PLACE ll RETURN BOX to remove thin checkout from your rooord. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MR '23. 1397 ‘ MSU I. An Afflmatlvo Action/Equal Opportunity Immion WM! _ _ ——.__ _ __.__.__.—___. ABSTRACT INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT COSTS IN SELECTED CENTRAL AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES by Merlin George Duncan The purpose of this study was to examine productivity and instruc- tional unit cost for introductory courses in three selected Central American Universities. For purposes of anonymity these three univer- sities were referred to as University A, University 8 and University C. University 8 was found to be the most centralized in terms of the organization of introductory courses. University C was the Egg; decentralized according to the same measure and University A was moderately centralized. The basic data used in this study were obtained from IIME (Instituto de lnvestigaciones y Mejoramiento Educativo) located in Guatemala City, Guatemala, a joint project of the University of San Carlos Guatemala and Michigan State University. This study was only one part of the larger research considering productivity and instructional unit cost in Central America presently being conducted by IIME. For this reason, it was not intended to be considered alone, but should be read in the context of the overall educational research conducted by IIME. The productivity and instructional unit cost categories were directly related to the terminology utilized and therefore special definitions were provided for the following terms: I. Matriculates 2. Passes 3. Examinations h. 5. 6. Class Hours Merlin George Duncan Instructional Hours Contact Hours. Productivity was ascertained for each course and for each university according to the following measures: The percent of matriculates who presented themselves for the course examination (measure one). The percent of matriculates who successfully completed the course examination (measure two). The percent of those who engaged in the examination who successfully completed the examination (measure three). Instructional unit costs were determined according to the following categories: I. 2. 3. h. 5. 6. The unit cost per The The The The The unit unit unit unit unit cost per cost per cost per cost per cost per A comparison was made class hour. instructional hour. matriculate. contact hour. contact hour with pass. pass. of the productivity of introductory courses at the three universities by utilizing three variables. These variables introduced were class size, organization and class hours. Two variables were implemented in the comparative analysis of instructional unit cost. These latter two variables were organization and productivity. Merlin George Duncan 0n the basis of this study the findings indicated that there were major differences in productivity between the three universities as well as within each university. It was found that class size had some influence on the percent of productivity within institutions as well as \ between institutions. Organization and class hours, however, were not found to be strongly influential in either increasing or decreasing institutional productivity. It was found at University A that chemistry was decidedly more expensive in terms of instructional unit cost than any other introductory course at University A. At University 8 physics was significantly higher in terms of instructional unit cost than any other course at University 8 and in addition the findings indicated that physics was, in absolute terms, more expensive per instructional unit cost per pass than any other introductory course at any of the three institutions studied. University C had no significant difference between the introductory courses examined. University C was also consistently lower in terms of instructional unit cost than the other two universities. Laboratory courses were not found to be significantly different from non-laboratory courses in terms of instructional unit cost at any of the three institu- tions. The variable organization was not found to influence unit costL in any introductory course examined, but the variable productivity was an important factor in three of the unit cost categories studied. Productivity, however, did not affect unit cost per contact hour, unit cost per matriculate and unit cost per instructional hour. INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT COSTS IN SELECTED CENTRAL AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES BY Merlin George Duncan A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Administration and Higher Education l96h \'\ xix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is impossible for me to express my gratitude to those who have made this study possible. I am especially indebted to my doctoral chairman, Dr. Walter F. Johnson, and to Dr. Karl T. Hereford, who encouraged and inspired me to complete this work. I am very thankful for the constructive criticism and the tireless support they have given me. I would also like to express my gratefulness to Dr. Burton D. Friedman, who encouraged me to embark on the doctoral program and helped me with the develOpment of the research project while I was in Central America. Words cannot express my thanks to Dean Richard 0. Niehoff, Dr. Donald Leu, Dr. Stanley Hecker and Dr. James T. Bonnen for their advice and help, not only during this study, but during many hours of friendly interaction. They were always willing to assist in any way possible and my whole graduate program has been richly enhanced by these men. In addition to these men I am extremely grateful to Dean Glen Taggart, who aided me in obtaining financial support from the Ford Foundation and to Mrs. Jean Van Douser and Miss Mary Pollman for their interest and assistance with this project. Thanks are also in order to the IIME staff in Guatemala City for their help in organizing and collecting the desired data. Finally, how can I make known my love and gratitude for my wife and children who have denied themselves and have encouraged me at every opportune time throughout my doctoral work. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter '0 INTRODUCTI m 0 O O O O O O O C 0 Statement of the Problem Scope of the Study Background of the Study Organization of Introductory Courses Currency Factor Useful Terminology Organization of the Study METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . General Statement Population Instrumentation Procedure Design Projected Outcome ‘ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTIVITY . . . . . . 'Biology Chemistry History of Culture Language Mathematics PhilosoPhy Physics Sociology INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT COST . . . . . . Instructional Cost Comparison General Comparison of Instructional Cost Unit Cost Per Instructional Hour Unit Cost Per Class Hour Unit Cost Per Matriculate Unit Cost Per Pass Unit Cost Per Contact Hour Unit Cost Per Contact Hour with Pass Chapter IV. Frequency of Class Size Occurrence (Cont.) Average Unit Cost by Class Size for Years l96l and I962 and Average Percent Productivity by Class Size for the Years l96l and I962 V. OBSERVAT' ONS AND QUEST. CNS 0 O O O O O O 0 Observations on Productivity Observations on Instructional Unit Cost 8 IBL'OGRAPHY O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Course Descriptions for University C B. Comparative Summaries by Courses for Years l96l, I962 and I963 C. Unit Costs for I961, I962 and I963 D. Productivity Data for l96l, I962 and 1963 E. Instructional Cost by Class Size for Average of Years l96l and I962 F. Inventory Instrument used by IIME for Data Collection Page 80 83 9o 90 95 99 l03 l03 I29 I38 IAS ISO ISZ Table VI. LIST OF TABLES Page Number of Matriculates and Percentage of Graduates at University of San Carlos I9SO-l962 . . . . . 9 Analysis of Three Measures of Productivity Averaged for l96l and I962 for Introductory Course Offerings in Three Selected Central American Universities Reported in Percentages . . . . . . . . . . 35 Average of Instructional Unit Costs in Three Selected Central American Universities for l96l and l962 . . 60 Average Frequency of Class Size Occurrence of Introductory Courses for I961 and I962 . . . . . 79 Average Unit Cost Per Matriculate by Class Size for '96] and 1962 o o o O o o o o o o o o o 82 Average Percent of Productivity by Class Size for '96] and 1962 o o o o o o e o o o o o o 81+ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There is very little information available at the present time regarding higher education in Central America. There is, however, an increasing interest in Central American countries to develop better and more efficient programs in their institutions of higher learning. This trend toward educational development and improvement is evident from Costa Rica in the south to Guatemala in the north and many steps are being taken to institute educational reform. The purpose of this reform is to provide an educational system that is more nearly related to the general needs of the societies involved. A problem exists due to the fact that much of the reform in the educational sphere that is taking place is not based on research findings and often times there is a tendency to act on a program without assessing the alternatives. This is not, of course, peculiar only to Central American educational reform, but is found in other countries of the world including the United States. One major area of concern in Central American educational circles relates to introductory courses often referred to as General Studies, General Education or Basic Studies. Each of the five Central IThere is a genuine controversy in Central America regarding the merit of offering General Education, General Studies or Basic Studies. The details of this controversy are not within the scape of this study. Therefore, these programs will be considered introductory courses throughout this study. American national universities has either an on-going program in General Studies or is considering the development of such a program. The pro- grams that presently exist are the product of decisions based solely on the basis of the subject matter taught and do not presently nor did they at their beginning take into account the financial aspects as they relate to the offering of these introductory courses. To date there have been no publications regarding the instructional unit cost in the introductory courses in Central American higher education. In fact, at present only the Instituto de Investigaciones y Mejoramiento Educativo (IIME) located in Guatemala City, a joint endeavor of the University of San Carlos and Michigan State University,1 has attempted to make com- parative regional studies of instructional unit costs in higher educa- tional institutions in Central America. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is to examine the productivity of and instructional unit costs for introductory courses which typify courses IThe Instituto de Investigaciones y Mejoramiento Educativo (IIME) is a dependency of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala. At the present time its activities are centered around the Inter-university Program carried out jointly by the University of San Carlos and Michigan State University. This Inter-university Program has been incorporated to the Plan for Regional Integration of the Consejo Superior Universitario Centro Americano (CSUCA) (Central American University Superior Council). The Inter-university Program covers regional studies on secondary education, higher education and rehabilitation and Special education. The first two years of Operation of this program were financed with funds obtained through a contract between Michigan State University and the Agency for International Development (AID) of the United States Government. ’I ~ -3- commonly taken in the United States in General Studies, General Educa- tion, or Basic Studies Programs in three selected Central American universities. Overall productivity will be measured according to the following three categories: The percent of students who do not take the examination of those who are matriculated during the current period in which they matriculated. The percent of students who successfully complete the examination of those who matriculated. The percent of students who successfully complete the examination of those who present themselves for the examination. Instructional unit cost will be assessed totally on the basis of wages or salaries for instruction paid to the instructors and the relationship of these instructional costs to the following categories: I. 3. Matriculation: The number of students who are enrolled in a course. A matriculate is a particular student who is enrolled in a course. Class Hours: These are the number of hours required by the university for each student to be able to attend in a particular course. (Attendance is not required or checked.) Instructional Hours: These are the number of hours invested by the university in actual instruction for a given course. Passes: The number of students who successfully complete a course examination. A pass is a particular student who com- pletes an examination successfully. 5. Contact Hours: The product of the number of matriculates times the number of class hours times the number of instructors present or teaching the class will provide the number of contact hours for a given course. 6. Contact Hours with Pass: This category is derived in exactly the same manner as contact hours with the exception that the number of matriculates is deleted and substituted in its place are the number of those who successfully complete the course examination. The foregoing unit costs are determined and examined for each of the General Studies courses at each of the three selected institutions. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The investigation into productivity and instructional unit costs was limited to three selected Central American universities and the information analyzed was for the average of the years l96l and I962. The courses studied were selected as introductory courses at each of the three selected institutions by the investigator on the basis of course content or on the basis that the university in question has designated certain courses as General Studies courses, Basic Studies courses, or General Education courses. This study does not purport to measure cost in all of its varying aspects, but intends solely to deal with the instructional unit cost as reflected in the salaries or wages of instructors teaching parti- cular courses since the instructor in Central America is normally paid by the course. Research in instructional unit cost and productivity in introductory courses will be only a part of a larger and more comprehensive study that is needed to ascertain administrative cost and to determine the cost of maintenance, plant depreciation, etc. However, due to the pioneering effort undertaken in the study of cost in Central America it is necessary to consider first various small segments of the larger research and use the tools of analysis presently used in the United States, adapting them to the special circumstances found in Central America. Because of the foregoing this study is necessarily exploratory in nature and not intended to test hypotheses, but will generate relevant questions for the consideration of Central American university officials. Int roductog Courses For purposes of this research introductory courses are considered to be those courses offered that are comparable to the General Studies course offerings at University B. These caurses are introductory courses usually taught during the first year of study and are found in the following subject matter areas: I. Biology 5. Mathematics 2. Chemistry 6. Phil050phy 3. History of Culture 7. Physics A. Language 8. Sociology An analysis of the organization of each of the General Studies programs at the three universities being considered is found later in this chapter. In general, however, an analysis of the course organizational pattern of General Studies or introductory programs in these three institutions shows University 8 to be the most centralized pattern and University C to have the most decentralized pattern of organization leaving University A as a moderately centralized operation. It should be pointed out that University A could be considered the most centralized program when consideration is taken of the fact that all students at University A must take all General Studies courses whereas at University 8 and University C this is not the case. However, for purposes of this financial study course organization is used as the basis for determina- tion of centralization and not how many students are required to take certain courses. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Education requires a large expenditure on the part of the public in a developed country such as the United States, but this is even more true in the emerging nations such as those found in Central America. It is necessary to allocate financial resources that are limited at best in these emerging countries not only to education but to sanitation, health facilities, etc. It is due to this lack of unlimited resources that it is intolerable for a society to permit unnecessary expenditures in any of the public sectors and it is imperative that institutions of higher learning examine all phases of their programs to improve the quality of their output as well as the efficiency of the program Opera- tion. Because there is no objective way to assess quality at the present time for which data is available for these introductory courses the assumption is made that the quality of the output by each institu- tion is relatively equal. This assumption may or may not have real basis in fact and it should be pointed out that the highest considera- tion in any attempt to do ggmparative cost analysis must be given to an assessment of the quality of the product produced. However, at this stage of development in Central American higher education it would appear necessary to ascertain where they are at the present time. This will allow them to establish an accurate fiscal picture from which they can attempt to improve the efficiency of operation. This accurate financial picture will also allow financial resources to be distributed on an equitable basis between courses taking into account the desire for efficiency of operation and improvement of the instructional effectiveness. Student Personnel Practices and Procedggeg Anticipating some of the findings in advance it seems that some special problems deveIOp as to the nature of admission to the univer- sities as well as of matriculates and those who take the examinations during the period of the course enrollment. A discussion of these factors at this point will tend to clarify the various categories as they are considered throughout the study. Admissions In Central America students and faculty believe that admission to the university is a right and not a privilege. It is closely entwined with the Central American concept of autonomy.I In fact anyone is admitted to the university that applies and in reality this is accomplished simply by enrolling in a particular group of courses. The students in almost all cases enroll for a full course load and the reasons for this phenomena are treated in more detail in this section in the discussion of matriculation. Testing devices that have already been developed for students applying for admission to Central American universities are never used In selecting students for admission, but only as a placement device within the university and even this action is seldom taken by university officials. However, there is a trend among Central American educators to consider the use of a more selective procedure in the admission of students,as a device to increase productivity of courses and as a means to allocate Spaces to those who can do the work as the competition for the use of limited facilities becomes more acute.(l) It is clear that until new high productivity has not been sought in Central American higher education and the university posture on determining instructional unit cost has been one of disinterest. But this lack of interest is changing and there is a growing recOgnition IThis concept includes the ideas that no regulation of government or any other group should impinge upon the rights of the university. In the same way the student is considered to have rights that are inherent and cannot be abrogated by anyone or any institution. One of these rights is admission to university courses and another is participation in the governing of the university. -that the university is not only a center of learning but is a public institution with limited resources that must improve its efficiency and effectiveness.('o) Output of Higher Eggcation Consistent with many other areas in the world more people in Central America are demanding an education and the number of those in higher education is growing. This increase keeps accelerating at a rather rapid pace. It seems appropriate that at least one of the universities should be examined as well as a consideration of its growth pattern in order to formulate some idea of the growth in student population that is taking place throughout Central America. The example chosen was the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and the following table lists the number of students that have matriculated and the number of students that have graduated and the percentage of students graduating of matriculates from the year I950 through I962. Table l Universitygof San Carlos Guatemala No. Students No. Percent Year Matriculatigg Graduating Graduating I950 2373 69 2.9 l95l 282A II5 h.l I952 3083 l22 h.O I953 3233 I00 3.l 195% 3368 IO3 3.l I955 32k5 I02 3.l I956 3809 97 2.5 l957 4336 107 2.5 I958 #867 I79 3.7 1959 “953 '55 3.l I960 5229 I22 2.3 l96l Shh7 l43 2.6 I962 585h l37 2-3 Figures obtained from IIME and confinmed by Registrar of University of San Carlos, Guatemala In February l96h. -lO- As Table l is examined it is clear that the enrollment of the .University of San Carlos has more than doubled in the last thirteen years. In that sense the growth of the institution is typical of other institutions of higher education in Central America. It is noteworthy, however, that the number of graduates in all areas at the University of San Carlos was sixty-nine in I950. This number has also doubled by becoming l37 graduates in I962. Although this represents an increase in the number of graduates the percentage of graduates has decreased from 2.9% in I950 to 2.3% in I962. There is no reason to believe at this time that this percentage will markedly increase in the near future according to work done by the UNESCO Commission in their survey of education in Central America in the past year.(2h) Matriculates At this point it is appropriate to present some special problems regarding the nature of matriculation at these selected Central American universities. The infonmation was obtained through interviews with responsible officials of these selected universities as well as with appropriate governmental officials. The number of people who matriculate for a course are really only enrollees and may or may not attend the course. This is due to the fact that there are many reasons for enrolling apart from a desire to attend the course and gain advanced academic standing. An example is seen in the students who work for various government agencies in one country and who are granted time off to attend college courses. These workers do not lose any time for pay purposes. In this way a worker can register as a student and never attend the course and not take an examination and still go home early from his place of work with no decrease in pay. This has, however, recently been eliminated in this particular country and the definition of a student by the government in question is being changed. Another reason relates to the fact that a student may wish to participate in student government. He can only do this if he is a full-time student. Therefore he registers for enough courses to allow him to be termed "full-time" and then attends only one or two courses at the very most. Some of those who fall into this category are the "professional students" so active in the political activities of the Latin university. One further example is seen in the student who registers for courses because he views being a student as a status symbol and never intends to complete his degree. Because attendance is not checked or required it is never possible to confirm how many attend a course for which they have matriculated. This is a very evident problem as any attempt is made to assess the productivity for a class or institution. It should, however, be understood that funds are allocated by national governments on the basis of these matriculation figures and class loads are also assigned on the basis of enrollments and not attendance. -12- Examinations The problem of determining the composition of those who take the examination In a given course is another problem. It is never possible to determine with the available data that all of those students who enroll for a course examination actually enrolled for the course in the same tenm that they took the examination. It is only certain that they have matriculated for the course in which they take the examination at one time or another. For example a student could enroll for a course in l960 and not take the examination in that same course until the second examination offered in I962. Therefore in I962 it would appear that one more student who had enrolled in l962 had taken the examination in I962. In reality this would be an incorrect assumption, but because of a lack of attendance records there is no way to control this factor. A student also has several opportunities to pass the examination. At University C, for example, a student has an opportunity to take an examination for a course three times and if he does not successfully complete it in the three allotted tries he must re-enroll in the course and then he is eligible for three more opportunities to successfully complete the course. It may be assumed that the number of students who matriculate and later take the examinations during different enrollment periods will remain rather constant and that the two-year period with which this study concerns itself (l96I-l962) will be reasonably accurate for any comparable period of university Operation. In addition, course examinations are not given in all cases by the same instructor who taught the course. In fact, in many cases the examination was found to be a separate undertaking and the instructor who administered the course examination was paid a separate fee by the students who presented themselves for the examination. These factors account for the absence of data for the I963 examinations because in most instances the examina- tions for the I963 courses would not have been given until sometime in I96h when the instructor offers the examination and the students feel ready to take the examination. Throughout the remainder of this study the students who present themselves for the examination will be termed "examinations" and those who successfully complete the examinations will be tenmed "passes". ORGANIZATION OF INTRODUCTORY COURSES As previously mentioned it was necessary to ascertain the nature of the introductory courses which is often called a General Studies or Basic Studies program in Central America. This was done by an examination of these General Studies or Basic Studies programs where they existed and by a search of the literature regarding General Studies in both Central America and the United States. It has been pointed out that there is no concensus as to what actually constitutes General Education, Basic Studies or General Studies. Because of the foregoing University B was chosen as a standard that would be appropriate to use in Central America if this study was to be of actual use. The study could then be of tvalue as infonmation in the decision making process as attempts are made by Central American educators to broaden the base of Central American education. -lh- Since there was general agreement among Central Americans that General Studies courses must be instituted(').it was clear that any cost study would have to be related to the problem as perceived in Central America. By an analysis of the organization charts of the University A and University C and a study of the organization of General Studies at University 8 it was clear that the standard to be used for this investigation would most appropriately be Univer- sity B for the following reasons: It contained all the introductory course areas perceived by Central Americans to constitute General Studies. It had an on-going and expanding university-wide intro- ductory course program that was in operation during the period for which data was available. It was possible to use the introductory course taught as a base and find comparable courses in both University A and University C. Adninistratively it could be typed as a Centralized Type of Organization and this was useful in administrative analysis. No other Central American institution had an introductory or General Studies program with as many courses involved under centralized control. Unlike introductory programs or General Studies courses in the United States the program at University 8 faced the same type of problems and operated in a similar culture to that found in the other Central American countries. -15- 7. It can be assumed that the degrees produced at University 8 are roughly comparable to those produced In the other four Central American Republics and that the quality of instruc- tion is reasonably equal. On the basis of the foregoing it was decided to use the courses in University B's "University Center for General Studies" as the base from which to select comparable courses at the other institutions. The investigator feels it necessary to report that on the basis of interviews and observation In the field that there may be a differ- ence in the quality of degrees and in the general level of instruction among the three institutions. However, on the basis of present data, there does not appear to be another way in which to measure unit cost at this time. It would be interesting, however, to examine the gradu- ates from each of these institutions with some common instrument and to determine the variance in quality of output. This would improve the cost analysis, but until more information is available by means of well conceived research it seems unlikely that such an improvement is possible. The organization of the various programs for introductory courses and the nature of each institution and its relationship to administrative decision making are described briefly below to provide necessary background for the inter-comparisons which are made in the analysis of the data. University B University 8 has all of its introductory courses located in the "University Center for General Studies". The Center is under the -15. direction of a Director of General Studies and it has a few full-time faculty members. The Center also uses faculty peOple from throughout the University and in effect has people on joint appointments teaching advanced courses in chemistry, for instance, and also teaching the general chemistry course in the "University Center for General Studies”. The Director of the Center is directly responsible to the Rector of the University and operates at the pleasure of the Rector. The courses taught in the General Studies program are as follows: i. General Biology 2. General Chemistry (Inorganic) 3. History of Culture A. Language (Spanish) 5. Mathematics (College level Algebra, Trigenometry, and Geometry) 6. Philosophy (Legic, Problems of PhilosOphy, Ethics, etc.) 7. General Physics 8. Sociology Each of the aforementioned courses is a one-year course and purports to deal in a general way with the subject matter so that all the students, regardless of their major, will be able to gain some knowledge of each of the General Studies areas. In many cases a General Studies course will be the only course in a particular area that a student will ever take. Every student entering University 8, however, is not required to take each of the courses in the General Studies area before he can embark on the training of his chosen profession. This means that, although University B has one Center for General Studies, all students are not required to pass through all of the Introductory courses prior to their professional training. The students are required to take only those Introductory courses required by their chosen faculty. It is also interesting to note that University B is doing some "team teaching" in the various introductory courses. The Director believesl that it permits some advantage by allowing larger classes and yet providing a large amount of individual attention. University officials also feel that this is an economic advantage to their system. University A The organizational pattern of General Studies found in University A is different from the pattern seen in University 8 or for that matter University C. However, it is operated as a department located in the College of Science and Letters. There is a Department Head who reports to the Dean of the College. The Dean of the College reports to the Rector of the University. This differs from the case of University 8 considered previously. The faculty teaching the General Studies courses is very likely to be full-time personnel, not differing greatly from University 8. There are only six courses taught as a part of the General Studies program in University A. They are: I. General Biology 2. History of Culture lInterview with the Director, March, l96h. -I8- 3. Language (Spanish) A. Mathematics (Algebra, Trigenometry and Geometry) 5. Philosophy (Logic, Problems of Phil050phy, etc.) 6. SOCIOIOgy The other two courses taught at University A that are equivalent to the basic subjects physics and chemistry taught in University 8 are taught in the same College of Science and Letters, but are found in different departments. This still leaves these courses under the same dean, but under different department heads. In fact, the physics class is under the Department of Physics and mathematics and chemistry are taught under the Department of Chemistry. The organization of University A can still be characterized as centralized, but not to the same extent as University B. In one respect, however, it is more centralized; every student entering University A is required to take the six courses in the General Studies Program, although some of them will not be required to take chemistry or physics or both.l University C There is at present (July I96“) a new Basic Studies program at University C. This is called the Department of Basic Studies. It was formed In February of l96h and is under the auspices of the University. However, at the present time several of the University faculties are not involved in the program, so it is only the beginning 'Interview with the Registrar of University A in March 1961.. of a University-wide program of Basic Studies. This new Basic Studies Department is presently offering the following courses: I. General Biology 2. Culture (Similar to History of Culture) 3. Physics A. Language (Spanish) 5. Mathematics 6. Chemistry It should be noted that philosophy is not offered and the Faculty of Humanities is not participating. Sociology also is not offered. Sociology would again have been under the auspices of the faculty members from Humanities. Other than these two exceptions the pattern fits the general pattern of introductory course programs in Central American universities. Administratively the Department of Basic Studies has a Director, an academic council and is generally under the control of the Rector of the University. Univeggjtygc Before I969 Before l96h and the inauguration of the new Basic Studies Depart- ment and at the time the data were collected (l96l, I962 and I963), University C had a very different pattern of introductory course offerings. The General Studies program was completely decentralized and under the direction of each faculty on an individual basis. In fact, in no faculty of University C was any student required to take all the courses that presently constitute the new Basic Studies program. There were, however, many students who took several equivalent courses offered in the various faculties. -20- In order to provide the eight courses taught in one department at University 8 and in one faculty at University A, University C was offering 62 courses. For example, there were six courses offered in various faculties in order to provide introductory biology courses for students desiring to take biology. There was some "cross-over” where a student could take a course In another faculty besides his own, but it was very common for a student to take no courses outside the faculty in his program. This is evident from an examination of the catalog of offerings at Univer- sity C. This meant that there was a great duplication of course offerings and many classes were very large and many were very small. CURRENCY FACTOR In each of the three universities in question a different national currency is used as a medium of exchange. Fortunately each of the currencies of the countries involved are "pegged" currencies and have a standard relationship to the United States dollar. For purposes of this study each of the monetary figures used is converted Into dollar equivalents when the instructional unit cost comparison Is made between universities. It becomes necessary to have a common monetary standard when instructional unit costs are compared in two or more countries having different currencies. It should be pointed out that the foregoing discussion of standard monetary units should in no way lead one to -2]- construe that by converting the currency the cost factor has been totally equalized. Other factors are very important although extremely difficult If not impossible to measure. For purposes of this study the national currency is converted to its equivalency in United States dollars and it is assumed that the instructional cost factor is a function of the number of equivalent United States dollars spent for Instructional purposes. The equivalencies used are as follows: One United States Dollar is equal to: 6.625 Colones in Costa Rica l.000 Quetzales in Guatemala I.998 Limpiras in Honduras 7.Ih Cordobas in Nicaragua 2.5 Colones in El Salvador USEFUL TERMINOLOGY In order to provide a basis of common understanding throughout the study the following definitions are included. The concepts functional, effective, efficient, economical, and legitimate are considered. The first four were taken from the writings of Dr. Burton 0. Friedman‘l3) and the concept legitimate was developed independently. The Concept "Functional" "Society created and society supports its educational system in the belief that operation of this system will produce effects or results that will be useful and helpful to the deveIOpment of society. -22- To produce such results, the educational system conducts a series of activities that are thought to be means apprOpriate to the ends that are specified. Any result produced by virtue of the activities under- taken is a function of those activities. The functions are not always evident or identifiable, to be sure. Moreover, those functions that 3;; observed may or may not be the ones that were sought when the activities were undertaken, and they may or may not prove in fact to be useful and helpful to society. If the outcomes are useful and helpful to the development of society they may be said to be 'functional'. Otherwise, they are not. If they positively interfere with the development of society, the educational system and its activities, they may be said to be disruptive or 'dysfunctional'. Thus one dimension of the frame of reference is the concept 'functional'. It is appropriate to examine the results produced by any educational system in order to detenmine whether the system is in fact 'functional' within its society. It Is equally appropriate, but perhaps much more difficult to review the plans and programs of any educational system in order to judge in advance whether the system would or would not prove to be functional as those plans and programs were acted upon."('3) The Concept "Effective" HAn educational system attempts to produce specified outcomes or 'functions' by conducting a series of activities. Whether the outcomes sought are 'good' or 'desirable' or 'useful', of course, is a question of social philosOphy. However, the activities under- taken require the performance of a series of tasks. Without phil050phical or ideological complications, it is feasible to determine to what extent each task is being perfonmed. That is the sole question raised by the concept 'effective'".(l3) The Concept "Efficient" "To achieve the intended outcome of a course of action is to be effective. To achieve only such outcomes is to be efficient. If a course of action brings about one or more unintended or unanticipated outcomes, it is to that extent not efficient. It is irrelevant, in this context, whether an unintended or unantici- pated outcome proves to be salutary and desirable or malignant and undesirable; these are accidental matters of good and bad fortune, hence should not intrude upon the evaluation of planning, policy or management. The verdict of an evaluation must be 'not efficient' to the extent that actual outcomes are unintended or unanticipated. An activity may be effective, but not efficient: unless it is effective, however, it cannot be efficient."(l3l The Concept Uggonomical" "Every educational system expends human material and financial resources. If two systems are similar in other respects, it is obvious that a very large system is almost certain to expend more than the very small one. Their total budgets constitute a gross measure Of relative size Of course, but they do not offer a useful evaluative measure. For evaluative purposes, it is necessary to compare expenditures with results. The concept 'economical' considers the relationship between (a) the resources that are invested in an educational system and (b) the results that are produced through their use. Results are measured in terms of the unit cost Of satisfactory production. An educational system, or any Identifiable aspect of the system, is 'economical' when it Operates at a low cost per unit Of pro- duction Of satisfactory quality: (I) the system cannot be 'economical' unless it is first proved to be effective, i.e.. unless it actually does deliver a suitable 'product'; and (2) the system is not 'economlcal' if its costs are high per unit of pro- duction."(l3) The Concept "Legitimate" "Every educational institution must be 'legitimized'. By the term 'legitimized' is meant that the product that Is produced by the organization in question must be acceptable to the consumer or the user of the particular product. When this product or the pro- duction of this particular organization ceases to be acceptable, the organization no longer has the right to exist. Therefore, every organization that depends on a clientel must be 'legitimized'. It can be acceptable by its clientel to a greater or lesser extent, but it must be acceptable or it will no longer exist. This is true of businesses, universities, or any other large scale organization that demands certain kinds of public acceptance for its support. A university achieves 'legitimization' as it produces a certain type and quality Of student. As long as these students are in demand and are able to achieve better jOS'positions, and more status in the community due to their college or university education then the product that is produced by this particular institution is 'legitimized' and the organization continues to exist. However, when the average graduate becomes a misfit and does not perform In an effective fashion it will inevitably initiate the demise of the university, at least as it is then organized." -2u- ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This study is organized to allow the presentation Of the data regarding productivity and instructional unit cost separately for each of the three institutions. The present chapter contains the statement of purpose and the background of the study as well as some definitions of tenminology. The second chapter states the methodology used to examine the data and the third chapter is devoted to the presentation of the data and findings related to the three measures of productivity. The fourth chapter is con- cerned with six measures of instructional unit cost. It presents the unit cost for each of the three institutions and then relates these unit costs to the two variables of organization and produc- tivity as defined In chapter two. Chapter five is designed to present questions for Central American university administrators based on the findings of the study. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY General Statement The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology used in this study in order to gather and analyze the data considered. These data, as stated in chapter one, were gathered by the IIME organization and the collection procedures used are herein described. The study is fonmulated basically In two parts. The first part is considered under the general heading of Course Productivity and the second part is con- cerned with Instructional Unit Costs. Under the Instructional unit costs only those costs for salaries and wages for instruction are con- sidered. According to authorities on cost analysisl the one best measure of comparative costs for institutions or for courses within institutions is the instructional salary comparison. PrOductIvity is measured by three different measures and then each one of these measures are related to three organizational and administrative variables that may be modified by administrative action. Instructional Unit Cost is then measured by six different measures and subsequently these six measures are individually related to two variables. One of these two variables id directly modifiable by administrative action and the variable, productivity, is indirectly modifiable. IThe authority for this statement is Dr. Floyd Reeves, Distinguished Professor, Michigan State University. The statement was made on July 6, I96“. ' -26.. This chapter is organized into five sections under the following general headings: l. The Populgtion participating in the study. 2. The Instrumentation used in the inventory in the collection of data. 3. The Procedure used in the collection of data and in the analysis of these data. A. The‘nglgp of the study including the formulas. S. The Projected Outcome which details the type of outcomes expected and the method in which they will be presented. Population The population used in this study is made up Of students at three Central American universities who enrolled in introductory courses during the years l96l and I962 in the following course areas: I. Biology 5. Mathematics 2. Chemistry 6. Philosophy 3. History of Culture 7. Physics A. Language 8. Sociology At University A enrollment was in the Department of General Studies as well as In physics and chemistry located in the same faculty but in a different department. At University B enrollment was in the Center for General Studies which included all eight courses. At University C enrollment was in these same eight course areas but there was no Center or Department of General Studies so the courses were scattered throughout the various faculties of the University. Consult Appendix A for a list of the course descriptions of the courses selected for this study. Instrumentation The Inventory used to gather the data used in this study was developed by the IIME staff and a capy Of the instrument is found in Appendix F of this study. Data found on the completed inventory allows one to appraise the institution, class size, type of course, class hours, instructional hours, instructional cost, number of matriculates, number of passes, examinations taken, professor teaching the course, as well as the year in which the class was taught and the term or terms in which it was taught. By utilization of the aforementioned data it was possible to construct measures of Productivity and Instructional Unit Cost. Procedure The procedure followed by the IIME staff in the collection Of data was as follows. Teams of IIME staff members went to each Of the five Central American National Universities and stayed from seven to ten weeks during which time they consulted all primary sources and documents available in offices of University Registrars and Faculty Secretaries. When the data was not sufficient to allow complete information to be obtained on a course the staff conducted personal interviews with the various faculty members in order to ensure the accuracy and the completeness of the data sought. These inventories (Appendix F) were coded for punch cards and they were transferred to IBM cards for analysis. These data were then listed by course, department, university, year, etc. It is from these -23- listings that the information for this study was obtained. These listings Of data concerning course information were then verified faculty by faculty in each university for accuracy and completeness by the IIME staff. After an examination of the various listings for the total universities it was seen that it was necessary to determine which courses were the introductory courses at University C that would allow a comparative analysis with introductory courses at Universities A and B. This was due to the fact that all pertinent introductory courses at University A were found in two departments of one faculty. At University 8 all relevant courses were located in the Center for General Studies. At University C a search was made of the catalog of the university and by interviews in the very few questionable cases with faculty members of University C to confirm the choices. The data for these selected courses at the three institutions were brought together on tables for analysis. See Appendixes B, C, D, and E Of this study for these tables covering the years l96l, I962, and I963. It was not possible, however, to use the I963 data as they were not complete due to the fact that in many Of the courses final examinations will not be concluded until the end of I96“. For this reason the study was delimited to data for the academic years l96l and I962. In order to develop a representative picture of student behavior during these years information for I96I and I962 was summed and then averaged as a basis Of course productivity and instructional unit cost. Design This study was designed to consider two basic areas of interest, Course Productivity and Instructional Unit Cost. Course Productivity was examined according to the following three measures of productivity: Measure I: Percent of students enrolled (matriculates) who present themselves for final examination (exam- inations). Measure 2: Percent of students enrolled (matriculates) who successfully complete the final examination (pass). Measure 3: Percent Of students who successfully complete the final examination (pass) who present themselves for the final examination (examinations). From the foregoing measures the following formulae were constructed in order to provide the information desired on course productivity: Measure l: Examinatiai . Percent of Examinations Matriculation to Matriculations. Measure 2: fpsses : Percent of Passes to Matriculation Matriculation. Measure 3: Passes Percent of Passes to Examinations . Examinations. Each of the three formulae were then related to three variables that can be modified in practice by administrative action. These variables are: I. Organization: University organization for introductory courses typified by University 8 with the most centralized organization and University C as the most decentralized and with University A as a modglgfiely centralized pattern of organization. In this sense the criteria used for the pattern of organization centered only around grouping of introductory courses. 2. Class Size: This refers to class matriculation as defined in chapter one. 3. CIaSs Hours: Class hours are the number of required hours of student attendance in a course. The second major area considered was Instructional Unit Cost. In this particular study Instructional Unit Cost is measured by the average of the salaries and wages paid during I96I and I962 to the instructor(s) for each of the courses considered in this study. When the instructor(s) salary was paid on other than a course basis as in University C the total salary for all courses was divided by the number of courses taught and the resulting salary per course was the amount employed in the study. At this point Instructional Unit Costs were detenmined by each of the following measures: Measure I: Salary cost per class hour. Measure 2: Salary cost per instructional hour. Measure 3: Salary cost per student who presents himself and successfully completes the examination. Measure h: Salary cost per matriculate. Measure 5: Salary cost per instructional hour per student (contact hour). Measure 6: Salary cost per instructional hour per student who successfully completes the examination (contact hour with pass). On the basis of the above measures the following formulae were constructed to ascertain these instructional unit costs. Measure I: Cost a Unit Cost per Class- Measure 2: Cost Class Hours Hour. Unit Cost per Instruc- Instructional Hour tional Hour. Measure 3: Cost = Unit Cost per Pass. Passes Measure h: Cost Unit Cost per Matriculates Matriculate. Measure 5: Cost = Unit Cost per Contact - Contact Hour Hour. Measure 6: Cost Unit Cost per Contact Contact Hour Hour with Pass. with Pass At this point an analysis by instructional unit cost as it relates to the following administratively modifiable varieties was undertaken. Organization: University organization for introductory courses which is exactly the same as the organizational variable for course productivity. Productivity: The variable of productivity refers to the second measure of productivity previously discussed under the productivity analysis in this chapter. In other words the productivity variable as it relates to instructional unit cost refers to the percent of matriculates who enroll for a course and successfully complete the course examina- tion. Since it is assumed that the desire of the univer- sity is for the student who enters a course to successfully complete the course it would appear that this measure of productivity is the most important of the three measures of productivity in terms of unit cost. It was observed in chapter on that these universities have limited financial resources and high productivity has not been a desirable out- come in the perception of the educational leaders, but these views should be re-evaluated in the light of present needs for both manpower and skills.1 Under these circumstances presently found in Central America it would be reasonable to assume that universities would want to be able to assess their present financial resources and to make every effort to produce enough graduates to satisfy the demands of the expanding Central American economies. On the basis of the foregoing it would seem apprOpriate for the Central American universities to investigate every available source of infonmation in order to Improve their efficiency and effectiveness in terms of both productivity and instructional unit cost. Projected Outcome The projected outcome of this study will be the formation of questions for consideration by the administrators of Central American universities. For example, if the findings were to show course pro- ductivity at one university totally different from all other courses at the same university and this difference is not found at the other two universities studied the administration would have valid reason to inquire into the causes of this difference. By the same token, IThis is especially true in critical fields such as teacher preparation in which only 786 of the 7379 practicing secondary school teachers in Central America are qualified In terms of training and experience for their work. (A II p. IO). i if it were found that an institution or a course has many small classes and that the instructional unit cost per class and per matriculate is very high, and yet productivity is not markedly higher in the smaller class, the administration could take steps to increase class size, lower instructional unit cost per matriculate, and still maintain the former level of productivity. On the basis of course productivity and instructional unit cost findings, questions will be formulated in chapter five that should be considered by the leaders of Central American universities. These questions can be of valuable assistance as they attempt to assess the productivity and instrudfional unit cost in their respective institutions and should lead to direct improvement in their efficiency, effectiveness and economy as defined in chapter one. Chapter three considers the findings as they relate to productivity and chapter four is devoted to the presentation of findings involving instructional unit cost. In both Of these chapters parallel treatments are given to each of the categories examined. In the case of chapter three each course is considered separately and related to the three measures Of productivity plus the variables of organization, class size, and class hours. In chapter four each of the six categories of instructional unit cost is examined and they are related to the variables of organization and the second measure of productivity examined in chapter three. Chapter fjve is then concerned with general Observations concerning productivity and instructional unit cost that can be used by administrators in Central America in the organization and Implementation of introductory course offerings. CHAPTER III ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTIVITY The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings concerning course productivity in three selected Central American universities. As stated in chapter two, course productivity will be assessed according to three measures which are expressed in the following formulas: Examinations . Percent of students enrolled who present Matriculation themselves for the course examination. Passes = Percent of students enrolled who success- Matriculation fully complete the course examination. Passes = Percent of students who successfully Examinations complete the examination of those who presented themselves for the examination. Appendix 0 contains the basic data from which the information relating to the above formulas was obtained. These data in Appendix D'are in table form and cover the years I96I, I962, and I963. Table II reports in percentages the averaged results of the three measures of productivity by university and course for the years l96l and I962. In this chapter each course is considered separately by examining the course in relation to the three measures of productivity and then by examing the course productivity in the light of three organizational and administrative variables discussed in chapter two. 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