A MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE CURRICULA IN THE PREPARATORY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC Thesis Tor TIN Degree of DH. D. _‘ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ~ ‘ Gama! A. Elashhab 1966 I III III II II IIIIIII meme 1293 01093 0349 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Model for the DeVelopment of Science Curricula In the PreparatOry and Secondary Schools of the United Arab Republic presented bg Gamal A. Elashhab has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Curriculum L4 flaw ”*4'91/ jor rofessor Date April 25. 1966 0-169 ABSTRACT A MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE CURRICULA IN THE PREPARATORY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC by Gamal Ao Elashhab The purpose of this study was to build a model for the development of science curricula in the preparatory and secondary schools of the U.A.,Ro The study has focused on developing a rationale for decision making in curricu- lum improvemento This rationale has been developed through the examination of three major areas: (1) the culture and social problems, (2) the learning process and the learners, and (3) the nature and structure of science--the examined discipline° The implications of such examinations to science curriculum development were expressed in two catem gories: (l) desirable learning experiences, and (2) desi— rable behavioral outcomeso A set of criteria was developed from literature to guide the following processes; (1) stating objectives, (2) selection of content and learning experiences, (3) organization of learning experiences, and (4) estab- lishing a comprehensive program of evaluationo A set of objectives for teaching science was stated in behavioral termso These objectives illustrate the Gamal Ao Elashhab workability of the proposed criteria in the selection of objectiveso The applicability of the rest of the criteria was demonstrated in screening the current curricula to identify some weaknesseso A model for the development of science curricula in the preparatory and secondary schools was proposed. A period of three years was proposed as necessary for pro- cesses of planning and trial of the new curricula before they are generalized in UvoRo schoolso The study was ended by some recommendations for further studies° A MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE CURRICULA IN THE PREPARATORY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC By ._ IW Gamal ATIElashhab u'x" \“ A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Education 1966 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Dro Troy Lo Stearns, chairman of the advisory committee, the writer expresses deep appreciation for his advice, his help, and his unfailing encouragement through- out this studyo A debt of gratitude is expressed to Dro Stearns also for a sincere interest and guidance during the three years the writer spent in the UOSOAo Dro Stearns' genuine respect and understanding of other nations have contributed a great deal to the writer's philosophy and developmento The writer is very thankful for the significant contributions provided by the other members of the com» mittee: Dro William Jo Walsh, Dro George Meyers, and Dr. Julian Brandouo The writer expresses also a debt of gratitude to Miss Julie Mayer, whose encouragement, help, and criticism have inspired the writer to carry on this worko Thanks are also extended to Miss Janet Mayer and Mrso Juanita Kiesling for editing and typing the final draft, respectivelyo ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 LIST OF TABLESO 0 0 O O 0 O 0 O 0 0 6 O O Q 0 O 0 O 0 LIST OF Chapter Io II, III, ILLUSTRATIONS O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 0 O O 0 O INTRODUCTIONO 0 O O O O O 0 0 O O O O O 0 0 0 The Purpose of the Studyo o o o . o o o o o The Need for the Studyo , o o o o o o o o 0 Design of the Study 0 o o o o o o o o o o . Definition of Terms 0 o o s o o o o . o . 0 Basic Assumptions 0 o o o o o o o s o . , Delimitations of the Studyo o o o o . . o 0 THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC AND ITS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMO 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 O O O O O 0 O 0 Historical Synopsis , o o o o o o o o o o o The Current Scene of the Educational System in the United Arab Republic o o o o o o o A REVIEW OF LITERATUREO o o o o o o o o o o 0 Social Problems and the Curriculumo o o . o The Standard of Livingo o o o o o o o o 0 Population Explosiono o o o o o o o o o 0 Employment, Underemployment, and Unemploymento . o . . o_. o o o o o o , Illiteracyo , o o o o o o o o . o o o o o Psychological Foundations of Curriculum 0 o What We Know about Human Learning 0 o o o The Characteristics of the Egyptian Adolescents o o o o o o o o o o o o . o The Nature and Structure of Science=~ Research on Science Teaching° o e o . . 0 Objectives of Science Teaching in Preparatory and Secondary Schools 0 . 0 Selection of Learning Experiences and Content Placement o o o o o o o o o . . iii Page ii vi mfilmth-‘H I-' KO 13 21 21 22 27 30 34 38 38 50 58 65 68 CONTENTSwaontinued Chapter Research on Methods of Teaching Science . The Process of Evaluating the Student's Development in Science. . . . . . . . . IV. A MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN THE EGYPTIAN PREPARATORY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 Criteria for Formulating Objectives . . . . Emerging Social Beliefs and Values Related to the Objectives . . . . . . . A Suggested List of Objectives for Teaching Science in the Preparatory and Secondary Schools in the U.A.R. . . Criteria for Selection of Content and Learning Experiences, . . . . . . . . . . Criteria for Effective Organization of Learning Experiences, . . . . . . . . . . Criteria for a Program of Evaluation. . . . Summary of Processes Suggested for the Development of the Science Curriculum in the U.A.R. Preparatory and Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SCREENING THE CURRENT SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN THE U.A.R. PREPARATORY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS USING THE DEVELOPED CRITERIA. . . . Screening the Objectives. . . . . . . . . . Screening the Content and Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screening the Evaluation Program. . . . . . VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Studies . . . . APPENDIX IO 0 0 O O 0 O 0 O O 0 0 O O O O 0 0 O 9 O O BIBLIOGRAPHYO O O O O 0 O O O 0 O O O 0 O O O 0 0 0 0 iv Page 74 87 88 89 92 94 97 100 102 106 110 111 113 116 118 125 127 131 LIST OF TABLES Underemployment and Unemployment Between Educated Personnel in the U.A.R. l96l~1963 Percentage Deficit of Targeted Demand to Expected Supply (On the Basis of Existing Education System). . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Interests of the Preparatory School Students 0 O 0 O 0 0 O 0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 Comparative Statistics of Laboratories, in Government Schools (Excluding Commerical Schools and Primary Schools) in Four Years 1957‘19610 o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o 0 An Illustration of Using Tables to Relate Objectives, Learning Experiences, and Evaluation Instruments . . . . . . . . . . V 0 Page 31 33 54 78 104 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page The Growth of Budget for Ministry of Education and the Four Universities. . . . . 12 The Education Ladder in the U.A.R. . . . . . . 15 A Schemata of the Organization of Thought in the Physical Sciences. . . . . . . . . . . . 63 The MOd-el 0 O O 0 0 O 0 O O 0 0 O 0 0 O 0 O O 0 109 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to construct a model for the development of science curriculum in the preparaa tory and secondary schools in the United Arab Republic. The model should serve as a theoretical structure for initiating studies on science curricula in the Republic. The Need for the Study Most of the attempts to improve the science curriculum in the preparatory and secondary schools have resulted in minor development. Some important objectives of teaching science for behavioral changes remained unaccomplished due to one or more of the following factors. 1. National curriculum development committees have viewed science curriculum mainly in terms of sub“ ject matter content. This led to curriculum change by merely adding or eliminating certain areas within subject matter content. The following quo— tation from a paper presented by Eisa at the Fourth Convention of Arab Teachers represents this point of view. 2 Curriculum committees have studied some remarks about the current curriculum and the recommendations of the twenty third Inter- national Convention on Education in Geneva, and compared our curriculum with curricula abroad. They have suggested a plan to develop the cur— rent curriculum in such a way that: (1) To transfer the curriculum of the tenth grade to the preparatory school (7—9th grade) and limit the study of biology in the tenth grade to the study of the human body. (2) To reorganize the physics curriculum in the eleventh and twelfth grades and disc tribute the content on the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades after the adding of elasticity, surface tension. (3) To reorganize the chemistry curriculum in the last two years of the secondary schools and then distribute the content in three grades with addition of plas- tics, radioactivity. . . . (4) To eliminate some of the topics in biology which are not related to the pupil”s life. This means that a radical change is intro- duced. . . .1 This quotation illustrates a prevalent view of the nature of curriculum and curriculum development. In order for the curriculum to bring about beha- vioral change in the learners, it should be viewed in terms of learning experiences rather than subject matter content. 2. With the content oriented view, social, philoso- phical, and psychological foundations have not been seriously considered. When they have been mentioned lAhmed Eisa, et al., "Development of Science Teach— ing in Secondary Schools of U.A.R.," A paper presented in the Fourth Convention of the Arab Teachers in Alexandria, U.A.R., August, 1965, p. 5. (Mimeographed.) 3 in the objectives, they are expressed in broad and imprecise terms which do not help the teacher in selecting learning experiences. This need for clearer objectives was expressed by the faculty of the College of Education in Bin Shams University in their paper presented in the same conference. . . . it is about time to have leaders of science education confer to decide what the main objectives of science education should be without complete reliance upon the transference from countries which differ in their past, pre- sent and future aspirations.l The need for phrasing the objectives in more operational terms which emphasize the behavioral patterns sought was expressed in the eighth recom- mendation of the convention. To phrase the objectives of teaching science in a way which facilitates its translation into attainable behavioral patterns. . . .2 The previous quotations suggest an urgent need to phrase the objectives of science teaching in beha— vioral terms. 3. The previous attempts failed to develop a rationale for decisions made in curriculum improvement. The 1Salah Kotb, et al., "Objectives of Teaching Science," A paper presented to the Fourth Convention of the Arab Teachers in Alexandria, U.A.R., August, 1965, p. 4. (Mimeographed.) 2Recommendation of the Fourth Convention of the Arab Teachers, "Development of Science Teaching in the Arab World," A paper presented to the Fourth Convention of the Arab Teachers, Alexandria, U.A.R., August, l965, p. 4. (Mimeographed.) -.__/ 4 selection of objectives, planning and organization of learning experiences, and planning for evaluation should be based on a definite framework. This framework could be constructed from: (a) examining the culture and the social problems and values, (b) reviewing research on human learning and stu- dies about the learners, (c) examining the nature and structure of the discipline (science). 4. Teachers have always been overlooked as important participants in curriculum development committees. The classroom teacher could contribute effectively in such a committee and should be included in the planning of change. Design of the Study This study is meant to be a synthetic study. This term is defined here in the same way it is defined in Research in the Teaching of Science. Synthetic studies are investigations in which various curricular materials, resourcewuse data, instructional suggestions, references, and aids to teaching are brought together into a unified pattern to be helpful in an educational situation.1 The study aims at building a model for the develop— ment of science curriculum in the preparatory and secondary 1Research in the Teaching of Science. Analysis and Selected Abstracts: 1959:1961. Sfudies completed 1959- 1963 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 3. 5 schools of the U.A.R. The following operational objectives are sought: 1. To examine social problems, values, and beliefs and relate them to science curriculum development. To relate research findings on human learning and on the nature of the learners to science curriculum. To examine the nature and structure of science and to review literature on science teaching. The results of such examination could help in develop- ing a rationale for curriculum development decisions. To develop from the previous three steps a rationale which will be used as a base for a proposed model. This model will include; a. Stating objectives 1) Criteria for the selection of objectives 2) A suggested list of objectives of teaching science in the preparatory and secondary schools b. Selecting learning experiences 1) Definition of learning experiences 2) What criteria should be used to select learning experiences? c. Organizing learning experiences 1) Definition of the term "organizing" 6 2) What are the characteristics of an effective organization? d. Evaluation 1) What is meant by evaluation? 2) Characteristics of a comprehensive evaluation program e. Summary of processes suggested for curriculum development. 5. To screen the current curriculum in view of the rationale developed for the model to define the weaknesses. 6. To recommend to the Ministry of Education an approach for improving science curriculum in the United Arab Republic. Definition of Terms Model: The most general sense of the term model seems to be that of an "ideal type" of structure or process, arrived at by hypothetical reasoning from theoretical premises, which is then used, through comparison with empirical data to analyze such data. In this meaning model seems to be almost identical with theoretical scheme.l Curriculum: Curriculum is defined in terms of the quality of pupil experiences. It is conceived of as the whole of the lTalcott Parsons, "An Approach to Psychological Theory in Terms of the Theory of Action," Psychology: A Study of a Science, ed., Sigmund Koch (New York: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1959), III, p. 695. 7 interacting forces of the total environment provided for pupils by the school and the pupils' experiences in that environment.1 Learning experiences: The term "learning experience" is not the same as the content‘with which a course deals nor the activities performed by the teacher. The term "learning expe- rience" refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react.2 Basic Assumptions 1. "Curriculum study needs theoretical constructs from which hypotheses can be derived and empirically tested with a view in determining, for example, how curriculum content has been established."3 2. A rationale for decisions in curriculum development is urgently needed. It should draw upon informa- tion about society, the learners, the process of learning, and the nature and structure of science. 3. An extensive review of literature in curriculum planning and research in science education in a more advanced country like the United States of lVernon E. Anderson, Principles and Procedures of Curriculum Improvement (New York: The Ronald Press Company, I956), p. 9. 2Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 19637, p. 41. 3John I. Goodlad, "Curriculum Planning and Develop— ment," Review of Educational Research, XXX, No. 3 (June, 1960), 194. 8 America might be helpful if translated to evoke curriculum studies and research in the U.A.R. The author hopes through his position as one of the science curriculum coordinators of the Ministry of Education in the U.A.R. that the workability of the model could be tested which might initiate further studies in science curriculum planning. Delimitations of the Study Due to the limitations of time, the study will be confined to the six operational objectives stated previously. No empirical testing of the workabi— lity of the model would be conducted in this study. The study is not directed toward the selection of subject matter content or its placement in a cer- tain grade. Where this is to be done, it is only to give an example to illustrate a general prin— ciple or a recommendation. Detailed learning experiences are not sought either. They are to be determined by the com- mittees suggested in the model. CHAPTER II THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC AND ITS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Historical Synopsis Egypt is one of the oldest countries in the world. On the banks of the Nile, one of the basic cornerstones of the human civilization was established. Ancient Egyptians had great respect for and much reliance upon education. This great love for education was inherited by the follow— ing generations. It has been with Egyptians since then. Unfortunately, the country has been exposed to several occupations by different foreign troops. The foreign control of the country has often impeded the desire of people to educate their children in the way they wanted. Egypt was exposed to different cultures during the Turkish, French, and finally the British occupations. The most well-known effect of these occupations was a continual denial of the citizens' right to follow their grandparents' line of getting a good education. As Lengyel states: Thus, the Middle East was part of cultural revolution, and this was for several reasons. The bulk of the area had formed the core territory of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. While it had been an effective military machine in its heyday, the empire was always 9 10 distrustful of secular knowledge and anti- intellectual. It scanned any influence that might detract from the belligerent qualities of its fight» ing men with suspicion. The coreland of the Middle East fell into Western hands in the wake of the first World War. It was some of the main exponents of western culture, the French and the British, who ruled over those regions as man— datory powers under the auspices of the League of Nations and "protectors." Barring the usual excep— tions, they deemed it unwise to provide the entire population, mainly Arabs and ethnic minorities with education. Schools were eyenopeners, purveyors of skills that might have rendered the western powers superfluous.l Harby expressed the common doubts about the British seriousness and sincerity in spreading education: . . . after fourteen years from the time it pretended assuming responsibility for spreading elementary edu- cation among the people, no more than ninety three Kuttabs (elementary school) existed in the country which represented an increase of only two kuttabs per year. . . . Furthermore, kuttabs were badly distri— buted and no attempt was made by the British adminis— tration to amend this distribution. The total in Cairo was seventwaive kuttabs compared with eight in Lower Egypt and ten in Upper Egypt.2 Only three secondary schools existed in 1893 after eleven years of occupation.3 The insight given to the educational system by Egyptian scholars who had studied abroad, especially by some nationalistic movement leaders like Mustafa Kamel, led in 1908 to the establishment of lEmil Lengyel, "Educational Revolution in the Middle East," Teachers College Record, LXIV (November, 1962), 99-100. 2Mohammed K. Harby and Elsayed M. Elazzawi, Education in Egypt (U.A.R.) in the 20th Century (Cairo: Government Printifig Offices, 1960T, p. 10. 3Ibid., p. 12. 11 the private Egyptian University along the lines of European universities. After Egypt had its first con- stitution in 1923, many attempts have been made to provide universal free primary education. Most of those attempts have failed due to the lack of seriousness and the British control over the government and the kingdom. In 1952, the Egyptian revolution ousted the king and started a new era of Egyptian history. The revolu- tion gained complete independence for Egypt in 1956. Special care was given to education. This can be illus- trated by the graph showing the growth of the budget of the Ministry of Education and the four universities.l 1United Arab Republic, Documentation Centre for Education, Education in the United Arab Republic, 1962, p. 2. 12 Egyptian pounds (in millions) 60 7? 55 Buhget for Ministry of Education 50 A/ 45 l 40 / D/C 35 fl 30 I\ f H’ 25 20 l 5 ’9 Budget for Four Universities 0\o——e/< 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Fig. l.--The Growth of Budget for Minis- try of Education and the Four Universities 13 The Current Scene of the Educational System in the United Arab Republic Administration Education in the United Arab Republic is a state function. It is financed through the national budget. The government provides free education in all the stages from grade one through the university to all those who prove competent and show personal moti- vation. Universal free compulsory education is pro— vided from age six to age twelve. Because the Ministry of Education plans the educa- tional policy at Cairo, the system is, so far, more centralized than decentralized. National curricula is planned by the Ministry of Education, which provides schools with teachers, supervisors, textbooks, teacher guides, and audio=visual materials. The first fivewyear plan has rendered the estab— lishment of a local government system which is very similar to that of the United States of America. The country is divided into governorates, each of which has its own governor and local government. Now there are twenty-four educational zones. Each educational zone has its own director appointed by the Ministry of Education. The zone has different departments for elementary, preparatory, secondary, and technical instruction.\ Each department has its own superintendent. II. 14 Local educational zones are charged now with some responsibilities which formerly belonged to the Ministry of Education, such as the appointment of elementary school teachers and their promotion, selection of textbooks from the Ministry's alterna— tives, modifying the curricula, and establishing new classes and schools. The trend toward more local control is encouraged and enhanced by the government; nonetheless, it is often impeded by traditions and resistance to change. The structure of education in the United Arab Republic Figure 21 represents a general picture of the structure of education in the U.A.R. lIbid-O 9 pO 40 15 Preparatory Secondary Primary 81x, 9 10 11 '67 {} {}I{} {I {} {} Nursing and Midwifery Sec. , Industrial Prep. Industrial Sec. I“ III Commerc. Prep. Commerc. Sec. [III [III Agric. Prep. Agric. Sec. General Secondary (Scientific) (Science) General Primary' jaPreparatory E! El Faculties I. a (Literary) and Higher E a Institutes (Litera- ture) Prep. Tech. Sch., Girls ' Sec. Domestic Science Practical Prep. Phys. Ed., Teachers Penmanship Sch. General and Rural Teachers Music Ed. Sec. III Social and Health Visitors Sec. Higher Section Higher National Institute (Conservatoire) of Music Prep. Section Sec. Section III-W Prep. Section ,Sec. Section Ballet SchOol Higher Section Al-Azhar Secondar Al—Azhar Prep. Al—Azhar Univer- vsitv Primary Fig. 2.--The Education Ladder in the U.A.R. (Education Documentation Center of U.A.R., April, 1962) 16 A. The general education General education is composed of three general stages: 1. The primary school (six years) The primary school starts from age six and ends with age twelve. About ninety per cent of the children who are six years of age attend schools. Compulsory primary education will be fulfilled at the end of the second five—year plan (1969-1970).1 The emphasis in the primary school is getting children acquainted with their environment. Reading, writing, arithmetic, national history, civics, general science, and physical education are taught. Promotion of students from one grade to the other is secured if the child satisfies the attendance rules. Children may be retained if the teacher claims it necessary. 2. The general preparatory school (three years) This school is an equivalent of the junior high schools in the United States of America. Children who finish primary schools and would like to enroll in the preparatory schools must lHassan Moustapha, "Some Problems of Planning General and Technical Education in the United Arab Republic," A paper presented in a seminar of the Institute of National Planning, No. 298, May, 1963, p. 2. (Mimeo- graphed.) l7 prove scholastically capable by passing the entrance examination prepared by the educa- tional zone to which they belong. Subject matter content is parallel to that found in the primary schools with some emphasis on content which prepares the student for secondary school. A general examination prepared by the educa~ tional zone should be passed by the pupil at the end of the last year of the preparatory school (ninth grade), so he can be awarded the prepara— tory school diploma. Secondary schools Students who get the best grades in the final examination of the preparatory school are admitted to secondary schools. The first offers comprehensive experiences in which all students are taught the same subject matter. Arabic language, national history, civics, religion, English, chemistry, physics, mathematics, physi— cal education, and art are taught. In the second year the student has the choice of pursu- ing one of two branches: (a) science branch-- emphasis is placed upon physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology, or (b) humanities branch-~sociology, philosophy, linguistics, or national history is in focus. Students must 18 pass a national examination at the end of twelfth grade to be awarded the secondary school diploma. 4. Higher education The students who graduate from the science branch in the high schools join either of the science oriented colleges, such as the colleges of medicine, pharmacy, engineering, pure sci- ence, agriculture, veterinary medicine, or dentistry. Those who graduate from the huma- nities branch join colleges of humanities, law, or colleges of business. In most of these colleges students study for four or five years before getting the bachelor's degree. Graduate studies are established and are becoming widely supported in the four universities. B. Technical education The Egyptians were faced after the revolution by the fact that they were too far behind the world economically and educationally. The need for industry was deemed urgent by both specialists in national economic planning and foreign experts. Between 1952 and 1964 about eight hundred factories were established. Many technical schools were built to provide those factories with skilled labor. The person who examines the ladder 19 (Figure 2) might be surprised by the seeing of so much early specialization within the schools. How- ever, one must view the educational system in under- developed countries in the frame of the social progress. Some of the technical schools are: 1. Industrial preparatory and secondary schools 2. Business preparatory and secondary schools 3. Agricultural preparatory and secondary schools 4. Comprehensive technical preparatory and secon- dary schools. Students who receive the diploma of the secondary schools with a satisfactory record are allowed to enroll in higher corresponding institutes, such as the Agriculture High Institute, Industry High Institute, and the like. These institutes empha- size the technical approaches rather than the theoretical. Alazhar The old Islamic university of Alazar was estab~ lished more than a thousand years ago. Formerly the curriculum centered upon Islamic studies and Arabic language. In 1961 an act was passed to modernize this large institute and bring it in line with regular general education. As the figure on page 15 indicates, Alazhar has one more grade added to its preparatory school which makes it four years 20 instead of three. Two more years were added to the secondary schools which makes it five years instead of three. The additions were justified by the fact thatstudents cover the Islamic courses which are not required in the corresponding general public schools. CHAPTER III A REVIEW OF LITERATURE Social Problems and the Curriculum Curriculum experts have always emphasized the need of taking social problems and goals into consideration when planning curricula. This principle has some direct implications to curriculum development. . . . (1) It demands increased attention to the civic and political needs of the nations: to developing new attitudes toward government and law, to concern with effective participation in the political process, to placing national interests and wellcbeing above narrow tribal or local interests. (2) It demands increased attention to the social and personal needs of the nation: to improving the health and well-being of the people, to solving problems of mental and physical health as they arise, to maintaining the individual's selfnrespect and self-confidence in new surroundings, to relating the new cities with the rural communities in a spirit of partnership, to increasing rather than breaking down the respect of different age groups for one another. (3) It demands increased attention to the economic and technological needs of the nation: to selecting and educating qualified individuals for high level positions, to equipping technical and agri- cultural manpower with skills that will produce maxi- mum efficiency in using natural resources, to develop- ing a new spirit of economic innovation and to build- ing new attitudes toward saving, investment and pur— chasing.1 As was mentioned in the first chapter, a conscious effort is lacking on the part of curriculum planners to 1John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck, Education and the Development of Nations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and“ Winston, Inc., I966), pp. 33-34. 21 22 identify the social aims and to use them as one of the foundations of the curriculum. The first part of this chapter will consider some of the social problems and their implications to curriculum development in the U.A.R. The Standard of Living The United Arab Republic is a poor country. According to the economists it falls in the category of underdeveloped countries. A Simple yardstick for measur— “_h..-_-. _~. “He—- ing a country's relative development is the average annual per capita income of its citizens. This index is arrived at by taking its total annual income, as revealed through production figures and other data, and dividing it by the number of individuals of all ages and conditions.1 Using the concept of the income per capita to categorize the countries of the world, one finds that the U.S.A. and Canada and several of the European countries are at the top of the list with average annual per capita incomes between $1,000 and $2,000.2 Hoffmann suggested a border line which would distinguish developed countries from underdeveloped countries: We can safely take a $300 average annual per capita income as the dividing line between the developed and the underdeveloped countries.3 lPaul Hoffmann, "What Is Underdeveloped World?" Education and the Development of Nations, eds., John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966), pp. 33—34. 2Ibid., p. 46. 31bid. 23 The U.A.R. has a low level per capita income of $150.1 The Egyptian natural resources are limited almost to the Nile water and six million acres of cultivatable land. After 1952 the new government was faced by limited natural resources, no forests, vast deserts, few natural sources of power, and negligible discovered raw mineral materials. Bringing about economic growth is one of the main objectives of the country. The government adopted an extensive program of industrialization and agricultural growth. The Aswan High Dam will enable the country to add thirty per cent to its cultivatable land and will provide an amount of electrical power which will cover the whole country. Two fivemyear plans have been started: (1) 1960~l965 first fivewyear plan, and (2) 1965-1970 second fivemyear plan. The main objectives of the plan as expressed by the Institute of National Planning (IONP) are: a. The expansion of output and production and the increase in per capita income at a rate that would lead to doubling the national income by the end of a period of ten years (1960al970). b. Creating an industrial base that would provide for the sustained growth of production to be achieved in the future at ever increasing rates.2 lSalah Elserafy, "Economic Development by Revolution-mThe Case of the U.A.R.," Middle East Journal, XVII, No. 3 (1963), 216wl7. 2I. H. Abdel Rahman and N. Deif, "The Social Aspects of Development Planning in the U.A.R.," Memo No. 76 of the I.O.N.P. (November, 1961), p. l. 24 A summary of social "obstacles" to economic development will help in finding out how a curriculum could serve national economic growth. Mr. Hamza,l the Director of the Institute of National Planning, reviewed these obstacles in a local seminar and placed them in three categories. 1. Population factors \ a. Since economic growth is ordinarily defined as growth in per capita national income, which in turn is defined as the ratio of production to population, it is obvious that trends in popu- 1ation can, mathematically speaking, play as large a role in economic growth as trends in production. (This will be discussed in detail when population growth is reviewed.) b. Population structure is the relative proportion of economically active adults versus children and inactive elderly persons. 2. Institutional factors ..-..-.-v-~ a. Among the institutional forms more generally cited as obstacles to economic development are caste and class systems that freeze individuals in ancestral occupations and reward them on the basis of birth rather than ability or achievement. lM. Hamza, "The Interrelation of Social and Economic Development and the Problem of 'Balance,'" Memo No. 331 by the I.O.N.P. (May, 1963), pp. 5w21. b. 25 One common factor between developed countries is the important role of their educational system. Much of the education is deliberately and strongly oriented towards technological change and economic progress, unlike, for example, the educational systems of medieval European scholasticism or traditional scholasticism. The large extended family impedes the develop= ment of new methods of work and production. 3. Individual factors a. The lack of an entrepreneurial attitude on the part of those individuals who do command a cer- tain amount of resources. They prefer to have their money in land, causing undue inflation of land value, or in foreign investment. Poorer classes may hoard gold coins or store up food. "Achievement motivation" is assumed to highly affect economic growth. Women in the U.A.R. are characterized by a low level of this motive. Much higher status tends to be associated with land ownership, government position, and intelm lectual activity than is enjoyed by the busi- nessman, engineer, mechanic, agronomist, or other persons concerned directly with national production. d. 26 Poor physical capacity due to endemic diseases or malnutrition5affect production. The aforementioned regarding the standard of living and obstacles to economic growth have the following impli~ cations to curriculum development, especially in science: y/l. Desirable learning experiences a. b. Co Learning about natural resources and how to increase them. Conservation energy and energy transformation. Ways science can serve economic growth. Behavioral goals and desirable values and attitudes a. Accepting change as a universal phenomenon and d. readiness to cope with it when it occurs. "The schools of the nation must foster a spirit of innovation in their students—ca desire to try out, to experiment, to create."1 Developing a new attitude of adventuring. "The clerical mentality which finds it most accepm table to seek the security of government office must give way among an increasing number to a willingness to take a chance, to strike out on 2 one's own." Developing the habit of thriftiness and saving. 1Hanson and Brembeck, op. cit., p. 36. 2 Ibid. 27 e. Believing in the free play of intelligence. Functional competence, not caste, class, or family, must become accepted as the only cri- teria of functional worth. ngulation Explosion V The one particular economic variable which seems to grow in Egypt without much effort is population. A crude birth rate of about forty-five per thousand and death rate of about twenty per thousand, manages to give Egypt an annual rate of population increase of 2.5% which adds up to about 28% in a decade.1 It is predicted that in twenty years the population will be multiplied: According to the census taken in 1960, the population in the U.A.R. was 26,059,000 persons. With a popula- tion growth of 2.5% annually and decrease in death rates due to modern medical care, it is estimated that in another twenty years the population could easily reach 54,000,000.2 Such a high rate of population growth seriously affects the economic growth in many ways: 1. The fast growth of the population impedes the pres viously discussed plan to raise the per capita income. 2. The fast growth of the population also decreases "productivity" of the nation. As the I.O.N.P. states: lElserafy, op. cit., p. 228. 2United Arab Republic, Information Department, Cairo, Handbook of U.A.R. Economy, 1963, p. 16. 28 . . . the population structure has an obviously important bearing on economic development since the relative proportions of economically active adults versus children and inactive elderly persons will determine the amount of production beyond the worker's own needs that can be used for savings and invest- ment, and the amount that must be consumed by non—productive dependents in food, education and health services, as well as housing and community facilities.1 If one studies the population structure of the U.A.R., he will be surprised by the figures. The proportion of children under the age fif- teen is 40% of the pOpulation compared to 20% in west European countries.2 Two countries with initially equal labor producti— vity (production per worker) will have different rates of economic growth if, other things being equal, their population structures differ. This means that Egypt’s chances of economic growth are very slim if the population structure stays as it is now. The fast growth of the population upsets the five- year plan of public services. A fast growing popuw lation is made up increasingly of young people whose demand for education, health services, and housing keeps increasing at an accelerated rate. The tenayear plan estimated the population growth as 2.5 per cent annually. Apparently this rate was lHamza, op. cit., p. 8. 2Information Department, op. cit., p. 170 29 an underestimation of the actual population growth. This delayed, for example, the achievement of com— pulsory universal elementary education. Prime Minister Mohey Eldin expressed this in a recent speech delivered to a national teachers' conference: We will not be able to have all six‘aged children into primary schools by 1970 as it was planned in the second five—year plan. It was predicted that the number of the six—aged children during the second five-year plan would be about four million. The recent statistics have shown that the number will be rather 5,014,000 due to an increase in the population growth rate. The aforesaid concerning the population growth also has implications to curriculum development especially in science. 1. Desirable learning experiences a. Units about reproduction in plants, animals, and human beings which would provide a base for sex education. b. A unit about birth control devices and social reactions to them. 2. Behavioral goals and desirable values and attitudes a. Fostering the "need for achievement" or what is sometimes called "achievement motivation." This is assumed to have new generations aspire for a better life which would delay early marriage. lZ. Mohey Eldin, "Teachers Should Take the Respon— sibility for Informing the Public!" The Arab Students, Issue 178 (February, 1966), p. 6. 30 Research is needed about ways of fostering such attitudes. b. Students should be encouraged to carry on community studies such as the relation of income to the size of the family. Employment, Underemployment,l and Unemployment The Institute of National Planning (IONP) has conducted two major studies about employment and under- employment among the educated citizens between 1961 and 1963. The first one conducted in 1960—1961 confined itself to secondary school graduates while the second study conducted between 1961—1963 focused on university graduates. Table 1, adopted from the (IONP) Memo No. 22;,1 gives the percentage of: l. The graduates whose jobs suit their qualifications 2. The graduates whose jobs do not correspond to their qualifications 3. The unemployed graduates 4:. Females who preferred to be housewives only. From this table one discovers the following: (1) A relatively high percentage of graduates of theoretical colleges suffer from underemployment. In other words, they work in jobs which could be adequately performed by 1M. Hamza, "The Analysis of the Employment Situation Amongst the Educated Classes in the U.A.R.," Memo No. 301 of the Institute of National Planning, 1963, p. 3 31 TABLE 1 UNDEREMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT BETWEEN EDUCATED PERSONNEL IN THE U.A.R. 1961-1963 Qualifications %a?f %b?f %c?f %d?f sggwn B. A. (Arts) 74.5 12.2 4.6 7.7 1.0 B. A. (Law) 84.8 9.8 2.7 1.6 1.1 B. Commerce 90.2 4.9 4.2 0.7 . . B. Sc. (Science) 87.0 1.4 8.7 1.4 . . Medicine and Pharmacology 95.2 1.0 1.9 1.0 1.0 Engineering 99.4 0.6 . . . . . . Agriculture 93.2 2.6 3.4 0.9 . . Fine Arts 94.4 10.0 . . . . . . Social Work 89.1 17.5 . . . . . . Sec. Indust. 80.7 13.6 5.7 . . . . Sec. Commerical 88.0 1.5 4.9 5.6 . . Sec. Ag. 85.2 9.2 5.6 . . . . Sec. Feminine 26.7 5.4 2.2 65.6 . . (a) (b) (c) (d) The graduates whose jobs suit their qualifications. The graduates whose jobs do not correspond to their qualifications. The unemployed graduates. Females who preferred to be housewives only. less educated personnel. This applies in particular to graduates of the faculties of Arts, Law, and Commerce. (2) There is a remarkably high percentage of unemployment among the graduates of the faculties of liberal arts (Arts and Science). 32 The huge number of university graduates especially in non—technical colleges is not proportionate with the economic progress. Harbison expressed this view: By most criteria Egypt is an underdeveloped country limited in resources, mainly a nation of farmers (65%), low in gross national product per capita ($140) and only semiliterate in terms of the proportion of its children who go to elementary school. But taking secondary and higher education into account, Egypt is a semiadvanced country. In proportion to its population Egypt has more stu— dents in universities than Britain and twice as many in secondary and higher education as West Germany.1 In View of the ten-year plan (1960-1970), more technical personnel are needed than graduates of theoreti- cal colleges. The figures provided by 1ong—term planning research conducted by the IONP clarify the unemployment situation. Table 2 indicates the percentage deficit of targeted demand in different professions to expected supply. It is clear that more technical personnel are needed. The disrespect for vocational education is a social barrier to economic growth. The aforesaid regard— ing unemployment problems has some implications to curricu— lum development especially in science. For example, an extensive guidance program should accompany the curriculum development starting in the preparatory school. 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