
individual was therefore:

(.24)(QZ2) + (.23)(Q19) + (.20)(Q9) + (.18)(Q26) + (.15)(02).

59

The remaining clusters were computed in the same manner.
Postnatal cluster score were computed with the same
weighting as the prenatal clusters due to the fact that the
prenatal analysis, based on a larger sample size, was less
prone to sampling error. This also allowed prenatal-
postnatal comparisons to be made.

Unless otherwise reported, multivariate analysis Of
variance procedures were performed using the Wilks test
statistic.

Data Obtained from the Selected Sample were used in
most analyses. Foreign subjects were excluded due to the
fact that many grandparental role behaviors are likely to
be culturally-specific. Grandparents whose children were
unmarried were not included because the grandparental role
was being assumed in a non-normative manner according to
society‘s ordering Ofievents. Finally, since perceptions
of step-grandparenthood are likely to differ from
perceptions Of the role by those whose children are
becoming parents, step-grandparents were also excluded.
Data from the Full Sample were used in analyses in which a
description Of a wider range of grandparenting behaviors
was appropriate (e.g., cluster analyses).

The preset level of significance in this study was
.05. Significance levels higher than this value are not

reported.

60

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS

EXPECTANT GRANDPARENTS: AN OVERVIEW

Anticipating Grandparenthood

In order to determine whether subjects had begun to
anticipate the grandparental role they were asked when they
first began to imagine being a grandparent. There was
considerable variation in their responses as can be seen by
the 9 categories found in Table 2. Ix.is interesting to
note that many subjects began to imagine this role either
when their children got marriedcn‘after they learned of
the pregnancy. For others, it was based upon their own age
or stage of life as they reached a particular age or saw
peers becoming grandparents. Given the emphasis in the
literature on anticipatory socialization it is interesting
to point out that over 14% Of the subjects had not begun to
imagine themselves in this role or only had done so as a
result of being asked specific questions about

grandparenthood through this project.

61

Table 2:

like to be a grandparent?

Category Label

When I was a child

When I was raising
my own children

When my children
began to get
married

During the
pregnancy

When I saw
peers becoming
grandparents

Number Of
Subjects

38

39

13

62

Frequency

1.6%

3.2%

30.6%

31.5%

9.8%

When did you first imagine what it would be

Sample
Response

"When I was a
child" (#252)

"I guess as I
raised my family
(as little child-
ren) I looked
forward to when
they had their's.
But I never put

it into perspective
until I knew I was
going to be a
grandparent (#244)

"I'm not sure -
probably when my
son was married —
I projected the
idea Of a grand-
child and
conjured up all
sorts of ideas Of
involvement with
him (or her)"
(#173)

"When I first heard
from my son and his
wife that we were
to be grandparents"
(#329)

"When people I work
with became grand—
parents — they were
very happy about
the event and
showed pictures,
bought presents,
etc. (#276)

Table 2 (continued)

Category Label

When I reached
a particular
age

When I filled
out this
questionnaire

Have not begun
to imagine it
yet

Other response

(based on N = 124)

Number

16

63

Frequency Sample Response

3.0%

2.3%

12.1%

3.8%

"When I was in my
early 40's and
began to care for
the young children
in our church
school" (#222)

"Your questionnaire
stimulated my
thinking and other
than a pleasant
personal feeling
about the pending
event it wasn't
until this project
was sent to me that
I really began to
do some personal
searching" (#152)

"I'll be honest -

I never did" (#133)

"Can't say - But I
am looking forward
to our first grand-
child. Know he or
she will be a
beautiful baby
because our son and
daughter-in-law
are" (#273)

Information about the pregnancy

Parents were asked, if the pregnancy had been
planned did the adult children let them know they were
planning to have a baby. Of the 123 subjects who responded
to this question, 19.5% (n::24) stated that the pregnancy
was not planned and 5.7% (n = 7) did not know whether or
not it was a planned pregnancy. 42.4% stated that their
children let them know of their plans and 32.5% had not
known that the couple was planning to have a child. When
subjects were aware that a pregnancy was being planned most
Often the children told them directly Of their plans.
Other children told their parents that they were no longer
using any birth control methods but did not state that they
were planning to have a baby. Some parents learned that
their children had been planning to have a baby for some
time when their children informed them Of fertility
problems. Finally, some parents suspected that their
children might be planning to have a baby because the
children implied a strong interest in babies, (eg, "If this
was a planned pregnancy did your children let you know they
were planning to have a baby? How did they let you know?"
"NO, But I kinda (sic) guessed! Because of their reaction
to the children of others." #215)

One hundred thirty subjects reported who told them
that they were going to be grandparents. Of these, 46.2%

were told by the mother-tO-be, 19.2% were told by the

64

father-tO-be, and 25.4% were told by both the eXpectant
parents together. 7.7% learned of the news from their
spouse and 1.5% learned from one Of their other children.
There was a great deal of variation in how the eXpectant
grandparents were told the news: phone calls, letters,
telegrams, visits, etc. Some were given gifts that were
symbolic Of their new role. For example, one grandfather
reported the clever way by which he received the news:
"”.My children were here with Father's day

gifts and well wishes. After dinner, I Opened my

presents one by one. The last one handed to me

was a small, light weight, wrapped package.

Second present from my daughter and son-in-law.

I Opened the package - it contained a tiny pair

of baby booties. I then looked at my daughter

and said "you're pregnant?" and kissed her and

congratulated both parents-to-beufl'(#134)
Another grandfather reports that he and his wife learned
the news on Mother's Day. They found "Place cards on the
dinner table saying Grandma and Grandpa)‘ Although some
eXpectant parents did wait for a particular occasion to
share the news others told their parents as soon as they
learned that the pregnancy was confirmed. In fact, one
grandmother shared this experience with her daughter.

"I learned about it when my daughter was late on

her period and confided in me. We did her

pregnancy test together and it was exciting to be

the first to know along with herJ'(#288)
Although most grandparents did respond to the news in a

positive manner, there was variation in reactions. Table 3

shows the frequencies of different responses.

65

Table 3: What was your first reaction when you found
out that you were going to be a grandparent?

Category
Label

Positive

Neutral

Negative

Mixed

Other

Frequency

81.4%

9.3%

3.9%

2.3%

Sample Response

"Elation, gratitude + a sense
awe and well being" (GF)

"NO great emotional feeling -
it happens everyday to a lot
of peOple" (GF)

"Somewhat reserved. I didn't
feel I was ready for the
sweater rocking chair set.

I felt somewhat disappointed"
GF

"Delight - also worry and
concern — our daughter is a
bit Old to be having her first
child" (GM)

"I was stunned" (GF)

Names

Although many grandparents QflL8%) reported that their

children discussed possible names for the grandchild with

them, only 22J7% suggested a name. An additional 2.3% made

general suggestions to be considered but did not suggest a

specific name.

Only 12.9% Of the grandparents suggested

that the baby be named after someone.

66

Sex Preferences

The majority of subjects (78.8%) stated that they had
no preference in regard to the sex Of their grandchild. In
part, this may be due to the way the question was worded.
Asking a person, "Do you have a preference as to the sex of
the baby? If so, do you prefer a boy or a girl" Often
leads to the socially acceptable response "Not really just
so the baby is healthy" (Grandmother #424). In future
studies, a question regarding sex preference with a less
Obvious socially desirable response, such as "Given that
your grandchild is a healthy baby, which sex would you
prefer?", would probably yield more useful information.
This also would probably reduce the number Of subjects who
stated that they did not have a preference but then
indicated a tendency to prefer a grandson or granddaughter:
"NO - however a girl would be nice because we are short on

girls in our family" (Grandmother #420).

Plans to help during the neonatal period

Subjects were asked whether they had any plans to help
out when the baby was born. 65.2% did plan to help out and
an additional 21.2% planned to help if needed or if an
emergency arose» Plans were being madeeto assist in many
activities including: taking care of the mother and baby,
providing information on childcare, providing gifts and
furniture for the baby, helping out financially, doing

household chores, shOpping, running errands, and providing

67

emotional support. Many grandparents expressed the idea
that they would be willing to do whatever was needed:
"I'll do anything I'm asked if it is legal" (#133). When
asked whether their own plans to help depended on what
their child's in-laws (the other set Of grandparents) were
planning only 20.5% agreed that they did. 68.9% stated
that their plans did not depend on the in-laws' plans. The
remaining subjects felt that their plans might be
influenced, or gave another response (4 subjects did not

answer this question).

GRANDPARENTING DURING THE NEWBORN PERIOD: AN OVERVIEW

Information about the birth

The majority of subjects (85%) learned that they had
become grandparents either through a: telephone call (62%)
or because they were at the hospital for the birth (23%).
Table 4 reveals that the new father most Often relayed the
news. Twenty-six percent of the grandparents were at the
hospital at the time of birth. 'The initial reaction upon
learning that they had become grandparents was usually
positive (91.5%) and rarely negative (.9%). Several
subjects (7.7%) reported "other reactions" such as "NO
great feeling one way (H' the other" (#148) or "None"

(#218).

68

Table 4: Learning Of the Grandchild's Birth
Who told the grandparent Of the baby's birth?

Category Label Number Frequency
New mother 9 7.7%

New father 78 66.7%

Both new parents 2 1.7%

My Spouse 14 12.0%

Other person 4 3,u%

(eg, hospital personnel)

Saw or heard birth 5 4.3%

Cannot be determined 5 4.3%

N = 117

(Longitudinal Selected Sample)

Table 5: Age of grandchild when first seen by grandparent

Category Label Number Frequency

1 day Old or less 72 61.5%

First week 22 18.8%

First month 16 13.7%

Second month 4 3.4%

Third month 1 .9%
N = 115

(Longitudinal Selected Sample: 2 grandparents had
not seen the grandchild at the time that the
postnatal questionnaire wascompleted)

69

Table 6: Frequency Of grandparent-grandchild visits

Present Expected

Level Level
Reports seeing grandchild N Freq N Freq
Daily 4 3.4% 2 1.7%
3 - 6 times per week 5 4.3% 4 3.4%
1 - 2 times per week 44 37.6% 39 33.3%
1 - 2 times per month 36 30.8% 32 27.4%
Bimonthly 3 2.6% 3 2.6%
Quarterly 8 6.8% 12 10.3%
Twice a year 0 0.0% 4 3.4%
Other 15 12.8% 21 17.9%
Has not seen grandchild 2 1.7% 0 0.0%
(Does not expect to see)

N : 117 N = 117

Longitudinal Selected Sample. "Other" includes responses

such as "We see her as Often as possible" (#205) and
"Whenever possible - due to geograph.distance may not be
too Often" (#130)

70

Most subjects had seen their grandchild by the time
the baby was 1-week-Oldq In fact, over half saw the baby
within the first days. AS can be seen in Table 5, all but
2 subjects had seen their grandchildren by the time the
infants were 3-months-Old. This result was uneXpected
given the distances between several grandparents and
grandchildren. Those that had not yet seen their
grandchildren indicated that it was ill health rather than
distance that had kept them away. Table 6 shows the
continued involvement between grandparent and grandchild
and the expectations for involvement during the first year
of life. It can be seen that most of the grandparents see
their grandchildren at least monthly and that they expect

this pattern to continue.

Names

In general, subjects reacted positively (74.4%) to the
names chosen for their grandchildren: "Very happy with the
name" (#102); "Great -- (my first name given)" (#121);
"very good name. I like it" (#216); I think it its
beautiful" (#402). Several subjects (13.7%) gave neutral
responses: "The parent's business - all right" (#111); "OK
- named after :3 departed grandmother" (#125); "Okay"
(#212); "OJL" (#252). Negative reactions to the name were
reported by 3.4% of the subjects: "Little odd" (#103);
"Lousy" (#141); "I have reservations. Sounds like the name

Of a soap Opera participant/heroine" (#239); I am not

71

overly fond of it but didn't tell anyone that" (#421).
Other reactions, that reflect a change in the attitude
toward the name or an ambiguous reaction to the name, were
reported by 8.5% of the subjects: "Didn't like it at first
but I'm beginning to like it better." (#110); "Surprised"
(#311); "Not used tO the name but now I like it Better
(capitalization by subject)" (#203); "At first I was
disappointed. I thought they might use my father‘s name.
After I realized it was a combination of his father's1and

uncle's name I felt it was fine." (#222).

Sex Preferences

Subjects were asked if their grandchild was the sex
that they had hOped for. In the prenatal overview it was
reported that 78.8% of the subjects had no preference in
regard to sex. Yet postnatally only 50.4% reported that
they had not had a preference. It may be that the wording
Of the postnatal question, "IS the baby the sex you had
hOped it would be?" does not indicate a socially desirable
answer as much as the prenatal question, "DO you have a
preference as to the sex Of the baby?". It also may be
that these preferences were formed after the prenatal
questionnaire had been completed. Forty percent of the
subjects (n = 47) indicated that the baby was indeed the
hoped for sex and 8.5% (n = 10) revealed that it was not.
The fact that so many grandparents reported a grandchild of

the preferred sex leads to a third possible explanation of

72

the prenatal-postnatal discrepancy in preferences. It may
be that subjects who initially have no preference
retrospectively report a preference after satisfactory

interactions with a grandchild of a particular sex.

Help patterns in the neonatal period

Many of the subjects (65.8%) reported helping out
after the birth. There was a significant association
between reporting plans to help out prenatally and actually
helping after the birth, x2(2,N:107) : 12.58, p < .01. Of
those who had plans to help, 78.4% did so after the baby
was born; 22.2% of those who did not plan to help
eventually did so. Approximately two-thirds (66J7%) Of the
grandparents who had stated that they would help if they
were needed or if an emergency arose also helped during the
neonatal period. Those who helped reported providing
financial assistance, baby gifts, emotional support,
routine errands, meal preparation, care for the baby and
mother, shopping, housework, laundry, information on child

care, etc.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS

AS mentioned above, expectations for the grandparental
role were assessed through a questionnaire consisting Of
items based on the conceptual typologies developed by
Neugarten and Weinstein (1964) and by Robertson (1977).

The purpose of this section is to report the results of a

73

cluster analysis integrating the conceptualizations noted
above based on data Obtained from 142 expectant
grandparents (Full Sample). (Note: cluster analysis is
based on the data of 142 subjects rather than 146 due to
the delayed return Of four Of the questionnaires).

Cluster analysis was performed to reduce the number of
dependent variables owm1 the 31 fixed response questions.
Items were clustered based on a pmiori conceptualizations
based on the work of Neugarten and Weinstein (1964) and
Robertson (1977). The original cluster analysis led to
violations of the principles Of parallelism and internal
consistency. Therefore it was necessary to divide
clusters. The final cluster analysis of the prenatal
data generated 9 clusters which are reported in Table 7.
Correlations between clusters reveal relationships between
these variables. Based on Neugarten and Weinstein's (1964)
conceptualization of biological renewal it had been
expected that items regarding continuation Of the family
line and items regarding feeling young once again through a
grandchild would be part Of the same cluster. For example,
one of the statements coded by Neugarten and Weinstein as a
statement of biological renewal was "It's through my
grandchildren that 12 feel young again" (Neugarten and
Weinstein, 1964, page 201). Attempts to include these
items within one cluster, however, led to violations Of the

principle Of parallelism in the cluster analysis. In order

74

to maintain external consistency it was necessary to
consider these as two clusters rather than as one. AS can
be seen in Table 7, the two traits are correlated.(r=.53).
The highest intercorrelation was between Youthfulness and
Funseeker (r=.77), with high intercorrelations also found
between Youthfulness and Involved (r:.45) and Youthfulness
and Surrogate Parent (r=.47). Surrogate Parent also was
positively correlated with Emotional Satisfaction (r=.43).
Emotional Satisfaction correlated with Biological Renewal
(r = .48), Youthfulness (r = .58), and Funseeker (r=.64).
The highest negative correlation was found between
Funseeker and Distant Figure (rz-n46). Advisor stood as
the most independent cluster with correlations ranging from
rwn30 (Involved)tx>r=0 (Emotional Satisfaction). These
clusters were used as dependent variables in the
multivariate analyses reported later in the paper.

The postnatal correlation matrix, formed with the
above 9 clusters, was replicated within sampling error
limits. Table 7 shows intercorrelations between clusters
found postnatally. By averaging the prenatal and postnatal
intercorrelations sampling error is reduced. ‘Therefore,
Table 7 also shows an averaged matrix. This matrix, which
is less susceptible to error, can be used in order to
generate hypotheses concerning causal relationships between
these variables in order to generate a path model for
testing in future research. However, it should be noted

that in the Average matrix areas of major discrepancy

75

between the prenatal and postnatal matrices are not evident
but Should be considered in any path model which eXplains
the significance of the grandparental role.

In order to compare subjects on prenatal and postnatal
cluster scores a matched-pairs t—test was performed on each
cluster (Longitudinal Selected Sample). In order to
maintain a .05 significance level for the overall analysis
the significance level for the individual comparisons was
set to .005. None of the 9 comparisons was significant at
this level: Involved, t(116) = .75; Surrogate Parent,

t(116) = 1.58; Advisor, t(117) = .82; Distant Figure,

t(117) = -1.55; Biological Renewal, t(116) = -1.52;
Youthfulness, t(115) = -.59; Funseeker, t(117) = —.65;
Emotional Satisfaction, t(117) = -n43; Vicarious
Achievement, t(116) = 2.67. Therefore, subjects were

consistent prenatally and postnatally in their assessments

Of' the meaning cM‘ the grandparental role.

76

Table 7:

Prenatal Correlation Matrix

Involved
SurrogateParent
Advisor

Distant Figure
Bio. Ren.
Youthfulness
Funseeker

Emo. Sat.

Vic. Ach.

Postnatal Correlation Matrix

Involved
SurrogateParent
Advisor

Distant Figure
Bio. Ren.
Youthfulness
Funseeker

Emo. Sat.

Vic. Ach.

Averaged Correlation Matrix**

Involved
SurrogateParent
Advisor

Distant Figure
Bio. Ren.
Youthfulness
Funseeker

Emo. Sat.

Vic. Ach.

*1 item cluster (alpha equals 1.00 by definition)

.54
.60
.63
.65
.78
.50
.43
.58

.61
.57
.67
.66
.77
.62
.32

.52
x

.57
.58
.65
.65
.78
.56
038
.55

I

32
3O
-5
15
45
40
11

36

I

27
21
-22
-7
17
76
56
—1

I

30
26
-13
u
31
58
33
18

SP

22
34
27
47
15

41

SP

43
11
31

-19
73
40

SP

32
23
29
60
-2
58
41

-12

13
-6

12
27
-1O
18
18

-5
8
2O
-8
9
10

Intercorrelations between clusters

DF

15
-13
-46
—15

30

DF

12
-1O
-59
-1O

21

DF

14
-12
~52
-13

26

BR

53
22

48
42

BR

46

33
29

BR

50
111
41
36

77
58
48

29
88
61

53
73
54

F VA

64
11 36
F VA

54
—1O 51
F VA

59
1 43

HAveraged correlations rounded toward larger sample size.

77

AGE DIFFERENCES

In order to determine whether there are age
differences in expectations for the grandparental role it
had been proposed that subjects be classified according to
three groups: those 45-yearS-Old and younger, those 46 to
55 years of age, and those 56-yearS-Old and Older . 'This
categorization, however, led to difficulties since cell
Sizes in the youngest group were too small for statistical
analysis (see Table 8). Therefore, analyses Of age

differences are based upon 2 age groups rather than three.

Table 8: Subject distribution by sex and age‘

Age Iales Females
45 years and younger 6 6
46 through 55 years 26 36
56 years and Older 27 27
52 years and younger 26 34
53 years and Older 33 35

*Table 8 is based on (available) selected sample
distribution for MANOVA Of cluster by sex and age.
4 subjects are not included due to missing data.

78

Multivariate tests of significance analyzing each Of
the clusters by sex and age revealed that there were no
significant age differences in either the prenatal data,
F(9,116) = 1.05, or the postnatal data, F(9,105) = .93.
MANOVA also revealed no significant age differences when
the 2-choice fixed response questions (not included in the
clusters) assessing eXpectations for role behaviors were
analyzed by sex and age, F(6,118) = 1.57.

There were age differences in the two remaining fixed
response questions. A 2 X 2 ANOVA (sex by age level)
revealed that there were significant age differences in
terms of whether persons were becoming grandparents at the
expected age, F(1,122) = 28.4, p < .01, and whether they
perceived themselves as young, middle-aged, or Old,
F(1,127) = 17.8, p < .01. (There were no sex differences
on either question). Figure 1 illustrates the age
differences. As one would predict, subjects in the younger
age group (52 years and under) reported on the average that
they were becoming grandparents at about the time they had
expected. Those in the Older group (53 and older) were
becoming grandparents (on the average) a little later than
expected. These findings were consistent in the postnatal
data. Once again there were no sex differences but the age

difference was significant, F(1,110) = 21.26, p < .01.

79

Figure 2 Shows the postnatal means for timing of
grandparenthood. Comparison of Figures 1 and 2 shows that
the means essentially remained the same. Prenatal-
postnatal comparisons for each subject revealed no changes
in perception Of timing, t(109) = - 1.1.

In order to assess subjects' self-perceived age status
they were asked to indicate whether they considered
themselves to be young, middle-aged, or Old. However, in
coding,these responses it was determined thatzaS-choice
category scale would have to be used since some subjects
checked between two of the boxes, as shown in Table 9. AS
can be seen in Figure 3, those in the younger age group
tended to see themselves as somewhere between being young
and being middle-aged. Those in the Older group tended to
see themselves as having reached middle age. The postnatal
data, shown in Table 10, reveals that more subjects
remained within the choices as Offered on the
questionnaire. This would be an interesting tOpic to
eXplore in future research: Was it the pending event Of
grandparenthood that led several subjects to consider
themselves somewhere between youth and middle-age? Did
this event help them "become" middle-aged in their own
perceptions Of aging? A 2 X 2 ANOVA (sex by age level)

revealed that those in the younger age group still

80

considered themselves to have a younger perceived age
status than those in the Older group did postnatally,
F(1,113) = 10.8, p < .01. However, it can be seen in
Figure 4 that the means Of both groups increased. In order
to determine if this prenatal-postnatal change was
significant a t-test for matched pairs was analyzed. It
revealed that there was a significant increase in the means
such that the postnatal scores reflected an Older age

status than did prenatal scores, t(115) = - 3.08, p'<.01.

81

Later than I had eXpected (3)

At about the time I had expected (2) 3': 1.98

Sooner than I had eXpected (1)

3? = 2.51

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1:

52 years 53 years
and and

younger Older

(n = 63) (n = 63)

Prenatal EXpectations for Timing Of
Grandparenthood

Cell means for Question 32

When I think about the age I expected to be
when I became a grandparent I realize that I
will become one:

(Selected Sample - 6 missing Observations)

82

Later than I had expected (3)

x = 2.48

 

At about the time I had expected (2) 'Y 1.96

 

Sooner than I had eXpected (1)

 

 

 

 

 

52 years 53 years

and and
younger older
(n=51) (n=63)
Figure 2: Postnatal Perceptions for Timing Of

Grandparenthood
Cell means for Question 32
When I think about the age I expected tO be

when I became a grandparent I realize that
I became one:

(Longitudinal Selected Sample:
3 missing observations)

83

Old (5)

Between Middle Aged and Old (4)

Middle Aged (3)
x = 2.91

 

x = 2.22

 

Between Young and Middle Aged (2)

Young (1)

 

 

 

 

 

52 years 53 years

and and
younger older
(n :63) (n = 68)

Figure 3: Prenatal Perceived Age Status
Cell means for question 33
I consider myself to be:
(Selected Sample - 1 missing observation)

84

Old (5)

Between Middle Aged and Old (4)

 

 

 

 

 

 

7 = 3.08

Middle Aged (3)

T = 2.62
Between Young and Middle Aged (2)
Young (1)

52 years 53 years

and and
younger older
(n =52) (n = 65)

Figure 4: Postnatal Perceived Age Status

Cell means for question 33
I consider myself to be:

(Longitudinal Selected Sample)

85

 

Tablee9: Prenatal Frequencies for Perceived Age Status
(Question 33)

Category Label: Code Frequency

I consider myself to be

Young 1 20.6%
Between Young and Middle Aged 2 12.2%
Middle Aged 3 61.1%
Between Middle Aged and Old 4 .8%
Old 5 5.3%

(based on N = 131)

Table 10: Postnatal Frequencies for Perceived Age Status
(Question 33)

Category Label: Code Frequency

I consider myself to be

Young 1 11%
Between Young and Middle Aged 2 0%
Middle Aged 3 83.3%
Between Middle Aged and Old 4 .9%
Old 5 4.3%

(based on N :11?)

86

Expected timing of grandparenthood

The selected sample was used to determine whether
there were differences between subjects tun: reported
different perceptions in terms Of the timing Of
grandparenthood. Although most of the subjects indicated
that they were becoming grandparents at the anticipated age
(49% - men; 58% women), others indicated that it was
occurring sooner (13% - men; 6% - women) or later (31% -
men; 34% - women) than expected. There was considerable
variation in the chronological ages within each Of the
groups. Those becoming grandparents sooner than expected
ranged in age from 42- to 52-years-Old (R = 47.4); those
becoming grandparents at the eXpected age ranged from 37- to
77-years-old (;==52.5);those becoming grandparents later
than expected ranged from 45 to 68 years of age (it = 56.8).
Those reporting that they were becoming grandparents earlier
than anticipated tended to have younger children (age of
youngest child ranged from 12 to 22 years, i’: 17.75) than
those at the anticipated age (range: 12 years - 33 years; R
= 20.56) and those who were becoming grandparents later
than expected (range: 13 to 36 years; I: 25.86).

Since there was rm) relationship between sex and
perceived timing Of grandparenthood, {H2,N=126) = 2.49, p =
.287, both sexes were combined in analyses to determine if
the timing of grandparenthood was related to the person's
anticipated interactions with the grandchild. The majority

of subjects reported expectations for frequent interactions

87

with the grandchild, indicating comfort in the role
regardless of timing. FOr example, subjects anticipated
babysitting (79% - men; 93% women), engaging in home
recreational activities with the grandchild (90% - men; 100%
- women), relating family history (67% - men; 90% women) and
teaching skills to the grandchild (59% - men; 80% - women).
An association was found between persons' perceptions Of
when they expected to become grandparents and whether they
had p1ans to babysit the grandchild, x2(2,N=126) = 7.69, p <
.05, such that those who were becoming grandparents at the
expected time were more likely to have these plans.
There was also a relationship between perceived timing and
plans to teach the grandchild special Skills, x42,N=124)
=9.42, p < .01. Only 33% Of those becoming grandparents
sooner than expected planned to teach various skills whereas
most (77% Of those becoming grandparents at the expected
time, 72% Of those becoming grandparents later than
expected) of the other grandparents had these plans. No
differences were found between perceived timing and plans to
relate family history, x2(2,N=124) = 1.8, or plans to engage
in home recreational activities, {H2,N=126) = .57.

It had been hypothesized that there would be a
relationship between the perceived timing of grandparenthood
and persons' reports Of difficulty thinking of themselves as
grandparents. This hypothesis approached the preset level

of significance, x2(6,N=125) = 12.0, p = .06. The fact that

88

many subjects (33% - men; 14% - women) found it difficult to
think Of themselves as grandparents also may be due to the
fact that the grandchildren had not yet been born. However,
even after the birth Of the grandchild 25% Of the
grandfathers and 15% Of the grandmothers had difficulty

thinking Of themselves in this role.

Ideal age to become a grandparent

Neugarten, Moore and Lowe (1965) reported that major
life events occur in a prescriptive timetable and that
events in most persons lives follow this timetable. They
found that a middle-aged, middle-class sample reported that
the best age to become grandparents would be between 45 and
50 years of age. In the current study this issue was
addressed to determine what expectant grandparents consider
to be the best age to become a grandparent. Comparisons
were then made with the person's actual chronological age to
determine how many were becoming grandparents at what they
considered to be the ideal age. (These analyses are based
only on those respondents who gave an exact age or age
range, eg. 45 tO 60 years, rather than a range with no end
point, eg. 45 years and up. When a range was given the
average of the range was used in the computations reported
below).

When asked the best age to become a grandfather the
responses Of the expectant grandparents ranged from 40-

years-Old to 62-years-Old with a mean age Of 50.3 years (n

89

= 106). The modal reSponse, 50-years-Old, was given by
30.2% Of the subjects. When men's and women's responses
were analyzed separately they were found to be similar:
men reported a mean best age as 50.0 years (n = 50) and
women reported a mean best age Of 5057 years (n = 56).

When asked the best age for a woman to become a
grandmother the responses from both sexes ranged from 37-
years-old to 60-years—Old with a mean of 49.2 years. Once
again the modal response was 50 years Of age, suggested by
25.5% of the subjects. When analyzed separately, men (n =
50) reported a best age oleL9 years for women to become
grandmothers; women reported a best age of 49.4 years (n =
56).

Similar results were found in the postnatal data,
however, the upper limits Of the ranges were extended. The
grandparents reported that the best age to become a
grandfather ranged from 40- to 75-years—Old with a mean age
Of 50.4 years (n=98). The modal response, which remained at
50-yearS-Old, was given by 31.6% Of the subjects. When
responses were analyzed by sex both men and women reported a
mean best age Of 50.4 years (men's responses ranged from 40
years tO 75 years; women's responses ranged from 40 years to
65 years).

Postnatally, subjects indicated that the best age to
become a grandmother ranged from 40 to 69 years of age with
a mean age Of 49J)years. The modal response, 50 years of

age, was given by 20.4% of the subjects. Men's responses

90

(n=45) ranged from 40- to 69-years-Old with a mean age of
48.8 years. Women's responses (n=53) ranged from 40 to 65
years of age with a mean age Of 49.2 years.

Each subject's ideal age was compared to his or her
chronological age (thus creating an age differential
variable) resulting in three groups: (1) those becoming a
grandparent before the best age to become one (chronological
age less than best age); (2) those becoming grandparents at
the best age to become one (chronological age equals best
age); (3) those becoming grandparents after the best age to
become one (chronological age greater than best age). Table
11 shows the frequencies for each group.

There were I“) sex differences ix) comparisons Of
chronological age to best age at first grandparenthood,
x2(2, N = 105) = .845. A comparison Of the age differential
for subjects with their responses for expected timing led to
a significant relationship, X2 (4, N = 102) = 26.03, p < .01.
Table 12 illustrates this relationship. (Note: These
analyses could not be performed in the postnatal data due to
low expected frequencies; only 3 subjects were becoming
grandparents at the best age which leads to extremely small
eXpected frequency cell SizesJ

Of those subjects tn“) were becoming grandparents
before what they considered to be the best age, 26.9% were
becoming grandparents sooner than expected and 73.1% were

becoming grandparents at about the time they had expected.

91

76.9% of those whose chronological age was equal to their
best age for first grandparenthood reported that they were
becoming grandparents at about the time they had eXpected,
whereas 15.4% were becoming grandparents later than expected
and 7.7% were becoming grandparents sooner than expected.
Finally, among those subjects who were older than what they
considered to be the best age to become a grandparent, 47.6%
were becoming grandparents later than expected and 47.6%
were becoming grandparents at the expected time with only
4.8% becoming grandparents sooner than expected. These
differences are provocative in that they indicate that the
persons involved in the study are not relying only on their
own chronological age or what they see as an ideal age to
become a grandparent when they determine their eXpected age
at first grandparenthood and decide whether this pregnancy
was sooner, at the expected time, or later than expected.
An Obvious area for follow-up in future studies would be to
determine whether certain aspects Of their child's
develOpment (eg, chronological age, number of years married,
assessment of maturity, completion Of education, career
plans, etc.) lead them to a particular expected age for
first grandparenthood. The particular norms followed by
individuals of different cultural backgrounds also would be

interesting to explore.

92

Table 11: Age Differential:
Comparison of Chronological Age and
Best Age to Become Grandparent

Category Label N Freq.

Becoming Grandparent Before Best Age 26 24.8%

Becoming Grandparent at the Best Age 13 12.4%

Becoming Grandparent After Best Age 66 62.9%

(based on n = 105)
Selected Sample

Table 12: Q32 (EXpected Age for Grandparenthood)
by Age Differential

Before At After
Best Best Best
Age Age Age
Sooner than n = 7 n = 1 n = 3
expected 63.6% 9.1% 27.3%
26.9% 7.7% 4.8%
At expected n = 19 n = 10 n = 30
time 32.2% 16.9% 50.8%
73.1% 76.9% 47.6%
Later than n = 0 n = 2 n = 30
eXpected 0% 6.3% 93.8%
0% 15.4% 47.6%

(based on n = 102)

First percentage in each cell represents the row
percentage; second percentage in each cell
represents the column percentage.

Selected Sample.

93

LINEAGE

Anticipating Grandparenthood

It was not expected that there would be differences in
when maternal and paternal grandparents began to imagine
themselves in the grandparental role. One reason for this
expectation was due to the fact that most of the subjects
had other children besides the eXpectant parent and so they
may have imagined themselves as maternal and paternal
grandparents. (In fact, in future research it would be
interesting to ask each subject, "Is this the child that you
eXpected to have your first grandchild" and follow up on the
responses given). Chi square tests of Significance did not
reveal an association between lineage and when the person
imagined the grandparental role, X2(7,N=118)=5.51. When
they learned that they were to become grandparents both
maternal and paternal grandparents most Often reported a

positive reaction (88.2% of maternal; 77.2% of paternal).

Information about the pregnancy
A 2 X 4 Chi Square analysis of lineage by who-told-
the—subject- Of- the- pregnancy was performed to determine
if grandparents were informed of the pregnancy by their own
children. A significant association 1was found,
x2(3,N=127)=51.6, p 1(.01. Table 13 shows the pattern Of

responses. It is interesting to note that none of the

94

maternal grandparents became aware of the pregnancy through
their sons-in-law. As would be expected, most learned from
their daughters. Although paternal grandparents were most
Often told Of the pregnancy by their sons, 17.9% received
the news from their daughters-in-law. It seems that news
of pregnancy is considered either the adult child's news or
the expectant mother's news. Although it had been
anticipated that maternal grandparents (especially the
grandmother) may have been more aware Of whether or not a
pregnancy was being planned this was not the case. There
was no association between lineage and whether the children
had let the parents know a pregnancy was being planned,
x2(3,N=122)=5.02, or between lineage and how the parents
became aware that their children planned to have a baby,
x2(3,N=54)=.97.

Table 13: Lineage differences regarding the person
by whom the subject was told of the

pregnancy
Lineage
Informed Of Pregnancy by: Maternal Paternal
Father to be n = 0 n = 25
0% 44.6%
Mother to be n = 49 n = 10
69% 17.9%
Both expectant parents n = 15 n = 18
21.1% 32.1%
Spouse n = 7 n = 3
9.9% 5.4%

% = column percentages

95

Information about the birth

There was a significant association in terms of how
maternal grandparents compared 1vith paternal grandparents
learned that the grandchild had been born, x2(1,N=97) =
10.05, p < .01. Table 14 reveals the nature Of this
association. It can be seen that the maternal grandparents
learned the news attfluehospital more frequently than did
the paternal grandparents. When asked if they were at the
hospital during the birth, maternal grandparents were more
likely to report that they were, x2(1,N=115)==7386, p <
.01.

Expected frequencies were too low in several cells for
statistical analyses of lineage in terms of who told the
grandparent that the grandchild had been born. 'Table 15,
however, Shows interesting patterns to pursue in future
research. For example, only maternal grandparents actually
saw or heard their grandchildren being born (of these 4
were maternal grandmothers and ‘1 was :3 maternal
grandfather). Although information about the pregnancy was
most Often relayed by the person's child or by the
eXpectant mother, information about the birth is most Often
conveyed tx> maternal and paternal grandparents by the new
father.

Since all but 7 subjects had seen their grandchild
within the first month, statistical analyses for lineage

differences in terms Of the age Of the grandchild when

96

first seen were performed using only the first three time
periods (see Table 5 for comparison). There was a
significant association between these variables,
x2(2,N=110) = 14.27, p < .01. As seen in Table 16,
maternal grandparents tended to see the grandchild earlier
than did paternal grandparents.

Maternal and paternal grandparents were compared to
determine if there was a difference in how Often they saw
their grandchildren. NO association was found,
x2(5,N=100) = 4.82, when the categories "Daily" to
"Quarterly" visits were compared (see Table 6 for detail of
categories). Since this analysis involved cells with low
expected frequencies and since 76% of the subjects reported
seeing their grandchildren at least once 23 month, an
analysis was performed to determine if there was a
difference among the subjects seeing their grandchildren
frequently. Again, no association 'was found,
x?(3,N=89)=6.9. There were also no differences in how
frequently maternal and paternal grandparents expected to
see their grandchildren in the first year,

X2(6,N=96>=11.18.

97

Table 14: Lineage differences in learning
of the grandchild's birth

Lineage
Grandparent learned
of birth Maternal Paternal
n=23 n:4
At hospital for birth 41.1% 9.8%
Through phone call n = 33 n = 37
58.9% 90.2%

Longitudinal Selected Sample. N = 97. Categories "Learned
in person after birth" and "Other" could not be included
due to low expected frequencies per cell. Column
percentages.

98

Table 15: Lineage differences in who told the
grandparents of the grandchild's birth

Lineage
Category Label Maternal Paternal
New mother n = 6 n = 1
New father n = 35 n = 43
44.9% 55.1%
Both new parents n = 2 n = 0
100% 0.0%
My Spouse n = 9 n = 5
64.3% 35 7%
Other person n = 3 n = 1
75.0% 25.0%
Saw or heard birth n = 5 n = 0
100% 0 0%

(Longitudinal Selected Sample)

Table 16: Lineage differences in age of grandchild
when first seen by grandparent

Lineage
Age Seen Maternal Paternal
1 day old or less n = 49 n = 23
68.1% 31.9%
First week n = 10 n = 12
45.5% 54.5%
First month n = 3 n = 13
18.8% 81.3%

(Longitudinal Selected Sample)

99

Names

There were no associations between lineage and whether
the expectant parents had discussed names for the
grandchild, {3(1,N=127)==0, whether the grandparents had
suggested names, X2(2,N=127) = 1.2, whether the
grandparents had suggested that the baby be named after
anyone, X2(1,N=125) = 1.13, or whether the eXpectant
grandparents own parents or in-laws had suggested names,
x2(1,N=124) = .009. There were also no associations
between lineage and reactions to the name given to the

grandchild, x2 (2,N:105) = .60.

Sex Preferences
Only 25 subjects expressed a preference for a
particular sexed grandchild before the birth. Of these,
V? were maternal grandparents and (3 were paternal
grandparents. Although cell Sizes are too small for
statistical analysis, Table 17 shows the response pattern.
NO association was found between sex preference and lineage

in the postnatal data, x2(1,N=55) =.75.

Table 17: Lineage and sex preferences

Maternal Paternal

GF GM GF GM
Preference for Girl n=2 n=10 n=1 n=2
Preference for Boy n=3 n=2 n=5 n:0

(GF 2 Grandfather; GM = Grandmother) Selected Sample.

100

Plans to Help During the Neonatal Period

Hypothesis 3 stated that anecdotal evidence suggests
that help patterns during the neonatal period are
influenced by lineage. In particular, the maternal
grandparents may consider themselves to have priority over
the paternal grandparents in terms Of aiding the new
parents. An association was found between lineage and
whether the grandparents planned to help the new parents
around the time Of birth, x2(2, N=124)=8.24, p < .05.
Table 18 reveals a pattern Of responses in which maternal
grandparents were more likely to indicate that they were
planning to help - 79.4% Of the expectant mothers' parents
had these plans as compared to 55.4% Of the eXpectant
fathers' parents. Paternal grandparents were more likely
to reSpond that they would be helping out if needed or if
an emergency arose than were maternal grandparents
(paternal grandparents, EML1%; maternal grandparents,
‘HL7%). Subjects also were asked whether their own plans
depended upon their childrens' in-laws plans. Once again,
a relationship was found when this variable was examined by
lineage, x2(2,N=121)=11.87, p < .01. In Table 19, it can
be seen that more paternal grandparents than maternal
grandparents indicated that their plans are tied to the

plans of the other set of grandparents.

101

Table 18: Lineage difference in plans to help out
during the neonatal period

Maternal Paternal
Grandparents Grandparents
Yes, planning to help n : 54 n = 31
79.4% 55.4%
NO, not planning to help n = 4 n = 7
5.9% 12.5%

Planning to help if n = 10 n = 18
needed or if an 14.7% 32.1%

emergency arises

(% = column percentages)

Table 19: Lineage differences in whether plans to
help out the expectant parents are
dependent on the other set Of
grandparents' plans

Maternal Paternal
Grandparents Grandparents

Yes, subject's plans n = 7 n = 19 n=26
depend on child's 10.3% 35.8%
in-law's plans

NO, subject's plans n = 59 n = 32 n:91
do not depend on 86.8% 60.4%
child's in-law's
plans
Perhaps, subject's n = 2 n = 2 n:4
plans may depend 2.9% 3.8%
on child's in-law's
plans
n=68 0:53
(% = column percent)

102

Help Patterns in the Neonatal Period
Given the expectations Of more maternal grandparents
that they would help out after the birth an analysis Of
lineage by actual helping behavior during the neonatal
period was performed. Contrary to eXpectations, no

significant association was found, X2 (1,N=111) = .15.

Biological Renewal

Hypothesis 4 predicted that the meaning of
grandparenthood in terms Of biological renewal may be
influenced by lineage. TWun;is, there may be differences
between those becoming grandparents through sons and those
becoming grandparents through daughters. Furthermore, it
was hypothesized that this lineage effect would occur among
same-sexed parents and adult children. Maternal and
paternal grandparents were compared to determine if they
held different Opinions on feelings of biological renewal
in regard to the birth Of the grandchild. Biological
renewal scores were computed by averaging a subject's
responses on questions pertaining to the importance Of the
grandchild in that he or she will be carrying on the family
line and the importance Of seeing the blood line continued
for another generation. A 2 X 2 analysis of variance (sex
by lineage) indicated the possibility of an interaction
between sex and lineage F(1,123)= 3.66, p =.058. Figure
5 illustrates this interaction. 11: can be seen that

maternal grandmothers and paternal grandfathers have lower

103

mean scores indicating stronger feelings Of biological
renewal. In order to investigate this issue further an
analysis of the postnatal data (2 X 2 ANOVA) for
biological renewal and maternal/paternal lineage was
performed. The interaction was not significant, F(1,110) =
1.61. This could have been due to the fact that the same-
sexed lineage pattern was not continued in the next
generation (example: a woman's daughter gave birth to a
son thereby reducing feelings of biological renewal).
Therefore, to further eXplore this issue postnatal
scores on biological renewal were analyzed by 3-
generational lineage patterns. Figure 6 illustrates the sex
patterns found once the grandchildren had been born. As
can be seen, cell sizes were too small 1H) permit
statistical analysis Of each Of the 8 possible lineage
combinations. Therefore, in order to determine whether
stronger indications cfi‘ biological renewal would be
Obtained for same-sexed lineage patterns Groups 1 and 8
were combined (Group 1: Grandparent-Male; Parent-Male;
Grandchild-Male; Group 8: Grandparent-Female; Parent-
Female; Grandchild-Female) and compared in) the remaining
six groups. It was hypothesized that the mean in the same-
sexed lineage patterns would be lower (indicating higher
biological renewal) than the mean for the other patterns.
Statistical analysis, however, revealed no significant

differences, t(112) = -1.17.

104

 

 

Strongly Agree 1.0
1.5
2.0
O (2.39)
(2.43) x
2.5 (2.56) O
x (2.77)
300
3.5
x Grandmothers
Strongly 4.0 O Grandfathers
Disagree
Maternal Paternal

Figure 5: Interaction between sex and lineage on feelings of
biological renewal. Selected Sample.

Male Female
n: 51 =64

Male emale Male Female
n: 24 n=26 n=38

/\ /\ /\ /\

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
n: 11 n: 13 n: 8 n: 19 n=13 n=13 n=15 n=23
Gr.1 Gr.2 Gr.3 Gr.4 Gr.5 Gr.6 Gr.7 Gr.8

Figure 6: Sex patterns in lineage. Longitudinal Selected
Sample. 2 subjects missing - becoming maternal and paternal
grandparents at the same time.

105

SEX DIFFERENCES

Multivariate analysis Of variance techniques (Clusters
x Sex x Lineage) were performed1on the Selected Sample in
order to investigate whether there were sex or lineage
differences ikn‘ each of the E) dependent variables
identified through the cluster analysis (selected sample
used for analysis). Since the interaction effect (Sex x
Lineage) was not significant, F(9,13) = .95, the main
effects were explored. Lineage also was not Significant,
F(9,113) = 1.26, however there was a significant sex
difference, F(9,113)==3.63,;>< .001. Univariate F-tests
revealed that ‘two clusters showed ea significant sex
difference: Involved, F(1,121) = 11.3, p < .001; Distant,
F(1,121) = 15.2, p < .001. Comparisons of the means of
each sex Show that women tend to score higher in terms of
involvement with the grandchild and men tend to score
higher on the Distant cluster.

A multivariate analysis of variance on the
Longitudinal Selected Sample did not confirm the above
findings in the postnatal data. Once again the interaction
was not significant, FT9,103) = .76, but when the main
effects were explored it was found that lineage and sex
also were not significant, F(9,103)==.66 for lineage and

F(9,103) = 1.68 for sex.

106

Anticipating Grandparenthood

Since it was hypothesized that there may be sex
differences in regard to variables addressed in the Open
ended questions, chi square tests Of significance were used
to assess associations between sex and other qualitative
variables. Men and women differed in regard to when they
first began to imagine themselves as grandparents,
x47,N=119) = 19.7, p < .01. Table 20 shows these
responses. It can be seen that women report imagining
themselves as grandparents earlier than (k) men. For
example, almost twice as many of the women (48.5% to
23.6%) reported that they began to imagine themselves in
this role either when they were children, when they were
raising their children, or when their children began to get
married. 29.1% Of the men but only 4.7% Of the women
either had not yet begun to imagine themselves as
grandparents or had only begun to do so after they had
agreed to participate in this project and had started
filling out this questionnaire. When asked to describe
their first reactions to the news Of impending
grandparenthood most subjects reported a positive reaction
(79.3% Of the men; 83.1% Of the women). It is interesting
tO note that those who did not respond in a positive manner
had varying reactions that differed by sex. For example,
6.9% of the men had neutral reactions whereas nonecn?the
women did. Seven percent of the women had mixed reactions,

but no men did.

107

Table 20:

When I was a child

When I was raising
my children

When my children
started to get
married

During the pregnancy
itself

When I was peers
becoming grandparents

When I reached a
particular age

When I began
filling out this
questionnaire

Haven't begun to
imagine it yet

Male

n

36.

108

UL)

U'1

LA)"

20
4%

55

—-I
0

0‘1!

12’"

Female

26
.6%

64

Sex differences ixl imagining oneself
as a grandparent.

38

39

13

16

119

Information about the Pregnancy

There were no sex differences regarding the knowledge
of whether or not the pregnancy was planned, X2 (3,N=123)
: 6.9, or in the cases of planned pregnancies, in how the
parents became aware that their adult children were
planning a pregnancy, x2(3,N=55):=‘L9. There were sex
differences in regard to the person by whom they were told
about the actual pregnancy, x2 (3,N=128) = 10.2, p < .05.
Table 21 reveals the pattern of sex differences. It can be
seen that a major difference lies in the number of men who
are told the news by their spouses. Although nine men
report that they learned that they were about to become
grandfathers from their wives, only one woman reported
learning the news from her husband. Furthermore, although
she was told of the news by her spouse her remarks indicate
that it was a family experience:

"Our daughter and her husband came to visit and

after they had been there for a while we decided

to have some drinks. My husband said tO me - 'I

don't know if I should mix a drink for a

grandmother or notv It didn't register for a

few seconds but then I realized what he meant.

Our son-in-law had taken him aside and told him
the good newsJ' (Subject #250)

109

Table 21: Sex differences: Who told the subjects
that they would be grandparents

Sex
Category Label Male Female
Father—tO-be n = 13 n = 12 25
22.4% 17.1%
Mother-tO-be n = 23 n = 37 60
39.7% 52.9%
Both expectant parents n = 13 n = 20 33
22.4% 28.6%
Spouse n = 9 n = 1 10
15.5% 1.4%
58 70 128

(% = column percent)

Information about the Birth

There were no sex differences in terms of whether
subjects were at the hospital during the birth,
X2(1,N=117) = 2.67, nor were there differences among those
who saw their grandchildren within the first month in
regard to the age Of the grandchild when first seen,
x2(2,N=110) = 3.0. Among those who reported continued
visits with the grandchildrencniat least a monthly basis
no association was found between sex and involvement,

x2(3,N=89) = 1.23.

110

Names

There were sex differences in regard to whether the
expectant parents had discussed the grandchild's name with
the grandparent, x2(1,N=128) = 8.34, p < .01. 73.9% of
the women reported that they had discussed names with their
children whereas only 47.5% Of the men stated that they
had these discussions. Given this information it is not
surprising, therefore, that there is also a sex difference
in regard to whether the grandparent had suggested a name,
x2(2,N=128) = 13.65, p < Ark 34.3% Of the women but only
10.3% Of the men had suggested a name. An additional 4.3%
of the wonmn1(but no men) did not suggest a specific name
but did make general suggestions (eg, recommended that a
short first name be chosen due to a long last name).

It is interesting to note that women were more likely
than men to report that their own parents and in-laws had
suggested names when they were expecting children,
x2(1,N=125) = 4.66, p'<.05. Of the 17 subjects reporting
that their parents had made suggestions 82.4% were women.
However, it should be emphasized that the majority of both
sexes did not report that their parents had made
suggestions. When asked how they felt about the name that
was eventually given to their grandchildren there were no

sex differences, x2(2,N=107) = 1.07.

111

Sex Preferences

As noted earlier the majority Of subjects did not
eXpress a preferenceefor the sex Of their grandchild when
questioned prenatally. Therefore, differences between
grandfathers and grandmothers in their report Of a
preferred sex were not statistically analyzed. Instead,
they are presented in tabular form (see Table 22). Of
those subjects who preferred a granddaughter, 80% were
women and 20% were men; of those who preferred grandsons,
80% were men and 20% were women. A tendency to prefer
same-sexed grandchildren could be assessed in future
studies to determine if this is a reliable difference and
if‘so, what reasons grandparents give for this preference
(eg, having skills that would be Of particular interest to
a same-sexed grandchild, etc.).

Table 22: Subject's sex by preference for
grandchild's sex

Male Female
Preference for Girl n = 3 n = 12 15
Preference for Boy n = 8 n = 2 10
11 14 25

Since more subjects did indicate that they had
preferred a grandchild Of a particular sex in the postnatal
responses, a chi square analysis was performed to see if
there was an association between subject's sex and the

preferred sexcfi‘the grandchild. The association was not

112

Significant, x2 (1,N=55) = .29. Howevery this issue
should be eXplored in future studies before and after the
birth of the first grandchild. It could be that the
postnatal preference actually was not indicative of a
preference beforerthe birth, especially since there was a
significant association between a postnatal report that the
subject had been hOping that the grandchild was Of a
particular sex and having a grandchild Of that sex,

x2(1,N=55) = 19.22, p < .01.

Plans to Help During the Neonatal Period

Chi square tests (Sex x Plans-to-help-out) revealed a
Significant association between grandparents' sex and their
intentions tx> help out at the time 10f birth,
x2(2,N=125) = 10.49, p < .01. ‘Women more frequently report
plans to help than do men (79.7% of women vs. 55.4% Of
men). An additional 28.6% Of the women and 17.4% of the
men reported that they would help if needed or if an
emergency arose. When asked whether their plans depended
on the plans Of the in-lawsq no sex difference was found,
x2(2,N=122) = 4.35.

There was a relationship between sex and whether plans
to help had been discussed with the expectant parents,
X2(2,N=122) = 6.96, p < .05. Table 23 shows that women
were more likely to report discussing plans for helping out

at the time of birth with their children.

113

Table 23: Subjectfls sex by<discussion of plans
with children

Male Female
Yes, plans have n = 22 n = 44 66
been discussed 40.7% 64.7%
NO, plans have not n = 28 n = 21 49
been discussed 51.9% 30.9%
General discussion n = 4 n = 3 7
but no specifics 7.4% 4.4%
54 68 122

(2 categories "Subject hasn't discussed plans, but
Spouse has" and "Other response" were not included
in the analyses due to low expected frequencies)

Help Patterns in the Neonatal Period

A significant association was found between sex and
whether the grandparent actually did help out during the
neonatal period, x2(1,N=113) = 10.33, p < .01. 0f the 77
subjects who reported helping out 67.5% were women and
32.5% were men. Furthermore, there were differences in
the ways men and women described what they did to help.
Women generally wrote extended answers to describe what
they had done; men's answers were usually brief. Table 24
details the responses Of men and women who indicated that
they had helped out.This information may prove useful in
eliciting more detailed explanations of sex differences in

help patterns in future research.

114

Table 24: Description Of help patterns during neonatal

period
Grandmothers
Subject NO. What did you do to help out?
201 yes- Stayed 8: helped with Mother 8: Baby
Made Meals & Did Housework helped with
202 ngy- 1) shopped for the family —- and for

things for the baby. 2) Helped with
housework 3) Helped care for the baby

203 Went dayly tO give support (510)

204 I took Care the baby and my daughter

205 Yes we help after baby was born anyway
possible

207 YES. MOTHER HAD TO BE ON FOR SURGERY TWO

WEEKS AFTER THE BABY WAS BORN. I TOOK CARE
OF THE BABY DURING HER HOSPITAL STAY
(capitalization by subject)

211 Yes - I spent 2 weeks in my daughter's home
keeping to care for her, her husband & child
--I cooked, was baby nurse & advised my
daughter about her new role as parent -- she
was eager for direction from me & wanted my

companionship

212 phone call from mother -- I Offered support,
advice reassurance

214 Stopped in to see the baby--did dishes,
bring in food--tidied up the house

215 Helped with meals, laundry, care of baby

216 Managed the house, errands, meals etc.
Helped the mother and baby when asked.

217 Yes, after my daughter came home from the

hospital I went out to their home and helped
my daughter w/the baby and housework for
about a week.

219 did laundry, cooked meals, helped with baby
when mother Slept

221 financially

222 Yes. I did the laundry, cooked and kept

house. I kept the baby in my room at night
so that my daughter and son-in-law could get
some sleep.

228 Yes--meals, wash, cleaning.

229 Yes-—helped with some household chores--
laundry & taking care Of the baby.

115

Table 24 (cont)

230 yes Baby 2: Feed, change & bathe baby, hug
8 cuddle. Took care of meals, laundry, etc.
232 Provided diaper service for a month. "Baby

sat" when she was 2 weeks Old while the
parents went house hunting

237 Helped with cooking, cleaning, laundry--we
went shopping together
238 The husband was laid Off work, but I did go

over to stay and clean house. I did her
washing for a few days. Checked to see if
she needed anything. They always know if
they need us we're there.

239 diapered, rocked, attempted to feed water;
cooked; talked tO/with new parents
240 Yes; took food over; Offered to go on errands

or do laundry etc. They didn't need help
since her husband was on vacation and a _!_3__I_(_3_
help at home.

241 Yes, bought some needed items had parents
over to dinner sent food home for them.
Our younger daughter did the laundry for the
new parents

242 I went over every noon hour 8 on the first
weekend took the baby home with me so our
daughter could rest.

244 I stayed at their house and helped with
household, and mother and baby care for 5
days.

245 Whent over the Next Day After they Came Home,
just fed and Held her. (sic)

248 #1 With the 1st born child--I went after 10

days and stayed with them to help out with
infant care and housework. I cared for the
baby for two weeks after the mother had to
go back to work. #2 I did not help out with
the baby.

250 Yes--got the meals, did some laundry. Had
my daughter care for the baby but managed to
hold her 8 rock her quite a bit.

252 Brought food.

256 part time one week

257 Yes--Got meals

258 Yes, I cleaned the house did the washing

changed 8 made the bed, help settle the
baby's room & spent several days helping out
and still help out whenever needed

259 Stayed with mother 8 baby, cooked some
meals, did laundry--gave support to a
nervous new mother.

116

Table 24 (cont)

260

262
267
269
273

276

287
291

402

404

412

413

416
418

did what I was asked to. Helped in kitchen,
fed guests, did dishes, made beds, helped
the mother

Somewhat Brought some meals in. Got some
necessary items. Brought flowers

Yes--I helped taking care Of the baby and
did most Of the household work.
Yes-cooking-laudry (sic)-—etc. Mother and
baby came home 36 hours after birth.

Took gifts to the hospital and brought our
daughter-in-law and grand daughter home from
the hospital stayed until our son got home
from work--visited Often or brought meals
in--Our daughter in law did everything
herself.

Yes. Helped figure out formula
requirements, sterilizing bottles, etc.
Also, I got up at night a few times so
Melissa could get some rest.

Yes, fed him and changed diapers

Bought some groceries for them, fixed some
meals. Talked daughter-in-law into staying
in hospital a few days--she wanted to come
home in 24 hours (financial reasons).

Yes. I helped a little around the house,l
helped prepare meals at times after they got
home. We had our son eat with us until the
mother got home. I responded as needed when
they needed some advice about the baby.
Anything I could to help them get
established in their routine.
Yes--DIAPERED 8 CHANGED HIM HELPED HIS
MOTHER ABOUT THE HOUSE (capitalized by
subject)

Yes, Helped take care of them for 1st 4
days.

Mother had Caesarean delivery. Her husband
stayed home 8 cared for them first week
after she left hospital, Her mother came 8
stayed with the next week 8 I stayed the
third week so the Mother 8 baby had help for
first month.

Yes--washing, cooking, cleaning.

I took care of the House 8 Meals 8 Laundry

117

Table 24 (cont)

419

421

424

427

Yes. Stayed 1 day with daughter-in—law. Did
laundry, cleaned house, prepared for meal
preparation for few days. Had food at home
when baby 8 daughter-in-law came home from
hospital.

Did household chores, changed baby, rocked
baby, fixed food and meals, cleaned house -
laundry.

I helped my daughter daily for about six
weeks mainly with household duties such as
laundry, cleaning, shOpping.

Sent clothing - called more often -
purposely did not come immediately to
eliminate too much company problem for the
new family

118

Table 24 (cont)

Subject NO.

101
105
111
114
118
129
130
132

141
142
145
150

152

157
158
159
160
165
173

313

321
323
327

Grandfathers
What did you do to help out?

Yes. Bought Crib, clothes, etc.

Yes in any way that they needed us

Phone calls-~Emotional help 8 stability

Yes. What ever was needed
Yes-~babysat--bought a few things

just general support

I sent a gift

Yes. We visited, held her, took in meals,
provided diaper service, a crib and changing
table. Most important--show showed our love
and genuine concern.

YeS--got Things parents needed

Yes help buy a lot of baby things

I baby sit

I believe so. I believe I was of help in
caring for Routine errands and "baby
sitting" for "a few" days while the parents
regrouped their routine life.

Giving supplies, gifts, bed, blankets,
clothes

Meals 8 cooking etc

Yes--get settled in

counsel to my son--he called

Yes, whatever I was asked to do.
Financially-Moral support (I hOpe)

Yes. Brought thingstx>the hospital. Took
both daughter-in-law and granddaughter home.
Having previously visited then: whenever
possible. Our independent daughter-in-law
handled everything herself, and very well.
We made suggestions when solicited, but
that's all.

Yes! Meals 8 Baby sitting

Yes--in a way--I stayed at our own Home to
care for things while my wife helped care
for baby the 2nd wk mother 8 baby was home
from the hospital.

Some chores around the house

Yes-Babysat for 2 hours

Yes. Helped out ix: re-arranging the
furniture at home - brought up by trailer
additional furniture for the parents
comfort. Went food shOpping.

119

Daily Involvement with the Grandchild

Grandparents indicated that they had little interest
in assuming a surrogate parent role. All the grandfathers
and all but one grandmother agreed that parenting should be
left strictly tO the parents. Eighty percent Of the
grandfathers and 92% Of the grandmothers did not feel that
grandparents have an Obligation to help care for the
grandchildren on a regular basis. However, 98% Of the men
and all of the women stated that they would help out in
family emergencies.

Men and women differed in regard to whether or not
they felt grandparents and grandchildren should live near
one another t(127) : 4.59, p < .001, and in their
indication that there should be daily involvement with the
grandchild, t(129) = 3.03, p < .05. Few grandfathers
(16%) indicated that it was important for grandparents to
live close to their grandchildren and fewer still (5%) felt
that grandparents should be involved in the daily lives Of
their grandchildren. However, 51% Of the women agreed that
grandparents should live nearby with 14% stating that they
should be involved in their grandchildren's daily lives.
It is interesting to note that although there is a strong

relationship between reporting that grandparents should

 

live close to their grandchildren and reporting that

 

grandparents should be involved in their grandchildren's
daily lives, x2 (9,N=131) = 38.9, p < .001, in terms Of

actual living styles these variables were not strongly

120

related to the geographical distance between grandchild and
grandparent (importance of living close and actual
geographical distance: x2(9,N=131) = 16.3, p =.06; need
for daily involvement. and geographical distance:

x2(9.N=130) = 3.3, p = .95.
GRANDPARENTAL ROLE MEANING TYPES

Replication of Robertson's Factor Analysis

Robertson (1977) identified four grandparental role
meaning types. These types were determined through factor
analytic techniques. From a pool of 20 Likert-type items
her analysis revealed that 12 were significant (p‘<.05).
Table 25 (adapted from Robertson, 1977, page 168) shows the
items (and factor loadings) used by Robertson to assess
role meaning and the corresponding items from the present
study. Table 26 lists those items used in the replication
analysis. It can be seen that 3 items were not included
(33, 38, nu). It was felt that these items (concerning
advice on successful marriages, choosing occupations, and
taking a pleasure trip around the world) were too far in
the future to be meaningful to a sample that did not yet
have grandchildren. Therefore the replication included A
items for the Social Dimension and 5 items for the Personal
Dimension. Minor changes were made in the wording of these

items to make them applicable to an expectant grandparent.

121

Table 25: Role meaning items and factor loadings*

McGreal
Item #

NA

20

25

23

28

NA

18

27

Robertson
Item #

33

30

29

37

31

38

3M

“3

in

Item

I would tell my grandchildren
to always remember that love
and companionship are more
important to a successful
marriage than money.

Going to visit a friend for
Christmas is more enjoyable
than having Christmas with
one's family.

The greatest happiness is
found in a family where all
members work together as a
group.

I feel that I should do what
is morally right to set a
good example for my
grandchildren.

One of the most important
things I want from my
grandchildren is for them to
"respect their elders".

I feel that my grandchildren
should be encouraged to

choose their own occupation
whether their parents agree

or disagree with their choice.

Life would be very lonely for

for me without my grandchildren.

The most important thing about
having grandchildren is that
they have brought a deep sense

of emotional satisfaction to my

life.

One of the most important
things about having grand-
children for me is that they
make me feel young again.

122

.701

.606

.562

.999

.fl56

.H26

.267

.222

.118

II

.056

.090

.119

.186

.250

.113

.543

0526

.955

Table 25 (continued)

McGreal Robertson Item I II
Item # Item #
NA uu If one of my grandchildren -.O75 .412

had the Opportunity to take

a pleasure trip around the
world, I think he should take
the trip first and see life
while he is still young and
worry about going to college
and getting a job later.

21 MO I think I should be able to -.002 .3u9
give my grandchildren whatever
I can and not be worried about
spoiling them.

16 26 One of the most important -.009 .393
things about having grand-
children is that they
provide me with a way to
see my blood line carried
on for another generation.

*Adapted from Robertson, 1977, Table 1.
I = Factor 1: Social Dimension Factor
II = Factor II: Personal Dimension Factor

123

Since Robertson specified the use of a rotated factor
matrix but didrufi:specify the type of rotation, the most
widely used rotation method (Varimax) was chosen (Nie,
Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner and Bent, 1975) and creation of
2 factors was specified.

Table 26 shows the factor loadings for each variable.
It can be seen that the variables loading on each factor
are as predicted from Robertson's analysis in both the
prenatal and the postnatal analyses: Q3, Q16, Q18, Q21,
and Q27 loaded highest on the Personal Dimension; Q20, Q23,
Q25, and Q28 loaded highest on the Social Dimension.

Robertson reported that the Personal Dimension Factor
and the Social Dimension Factor explained approximately 84%
of the variance. In the prenatal replication they
explained 41.4% of the total variance; in the postnatal
replication they eXplained 40.9% of the total variance.
The differences between Robertson's results and those found
in the current investigation may be due, :h1 part, to
differences in sample characteristics. Whereas Robertson's
sample included subjects with considerable experience with
the grandparental role, the replication sample needed to
anticipate and speculate about the role they were about to
assume when assessed prenatally and they remained
relatively ineXperienced as grandparents in the postnatal

analysis. Also, Robertson's sample consisted of women

124

whereas this sample included responses from both sexes.
Finally, Robertson's analysis was based on 12 items whereas
in the present study only 9 were used.

The factor loadings presented in Table 26 are based on
computations using a correlation matrix with unities in the
diagonal (since this appears to be the definition of the
factors in Robertson's analysis). Hunter and Gerbing
(1982) point out that "the choice of the diagonal elements
is not arbitrary, but determines the definition of the
factors to be defined in the analysis". They note that the
use of unities in the diagonal lead to "correlations

between the items and the observed cluster score rather

 

than its underlying trait. The correlation of an item with
its own cluster score is the item-total correlation, and is

greatly inflated by a spurious common error termJ'

 

However, when communalities are placed in the diagonal then
the "item-factor correlations are the estimated
correlations between items and cluster true scores (eg, the
underlying trait scoreSL

Table 27 presents factor loadings based on a
correlational matrix:with.communalitiescn1the diagonal.
Comparison of Tables 26 and 27 reveals that the items on

the personal dimension retain higher factor loadings than

125

do those items on the Social Dimension when communalities

are used. The artificial inflation due to error scores on

the Social Dimension may be due to the small number of

items (4) assessing that trait. Therefore, although factor

analysis confirms the two factors defined by Robertson,

further research should include an additional battery of

items which would be hypothesized to intercorrelate with

the Social Dimension Factor.

Table 26: Factor Loadings: Principle Components Solution

Item # and Description

25. Family members work together
23. Set a good example

20. Visit friend for holidays
28. ReSpect for elders

27. Bring emotional satisfaction
18. Lonely without grandchildren
16. Blood line carried on

3. Make me feel young again

21. Give without worry of spoiling

126

Factor I Factor II
(Social) (Personal)

Pre Post Pre Post
.703* .633* -.064 .207
.576* .718* .066 .031
-.501* -.641* .037 .067
.492* .583' .340 .210
.194 .048 .781* .757”
.176 .103 .648' .613*
-.139 .197 .643* .578*
.139 —.121 .625* .724*
-.196 .076 .550* .215*

Table 27: Factor Loadings: Principle Factor Solution

Factor I Factor II

Item # and Description Pre Post Pre Post
25. Family members work together .683* .490* -.124 .193
23. Set a good example .235* .581* .091 .053
20. Visit friend for holidays -.176* .434* -.013 .006
28. Respect for elders .415* .433* .240 .187
27. Bring emotional satisfaction .250 .071 .763* .671*
18. Lonely without grandchildren .157 .123 .527* .455*
16. Blood line carried on -.018 .183 .509* .432*
3. Make me feel young again .171 -.053 .486* .579*
21. Give without worry of spoiling -.044 .068 .386* .127*

Principle components solution places unities on the
diagonals. Principle factor solution places communalities
on the diagonals. * indicates the factor on which the item
has the highest loading.

127

Role Meaning Types

In order to categorize subjects according to
typologies, subjects received a score of 1 (strongly agree)
to 4 (strongly disagree) for each of the 5 personal
dimension items and for each of the 4 social dimension
items. (Subjects who did not answer all questions
pertaining to a dimension were not included in the analyses
reported below.) The possible range of scores on the
personal dimension was from 5 (indicating strong agreement
on all the questions) to 20 (indicating strong disagreement
on all the questions). The actual range was from 61x>18
()7 = 13) in the prenatal data and from 6 to 20 (x = 13) in
the postnatal data. The possible range for the social
dimension scores was 4 to 16. The actual range was from 5
to 13 (i = 9) in the prenatal data and from 4 to 12 (i = 9)
in the postnatal data. A mean split was used on the
prenatal data to dichotomize subjects into a high-agreement
group and a low- agreement group on each dimension. Those
subjects with a mean score were randomly assigned into a
group (as assigned by Robertson, 1977). Sixty-nine
subjects were classified as high scorers and 71 as low
scorers on the personal dimension. The higher scoring
group on the social dimension was composed of 67 subjects;
the low scoring group had 72 subjects. The two dimensions
were combined in order to categorize subjects according to

Robertson's (1977) four grandparental role Ineaning groups.

128

Table 28 compares the distribution of grandmothers
obtained by Robertson with the distribution of grandparents
found in the current study. In both studies, the most
common types of grandparental roles are the apportioned
role type and the remote role type. Robertson (1977) found
that these types varied on several life style variables.
However, the significance levels used in her study were
liberal. Therefore, traditional levels of significance
were used in the current investigation in order to

determine the usefulness of this typology.

Table 28: Comparison of grandparental role meaning types.

Personal Dimension

High Low
Apportioned Symbolic
Robertson Robertson
n=36 n=33
High
McGreal McGreal
n=38 n=28
Social Dimension
Individualized Remote
Robertson Robertson
n=21 11:35
Low
McGreal McGreal
n = 29 n = 41
Robertson's data adapted from Robertson, 1977, Table 2.

McGreal data based on Full Sample.

There iwas no relationship between grandparental role
type and sex, x2(3,N=136) = 3.41. Therefore, men's and
women's scores were analyzed together in the procedures
reported above. Although the association between lineage
(maternal vs. paternal) and role types approached the
preset level of significance, x7—(3, N=133) = 7.03, p = .07,
it was not significant. There also were no differences in
terms of when the different role types first began to
imagine tfluynselves as grandparents, x2 (24,N=128) = 26.05,
or in their first reaction to the news that they were about

to become grandparents, x2(12,N=133)

6.23. Analysis of
variance revealed no differences between role types and
chronological age F(3,130) = .63, or between role types and

the highest grade level completed by the subject, F(3,129)

1.02. In order to determine if role behavior was related
to role meaning type a multivariate analysis of variance
test (Wilks procedure) was performed using 11 role
behaviors and the four role meaning types. No significant
differences were found, F(33,337) = 1.22.

Given this lack of association between the
grandparental role meaning types and various life style
variables it was decided that an analysis based on
consistent types (prenatal and postnatal consistency) would
be performed. Differences, such as those obtained by
Robertson, could arise among those subjects who
consistently indicated a particular role meaning type. For

example, a person would have to be categorized as

130

"Apportioned" both prenatally and postnatally in order to
be considered an "Apportioned" role type. To further
strengthen the robustness of each type, subjects with mean
scores on either the personal or the social dimension,
either prenatally or postnatally (means were the same on
both occasions) were not included. There was a significant
association between prenatal and postnatal role meaning
types under these conditions, y2(9,N=41) = 55.9, p < J31.
Table 29 shows the pattern of prenatal—postnatal types.

As can be seen in Table 29 only 31 of the subjects can
actually be classified as consistent role types. Table 30
provides a description of these consistent role types but
cell sizes are too small for statistical analysis of life

style variables by consistent role types.

Table 29: Consistent Role Types

Postnatal Role Types

App. Ind. Rem. Sym.
Prenatal App. n=8 n=1 n:0 n:0 9
Role Ind. n=1 n=5 n=2 n:0 8
Types Rem. n=0 n=1 n=13 n=1 15
Sym. n=2 n=0 n=2 n=5 9
11 7 17 6 41

(App. = Apportioned role type; Ind. = Individualized role
type; Rem. = Remote role type; Sym. = Symbolic role type)

131

Table 30: Description of consistent role types

Apportioned

= 8

:5

men
women

maternal
paternal

younger*
older**

NO‘ ULJUW U'IUO

Individualized

3

= 5

men
women

LION

maternal
paternal

5.;

2 younger
3 older

* 52 years and under
** 53 years and older

132

Symbolic

n

NW DUN

(JUN

= 5

men
women

maternal
paternal

younger
older

Remote

n

40‘ U103 04

: 13

men
women

maternal
paternal

younger
older

ROLE BEHAVIORS

Particular role behaviors anticipated by the
grandparents were assessed prenatally and postnatally.
Table 31 shows the percentages of grandparents anticipating
each behavior. It also shows the actual frequency of the
occurrence of each behavior as reported by Robertson
(1977). Although a direct comparison cannot be made
between the two studies due to the differences in the
nature of the samples studied, the differences are
provocative. It can be seen that the grandparents in this
study anticipate greater involvement with their
grandchildren than is reported in the actual behaviors by
the subjects :hl Robertson's study. Subjects :hl the
current study anticipate taking their grandchildren on
vacations and relating family history much more frequently
than Robertson's subjects engaged in these behaviors. They
are anticipating being advisors to their grandchildren much
more frequently than might be predicted given the responses
of Robertson's subjects. Overall, when the eXpected role
behaviors for subjects in this study are compared to the
actual role behaviors as reported by Robertson's
grandmothers, the expectant grandparents anticipate greater

interaction.

133

Table 31:

Role Behavior Pre Post Robertson's
Provide gifts 97.7% 98.3% 97.6%
Babysit grandchild 86.4% 89.7% 92.0%
Engage in home-recreational 95.5% 97.4% 79.2%
activities

DrOp-in to visit grandchild 53.8% 54.7% 64.8%
Relate family history 79.5% 82.1% 47.2%
Teach special skills 70.5% 66.7% 42.4%”
Help out with family 99.2% 99.1% 39.2%
emergencies

Take grandchild on vacations 68.9% 72.7% 28.4%
Advise grandchild on 43.2% 47.9% 29.6%
personal problems

Advise grandchild 42.4% 41.0% 24.0%
regarding work

Advise grandchild 27.2% 31.7% 13.6%

regarding religion

Frequency of anticipated role behaviors.

Information concerning the grandmothers in Robertson's study
is adapted from Table 5: Role behaviors with grandchildren
(N = 125) from Robertson, 1977.

Percentages indicate percentage of subjects anticipating
this activity (McGreal) or reporting this activity
(Robertson). Prenatal percentages based on Selected Sample
(n = 132). Postnatal percentages based on Longitudinal
Selected Sample (n = 117).

* Robertson's role behavior for this item was labelled
"Teach sewing". The wording was changed in the present
study to "Teach Special Skills" due to the inclusion of
men in the study.

134

SATISFACTION WITH GRANDPARENTHOOD

There was considerable variation in what grandparents
felt was the most satisfying aspect of grandparenthood;
90.6% of the subjects did specify a particular aspect that
they felt was especially satisfying; 3.4% did not know
which aspect was most satisfying (the remaining subjects
did not list a satisfying aspect of grandparenthood). Many
subjects indicated that observing the baby grow and learn
was very satisfying and several stressed the enjoyment of
this growth process from the standpoint of someone not
directly responsible for the child.

"Watching his responses to his environment,

watching him grow and develOp. Knowing that I am

not respnsible for him to the degree I was as a
parent". (Grandmother)

"Loving without going through the trauma of
giving birth. .Appreciating the wonder of a new
human being & the changes that take place. Age
gives me the distance to see what I didn't
necessarily saw (sic) or appreciate at a younger
age". (Grandmother)

"Being able to enjoy the child and knowing I
don't have the responsiblity any longer. I'm
tired of the responsibility, esp. when they
become teenagers". (Grandfather)

"Holding the baby and watching the various stages
of development". (Grandfather)

135

Other grandparents emphasized the feelings of family

continuity and renewal that emerged with the birth of the
first grandchild.

"That the next generation is continuing & she
[the daughter] values so many ideas & concerns as
I did for my children -- she's happy 8: wants more
children. one more to love»" (Grandmother)

"Holding the baby -- the feeling he's an
extension of our daughter (baby of the family)"
(Grandmother)

"Seeing my daughter extend our values to her
daughter. However, not feeling the same
obligation as the parent for the grandchildJ'
(Grandfather)

"The joy of knowing that I brought a life into

the world and now that life bore a new life".

(Grandfather)

Observing the happiness that the baby brought to their
children's lives was the most satisfying aspect of
grandparent to several subjects.

"Loving our granddaughter. Seeing our daughter &

son-in-law love her. Seeing our whole family
love this little baby". (Grandmother)

"Knowing they are happy about having a baby".
(Grandmother)

"The joy in my daughter and son-in-law"
(Grandfather)

"My Daughter is Happier Than She's Ever Been".
(Grandfather)

136

Finally, just having a grandchild to love was

especially satisfying to many grandparents.

"Loving our new little personJ' (Grandmother)

"JUST FEELING GREAT LOVE FOR MY GRANDSONJ'
(Grandmother)

"Cuddling, loving my grandchildJ' (Grandfather)

"Just loving Him." (Grandfather)

When asked which aspects of grandparenthood were least
satisfying 53% oftfluasubjects felt that there were none,
17.1% reported that they were not with the baby often
enough, 5.1% reported particular infant behaviors that were
not satisfying such as the infant's crying, 4.3% reported
worry over the baby, and 12.8% reported other aspects (such
as "Makes me realize my age" or "My inner annoyance at the
other grandmother"). 'L7% of the subjects did not answer

this question.

137

CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION

The Timing of First Grandparenthood
The first hypothesis posed the issue cn‘ whether
parents who become grandparents "off-time" in terms of
their eXpectations for this event have greater difficulty
considering themselves as grandparents than do those who
become grandparents at the expected time.

It is interesting to note the differences in
chronological age among those subjects who considered their
timing to be "off". Those who felt they were becoming
grandparents sooner than expected (aged 42 to 52 years)
were in their 40's and early 50's thus providing some
support for the hypotheses by Cavan (1962) and Waller and
Hill (1951) that many feel the role to be inapprOpriate
until after their 40's. Indeed, when asked the best age to
become a grandparent the mean was 50 years of age for
becoming a grandfather and 49 years of age for becoming a
grandmother. But a consideration of age alone would not
explain the fact that subjects who were becoming
grandparents when expected ranged.in age from 37jyears to
77 years! Among subjects whose chronological age was the

same as the age they considered to be the ideal age to

138

become a grandparent, 15.4% were becoming grandparents
later than they thought they would, and 7.7% were becoming
grandparents sooner than they thought that they would.
Thus, factors other than their own age were being
considered when a person formed an eXpectation for this
event. Since the subjects in this analysis all had married
children, the problems involved in being "off-time" due to
a pregnancy outside of marriage were not relevant.
Therefore, other factors must be considered when eXplaining
these findings. Parents of adult children may contemplate
their child's maturity, the length of time that the child
has been married, whether or not educational plans have
been completed, and other factors of this nature when they
begin to anticipate a timing for grandparenthood in their
own lives.

The hypothesis that there would be a relationship
between perceiving the assumption of the grandparental role
as being off-time and reporting difficulty thinking of
oneself as a grandparent was not supported. However, one
cannot conclude from this finding that there is no
relationship between the two variables. Although many
parents in the study became grandparents "off-time" in
terms of their own expectations for the event, the ordering
of the events was normative relative to society's
timetable. As noted above, the subjects' children were

married adults at the time of the grandchildren's births.

139

It may be that those who become grandparents at a non-
normative time according to society do have difficulty in
assuming the grandparental role. Recent research
concerning the timing of grandparenthood has emphasized
becoming a grandmother too soon according to society's
norms. The stresses involved when grandparenthood occurs
"off-time" have been eXplored in the mothers of teenage
parents (Lee, 1982; Lee and Colletta, 1983; Lee, 1984). A
feeling of burden caused by the needs.of the daughter and
grandchild was expressed by two-thirds of the subjects.
Those who did not feel burden usually had social support
systems to aid them, positive self-concepts, and a sense of
control over their own lives. Not surprisingly, the
younger the mother, the more burden felt by the
grandmother.

Since difficulty perceiving oneself as ea grandparent
was not explained in terms of the timing of the event,
other factors need to be considered. Difficulty
perceiving oneself as a grandparent also was not due to
the fact that the grandchild had not yet been born at the
time the subject first participated in the study since 25%
of the grandfathers and 15% of the grandmothers had
difficulty thinking of themselves in this role even after
the grandchild's birth. This result is not due to the fact
that many of the grandparents had not yet had the
opportunity to see their grandchild; although many lived at

considerable distances from the grandchild all but two

140

grandparents had seen their grandchild by the time the
postnatal assessment was <xnnpleted. Fischer (1983) found
that geographical distance affected grandmothers'
conceptions of the role of grandparent. Mothers whose
married daughters lived near most frequently reported that
grandparenthood was an emotional investment. The most
frequent response from those subjects whose daughters lived
far away and from those whose grandchildren were through a
son rather than through a daughter (the two groups were
combined in the analysis) was that life did not change.
However, interpretation of these results is difficult. The
rationale that geographical distance is relevant only
according txl matrilineal kinship patterns is questionable.
The assumption that paternal grandmothers living near
their grandchildren are more similar to grandmothers whose
sons and daughters live far away than to maternal
grandmothers living close to their grandchildren isrnade
without supporting evidence.

Another reason why the grandparental role is difficult
for some subjects to assume may be their current parental
activities. For example, it may be that these subjects are
still active in a parenting role with other children. Even
though they may have eXpected to become grandparents at
this time, the role is hard to imagine since they are

active parents with other children. Although this was the

141

typical pattern decades ago (Glick, 1955, 1977), at the
present time the two roles are usually distinct.

Further research on the timing of grandparenthood
should include both grandparent and parent variables in
order to assess how the person determines whether their
family is "on-time" or "off-time". Teenage pregnancy has
been found to be stressful for grandparents who»are "off-
time" in terms of the assumption of this role. Whether it
also is stressful to assume the grandparental role "off-
time" because one's children are much older than expected

when pregnancy occurs would be interesting to investigate.

Biological Renewal

The second hypothesis concerned whether feelings of
biological renewal would be stronger for maternal
grandmothers and for paternal grandfathers. Although in
the past stronger indications of biological renewal have
been reported by grandmothers than by grandfathers
(Neugarten and Weinstein, 1964) it was hypothesized that
this result could have been obtained because of the greater
number of maternal grandparents studied. It is difficult
to draw conclusions about this hypothesis due to the
conflicting results obtained in the two assessments. The
prenatal data supported the hypothesis but when the
postnatal results were analyzed there was no interaction
between sex and lineage. When 3-generational lineage

patterns were analyzed there was no support for the

142

hypothesis that biological renewal follows same-sexed
lineage patterns. Investigation of biological renewal
with cell sizes large enough to allow for analyses of the
eight possible lineage combinations obtained when three
generations are included may reveal patterns that were not
found in the current study due to the need to combine
groups. However, it may be that biological renewal is not
as salient an issue to grandparents as has been suggested
in the literature. In order to determine if this is the
case it would be useful to interview grandparents with
respect to how they feel family continuity is carried on
through grandchildren. Through these interviews a more
robust measure of biological renewal may be obtained and
used to further research this question.

The tOpic of biological renewal has been addressed in
theory and research but its significance to grandparents
remains unclear. However, as noted earlier, the transition
to grandparenthood is a middle-aged transition rather than
one of old-age. Perhaps the importance of having someone
carrying on the family line emerges toward the end of the
life cycle rather than at the grandchild's birth. This
question could be studied cross-sectionally to determine if
it warrants further consideration in a longitudinal manner
and, if so, at what point in time it becomes a meaningful

issue for grandparents.

143

Anticipating Grandparenthood

The third hypothesis considered whether women begin to
imagine themselves as grandparents at an earlier age than
do men. It has been suggested that there is a preparatory
perhmi for grandmotherhood before one's children are
married (Neugarten and Weinstein, 1964). The data
supported this hypothesis. Men and women differed in
regard to when they first began to imagine themselves as
grandparents. Twice as many women than men had begun to
visualize this role by the time their children were
married. In fact, many men had not yet begun to picture
themselves as grandfathers even during the last trimester
of the pregnancy! This may explain the fact that men
were more likely than women to respond that they felt
distant from involvement with the grandchild before the
birth. Since women had begun to prepare for the role
earlier, it was easier for them to imagine themselves as

involved with a grandchild than it was for the men.

Age Differences
The first research question concerned whether or not
there are age differences in terms of grandparents'
eXpectations for the grandparental role. The results
showed that there were no significant age differences
regarding the significance of grandparenthood or regarding
role behaviors that the grandparents eXpected to enact with

grandchildren. This result was contrary to that obtained

144

by Neugarten anui Weinstein (1964) ix: which older
grandparents tended to prefer a formal style of
grandparenting whereas younger grandparents tended to
prefer either a funseeking or a distant style. One
difference between the two studies could be the age at
which the division into an "older" and a "younger" group
was made. In the current investigation the differentiation
was between those who were above<n~below'age 52; in the
study by Neugarten and Weinstein (1964) the subjects were
divided at age 65. If indeed the preferences are due to
age differences it may be that the subjects in the current
study had not yet reached the age where differences emerge.
A more likely eXplanation would be one based on the
developmental level of the grandchild. At this point in
time all of the grandchildren are infants. Differences in
styles assumed by the grandparents may change over time as
different behaviors become more appropriate for, and more
appreciated by, children of different ages. Recent
evidence supports this interpretation. A content analysis
of Grandparentfls Daylcards indicated that the cards could
be divided into three categories suitable for mailing by
children of different developmental stages (Greene and
Polivka, 1983). Cards apprOpriate for young children often
emphasized indulgent qualities. The next level of cards
emphasized functional interactions that involved sharing

activities. Finally, there was a group of cards with

145

abstract messages suitable for older children. The
implication of these categories is that the grandchild-
grandparent relationship changes over time such that
different types of interactions are appropriate for
children of different ages.

Research by Thomas and Datan (1983) stressed the need
for investigating grandparenthood from a develOpmental
point of view. Grandparents gave retrospective reports of
changes in their relationships with grandchildren that had
occurred over time. Outings with grandchildren increased
during the preschool years and then began to decrease as
grandchildren became teenagers and associated more often
with peers. Methods used to entertain grandchildren also
changed over time. llifferent activities were found to be
satisfying and different behaviors were considered annoying
as the grandchildren grew older. Grandparents considered
these changes to be a result of their accommodations to the
grandchild's development. In order to investigate how
grandparents adapt their interactions to the changing needs
of their grandchildren, longitudinal studies of
grandparent-grandchild interactions are necessary.

Several assumptions regarding grandparenthood have
been advanced and warrant further consideration before they
are accepted. Among these is the suggestion that the older
the parents of the grandchildren, the more ceremonial the

grandparental role will be (Sprey and Matthews, 1982).

146

This assumption is based on the fact that older parents are
more likely to be independent of their own parents, thus
reducing the direct participation of the grandparents in
family life. This assumption could be supported when one
is comparing teenage parents with older parents. However,
once the parents are adults this assumption may no longer
prove true. Research is needed to determine the impact of
parent age (beyond the teenage years) on the grandparent-
grandchild relationship.

Age differences were found in regard to whether or not
a person was becoming a grandparent at the expected age.
Those in the younger group tended to be assuming the role
at about the time that they had expected, whereas those in
the older group were becoming grandparents somewhat later
than expected. The stability of these expectations can be
seen when the prenatal and postnatal means are compared.
This finding indicates, first, that the majority of
subjects (both male and female) have anticipated
grandparenthood even before the birth of the first
grandchild. Second, it shows that these expectations are
related to chronological age. The relationship with
chronological age, however, may actually be caused by
another variable. For example, the older subjects are
more likely to have older children who may have been
married longer, reached career goals, etc. Further
investigation of this issue including adult-child variables

would be beneficial.

147

Age differences also were found in self-perceived age
status in terms of whether subjects considered themselves
to be young, middle-aged, or old. The prenatal-postnatal
differences in response to this question are interesting
since they imply that chronological age alone is not the
major determinant. One would eXpect little change in self-
perceived age status over the course of this study if it
was primarily due to chronological age since the study was
conducted within the span of a year and many subjects were
the same chronological age for the prenatal and the
postnatal assessment. Yet a significant increase was found
such that postnatal scores reflected an older age status
than did prenatal scores. The younger subjects still
reported a younger perceived age status than did the older
subjects but the means of both groups increased. This
finding supports the hypothesis that grandparenthood may be
a social transition point used to define age categories in
our society. However, the age category that it appears to
define is that of middle-age rather than the stereotype of
old age.

In conclusion, the resultscfi?this investigation and
other recent studies suggest that the grandparent-
grandchild relationship should be viewed as a developmental
process. In the past, chronological age of the
grandparent often received major emphasis. It appears

likely that the chronological age of the grandchild is a

148

more salient aspect to be considered when eXploring the
interactions of grandparents and their grandchildren.
Changes that occur in the relationship that may be a result
of changes in the develOpment of the child need to be

investigated through longitudinal studies.

Lineage

The second research question investigated in this
study concerned whether there are lineage differences in
grandparenting eXpectations and behaviors and whether there
was more communication between the expectant parents and
the maternal grandparents. No lineage differences were
found in regard to whether the subjects knew that the
pregnancy was planned or unplanned. Subjects learned of
the pregnancy most frequently from their own child but
several paternal grandparents received the news from a
daughter-in-law. No maternal grandparents learned of the
pregnancy through a son-in-law. Information about the
pregnancy, therefore, seems to be regarded as the expectant
mother's news in these cases. Information about the
birth,cn1the other hand, most often came through the new
father. This result may be due in part to hospital
practices rather than due to a decision on the part of the
new parents. Until recently parents often were separated
from the baby soon after birth and the woman was required

to stay inzarecovery room (sans phone) for several hours.

149

Thus a major focus at the time may have involved informing
relatives of the birth which would necessarily be done by
the father. This would also be more likely in cases where
the mother received extensive medication during the birth.
With the increased emphasis on "natural" (reduction of
chemicals) childbirth and with changes in hospital
practices so that both parents and the baby can remain
together during the transitional recovery period it may be
that the above result will change.

Maternal grandparents were more likely to be at the
hospital during the birth than were paternal grandparents
and all of the grandparents who witnessed the birth were
maternal grandparents. This evidence would appear to
support the assumptions that family interactions in our
society are indeed matrilineal (Robins and Tomanec, 1962;
Crase and Hendrickson, 1968; Updegraff, 1968) and that
family ties are stronger through the maternal side (Kahana
and Kahana, 1970b). However, the differences that are
evident during the neonatal period disappear over time.
Although the maternal grandparents are more likely to see
the grandchild first, there are no differences between
maternal and paternal grandparents in terms of how often
they see the grandchild after the birth and no differences
in terms of how often they expect to see the grandchild
after the birth. Longitudinal investigations would prove
interesting with respect to this issue. Do the paternal

grandparents actually continue to interact as anticipated?

150

Since research has shown that many young children report
that the maternal grandparent is their favorite (Kahana and
Kahana, 1970b) consideration of the types of interactions
between grandparent and grandchild would be useful since
actual frequency of interaction during infancy does not
appear to differ. Recent research provides evidence that
interactions are influenced by lineage in adulthood. When
adult grandchildren were asked about their relationships
with grandparents they reported that there was more contact
with the maternal grandmother than with the other three
grandparents (Hartshorne and Manaster; 1982). The paternal
grandmother had more contact with the grandchild than did
either grandfather. When grandfathers were compared the
maternal grandfather had more contact with his
grandchildren than did the paternal grandfather. Often
paternal grandparents are older than maternal grandparents
and so morbidity has been used to explain preferences for
maternal over paternal grandparents (eg, as found by Kahana
and Kahana, 1970b). However, Hartshorne and Manaster found
that more paternal than maternal grandfathers were actually
available for contact thus reducing the possibility of
morbidity as an eXplanation for these results.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that maternal grandparents
are considered to have priority in terms of helping a new
family after the birth of a child. ‘This was confirmed in

the results. Paternal grandparents are more likely to form

151

their plans based on the plans of the maternal
grandparents, as though deferring to an acknowledged
priority. Maternal grandparents are more likely to plan to
help out whereas paternal grandparents are twice as likely
to report that they will help out if. they are needed or if
an emergency arises. However, after the birth there are no
differences in terms of whether or not the grandparents
actually provided help. This discrepancy would be
interesting to pursue in future research. For example, do
maternal and paternal grandparents help out in different
ways? Are they using the same definitions in defining what
constitutes helping out during the newborn period? Do those
in one group tend to provide more physical care of mother,
baby and household while those in the other group provide
financial assistance, gifts, etc, more frequently? Is
there a difference in the length of time during which the
helping occurs? Is there an order in whichlcare is given
(example: maternal grandparents visiting for one week,
paternal grandparents visiting for the next week)? These
issues can be eXplored to help resolve the prenatal-

postnatal discrepancy.

Sex Differences
The possibility of sex differences in grandparenting
was considered in the third research question. Specific
hypotheses regarding this topic were difficult to construct

due to the fact that so few researchers have included

152

grandfathers in their samples. The suggestion that men may
have more difficulty than women in the grandparental role
(Cavan, 1962) was supported by the fact that eXpectant
grandfathers received higher scores than did expectant
grandmothers on items from the Distant cluster. However,
once the grandchild was born there were no sex differences
on this variable. ‘Thus, it can be concluded that men may
have more difficulty anticipating the role but that once
the baby is born they no longer feel distant. This
interpretation is supported by the results showing that men
and women differ with respect to when they first begin to
imagine themselves as grandparents. Women report that they
imagine themselves in this role much earlier than do men.
There are no differences between men and women in regard to
the knowledge they have about the pregnancy and birth. It
is interesting to note that although women communicate
directly with their children, more men than women obtain
information about the pregnancy from their spouses. Thus,
many men may become aware of aspects of their adult
children's lives indirectly. This would be an interesting
issue to pursue in further research. In the present study
most of the marriages of the subjects were intact.
However, given the current divorce rate many parents about
to become grandparents are divorced. Whether or not sex
differences become more obvious in that situation (such
that men have less knowledge about their children's

pregnancy and birthing eXperiences), in which there is

153

reduced (if any) communication between the parents of the
expectant parents, would be informative.

Woman are more likely to plan to help out the new
family after the birth and they are more likely to discuss
their plans with their children. They also are more likely
to follow through with these plans. Women indicated
different patterns of help. It would be useful in future
studies to assess the frequency of helping behaviors as
well as the activities the grandparent engages in. Given
the more detailed descriptions of help reported by the
women it appears that they provide more extensive help.
However, since frequency was not assessed in the present
study this cannot be determined.

Comparisons were planned to determine whether
grandparents had a preference for a grandchild of a
particular sex. However, very few subjects eXpressed a
preference before the birth of the baby. Among the 25
subjects who did have a preference 80% of those preferring
grandsons were men and 80% of those preferring
granddaughters were women. As noted earlier, a reason for
the small number of subjects reporting a preferred sex may
be the manner in which the question was asked. 'This item
had a high degree of social desirability in the way that it
was worded and the majority of subjects gave responses

indicating that their only concern was a healthy baby.

154

When this tOpic is addressed in future research care should
be taken to avoid this problem.

There was no association between subject's sex and the
preferred sex of the grandchild. More subjects reported
having preferred a particular sex postnatally than
prenatally. It seems likely that the postnatal
preference may not represent a prenatal preference. There
is a significant relationship between reporting that one
had hoped for a particular sex and having.a grandchild of
that sex. Yet, there would be no reason to eXpect a
relationship between hOping for a girl and having a
granddaughter or between hoping for a boy and having a
grandson. A possible interpretation is that this
association reflects a satisfaction with the grandchild and
thus retrospectively the grandparent reports that this is
just the child that had been hOped for. Once a more
reliable means to assess this preference prenatally has
been develOped, a prenatal-postnatal comparison can be
performed to provide more detail on this research question.
The reasons for preferring a particular sex (eg, does the
grandparent plan particular interactions that are
considered more apprOpriate for one sex than the other?; do
the grandparents' preferences relate to the sexes of their
own children such that a mother of boys prefers

granddaughters?) also should be eXplored.

155

The marital status of the grandparents and of the
parents can have considerable impact on the grandchild-
grandparent relationship. It is likely that divorce may
affect grandmothers and grandfathers in different ways.
Although research is currently being conducted which
evaluates the effects of parental divorce (Johnson, 1983;
Matthews and Sprey, 1984) the effects of grandparental
divorce have not been considered. Research on family
rituals revealed that these gatherings tended to center
around the grandparent generation when the older members
were couples more frequently than when an older family
member was single (Albrecht, 1962). Given the role of
women as "kin-keepers" (Hagestad, 1984) the divorce of an
older couple may have a greater impact on the man's family
relationships. The role of the grandfather in this context

should be explored.

Grandparental Role Meaning Types

Since four distinct grandparental role meaning types
have been differentiated among grandparents (Robertson,
1977) the fourth research question involved whether these
types could be replicated among those becoming grandparents
for the first time. The results show that two factors were
obtained through factor analysis. The loadings occurred on
each factor as would be predicted (from Robertson's
analysis) in both the prenatal and the postnatal data.

However, once communalities replaced unities as the

156

diagonal elements the spurious common error was eliminated
and it was revealed that the factor representing the Social
Dimension of grandparenthood had been inflated by error
scores. Therefore, even though the two factors were
confirmed the lowered factor loadings on the Social
Dimension indicate that it is unlikely that all four role
meaning types obtained will be meaningful. Instead of
comparisons of high-low scorers on each dimension
(resulting in the four types) future research may consider
only the Personal Dimension (thus reducing the number of
types to two). However, it should be noted that the
present study relied on only 9 items in the factor analysis
whereas Robertson's (1977) analysis included 12 items.
Before eliminating the Social Dimension from future studies
an attempt could be made to include an additional battery
of items that would represent the social factor.

In conclusion, Robertson's (1977) typology of the
meaning of grandparenthood requires further develOpment
before it can be considered useful. Instrument development
is needed which includes more items relating to the
Personal and Social Dimensions of grandparenthood. If
error scores continue to inflate the social items then it
may be necessary to reduce the typology to two types rather
than four. Descriptions based on each type should not be
developed until there is evidence that these types are

consistent.

157

Predicting Role Meaning Types

Since the fourgrandparental role meaning types were
replicated an attempt was made to predict these types from
life style variables before the birth of the grandchild.
Life style variables relating to each type have been
discussed in the literature (Robertson, 1977). However,
the significance levels used to determine these types have
been setzn;such liberal levels that it seems likely that
the results were obtained by chance. In the current study
there were no relationships found between role meaning
types and various life style variables such as age and
education. There were no differences between the four
types with respect to anticipation of grandparenthood,
reaction to grandparenthood, and grandparental role
behaviors. There also was a lack of stability in regard to
the classification of individuals when prenatal and
postnatal comparisons were made.

There are two possible explanations for the
discrepancy of the current investigation and Robertson's
(1977) investigation. It could be that the effects of the
variables emerge as the grandchild grows older and
interactions become more reciprocal. This explanation,
however, seems unlikely. It is more likely that the
original findings were due to chance and that once
traditional significance levels rather than liberal levels

are used no significant relationships occur.

158

It was found that only a quarter of the subjects were
consistent in classification by role type in the prenatal
and postnatal classification. In ordertx>prove valuable
in describing grandparental role meaning types, these
classifications should be consistent. However, the
inconsistencies may prove interesting in relation to
transitions in adult development. It may be that these
types reflect issues, such as the transition to middle age,
that are undergoing change as an individual becomes a

grandparent.

Role Behaviors

The sixth research question addressed the issue of
whether expectant grandparents would anticipate engaging in
role behaviors that are performed by experienced
grandparents (as reported by Robertson, 1977). The results
reveal that when adults are questioned before and after the
birth of the first grandchild about the activities that
they will perform with grandchildren they anticipate
higher levels of interaction than has actually been
reported by experienced grandparents. Some differences may
be based on realistic assessments of the current
intergenerational relationships between parent and adult
child. Over time the interactions may be reduced. For
example, the fact that over 99% of the subjects in this
study reported that they would help out in family

emergencies may be influenced by the fact that many helped

159

out at the time of birth. Also, these subjects are
substantially younger than the experienced grandmothers
studied by Robertson (1977) and therefore may be in a
better position to help out both financially and
physically. Robertson reports that over 38% of her
subjects were over 70 years of age; in the current study
1.8% of the subjects were over 70-years-old (Longitudinal
Selected Sample). Another difference between the subjects
in the current study and in Robertson's study involves the
SES of the two samples. Incomes reported by Robertson
were 25% over $9,000, 50% between7$3,000. and $9,000, and
25% under $3,000. [as reported in interviews in 1970]. In
contrast, subjects in the current investigation reported
high levels of income; over half of the subjects reported
incomes over $30,000. [as reported:h11982-1983]. Over
50% of Robertson's subjects had an 8th grade education or
less whereas in the current study the average education was
beyond high school.

When the expectations for role behaviors obtained
prenatally and postnatally were compared no differences
were found. It should be noted though that as of yet the
grandchildren were young and so opportunities for many of
the activities had not yet occurred. It would be
interesting in further research to follow subjects
longitudinally to determine if grandparents actually do
engage in these role behaviors as anticipated and the

frequency of each behavior. It is likely, however, that

160

expectations for the role may change over time as the
grandparents and grandchildren interact and as interactions
change with the adult children who have assumed a parental
role.

Given the discrepancies between the expectations for
grandparenthood and the actual behaviors reported by
grandparents there is a need to consider the expectations
of the child's parents in order to determine if their
attitudes are the mediating variables causing the reduction
in grandparent involvement. Studies focusing (M1
grandparent-adult child interactions are necessary to gain
information on family relationships involving the
grandchildren. This is a difficult topic to research due
to the need to include members of three-generations in
sufficient numbers so that analyses can be performed to
determine the effects of sex and lineage. Nevertheless, it
.0p 4 appears to be an important issue to investigate based

on the findings of this research.

Satisfaction with Grandparenthood
The final research issue eXplored the aspects of
grandparenthood that are considered the most and least
satisfying during the grandchild's infancy. More subjects
in the current study expressed satisfaction than would be
anticipated from the findings of Neugarten and Weinstein
(1965). They found that 59% of the grandmothers and 61% of

the grandfathers eXpressed comfort and pleasure in the

161

role. Grandparenthood is viewed as a satisfying experience
by 90% of the subjects in this study. Over half felt that
there were no dissatisfying aspects of the role; the most
common source of dissatisfaction among those who specified
a least satisfying aspect was not being able to spend
enough time with the infant. Grandparents reported that
satisfaction with the grandchild was obtained by enjoying
the development of the baby, by feelings of family
continuity, by observation of the happiness of the new
parents, and simply by having another family member to
love. Once again, longitudinal investigations would be
useful tn) explore how satisfaction derived from
grandparenthood changes as the grandchild matures. The
above sources of satisfaction are basically uni-
directional. It would be interesting to determine whether
reciprocity between grandparent and grandchild becomes
important in deriving satisfaction from the role once the

grandchild reaches a particular point in development.

Summary
The current investigation examined individuals'
expectations for the grandparenting role before and after
the birth (H? the first grandchild. Grandparents'
perceptions of the timing of this event in terms of their
expected time-table for becoming a grandparent also were
studied. The results showed considerable variation in the

chronological ages of those becoming grandparents at the

162

eXpected time. Plans to engage in various activities with
the grandchild varied as a function of perceived timing of
the role. Those who were becoming grandparents "off-time",
however, were not more likely than "on-time" grandparents
to report difficulty thinking of themselves in this role.

Contrary to previous findings there were no age
differences either prenatally or postnatally on the cluster
variables (H' on anticipated role behaviors. Age
differences were found with respect to the timing of
grandparenthood such that older grandparents reported that
the birth of the first grandchild occurred later than
expected. Older grandparents also indicated that they
perceived themselves as members of an older age-status
groups than did younger grandparents. Prenatal and
postnatal comparisons showed that, in general, subjects
reported an older age status after the birth of the
grandchild.

The findings reflect a need to consider issues of
lineage when investigating the significance of
grandparenthood. The prenatal results support the
hypothesis that women perceive biological renewal through
their daughters whereas men view it as occurring through
their sons. However, no relationship between sex and
lineage was found when the postnatal data were analyzed for
themes of biological renewal. Maternal grandparents were

more likely than paternal grandparents to state that they

163

would help the new parents after the birth; paternal
grandparents indicated a willingness to help only if needed
more often than (H41 maternal grandparents. Lineage
differences were evident in early grandparent-grandchild
interactions such that maternal grandparents usually saw
the infant at a younger age than did the paternal
grandparents. However, there were no differences in the
frequency of visits after the birth.

In general, sex differences were more evident before
the birth of the grandchild. Women began to visualize
themselves as grandparents at earlier points in their lives
than did men. Before the birth men were more likely to
perceive themselves as distant from the grandchild whereas
women perceived themselves as involved with the grandchild.
After the birth there were no sex differences on these
variables. Differences remained, however, in regard to
helping behaviors such that women were more likely to
assist the new parents.

Factor analysis replicated the personal and social
dimensions of grandparenthood as defined by Robertson
(1977). Loadings on the social dimension were inflated by
a common error term and therefore the value of dividing
subjects on this dimension is questionable. When subjects
were assigned to four role-types the types were not related
to sex, lineage, age, education or to anticipated role

behaviors.

164

The majority of subjects were satisfied with the
grandparental role during their grandchild's infancy.
Major sources of satisfaction were watching the develOpment
of the baby without the responsibility of parenting,
feeling a sense of family continuity, observing the
happiness of their own children, and having another family
member to love. Most grandparents felt that there were
no aspects of the role that were dissatisfying. Among
those who did express some dissatisfaction the aspects that
were not satisfying included not being with the baby often
enough, particular infant behaviors, and worry over the

baby.

The birth of the first grandchild has been shown to be
a significant event in the lives of the grandparents. The
impact of this event on the adult's life and on the
grandchild's develOpment needs to be considered in greater
detail. Middle-aged life events, including the transition
to grandparenthood, have long been ignored. Longitudinal
research of the grandparent-parent-grandchild relationship
should add to our understanding of psychosocial
develOpment ix: adulthood and intergenerational
relationships within the family. The tOpic of
grandparenthood promises to be an exciting area of study to

those interested in life-span developmental issues.

165

Appendices

Appendix A

CorreSpondance with Subjects

Dear ,

 

I would like to invite you to participate in a study
of grandparenting attitudes and behaviors. I am studying
the reactions to grandparenthood in those who are becoming
grandparents for the first time. I am also interested in
the attitudes of adults who have married children but as of
yet have no grandchildren.

Although much is known about the transition to
parenthood, very little is known about the transitionto
grandparenthood, and what changes, if any, it brings to a
person's life. When grandparenthood has been studied most
of the participants have been older persons who have been
grandparents for many years. This will be the first study,
to my knowledge, that investigates the significance of
grandparenthood when the first grandchild is born.

The study includes:

1. Filling (Mn; a questionnaire about your attitudes
toward grandparenting and your expectations for this
grandchild before the birth of the child.

2. Filling out a similar questionnaire after the birth of
your grandchild.

All questionnaires will be mailed to your home and can
be completed at your convenience.

All data that are collected are strictly
confidential and you will remain anonymous.

If you are interested in participating in this study
please sign the enclosed consent form and fill in the
questionnaire. They can be sent to me in the business
reply envelOpe. If you would like more information about
the study I can be reached at (517) 353-5324 or messages
for me can be left at (517) 353-8691.

I hope that you will consider participating in this
study.

Thank you,

Cathleen McGreal, M.A.

166

Dear ,

 

Thank you for participating in the Grandparenting
Project. I am enclosing the second questionnaire that will
be used to» compare your attitudes concerning
grandparenthood before and after the birth of your
grandchild.

I thought you might be interested in hearing about
some of the other peOple who are in this study. 66 men are
participating in the study. Some are as young as 40 but
the oldest grandfather is 77. All have just become
grandfathers for the first time. 35 of the men have
daughters who gave birth to the first grandchild, 29 became
grandfathers through their sons.

The grandmothers ranged in age from 27 (one of the
four step-mothers in the study) to age 71. It is
interesting that some of the grandparents in the study are
younger than some of the couples becoming parents for the
first time! 45 of the women were related to the grandchild
through their daughters, 34 through their sons.

Many of the people in the study live far away from
their grandchildren. Although most of the grandchildren
live in Michigan, questionnaires were received from peOple
from New York to California, from Florida to Illinois, In
fact, 2 of the couples in the study are living as far away
as Korea and Mexico!

Thank you once again,

Cathleen McGreal, M.A.

167

Michigan State University
Department of Psychology

Grandparenting Project

Informed Consent Statement

I have freely consented to take part in a study of
grandparenting attitudes being conducted by Cathleen
McGreal under the supervision of Professor Hiram
Fitzgerald both of the Department of Psychology,
Michigan State University.

The study has been described to me and I understand
the explanation that has been given and what any
participation will involve.

I understand that I EHO free to discontinue
participation in the study at any time without
penalty.

I understand that the results of the study will be
treated in strict confidence and that I will remain
anonymous. Within these restrictions, results of
the study will be made available to me at my
request.

I understand that my participation in the study does
not guarantee any beneficial results to me.

I understand that at my request, I can receive
additional eXplanation of the study after my
participation is completed, but that procedures used
to assure confidentiality prevents the release of
individual results.

Signed:

 

Date:

 

Do you wish to receive summaries of research reports
that will be develOped from the results of this
study?

Yes No

 

 

168

Appendix B

Sample Questionnaires

GRANDPARENTING PROJECT

GRANDMOTHER'S PRENATAL QUESTIONNAIRE
NOTE: THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IS TO BE FILLED OUT BEFORE
THE BIRTH OF YOUR GRANDCHILD

DIRECTIONS: THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONNAIRE CONCERNS YOUR
ATTITUDES TOWARD BECOMING A GRANDMOTHER. PLEASE FILL
OUT THE QUESTIONNAIRE INDIVIDUALLY, MEN AND NOMEN OFTEN
HAVE DIFFERENT REACTIONS T0 BECOMING GRANDPARENTS!

READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY AND THEN ANSWER. THE FIRST
PART OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE CONSISTS OF MULTIPLE-CHOICE
ITEMS. PLEASE PLACE AN ”X" IN THE BOX THAT BEST
DESCRIBES YOUR FEELINGS. THE SECOND PART OF THE
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSISTS OF A GROUP OF QUESTIONS THAT

ASK YOU TO WRITE IN YOUR OWN INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE.

ALL THE INFORMATION IN THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IS CONFIDENTIAL.
IT HILL ONLY BE HANDLED BY THE RESEARCH STAFF AND NO
NAMES WILL BE ATTACHED.

WHEN YOU HAVE COMPLETED THIS QUESTIONNAIRE PLEASE MAIL
IT IN THE BUSINESS REPLY ENVELOPE.

 

 

 

Subject I.D.
(1-3)
Card No. 01 Date
(4-5) (6-11)
Lype 2
(12)

 

 

‘169

GRANDPARENTING PROJECT

GRANDFATHER'S PRENATAL QUESTIONNAIRE
NOTE: THIS QUESTIONIAIRE Is To BE FILLED OUT BEFORE
THE BIRTH OF YOUR GRANDCHILD.

DIRECTIONS: THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONNAIRE CONCERNS YOUR
ATTITUDES TOWARD BECOMING A GRANDFATHER. PLEASE FILL
OUT THE QUESTIOINAIRE INDIVIDUALLY, MEN AND WOMEN OFTEN
HAVE DIFFERENT REACTIONS TO BECOMING GRANDPARENTS!

READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY AND THEN ANSWER. THE FIRST
PART OF THE QUESTIOhNAIRE CONSISTS OF MULTIPLE-CHOICE
ITEMS. PLEASE PLACE AN "X" IN THE BOX THAT BEST
DESCRIBES YOUR FEELINGS. THE SECOND PART OF THE
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSISTS OF A GROUP OF QUESTIONS THAT

ASK YOU TO WRITE IN YOUR INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE.

ALL THE INFORMATION IN THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IS CONFIDENTIAL.
IT WILL ONLY BE HANDLED BY THE RESEARCH STAFF ADD ho
IMMES WILL BE ATTACHED.

WHEN YOU HAVE COMPLETED THIS QUESTIONNAIRE PLEASE MAIL
IT IN THE BUSINESS REPLY ENVELOPE.

 

 

Subject I.D.
(1-3)
Card No. 01 Date
(4-5) 6-11
Type I
(12)

 

 

 

170

PAGE 1 SUBJECT #

PLEASE INDICATE WHETHER YOU STRONGLY AGREE. AGREE. DISAGREE, 0R STRONGLY

DISAGREE HITH EACH OF TIE STATEMENTS BELOH BY PLACING AN "X" IN THE

APPROPRIATE BOX.

1.

THIS GRANDCHILD IS IMPORTANT TO ME BECAUSE HE OR SHE HILL BE CARRYING
ON THE FAMILY LINE. (13)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRAPDPARENTS SHOULD MAINTAIN A CONSTANT INTEREST IN THEIR GRAPDOTILDREN.
BUT SHOULD ALSO BE CAREFUL TO LEAVE PARENTING STRICTLY TO THE PARENTS.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (14>

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I THINK THAT I HILL FEEL YOUNG AGAIN THROUGH MY GRANDCHILD.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (15)
( ) AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

171

PAGE 2 SUBJECT # __

4.

THE GRANDPARENT AND GRANDCHILD SHOULD BOTH GET FUN OUT OF THEIR
RELATIONSHIP. (16)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I PLAN TO SET MONEY ASIDE ESPECIALLY FOR MY GRANDCHILD.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (17)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I FEEL THAT I HILL BE A BETTER GRANDPARENT THAN I HAS A PARENT.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (18)
() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IF THE CHILDREN REQUEST HELP IN CARING FOR THE GRANDOULD ON A REGULAR
BASIS IT IS THE GRANDPARENT'S OBLIGATION TO HELP OUT. (19)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

172

PAGE 3 SUBJECT #

8.

10.

11.

I D<PECT THAT BECOMING A GRANDPARENT HILL HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON MY LIFE.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (20)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRAIDPARENTS SHOULD VISIT THEIR GRANDCHILD FREQUENTLY BUT SHOULD NOT
OFFER ADVICE ON CHILDREARING. (21)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARENTHOOD HILL BE A SOURCE OF SATISFACTION SINCE MY GRANDCHILD
HILL BE ABLE TO ACCOMPLISH THAT HHICH MY CHILDREN AND I HAVE NOT.
(22)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

A GRANDPARENT USUALLY HAS LITTLE CONTACT HITH THE GRANDCHILD EXCEPT
ON SPECIAL HOLIDAYS OR BIRTHDAYS. (23)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

173

 

PAGE 4 SUBJECT A

12. I REALLY DON'T HAVE MUCH TIME TO DEVOTE TO BEING A GRANDPARENT.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (24)
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

13. IF BOTH PARENTS HORK THEN ONE OF THE GRANDPARENTS SHOULD ASSIME
THE CARETAKIm OF THE CHILD. (25)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

14. THE GRANDPARENT—GRANDCHILD RELATIONSHIP SHOULD BE CHARACTERIZED BY
INFCWLITY AND PLAYFULNESS. (26)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

15. AS A GRANDPARENT I HILL HELP 0er IN FAMILY EMERGENCIES.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (27)
() AGREE
() DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

17h

PAGE 5 SUBJECT #

16.

18.

19.

OVE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT HAVING GRAADCHILDREN IS THAT
THEY PROVIDE ME HITH A HAY TO SEE MY BLOOD LINE CARRIED ON FOR
ANOTHER GENERATION. (23)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I PLAN TO TAKE MY GRANDCHILDREN ON VACATIONS M-IEN THEY ARE OLDER.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (29)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

LIFE WOULD BE VERY LONELY FOR ME IF I NEVER HAD GRANDCHILDREN.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (30)
() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

AS TFEY GROH OLDER I D<PECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN ON THEIR
PERSONAL PROBLEMS. (31)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

175

PAGE 6 SUBJECT #

20.

GOING TO VISIT A FRIEND FOR A HOLIDAY IS MORE ENJOYABLE THAN
SPENDING HOLIDAYS HITH ONE’S FAMILY. (32)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I THINK THAT I SHOULD BE ABLE TO GIVE MY GRANDCHILD HHATEVER I CAN
AND NOT BE HORRIED ABOUT SPOILING HIM OR HER. (33)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

AS THEY GROH OLDER I D<PECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN REGARDING YORK.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (34)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I FEEL THAT I SHOULD DO HHAT Is MORALLY RIGHT TO SET A GOOD EXAMPLE
FOR MY GRANDCHILD. (35)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

176

PAGE 7 SUBJECT #

24.

25.

26.

27.

OVE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT HAVING GRANDCHILDREN FOR ME
IS THAT THEY HILL MAKE ME FEEL YOUNG AGAIN. (36>

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

THE GREATEST HAPPINESS Is FOUND IN A FAMILY HHERE ALL MEMBERS WORK
TOGETHER AS A GROUP. (37)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

AS THEY GROH OLDER I EXPECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN REGARDING RELIGION.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (38)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

THE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT HAVING GRAIDCHILDREN FOR ME IS THAT
THEY HILL BRING A DEEP SENSE OF EMOTIONAL SATISFACTION TO MY LIFE.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (39)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

177

PAGE 8 SUBJECT #

28.

30.

31.

OVE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS THAT I HANT FROM MY GRANDCHILDREN
IS FOR THEM TO ”RESPECT THEIR ELDERS". (Ac)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IT IS IMPORTANT FOR GRANDPARENTS TO LIVE IN A CLOSE GEOGRAPHICAL
LOCATION TO THEIR GRANDCHILDREN. (AI)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARENTS SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN THE DAILY LIVES OF THEIR GRANDCHILDREN.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (42)

() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IT IS DIFFICULT T0 THINK OF MYSELF AS A GRANDPARENT.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (43)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

178

PAGE 9 SUBJECT #

PLEASE PLACE AN ”X” IN THE BOX THAT YOU FEEL BEST ANSHERS THE QUESTION.

32. WHEN I THINK ABOUT THE AGE THAT I D(PECTED TO BE HHEN I BECAME A
GRANDPARENT. I REALIZE THAT I HILL BECOME ONE: (41.)
() SOONERTHANIHADEXPECTED
( ) AT ABOUT THE TIME I HAD EXPECTED
() IATERTHANIHADEXPECTED

33. I CONSIDER MYSELF TO BE:
() YOUNG (45)
() MIDDLE-AGED
() OLD

34. AS A GRANDPARENT I EXPECT TO PROVIDE GIFTS FOR MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES “6)

()NO i

IF YES:

 

 

A. HOV OFTEN HILL YOU BE PROVIDING
GIFTS?

 

 

 

B. WHAT KINDS OF GIFTS DO YOU PLAN
TO PROVIDE?

 

 

 

 

 

 

179

PAGE 10 SUBJECT #

35. I PLAN TO BABYSIT HITH MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES (47)

()No 9

IF YES:

 

 

HOH OFTEN DO YOU PLAN TO BABYSIT?

 

 

 

 

 

 

36. I EXPECT TO ENGAGE IN HOME RECRaTIONAL ACTIVITIES (SUCH AS READING
STORIES AND PLAYING GAMES) HITH MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES (48)

()NO XI,

IF YES:

 

 

A. How OFTEN HILL YOU BEENGAGED IN
THIS TYPE OF ACTIVITY?

 

 

 

B. WHAT TYPES OF ACTIVITIES DO YOU
PLAN TO DO HITH YOUR GRANDCHILD?

 

 

 

 

 

 

180

PAGE ll SUBJECT #

 

37. I HILL SPONTANEOUSLY DROP-IN TO VISIT MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES

(49)
( ) It) :l’

IF YES:

 

 

HOH OFTEN DO YOU THINK YOU
HILL DROP-IN TO VISIT?

 

 

 

 

 

38. ONE OF MY ACTIVITIES WITH MY GRANDCHILD WILL BE TO RELATE FAMILY

 

HISTORY. (50)
( ) YES
( ) 1k) :1’

IF YES:

HOH OFTEN HILL YOU TELL YOUR GRANDCHILD
ABOUT YOUR FAMILY HISTORY?

 

 

 

 

 

39. AS THEY GROH OLDER I PLAN TO TEACH MY GRANDCHILDREN SPECIAL SKILLS

 

 

 

(SUCH AS SEHING OR CARPENTRY). (51)
( ) YES
( ) 1k) \lfi

IF YES:

WHAT SKILLS HILL YOU TEACH YOUR GRANDCHILDREN?

 

 

 

181

 

PAGE 12
PLEASE HRITE YOUR ANSNER IN TIE BLANK NEXT TO EACH QUESTION.
40. WHAT IS THE BEST AGE FOR A MAN TO BE HIEN HE GETS MARRIED?
(52-53)

41. WHAT IS TIE BEST AGE FOR A HOMAN TO BE HEN SIE GETS MARRIED?

(SA-55)
12. WHAT Is THE IDEAL AGE FOR A MAN TO BECOME A FATHER?

(56-57)
43. WHAT IS THE IDEAL AGE FOR A HOMAN TO BECCME A MOTHER?

(58-59)
44. WHAT IS THE IDEAL AGE FOR A MAN TO BECOME A GRANDFATHER? ( 6 )

60- l
45. WHAT IS THE IDEAL AGE FOR A ROMAN TO BECOME A GRANIMOTHER?

(62-63)

46. WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND HHEN YOU THINK OF A 'YOUNG’ MAN?
(64-65)

47. WHAT AGE GOES TO YOUR MIND HHEN YOU THINK OF A ’MIDDLE-AGED’ MAN?
(66-67)

48. WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND HHEN YOU THINK OF AN ’OLD' MAN?
(68-69)

49. WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND HIEN YOU THINK OF A 'YOUNG’ WAN?
(70-71)

50. WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND IHEN YOU THINK OF A ’MIDDLE-AGED’ HOMAN?
(72-73)

51. WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND THEN YOU THINK OF AN ’OLD’ ROMAN?
(74-75)

182

PAGE 13 SUBJECT #
THE FOLLOHING QUESTIONS ARE ABOUT YOUR OHN REACTIONS T0 BECOMING A GRAIDPARENT.

IFYQJNEEDRDREROO‘ITOANSWERTHBWPLEASEUSEMEXTRAPAGESATTHEENDW
THE (IJESTICNNAIRE BOOKLET.

52. HEN DID YOU FIRST BEGIN TO IMAGINE WHAT IT VOULD BE LIKE TO BE A GRANDPARENT?

 

 

 

 

 

53. ”HEN DID YOU LEARN THAT YOU WERE ABOUT TO BECCME A GRANDPARENT?

POH DID YOU FIND OUT? WHO TOLD YOU?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

183

PAGE 14 SUBJECT #

54. IF THIS HAS A PIANVED PREGNANCY, DID YOUR CHILDRBI LET YOU KNOH THAT
THEY HERE PLANNING TO HAVE A BABY? HOH DID TIEY LET YOU mm?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55. ARE YOU PLANNING TO HELP OUT IN ANY HAY HHEN THE BABY IS BORN?
IF SO. WHAT SPECIFIC THINGS HILL YOU DO TO IELP OUT?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

184

PAGE 15 SUBJECT #

56. D0 YOUR PLANS DEPEND ON HHAT YOUR CHILD’S IN-LAHS ARE PLANNING FOR THE
BIRTH OF THE BABY? IF SO. HON?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

57. HAVE YOU DISCUSSED ANY OF TIE PIANS HITH YOUR CHILD?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

58. DO YOU HAVE A PREFERENCE AS TO THE SD< OF THE BABY? IF S0. DO YOU PREFER
A BOY OR A GIRL?

 

 

185

PAGE 16 SUBJECT #

59. DO YOU KNOH HHAT YOUR CHILDREN ARE PLANNING TO NAME THE BABY?
( ) YES IF IT IS A GIRL:

 

IF IT Is A BOY:

 

()No

60. HAVE THEY DISCUSSED POSSIBLE NAMES HITH YOU?

 

 

 

 

 

61. HAVE YOU SUGGESTED NAMES T0 TIEM? HAVE YOU SUGGESTED THAT TI-E BABY BE
NAMED AFTER ANYONE? IF SO. Hm?

 

 

 

 

 

62. WHY YOU WERE CI-DOSIMS A NAME FOR YOUR GIN CHILD DID YOUR PARENTS MAKE
ANY SUGGESTIOIS? WERE YOU INFLUENCED BY TIEIR SLGGESTIO‘IS IN YOUR CIDICE?

 

 

 

 

 

186

PAGE 17 SUBJECT #

63. WHAT HAS YURWHEN YOU FOLNDOUTTHATYOU HERE GOING TO
BEAGRANDPARENT’?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

04. WHAT HAS YOUR REACTION ONCE THERE HAS TIME FOR THE NEHS TO ”SINK IN"?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

65. How HAVE YOUR FRIENDS REACTa) TO TIE NEWS?

 

 

 

 

187

PAGE 18 SUBJECT #

66. DID YOU IIAVE GOOD RELATIONSHIPS HITH YOLR OHN GRANDPARENTS?
IF SO, HHAT SPECIAL THINGS DO You RB‘IEMBER ABOUT YOLR RELATIONSHIPS?
(PLEASE INDICATE HHETHER THE MEMORIES ARE OF YOUR MOTIER'S MOTHER.
MOTIER’S FATTER. FATHER’S MOTHER OR FATHER’S FATHER.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

188

PAGE 19 SUBJECT #

62. PLEASE ADD ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENTS THAT YOU COULD OFFER
CONCERNING YOUR FEELINGS ABOUT GRANDPARENTHOOD. ARE THERE
ANY QUESTIONS THAT YOU THINK SHOULD HAVE BEEN ASKED BUT HEREN’T?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

189

PAGE 20 SUBJECT #

W

TIE INFORMATIG‘! REQUESTED (IN THIS PAGE WILL BE USED TO REPORT TI‘E GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF TIE AWLTS IN THIS STUDY. ONLY GROUP RESULTS WILL BE
PUBLISHED AND THE IDENTITY 0F INDIVIIIJAL SUBJECTS REMAINS AIDNYI’OUS. ALL
INFW‘IATIG‘I PROVIDED (N THIS PAGE WILL BE KEPT STRICTLY CCNFIDB‘ITIAL.

AGE:

Sac

OCCUPATION:

ETINIC GROUP:

WILL THIS GRANDCHILD BE THE CHILD OF YOUR:
( ) BIOLOGICAL CHILD

( ) ADOPTEID CHILD

( ) STEPCHILD

WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT MARITAL STATUS:
() MARRIED

() DIVORCE)

() WIDOWED

() SINGLE

() SEPARATEID

PLEASE CIRCLE THE HIGFEST GRADE LEVEL THAT YOU HAVE C(NPLETED:

 

GRADE SCHOOL 5 6 7 8
HIGH SCHOOL 9 10 ll 12
COLLEGE 1.3 14 15 16 DEGREE:
GRADUATE WORK 17 18 19 20 DEGREE:

 

190

PAGE 21 SUBJECT #

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING INCOYLE GROUPS BEST DESCRIBES YOUR FAMILY’S INCOWE?
( ) UNDER $5,(II)

( ) $5,(IIJ - SIOIIII)

( ) $10,(IIJ - $15,011

( ) $15AIIJ - $20,011

( ) OVER $ZO,CID

AT THE TIME OF BIRTH, HOW FAR WILL YOU LIVE FROI YOLR GRANDCHILD?
( ) IN THE SAME HOUSEHOLD

( ) WITHIN WALKING DISTANCE

( ) WITHIN DAILY DRIVING DISTANCE

( ) OVER 100 MILES AWAY

( ) OVER 101) MILES AWAY

PLEASE LIST THE AGE; SEQ AND MARITAL STATUS OF ALL YOUR CHILDREN.

AGE SEX MARITALDIADIS

 

HOW OLD WERE YOU WHEN YOU FIRST GOT MARRIED? ’
HOW OLD WERE YOU WHEN YOU HAD YOUR FIRST CHILD?

 

191

EARRA PAGES FOR LONG ANSWERS SUBJECT #
(PAGE 22)

ADDITION To QUESTION #

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

192

EXTRA PAGES FOR LONG ANSWERS SUBJECT #
(PAGE 23)

ADDITION TO QUESTION #

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1173

”no I l C

GRANDMOTHER'S POSTNATAL QUESTIONNAIRE

NOTE: THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IS TO BE FILLED OUT AFTER THE BIRTH OF YOUR GRANDCHILD

DIRECTIO‘IS: THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONNAIRE Is ABOUT YOUR ATTITUDES TOWARD
GRANDPARENan NOW THAT YOU HAVE BECOME A GRANmOTHER. PLEASE FILL OUT
THE QLESTIONNAIRE INDIVIDUALLY, GRANDMOTHERS AND GRANDFATHERS OFTEN HAVE
DIFFERENT REACTIONS TO BECO‘IING GRANDPARENTS! READ EACH ITBM CAREFULLY AND
TEEN ANSWER. THE FIRST PART OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE CONSISTS OF MULTIPLE-
CHOICE ITEMS. PLEASE PLACE AN "X” IN THE Box THAT BEST DESCRIBES YQLR
FEELINGS. THE SECOND PART OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE OONSISTS OF A GROUP OF
QUESTIONS THAT ASK YOU To WRITE IN YOIR INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE.

ALL THE INFORMATION IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE IS CONFIDENTIAL. IT WILL ONLY BE
HANDLED BY THE RESEARCH STAFF AND NO NAMES WILL BE ATTACHED.

WHEN YOU HAVE COMPLETED THIS QUESTIONNAIRE PLEASE MAIL IT IN THE BUSINESS
REPLY ENVELOPE.

 

ubject I.D.

 

(1-3)
Card No. 01 Date

_—

(4-5) (6-11)

Type 4
(12)

 

 

 

19h

DRAW

GRANDFATHER'S POSTNATAL QUESTIONNAIRE

NOTE: THIS QUESTIONNAIRE IS TO BE FILLED OUT AFTER THE BIRTH OF YOUR GRANDCHILD

DIRECTIONS: THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONNAIRE IS ABOUT YOUR ATTITUDES TOWARD
GRANDPARENTHOOD NOW THAT YOU HAVE BECOME A GRANDFATHER. PLEASE FILL OUT
THE QUESTIONNAIRE INDIVIDUALLY, GRANDFATHERS AND GRANDMOTTERS OFTEN HAVE
DIFFERENT REACTIONS TO BECOMING GRANDPARENTS! READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY
AND THEN ANSWER. THE FIRST PART OF THE QUESTIONIAIRE CONSISTS OF
MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS. PLEASE PLACE AN "X" IN THE Box THAT BEST DESCRIBES
YOUR FEELINGS. THE SECOND PART OF THE QUESTIONIAIRE CONSISTS OF A GROIP
OF QUESTIONS THAT ASK YOU TO WRITE IN YOUR INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE.

ALL THE INFORMATION IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE IS CONFIDENTIAL. IT WILL ONLY BE
HANDLED BY THE RESEARCH STAFF AND NO NAMES WILL BE ATTACHED.

WHEN YOU HAVE CCFPLETED THIS QUESTIONNAIRE PLEASE MAIL IT IN THE BUSINESS REPLY

ENVELOPE .

 

 

Subject I.D.
(1-3)
Card No. 01 Date
(4—5) (6-11)
Type 3
(12)

 

 

 

195

PAGE 1 SUBJECT #

PLEASE INDICATE WHETHER YGJ STRG‘GLY AGREE; AGREE; DISAGREE; (I? STROMSLY

DISAGREE WITH EACH OF TI—E STATEMENTS BELOW BY PLACING AN "X” IN THE

APPROPRIATE BOX .

1.

THIS GRANDCHILD IS IMPORTANT TO ME BECAUSE HE OR SHE WILL BE CARRYING
ON THE FAMILY LINE. (13)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARENTS SHOULD MAINTAIN A CONSTANT INTEREST IN THEIR GRANDCHILDREN.
BUT SHOULD ALSO BE CAREFUL TO LEAVE PARENTING STRICTLY TO THE PARENTS.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (14)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I THINK THAT I WILL FEEL YOUNG AGAIN TTROUGH MY GRANDCHILD.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (15>
() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

196

PAGE 2 SUBJECT # __

A.

TEE GRANDPARENT AND GRANDCHILD SHOULD BOTH GET FUN OUT OF THEIR
RELATIONSHIP. (16)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I PLAN TO SET MONEY ASIDE ESPECIALLY FOR MY GRANDCHILD.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (17)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I FEEL THAT I WILL BE A BETTER GRANDPARENT THAN I WAS A PARENT.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (18)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IF THE CHILDREN REQUEST HELP IN CARING FOR THE GRANDCHILD ON A REGULAR
BASIS IT IS THE GRANDPARENT’S OBLIGATION TO HELP OUT. (I9)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

197

PAGE 3 SUBJECT #

8.

10.

l EXPECT THAT BECCNIMS A GRANDPARENT WILL HAVE LITTLE EFFECT ON MY LIFE.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (20)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARBTTS SHOULD VISIT THEIR GRANDCHILD FREQUENTLY BUT SHOULD NOT
OFFER ADVICE ON CHILDREARING. (21)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARENTHOOD WILL BE A SOURCE OF SATISFACTION SINCE MY GRANDCHILD
WILL BE ABLE TO ACCOMPLISH THAT WHICH MY CHILDREN AND I HAVE NOT.
(22)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

A GRANDPARENT USUALLY HAS LITTLE CONTACT WITH THE GRANDCHILD EXCEPT
ON SPECIAL HOLIDAYS OR BIRTHDAYS. <23)
()hmwmg

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

198

PAGE A SUBJECT #

12. I REALLY DON’T HAVE MJCH TIME TO DEVOTE TO BEING A GRANDPARENT.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (24)
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

13. IF BOTH PARaTTS WORK THEN ONE OF TIE GRANDPARENTS SHOULD ASSLME
THE CARETAKING OF TIE CHILD. (25)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

114. THE GRAhDPAREJWT-GRANDCHILD RELATIONSHIP SHOULD BE CHARACTERIZED BY
INFORMALITY AND PLAYFULNESS. (26)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE
( ) AGREE
( ) DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

15. AS A GRANDPARENT I WILL HELP OUT IN FAMILY EMERGENCIES.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (27)
() AGREE
() DISAGREE
( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

199

 

PAGE 5 SUBJECT #

16.

18.

19.

ONE OF TIE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT HAVING GRANDCHILDREN Is THAT
THEY PROVIDE ME WITH A WAY TO SEE MY BLOOD LINE CARRIED ON FOR
ANOTHER GENERATION. (23)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I PLAN TO TAKE MY GRANDCHILDREN ON VACATIONS WHEN THEY ARE OLDER.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (29)
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

LIFE WOULD BE VERY LONELY FOR ME IF I NEVER HAD GRANDCHILDREN.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (30)
() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

AS TIEY GROW OLDER I EXPECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN ON THEIR
PERSONAL PROBLB48. (31)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

200

PAGE 6 SUBJECT #

20.

22.

GOING TO VISIT A FRIEND FOR A HOLIDAY IS MORE ENJOYABLE THAN
SPENDING HOLIDAYS WITH ONE's FAMILY. (32)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I THINK THAT I SHOULD BE ABLE TO GIVE MY GRANDCHILD WHATEVER I CAN
AND NOT BE WORRIE) ABOUT SPOILING HIM OR HER. <33)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

As THEY GROW OLDER I E<PECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN REGARDING WORK.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (34)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

I FEEL THAT I SHOULD DO WHAT IS MORALLY RIGHT TO SET A GOOD EXAMPLE
FOR MY GRANDCHILD. <35)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

201

PAGE 7 SUBJECT #

2‘4.

25.

26.

OTE OF TIE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS ABOUT HAVING GRANDCHILDREN FOR ME
IS THAT TIEY WILL MAKE ME FEEL YOUNG AGAIN. (36)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

THE GREATEST HAPPINESS IS FOUND IN A FAMILY WHERE ALL MEMBERS WORK
TOGETHER As A GROUP. (37)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

AS THEY GROW OLDER I EXPECT TO ADVISE MY GRANDCHILDREN REGARDING RELIGION.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (38)

() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

THE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT HAVING GRANDCHILDREN FOR ME IS THAT
THEY WILL BRING A DEEP SENSE OF ENOTIONAL SATISFACTION TO MY LIFE.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (39)

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

202

 

PAGE 8 SUBJECT #

28.

30.

31.

OWE OF THE POST IMPORTANT THINGS THAT I WANT FROM MY GRANDCHILDREN
IS FOR THEM TO ”RESPECT THEIR ELDERS". (40)

( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IT IS IMPORTANT FOR GRAIDPARENTS TO LIVE IN A CLOSE GEOGRAPHICAL
LOCATION TO THEIR GRANDCHILDREN. (AI)
( ) STRONGLY AGREE

( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

GRANDPARENTS SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN THE DAILY LIVES OF THEIR GRANDCHILDREN.
( ) STRONGLY AGREE (42)

() AGREE

() DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

IT IS DIFFICULT TO THINK OF MYSELF AS A GRANDPARENT.

( ) STRONGLY AGREE (43>
( ) AGREE

( ) DISAGREE

( ) STRONGLY DISAGREE

203

PAGE 9 SUBJECT # ______

PLEASE PLACE AN "X" IN THE Box THAT YOU FEELS BEST ANSWERS THE
QUESTION.

32. WHEN I THINK ABOUT THE AGE THAT I EXPECTED TO BE WHEN I BECAME
A GRANDPARENT I REALIZE THAT I BECAME ONE: (44)

( ) SOONER THAN I HAD EXPECTED
( ) AT ABOUT THE TIME I HAD EXPECTED
( ) LATER THAN I HAD EXPECTED

33. 1 CONSIDER MYSELF TO BE:
( ) YOUNG (45)
( ) MIDDLE-AGED
( ) OLD

3A. AS A GRANDPARENT I EXPECT TO PROVIDE GIFTS FOR MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES ___ - <46)
( ) NO

 

 

IF YES:
A. HOW OFTEN WILL YOU BE PROVIDING
GIFTS?

 

 

 

8. WHAT KINDS OF GIFTS DO YOU PLAN
TO PROVIDE?

 

 

 

 

 

20h

PAGE 10 SUBJECT #

35. I PLAN TO BABYSIT WITH MY GRANDCHILD.
() YES (47)
() NO {V

IF YES:

 

 

HOW OFTEN DO YOU PLAN TO BABYSIT?

 

 

 

 

 

 

36. I EXPECT TO ENGAGE IN PINE RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES (SUCH AS READING
STORIES AND PLAYING GAMES) WITH MY GRANDCHILD.

( ) YES (48)
()NO 9

IF YES:

 

 

A. HOW OFTEN WILL YOU BE‘ENGAGED IN
THIS TYPE OF ACTIVITY?

 

 

 

B. WHAT TYPES OF ACTIVITIES DO YOU
PLAN TO DO WITH YOUR GRANDCHILD?

 

 

 

 

 

 

205

PAGE 11 SUBJECT #

 

37. I WILL SPONTANEOUSLY DROP-IN TO VISIT MY GRANDCHILD.
( ) YES

(49)
( ) IL) ;I‘

IF YES:

 

 

HOW OFTEN Do YOU THINK YOU
WILL DROP-IN TO VISIT?

 

 

 

 

 

38. ONE OF MY ACTIVITIES WITH MY GRANDCHILD WILL BE TO RELATE FAMILY

 

HISTORY. (50)
( ) YES
( ) II) :;1’

IF YES:

HOW OFTEN WILL YOU TELL YOUR GRANDCHILD
ABOUT YOUR FAMILY HISTORY?

 

 

 

 

 

39. AS THEY GROW OLDER I PLAN TO TEACH MY GRANDCHILDREN SPECIAL SKILLS

 

 

(SUCH As SEWING OR CARPENTRY). (51)
( ) YES
( ) It) Slfi

IF YES:

WHAT SKILLS WILL YOU TEACH YOUR GRANDCHILDREN?

 

 

 

206

 

PAGE 12

PLEASE IRITE YOUR ANSNER IN TIE BLANK NEXT TO EACH QJESTIGW.

‘40.

THAT IS THE BEST AGE FOR A MAN TO BE WEN HE GETS MARRIED?
(52-53)

WHAT IS TIE BEST AGE FOR A WOMAN To BE WEN STE GETS MARRIED?
(SA-55)

WHAT Is TIE IDEAL AGE FOR A MAN TO BECOME A FATHER?
(56-57)

WHAT IS TIE IDEAL AGE FOR A KHAN TO BECOME A MOTHER?
(58-59)

WHAT IS THE IDEAL AGE FOR A MAN TO BECOME A GRANDFATHER? (6 )
0-61

WHAT IS THE IDEAL AGE FOR A W TO BECCNE A GRANIMOTHER?
(62-63)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WHEN YOU THINK OF A ’YOUNG’ MAN?
(64-65)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WTEN YOU THINK OF A ’MIDDLE-AGED’ MAN?
(66—67)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WrEN YOU THINK OF AN ’OLD’ MAN?
(68-69)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WIEN YOU THINK OF A 'YOUNG’ WOMAN?
(70-71)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WHEN YOU THINK OF A 'MIDDLE-AGED’ WOMAN?
(72-73)

WHAT AGE COMES TO YOUR MIND WHEN YOU THINK OF AN ’OLD’ WOMAN?
(74-75)

207

PAGE 13

THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ARE ABOUT YOUR OWN REACTIONS TO BECCNING A GRANDPARENT.

52. HOW DID YOU LEARN THAT YOUR GRANDCHILD HAD BEEN BORN? WHO TOLD YOU?

 

 

 

3. WERE YOU AT THE HOSPITAL DURING THE BIRTH OF YOUR GRANDCHILD?

IF SO, COULD YOU DESCRIBE YOUR EXPERIENCES THERE?

 

 

 

 

 

5A. HAVE YOU SEEN YOUR GRANDCHILD YET? IF YOU HAVE, HOW OLD WAS YOUR
GRANDCHILD WHEN YOU FIRST SAW HIM OR HER?

 

 

55. DID YOU STAY WITH THE PARENTS AND BABY AFTER THE BIRTH?
IF SO,INNILONG DID YOU STAY?

 

 

56. DID YOU HELP OUT IN ANY WAY AFTER THE BABY WAS BORN?

IF SO, WHAT DID YOU DO TO HELP OUT?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2CW3

PAGE 1A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

57. WHAT WAS YOUR FIRST REACTION WHEN YOU FOUID OUT YOU WERE A GRANDPARENT?
58. HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT THE NAME THAT WAS GIVEN TO YOUR GRANDCHILD?
59. IS THE BABY THE SEX YOU HAD MOPED IT WOULD BE?
60. HOW OFTEN DO YOU SEE YOUR GRANDCHILD? HOW OFTEN DO YOU EXPECT TO SEE
HIM OR HER DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE?
61. ARE YOU AS INVOLVED WITH THIS GRANDCHILD AS YOU HAD EXPECTED TO BE?
IF NOT, WHY DO YOU THINK YOU AREN'T AS INVOLVED AS YOU THOUGHT YOU WOULD BE?
62. HAS THIS EXPERIENCE CHANGED YOUR RELATNIUNNP WITH YOUR CHILDREN?

IF SO, WHAT ARE THE CHANGES? ARE THEY POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE CHANGES?

 

 

 

 

 

 

209

PAGE 15
63. HAS THIS EXPERIENCE CHANGED YOUR RELATIONSHIP WITH YOUR SPOUSE?
IF SO, WHAT CHANGES HAVE OCCURRED?

 

 

 

 

ON. HOW HAVE YOLR FRIENDS REACTED TO TIE NEWS THAT YOU ARE NOW A GRANDPARENT?

 

 

65. DO YOU HAVE A GOOD RELATIONSHIP WITH THE OTHER SET OF GRANDPARENTS?
HAVE ANY CONFLICTS OR JEALOUSIES ARISEN OVER YOUR GRANDCHILD?

 

 

 

 

 

ER

. DID YOUR PARENTSI OR IN-LAWS' BEI'AVIORS AS GRANDPARENTS INFLUENCE HOW YOU

FEEL GRANDPARENTS SHOULD ACT? IF SO, HOW?

 

 

 

 

67. WHAT ASPECTS OF GRANDPARENTHOCD DO YOU FIND THE POST SATISFYING?

 

 

 

 

210

 

PAGE 16

68. WHAT ASPECTS OF GRANDPARENTHOOD DO YOU FIND THE LEAST SATISFYING?

 

 

 

 

69. IS BEING A GRANDPARENT DIFFERENT IN ANY WAY FRON WHAT YOU HAD EXPECTED?

 

 

 

 

70. RECENTLY THERE HAS BEEN PUBLICITY ABOUT ”GRANDPARENTS’ RIGHTS”, IN
PARTICULAR, THE RIGHT OF THE GRANDPARENTS TO VISIT AND CORRESPOND WITH
GRANDCHILDREN AFTER THE PARENTS ARE DIVORCED OR AFTER A PARENT DIES
AND THE SPOUSE REMARRIES. WHAT RIGHTS DO YOU FEEL YOU ARE ENTITLED TO
AS A GRANDPARENT?

 

 

 

 

WHAT WOULD BE THE LEAST AMOUNT OF CONTACT WITH A GRANDCHILD THAT YOU FEEL

A GRANDPARENT IS ENTITLED TO?

 

 

 

 

71. HHAT ADVICE WOULD YOU GIVE TO THOSE WHO ARE ABOUT TO BECO‘IE GRANU‘ARENTS

FOR THE FIRST TIME?

 

 

 

 

211

 

 

PAGE 17

72. WHAT SPECIAL MEMORIES OF YOUR OWN GRANDPARENTS HAVE COME TO MIND NOW THAT
YOU ARE A GRANDPARENT?

 

 

 

 

 

 

73. IF YOU LIVE FAR AWAY FROM YOUR GRANDCHILD:

HOW HAS THE DISTANCE AFFECTED YOUR PERCEPTION 0F GRANDPARENTHOOD?

 

 

HHAT CHANGES WOULD YOU EXPECT IF YOUR GRANDCHILD LIVED CLOSER?

 

 

HOW DO YOU MAINTAIN CONTACT WITH YOU? GRANDCHILD?

 

 

 

HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT BEING SEPARATED FROM YOUR GRANDCHILD?

 

 

 

DO YOU HAVE ANYTHING ELSE TO ADD ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF LIVING FAR AWAY FROM YOUR

GRANDCH I LD?

 

 

 

 

 

 

212

PAGE 18

WHAT IS YOUR GRANDCHILD’S BIRTH DATE:

 

WHAT IS YOUR GRANDORILD’S SEX?
( ) 1. MALE
( ) 2. FEMALE

90 YOU KNOW YOUR GRANDCHILD’S WEIGHT AT BIRTH? EOLIIDS QINCES
DO YOU KNOW YOUR GRANDCHILD’S LENGTH AT BIRTH? INCHES

HAS YOUR GRANDCHILD HAD ANY PROLONGED OR GENERAL ILLNESS SINCE BIRTH?
( ) 1. YES
( ) 2. HO
IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM:

 

 

 

HOW FAR DO YOU LIVE FROM YOUR GRANDCHILD?
IN THE SAME HOUSEHOLD

WITHIN WALKING DISTANCE

)
)
) WITHIN DAILY DRIVING DISTANCE
) OVER 100 MILES AWAY
) OVER 1000 MILES AWAY
WHAT ARE THE AGES CF YOUR GRANDCHILD'S PARENTS?

MOTHER:

 

FATHER:

 

WHAT IS THEIR CLRRENT MARITAL STATUS?

( ) 1. MARRIED

( ) 2. DIVORCED
( ) 3. WIDOWED

( ) A. SINGLE

( ) 5. SEPARATED

I \ f‘ I .. .-.-\

2JJ3

 

PAGE 19 SUBJECT #
IAOIRNID HEORNTKN
ALL INFORIATHJICWITHIS PAGE WILL BE KEPT STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL.

WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT MARITAL STATUS:>

( l. MARRIED

( ) 2. DIVORCED
( ) 3. WIDOWED

( ) A. SINGLE

( ) 5. SEPARATED

WHAT IS YOUR AGE?

WHAT IS YOUR RACIAL OR ETHNIC BACKGROUND?

) 1. WHITE
( ) 2. BLACK
( ) 3. HISPANIC
( ) A. AMERICAN INDIAN
( ) 5. ORIENTAL
( ) 6. OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY)

 

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING INCOME GROUPS BEST DESCRIBES YOUR FAMILY'S CURRENT
INCOME?

) l. UNDER $5,000
( ) 2. $5,000 — $10,000

( ) 3. $10,000 - $15,000
( ) A. $15,000 - $20,000
( ) 5. $20,000 - $25,000
( ) 6. $25,000 - $30,000
( ) 7. $30,000 - $35,000
( ) 8. $35,000 - $A0,000
( ) D. (AER NALOOO

WHAT IS YOUR OCCUPATION? (IF YOU ARE RETIRED, WHAT WAS YOUR OCCUPATION
BEFORE RETIREMENT?)

 

21};

Appendix C

Questionnaire Keys

Questionnaire Key:

Question
Number

1

1O

11

12

13

1A

15

Source

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Robertson

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

215

Prenatal Questionnaires

Purpose

Significance of Role:
Biological Renewal and
Continuity

Style of grandparent:
Formal

Significance of Role:
Biological Renewal and
Continuity

Style of grandparent:
Funseeker

Significance of Role:
Resource Person

Significance of Role:
Emotional Self
Fulfillment

Style of grandparent:
Surrogate Parent

Significance of Role:
Remote

Style of grandparent:
Formal

Significance of Role:
Vicarious achievement
through grandchild

Style of grandparent:
Distant Figure

Significance of Role:
Remote

Style of grandparent:
Surrogate Parent

Style of grandparent:
Funseeker

Role Behavior

Question
Number

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
2A
25
26
27
28
29
3O
31

Source

Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Kornhaber

Kornhaber

Original

32 Original

33
3A
35
36
37
38
39

Original

Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson

Robertson

and Woodward

and Woodward

216

Purpose

Role Meaning

Role Behavior

Role Meaning

Role Behavior

Role Meaning

Role Meaning

Role Behavior

Role Meaning

Role Meaning
Role Meaning
Role Behavior
Role Meaning

Role Meaning

Significance of Role
Significance of Role

Degree of comfort
in role

Timing of
grandparenthood:
ExDected life history
Perceived age status
Role behavior, examples
Role behavior, examples

Role behavior, examples

Role behavior, examples

Role behavior, examples

Role behavior, examples

Question
Number

'40
A1
A2
u3
AA
us
us
A7
A8
A9
SO
51
52

53

5A

55

Source

Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,

Original

Original

Original

Original

Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore

Moore

217

Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe

Lowe

Purpose

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms
To determine when a
person begins to include
this event in their

expected life history.

To determine when
expectant parents inform
their own parents of the
impending birth and to
determine how this
information is usually
conveyed.

To determine iJ‘ an
"Intent to Conceive"
Announcement is made
prior to the actual
occurrence of pregnancy.

To determine whether the
expectant grandparent
plans to assume a
helping role in the
family at the time of
birth.

Question
Number

56

57

58

59

6O

61

62

63

Source

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

218

Purpose

To determine whether
plans are made that take
into consideration the
<>tIIeT‘ seat <>f
grandparents.

To determine whether
plans are made that
take into account the
needs and desires of the
married child.

To determine whether
there is a preference
for a grandchild of a
particular sex(relates
to <1ue:3ti<>ns of
biological renewal as a
significant meaning to
grandparenthood).

To determine whether
there is intergener-
ational discussion of
names.

To determine whether
there is intergener-
ational discussion of
names.

To determine whether
there is intergener-
ational discussion of
names.

To determine whether
there is intergener-
ational discussion of
names.

To determine the initial
reeac:ti.orI tLO tIIe
realization that the
grandparental role will
soon be assumed.

Question
Number

6A

65

66

67

Source

Original

Original

Original

Original

219

Purpose

To determine later
reactions to the
realization that the
grandparental role will
soon be assumed.

To assess peer reaction
to the news

To determine whether
expectations for the
grandparental role are
based CHI experiences
wi.tII (Inee's oven
grandparents.

To elicit information on
other aspects of
grandparenting that were
not directly addressed
in the questionnaire.

Question
Number

1

10

11

12

13

1A

15

Source

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Neugarten

Robertson

Questionnaire Key:

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

and

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

Weinstein

220

Postnatal Questionnaires

Purpose

Significance of Role:
Biological Renewal and
Continuity

Style of grandparent:
Formal

Significance of Role:
Biological Renewal and
Continuity

Style of grandparent:
Funseeker

Significance of Role:
Resource Person

Significance of Role:
Emotional Self
Fulfillment

Style of grandparent:
Surrogate Parent

Significance of Role:
Remote

Style of grandparent:
Formal

Significance of Role:
Vicarious achievement
through grandchild

Style of grandparent:
Distant Figure

Significance of Role:
Remote

Style of grandparent:
Surrogate Parent

Style of grandparent:
Funseeker

Role Behavior

Question
Number

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
2A
25
26
27
28
29
3O
31

32

33
3A
35
36
37
38
39

Source

Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Kornhaber
Kornhaber

Original

Original

Original

Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson
Robertson

Robertson

and Woodward

and Woodward

221

Purpose

Role Meaning
Role Behavior
Role Meaning
Role Behavior
Role Meaning
Role Meaning
Role Behavior
Role Meaning
Role Meaning
Role Meaning
Role Behavior
Role Meaning
Role Meaning
Significance of Role
Significance of Role

Degree of comfort in
role

Timing of
grandparenthood:
Expected life history
Perceived age status
Role behavior, examples
Role behavior, examples
Role behavior, examples
Role behavior, examples
Role behavior, examples

Role behavior, examples

Question
Number

no
A1
A2
A3
AA
us
A6
A7
A8
A9
so
51
52

53

5A

55

Source

Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,
Neugarten,

Original

Original

Original

Original

Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore
Moore

Moore

222

Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe
Lowe

Lowe

Purpose

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms

Assessment of age norms
To determine how the
grandparent had learned
of the birth of the

grandchild.

To determine if the
grandparent was at the
hospital at the time of
the birth.

To determine whether the
grandparent has seen the

grandchild yet, and if
so, the age of the
grandchild when first
seen.

To determine whether the
grandparent stayed with
the new parents after
the birth.

Question
Number

56

57

58

59

6O

61

62

63

6A

Source

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

223

Purpose

To determine if the
grandparent helped out
after the birth and if
so what the grandparent
did to help.

To determine the
grandparent's first
reaction to the news
that she/he had become a
grandparent.

To determine the
grandparent's reaction
to the name that was
given to the grandchild.

To determine if the baby
was the sex that the
gr~ar1dx>ar~er1t head
expressed a preference
for.

To assess frequency of
grandparent—grandchild
visits during the first
year.

To determine whether the
person's expectations
for involvement with the
grandchild had been met
so far.

To determine whether any
changes had occurred in
the parent-adult child
relationship due to this
experience.

To determine whether any
changes had occurred in
relationships with one's
spouse due ‘to this
experience.

To assess peer reaction
to the role.

Question
Number

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

Source

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

Original

224

Purpose

To assess the nature of
the *relationship with
the other set of
grandparents.

To determine whether the
subject's parents' or
in-laws' behaviors as
grandparents influenced
the subject's behavior.

To assess what aspects
of grandparenthood are
considered to be the
most satisfying to the
new grandparents.

To assess what aspects
of grandparenthood are
considered to be the
least satisfying to the
new grandparents.

To assess whether
grandparenthood differs
from the person's
expectations for the
role.

To determine if the
subject feels entitled
to certain rights as a
grandparent and if so
what rights these are.

To elicit advice from
the subjects to be
offered to others
becoming grandparents
for the first time.

To assess memories
of one's own grand-
parents.

To determine the sub-
jects perceptions of
how distance affects
the grandparent-
grandchild relationship.

Appendix D

Computer Codebook

Variable

Subject ID

Card A

Date

Type

Computer Codebook:

Column Card Number of
Columns

1-3

u-s

6-11

12

13
1A
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
2A
25
26
27
28
29

3

8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9

225

Prenatal Questions

Missing Key
Values

Odd = Male
Even = Female

Date question-
naire returned

1 = prenatal
grandfather
2 = prenatal
grandmother
3 = postnatal
grandfather
A = postnatal
grandmother

Key for questions
1 to 31:
1 =strong1y
agree
agree
disagree
strongly
disagree
When more than
one response was
checked the
response was
determined by
random assignment
Missing values:
8 = wrote in an
answer
9 = left blank

2
3
u

Variable

018
Q19
Q20
Q21
022
023
QZM
Q25
Q26
Q27
028
Q30
Q31
Q32

Q33

Column Card Number of

30
31
32
33
3a
35
36
37
38
39
no
in
142

u3

“5

Columns
1

1

226

Missing Key

Values
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9
8,9

8,9

1 : Sooner than
expected

2 = At about the
expected time

3 = Later than
expected

Missing Values:

8 = Wrote in that
they never
thought about
it

9 = Left blank

1 = Young

2 = Between Young
and Middle
Aged

3 = Middle Aged

u = Between Old
and Middle
Aged

S = Old

Variable

Q33 (cont)

Q3u
Q35
Q36
Q37
Q38
Q39
ONO
Qu1
ou2
093
OHM
095
096
097
098
099
050
051
Age

Sex

Occupation

Column Card Number of

H6
97
:18
“9
50
51
52-55
56-59
60-63
6u—67
68-71
72-75
76-79
13-16
17-20
21-2u
25-28
29—32
33-3u
35

_36-37

Columns

1 8,9
1 8,9
1 8,9
1 8,9
1 8,9
1 8,9
u u

u u

u s

u a

u I

u u

u a

u u

u n

u i

u u

u a

2 99

1

2 99

227

Missing Key
Values

Missing Values:

8 : Wrote in that
they never
thought about
it

9 = Left blank

Questions 3“ to
39:

1 s
2

ye
no
Missing Values:
8 = Wrote in

answer
9 = Left blank

Age ranges appear
as written on
questionnaire.

'Missing values:
0000 = Left blank
0101 : Wrote in
that s/he was not
certain

0202 : Wrote in
that it depended
on the person's
maturity

99 = Left blank

male

1
2 female

99 = Left blank

Variable

Ethnic
Group

Relation

38

39

to Expectant

Parent

Marital
Status

Grade
Level

Income

Distance
from
grandchild

Number
of
Children

Age of
Youngest
Child

U0

U1-U2

113

UN

“5

u8-u7

Column Card Number of
Columns

1

9

99

99

228

Missing
Values

Key

\OCDO‘U‘ 1:de

—‘

N

\OUU

\OWEUUMJ

White
Black
Hispanic
American
Indian
Oriental
Other
American
Left blank

biological
child
adopted
child
step-child
Left blank

married
divorced
widowed
single
separated
Left blank

Coded highest
Level completed

99

U‘twmfl

Nd

Left blank

under 5,000
5,000—10,000
10,000—1S,OOO
1S,OOO-20,000
over 20,000

Same house

Walking

distance
Daily driving
distance

Over 100
miles

Over 1000
miles

Left blank

Variable

Age of
Oldest
Child

Age of
Expectant
Parent

Sex of
Expectant
Parent

Marital
Status

of
Expectant
Parent

Subject's
Age at
Marriage

Subject's
Age at
Birth of
First Child

Lineage

052

u8—u9

50-51

52

53

59-55

56-57

58

13-111

2

Column Card Number of
Columns

2

Missing Key
Values

99

99

99

88,99

99

Male
Female

N
u u

Married
Divorced
Widowed
Single
Separated
Left blank

\OUlszd

99 = Left blank

Missing Values:

88 = No children
step-parent

99 = Left blank

maternal
paternal
both

(2 children

expecting)

tum—8
nun

01 = When I was
a child

02 = When I was
raising my
own child-
ren

When my
children
began to get
married
0“ = During the
pregnancy
When peers
became
grandparents

03

O5

Variable

053A

0538

053C

QSNA

Column Card Number of Missing
Columns Values
06

O7
08
09

99
15 3 1 9 1

z:

\0U'1

16 3 1 9

WNJ

\OUWJ‘:

17 3 1 9

\OU11: WN‘

ELAN—I

230

Key

When I
reached a
particular
age

When I began
filling out
questionnaire
Have not yet
begun to
imagine it
Other response
Left blank

When parents-
to be found
out

Within 1st
trimester

On a particular
occasion or
date

At a particu-
lar age

Other response
Left blank

Phone call
Written message
Given a
symbolic gift
Told in person
Other response
Left blank

Father-to-be
Mother-to-be
Both expectant
parents

Spouse

Other person
Left blank

Yes

No

Don't know
Pregnancy was
not planned
Left blank

Variable Column Card Number of Missing Key
Columns Values
0598 19 3 1 9 1 = Directly told
of plans
2 = Stated that
birth control
not being used
3 = Stated that
they were
having fertility
problems
9 = Implied an
interest in
babies
Other response
Not applicable
Left blank

\DO‘U'1
II II II

055 20 3 1 9 Yes

No

If needed or
emergency
Don‘t know

Left blank

WNH
II II II

\01':
II II

056 21 3 1 9 Yes

No

Perhaps

Other response

Left blank

\1:) .l=? \.A) r\) -‘
II II II II II

057 22 3 1 9 Yes

No

Spouse has

Not in terms
of specifics
Other response

Left blank

snow—9
II M II n

\OU'I
II II

058A 23 3 1 9 Yes, for a girl
Yes, for a boy
No preference
Yes, for a boy
and a girl

Left blank

KW“);
II II II II

\0
II

0588 2A 3 1 9 Yes, for a girl
Yes, for a boy
No preference
Yes, for a boy
and a girl

- Left blank

.82: kth f‘\) -‘

\l)
I

231

Variable

060

061A

0618

062A

062A

063

06k

065

Column

25

26

27

28

29

3O

31

32

Card

Number of Missing

Columns

1

232

Values

9

01': N—0 \OWNJ \OUUN‘ \OC DUN-i \OUJN-J

\OkfitWN—O \OU‘BUJNJ

xowzuum-a

Key

Yes

No

Other response
Left blank

Yes

No

General sugg-
stions but
no specifics

Other response

Left blank

Yes

No

Other response
Left blank

Yes

No

Other response
Left blank

Yes

No

For some
children

but not for
all

Other response
Left blank

Positive
Neutral
Negative

Mixed

Other reaction
Left blank

Positive
Neutral
Negative

Mixed

Other reaction
Left blank

Positive
Neutral
Negative

Mixed

Other reaction
Left blank

Computer Codebook: Postnatal Questions

Variable Column Card Number of Missing Key
Columns Values
Subject ID 1-3 u 3 Odd = Male
Even = Female
Card # fl-S u 2
Date 6-11 u 6 Date question-
nire returned
Type 12 u 1 1 = prenatal
grandfather
2 = prenatal
grandmother
3 = postnatal
grandfather
u = postnatal
grandmother
Q1 13 u 1 8,9 Key for questions
1 to 31:
02 1“ u 1 8,9 1 =strongly
agree
03 15 u 1 8,9 2 : agree
3 = disagree
09 16 u 1 8,9 N = strongly
disagree
05 17 u 1 8,9 When more than
one response was
06 18 U 1 8,9 checked the
response was
07 19 u 1 8,9 determined by
random assignment
08 20 u 1 8,9 Missing values:
8 = wrote in an
09 21 u 1 8,9 answer
9 = left blank
Q10 22 A 1 8,9
011 23 u 1 8,9
012 211 u 1 8,9
Q13 25 u 1 8,9
019 26 u 1 8,9
015 27 N 1 8,9
016 28 u 1 8,9
017 29 u 1 8,9

233

Variable Column Card Number of Missing Key

Columns Values
Q18 30 u 1 8,9
019 31 u 1 8,9
020 32 A 1 8,9
021 33 u 1 8.9
022 314 u 1 8,9
023 35 u 1 8.9
02u 36 u 1 8,9
025 37 u 1 8,9
026 38 u 1 8.9
027 39 u 1 3.9
028 no u 1 8,9
030 H1 u 1 8,9
Q31 142 u 1 8,9
032 “3 u 1 8,9 1 = Sooner than
expected

2 = At about the
expected time

3 = Later than
expected

Missing Values:

8 = Wrote in that
they never
thought about
it

9 = Left blank

Q33 “5 U 1 8,9 1 : Young

2 : Between Young
and Middle
Aged

3 = Middle Aged

U = Between Old
and Middle
Aged

5 = Old

234

Variable Column Card Number of
Columns
033 (cont)
Q3“ 116 11 1
035 “7 u 1
036 “8 U 1
037 “9 u 1
038 50 u 1
039 51 A 1
090 52-55 9 n
081 56-59 a u
Qu2 60-63 u u
093 69-67 N u
0““ 68-71 A u
095 72-75 9 u
096 76-79 9 u
097 13-16 5 H
098 17-20 5 u
099 21-2fl 5 u
050 25-28 5 u
051 29-32 5 u
Grandchild 33-38 5 6
Birthdate
Grandchild 39 5 1
Sex
Birthweight NO-U3 5 u

235

Missing
Values

999999

9999

Key

Missing Values:

8 = Wrote in that
they never
thought about
it

9 = Left blank

Questions 3“ to
39:

1 s
2

ye
no

Missing Values:

8 = Wrote in
answer

9 = Left blank

Age ranges appear
as written on
questionnaire.

'Missing values:
0000 = Left blank
0101 = Wrote in
that s/he was not
certain

0202 = Wrote in
that it depended
on the person's
maturity

999999 = Left blank

1 = Male
2 = Female
9 = Left blank

9999 = Left blank

Variable Column Card Number of

Length at “u-“7
Birth

Prolonged 98
Illness

Distance “9
from
grandchild

Age of 50-51
grandchild's
mother

Age of 52-53
grandchild's
father

Marital 5“
status of
grandchild's
parents

Marital 55
status of
grandparent

Grandparent 56-57
Age

Race/Ethnic 58
Group

5

Columns Values

N 9999

1 9

1 9

2 99

2 99

1 9

1 9

2 99

1 9

236

Missing Key

Allows for one
decimal point,

981

9999

\O N -‘
II II II II II II

\OU‘IJ: w N—e

99

\OOUWZLAJN—fi

\O \OO‘szNJ

\OO‘U1BwN—a

22.5 inches
= Left blank

Yes
No
Left blank

Same house
Within walking
distance

Within daily
driving distance
Over 100 miles
Over 1000 miles
Left blank

Left blank

Left blank

Married
Divorced
Widowed
Single
Separated
Other

Left blank

Married
Divorced
Widowed
Single
Separated
Other

Left blank

Left blank

White

Black

Hispanic
American Indian
Oriental

Other

Left blank

Variable

Family
Income

Occupation

052A

0528

053

059A

Column Card Number of

59-60

61-62
13

15

Columns

237

Missing Key

Values

99

O‘KfiBWN-J \OZWN-‘i

\O wN—A \D ‘1

\O ANN—A

under 5,000
5,000-10,000
10,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
20,000—25,000
25,000-30,000
30,000-35.000
35,ooo-uo,ooo
over “0,000

Left blank

At hospital
Phone call
Told in person
Other

Left blank

New mother
New father
Both new parents
Spouse

Other person
Saw or heard
baby being
born

Cannot be
determined
Left blank

Yes

No

Cannot be
determined
Left blank

Yes

No

Cannot be

determined
Left blank

Variable

0598

056

057

058

059

060A

Column Card Number of

17-18

19

20

21

22

23

6

Columns

2

238

Missing Key

Values

99

sozwm-a \OWNJ VDLAJNd

\O Uni“)-a

\O (DNONmth-J

1 day or less
Within 1st week
Within 1st month
Within 2nd month
Within 3rd month
Within Ath month
Within 5th month
Within 6th month
Between 6 and

9 months

Between 9 and

12 months

After 1 year

Not applicable
Left blank

Yes

No

Other response
Left blank

Positive reaction
Negative reaction
Other reaction
Left blank

Positive reaction
Neutral reaction
Negative reaction
Other reaction
Left blank

Yes
No
Did not have
a preference

= Left blank

Daily

3-6 times/week
1-2 times/week
1-2 times/month
Bimonthly
Quarterly

Other response
Has not seen
grandchild yet

= Left blank

Variable

0608

061

062A

062B

Q63

069

Column Card Number of
Columns

29-25

26

27

28

29

3O

6

2

239

9

Missing Key

Values

«is «Arc-a \ouaw-a so

\OEWNd

\OUWtUJNfl

Daily

3-6 times/week
1-2 times/week
1-2 times/month
Bimonthly
Quarterly
Twice/year
Once/year

Do not plan

to see grand-
hild 1st year
Other

Left blank

Yes

No

Did not have
expectations
in regard to
involvement
Cannot be
determined
Left blank

Yes

No

Other

Left blank

Positive changes
Negative changes
Both positive
and negative
changes

Not applicable
Left blank

Yes

No

Other response
Not applicable
Left blank

Positive
Neutral
Negative
Mixed
Other

Left blank

Variable

065A

0658

066

067

068

Column Card Number of

31

32

33

3“

35

Columns

1

240

Missing
Values

9

Key

\OU‘EWN‘ \O B WN‘ \O 5' LAN—D

an.

\OU11‘: u: N

Yes

No

No other
grandparents

= Cannot be

determined
Left blank

Yes

No

No other
grandparents

= Cannot be

determined

= Left blank

Yes

No

To some extent
Not sure

Other

Left blank

Subject lists

a satisfying
aspect of
grandparenthood
Subject does

not list a
satisfying

aspect of
grandparenthood
Subject indicates
uncertainty about
the most satis-
ying aspect

Left blank

Not being with
grandchild often
enough

Worry about

the grandchild

= Particular

infant behaviors
There are none
Other response
Left blank

Variable

069

070A

0708

071

Column Card Number of

36

37

38

39

Columns

1

241

Missing
Values

9

Key

Yes

No

Did not have

any expectations
Left blank

\0 Cum--
I:

Yes

No

Other

Left blank

\DLAJN—A
II II II II

...n
I

- Weekly or more
frequently

= Every other

week

Monthly

2-u times/year

1 time/year

Don't know

Other response

Not entitled to

any contact

Left blank

N

o mfiomzw
u u n I: II n

_;
II

Yes, subject
offers advice
2 : No, subject
does not
offer advice
9 = Left blank

Appendix E

Prenatal and Postnatal Reliabilities

Postnatal Reliabilities:

Question 52A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 52B

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 53
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Question 54A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 5MB

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 56
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 57
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 58
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 59
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Question 60A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

COED OOCD COED COO! 0003 now now CCU) COED

0003

21111

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Open-Ended Questions

.978
.978
1.00

.868
.928
.909

.978
1.00

.978

1.00
1.00
1.00

.936
09811
.952

.939
.897
.957

1.00
0696
.696

Question 608

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 61
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Question 62A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 628

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 63A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 638

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 65A

Coder A and Coder
Coder A and Coder
Coder B and Coder

Question 658

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 66
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 67
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

now now COO! 0013?) noun noon 00111 now now

0001

245

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

.750
.805
.7fl5

.819
.89“
.778

.9116
.963
.91-11-1

.978
1.00

.978

.870
.877
.808

.784
.7u2
.790

.853
.931
.767

.799
.803
.686

.905
.88”
.790

.728
.833
.795

Question 68
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 69
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 70A

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 708

Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Question 71
Coder A and
Coder A and
Coder B and

Those questions (prenatal questions:

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

Coder
Coder
Coder

noon OOCU 0003 0003

COED

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

Kappa
Kappa
Kappa

.937
.953
.922

.865
.828
.958

.867
.787
.878

.898
.860
.950

.969
.968
.937

53A,

538, 64, 65) for which the mean reliability

between raters remained below
revision were not categorized.

2N6

.7 after

List of References

REFERENCES

Abraham, K. (1955). Some remarks on the role of
grandparents in the psychology of neuroses. In HAL
Abraham (Edd, Clinical papers and essays lg
psychoanalysis. London: The Hogarth Press.
(Original work published 1913).

Albrecht, R. (1962). The role of older peOple in family
rituals. In C. Tibbitts and W. Donahue (Eds.), Social
and psychological aspects 3; aging: Aging around the
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