The current study focuses attention on a previously understudied topic - transportation deprivation in women offenders. This is a timely and important endeavor given the scale of mass incarceration, number of women on probation and parole, and the numerous barriers women with a criminal record face. The study utilizes a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design of transportation access and its causes and effects on recidivism for 402 women on probation and parole.The study has two phases. The quantitative, first phase, of this project combines multiple indicators of transportation access (e.g., time, cost, stress related to travel) into one composite access score; tests hypotheses linking resources to transportation access; and tests for direct and moderating effects of transportation access on probation/parole violations and recidivism. Quantitative analyses are able to identify associations between transportation resources, transportation access, criminogenic needs, and recidivism; however, the analyses raised questions about why or why not associations were present. To address these questions, a second phase, a qualitative component, undertook analyses to increase understanding of (1) women's experiences and feelings (e.g., any stress, ease) about getting around while under supervision, (2) their strategies for increasing transportation resources and access, (3)the role of transportation access in attending, or missing, required/needed programming and supervision appointments, and (4) whether and how supervision violations or new offenses resulted from lack of transportation access. The follow-up sample included 75 women. The findings of the quantitative analysis found, first, the scope of transportation deprivation was found to be quite extensive; women reported low levels of individual and community level resources. Second, an instrument (a composite score) was found to adequately capture women's level of transportation access. Third, several resources were found to predict transportation access: owning or leasing a vehicle, having a valid driver's license, having difficulty walking, having poor vision, having friends who could help with transportation needs, and living in an area with a low community accessibility score. Fourth, transportation access was found to lower the odds of experiencing recidivism events and the time until these events occurred. Fifth, the findings indicate that transportation access is especially important for women with certain criminogenic needs - those with antisocial friends, histories of child maltreatment, greater family support and greater self-efficacy.The findings of the qualitative analysis found that, first, women experience one to ten types of transportation problems such as difficulty arranging rides, using inadequate bus services and relying on unreliable people for transportation help. Second, women were found to utilize several resources not previously known such as using agency-provided bus tokens or benefitting from having an understanding and non-punitive supervision agent. Third, nine previously unrecognized strategies were identified such as planning in advance for appointments, building extensive support networks and making use of several modes of transportation. Fourth, the relationship between transportation access and recidivism was found to be moderately strong.Overall, the findings indicate that training parole and probation agents to recognize and respond to women's transportation needs will be beneficial. Similarly, transit authorities can benefit from understanding the limitations of their services for women offenders.
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