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L--‘ Vatican; This is to certify that the thesis entitled ETHNOCENTRISM AMONG NIGERIAN STUDENTS IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES presented by Sam Onyejindu OIeka has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Jegree in Teacher Education Maj professor Dateqcck U: {Cigft k 046% MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution Msu‘ LIBRARIES ~ RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wilI be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ETHNOCENTRISM AMONG NIGERIAN STUDENTS IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES By Sam Onyejindu Oleka A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1986 Copyright by SAM ONYEJINDU OLEKA l986 ABSTRACT ETHNOCENTRISM AMONG NIGERIAN STUDENTS IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES By Sam Onyejindu Oleka IEUEMEEE The study considered three evidences of ethnocentrism among Nigerian college students in public and private (religious) institutions in the midwestern United States. It investigated differ- ences between Nigerian college students' general anxiety levels and anxiety about (1) residing outside of Nigeria. (2) contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. and (3) contributing to the political and economic advantage of Nigerian ethnic groups other than their own. Particular attention was given to Hausa. Yoruba. and Igbo students. .Methgdglggy. Data were obtained from a 56-item questionnaire administered to 267 respondents in 12 public and 5 private colleges and universities. PNOVA was used to compare dependent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic variables. The Scheffe post hoc technique was used to compare significance between group means on given independent variables; chi-square was used to compare relationships across groups on given independent variables. .Eindings. Nigerian college students who tended to have high general anxiety also tended to have high anxiety about residing outside Sam Onyejindu Oleka of Nigeria. about contributing their potential expertise outside of Nigeria. and about contributing to the political and economic advantage of Nigerian ethnic groups other than their own. Relationships did exist between (1) Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria; (2) anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and about con- tributing to the political and economic advantage of Nigerian ethnic groups other than their own; and (3) anxiety about contributing exper- tise outside of Nigeria and about contributing to the political and economic advantage of Nigerian ethnic groups other than their own. ,angluslons. Among Nigerian college students. high general anxiety related to anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocentrism examined. Nigerian college students in American colleges and univer- sities do not wish to contribute their expertise outside of Nigeria after their advanced formal education. However. when they return to Nigeria they may be primarily concerned with contributing to the political and economic advantage of their own ethnic group. This work is dedicated to my mother. Janney Oluoma Olekanma. who slept into glory before the completion of my studies in the United States. and to my son. ChiJindu Chimebuka Oleka. who fought very hard to live but was called back to glory by God. who does all things well. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was made possible through the assistance and cooperation of many people who directly and indirectly contributed to its successful completion. For this reason. I wish to express my profound gratitude to them all. First. I must express my profound gratitude to my major advisor and dissertation director. Dr. Ted Ward. whose resourcefulness. encour- agement. and support will always be remembered. Without his sobering and incisive criticisms. invaluable suggestions. and patient editing. it would have been difficult to complete this work. I am also indebted to Drs. Samuel Joseph Levine. Charles Blackman. and Jack Bain. my doctoral committee members. for their unqualified support. critical comments. and encouragement. Second. I must express my appreciation to Rev. and Mrs. L. D. Fehl. the [1.5. Director of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM) Interna- tional. without whose recommendations I might not have been awarded the SIM International Scholarships for this study. The consistent remis- sion of the scholarship funds by Ron Frazee. the SIM International U.S. Secretary. needs mentioning. for without such regular financial support the work could not have been completed. Others that need remembering in connection with financial assistance include the Billy Graham Center Scholarship Committee. who recommended me to the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) for the award of a grant that was used for data-collection field trips; the Stewards Foundation; and the Haslett Baptist Church. Haslett. Michigan. I wish to express my thanks to my wife. Amaka. and my children. Onyinyechi and Chimsom. for their understanding. patience. endurance. and prayerful support during the difficult and trying momemts of the entire doctoral program. Above all. my unqualified gratitude goes to the Almighty God. who alone can take the credit for bringing me to the United States to obtain this advanced formal education to be used in ministering to Him among my own people in Nigeria and in Africa as a whole. To Him be the glory. the power. and the honor forever. LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF Chapter I. II. TABLE OF CONTENTS FIGURES STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . Purpose of the Study . . . Importance of the Study . Definition of Terms . . . The Research Questions and Assumptions . . . . . . . Population and Sample . Limitations . . . . . . Delimitation . . . . . . Generalizability . . . . Overview of the Study . PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE . . ypotheses o o o o o o I. o o Substantive Precedents in Literature . Definitions of Ethnocentrism . . . . Relationship Between Ethnocentrism and Et Types of Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . . Causes of Ethnocentrism Effects of Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . Evidences of Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . Ethnocentrism and the Three Major Nigerian Ethnolinguistic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . Ethnocentrism and Discrimination in Employment in N1ger1a I O O O O O O C O O O O O O O I 0 Education and Ethnicity in Nigeria .. .. .. Other Evidences of Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . Methodological Precedents in Literature The Effects of Ethnocentrism on Attitudes and AttrIbutIOns I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Ethnic Measurement and Identification Cross-Cultural Variations in Ethnocentrism . . hnicity Page xii 10 15 18 18 19 20 21 21 24 24 26 28 31 34 35 39 42 46 48 56 57 S8 58 Ethnic-Tension-Management Mechanisms . . . . . . . The Relevance of the Study to Curriculum Development in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description of Research Methodology . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sampling Procedures for Selecting the Institutions Sampling Procedures for Selecting the Respondents Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument Development . . . . . . . Preliminary Interviews . . . . . Pilot Testing . . . . . . . . . Access to Nigerian Students . Cencerns for Respondents' Anonymity Administration of the Instrument . . Scoring Procedures . . . . . . . . . Instrument Reliability and Validity Questions Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iv. FINDINGS O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 Rate of Questionnaire Returns . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Ethnic Affiliation . . . . . . . . Distribution by Marital Status . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Number of Years as Student in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Number of Times as Stud en tin the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Previous Attendance at a U. S. Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution by Type of Institution in Attendance Distribution by Academic Degree . . . . . . . . . The Nigerian College Students' Scores on the General Ethnocentrism Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Research Questions and Hypotheses . . . . . . . Relationship Between General Anxiety and Residing Anxiety Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Between General Anxiety Level and "Contributing" Anxiety Level . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Between General Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety Level . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 59 61 63 64 65 66 67 67 68 68 69 7O 71 72 72 73 75 79 81 81 81 84 85 86 86 87 87 88 89 95 102 107 Relationship Between "Residing" Anxiety and "Contributing" Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between "Residing" Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety . . . . . . . Relationship Between "Contributing" Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questionnaire Returns and Characteristics of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Research Questions and Hypotheses . V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . Purpose of the Research . . . . . Importance of the Research . . . . Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Assumption . . . . . . . Research Methodology . . . . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nigerian College Students' Anxiety About Outside of Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . Nigerian College Students'-Anxiety About Contribution of Their Expertise Outside of Res iding Potential Niger1a O O O O O C O O O I O O O O O O I O O O Nigerian College Students' Anxiety About Their Potential Contribution to the Political and Economic Advantage of Major Ethnic Groups Other ThanTheirOwninNigeria Relationship Between Nigerian College Students' Anxiety About Residing Outside of Nigeria and Anxiety About Potential Contribution of Their Expertise Outside of Nigeria . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between Nigerian College Students' Anxiety About Residing Outside of Nigeria and About Potential Contribution to the Political and Economic Advantage of Major Ethnic Groups Other Than Their Own in Nigeria . . . . . . . Relationship Between Nigerian College Students' Anxiety About Potential Contribution of Rheir Expertise Outside of Nigeria and Anxiety About Their Potential Contribution to the Political and Economic Advantage of Major Ethnic Groups Other Than Their Own in Nigeria . . . . . . . conc1u51°ns O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 0 vii Page 122 123 124 126 126 128 134 134 134 135 136 136 139 139 141 142 145 146 147 148 149 149 Page Implications and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Positive Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Negative Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Areas of Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 APPmDI CES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 160 A. A SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT OF NIGERIAN ETHNOCENTRISM . . 161 B. HOMESICKNESS: AN EVIDENCE OF ETHNICITY OR ETHNOCENTRISM..................... 186 C. "LINGUISTIC" ETHNOCENTRISM VERSUS "TRIBAL" ETHNO- CENTRISM: A DEFINITION OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . I89 DI INSTWMENTATION I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 92 EI mRREsmNDENCE I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 202 F. NIGERIAN COLLEGE STUDENTS' GENERAL ANXIETY. "RESIDING" ANXIETY. "CONTRIBUTING" ANXIETY. AND "POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC" ANXIETY FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS . . . . . . . 212 BIBLIOGRAH'IY I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 2‘7 viii Table 2.1 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 LIST OF TABLES Stereotypes of Kano Ethnic Groups . . . . . . . Reliability of the ASQ TCtal Scale Score . . . ASQ Validity: Correlations of Scale Scores With Pure Anxiety Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rate of Questionnaire Returns . . . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution by Gender . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution by Age . . . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution by Ethnic Affiliation . Frequency Distribution by Marital Status . . . the Frequency Distribution by Number of Years as Students Frequency Distribution by Number of Times as Student in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Distribution by Previous Attendance in a UI SI InStItution I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Frequency Distribution by Type of Institution in Attenda nce I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Frequency Distribution by Academic Degree . . . . . . Nigerian College Students' General Ethnocentrism Total Scale Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson Correlation Coefficient Results Between General Ethnocentrism Total Scale Score and General Anxiety Score. "Residing" Anxiety Score. "Contributing" Anxiety Score. and "Political and Economic" Anxiety Score of Nigerian College Students . . . . . . . . . Page 43 76 79 82 83 84 84 85 86 87 88 88 89 90 93 4.13 4.14 4.16 4.17 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4I23 4.24 4.25 Correlation Between General Anxiety and Anxiety About Residing Outside of Nigeria ANOVA Results Comparing Relationship Between General Anxiety and "Residing" Anxiety Levels for Males and Females ANOVA Results Comparing the Relationship Between General Anxiety and "Residing" Anxiety Levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and Other Ethnic Groups . . . . . . . ANOVA Results Comparing "Residing" Anxiety Level and Mar1ta1 Status I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ANOVA Results Comparing "Residing" Anxiety and Number of T1mes as StUdent 1n the U. SI I I I I I I I I I I I I I ANOVA Results Comparing "Residing" Anxiety Level and Type of Institution in Attendance for Nigerian College Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA Results Comparing "Residing" Anxiety Level and Academic Degree Being Pursued Correlation Between General Anxiety and "Contributing" Anxiety for Nigerian College Students ANOVA Results Comparing "Contributing" Anxiety and Age Categori as I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ANOVA Results Comparing "Contributing" Anxiety and Ethnic Aff111at10n I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ANOVA Results Comparing "Contributing" Anxiety and Academic Degree Being Pursued Correlation Between General Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety Levels for Nigerian College Students ANOVA Results Comparing "Political and Economic" Anxiety and Academic Degree Being Pursued Chi-Square Relationship Between Nigerian College Students' Ethnic Affiliation and the Ethnic Groups From Which They Chose Their Closest Friends in Nigeria Page 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 105 106 107 108 110 111 4.27 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 Page Chi-Square Relationship Between Nigerian College Students' Ethnic Affiliation and the Ethnic Groups From Which They Chose Their Closest Friends in the UISI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 113 Chi-Square Relationships Between Ethnic Affiliation and Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Chi-Square Relationships Between Ethnic Affiliation and Students' Potential Employment Preferences . . . . . . . 115 Chi-Square Results on the Relationship Between Nigerian Students' Ethnic Affiliation and Their Potential Preference for Employing People to Strengthen Friendship . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 117 Chi-Square Results on the Relationship Between Nigerian Students' Ethnic Affiliation and Their Potential Preference for Employing People Only on the Basis of Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Chi-Square Results on the Relationship Between Ethnic Affiliation and Nigerian Students' Previous Commitment to NIQGPII I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I .'20 Chi-Square Results on the Relationship Between Ethnic Affiliation and Nigerian Students' Present Commitment to NIQGrIa I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 12] Correlation Between "Residing" Anxiety and "Contributing" Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Correlation Between "Residing" Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Correlation Between "Contributing" Anxiety and "Political and Economic" Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 A Histogram of Nigerian College Students' General Ethnocentrism Total Scale Score . . . . . . . . . . . 91 xii GMPERI STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Ethnicity has been identified as a potentially powerful conceptual base for analyzing questions of social inequality. group differences. and political conflict in modern societies and their educational systems. It has become an alternative to social class. religion. and nationality for investigating group conflict and accommodation (Singleton. 1977). Generally speaking. if people are not conscious of their ethnic class. their religion. or nationality. they are conscious of their ethnic group. race. or color. People are generally conscious of their ethnic group. race. or color because people are generally ethnic centered or color centered. Ethnic-centered people manifest such ethnocentric tendencies as love for one's own group and dislike for other ethnic groups. devotion to one's ethnic group and lack of devotion to other ethnic groups. belief in the superiority of oneks ethnic group and disbelief in the superiority of other ethnic groups. and being militantly and boastfully devoted to one's own country or nation and not being militantly and boastfully devoted to other countries or nations (Ehlers & Crawford. 1983). Other ethnocentric tendencies include uneasiness about residing among ethnic groups other than one's own group and uneasiness about contributing to the success of ethnic groups other than one's own. Preiswerk and Perrot (1978) viewed ethnocentrism as: the attitude of a group which consists of attributing to itself a central position compared to other groups. valuing positively its achievement and particular characteristics. adopting a projective type of behavior toward out-groups and interpreting the out-group through the in-group's mode of thinking. (p. 14) This phenomenon described by Preiswerk and Perrot tends to be responsible for an ethnic groupis lauding of itself. while making deprecatory remarks when describing other groups. According to these authors. "men" and "other." used for distinction by the Navaho. the "Greeks" and the "Barbarians" during the antiquity. or the distinction made in our era between the "civilized" and the "savage" are illustra- tions of an essentially overt and direct form of ethnocentrism. When ethnocentrism is overt and direct. it acts as a destabil- izing force. especially in a multiethnic society. For this reason. in Nigeria ethnocentrism or ethnicity is perceived as a major problem. It is a major problem because it destabilizes the political. economic. educational. and social life of the nation. It also destabilizes the interethnic relationships Nigerian major and minor ethnic groups have or ought to have. Writing about Nigerian ethnicity or ethnocentrism. Eke (1972) stated that it poses a greater disintegrating problem than a world religion. Eke identified the following three factors emanating from the electoral process after independence as contributing to the interethnic bitterness in Nigeria. First is the sharing of the limited resources of the nation. For example. such social rights as the award of scholarships and the provision of roads and water facilities fell along ethnic-group lines immediately after independence. Second is a new definition of one's group identity. For example. immediately after independence. the wealth of a neighboring group came to be interpreted as an unfair distribution of common goods. The third factor is the civil arrange- ment of "one man. one vote." which has continued to give an ethnic group with a large voting population the opportunity to perpetually win a federal election and rule the nation indefinitely. According to Eke (1972). "there is a sense in which it could be claimed . . . that the introduction of electoral processes (in the form of 'one man. one vote') has led to the power—defining phenomenon of 'tribalism' or ethnocentrism that embitters the relations between various ethnic groups" (pp. 90-91). Assessing the magnitude of the disintegration ethnic- regionalism causes among Nigerian ethnic groups. Okoli (1978) wrote: So pervasive is the corporate power of the region over the indi- vidual in Nigeria that wherever a person may reside. the natal region remains the home. However long he may dwell in another region. he remains a perpetual pariah. even in his own country. He can only stand election in his own region. Therefore. his inter- ests. his rights. and values are circumscribed by his region. As the regions gained greater autonomy in the economic and political sectors. it became for the ambitious. as well as for the ordinary citizen. the most relevant political entity--the sum total of his rights. his duties. and his loyalties. (p. 18) Addressing this same issue during the General Conference on the Review of Richards Constitution in 1950. Onyeama said: Every one is thinking about his region [that is. his ethnic group]. Nobody seemed to be concerned for a moment about the Center. The North [that is. the Hausa-Fulani ethnic group] wants this for the North. The West [that is. the Yoruba ethnic group] wants the other for the West and we [that is. Onyeamals Igbo ethnic group in the East] wants this for the East--as for the Center it can go to the devil. Surely. Mr. Chairman. it would certainly lead to great difficulties in the future.. . . I. myself very much deplore the fact that we have been led in the past six years to think in Regional terms.. . . Now we here in this conference say the North can look after itself. the West can look after itself. and East can look after itselfl. Surely when [regional] economic development becomes the order of the day. we are losing that very link which we look upon as the binding force in Nigeria. (p. 98) Although nobody seemed to care about the center in 1950 because the colonialists used ethnic-centeredness and regionalism to polarize the ethnic groups in order to protect their imperialistic interests. the situation remains the same today. Nigerians are still ethnic- conscious. Everyone still thinks more highly of his own ethnic group than he thinks of other groups. Everyone still wants everything for his own group. irrespective of other groups. The ethnic groups are still polarized from each other because of the serious suspicion that exists between them. This study on ethnocentrism among Nigerian students in American colleges and universities was motivated by the destabilizing effect ethnocentrism has had in Nigeria. For this reason. the concern in this study was to attempt to investigate what happens to some aspects of Nigerian ethnocentrism among Nigerian students as they pursue advanced formal education overseas. Will advanced formal education have any effect on some of these aspects of Nigerian ethnocentrism? Some of these aspects are referred to as "evidences" of ethnocentrism in this study. The three evidences of ethnocentrism that are examined in this study include (1) a feeling of anxiety (uneasiness) that people generally have about residing outside of their own homelands. (2) a feeling of anxiety that people generally have about contributing their expertise outside of their own countries. and (3) a feeling of anxiety that people generally have about contributing to the political. educa- tional. and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own. It is assumed that one's culture tends to strengthen or reinforce these and other ethnocentric evidences (Spindler. 1974). Part of the reason is that one's culture determines how one thinks or reasons (Weis & Hoover. 1960). Implicit in this assumption is the view that as long as individuals remain within their culture. certain ethnocentric manifestations will be perpetually reinforced and strengthened. Isaacs (1975). supporting this. said that when one is born. he acquires a name. an individual name. a family name. and a group name. He acquires the history and origins of the group into which he is born. The grouphs culture-past automatically endows him. among other things. with his nationality or other conditions of national. regional. or ethnic affiliation. his language. religion. and value system. He inherits the mores. ethics. aesthetics. and attributes that come out of the geography or topography of his birthplace itself. all shaping the outlook and way of life upon which he enters from his first day. However. Shibutani and Kwan (1965) argued that ethnic groups are not the natural biological divisions of mankind. but temporary alignments of people created by communication channels. They maintained that ethnic groups disappear when consciousness of kind is altered. when people change their self- consciousness. The question this raises is what happens to the manifestations of ethnocentric tendencies among College students. especially Nigerian college students. who travel outside of their own homeland or culture to obtain advanced formal education? Traveling outside of one's home- land or country where one was originally born and raised. either for the purpose of obtaining advanced formal education. engaging in busi- ness transactions. or for luxury. is generally believed to create a certain degree of anxiety. It is partly because people are generally anxious or uneasy about leaving their homeland or cultural identity groups for elsewhere. Such anxiety is assumed to be ethnic centered and often manifested in people's constant remembrance of what families. relatives. friends. homeland. or country had meant to them. Such anxiety also comes to create an immediate desire to return to one's own homeland and to reside among one's own people. However. when one freely resides in a new environment and among a different cultural group of people over a period of time. the tendency is for that per- son's ethnic-oriented anxiety either to become less evident or to remain as strong as it was before. Since a large number of Nigerian college students have traveled and still travel overseas to obtain advanced degrees in various fields of study. the problem this writer investigated was whether Nigerian college students differ significantly from each other in terms of levels of general anxiety and anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism as they pursue advanced formal education in the United States. Will they differ from each other in terms of level of general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria? Will they differ from each other in regard to level of general anxiety and anxiety about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria? Will they differ from each other in terms of level of general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? Assuming there are significant differences between Nigerian college students"levels of general anxiety and anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocentrism identified above. will the differences be in relation to gender. age categories. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years spent as a college student in the United States. number of times the students have come to study in the United States. types of institutions students are attending. level of educa- tion students are pursuing. and location of primary. secondary. or postsecondary schools students attended in Nigeria? Will the differ- ences be in relation to ethnic groups from which students choose their closest friends? Will they be in relation to students' perceptions of each other's ethnic groups or in relation to the effect of advanced formal education being received? Will the differences be in relation to "linguistic ethnocentric" tendencies.l or the type 0f work students hope to do upon their return to Nigeria? Will the differences be in 1See definition of terms and appendix on "linguistic ethnocentrism." relation to the criteria the students hope to use in employing people. should they be put in a position to employ people in their respective places of work in Nigeria? Furthermore. will the differences be in relation to students'inain purpose in seeking advanced formal education in the United States or in relation to potential changes in students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States? What impli- cations will the differences. if any. hold for educational curriculum development.and improvement in Nigeria? W The purpose of the study was to investigate whether there are significant differences between Nigerian college students in terms of levels of general anxiety and anxiety about (1) residing outside of Nigeria. (2) contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. and (3) contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The study focused on Nigerian college students in public and private (religious) colleges and univer- sities in midwestern states of the United States of America. To accomplish this purpose. the differences between the general anxiety levels and anxiety levels on the three evidences of ethnocen- trism among the Nigerian college students in the two types of institu- tions in the study were examined in terms of the several independent variables identified in the preceding section. The implications of the differences in each of the anxiety levels were drawn for Nigeria. especially as these men and women anticipated returning to serve in various ministries of education or other federal government ministries or establishments in Nigeria at the end of their studies. Importance of the Study The study is important in several ways. First. it is an attempt to identify differences in anxiety levels on three evidences of ethnocentrism among the Nigerian college students in United States colleges and universities. Second. it is an attempt to show the implications of what may happen to the sharing process in education when people generally prefer residing in their own homelands to living elsewhere in the world. when people generally prefer contributing their expertise only in their own countries rather than elsewhere in the world. and when people generally regard their ethnic group. race. or color as "the" group and favor it over other groups. Third. the study is important because it attempts to show that college students' anxiety about residing outside their homelands can have a positive effect on the reduction of the "brain-drain" from which most developing countries such as Nigeria suffer. Fourth. since a high score on both the Anxiety Scale (Krug. Scheier. & Cattell. 1976).| and the ethnocentrism scale denotes a high anxiety level. and a low score a low anxiety level of the three evi- dences of ethnocentrism. there is the concern that when Nigerian col- lege students who have high anxiety levels. especially on linguistic 1Permission to use the copyrighted Anxiety Scale was obtained from the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing. Incorporated. Champaign-Urbana. Illinois. A copy of the instrument is in Appendix A. 10 ethnocentrism. return to assume decision-making or policy-making positions in Nigeria's educational. pol itical. economic. or religious curricula. Nigerian institutions may experience problems in years to come. Fifth. the study is expected to provide predictive information about the nature of the perspective Nigerians who obtain their advanced education in countries other than Nigeria have on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. and how that may affect the way they conduct their social. educational. political. economic. religious. or vocational activities when they return to Nigeria. Sixth. the study is important because it provides the type of cross-ethnic information necessary for the development of a nationwide cross-ethnic curriculum for use in Nigerian schools by Nigerian educators or curriculum specialists. Wm ,Anxiejy. .Anxiety means a feeling of uncomfortableness. inward restlessness. and perhaps manifestations of general emotional tensions. It is an affective state (Tobias. 1979). In this study. anxiety refers to a state of uneasiness. or mildly put. of an apprehensiveness that a person may manifest when challenged with issues or situations contrary to his expectations. desires. or feelings. For example. a feeling of uneasiness that one may experience if he is called upon to use his expert knowledge to solve other people's problems instead of solving a similar problem among one's own people. This type of anxiety may be ethnic motivated. race motivated. color motivated. and so on. 11 n ' n n .tne_United_§ta1es. This refers to the changes (positive or negative) that may occur in the Nigerian students'canmitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. Such changes may be politically motivated. or they may be related to the Nigerian economic conditions. They may relate to the general condition of life in Nigeria as opposed to the general condition of well-being in the United States. The changes can be related to other factors. such as nonregular payment of students' fees as they study overseas. -....:.-....n... a-' . gniuuggguujsnt Linguistic ethnocentrism. like any other form of ethnocentrism. is a feeling that one's ethnolinguistic group or cultural identity group is superior to other ethnolinguistic groups or cultural identity groups. In this study. the effect of advanced education on individual students'linguistic ethnocentrism refers to the effect advanced formal education is expected to have on linguistic ethnocentric tendencies that may be prevalent among Nigerian students in the colleges and universities in the midwestern states of the United States. Does advanced fonmal education create a certain degree of uneasiness toward linguistic ethnocentrism among Nigerian students? Does it make them "less" or "more" ethnic centered? These are some of the questions the expected effect of advanced formal education on linguistic ethnocentrism tends to raise. .Ethnjg_ajjlljatig_. The word "tribe" has been perceived as anachronistic. offensive. and demeaning to the African cultural and 12 social groupings. For that reason. it is used throughout this study in quotation marks. even though it is interchangeably used with the phrase "ethnic group)‘ In this study. ethnic affiliation refers to the ethnic group (for example. Hausa. Igbo. Yoruba. etcd of which the students are biological members. It is the group with which they have been affili- ated. socialized. and informally educated. WW. Ethnic group generally refers to a distinct language or cultural group of which one is a member and shares the common heredity and cultural tradition the group bestows on all its members. It specifically refers to racial. linguistic. and cultural ties that one has with a particular cultural identity group. Ethnic group from which closest friends are chosen. therefore. refers to the particular cultural identity group inside or outside Nigeria from which the Nigerian student chooses his Closest friends. For example. if the student is an Igbo. does he choose his closest friends from among the Hausas. the Yorubas. the Fulanis. the Efiks. or just among the Igbos? If he is a Hausa. does he choose his closest friends from among the Igbos. the Yorubas. the Efiks. the Bennis. or just from among the Hausas? If he is a Yoruba. does he choose his closest friends from among the Hausas. the Efiks. the Igbos. the Ijaws. the Fulanis. the Urhobos. or just from among the Yorubas? Is the choice of closest friends made along ethnic lines? ‘Ethnggentnlsm. This refers to the human phenomenon in which one's group is placed at the center of everything. and all others are 13 scaled with reference to it (Hiebert. 1981; Lambert. 1978; LeVine 8 Campbell. 1972; Sumner. 1906). It is a habitual disposition that people have or use in judging other people or groups whose customs and practices are foreign to theirs. It includes the feeling that the customs and practices of onefls own culture are superior to those of others. - n n n U.S. First-time students in the U.S. are those students for whom it is their first time to be students in the United States. whereas the previous students in the U.S. are those for whom it is their second time around as students in the United States. The previous students in the U.S. had come to the United States as students before and graduated from whatever degree program they had come to pursue and returned to Nigeria to work for one or more years before coming back the second timelto the United States as students. .Leyel_gj_efiugatlgn. Level of education generally refers to graduate and undergraduate education. It does not refer to the differences in terms of what has been learned by the undergraduate degree holders and graduate masters degree holders. or the graduate masters degree and the graduate doctoral degree holders. It refers to the general positional distinction between the undergraduates and graduates in this study. ‘Lingu1§t1g_e1hnggentrism. This refers to the attitude of every major Nigerian language group. which consists of attributing to itself a central position in everything compared to other language groups. In l4 linguistic ethnocentrism. each language group positively values its language. achievements. peculiar characteristics. vanity. and pride while making negative and derogatory remarks about other language groups' language. achievements. peculiar characteristics. vanity. and pride. Linguistic ethnocentrism is ethnocentrism on the basis of ethnic language affiliation. A linguistic ethnocentrist is one who provides help and shows concern only to those who are linguistically affiliated with him. He demonstrates "regard" or "concern" for only ingroup members but disregard or lack of concern for outgroup members. W. This refers to the various purposes for which Nigerian students pursue advanced formal education degrees. In this study. an attempt was made to examine whether the purposes for advanced formal education pursuit are related to the differences in the levels of anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocentrism among the Nigerian students in the midwestern colleges and universities. .Nega111e_1mplicatign§. ‘The term refers to negative effects of ethnocentrism on Nigerian college students and Nigerian education. economic growth and development. and political stability. We. The term refers to positive effects of ethnocentrism on Nigerian college students and Nigerian education. economic growth and development. and political stability. WWW. Perception is defined as the internal process by which we select. evaluate. and organize stimuli from the external environment (Porter & 15 Samovar. 1982). Perception can be ethnocentric or aid ethnocentrism. This is because one's attitude (negative or positive) toward other people is very much dependent on how one perceives other people. In this study "respondents' perceptions" of each other's ethnic group refers to how the Nigerian students from the three major Nigerian ethnolinguistic groups (that is. the Igbos. the Hausas. and the Yorubas) perceive each other's group. The question this raises is whether they perceive their respective ethnolinguistic group as less ethnocentric and others as more ethnocentric. .Iype_Q1_1nstitutign_1n_attendange. This refers to public universities that are operated by the various midwestern states' governments. Included in this type of institution are those that are independently operated but are not religious institutions. The other type is those that are religious oriented. for example. Christian Liberal Arts Colleges and theological seminaries. otherwise identified as private colleges and universities. W The purpose of the research is to investigate whether there are significant differences between general anxiety and anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism for Nigerian college students in terms of several independent variables as they pursue advanced formal education in the United States. The research questions are focused on Nigerian students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. anxiety about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups 16 in Nigeria other than their own. and the comparative relationships between the three issues. 'The following are the specific research questions: .Beseangh_guestion_l: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? .Beseaggn_guestign_2: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of Nigerian college students' expertise outside of Nigeria? ‘Beseargh_fluesjjgn_3: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which Nigerian college students belong? .Beseargn_gu§§tlgn_fi: Is there any relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? Afleseangn_fluestign_5: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? ‘Beseangh_fluestlgn_6: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? The following hypotheses generated from the research questions were tested to answer the research questions. .Majgr_flypgth§§1§_l: There is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. .Suhhxngihe§1§_l: There is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for males and females. .Subnypgtne§1§_2: There is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. 17 : There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students' marital status. §uhh¥£9Ihesis_4: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and number of times as student in the U.S. for Nigerian college students. .Subnypgthesis_5: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students who attend public institutions and those who attend private (religious) institu- tions. .fiubhx291h9§i§_6: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. EEUEHLIDEEfllmfifljLZI There is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. §uhhx291hesis_l: There is no relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and age categories for Nigerian college students. §ubhxngthe§15_8: There is no relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and ethnic affiliation for Nigerian college students. .thhxngthe§1§_9: There is no relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nige- rian college students. ,Majgn_flypgtnesls;i: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. : There is no relationship between "political and economic" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. : There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students! potential employment preferences upon their return to Nigeria. : There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students! potential criterion for employing people if put in a position to employ people in Nigeria. 18 §uhhxngthesis_l1: There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and changes in Nigerian college students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. .Majgn_fiypgtne§15_5: There is no relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about making a potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. Major_flypgthe§1§_5: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Majer_flypgthe§1§_6: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Assumniiens An assumption was made that an instrument could yield informa- tion on feelings of Nigerian university and college students in the United States. .Another assumption was that the respondents honestly shared their feelings and understandings about the three evidences of ethnocentrism under study. W The general research population was the Nigerian students in the United States. However. the population was delimited to the Nigerian students in the midwestern states'pndvate and public colleges and universities. The research sample was conveniently selected in the midwestern states of the United States. A single criterion was used in selecting both private and public colleges and universities involved in the 19 research. FMblic colleges and universities must have had more than five Nigerian students to be selected for the research. Since there were fewer Nigerian students in American private colleges and universi- ties than in American public colleges and universities. all the private institutions with one or more Nigerian students were selected. The selected institutions. both public and private. were presumed to be representative of the types of institutions Nigerian students attend in the midwestern region of the United States. and also of the United States as a whole. leliaflmfi The study of anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism among Nigerian students in the United States was basically limited due to little or no specific precedent literature or research on the subject. For this reason. the research cannot be considered exhaustive. Rather. it can only be regarded as a forerunner of what other scholars can do on the subject with reference to Nigeria. Another limitation is that some of the items on the question- naires need further testing for reliability and validity. The instru- ment was relied on in this study solely to explore factors and possible relationships between and among the factors. but not causes. All measures of ethnocentrism are relative error. not references to an externally valid scale. For the purposes of this study. the concept ethnocentrism is represented in terms of an instrument created for the study. 'This instrument measures ethnocentrism as a cognitive construct and not as a 20 behavioral construct. thus providing scores that are comparable only within the study but not outside the study. Since the research was not experimental but descriptive in nature. the data from the 35 items of the Anxiety Scale Questionnaire were not intended to be used to measure overt or covert anxiety. Rather. the descriptive nature of the research demanded that the first of the three different kinds of scores for the test be obtained and used. For that reason. a single total anxiety score was obtained based on all 40 items measuring the respondents' general levels of anxiety-- high level of anxiety or more anxiety. and low level of anxiety or less anxiety. Further information is given on the scores in Chapter III. Since only 35 out of the 40 items on the Anxiety Scale Ques- tionnaire were used to measure the respondents' general levels of anxiety in this research. the data would perhaps have been different if all 40 items had been used in the research. DeJJmitatJm While all the private institutions with one or more Nigerian students were selected for the research because there are fewer Nigerian students in American private colleges and universities. the research was delimited to include only the public colleges and universities in the industrial midwestern states of the United States that had five or more Nigerian students. That means the exclusion of all public institutions with fewer than five Nigerian students in their foreign-student population. 21 Geaenaljzabiljtx The research findings may be generalizable to a larger population of Nigerian students in public and private colleges in the industrial midwestern states of the United States. ‘There is no reason to believe that Nigerian students in such institutions in other regions of the United States are different from the Nigerian students in the midwestern region of the United States. On the basis of the findings. predictions may be made about what foreign students who come to the United States' colleges and universities from mul tiethnic countries think or feel about these three evidences of ethnocentrism. Furthermore. there is a potential for increased generalizability as the study relates to similar studies of students who are studying in countries other than their own. W The purpose of the study is to investigate whether there are significant differences between general anxiety and anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocentrism among Nigerian college students in terms of several independent variables as they pursue advanced formal education in the United States. Six general reasons for the importance of the research were stated in Chapter I. and some were briefly discussed. Definitions of some specific terms were also given. Research questions. hypotheses. assumptions. limitations. delimitation. and generalizability were stated. 22 Chapter II identifies and discusses significant precedents in the literature under two main headings: substantive precedents in literature and methodological precedents in literature. Substantive literature includes documents from the fields of comparative education. anthropology. social psychology. and cross-cultural communication. Chapter III discusses the research methodology under two distinct headings of a general description of the research methodology and the research procedures used in collecting the data. In Chapter IV. based on the analysis of the data. the research findings are presented as they relate to the research questions and hypotheses. Chapter V discusses. summarizes. and draws some conclusions and implications from the findings. GMWERII PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE This chapter is divided into two main sections. ‘The first section covers some substantive precedents in literature. while the second covers some methodological precedents in literature. Before discussing some substantive precedents in literature. it is necessary to state that ethnocentrism among Nigerian students cannot be understood without a knowledge of the socio—political context within which ethnocentrism or ethnicity has thrived in Nigeria since inde— pendence. For this reason. see Appendix A. which discusses under the socio-political context within which ethnocentrism or ethnicity has thrived in Nigeria since independence the name and land Nigeria. the people of Nigeria. demographic trends and the people's migrations. the major Nigerian ethnolinguistic groups (Hausa-Fulani. Yoruba. and Igbo). ethnicity and ethnocentrism in Nigerian politics. the traditional political system. the political system under the British colonial administration. the "Indirect Rules" and the British colonial adminis- tration's contribution to the growth of Nigerian ethnicity and ethno- centrism. Also discussed are evidences of Nigerian ethnocentrism in the politics of independence and ethnicity and ethnocentrism in Nigerian crises. 23 24 Discussed under the substantive precedents in literature are the following: definitions of ethnocentrism. types of ethnocentrism. causes of ethnocentrism. effects of ethnocentrism. evidences of ethnocentrism. ethnocentrism and the three major ethnolinguistic groups. ethnocentrism and discrimination in employment in Nigeria. education and ethnicity in Nigeria. and other evidences of ethnocen- trism. Under the methodological precedents in literature. various types of methods that are used in the study of various forms of ethno- centrism and ethnicity are identified and briefly discussed. Some: methods are used in the study of the effects of ethnocentrism on atti- tudes and attributions. ethnic measurement and identification. cross- cultural variations in ethnocentrism. and ethnic-tension-management mechanisms. The chapter concludes with the relevance of the research on ethnocentrism to curriculum development in Nigeria. .5uh5IanI1xE_ELQ:§M§BI§.1D.L11§L§IHL§ The following section deals with some substantive precedents in literature on ethnocentrism and ethnicity. with particular attention paid to such aspects as definitions of ethnocentrism and ethnicity. types of ethnocentrism. causes of ethnocentrism. effects of ethnocen- trism. and evidences of ethnocentrism. WWW Ethnocentrism has been variously defined by individuals on the basis of their concepts of the phenomenon. Sumner (1906) gave a 25 classical definition of ethnocentrism as the view that one's own group is the center of everything. and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. According to him. it is the attitude that makes each group nourish its own pride and vanity. boast itself superior. exalt its own divinities. and look with contempt on others. In Levine and Campbell (1972) ethnocentrism involved both positive and negative emotions. 'They used the term to cover both the in-group/out-group polarization of hostility and self-centered scaling of all values in terms of the in-group folkways. Spradley and McCurdly (1975) saw ethnocentrism as a human attitude deeply engrained in every human society. which causes it to be a central problem faced by everyone attempting to understand another culture. Lambert (1978) referred to it as judging people in other cultural groups according to what is considered right and wrong in one's own cultural group. Hiebert (1981) equated it with egocentrism and argued that it is our natural tendency to judge the behavior of people in other cultures by the values and assumptions of our own. Harris and Moran (1982) quoted the W definition of ethnocentrism as: Belief in the inherent superiority of one's own group and culture; it may be accompanied by feelings of contempt for those others who do not belong; it tends to look down upon those considered as foreign; it views and measures alien cultures and groups in terms of one's own culture. (p. 71) 26 W W While ethnocentrism is defined as the view that one's own group is the center of everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. ethnicity refers to a group identity or social groupings of individuals and people. In ethnicity individuals become identified with a group--an ethnic group. a comnuunty. a culture. a language. values. and norms. This identification is what Isaacs (1974) referred to as "basic group identity." According to him. "this identity is composed of what have been called 'primordial affinities and attachments"'(p. 15). It is an identity made up of what a person is born with or acquires at birth. It is the elements of this identity that make up a group. If ethnicity places people into an identity group--an ethnic group--ethnocentrism makes them proud of that group and gives them a feeling of superiority to all other groups. which must be scaled and rated with reference to theirs. In this sense. ethnicity and ethnocentrism are interrelated. Although both terms may not be perceived as synonymous. they certainly relate to the same issues. These are the issues of belonging to an ethnic group (ethnicity) and measuring or judging all other ethnic groups with reference to it (ethnocentrism). Ethnocentrism is a reflection of ethnicity. The former cannot exist without the latter. One cannot be ethnocentric without being ethnic (belonging or being identified with an ethnic group). Williams (1964) stated that every human being. regardless of the soc of her For dif the ini ls et no Ge be cu f i Idi etl all Ider. 27 where he lives or whatever society he belongs to. participates in four social structures--a kinship system. a territorial community. a system of social ranking or stratification. and an ethnic grouping. Schermer- horn (1974) defined ethnic group as a collectivity within a larger society having real or putative common ancestry; memories of a shared historical past. and a cultural focus on one or more symbolic elements defined as the epitome of their peoplehood. Examples are: kinship patterns. physical contiguity (as in localism or sectionalism). religious affiliation. language or dialect forms. tribal affiliation. gzti$?ality. phenotypical features. or any combination of these. For this reason. ethnicity and ethnocentrism are inseparable. It is difficult. if not impossible. to speak of one without a reference to the other. Both terms are treated as inseparable or sometimes are used interchangeably in this research. In an attempt to discover an accurate definition of ethnicity. Isajiw (1974) examined 65 sociological and anthropological studies on ethnicity and was puzzled to discover that 52 of the studies provided no explicit definition at all. To contribute to a more standardized definition of ethnicity. he compiled a list of attributes he claimed to be distinctly ethnic; these are: common ancestral origin and same culture. religion. race. and language. Sauceda (1982) rejected these five attributes by claiming that none of them informs us or truly identifies the locus of ethnicity and that even if they establish ethnic membership. the Chicanoes. the group he studied. do not satisfy all of them. Sauceda then defined ethnicity as "one's psychological identification with. and subjective belief of acceptance into. the 28 presumed identity of the group" (p. 189). In addition. he saw at ethnicity's core a complex of styles of behavior resulting from existential anxiety and fear of isolation. In short. to Sauceda. "ethnicity is essentially an existential mechanism to reduce individual alienation by creating a sense of community" (p. 190). The most plaus- ible definition is Singer's (1962). which called ethnicity "a composite of shared values. beliefs. norms. tastes. consciousness of kind within the group. shared ingroup memories and loyalties. certain structured relationships within the group. and a trend toward continuity by pref- erenti a1 endogamy" (p. 423). Sauceda's definition ignored these ele- ments in ethnicity. Walden There are probably as many concepts of ethnocentrism as there are authors on the subject. Rogers's (1976) writing about communication and development spoke of "intellectual ethnocentrism." Intellectual ethnocentrism is based on theoretical writings about modernization in the period following World War'II. The writings. according to Rogers. followed an "individual blame" logic and may have been overly narrow and ethnocentric. Western writers' perception of their development theory as the most adequate theory caused them to intellectually reject any development theory that came from a nonwestern thinker. especially if he came from the Third World. For that reason they were said to Suffer from intellectual ethnocentrism. Agaolu (1979) spoke of "tribalism" as the operative word among 29 Nigerians rather than "ethnicity." "Tribal" ethnocentrism. which this researcher identified as linguistic ethnocentrism in Chapter I. is perceived to be strong among Nigerians. According to Agaolu. "in the educational development of Nigeria. ethnicity is the most powerful determinant of access to education" n» 515). From his context. it is clear that Agaolu referred to linguistic ethnocentrism. Patchen (1983) spoke of what he termed "white" and "black" ethnocentrism in the United States. There was also talk about "racial" ethnocentrism (Patchen. 1983). Sigelman (1983) dealt with international ethnocentrism in his "American Attitudes Towards Other Nations: An Attempt at ExplanationJ' Cultural ethnocentrism is the view that pl aces one's own group at the center of everything. and all other groups are judged or measured with reference to it (LeVine & Campbell. 1972; Sumner. 1906). Cultural ethnocentrism. like other forms of ethnocentrism. has several dimensions or facets. LeVine and Campbell (1972) listed and discussed in detail Sumner's (1906) facets of ethnocentrism syndrome under two categorizations; these are attitudes and behaviors toward in-group and toward out-group. 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.8 1.10 W W12 See selves as virtuous and superior See own standards of values as universal. intrinsically true. See own customs as original. centrally human See selves as strong Sanctions against in-group thefts Sanctions against in-group murder Cooperative relations with in-group members Obedience to in-group authorities Willingness to remain an in-group member Willingness to fight and die for in-group 30 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 W W See out-group as contemptible. immoral. and inferior See out-groups as weak Social distance Out-group hate Sanctions for out-group thefts Sanctions for outgroup murder or absence of sanctions against out-group murder Absence of cooperation with out-group members Absence of obedience to out-group authorities Absence of conversion to out-group membership Absence of willingness to fight and die for out-group Virtue in killing out-group members in warfare Use of out-groups as examples in the training of children Blaming of out-group for in-group troubles Distrust and fear of the out-group 31 Widen It is quite difficult. if not impossible. to identify what causes ethnocentrism. Scholars have not discovered whether human beings are naturally predisposed to ethnocentrism or whether it is acquired by experience and association with people. both from one's own culture and outside one's own culture. as implied in the statement that "early in life each of us grows up in the center of our own world" (Hiebert. 1981). Levine (1965) seemed to imply that ethnocentrism is passed on from parents to children when he said. The images of an outgroup that adults pass on to children are affected by the amount of direct experience the adults have had with members of the outgroup and by the amount of conspicuous difference (in physical features. dress. language and occupational specialization) between the ingroup and outgroup. (p. 49) Among some remote causes or elements that influence ethnocen- trism according to some writers are distinctive group differences. belief dissimilarity between groups. and in-group and out-group social- ization of their young. WW- Distinctive differences between groups are the types of differences that form the basis for making judgments dealing with similarities and differences. Similarities and differences are of central importance in understanding in-group and out-group ethnocentrism. Negative judgment by in-group members about the conspicuous similarities and differences between them and out-group members tends to lead to ethnocentric expressions and sentiments. For example. during the early years of the formation of political parties for obtaining Nigerian political independence from 32 the British colonialists. negative judgment of the group similarities and differences between the Igbo and Yoruba members of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) led to severe ethnic ten- sions and caused a Yoruba elite. who felt that the NCNC was dominated by Azikiwe and the Igbos. to make the following ethnic-oriented state- ment: We were bunched tOQether by the British who named us Nigeria. We never knew the Ibos. but since we came to know them we have tried to be friendly and neighborly. Then came the arch devil to sow the seeds of distrust and hatred. . . . We have tolerated enough from a class of Ibos and addle—brained Yorubas who have mortgaged their thinking caps to Azikiwe and his hirelings.(Alakija. 1948; in Amoda. 1972. p. 19) Alakija's statement was precipitated by Azikiwe's ethnic-oriented statement about the Igbo people's unique destiny to conquer. rule. and preserve Nigeria. According to Alakija. It would appear that the God of Africa has specially created the Ibo nation to lead the children of Africa from the bondage of the ages. . . . The martial prowess of the Ibo nation at all stages of human history has enabled them not only to conquer others but also to adapt themselves to the role of preserver. The Ibo nation cannot shirk its responsibility. (Azikiwe. 1949) W Dissimilarities in beliefs between groups argues that people who perceive an out-group as dissimilar to the in-group will not likely think positively about the out-group and welcome interaction with its members. However. in the most extensive research on ethnocentrism. both the massive precedent in literature by Levine and Campbell (1972) and an empirical analysis by Brewer and Campbell (1976) revealed that most researchers. in disagree- ing with this argument. have postulated that people who perceive an out-group as similar to their in-group are likely to think positively 33 about the out-group and welcome interaction with them. Both arguments are not actually contradictory to each other because when in-group people perceive an out-group people as dissimilar. they will tend to think about them in negative terms. The same is equally true of the out-group people when they perceive the in-group people as dissimilar. Both in-group and out-group will positively think about each otherus group when they are perceived as similar. Nevertheless. Brislin (1981) said that nothing is more damaging to the development of interpersonal relations than statements like "We cannot agree! We have nothing in common-—and there is no basis for further discussionP'(p.‘77L The implication is that when people cannot agree. have nothing in comnmuu and share no discussion. they may become ethnocentric about their own positions. In this sense. belief dissimilarity tends to contribute to the development of ethnocentrism. which in turn tends to contribute to the disruption of interpersonal. interethnic. and intercultural rela- tionships. Within a country such as Nigeria it can contribute to national disunity and instability. ‘Sgg1a1Jzat1gn_prgge§s_111h1n_grgups. Socialization process within groups states that although people may not be born ethnocentric. they are certainly socialized into ethnocentrism by the group of which they are members. In the process of socialization. they are made to believe in the superiority of their own groups (Brewer. 1979). Since they belong to the same group. they expect trustworthiness. honesty. and loyalty from each other. These qualities are very much desired within an in-group. Members of out-groups are characterized as 34 arrogant. bitter. strange. suspicious. boastful. cynical. grasping. humorless. pessimistic. prejudiced. reserved. and so on (Ehrlick. 1973). .Etiects.e£.£thneceutnism One of the effects of ethnocentrism is the creation of a barrier in intercultural communication. The central argument of 0:955; §u11u3a1_finggug1ens by Brislin (1981) was that when an in-group member perceives an out-group member and speaks to him in negative terms. cross-cultural interaction or interethnic relationship becomes difficult. if not impossible. Even if intercultural communication were to exist in an ethnocentric context. the ability to perceive meaning accurately will be almost impossible (Brislin. 1981). Since much communication is based on nonverbal cues (Hall. 1959. 1966). the behaviors of each cultural group. which include the use of space. gestures. clothing. amount of eye contact. facial displays. positioning of the body during interaction. control of body odors. and timing of input into conversations. may be misread and wrong meanings attributed to them. "When one allows his race or ethnic group to become the pivot around which other groups revolve. he or she is hindering inter—ethnic interaction" (Blubaugh & Pennington. 1976). The second effect of ethnocentrism is the creation of interethnic conflict or even war. as in the case of Nigeria where interethnic differences coupled with political insecurity forced the 35 Biafran secession of the Igbos and subsequently war with the federal military government of Nigeria (Levine & Campbell. 1972). WIN Some elements that might be regarded as the evidences or manifestations of ethnocentrism include in-group negative perception of out-group members. in-group negative attributions about out-groupus behavior. in-group's stereotyping of the out-group members. and in- group's prejudice against out-group members. Whats. People tend to be negative in their perception of other people who do not have the same culture as they do (that is. people who do not have the same language. the same history. dress the same way. maintain the same artifacts. manners. customs. symbols. norms. and values with them). Perception is defined as the internal process by which we select. evaluate. and organize stimuli from the external environment (Porter & Samovar. 1982). By this they meant that perception is the way in which we convert the physical energies of our environment into meaningful experience. Perception can be ethnocentric or aid ethnocentrism in the sense that people behave as they do because of the ways in which they perceive the world and other people around them. Human behaviors are learned from human cultural experience. Just as the natural act of thinking is greatly modified by culture (Hall. 1981). perception is also greatly modified and influenced by cultural experiences. For this reason. to understand other people's words and actions. we must try to 36 understand their perpetual frames of reference (Hoopes. 1981; Porter & Samovar. 1982L When in-group members negatively perceive out-grouplnembers. there is the tendency for that negative perception to strengthen the in-grouphs ethnocentric predispositions toward the out-group members. This happens as a manifestation of ethnocentrism. It has been stated that if members of an ethnic group describe members of their own ethnic group. they use more favorable terms to do so than when they describe members of other ethnic groups (Levine & Campbell. 1972). Sumner (1906) claimed that. in his study of descrip- tion of in-groups by out-groups or out-groups by in-groups. (a) all out-groups received a net unfavorable index and all in-groups received a favorable balance; (b) the average out-group described by each in-group received a net description that was unfavorable. and all in-groups received a favorable balance; (c) all out-groups received a less favorable description than did the in-group in question; and (d) the average out-group described by one in-group received a less favorable description than did the in-group for all in-groups studied. That was a clear evidence of ethnocentrism. Attribution is a theoretical approach in social psychology (Harvey et a1.. 1976; Jones et a1.. 1972) that refers to how and why people make judgments about themselves and others. According to Brislin (1981). "attribution refers to judgments made about the behavior of others as well as to judgments about one's behavior. The basic assumption is 37 that people seek out explanations for the behavior they observe" (p. 91). Negative attribution refers to negative judgments people make about other peoplefls behavior and not necessarily about their own behavior. For example. when Taylor and Jaggi (1974) studied the self- perceptions of Hindis and their perceptions of the Muslim out-group. they discovered that each group identified their own grouphs positive behavior with positive attributions and their negative behaviors with the influence of the situation. The summary of their findings can be tabulated in the following way: Positive Behavior Negative Behavior In-Group (one's own group) Positive Attribution Influence of Situation Out-Group (others) Influence of Situation Negative Attribution Source: Adapted from Brislin's (1981) summary of Taylor and Jaggi's (1974. p. 95) findings. In Brislin. "positive attribution" reads "positive traits." while "negative attribution" reads "negative traits." Also. "positive behavior" reads "desirable behavior." while "negative behavior" reads "undesirable behavior." It must be stated that the practice of identifying one's own group's positive behavior with positive attributions and others with negative behavior with negative attributions is an evidence of ethnocentrism. W. Walter Lippm an introduced the construct of stereotyping in 1922. His description of the phenomenon then was that they were classes of "pictures in our 38 heads" that are basically negative toward individuals of other groups and that these pictures are essentially incorrect. Brislin (1982) saw stereotypes as most frequently referring to a person's beliefs about out-group members and identified them as stemming from prejudicial attitudes. He defined stereotypes as any categorization of individual elements concerned with people that mask differences among those elements. He maintained that stereotyping is absolutely necessary for thinking and communicating since people cannot respond individually to millions of isolated elements they perceive eacM day. For this reason. "people usually group elements together into categories and respond to the categories" (Allport. 1958). So when we speak of "conservatives" or "marxists" or "academics" or "sojourners." we are using stereotypical categories that mask indi- vidual differences within these categories (Brislin. 1981). That stereotypes will always be a factor in any sort of interethnic. inter- cultural relationships is a fact that must be taken into account. When Inembers of one ethnic group negatively make stereotypical remarks about members of other ethnic groups. that is evidence of ethnocentrism. lfl:9L9flR_2E91flfl1Qfl_i9nifl§I_QnI:Q£9un_numMuu:s Ethnocentrism is prejudicial. Prejudice means "thinking ill of others without suffi- cient warrant" (Lafarge. 1945). Thinking ill of others without suffi- cient warrant is a negative prejudice. while feeling favorably toward a person or thing. before or with no basis of actual experience. is a positive prejudice (Allport. 1958). When an ethnic group or any group of people reacts negatively to another ethnic group or any group of 39 people on an emotional basis. with an absence of direct contact or factual material about them. that ethnic group or group of people is said to behave according to prejudice (Brislin. 1981). Brislin called this type of prejudice or ethnocentrism red-neck racism. symbolic racism. tokenism. armslength prejudice. and so on. Since each of these words treats members of a given culture or aniethnic group in deroga- tory terms. such as inferior. they are seen in this sense as manifesta- tions of ethnocentrism. WWW WW2: One of the evidences of ethnocentrism has been identified and discussed as negative perception of out-groups by in-groups or in- groups by out-groups. One way of studying Nigerian ethnocentrism is to identify how the ethnolinguistic groups perceive each other's groups and how that perception. along with the negative attitudes and behav- iors it generates. creates various kinds of conflicts or difficulties that affect national unity and stability. Ethnocentrism among the three major ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria is most evident in the way they perceive each other's groups. For example. the Igbo people tend to perceive the Hausa people as "inferior." "lazy." and "unintel- ligent." and the Yoruba people as "cunning." "crafty." "unreliable." "dishonest." "selfish." "deceptive." and so on. Forde (1951) claimed that the term "Yoruba" is sometimes said to have been derived from a foreign nickname meaning cunning. given to the subjects of the Alafin of Oyo by the Fulani and Hausa ethnolinguistic groups. Incidentally. 40 that might have been the source for the Igbo and the Hausa ethnolin- guistic groups' perception of the Yoruba people as "cunning." "crafty." "unreliablefl'and so on. The Yorubas are a shrewd and reserved people who have been subjected to more intensive Westernization than any other ethnic group in Nigeria (Ezera. 1964L Perceptually. to the Hausa people. the Igbo people are "dangerous power seekers." "proud." "domi- neering."iand "deceptive." while the Yoruba people are perceived as "crafty." "cunning." "greedy." and equally "deceptive." The Yoruba people themselves perceive the Igbo people as "power conscious." "domi- neering." "money lovers." "desperate when they want anything done." "selfish." "sel f-conceited." "shrewd." "unreveal ing." and "untrust- able." The Yoruba people perceive the Hausa people as "inferior." "illiterates." "lazy." "dependent." "dirty." "extravagant." and "epi- cures" (that is. people concerned only with living. eating. and drink- ing today [the present] since tomorrow"s existence is uncertain). Before the advent of European imperialists in the southeastern part of Nigeria. the Igbo people had no common name and village groups. but were generally referred to by the name of a putative ancestral founder. The word Igbo has been used among the peoples themselves as a term of contempt by the Riverain Igbo (slaves) for their hinterland congeners. Its use by Europeans in the form of Heebo or Igbo appears early in the slave trade to refer to any Igbo-speaking groups (Forde & Jones. 1950). Again. that might have been the source for the Hausa and Yoruba ethnolinguistic groups' negative perception of the Igbo people. 41 In the preliminary interviews conducted by the researcher for this study. 22 Nigerian students from these major ethnolinguistic groups were asked to use definitive words to articulate their perceptions of each other's groups. the above words being the summary of the words they used. Iyizoba (1982) identified other derogatory names the various ethnolinguistic groups call each other. They include such names as "dumb." "pompous." "backward." "aggressive." and "sel f- indulgent." In his own study of Nigerian ethnic groups in the city of Kano. Ogunnika (1982) discovered much more various perceptions the Hausas. the Igbos. and the Yorubas have about each other. He identified these negative perceptions as "ethnic stereotypes" (p. 50%. He discovered that the Yorubas tend to regard the Igbos as backbiters and dishonest. especially in matters concerning contracts. He quoted a Yoruba busi- nessman who told him. If you reveal your secrets to them (the Igbos) you are playing with fire. They are dishonest. That one opposite my store (pointing to an Igbo store) was my friend before he showed me what he really is. I told him that the Nasarawa Primary School was awarding contracts for the supply of stationery. We both presented our tenders. But he went behind my back to inquire about my quotations (i.e.. prices for each item). Knowing my own price. he Changed his own quotation by cutting off about 5 Kobo from each item. He therefore got the contract while I lost. I cannot trust any of them because he was not the first Igbo to do that. All my Yoruba friends have com- plaints about them. (p. 51) 1"The principal unit of Nigerian currency is called the Naira. written as N. It contains 100 Kobo. written as K. One N (N1) = U.S. $1.6 (then)." 42 He also quoted a Hausa businessman who said to him. I have never in my life trusted a Yoruba. They always call us uncivilized. What else do you expect from a Kafri (pagan) who does not believe in God? For example. their leader Awolowo says he will change us. Change us to what? He wants to become like him. Our leader. Ahmadu Bello in those days tried to work with him (Awolowo). but he betrayed him (Bello). I even hate the way the Yorubas talk. They say one thing and do another. (p. 51) To get a better idea of these stereotypes. Ogunnika asked his informants the following questions: "What do you think of X. Y or Z ethnic group?" and "What do you think of your own ethnic group?" Table l is a summary of the most frequent responses. Because of these ethnocentric sentiments expressed in such strong words among the major ethnic groups. the history of Nigeria as an independent sovereign state has been punctuated by regional rivalry. coups and counter-coups. and finally a civil war (Hunt et aLu 1974). Ethnocentrism of this magnitude has tended to hamper national unity. economic growth. and development. W W The tendency for members of an ethnic group to cluster in particular occupations or to specialize in particular goods and services is not uncomnmuh In his 1974 work on getting a job. Granovetter identified networks (human networks) as one of the basic elements that assist individuals in the acquisition of employment. Reitz (1982) argued that ethnic ties tend to produce ethnically linked jobs and markets. .Nm .0 .Amwm_v mx_::3mo :. .>LmEE3m m m_ 0.500 05h ~0300m 00:500 :30 L30> 00 x:_50 30> 00 0053 Amy 033003 00:500 N .> .x 00 x:_50 30> 03 0053 A_v "m:0_0m033 m:_zo__0w 050 00 m0c0ucoam05 mo m0mcoam0: 0:030050 0moe 050 £000 v0__asou "00:30m ’43 .mm0:_m35 .__m>0:3 __m5m 03 .: .30> 00055005 >05h .: mo 0m:0m o: 0>m5 >05h .5 .m3 0005 >050 .m3 00 .0:03 0m .L0am053 m>mz_m 03 .m n_0 00m 00 0:03 >05h .m n___00:_ 00: 0:0 >05h .m 053. .30000300 0005 050 03 .N .L0>0_o >L0> 0:0 >05h .N .xcm0m >05h .N .000_:3 0:0 03 ._ .0_5003 005 0:0 >05h ._ .m3 0005 >05h .— . m .:o_m__05 mo >30:mo . m_::m_o 0:0 >05h . m3 0m:_m m 050 000:3 00.5 >05h .: 5 . : 0n3__00 m>03—m >050 035 . .>u:m5_00$ 0cm >05h .m 00:0m___00:_ 050 0>m5 03 .m .03 mcmm3 003m 000 >05h .m 053:0> .5m_0_0m >L0> 0cm >05h .N ._300005 05 05m_E 03 .N .33 50000 00 0:03 >05h .N .m:_50>..0>0 0:03 >05» ._ 003:3 05 E305m 03 ._ 6003:0000... 00:.— 0.:0_0 >05h .— .50050500 305 m 0505 00 0:03 >05h .m .0m0350500 x:_50 >050 .000 :_050 m. >0coz .5 .0m53 050 >050 5:050 >05h .: 533050 :0_L0a3m 0:0 03 .5 .__m 0m350 mm3m: .5m_w_0m 0cm >05h .m .0>m5 30> __0 0:03 >05h .m 0.:00 035 __m 0>0_ 03 .m .5m__00» 0cm >05h .N mL0>0__05:3 0cm >05h .N .5050 0x__:3 0:0 03 .N .m: 0.35 00 0:03 >050 ._ .m:_::3o >L0> 050 >05h ._ .m:_000w now 000 03 .— 053. 05350> mm3mz 3300c m0a>000000m u_:50m .m3300m o_:500 0cmx 00 m0a>000000mnu._.~ 0.5mh 44 Model (1985) discovered that in a workplace where ethnic bonds exist. the apportionment of labor tends to proceed along ethnic lines. while employers use definite ethnic preferences in hiring. .She argued that in most cases workers with no relevant experience are indiscrimi- nately hired. Jobs are acquired on the basis of ethnic heritage or affiliation. Nagell (1984) asserted that one of the outcomes asso- ciated with ethnic group membership can be employment but did not see this as an advantage. A culturally or ethnically divided economy is likely to be where ethnic differences might be expected to be main- tained. while a desegregated labor market. one that promotes job compe- tition on the basis of ethnicity. is likely to result in increased ethnic self-awareness. In Nigeria. the tendency for members of an ethnic group to cluster in particular occupations. educational institutions. industrial establishments. certain federal ministries. strategic politically appointed positions. and private or corporate institutions is not uncommon. It is common knowledge that if a Yoruba. an Igbo. or a Hausa is at the head of a federal ministry or any establishment. there is the tendency that his employees for or appointees to strategic offices in that establishment or ministry will be persons from his ethnic group. geographical region. or religious affiliation. "Individuals' occupational mobility is facilitated through ethnic associations" (Aguolu. 1979. p. 514). Recently when General Buhari took over power from President Shagari in a bloodless military coup. his appointment of the members of 45 the Supreme Military Council (SMC) and the National Council of States (M3511 was viewed by Nigerians from the southern states as unbalanced between the North and South. Concerning this. WM (1984) stated. Wel l-founded speculation that a number of northern potentates have influence over the SMC presents the SMC with something of a dilemma. As Maj. Gen. Buhari constantly stresses. the SMC wants to look long and hard at policy options before making decisions. This process includes a lot of advice from a wide range of northern figures including Mamman Daura (a former editor of New Nigeria. now a powerful businessman and a leading intellectual light among the Kaduna politico-technocrats. who happens to be Buhari's uncle); retired Gen. Shihu Musa Yar'Adau (Gen. Obasanjo's former number two) and retired Gen. Theophilus Danjuma (Chief of army staff under Abasanjo). No derogatory stigma is attached to any of the above. But they are leading lights of the northern elite. Their presence could be interpreted as a benevolent yoke around Buhari. (p. 3) Both the Yorubas' and the Igbos' seeming argument for equal representation in the SMC caused General Buhari to state: The SMC will not be rushed; that it is a military team which will not have much truck with calls for "ethnic bal ance" (that is. more substantial Yoruba and Igbo representation within the SMC) since ethnic considerations do not come into the reckoning of a military team whose tenet is anyhow to serve the national interest. (Africa mildential. 1984. p. 3) Ethnic factors seem to be played down in Nigeria when it comes to non-northern representation with respect to federal government appointments. especially when the national leader is a northerner. AW (1985) showed that all opinions expressed in the ‘The Supreme Military Council (SMC) is the decision-making body of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria. Members of this Council are also members of the National Council of States. The SMC is a name any military government in Nigeria assumes once it comes to power. The National Council of States seems to perform an advisory role to the SMC. President Babangida's present military government has changed the name SMC to Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRO). 46 South during Buhard's regime indicated impatience with the Buhari administrationus"set-up. in which Northerners were perceived as having better chances of promotion and perks than the rest" (p. 3). Speaking about discrimination in access to economic and social development and political leadership in Nigeria. the retired General Obasanja and the former Nigerian head of state said. Great disparity in economic and social development between one part of the country and another will not make for national integration. peace and stability just as great injustices real or perceived will be inimical to national unity and stability efforts. Access to resources must be fairly even and unobstructed; so must access to opportunities. The feeling persists in some quarters that there is a grand design to perpetually exclude some group (1A3. ethnic group) from political leadership because the group to be excluded has economic ascendancy. I do not share this notion. maybe because I have not been a victim or lost out in competition. (Obasanjo. 1985) .Educatien_and_EthD1Clix—1D_N199L1a Education (especially modern education) has been perceived as. and expected to be. a subversive activity in a society (Postman & Weingartner. 1969). It is subversive in the sense that those who receive it receive an intellectual perspective with which to "recognize change and to be sensitive to problems caused by change)‘ Postman and Weingartner called this perspective "an anthropological perspectivefl' which allows one to be part of his own culture and. at the same time. to be out of it. In this anthropological perspective. "one views the activities of his own group as would an anthropologist. observing its tribal rituals. its fears. its conceits. its ethnocentrism" (p. 4) In traditional societies such as Nigeria. the individual is first a member of his family and then of an ethnic group. Ethnic and 47 family loyalties are supportive of each other to some extent (Aguolu. 1979). Education. colonial education. with its parallel urbanization processes. has been claimed to contribute to the "detribalization" or de-ethnicization or shifts in loyalties to ethnic groups and family (Wallerstein. 1960). but this seems hard to accept when one examines the perspectives and activities of the educated Nigerian with respect to ethnicity in Nigeria. For one thing. ethnic associations played important roles in education during the colonial rule. especially among the Igbos and the Yorubas. The educated Nigerians were the ones who formed ethnic unions. which were responsible for ethnic educational development and political activities. They were the ones who formed political parties dominated by one ethnic group or the other during the time of politics for national independence. The educated in these political parties were the ones who appealed for political support from their individual ethnic bases. Although education is an important agent of change. it has not eradicated ethnic tensions within Nigeria. Education has not de—ethnicized the ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria. In fact. Coleman (1958) and Abernethy (1969) stressed that education can even exacerbate ethnic tensions if it gives economic or political advantages to the people of one ethnic group which other groups consider unfair. In his research on education and elite integration in Nigeria. Kurtz (1973) asserted that: One aspect of the educational process which might contribute to national integration would be the existence of a large number of individuals who had studied outside their own areas of residence or /_ 48 of a group which had attended the same educational institutions. If either of these two situations had prevailed. the legislative elite's role in integration might have been greater than it was. The members might have been exposed to other cultures. and it is possible that a leadership group with shared experiences might have developed. However. such was not [and is not] the situation in Nigeria. (p. 63) Widen Other evidences of ethnocentrism discussed in this section are the main focus of this research. WNW. People generally feel uneasy about being elsewhere in the world outside their own homeland. This feeling of uneasiness is closely associated with the "Nigerian" adage which states. "There is no place like home)‘ "Home" in this sense includes a place where one was born. that is. one's family. one's village. one's clan. one's district. one's region. one's country or continent. Every Nigerian is cognitively and consciously aware of this meaning given to the home. The home as a physical structure (that is. a living place. a building) is not unconnected to the general meaning expressed above. This is because the physical structure where a Nigerian is born and raised is built on the familyfls land in the village. the clan. the district. the region. the country. It is this concept of home'that makes the Igbos. the Hausas. the Yorubas. and members of other Nigerian ethnolinguistic groups build their family living houses (homes) in their individual ethnic homelands and not at their places of employment. The Nigerian philosophy behind this is what may be called the cultural philosophy of possession. 49 The cultural philosophy of possession argues that one's possession is in one's father's land. This is the land where one's father is buried or will be buried. and where one day he and his children will be buried. The Igbo people call this "Ala Nna" (fatherus land). An Igbo may lose his land to the Hausas in the North or to the Yorubas in the West. but will put his life on the line to save his father's land in his ethnic homeland. It is his possession. The same goes for a Hausa. a Yoruba. or any ethnic group. The idea of homefland and possession has been culturally transmitted to them by their fathers. uncles. aunts. or cousins. They have been told. "This is your possession." If they live outside of their homeland they are made to remember that it is not their home. "You are not from here and this is not your home"iare transmitted by parents who live with their children outside their ethnic homeland. Among the Igbos. the cultural philosophy of possession is based on the proverb. "achuo nwanta 050 na mba. ma onweghi ebe. O'furu efu." Ineaning. "If a child is driven back from a foreign place (where he works). if he has no home or land (to return to). he is lost." The same is true of all the other ethnic groups in Nigeria. When one's possession is threatened. it is this philosophy that makes one fight. It is this philosophy that makes nations go to war to defend their territorial integrity against aggression. This is the philosophy at work in Southern Africa. When a Nigerian grows up to be a mature man or woman and leaves home or travels to another part of the world. the cognitive awareness 50 along with the acquired experiential knowledge and understanding of the meaning of home (homeland) expressed above goes with the person. This is because the power of memory--the ability to remember or to call past knowledge. understanding. or experiences of a situation or a place to remembrance (Trotter & McCornell. 1976)--does not allow normal human beings to forget their mothers or fathers who gave birth to them. The Nigerian culture or specifically one's ethnic culture cannot be excluded from the meaning given to "there is no place like home" because one's home is not isolated from one's culture. What is culture? Preiswerk and Perrot (1978) defined culture as "the complex of values. behavior patterns and institutions of a human group. which is learned. shared and transmitted socially" (p. 3). To Babbie (1977). Culture . . . refers to the whole collection of agreements that members of a particular society share. It includes all the shared points of view that define what's true and what's good and what kind of behavior people can expect from one another. In large part. culture includes those ways of thinking. feeling. and acting that members of one society simply take for granted. but which might seem very strange to an outsider. A culture is a collection of agreements that a people share. (pp. 77-78) It is the sharing of complex values. behavior patterns. institutions. language. symbols. normal sanctions. manners and customs. cognitive styles or patterns of reasoning. clothing patterns. food and recipes for food preparation. and patterns of social transmission of these and other elements of culture or cultural systems that give rise to ethnic-group identity formation. Each ethnic group naturally perpetuates its own cultural systems. Spindler (1976) indicated that these cultural systems 51 are maintained [perpetuated] through the cultivation of certain attitudes. values. and beliefs in the young. as well as certain skills and knowledge. In complex modern societies. this cultura- tion takes place within the family. in the formal school. in churches. business and individual establishments. in peer groups and through mass media. (pp. 114-15) People cannot easily be detached from their culture. People make their culture just as their culture makes them. Since people cannot easily be detached from their culture. and since people are the symbol of their culture. there is a feeling of anxiety (uneasiness) that people develop about being elsewhere in the world outside their own homelands. Contributing factors to this feeling of anxiety are homesickness (the desire for home);1 the desire to show members of one's family. relatives. and friends the successes and achievements that one has made outside one's homeland; the desire to take one's place in the government of one's people. helping them to design and reach their destiny in education. economic growth. and development; and so on. People are ethnocentric (in the good sense of the word) about their homelands. Except in extreme cases of political uncertainties. people would not trade their homelands for being elsewhere in the world. For example. it is the desire for one's homeland that caused Benigno Acquino to leave the United States for the Philippines. even though he knew it was dangerous for his life. Another example is Dae Jung Kim. who returned to South Korea even though he knew he would be politically under house arrest. There are other examples from various 150e Appendix on homesickness. 52 parts of the world. A person with a high level of anxiety about being elsewhere in the world except in his own homeland may likely return to his homeland. while a person with a low level of anxiety may not. ... - ... .. . . ..-' ...- - . .- . ..-v -.n .quntny. Generally. people feel uneasy about contributing their expertise outside their own country. They usually prefer to contribute their expertise in their own countries. For example. about 80% of the Nigerian students who participated in the preliminary interviews for this study indicated their desire to return to Nigeria to use their expertise there. Part of the reason is a hidden argument in which an individual tells himself that if he contributes his expertise elsewhere in the world. his own country will be deprived of that expertise. It is not that the individual just tells himself that he has to contribute his expertise in his own country; he feels that it is part of his responsibility. Society expects him to do just that. The members of one's family expect him to return to use his expertise to improve their poor economic conditions. social image. and status; to make their familyfls name known in the country; or to occupy an important position somewhere in one of the nation's establishments. ministries. or insti- tutions of higher learning. The underlying argument for their position is that if one is a trained medical doctor in a specialized area and is using that expertise elsewhere in the world outside his own country. and his expertise is denied those who are supposed to benefit from it in his own country. his being a medical doctor is of no use to his own people. 53 If he is an agriculturalist who contributes his expertise elsewhere in the world so that proper methods of farming are used to produce enough food crops there. and his own country has men and womem dying of starvation. his own people will see no use in his being an agricultural expert. If he is an education specialist who contributes his expertise elsewhere in the world so that people can learn to read. write. critically think. create. build. develop. and achieve their desired human potential. and his own countrymen and women remain illiterate. unable to critically think. create. build. develop. and achieve their desired human potential. his countrymen and women will see no use in his education. Everyone desires to contribute to the building up of the society or culture to which he belongs. For this reason. almost everyone manifests certain levels of anxiety about contributing his expertise elsewhere in the world outside his own country. The social. educational. cultural. economic. and political implications for oneus own people if he contributes his expertise outside his own country tend to increase the possibilities of his becoming ethnocentric about the contribution of his expertise outside his own country. For these and other reasons. nations also tend to be ethnocentric about contributing what they know (for example. high-1eyel science and technology exper- tise) elsewhere in the world. if by so doing they will put themselves in an inferior position to other nations. A student with a high level of ethnocentrism about contributing his expertise elsewhere in the u. L 7! ..-L 54 world except in his own country may prefer to contribute his expertise only in his own country. .Aax1eIx_ab9ut_cDnIE1but1Dg_I2_Ihe_DQlitical_aDd_ecganic WW Ogunnika (1982) rightly observed that historical incidents and the beliefs that have grown up around them have helped to foster a sense of disunity among Nigerians. He claimed that most ethnic historians have pointed to the occasions when the warriors of their ethnic groups defeated those of the other. Most Nigerian leaders have claimed that their :ethnic group should rightly rule the country. For example. during the 1959 politicking for the general election that was to usher in Nigerian independence. Ahmadu Bello said. I will rule from the Sahara (that is. Northern Nigeria) to the Sea (the Atlantic Ocean in the Southh. When I win this election. I will divide Nigeria into two parts. the North I will rule myself while I will give the South to one of my lieutenants as my great grandfather Othman dan Fodio did. (Ihe_Daily_11mes. 1959) In the same vein. Obafemi Awolowo. the Yoruba political leader. was always fond of referring to the Fulani Jihad. through which great Yoruba cities such as Ilorin were annexed to the North. For this reason. one of his party's political manifestos was to reverse the annexation and recover the lost town of Ilorin for the Yoruba nation. Awolowo believed that the Yoruba people would have overthrown the Fulani Dynasty had it not been for the intervention of the British. who entered into an agreement of noninterference with the Northern Emirs during the British introduction of the indirect rule in that part of their colony. Summing up his dissatisfaction with the indirect rule. 55 Awolowo (1968) said. "One of the things which the advent of the British did in Nigeria was to entrench another alien rule" (p. 64)--that is. the Hausa-Fulani. So he urged the Yorubas to support him by defeating the Hausa-Fulani oligarchy in the 1959 election. Similarly. Nnamdi Azikiwefls statement to the Igbo State Union in 1949 traced the stages of development of "human history" and placed his own ethnic group. the Igbo. at the center point. He believed that as the leading ethnic group in Nigeria. the Igbo were destined to be the leaders and saviors of Africa. Odumegwu Ojukwu (1969). the Igbo leader who headed the unsuc- cessful Biafran secession of 1976. once declared: Nigeria never was and can never be a united country. [Different ethnicities and ethnocentric tendencies] gave rise to political power groups goaded by sectional [ethnic] rather than national interests. . . . Nigeria was not united. the Nigerians knew it. (p. 1) On this same issue. Obafemi Awolowo (1947. 1968) said. "Nigeria is not a nation. it is a mere geographical expression. There are no Nigerians in the same sense as there are "English." or "Wel sh" or "French." Tafawa Balewa (1947). the first Prime Minister of Nigeria. a North- erner. had this to say: "Since the amalgamation of Southern and North- ern Nigeria in 1914. Nigeria has existed as one country only on paper. It is still far from being united" (p. 208). The above examples clearly show the desire of each ethnic group to put itself in a position of advantage over the others. and this has tended to create a feeling of disunity in the nation. None of the ethnic groups would want to do anything that would give an economic or 56 political advantage to the other groups. For this reason. it is likely that Nigerian students will not contribute to the political and eco- nomic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own. especially if they have high levels of anxiety about doing 50. Such anxiety is likely to be consequent to the fear of what one's ethnic group will do should one want to deviate from what has become accepted as the normal pattern of dealing with ethnic groups other than one's own in Nigeria. .MetbedQl9a1cal_Erasedents_in_theEatune Various types of methods have been used in the study of various forms of ethnocentrism and ethnicity. Nagel (1983) identified two models for studying ethnic nationalism in modern states. ‘These are economic and political models of ethnic processes. There are three specific models under the general economic models. and these are what he labeled the "ecological model." the "economic organization model." and the "labor market model." The ecological model. mainly developed by anthropologists and extended by sociologists. explores the relation- ship between ethnic boundaries and economic production niches. while the economic organization arises mainly from the work of sociologists and examines the role played by the organization of the economy and the division of labor in subnational mobilization. The labor market deals with explanations of ethnic conflict and group formation over the issue of labor market segregation. The political construction and the political reaction models are two models for studying the relationships between the structure and process of politics and ethnic solidarity. antagonism. and so on (Nagel. 1984). 57 W Downtime Patchen (1983) studied students' own racial attitudes and those of peers of both races. as related to interracial behaviors. From the questionnaire data administered to a total of 1.200 black students and about 1.500 white students from ten public high schools in Indianapo- lis. Patchen constructed the following measures: (J) own attitude toward other-race schoolmates. (2) actual ethnocentrism of white peers. (3) mean ethnocentrism of black peers. (4) perceived racial attitudes of peers. (5) interracial avoidance. (6) friendly interracial contact. and (7) class racial composition. With respect to ethnocentrism of white and black peers. Patchen discovered that among blacks. students' interracial behaviors were associated most strongly with their own attitudes toward their white schoolmates. while among white students. interracial behaviors were associated with their own racial attitudes much more than with the ethnocentrism of their peers. Greenberg and Rosenfield (1978) used an extrasensory perception (ESP) test to examine the effect of ethnocentrism on attributions. irrespective of the cultural stereotype. To examine whether people who differ in ethnocentrism also differ in their attributions for whites and blacks. high- and low-ethnocentric whites made attributions for the success and failure of black and white actors on a task that required an ability that was outside the scope of the cultural stereotype of blacks. that is. ESP ability. The study revealed that high- ethnocentric subjects tended to attribute black success less to ability '— 58 and more to luck than white success. In other words. high-ethnocentric subjects tended to make more derogatory attributions for blacks as opposed to whites in comparison to low-ethnocentric subjects. M n n Smith (1980) identified how ethnicity or ethnocentrism is measured in his study on ethnic measurement and identification. He delineated three basic approaches. which he called the natal. the behavioral. and the subjective. The natal approach attempts to identify a person's ethnicity by inquiring about a person's place of birth. and the places of birth of his parents. grandparents. and so on. whereas the behavioral approach defines a person's ethnicity according to some practice or affiliation of the person such as language spoken or membership in certain voluntary groups. The subjective approach asks the person what ethnicity he considers himself or where his ancestors came from. Webs Winner] LeVine and Campbell (1972) claimed that ethnocentrism can be studied comparatively at several levels of variation: (1) across the cultural groups of the world; (2) among the groups of a given region. and then across regional units; (3) among the diverse out-group attitudes and relations of a given in-group; and (4) across dyadic units of intergroup relationship. that is. two groups considered in relation to each other. 59 Murdock (1949) and Whiting and Child (1953) were cited as examples for the first cross-cultural correlations by LeVine and Campbell. With this type of study one might compute a correlation between the tendency for great in-group peace and the tendency to have contemptuous attitudes toward out-groups. pooling data from groups scattered all over the world. The second. which they called "intracluster correlations." is associated with the work of Naroll (1961). In this type of study. for each cluster the relationship is computed separately. and these indices are then averaged across clusters. The third type is called the "in-group-based correlationJ' 1h such analyses. correlations are computed separately from the standpoint of each in-group. The fourth type is the "dyadic correlation." in which attri- butes or scores are assigned to the dyad. expressing an attitude of their relationship rather than referring to either separately. For this reason. LeVine and Campbell argued that it might be proposed that each group observes a real difference in the stereotyped imagery of the other. although reporting it with opposed evaluative connotations. WW Ogunnika (1982) studied the various mechanisms the Nigerian ethnolinguistic groups use to manage ethnic tensions in the city of Kano. He used both participant observation and interviews for data collection. Thirty principal informants. along with 200 individuals. were interviewed. Those interviewed included the sellers in Kano 60 markets. contractors. students. high school and elementary school teachers. highly placed government officials in Kano State. highly placed individuals recognized by the various ethnic groups. prosti- tutes. and police officers. Ogunnika claimed that although he and his assistants did not select the interviewees by any statistical tech- nique. they represented a cross-section of the members of Kano society in terms of age. occupational role and status. ethnic identity. and sex. The dissertation was designed to describe how the individuals from different Nigerian ethnic groups living in Kano City have been using some methods of conduct identified as mechanisms of tension management to regulate interactions and resolve conflicts in their social and economic activities. Underlying these practices was the desire to assure that their economic dealings with each other were successful. Ogunnika discovered that the relationship between the different ethnic groups in Kano City was not that of conflict alone. as some scholars have made it. but that the economic prosperity that motivated the migrants to come to Kano could not be possible if the relationship was that of conflict. He therefore concluded that although conflict is a persistent phenomenon among the different ethnic groups of Kano. it is nevertheless not the only feature of interethnic relations. The following statement summarizes Ogunnika's findings: The dissertation . . . submits that coexisting with conflict are the mechanisms of tension management. which are defined as methods of conduct regulating the actions of different members of Kano 61 society when they engage in situations such as contract negotia- tions. trading in the markets. and all the other social and eco- nomic interrelationships of daily life. (p. 253) ]he BQJeyange of the Study 10 W In his Educational_lmaglnatlon. Eisner (1979) identified five basic orientations to the curriculunu These are development of cogni- tive processes. academic rationalism. personal relevance. social adap- tation and social reconstruction. and curriculum as technology. Under social adaptation and social reconstruction. Eisner said that as an orientation to curriculum. its aims and content must be derived from an analysis of the society the school is designed to serve. Arguing this case Eisner said. Schools are essentially institutions created to serve the interests of the society. As such their mission is to locate needs. or at least to be sensitive to those needs. and to provide the kinds of programs that are relevant for meeting the needs that have been identified. (p. 62) He went on to say that if the society needs more engineers. doctors. physicists. or skilled blue-collar workers. the school is regarded as the agency through which they will be provided. One can also add that if a multiethnic society has a serious problem of ethnicity or ethnocentrism among her peoples. schools should play a role in minimizing its adverse effects or influences on that society. Ethnocentrism or ethnicity as an issue that threatens smooth interethnic relationships. national economic growth. development. and stability should be part of the school curriculum at all levels of education. especially in Nigeria. 62 Acha Ndubisi (1981). a Nigerian curriculum specialist. agreed that the aims of education (school education) in any society should be based on that society's needs. problems. aspirations. and philosophy. He argued that: Modern education must be directed to the service of the masses. the new systems. strategies and concepts of education must emerge to meet the demands of the 20th Century society. It is the responsibility of experts in education and teachers to guide and re—direct the society to aim at and achieve the desired goals. The aims of the society determine the goals of education. Ralph Tyler (1949). the notable curriculum theorist. believed: Education is a process of changing the behavior patterns (even the perceptions) of people. This is using behavior in the broad sense to include thinking and feeling as well as overt action. When education is viewed in this way. it is clear that educational objectives. then. represent the kinds of changes in behavior that an educational institution seeks to bring about in students. A study of the learners themselves would seek to identify needed changes in behavior patterns of the students which the educational institution should seek to produce. (pp. 5-6) Although "every human experience" cannot be included in a school's curriculum as Power (1982) pointed out. certain issues such as negative ethnicity or ethnocentrism. which tend to threaten the exist- ence of a multiethnic nation such as Nigeria. must be addressed in that nation's school curriculum. Since school curriculum bears the burden of preparing students for life and for living in harmony with each other. even though they come from different ethnic groups. it is neces- sary for them to be made aware of the social. political. communication. education. and economic growth and development problems ethnicity or ethnocentrism may pose to them. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology is outlined in this chapter. The research design. the research questions. and the factors between or among which interactions or relationships could exist in relation to the research questions are described. Instrumentation. sampling. data- collection procedures. and data analysis are discussed with validity and reliability questions. The purpose of the research was twofold. First was an attempt to descriptively identify Nigerian students' levels of anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism as they pursue advanced formal education in the United States. Second was an attempt to determine whether the students' levels of anxiety were significantly different from each other when examined in relation to 15 independent variables or factors. The variables included the students' gender. age categories. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years spent as a student in the United States. number of times students have come to study in the United States. type of institution students are in attendance. level of education students are pursuing. and location of primary. secondary. or post-secondary schools students attended in Nigeria. In addition. an attempt was made to identify whether the 63 64 differences are significant in terms of ethnic groups from which students choose their closest friends. the perceptions students have of each other's ethnic groups. the effect of advanced formal education on individual students' linguistic ethnocentric tendencies. the type of work students hope to do upon their return home. and the criteria students hope to use in employing people should they be placed in a position to employ people in their respective places of work in Nigeria. Significance was also sought in terms of students' main purpose in seeking advanced formal education in the United states. and the potential changes students might experience in theircxmnmitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. W291 The research methodology that was used to fulfill the above twofold purpose was described as descriptive and inferential. The study was descriptive because the methodology was designed to use a survey to investigate the levels of anxiety Nigerian students have on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. It was inferential because the data generated through the descriptive methodology were examined for differences or relationships between or among the three evidences of ethnocentrism in terms of 15 independent variables that were identified in the preceding paragraph. For example. the methodology examined whether the anxiety about residing outside of one's own homeland was related to the anxiety about contributing one's expertise outside one's own country. and the anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than one's own. It examined 65 whether there were interactions between or among the dependent vari- ables in relation to the 15 independent variables. Six major hypotheses were tested for statistically significant differences between the Nigerian college students' general anxiety levels and their anxiety levels on the three evidences of ethnocen- trism. Several subhypotheses were also tested to see whether the relationships were significant in terms of the independent variables that were identified in the first section of this chapter. The hypotheses were formulated in order to answer the research questions. which were stated in Chapter I. Emulation The general research population is defined as the Nigerian students in two types of institutions. public universities and private (religious) colleges or universities in the United States. In the 1983-84 academic year about 20.080 Nigerian college students were in the United States. The figure is more than 50% of the total number of 41.690 students reported from Africa as a world region that same year (Zikopoulos & Barber. 1983). A greater percentage of this number were believed to be in the midwestern region of the United States. Fer this reason. the researcher delimited the general research population to the midwestern region of the United States. The public universities and private colleges or universities whose Nigerian student populations were involved in the research are located in the following midwestern states: Illinois. Michigan. Minnesota. Nebraska. Ohio. and Wisconsin. 66 A greater number of the research population attended public colleges or universities. while only a small fraction attended private Christian colleges. universities. or theological seminaries. Those who attended Christian colleges. universities. or theological seminaries were mainly graduate students. A mixture of graduate and undergraduate Nigerian students is available in the large public colleges or univer- sities. These students came from various ethnic groups in Nigeria. Particular attention was paid to the Igbo. Hausa. and Yoruba college students in this study. The Igbos. Hausas. and Yorubas are the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria. Other students (who were paid some attention) in the study came from the minority ethnic groups in Nigeria. and they were represented as "other" in the research instrument. Sample Two hundred thirty-four public university students and 33 Christian college students were involved in the research. The 234 public university students and the 33 Christian college students were selected by convenience from 12 public and seven private colleges or universities which were also selected by convenience. However. where it was difficult to get the required number of students from either the public or the private colleges and universities that were already selected for the research. more colleges and universities were added to the list by convenience until the proposed number of students was reached. 67 WW9 the Institutions Twelve public colleges and universities and seven private Christian colleges and universities were selected for the research by a "convenience sample)‘ The rationale for this was that Nigerian students cannot be found in every public or private college or university in the midwestern region of the United States. Therefore. the single criterion used in selecting the institutions involved in the research was that they must have more than five Nigerian students. A convenience sample of public institutions with more than five Nigerian students in their student population was selected. Also. only those private Christian colleges and universities that had one or more Nigerian students were selected. SampjthEEecsduLeLflLielscflng We Since the institutions involved in the research were selected by a convenience sample. the various respondents involved in the research were also selected by a convenience sample. Nevertheless. efforts were made to sample between 80% and 90% of the population of Nigerian students in each of the colleges and universities whose stu- dents were involved in the research. ‘To accomplish this. the research- er requested the number of Nigerian students from the Foreign Students' Directors in each of the institutions involved in the research in order to determine the number of respondents that would make up the 80% to 90% of the total number of students in each institution. However. in 68 the case of private Christian colleges or universities where Nigerian students are usually fewer than five in number. the total population was involved in the research. Instmmeatatjm The main instrument used for data collection was a 56-item questionnaire developed by the researchen. The instrument was divided into two main sections. Items 1 through 9 in section one were used to collect demographic information. while items 10 through 21 (in the same section) were used to collect data on Nigerian students' levels of anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism. The 35 items in section two were used to measure Nigerian students' general levels of anxiety (see Appendix E). The students' general levels of anxiety (high anxi- ety or low anxiety) were used to compare for relationships with the students' anxiety levels on three evidences of ethnocentrism. which were previously identified. WM Two steps were taken in the development of the instrument. These included a series of preliminary interviews and some pilot tests. Twenty people in four major universities in Michigan were selected for the preliminary interviews and pilot tests. The purpose of the pre- liminary interviews was to identify appropriate questions on ethnocen- trism that would be built into the Anxiety Scales Questionnaire that was also used in the construction of the research instrument. Pilot 69 tests were used to refine the items generated from the preliminary interview. Preljmjnacy Intecyjeus The purpose of the preliminary interviews was to identify appropriate questions on ethnocentrism that would be used in the con- struction of the questionnaire. Twenty people were selected for these interviews. General questions were used to collect basically three different kinds of data. These were demographic data. ethnocentrism data. and anxiety data. Questions dealing with students' backgrounds were asked. For example. Is this your first time in the United States? How long have you been a student in the United States? What is your purpose in seeking advanced formal education in the United States? What type of work do you hope to do when you return to Nigeria at the end of your studies? 00 you intend to return to Nigeria at the end of your studies? What is happening to your commitment to Nigeria while you are studying in the United States? What is your ethnic affiliation in Nigeria? Are you married? Some of these general questions were used to construct specific questions on ethnocentrism during the preliminary interview process. Furthermore. new questions were generated in each interview session. Whenever this happened. the researcher attempted as much as possible to pose that same question to other interviewees. The responses from the preliminary interviews were used in the construction of the research questionnaire. Twenty-one multiple- chodce questions were developed from the preliminary interview 70 responses. The majority of the items were put into Likert's five- range pattern of "Strongly Disagree." "Disagree." "No Opinion." "Agree." and "Strongly Agree." The respondents were expected to select and circle the item number that best represented or reflected their opinions on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. Before the pilot testing. all 40 items on the Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (ASQ) prepared by Krug. Scheier. and Cattell (1976) for Personality and Ability Testing. Inc.. were selected and built into the 21 questionnaire items on ethnocentrism to make the entire question- naire a 61-item research instrument. Five of the ASQ items were dropped after the pilot testing. thus making the final number of the research questionnaire items 56. ' The A50 has three different kinds of responses: true (some- times). in between (seldom). and false (nevenh The respondents were expected to select and mark an X under the column that best represented how they felt or what they thought about the issues raised by the questionnaire items. My Copies of the final draft of the questionnaire were made and pilot tested among 20 Nigerian students. some of whom were involved in the preliminary interviews. During the pilot-testing process. 5 out of the 40 items on the ASQ were eliminated due to the interpretation difficulties they posed to the pilot-testing respondents. Conse- quently. the pilot testing was used by the researcher to further ul qu Con- 71 reorganize. restructure. and rephrase some of the questions to avoid unnecessary ambiguity and confusion that might face the actual research respondents during the administration of the instrument. Also it helped the researcher make the most sensitive questions less sensitive and easier to answer. Aeeeee te Njgecjen Students Before proceeding with this study involving human subjects. permission had to be obtained from Michigan State University's Commit- tee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). See Appendix G for both a copy of the request to engage in the study and of the permission to proceed with It) After the permission was granted by the UCRIHS. a letter was written to the Director of the Office of Foreign Students and Scholars at Michigan State University to provide the researcher with a list of the names of all the foreign students' directors in all the colleges and universities whose Nigerian students were expected to be involved in the research. After this list was obtained. a letter of contact was written to each of the foreign students' directors in each of the 17 university or college campuses. requesting them to provide the researcher with a name and address to use in contacting the Nigerian student organization on their campuses. Copies of the instrument were sent to all the directors to assure them of its professional quality. The names the directors sent the researcher helped him to make contacts with the Nigerian students! union presidents and subsequently 72 the entire Nigerian student population in each of the university or college campuses. (See Appendices H and I for the contact lettered ** The researcher wrote another letter to each Nigerian student in which he introduced himself. described the research. and instructed them on what to do to ensure their anonymity in such a sensitive study as ethnocentrism. He specifically informed the respondents that their names would in no way be identified with their responses since their names were net Legujred to be identified anywhere on the questionnaire pages. The letter was a preface to the 56-item questionnaire. (See Appendix D.) ** WWII! Since ethnocentrism research is very sensitive research. the respondents were specifically requested not to identify their names nor the names of the institutions they attend anywhere on the questionnaire pages in order to maintain their anonymity; Therefore. there was no way their responses were to become known outside the research. and reasonably place them at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to their financial standing or employability. The respondents were only required to respond to the 56-item questionnaire. W A total of 298 copies of the questionnaires were made and distributed. Each copy was seven and one-half pages long (see Appendix E) and was put into a 9" x 12" plain envelope and distributed in that ** form. 73 The researcher distributed and administered the questionnaires himself to the respondents on a one-to-one basis at each of the campuses. The researchem's distribution and administration of the questionnaire himself was expected to increase the response rate. With the exception of two campuses. the researcher traveled to all the campuses for the distribution and administration of the questionnaires. The Foreign Students" Directors at each of the two campuses offered to distribute and administer the questionnaires to their students them- selves. and to mail back the completed copies to the researcher. Also. two Presidents of the Nigerian Students'LhHon at two universities helped in the administration of some questionnaires on behalf of the researcher. To avoid influencing the opinions of the respondents where the researcher distributed and administered the questionnaires himself. the following precautions were taken. First. each respondent was given a 9" x 12" plain envelope with the questionnaire in it. Each was instructed to respond to all the 56 items as honestly as he could and return the completed questionnaire in the same plain envelope. Second. the researcher stayed away from the scene and waited until the respond- ent had completed the questionnaire. Wm Two separate sets of scores were obtained from the question- naires. The>first set of scores came from the first 211 questionnaire items. while the second set of scores came from the 35 items on the 74 ASQ. The entire 267 respondents were scored on each of the 56 items on the questionnaires. A single total anxiety score was obtained from the ASQ items. The researcher simply added up the 1'5. 2'5. or 3's for each answer on each item. A higher score meant higher levels of general anxiety. whereas a lower score meant a lower level of general anxiety. A single total ethnocentrism score was obtained from the ethnocentrism question- naire items. A high score on the ethnocentrism questionnaire items meant a high level of ethnocentrism. while a low score meant a low level of ethnocentrism. In the Anxiety Scale Handbook (Krug et a1.. 1963. 1976). it is stated that three kinds of scores for the test may be obtained. The first is a single total anxiety score based on all 40 items. The Handbook emphasizes that it is what is needed in the majority of cases. The second is a breakdown into (a) an unrealized. covert anxiety score for 20 items on the left-hand test page and (b) an overt. symptomatic. conscious anxiety score for 20 items on the right-hand test page. These two separate scores are the sum of the total anxiety score. which has been identified as the first kind of score to be obtained from the test. The Handbook suggests that when the two scores are used separately. they can be interpreted as a ratio of overt to covert anxiety. The third is a breakdown of total anxiety into five personality components in anxiety--apprehension. tension. low self- control. emotional instability. and suspicion. These are the three different ways in which one can score the test or use the scores. scc be ure sce al dei tri nat ove the tes rec for val Var men E _ Cons Inte (Sor 75 In this study. the researcher used the single total anxiety score. which is the first way the test can be scored or the scores can be used. 'The total anxiety score of the respondents was used to meas- ure the respondentsfl general levels of anxiety. A high score on the scale was indicative of a high level of anxiety or more anxiety. while a low score on the scale was indicative of a low level of anxiety or less anxiety. The students' general levels of anxiety were used to determine their levels of anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocen- trism. Since the research was not experimental but descriptive in nature. the researcher did not use the data from the ASQ to measure overt or covert anxiety. It was because of the descriptive nature of the research that he chose to use the first pattern of scoring the test. Above all. the first scoring pattern has been emphatically recommended to be used as the most important and dependable pattern for which norm tables have been provided and for which reliability and validity estimates are principally supplied. Krug et a1. (1963. 1976) warned that the other scoring patterns should be regarded as experi- mentally oriented and used with caution. InstmmenLBeJJabflitmd We By test reliability is meant the extent to which the test gives consistent results (scores) (Krug et alu. 1963. 1976) or the level of internal consistency or stability of the measuring device over time (Borg & Gall. 1979). Reliability can take the form of consistency in 76 test scores over time or consistency in answers from one question to another in the test. Bearing this in mind. some of the questionnaire items on the three evidences of ethnocentrism need further testing for reliability and validity. Validity means "the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure" (Borg 8. Gall. 1979. p. 211). The research questionnaire items are presently relied on only to explore factors and possible relationships between and among the factors. and not causes. However. on the A30 two types of reliability estimates are provided for the total score in Table 3.1. These are test-retest (consistency over time) and internal consistency (consistency across items). Table 3.l.--Reliability of the ASQ Total Scale Score. Value Method Sample Description .93 Retest after 1 week 87 adults. males and females. Levitt and Persky (1962) plus additional. previously unpublished data .87 Retest after 2 weeks 277 Japanese university students. males and females .86 Retest after 2 weeks 345 S. African high school students. males and female. Cattell. Scheier. and Madge (1968) .82 Retest after 4 weeks 94 university students. males and females. Unpublished data. John Pennsylvania State University Table 3.l.--Continued. 77 .92 Split-half. corrected 27 adults. males and females to full test length .91 Split-half. corrected 120 adults. males and females. nonnals and hospitalized neurotics .89 Split-half. corrected 400 Indian university students. males and females. Hundal. Sudahar and Sidhu (1972) .87 Split-half. corrected 340 Japanese university students. males and females .86 Split-half. corrected Indian graduate students. males. Hundal. Singh and Singh (1970) .85 Split-half. corrected 305 German university students and adult Clinic cases. males and females. Beyne and Fahrenberg (1968) .84 Split-half. corrected 240 adults. males and females .80 Kuder-Richardson 1.247 S. African high school students. males and females. Cattell et a1. (1968) .78 Split-half. corrected 789 S. African high school students. males and females. Cattell et a1. (1968) Source: WW (1963. 1976): pP- 24: 25- According to Krug et a1. (1963. 1976). the coefficients drop off when the time interval increases. They argued that part of this is due to the fact that individuals do change over time in anxiety levels. A test-retest coefficient of.60 was reported for a sample of 170 medical students over a two-year period (Miller. nut). But when the value was corrected for the restricted range of anxiety 78 scores among medical students. it increased to about .70. That meant that. over two years. appreciable changes could occur in a personu; anxiety level. though a strong tendency existed for individuals to maintain their relative positions. Three aspects of the validity of the ASQ have been examined. First is how well the test score correlates with the pure anxiety factor it was designed to measure. Second is how well the test score corresponds with clinical judgment regarding anxiety level. Third is how well the test score relates to otheriquestionnaire measures of anxiety. The first aspect of the validity of the ASQ applied directly to this study's purpose of identifying the general level of anxiety of the Nigerian students in the midwestern states colleges and universities so that it can be examined to see whether it is significantly related to their anxiety levels on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. The A50 was therefore accepted as a valid instrument and incorporated into the composite questionnaire used in this study. Table 3.2 shows ASQ validity correlations of scale scores with the pure anxiety factor. The correlation between test score and the pure anxiety factor summarizes the results from five independent factor analyses. In each case. according to Cattell et a1. (1963. 1976). the analytic design was essentially the same. The ASQ score was correlated with a number of other variables. measures of anxiety as well as traits unrelated to anxiety. The correlations were then factor analyzed. In each case. one factor was identified as anxiety. representing as 79 it did the elements common to all the anxiety measures studied. Table 3.2 shows the correlation of the A50 total score with this pure expression of anxiety averaged .90 across samples differing with respect to age. sex. education. and culture. Table 3.2.--ASQ validity: Correlations of scale scores with the pure anxiety factor. Correlation w/ Size Description Anxiety Factor Source 182 128 neurotic and 54 normal .94 Rickels & adults of both sexes. gen- Cattell (1965) erally middle 8 lower classes 163 Male college students from .91 Templer (1972) South Africa 53 Adult males. age 25 to 59 .90 Kahn et a1. years. in industrial super- (1964) visory positions 105 Male and female college .88 Tampler (1971) students from South Africa 223 Male and female college .84 Barrett (1965) students 726 (Total Sample Size) .90 (average validity across five studies) WW Since there were many variables or factors in the research. analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether the mean scores were significantly different from one another. Borg and Gall 80 (1983) stated that ANOVA results in an F-value when used in research involving complex factorial designs. In this research. the F-value was used to determine whether the mean scores of the respondents on each of the dependent variables or factors were significantly different from one another. and whether the variables or factors inter- acted significantly with one another. Also. the F-value was used to determine whether the significance was across the independent variables of gender; age categories; ethnic affiliation; marital status; number of months or years spent in the United States; types of institutions in attendance; level of education students were presently pursuing; loca- tion of primary. secondary. or postsecondary school student attended in Nigeria; ethnic groups from which students chose closest friends; students' perceptions of each other's group; effects of advanced formal education on ethnocentric tendencies; type of work students desired to do upon returning to Nigeria; criteria for hiring people if put in a position to hire people in place of work; students' purpose in seeking advanced formal education in the United States; and changes in stu- dents' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. GMHERIV FINDINGS In this chapter the data generated through the research instrument are analyzed and reported. The rate of returns on the questionnaire and the characteristics of the respondents are also reported. The research questions are restated in the light of the research purpose. Hypotheses intended to answer the research questions are tested. and the results are reported. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings. .BaIs_QI_Qu§§Iian11£&_BQIuLn$ Two hundred ninety-eight copies of questionnaires were dis- tributed. and 267 or 90% were returned. The 31 or 10% that were not returned may bias the findings. but only in a very small way. Ninety percent of the returns is significant. Table 4:1 shows the rate of returns on the questionnaires distributed. WWW An analysis of the characteristics of the respondents by demographic data is reported in this section. The characteristics refer to items 1 through 10 in the questionnaire. 'The data show a frequency distribution by gender. age. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years spent as a student in the United 81 82 Table 4.l.--Rate of questionnaire returns. Distrib- % State uted Returns Returns Illinois Univ. of Illinois. Chicago 20 18 90.0 Illinois Northern ILlinois Univ. 7 5 71.4 Illinois Univ. of Illinois. Urbana 5 4 80.0 Illinois Moody Bible Institute 2 2 100.0 Illinois Trinity Evang. Div. School 1 1 100.0 Illinois Wheaton College Grad. School 5 5 100.0 TOTAL 40 35 87.5 Michigan Michigan State University 38 37 97.0 Michigan University of Michigan 10 9 90.0 Michigan Wayne State University 15 14 93.3 Michigan Eastern Michigan University 42 40 95.2 Michigan Western Michigan University 25 25 100.0 Michigan Andrews University 20 15 75.0 Michigan Grand Rapids Baptist Sem. 1 1 100.0 Michigan Calvin College 3 3 100.0 TOTAL 154 144 94.0 Minnesota University of Minnesota 30 23 77.0 Minnesota Bethel Theological Sem. 1 1 100.0 Nebraska Univ. of Nebraska. Lincoln 7 5 71.4 Ohio Ohio State Univ.. Columbus 36 33 91.7 Wisconsin Univ. of Wisconsin. Madison 30 26 80.0 TOTAL 104 88 85.0 TOTALS 298 267 90.0 83 States. number of times resided in the United States as a student. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued. FreqUency distributions of the respondents in terms of the variables are given below. We: The frequency distribution by gender in Table 4.2 shows that 74% of the respondents were males. while 26% were females. Table 4.2.--Frequency distribution by gender. Relative Adjusted Cumulative Sex N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Male 198 74.2 74.4 74.4 Female 68 25.5 25.6 100.0 Missing cases 1 .4 missing W The frequency distribution by age in Table 4.3 shows that 45% of the respondents were between 20 and 29 years old. 49% were between 30 and 39 years old. and 5% were over 40 years old. The data suggest that. at the time of the study. the majority of the Nigerian students in United States colleges were between 30 and 39 years of age. followed by those between 20 and 29 years of age. 84 Table 4.3.--Frequency distribution by age. Relative Adjusted Cumulative Age N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) 20-29 121 45.3 45.7 45.7 30-39 130 48.7 49.1 94.7 Over 40 14 5.2 5.3 100.0 Missing cases 2 .7 missing W The frequency distribution by ethnic affiliation in Table 4.4 shows that 38% of the respondents were Igbos. 15% Hausas. 29% Yorubas. and 17% were from other tribes or ethnic groups. 'The data show that the Igbos had the highest percentage of the total population sampled. followed by the Hausas. the Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. The data also show that the Yorubas had the second highest percentage of the total population sample. whereas the Hausas had the lowest percentage of the total population sample. Other ethnic groups were above the Hausas by 1%. Table 4.4.--Frequency distribution by ethnic affiliation. Relative Adjusted Cumulative Ethnic Group N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Igbo 101 37.8 38.0 38.0 Hausa 43 16.1 16.2 54.1 Yoruba 76 28.5 28.6 82.7 Other 46 17.2 17.3 100.0 Missing cases 1 .4 missing 85 W The frequency distribution by marital status in Table 4.5 shows that.48% of the respondents were married. and their families were with them in the United States; 16% were married but their families were not with them in the United States. The data also show that 33% of the respondents were single. The data suggest that there were more Nigerian student respondents who were married than were Nigerian stu- dents who were single. There were more students who were married and their families were with them in the United States than there were students who were married but their families were not with them in the United States. There were more single Nigerian students than there were those who were married without their families in the United States. Table 4.5.--Frequency distribution by marital status. Relative Adjusted Cumulative Marital Status N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Married with family in the U.S. 128 47.9 48.3 48.3 Married without family in the U.S. 43 16.1 16.2 64.5 Single 87 32.6 32.8 97.4 Other 7 2.6 2.6 100.0 Missing cases 2 .7 missing —_ 86 W W The frequency distribution by number of months or years as a student in the United States in Table 4.6 shows that 14% of the respondents had only been students in the United States between 6 and 12 months. 54% between 2 and 4 years. 24% between 5 and 8 years. and 7% over 9 years. The data show that a greater percentage of the population sample had been students in the U.S. between 2 and 4 years. The second group with a greater percentage representation in the population sample were those who had been students in the U.S. between 5 and 8 years. Table 4.6.--Frequency distribution by number of years as students. Length of Time Relative Adjusted Cumulative as Student in N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) United States 6-12 months 37 13.9 14.1 14.1 2-4 years 144 53.9 54.8 68.6 5-8 years 63 23.6 24.0 92.8 Over 9 years 19 7.1 7.2 Missing cases 4 1.5 missing Wm W The frequency distribution by the number of times as a student in the United States in Table 4:7 shows that 74% of the respondents claimed that this was their first time as students in the United States. while 25% claimed that it was their second time. 87 Table 4.7.--Frequency distribution by number of times as student in the United States. Number of Times Relative Adjusted Cumulative as Student in U.S. N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) First time 197 73.8 74.9 74.9 Not first time 66 24.7 25.1 100.0 Missing cases 4 1.5 missing Wham W The frequency distribution by previous attendance in a United States institution in Table 4.8 shows that 13% of the respondents claimed they had previously attended and graduated from a United States institution and returned to work in Nigeria before coming back the second time as a student. 'The data show that a greater percentage of the Nigerian students were in the United States for the first time to attend United States institutions. mm W The frequency distribution by type of institution in attendance in Table 4.9 shows that 85% of the respondents attended public colleges or universities. whereas 12% attended private or religious colleges and universities. The data show that a majority of the Nigerian students in the sample attended American public colleges and universities. whereas a minority of them attended American private colleges and universities. la la sh (191 thi Sit 88 Table 4.8.--Frequency distribution by previous attendance in a U.S. institution. Previous Relative Adjusted Cumulative Attendance N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Previous U.S. student 35 13.1 13.2 13.2 Nonprevious U.S. student 228 85.4 86.0 99.2 Other 2 .7 .8 100.0 Missing cases 2 .7 missing Table 4.9.--Frequency distribution by type of institution in attendance. Institution Relative Adjusted Cumulative Type N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Public 227 85.0 87.3 87.3 Private 33 12.4 12.7 100.0 Missing cases 7 2.6 missing Wm The frequency distribution by academic degree in Table 4:“) shows that 38% of the respondents were working toward their bachelor's degree. 30% toward their master's degree. and 31% were working toward their doctorate degree. The data show that a majority of the Nigerian students in the population sample were working on their bachelor's 89 degree. while those working on their master's and doctorate were almost evenly split at 30%. Table 4.10.--Frequency distribution by academic degree. Relative Adjusted Cumulative Degree N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Bachelor's 102 38.2 38.5 38.5 Master's 81 30.3 30.6 69.1 Doctorate 82 31.0 30.9 100.0 Missing cases 2 .7 missing WWW mm For the purpose of this study. the concept ethnocentrism is represented by an instrument created for the study. 'This instrument measures ethnocentrism as a cognitive construct and not as a behavioral construct. thus providing scores that are comparable only within this study. but not outside it. Table 4.11 is a scale showing ethnocentrism score ranges from 44 to 107. High. medium. and low scores were developed by placing approximately the highest and lowest 25% of the individual scores in the high and low levels. while the remaining individual scores were placed in the medium level. 90 Table 4.11.--Nigerian college students' general ethnocentrism total scale scores. Level Score Range N % Low 44- 75 69 25 Medium 76- 86 127 50 High 87-107 71 75 Column total 174-268 267 150 The preceding scale shows that 69 out of 267 Nigerian college students involved in the study scored at the 25% level of the total scores and were therefore identified as low on the ethnocentrism scale. whereas 71 out of 267 scored at the highest 25% level of the total scores and were therefore identified as high on the ethnocentrism scale. One hundred sixty-seven of the 267 students scored at the 50% level of the total scores and were therefore identified as medium on the ethnocentrism scale. This implies that a greater percentage of the Nigerian college students who were involved in the study were between average and above-average on the ethnocentrism scale. Figure 4:1 shows the score ranges more clearly. The histogram follows the pattern of a normal curve. although it is slightly skewed to the right. The slight skewness to the right suggests. however. that a greater number of Nigerian college students tended to lean toward high ethnocentrism. although there were more scores in the median than there were in either the low or high levels on the scale. Nevertheless. it must be restated that the scale is 60 55 ' 50 45 40 35 30 25 . 20 IS ., 10 . 15 91 33 61 56 2 2 [—3 0J— 24 l8 l6 II 40 A5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 low anxiety medium high anxiety anxiety Figure 4.1: A histogram of Nigerian college students' general ethnocentrism total scale score. 92 relatively internal to this study and was purposefully used to measure the levels of Nigerian college students' ethnocentrism in general and how they compared in particular to their levels of ethnocentrism about residing outside of Nigeria. contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. and contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Since the scale is relatively internal to this study. all comparisons are relatively made among Nigerian college students from the three major ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria and not with reference to some other groups outside Nigeria. Therefore. this writer cannot presume that Nigerians in general are more ethnocentric than other people in Africa or the world because there are no external ethnocentrism scales with which to externally ascertain the accuracy of the statement. The following Pearson correlation coefficients table (Table 4.12) shows the correlation between Nigerian college students' levels of ethnocentrism in general and their levels of general anxiety. and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. anxiety about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The Pearson correlation coefficients show that there were statistically significant relationships between Nigerian college students' levels of general ethnocentrism scores and scores on general anxdety. anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. anxiety about contributing their expertise outside Nigeria. and anxiety about 93 .m0m055a ..30 L_050 00 000—0 :0 0000050 0:0 mm:_0005 ..0 :0 00m: 050 :>00_x:0 0.50:000 0:0 .0000__oa: 0:0 mm50 0305m30050 m:o_0a_cum00 :>00Vx:0 0:0035VL0:09:0 ._0>0_ mo. n 050.0 050 00 o u 00:0o_m_:m_m« n a emN New Nam “SN New New 2 me~_.m_ sm-.~ mmm..~ smmw.~ «NV... Nmms.m u ..000 Ess_ou ... ._oo. ..oo. «moo. ..oo. a SN 8 V :3 V :3 V :3 V :3 V z 5.0.... smae.~ oooo._ ommm. no... owm_. .mme. e :O_socou.\_.u_0__oa: ..oo. ... ..oo. mmo. ..oo. a NQN Ase~ V 50 V 5eo~ V Anew V Aeoa V 2 _ mmm..~ comm. oooo._ .ees. ammo. NmNe. 0 >0._xcm :mc_0sa_L0cou: ..oo. ..oo. ... NNN. ..oo. a “ma Anew V Aema V 50 V seem V AeoN V 2 samw.m moms. .5es. oooo._ .eso. meme. 0 >0._xc. :mc_e_mom: «mos. .mo. NNN. . ... «one. a AVN Anew V Aemw V AemN V 50 V Aema V 2 m~_s._ omm_. Nemo. _eso. oooo._ oo... o >0._xc. ....cma «.oo. «.00. «.00. ammo. ... a mom seem V Aeew V Aemw V Anew V AC V 2 Nmms.m .mNA. NmNe. memw. co... oooo._ u s._.0couo:;.. ....cou 0 0 >00_x:< >00Vx:< > 0.x: > 0 x: EmVL0c0u .w_:m_m _ 0 h o_eo:oum m:_03 0 . < 0 _ < 10:50m m0mmu 30¢ m:_0_m0m _0L0:0u \_.._0__oa -.chcoU ....cau .00000 w .m0:0030m 0m0__00 :0VL0m_z 00 0:00m >00Vx:0 :o_50:oo0 0:0 .00_0__oa: 0:0 .0Loom >00_x:0 :m:_035_:0:ou: .0coom >00Vx:0 :m:_0_m05: .0500m >00Vx:0 .050c0m 0:0 0000m 0.00m _00o0 EmVL0c0ooc500 .000c0m :003005 m0_3m0L 0:0_o_00000 :0500_0LLoo :00:00anu.~_.: 0.500 94 contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The table. however. suggests that the Nigerian college students who tended to have high scores on the general ethnocentrism scale also tended to have high scores on the scales for general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Those students who tended to have low scores on general anxiety also tended to have low scores on the anxiety about residing outside Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The relationships between Nigerian college studentsfl levels of general ethnocentrism and general anxiety. and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. about contributing their expertise outside Nigeria. and about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own are analyzed in terms of such independent variables as gender. age. ethnic affiliation. marital status. and other independent variables in the next section dealing with the study's research questions and hypotheses. W The purpose of the research was to investigate whether there are relationships between Nigerian college students' general anxiety and anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism identified in Chapter I. Examined in the research were the relationships between the dependent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic 95 variables. Also examined were the interactions between or among the dependent variables themselves. Six major hypotheses. identified in Chapter I. were tested in order to answer the six research questions. also identified in Chapter I. Correlation analysis was used to test the major hypotheses related to the six research questions. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the dependent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic variables. The Scheffe post hoc comparison technique was used to compare levels of significance between group means on a given independent variable. whereas chi-square was used to compare relationships across groups on a given independent variable. W W .Beeeeneh_0uestien_1: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? The question refers to items 10 (a-f) and 21 (a-g) in the questionnaire. To answer the research question. the following major hypothesis was tested. Also. several subhypotheses were tested by comparing the dependent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic or independent variables. All the hypotheses are stated in the null form. .Mejen_flypethesis_1: There is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. 96 As shown in Table 4.I3. the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria was rejected. Individuals who tended to have more or high anxiety in general also tended to have more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. The correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about living outside of Nigeria was .04. which was significant at the alpha = .05 level. See the frequency distribution for residing anxiety level in Appendix J. ** Table 4.13.--Correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. Anxiety Type Mean N r P (r) General anxiety level 78.2 267 .04 .001* "Residing" anxiety level 41.1 267 i'Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Using ANOVA. Nigerian college students'rnean scores on anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria were compared by demographic or independent variables. gender. age categories. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years as a student in the U.S.. first time as a student in the U.S.. second time as a student in the U.S.. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued. No significant relationships for age categories and first time as student in the U.S. were found. Significant relationships were found for gender. ethnic affiliation. marital status. second time 97 as student in the U.S.. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued. See the following subhypotheses and tables of ANOVA results comparing the significant independent variables. .Subhypethesis_1: There is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for males and females. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for males and females was rejected. Males had significantly higher mean general anxiety and "residing" anxiety scores than females. (See Table 4.14.) Table 4.14.--ANOVA results comparing relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for males and females. Anxiety Type Gender N Mean SD F P (f) General anxiety Male 198 79.0 6.3 11.1 .001* level Female 68 76.0 6.7 "Residing" anxiety Male 198 42.0 7.0 4.0 .05* level Female 68 40.0 6.0 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. .5ubhxnothesis_2: There is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups was rejected. ANOVA and Scheffe comparison procedures with an a1pha==.05 showed that the Yorubas had 98 significantly higher mean general anxiety scores than the Igbos. Hausas. and other ethnic groups. The Hausas had significantly higher mean "residing" anxiety scores than the Igbos. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. (See Table 4.15.) Table 4CHL--ANOVA results comparing the relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. Anxiety Type Ethnic Group N Mean 50 F P (f) General anxiety Igbo 101 77.0 7.0 3.0 .03* level Hausa 43 76.0 7.0 Yoruba 76 80.0 6.0 Other 46 78.0 6.0 "Residing" Igbo 101 41.0 7.0 7.0 .0002* anxiety level Hausa 43 45.0 7.0 Yoruba 76 39.8 6.0 Other 46 40.1 6.0 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Suhhxnothesis_3: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students' marital status. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students' marital status was rejected. ANOVA at the alpha = .05 level showed that there was no correlation between "residing" anxiety level and marital status of Nigerian college students. The students who were married and their families were with them in the United States had significantly higher mean anxiety scores for residing outside of Nigeria than the single 99 students and those students who were married but their families were not with them in the United States. However. no statistically significant correlation was found between general anxiety scores and marital status of Nigerian college students. (See Table 4.16.) Table 4.16.--ANOVA results comparing "residing" anxiety level and marital status. Anxiety Type Marital Status N Mean SD F P (f) Married with 128 40.2 7.0 4.0 .013* family in U.S. "Residing" Married without 43 43.4 7.0 anxiety level family in U.S. Single 87 42.0 6.0 i'Significant at the alpha = .05 level. : There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and number of times as student in the U.S. for Nigerian college students. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "residing" anxiety and number of times as student in the U.S. for Nigerian college students was not rejected. ANOVA at alpha = .05 showed that the correlation between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and number of times Nigerians had been college students in the 1L5. was..06 and therefore not significant at the alpha = .05 level. Probably. lack of significance at the alpha = .05 level was due to small sample size of those who had previously attended and graduated 100 from an American institution. and returned to work in Nigeria before coming back the second time as college students in the United States. This group was only 13% when compared to 85% of those for whom it was their first time as students. Increase in sample size might increase chances for significance at the alpha = .05 level. No statistically significant relationship was also found between general anxiety and number of times Nigerians had been college students in the U.S. (See Table 4.17.) Table 4.17.--ANOVA results comparing "residing" anxiety and number of times as student in the U.S. Number of Times Anxiety Type as Student in U.S. N Mean SD F P (f) "Residing" First time as 228 42.0 6.1 4.0 .06* anxiety student in U.S. level Second time as 35 39.3 9.1 student in U.S. *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. 5nbbxnothesis_5: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students who attend public institutions and those who attend private (religious) institu- tions. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students who attend public institutions and those who attend private (religious) institutions was rejected. ANOVA with an alpha = .05 level showed that 101 the Nigerian college students who attended public institutions had significantly higher mean anxiety scores for residing outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students who attended private (religious) institutions. No significant correlation at the alpha = .05 level was found between general anxiety and the Nigerian college students who attended either public or private (religious) institu- tions. (See Table 4.18.) Table 4.18.--ANOVA results comparing "residing" anxiety level and type of institution in attendance for Nigerian college students. Anxiety Type Institution Type N Mean SD F P (f) "Residing" Public 227 42.0 6.3 5.1 .02* anxiety level Private 33 39.0 8.0 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Subbyeetnesis_§: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "residing" anxiety and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students was rejected. ANOVA and Scheffe procedures with an alpha = .05 level showed that students working toward their bachelor's degree had significantly higher mean anxiety scores for "residing" outside of Nigeria than the students working toward their master's degree and doctorate. Students working toward their doctorate degree 102 had significantly higher mean anxiety scores for residing outside Nigeria than the students working toward their master's degree No significant relationship was found between general anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. (See Table 4.19.) Table 4.19.--ANOVA results comparing "residing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued. Anxiety Type Academic Degree N Mean SD F P (f) "Residing" B.A. 102 43.0 6.4 8.3 .0003ii anxiety level M.A. 81 41.0 Ph.D. 82 39.0 i'Significant at the alpha = .05 level. W W W: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of Nigerian college students' expertise outside of Nigeria? This research question refers to item 11 (a-g) in the question- naire. To answer the research question. the following major hypothesis was tested. .Several subhypotheses were tested by comparing the depend- ent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic or independ- ent variables. : There is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. 103 The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students was rejected. Individuals who tended to have more or high anxiety in general also tended to have more or high anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. The correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria was .09. which was significant at the alpha = .05 level. (See Table 4.20.) See the frequency distribution for contributing anxiety in Appendix K. ** Table 4.20.--Correlation between general anxiety and "contributing" anxiety for Nigerian college students. Anxiety Type Mean N r P (r) General anxiety level 78.2 267 .09 .001* "Contributing" anxiety level 19.0 267 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Using ANOVA. Nigerian college students'lnean scores on anxiety about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria were compared by demographic or independent variables of gender. age categories. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years as student in the U.S.. first time as student in the U.S.. second time as student in the U.S.. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued. No significant relationships were found for gender. marital 104 status. number of months or years as student in the U.S.. first time as student in the U.S.. second time as student in the U.S.. or type of institution in attendance. Statistically significant differences were found for age categories. ethnic affiliation. and academic degree being pursued. See the following subhypotheses and tables of ANOVA results comparing the significant independent variables. .5ubnypg1ne§1§_1; There is no relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and age categories for Nigerian college students. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "contributing" anxiety and age categories for Nigerian college students was rejected. ANOVA and Scheffe procedures at the alpha = .05 level showed that the Nigerian college students between 30 and 39 years old had significantly higher mean scores on the anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside Nigeria than those students between 20 and 29 years and over 40 years. respectively. The students between 20 and 29 years old had significantly higher mean scores on the anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the students who were over 30 years old. (See Table 4.21.) 105 Table 4.21.--ANOMA results comparing "contributing" anxiety and age categories. Anxiety Type Age Category N Mean 50 F P (f) "Contributing" 20-29 years 121 18.7 3.6 3.2 .03* anxiety level 30-39 years 130 19.0 3.0 Over 40 years 14 16.5 3.3 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Suhhxnglh§§1§_§: There is no relationship between “contribut- ing" anxiety level and ethnic affiliation for Nigerian college students. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "contributing" anxiety and ethnic affiliation for Nigerian students was rejected. ANOVA and Scheffe procedures at the alpha = .05 level showed that the Hausa students had a significantly higher mean anxiety score about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Igbos. Yorubas. and students from other ethnic groups. The Yoruba students had a significantly higher mean anxiety score about Potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. whereas the Igbos had a significantly higher mean anxiety score than students from other ethnic groups. (See Table 4.22.) 106 Table 4.22.--ANOVA results comparing "contributing" anxiety and ethnic affiliation. Anxiety Type Ethnic Group N Mean 80 F P (f) ”Contributing" Igbo 101 18.2 3.7 3.1 .02* anxiety level Hausa 43 19.9 3.7 Yoruba 76 19.1 3.0 Other 46 18.1 2.3 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. §ybhypgtn§§1§_2: There is no relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nige- rian college students. The null subhypothesis that there is no relationship between "contributing" anxiety and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students was rejected. ANOVA and Scheffe procedures showed that the students pursuing master's degrees had a significantly higher mean anxiety score about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria than the students pursuing bachelor's and doctoral degrees. The students pursuing bachelor's degrees had a significantly higher mean anxiety score about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria than those pursuing doctoral degrees. (See Table 4.23.) 107 Table 4.23.--ANOVA results comparing "contributing" anxiety and academic degree being pursued. Anxiety Type Academic Degree N Mean 50 F P (f) "Contributing" B.A. 102 18.9 3.7 3.3 .03* anxiety level M.A. 81 19.3 3.1 Ph.D. 82 18.0 3.0 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Wad "EQJIIIQBJ and ECQflQmIQ" ADKIQIM IQME] ‘Beseargh_fluestjgn_3: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which Nigerian college students belong? This research question refers to item 12 (a-f) in the ques- tionnaire. The question was answered by testing the following major hypothesis. Several subhypotheses were also tested by comparing the dependent variable scores of individuals grouped by demographic or independent variables. ‘Majgz_flypgthe§1§;1: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students! general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which the Nigerian college students belonged was rejected. Individuals who tended to have more or high anxiety in general also tended to have more or high anxiety about contributing to the political 108 and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which they belonged. The correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which the Nigerian college students belonged was.J5. which was significant at the alpha = .05 level. (See Table 4.24.) See the frequency distribu- tion for "contributing" anxiety in Appendix L. ** Table 4.24.--Corre1ation between general anxiety and "political and economic" anxiety levels for Nigerian college students. Anxiety Type Mean N r P (r) General anxiety level 78.2 267 .15 .001* "Political and economic" 21.0 267 anxiety level *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Using ANOVA and chi-square procedures. Nigerian college students'lnean scores on anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria were compared by the following independent variables: Nigerian states in which primary. secondary. and postsecondary schools were attended; ethnic groups from which closest friends were chosen in Nigeria and are chosen in the United States; Nigerian college students' perceptions of each other's ethnic group; effect of advanced formal education on Nigerian 109 college students'linguistic ethnocentric tendencies; potential work Nigerian college students hoped to do upon their return to Nigeria; potential criterion for employing people if put in a position to employ people; main purpose in seeking advanced formal education; and potential changes in Nigerian college students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. No significant relationships were found for gender. marital status. number of months or years as a student in the United States. first time as a student in the United States. second time as a student in the United States. and type of institution in attendance. Significance was only found for academic degree being pursued. See the following subhypotheses and table of ANOVA results comparing "political and economic" anxiety and academic degree being pursued. subhypothe§1§_lfl: There is no relationship between "political and economic" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between "political and economic" anxiety level and academic degree being pur- sued by Nigerian students was rejected. ANONA and Scheffe procedures showed that the students pursuing master's degrees had a significantly higher mean "political and economic" anxiety score than the students pursuing their doctorate degrees. (See Table 4.25.) 110 Table 4.25.--ANOVA results comparing "political and economic" anxiety and academic degree being pursued. Anxiety Type Academic Degree N Mean SD F P (f) "Political and B.A. 102 21.0 4.1 3.5 .03* economic" anxiety M.A. 81 22.0 3.1 level Ph.D. 82 20.2 3.1 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Chi-square procedures showed significant relationships for the following independent variables: ethnic groups from which closest friends were chosen in Nigeria. ethnic groups from which closest friends were chosen in the United States. Nigerian college students' perceptions of each other's ethnic group. potential work Nigerian college students hoped to do upon their return to Nigeria. potential criterion Nigerian college students hoped to use in employing people if put in a position to employ people. and potential changes in Nigerian college students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. See the following selected cross-tabulation tables. WWW Wm (this refers to item 14 1n the questionnaire). Significant correlations existed for the Nigerian college students between ethnic affiliation and ethnic groups from which closest friends were chosen in Nigeria. (See Table 4.26.) A significant number (76%) of Igbo college students said that their closest friends in Nigeria were Yorubas. About 64% of the Hausa Table 4.26.--Chi-square relationship between Nigerian college 111 students' ethnic affiliation and the ethnic groups from which they chose their closest friends in Nigeria. Row Igbo Hausa Yoruba Other Total Igbo Count 30 6 59 4 99 Row Z 30.3 6.1 59.6 4.0 37.9 Col 1 29.7 14.3 76.6* 9.8 Total 5 11.5 2.3 22.6 1.5 Hausa Count 9 27 4 3 43 Row 1 20.9 62.8 9.3 7.0 16.5 Col x 8.9 64.3* 5.2 7.3 Total % 3.4 10.3 1.5 1.1 Yoruba Count 53 4 6 12 75 Row % 70.7* 5.3 8.0 16.0 28.7 Col % 52.5 9.5 7.8 29.3 Total 5 20.3 1.5 2.3 4.6 Other Count 9 5 8 22 44 Row 5 20.5 11.4 18.2 50.0 16.9 Col Z 8.9 11.9 10.4 53.7 Total 5 3.4 1.9 3.9 8.4 Column total 101 42 77 41 261 38.1 16.1 29.5 15.7 100.1 Chi-square = 192.98 df = 9 C - .651 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. college students said their closest friends were Hausas. Over 70% of the Yoruba students said that their closest friends in Nigeria were the Igbos. Over 53% of members of other ethnic groups said their closest friends were among the Yorubas. Only 30% of the Igbos. 21% of the Hausas. 52% of the Yorubas. and 3% of other ethnic groups said their 112 closest friends were chosen from ethnic groups other than the three major ones. The finding was statistically significant at the alpha = .05 level. :- . . . . .- ‘::. ; . . . . . . : . . . . .. . ...- ._. . :0: .=. .. . .. . - =.. . .= new (this refers to item 15 in the questionnaire). Table 4.27 shows that significant numbers (71%) of the Igbos said their closest friends in the United States were the Igbos. while 55% said their closest friends were Yorubas. Over 69% of the Hausas said their closest friends in the United States were the Yorubas. About 51% of the Yorubas said that their closest friends were Hausas. Over 48% of the members of other ethnic groups said that their closest friends in the United States were Hausas. The finding was significant at the alpha = .05 level. Wm NW (this refers to item 16 (a-d) in the questionnaire).1 Table 4.28 shows that 131 people. or 64% of the respondents. disagreed that the Igbos are perceived as either never or sometimes ethnocentric. while 73 or 35% agreed that the Igbos are perceived as either frequently or always ethnocentric. Ninety respondents or 40% disagreed that the Yorubas are perceived as either never or sometimes ethnocentric. while 134 or 60% agreed that the 1The five-level responses "strongly disagree." "disagree." "no opinion." "agree." and "strongly agree" were collapsed into two levels in Table 4.28 and all other tables until the end of the analysis of Research Question 3. Table 4.27.--Chi-square relationship between Nigerian college 113 students' ethnic affiliation and the ethnic groups from which they chose their closest friends in the U.S. Row Igbo Hausa Yoruba Other Total Igbo Count 68 14 1 13 96 Row % 70.8* 14.6 1.0 13.5 37.8 Col % 55.3 27.5 3.0 27.7 Total % 26.8 5.5 .4 5.1 Hausa Count 9 6 23 4 42 Row % 21.4 14.3 54.8 9.5 16.5 Col % 7.3 11.8 69.7* 8.5 Total % 3.5 2.4 9.1 1.6 Yoruba Count 26 26 6 17 75 Row % 34.7 34.7 8.0 22.7 29.5 Col % 21.1 51.0* 18.2 36.2 Total % 10.2 10.2 2.4 6.7 Other Count 20 5 3 13 41 Row % 48.8* 12.2 7.3 31.7 16.1 Col % 16.3 9.8 9.1 27.7 Total % 7.9 2.0 1.2 5.1 Column total 123 51 33 47 254 48.4 20.1 13.0 18.5 100.0 Chi-square = 107.65 df= 9 C = .545 1*Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Yorubas are perceived as frequently or always ethnocentric. For these groups. the relationship between ethnic affiliation and ethnocentrism is said to be significant at the alpha==.05 level. One hundred twelve or 56% of the respondents disagreed that the Hausas are perceived as either never or sometimes ethnocentric. while 88 or 44% agreed that the Hausas are perceived as either frequently or always ethnocentric. 114 Table 4.28.--Chi-square relationships between ethnic affiliation and ethnocentrism.a Ethnic affiliation N N crossed with: Never Frequently X2 p(X2) Sometimes Always a) Igbos are perceived as most ethnocentric 131 73 10.2 .017* b) Yorubas are perceived as most ethnocentric 90 134 14.5 .002* c) Hausas are perceived as most ethnocentric 112 88 4.2 .244 d) Others are perceived as most ethnocentric 40 14 .8 .861 df = 3 C = .276 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. .Sgbhypgthe§j§_11: There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students! potential employment preferences upon their return to Nigeria. The chi-square procedures reported in Table 4.29 show that there was a relationship between ethnic affiliation and potential employment preferences for Nigerian college students upon their return to Nigeria. (This refers to item 18 (a-e) in the question- naireJ Over 50% of the students from all the ethnic groups said that they hoped to teach in a postsecondary school. although there was no significance at the a1pha==.05 level for this item. Also. about 115 50% of the students from all the ethnic groups seemed to be divided on their consideration for working for the federal government ministries or establishments. while over 50% of all the groups said that they did not hope to work for a church organization. On item 18¢. a significant relationship at the alpha .05 level was found for 75% of the Igbo students who said that they hoped to work for a private organization. Table 4.29.--Chi-square relationships between ethnic affiliation and students' potential employment preferences.a Potential employment % % preferences crossed Ethnic Strongly Strongly with: Group Disagree/ Agree/ X2 p(X2) a) I hope to teach in Igbo 46.3 56.3 4.3 .22 a postsecondary Hausa 30.0 70.0 institution Yoruba 28.3 71.7 Other 29.4 70.4 b) I hope to work in Igbo 51.8 48.2 2.9 .40 a federal ministry Hausa 48.1 51.9 Yoruba 43.2 56.8 Other 32.0 68.0 c) I hope to work in Igbo 29.8 75.0 11.4 .009* a private company Hausa 65.0 35.0 Yoruba 28.9 71.1 Other 41.2 58.8 d) I hope to work Igbo 65.5 42.6 2.8 .40 for a church Hausa 76.2 23.8 organization Yoruba 62.2 37.8 Other 79.2 20.8 C = .215 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. 116 W: There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students' potential criterion for employing people if put in a position to employ people in Nigeria. On questionnaire item 19 (a-f). the chi-square procedure also showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between ethnic affiliation and potential preferable criterion Nigerian college students said they would use in employing people if they were placed in a position to employ people upon their return to Nigeria. For example. over 70% of the students from all the ethnic groups agreed that they would employ people from their own ethnic groups. However. the 70% was not significant at the alpha =.05 level. More than 52% of the students from all the ethnic groups disagreed that they would employ people outside their own ethnic group. while 68% of the students said that they would employ people to satisfy social pressure. These figures also were not significant at the alpha = .05 level. Significance was. however. found at the alpha = .05 level for the entire groups' agreement that employing people in order to strengthen friendship was preferable. Although more than 82% of the groups agreed that people should be employed only on the basis of qualification. their number was not significant at the alpha==.05 level. See Tables 4.30 and 4.31 for significance on the groups' preference for employing people to strengthen friendship and employing only on the basis of qualification. 117 Table 4.30.--Chi-square results on the relationship between Nigerian students' ethnic affiliation and their potential prefer- ence for employing people to strengthen friendship.a Strongly Strongly Disagree/ Agree/ X2 p(X2) Row Disagree Agree Total Igbo Count 34 45 9.7 .02* 79 Row % 43.0 57.0 37.4 Col % 38.6 36.6 Total % 16.1 21.3 Hausa Count 23 14 37 Row % 62.2 37.8 17.5 Col % 26.1 11.4 Total % 10.9 6.6 Yoruba Count 20 43 63 Row % 31.7 68.3 29.9 Col % 22.7 35.0 Total % 9.5 20.4 Other COunt 11 21 32 Row % 34.4 65.6 15.2 Col % 12.5 17.1 Total % 5.2 10.0 Column total 88 123 211 41.7 58.3 100.0 C = .215 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. Also. this refers to questionnaire item 19 (a-fl. The responses are reversed order. with "strongly disagree" having the largest number. 5. The exception to this is item 196. 118 Table 4£FL--Chi-square results on the relationship between Nigerian students' ethnic affiliation and their potential pref- erence for enploying people only on the basis of qualifi- cation.a Strongly Strongly Disagree/ Agree/ X2 p(X2) Row Disagree Agree Total Igbo Count 13 54 1.4 .70 67 Row % 19.4 80.6 35.8 Col % 40.6 34.8 Total % 7.0 28.9 Hausa Count 5 19 24 Row % 20.8 79.2 12.8 Col % 15.6 12.3 Total % 2.7 10.2 Yoruba Count 10 50 60 Row % 16.7 83.3 32.1 Col % 31.3 32.3 Total % 5.3 26.7 Other Count 4 32 36 Row % 11.1 88.9 19.3 Col % 12.5 20.6 Total % 2.1 77.1 Column total 32 155 187 17.1 82.9 100.0 C = .272 aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. Also. this refers to item 19a in the questionnaire. 119 Subhypgtne§1§_13: There is no relationship between ethnic affiliation and changes in Nigerian college students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. On questionnaire item 21 (a-g). the chi-square procedure showed that there was a significant relationship between changes in students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States and their ethnic affiliation. For example. significance was found at the alpha = .05 level for items 21c and 21e of the questionnaire. which state: "There is a tendency for a person's previous commitment to his/her country to begin to fade away" and "I feel that my commitment to my country is no longer what it used to be." On item 21c. 68% of the Igbo and 58% of the Hausa students agreed that there is a tendency for a person's previous commitment to his/her country to begin to fade away. About 70% of the Yoruba students and 65% of students from other ethnic groups disagreed that there is that tendency. Significance was not found for items 21a. 21b. 21d. and 21f of the questionnaire (see items in Appendix E). Table 4.32 shows the chi-square results on the significant relationships between ethnic affiliation and students' previous commitment to Nigeria. 120 Table 4.32.—-Chi-square results on the relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian students' previous commitment to Nigeria.a * Strongly Strongly Disagree/ Agree/ X2 p(X2) Row Disagree Agree Total Igbo Count 24 49 23.06 .000* 73 Row % 32.9 67.1 34.4 Col % 22.0 47.6 Total % 11.3 23.1 Hausa Count 16 22 38 Row % 42.1 57.9 17.9 Col % 14.7 21.4 Total % 7.5 10.4 Yoruba Count 44 19 63 Row % 69.8 30.2 29.7 Col % 40.4 18.4 Total % 20.8 9.0 Other Count 25 13 38 Row % 65.8 34.2 17.9 Col % 22.9 12.6 Total % 11.8 6.1 Column total 109 103 212 51.4 48.6 100.0 C = .328 *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. The chi-square results in Table 4.33 show that the Igbo students. the Hausa students. the Yoruba students. and students from other ethnic groups strongly disagreed that their present commitment to Nigeria is no longer what it used to be. About 87% of the Yorubas and 121 Table 4.33.--Chi-square results on the relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian students' present commitment to Nigeria.a Strongly Strongly Disagree/ Agree/ X2 p(X2) Row Disagree Agree Total Igbo Count 52 25 13.8 .003* 77 Row % 67.5 32.5 34.7 Col % 30.4 49.0 Total % 23.4 11.3 Hausa Count 25 13 38 Row % 65.8 34.2 17.1 Col % 14.6 25.5 Total % 11.3 5.9 Yoruba Count 59 9 68 Row % 86.8 13.2 30.6 Col % 34.5 17.6 Total % 26.6 4.1 Other Count 35 4 39 Row % 89.7 10.3 17.6 Col % 20.5 7.8 Total % 15.8 1.8 Column total 171 51 222 77.0 33.0 100.0 i'Significant at the alpha = .05 level. aOnly individuals agreeing or disagreeing were included; neutral were excluded. 122 90% of students from other ethnic groups were more in disagreement than the Igbos and the Hausas on the item. Nevertheless. over 50% of all the groups were in disagreement with the item. There was. there- fore. a positive significant relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian students' present commitment to Nigeria. No significance was found at the alpha==.05 level for items 17 (a-d) or 20 (a—e) on the questionnaire. Also. due to a wide distri- bution of place of schooling among the 267 respondents. questionnaire item 13 was not analyzed. Many Nigerian states produced few students in terms of the sample. The large number of states (19 in all) and the relatively small number of students from some of the states made meaningful comparison impossible. WWW WWW .Beseangn_guestjgn_4: Is there any relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? : There is no relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about making a potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about making potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria was redacted at the alpha = .05 level. There was a significant positive correlation of .47 between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about making potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. 123 Individuals expressing more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria also tended to express more or high anxiety about making potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. (See Table 4.34.) Table 4.34.--Correlation between "residing" anxiety and "contributing" anxiety. Anxiety Type N Mean SD r p(r) "Residing" anxiety level 267 41.2 6.5 .47 .001* "Contributing" anxiety 267 18.2 3.3 level *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. WWW .Besear;h_fluestign‘5: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? .Majgn_flynotne§1§_5: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria was rejected at the alpha = .05 level. There was a significant positive correlation 124 of .46 between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing out- side of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Individuals expressing more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria also expressed more or high anxiety about contribut- ing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. (See Table 4.35.) Table 4.35.--Correlation between "residing" anxiety and "political and economic" anxiety. Anxiety Type N Mean 80 r p(r) "Residing" anxiety level 267 41.2 6.6 .46 .001" "Political and economic" 267 21.0 3.6 anxiety level *Significant at the alpha = .05 level. Wad EmmiclLAnxietx .Bgseangh_flu§stjgn_§: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college students'.anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? ‘Majgr_flypgthesjs_6: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. 125 The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria was rejected at the alpha =.05 level. There was a significant positive correlation of .39 between Nigerian college students' anxiety about making potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Individuals expressing more or high anxiety about making potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria also tended to express more or high anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. (See Table 4.36.) Table 4.36.--Correlation between "contributing" anxiety and "political and economic" anxiety. Anxiety Type N Mean SD r p(r) "Contributing" anxiety level 267 18.2 3.3 .39 .001" "Political and economic" anxiety level 267 21.0 3.6 "Significant at the alpha = .05 level. 126 Discussion The discussion centers on the major findings of the preceding analysis of the data. W W The data on the rate of questionnaire returns showed that out of 298 questionnaires that were distributed. 267 or 90% were returned. at the significant level of alpha = .05. An analysis of the characteristics of the respondents by demographic data showed that male and female respondents were respectively 198 or 74% and 68 or 26% of the research sample. The age frequency distribution showed that 45% of the respondents were between 20 and 29 years old. 49% were between 30 and 39 years old. and 5% were over 40 years old. This suggests that the majority of Nigerian college students in the midwestern colleges and universities may be between 30 and 39 years old. The frequency distribution by ethnic affiliation showed that 38% of the respondents were Igbos. 16% Hausas. 29% Yorubas. and 17% other ethnic groups. The frequency distribution by marital status showed that:64% of the respondents were married. while 33% were single. 0f the 64% married respondents. 48% had their families with them in the United States. while 16% did not have their families in the United States. This suggests that a majority of the Nigerian students in the midwest- ern colleges and universities may be married and that their families may be with them in the United States. 127 The frequency distribution by number of months or years as students in the United States showed that 14% of the respondents had only been students in the United States between 6 and 12 months. 54% between 2 and 4 years. 24% between 5 and 8 years. and 7% over 9 years. This suggests that a greater percentage of the Nigerian college students in midwestern colleges and universities may have spent between 2 and 4 years as a student in the United States. The frequency distribution by number of times as student in the United States showed that 74% of the respondents claimed that they were students in the United States for the first time. while 25% claimed that they were students in the United States for the second tune. This tends to suggest that a greater number of Nigerian college students in midwestern colleges and universities are students in the United States for the first time. The frequency distribution by type of institution in attendance showed that 85% of the respondents attended public institutions. while 12% attended private institutions. The data seemed to support the argument that a majority of Nigerian college students in the midwestern states and perhaps the United States attend public institutions. The frequency by academic degree showed that 38% of the respondents were working toward their bachelor's degree. 30% toward their master's degree. and 31% toward their doctorate degree. The data suggest that there are more Nigerian college students working toward their bachelor's degree in the midwestern colleges and universities than there are those working toward their master's and doctorate degrees. 128 MW Correlations between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety. "contributing" anxiety. and "political and economic" anxiety are discussed in this section. WNW guiuuxauuujjmp General anxiety had significant relationships with "residing" anxiety. "contributing" anxiety. and "political and economic" anxiety at the alpha==.05 level. The correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria was at r = .04 and significant at the alpha = .05 level. This means that individuals who tended to display more or high anxiety in general also tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. There was a correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about potential contribution of Nigerian college students' expertise outside of Nigeria at r = .04 and significant at the alpha = .05 level. Individuals who tended to display more or high anxiety in general also tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. The correlation between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which the Nigerian college students belonged was at r==.05 and significant at the alpha .05 level. 129 . = . .1 .- ,== .. - . ... . ... .. . -- . .= : . W The correlation between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety was also significant at the alpha =.05 level in terms of gender. ethnic affiliation. marital status. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued. Significant relationships were also found at the alpha = .05 level between general and "residing" anxiety for the Nigerian college students who were students in the United States for the first time. 1. Correlation in terms of gender: Significant relationships between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety for both males and females at the alpha = .05 level were found. However. males were found to have significantly more or higher general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels than females. No significant relationship was found between general anxiety and "contributing" anxiety at the alpha ==.05 level for males and females. 2. Correlation in terms of age categories: No significant correlations were found at the alpha = .05 level between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety in terms of age categories. However. significant relationships at the alpha==.05 level were found between general anxiety and "contributing" anxiety in terms of age categories. Individuals between 30 and 39 years old tended to have significantly higher anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the individuals between 20 and 29 years old and over 40 years old. 130 3. Correlation in terms of ethnic affiliation: Significant correlations were found at the alpha =.05 level between general anxiety. "residing" anxiety. and "contributing" anxiety in terms of ethnic affiliation. 1he Yorubas were found to have significantly higher mean general anxiety scores than the Hausas and the Igbos. But the Igbos and Hausas were found to have significantly higher mean "residing" anxiety scores than the Yorubas. The Hausas were found to have significantly higher mean anxiety scores about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Yorubas and the Igbos. The Yorubas were found to have significantly higher mean anxiety scores about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Igbos. However. significant correlations were found for all three ethnic groups. 4. Correlation in terms of marital status: Significant correlations were found at the alpha = .05 level between "residing" anxiety and marital status. Nigerian college students who were married but their families were not with them in the United States were found to have significantly higher mean "residing" anxiety scores than those who*werelnarried and their families were with them in the United States. as well as those who were single. No significant correlations were found between "contributing" anxiety and marital status. 5. Correlations in terms of type of institution in attendance: Significant correlations at the alpha = .05 level were found between "residing" anxiety and type of institution in attendance. Nigerian college students who attended public institutions were found to have 131 significantly higher mean "residing" anxiety scores than those who were attending private institutions. 6. Correlation in terms of academic degree being pursued: Significant correlations at the alpha =.05 level were found between "residing" anxiety and "contributing" anxiety in terms of academic degree being pursued. Nigerian college students who were pursuing their bachelor's degree were found to have significantly higher mean anxiety scores about "residing" outside of Nigeria. about making potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. and about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than one's own in Nigeria than those students who were pursuing their master's and doctorate. No significant relationships were found at the alpha = .05 level for those pursuing their master's and doctorate. 7. Correlation in terms of ethnic groups from which closest friends were chosen in Nigeria and in the United States: About 76% of the Igbos said that their closest friends in Nigeria were the Yorubas. while 64% of the Hausas said that their closest friends were the Hausas. About 70% of the Yorubas said that their closest friends were the Igbos. In the United States. over 70% of the Igbos said that their closest friends were the Igbos. while 69% of the Hausas said that their closest friends were Yorubas. About 51% of the Yorubas said that their closest friends were the Hausas. ‘These percentages were significant at the alpha = .05 level. 132 8. Correlation in terms of linguistic ethnocentrism. Signifi- cant relationships were found at the alpha==.05 level between ethnic affiliation and linguistic ethnocentrism. The Igbos and Yorubas were found to be significantly perceived as the most linguistic ethnocentric groups by the Igbos. the Hausas. and the Yorubas. 9. Correlation in terms of potential employment preferences: A significant relationship was found at the alpha==.05 level between potential employment preferences and ethnic affiliation. especially among the Igbos on questionnaire item 18c. The correlation between ethnic affiliation and potential employment preferences for the Igbo college students on "I hope to work in a private company" was at chi- square = 11.4 and significant at the alpha = .05 level. Significant relationships were not found on this item for the Hausas and the Yorubas. 10. Correlation in terms of ethnic affiliation and Nigerian students" preference for employing people to strengthen friendship: About 70% of students from all the ethnic groups said that they would employ people in order to strengthen friendship. The correlation was significant at chi-square = 9.7 and at the alpha = .05 level. 11. Correlation in terms of changes in commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States: Significant correlations were found at the alpha = .05 level between ethnic affiliation and changes in commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. On questionnaire item 21c. about 67% of the Igbo students and 58% of the Hausa students were found at the alpha==.05 level to have 133 significantly agreed with the statement. "There is a tendency for a person's previous commitment to his/her country to begin to fade away." About 70% of the Yoruba students disagreed with that statement. Also. on item 21e of the questionnaire. about 68% of the Igbo students. 66% of the Hausas. 87% of the Yorubas. and 89% of other ethnic group members were found at the alpha = .05 level to have significantly disagreed with the statement. "I feel that my commitment to my country is no longer what it used to be. CHAPTER V SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS An attempt was made to investigate whether Nigerian college students significantly relate to each other's levels of general anxiety and anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism in the preceding chap- ter. In this chapter. a summary of the investigation. findings. con- clusions. and implications are presented. Summit! .Statement_et;the_flroblem Generally speaking. people tend to be conscious of their ethnic group. social class. religion. nationality. race. or color. People tend to be conscious of their ethnic group. race. or color because people are generally ethnic centered. race centered. and color centered. Ethnic-centered people manifest certain ethnocentric tendencies. which include among all other things love for one's own ethnic group and general dislike for other ethnic groups. devotion to and belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group. and disbelief in the superiority of other groups. Included also are anxiety about residing outside one's own ethnic homeland. anxiety about contributing one's expertise outside one's own country. and anxiety about 134 135 contributing to anything that will put other ethnic groups at politi- cally and economically stronger positions than one's own ethnic group. One's culture has been assumed to reinforce these and other ethnocentric evidences because it is one's culture that determines how one thinks or reasons. Implicit in this assumption is the idea that as long as individuals remain within their culture. certain ethnocentric manifestations are bound to be perpetually reinforced and strengthened. The question one is forced to ask as a result of these is: What happens to the manifestations of ethnocentric tendencies among college students who travel outside of their own homeland or culture to obtain advanced formal education? Bearing in mind that a large number of Nigerian college students have traveled and still travel overseas to obtain advanced degrees in various fields of study. the problem this researcher intended to investigate is whether Nigerian college students differ significantly from each other in terms of level of anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism as they pursue advanced formal educa- tion outside of Nigeria. W The research was intended to investigate whether there are significant relationships between general anxiety and anxiety on three evidences of ethnocentrism for Nigerian college students in the United States in terms of several independent variables. 136 W First. the research was an attempt to identify contrasts or to establish relationships in anxiety levels on the three evidences of ethnocentrism among Nigerian college students in United States colleges and universities. Second. it was an attempt to show the implications of what may happen to the sharing process in education when people generally prefer residing in their own homelands to living elsewhere in the world. and when people generally prefer making contributions in their area of specialty in their own countries rather than elsewhere in the world. Third. the research was an attempt to show that foreign college students' anxiety about residing outside of their homelands can have a positive effect on the reduction of theu"brain drain" from which most developing countries. such as Nigeria. suffer. Further. the research was expected to provide predictive information about the nature of the perspective Nigerian college students who obtain their advanced formal education outside their own country have on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. and how that may affect the way they conduct their social. educational. political. economic. religious. or other activities when they return to Nigeria. Fifth. the research provided cross-ethnic information for educators. especially curriculum specialists interested in the development of a nationwide cross-ethnic curriculum for use in Nigerian schools. Wm WM: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? 137 {B§§§§L§fl_flu§5119fl_2: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of Nigerian college students' expertise outside of Nigeria? .Beseargh_fluestign_3: Is there any relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups in Nigeria other than the ones to which Nigerian college students belong? .Beseargn_9ue§tion_fi: Is there any relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students? ‘Beseangh_fluestign_5: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college studentsfllanxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? .Beseaggn_gue§t19fl_§: Is there any relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria? To answer the preceding research questions. the following hypotheses were designed and tested for statistical purposes. Major Hypothesis 1 and Subhypotheses 1 through 6 dealt with Research Question 1. Major Hypothesis 2 and Subhypotheses 7 through 9 dealt with Research Question 2. Major Hypothesis 3 and Subhypotheses 10 through 13 dealt with Research Question 3. Major Hypotheses 4 through 6 dealt with Research Questions 4 through 6. The hypotheses in this section are stated in the context of what was found to be true. ‘nggn_fiyngthe§1§_1: There is a relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. .Snbhypgtne§1§_l: There is a relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for males and females. 138 §uhh¥ngihe§1§_2: There is a relationship between general anxiety and "residing" anxiety levels for the Igbos. Hausas. Yorubas. and other ethnic groups. §uhhx291h§§1§_3: There is a relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students' marital status. §uhhxngthesls_4: There is no relationship between "residing" anxiety level and number of times as student in thelLS. for Nigerian college students. §ybhypgjhe5j§_5: There is a relationship between "residing" anxiety level and Nigerian college students who attend public institutions and those who attend private (religious) institu- tions. §ubh¥291031h115: There is a relationship between "residing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. .Majgr_flypg1he§1§_2: There is.a relationship between general anxiety and anxiety about the potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria for Nigerian college students. fiwmhxngthe51§_1: There is a relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and age categories for Nigerian college students. fiuhhxnglhe§1s_8: There is a relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and ethnic affiliation for Nigerian college students. ‘Subnypgthe§1§_2: There is a relationship between "contribut- ing" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nige- rian college students. .Majgn_flypgjhesj§_3: There is no relationship between Nigerian college students' general anxiety and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. fiuhhxngihesis_10: There is a relationship between "political and economic" anxiety level and academic degree being pursued by Nigerian college students. There is a relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students' potential employment preferences upon their return to Nigeria. 139 There is a relationship between ethnic affiliation and Nigerian college students' potential criterion for employing people if put in a position to employ people in Nigeria. §uhhx291h§§1§_13: There is a relationship between ethnic affiliation and changes in Nigerian college students' commitment to Nigeria while studying in the United States. Major Hypgthesjs A: There is a relationship between anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about making a potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. Major Hypothesis 5: There is a relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. ngg£_flypgtne§1§_§: There is a relationship between Nigerian college students! anxiety about the potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and their anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Warden An assumption was made that instrumentation could yield information on feelings of Nigerian university and college students in the United States. .Another assumption was that the respondents would honestly share their feelings and understandings about the three evidences of ethnocentrism under study. WW Under this section. the research design. the research questions. and the factors between or among which interactions or relationships could exist in relation to the research questions are described. The research methodology was described as descriptive and inferential. 140 .Egpulatjgn. The general research population was defined as the Nigerian students in two types of institutions. public and private colleges and universities in the United States. mug. Two hundred thirty-four public college and university students and 33 private (religious) college and university students were involved in the study. These respondents were selected by con- venience from 12 public institutions and five private (religious) institutions in seven midwestern states. Iflstnumenjatlgn. A 56-item questionnaire was developed by the researcher. Items 1 through 9 were used to collect demographic information. while items 10 through 21 were used to collect data on Nigerian students"levels of anxiety on three evidences of ethnocen- trism. These were all in section one of the questionnaire. The last 35 items in section two of the questionnaire were used to collect data on the Nigerian students' general anxiety levels. To develop the instrument. the researcher conducted a series of preliminary interviews with 20 Nigerian college students to identify appropriate questions on ethnocentrisnn Pilot tests were used to refine the items generated from the preliminary interviews. The questions on ethnocentrism were then built into an anxiety question- naire scale. which was used to measure the general anxiety levels of the students. The demographic information. gender. age. ethnic affiliation. marital status. number of months or years as a student in the United States. first time as a student in the United States. second time as a 141 student in the United States. type of institution in attendance. and academic degree being pursued formed the primary independent variables in the questionnaire. Anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. and anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than one's own in Nigeria formed the dependent variables. Items 13 through 20 in the questionnaire formed the second group of independent variables that were directly examined in relation to the last dependent variable. The questionnaire was developed so that it could be self-administered. 111.051.13.95 Results of the analysis of six major hypotheses and 13 sub- hypotheses were reported in Chapter IV. Each hypothesis was designed to help answer the research question on the anxieties about three evidences of ethnocentrism to which it was related. In this section. interpretations of the findings are reported in seven areas: 1. Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. 2. Nigerian college students' anxiety about potential contri- bution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. 3. Nigerian college students' anxiety about their potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. 142 4. Relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing and anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside Nigeria. 5. Relationship between Nigerian college students' anxiety about residing and anxiety about their potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. 6. Relationship between Nigerian college students'.anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria and anxiety about their potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. MgemanWMnm We; High general anxiety relates to high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. The Nigerian college students tended to display more or high anxiety in general and also more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria in particular. Male Nigerian college students tended to display more or high general anxiety and anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria than did Nigerian female college students. This tends to suggest that male Nigerian college students may likely be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria after their advanced formal education than the female Nigerian college students. 143 The Igbo and Hausa college students tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigerian than the Yoruba college students. This tends to suggest that the Igbo and Hausa college stu- dents may be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the Yoruba college students. The greatest difference in mean scores between the Yoruba college students and the Igbo and Hausa college students was on general anxiety level. The Yoruba college students tended to be more anxious in general than the Igbo and Hausa college students. The Nigerian college students who were married but were without their families in the United States tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria than the single Nigerian college students and those who were married and their families were with them in the United States. This tends to suggest that the married Nigerian college students who are without their families in the United States may be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the single college students and those who are married and their families are with them in the United States. The Nigerian college students who attended public universities tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students who attended private (religious) institutions. Again. this tends to suggest that Nigerian college students who attend public institutions may be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students in private (religious) institutions. 144 The Nigerian college students who were pursuing their bachelor's degree tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students pursuing their mastem's and doctorate. Again. this tends to suggest that the Nigerian college students pursuing their bachelor's degree may be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students pursuing their master's and doctorate. A greater percentage of the Nigerian college students tended to disagree that the Igbos and the Hausas are perceived as never or sometimes most ethnocentric in Nigeria. while a greater percentage tended to agree that the Yorubas are frequently or always perceived as ethnocentric in Nigeria. This tends to suggest that all the ethnic groups--the Igbos. the Hausas. and the Yorubas--perceive each otherks group as the most ethnocentric. A greater percentage of the Igbo and Hausa college students felt there is the tendency for a person's previous commitment to his/her country to begin to fade away while he/she is in a foreign country. A greater percentage of the Yoruba college students disagreed with the statement. Also. a higher percentage of the Igbo. Hausa. and Yoruba college students strongly disagreed that their commitment to Nigeria is no longer what it used to be. This tends to suggest that the Nigerian college students from all the ethnic groups feel that in spite of the tendency for one's commitment to fade away in a foreign country. their commitment to Nigeria as their country is undiminished. 145 This tends to be a factor influencing the students! anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. WWW): W W High general anxiety relates to high anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. The Nigerian college students tended to display more or high anxiety in general and also more or high anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. The Nigerian college students who were between 30 and 39 years of age tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribu- tion of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students between the ages of 20 and 29 and over 40 years old. This tends to suggest that Nigerian college students between 30 and 39 years of age may be more anxious about contributing their potential expertise outside of Nigeria than Nigerian students between 20 and 29 years of age and over 40 years old. The Hausa college students tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Igbo and Yoruba college students. This tends to suggest that the Hausa college students may be more anxious about contributing their potential expertise outside of Nigeria than the Igbo or Yoruba college students. The Yoruba college students tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Igbo Nigerian college students. 146 The Nigerian college students who were pursuing their bachelor's degree tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students pursuing their master's and doctorate. Again. this implies that the Nigerian college students working toward their bachelor's degree may be more anxious about contributing their potential expertise outside of Nigeria than the Nigerian college students who are working toward their master's or doctorate. High general anxiety correlated with high anxiety about their potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than the ones to which the Nigerian college students belonged. The Nigerian college students pursuing their bache- lcw"s degree tended to display more or high anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria than did the Nigerian college students pur- suing their master's or doctorate. This tends to suggest that Nigerian college students working toward their bachelor's degree may be more anxious about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major groups other than their own in Nigeria. In Nigeria and in the United States. the students who chose their closest friends from their own ethnic group tended to have higher 147 anxiety about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own than did the students who chose their closest friends from groups other than their own ethnic group. This tends to suggest that the students who chose their closest friends from their own ethnic groups would tend to be more ethnocentric and would tend not to want to contribute to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own. Conversely. the students who chose their closest friends from ethnic groups other than their own would tend to be less ethnocentric and would tend to have less anxiety about contributing to the economic and political advan- tage of ethnic groups other than their own. A greater percentage of the Nigerian college students from all the ethnic groups said they would tend to employ people. if they were put in a position to employ people. in order to strengthen friendship rather than employing only on the basis of merit or qualification. This tends to suggest that the Nigerian college students who belong to this group will be more likely to employ their friends irrespective of their friends' ethnic group. High anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria related to high anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria. Nigerian college students from all the ethnic groups tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and more or high 148 anxiety about potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. This tends to suggest that the Nigerian college students as a group may likely be more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria and also about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. High anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria related to high anxiety about Nigerian students! potential contribution to the politi- cal and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. Nigerian college students from all the ethnic groups tended to display more or high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria and more or high anxiety about potentially contributing to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. This tends to suggest that Nigerian college students as a group may likely be more anxious about making potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. This condition differs from what the individual ethnic group members tended to display when examined separately. High anxiety about potential contribution of expertise outside of Nigeria relates to high anxiety about potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than one's own in Nigeria. Nigerian college students from all the ethnic groups tended to display more or high anxiety about potential contribu- tion of their expertise outside of Nigeria and high anxiety about making their potential contribution to the political and economic advantage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. 'This tends to suggest that Nigerian college students as a group may likely be more anxious about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria and also more anxious about contributing to the political and economic advantage of major groups other than their own when they return to Nigeria. This position contrasts with what the individual groups tended to display when examined separately. m From all that has been stated so far. the following conclusions were drawn: 1. General anxiety of the Nigerian college students related to their anxiety on the three evidences of ethnocentrism. 150 2. Male Nigerian college students were more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria after their advanced formal education than the female Nigerian college students. 3. The Igbo and Hausa college students may have been more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the Yoruba college students. 'The Yoruba college students seemed to express more anxiety in general than the Igbo and Hausa college students. 4. The married Nigerian college students who were with their families in the United States and the single Nigerian college students may have been less anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than the married Nigerian college students who did not have their families in the United States. 5. The Nigerian college students who were attending public institutions may have been more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria. about making potential contribution of their expertise outside of Nigeria. and about contributing to the political and economic growth of ethnic groups other than their own than were the students from private (religious) institutions. 6. 'The Nigerian college students who were pursuing their bachelor's degree were more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria. The Nigerian college students pursuing their master's and doctorate may not have been as anxious about residing outside of Nigeria. 7. The Igbos and the Yorubas and the Hausas perceived each other's ethnic groups as the most ethnocentric in Nigeria. 151 8. The Igbo. Hausa. and Yoruba college students' commitment to Nigeria. in spite of whatever is happening in the country that they do not like. remained strong. 9. The students between 30 and 39 years of age may have been more anxious about residing outside of Nigeria than those between 20 and 29 years of age and those over 40 years old. 10. The Hausa students may have been more anxious about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria than the Yoruba and Igbo students. 11. If put in a position to employ people in Nigeria. the Nigerian college students may tend to employ their own friends who may come from any ethnic group in Nigeria. 12. Nigerian college students who were anxious about residing outside of Nigeria may also have been anxious about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. Nigerian college students who were anxious about residing outside of Nigeria may also have been anxious about contributing to the political and economic advantage of ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. W The preceding conclusions suggested a number of implications for Nigerian school education and recommendations for further research. In Chapter I. particular attention was given to the need for under- standing the effect of advanced formal education on the ethnocentrism of Nigerian college students who travel overseas for advanced studies. Equally stressed in Chapter I was the importance of understanding the 152 effect of ethnocentrism on Nigerian school education and curriculum. Highlighted in this chapter were the relationships between Nigerian college studentsfl general anxiety levels and their anxiety levels about residing outside of Nigeria. about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. and about contributing to the political and economic advan- tage of major ethnic groups other than their own in Nigeria. The findings of this research showed that Nigerian college students were generally ethnocentric and remained generally ethnocen- tric on several of the issues dealt with in the research in spite of the advanced formal education they had received. A high level of ethnocentrism was manifested among Nigerian college students from all three major ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria--the Igbos. Hausas. and Yorubas. The implications of the research are of two types: (a) positive and (2) negative implications. Positive implications refer to positive effects of ethnocentrism on Nigerian college students and Nigeria. whereas negative implications refer to negative effects of ethnocentrism on Nigerian education. economic growth and development. and political stability. W A large percentage of Nigerian college students from the three major and many minor ethnolinguistic groups exhibited high anxiety about residing and about contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria after their advanced formal education in the United States. 153 This anxiety has the potential for reducing the "brain drain" from which Nigeria and other developing countries have suffered. Perhaps one of the reasons for this high anxiety is the desire students have to use the advanced knowledge and skills they have acquired for the development of their own country; By residing and contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. the Nigerian college students felt that they would be denying Nigeria its opportunity to go from "developing" to "developed" status. However. somerNigerian college students may not follow through the dictates of their high- level ethnocentrism about residing and contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria because of lack of employment opportunities or adequate research facilities within Nigeria. Therefore. to help the students follow through the dictates of their high-level ethnocentrism about residing and contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria. the government of Nigeria should provide such incentives as quick employment opportunities for those who return to Nigeria. adequate research centers. and facilities for those inter- ested in educational. scientific. agricultural. engineering. medical. and other forms of research in Nigeria. Should these men and‘women studying overseas return to Nigeria as a result of their high anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria. the implication is that the expertise they have acquired in their fields of study and from the various institutions they have attended will undoubtedly be reflected in whatever they do. Ethnocentrism should thus be seen as a driving force in Nigerian education. helping 154 to spur on the process of change in educational planning. curriculum development. institutional improvement. and other areas in which returning students will have developed an expertise. mm. It might be well for American colleges and universities to consider designing a course for their international students stressing the consequences to the country of origin when students fail to return to contribute their acquired expertise. These consequences include (1) the possibility of significantly delayed development and (2) the harmful economic influence of a continued flow of cash out of the country of origin in the form of fees for manpower development in foreign educational institutions. importation of foreign technology. perpetual dependence on foreign agricultural expertise. and so on. Nigerian colleges and universities must be given a much higher degree of financial encouragement to complete their institutional development programs. This will help them integrate a greater number of educators into the faculties of various departments. thus creating the capacity for a larger number of students and ultimately contribut- ing to both educational and economic development within the country. NW Analysis of the data suggested that advanced formal education had no significant effect on the general level of Nigerian students' ethnocentrism. This may have serious implications for the development of education in Nigeria. If high anxiety about residing and contrib- uting their expertise outside of Nigeria implies a similar level of 155 high anxiety about residing and contributing their expertise outside of their ethnic homeland in Nigeria. then the ethnocentrism of Nigerian students studying overseas may in this sense contribute to ethnic fragmentation rather than to ethnic integration. Already. educational institutions and programs. and the educators and politicians who con- trol them. are having the effect of widening the distinctions between ethnic groups. ‘Very few Hausa educators from the various states in northern Nigeria work in various educational institutions in southern Nigeria. where the Igbos and the Yorubas are the dominant ethnic groups. Although there are more Igbo and Yoruba educators who work in northern educational institutions than there are Hausa educators in southern institutions. their number is still small. The findings showed another important factor that must be given careful consideration. Most Nigerian students perceived their own ethnolinguistic group as less ethnocentric than the others. This implies that advanced formal education is having little effect at present in reducing levels of suspicion and even hostility between the various ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria. This form of ethnocentrism. then. has the potential of contributing to job discrimination as well as to other forms of discrimination in Nigeria. Booommendations. The national Ministry of Education should take into account the possible dysfunctional consequences of ethnocen- trism in developing and making national educational policies. It should carefully work toward discouraging the use of states of origin as the basis for top job appointments. Also. ethnic affiliation should 156 be discouraged as the basis for appointment to positions in the federal Ministry of Education. Since Nigeria is a multiethnic nation. its educational focus must be geared toward multiethnic integration at the national level. The Nigerian curriculum specialists should address this issue in developing a curriculum for Nigerian schools. In Chapter I. allusion was made to the development of a cross-ethnic curriculum suitable for use at all levels of the educational ladder in Nigerian schools. Such a cross-ethnic curriculum should aim at helping Nigerians to learn and to be aware of the effects of ethnocentrism in their multiethnic and multicultural society. Emphasis should be placed on the learning of the major Nigerian languages across ethnic boundaries and at all levels of the educa- tional ladder in Nigerian schools. This will help Nigerians begin to understand each other's culture and ways of doing things. Language will in this way serve as a vehicle through which one culture will be able to express itself to another in order to create an atmosphere of understanding between them. The Nigerian government should encourage parents to send their children to secondary schools. colleges. and universities outside of their state of origin or outside of their language and cultural- identity-group zones. Scholarships can be used as incentives to participation in such a program. This will go a long way toward reduc- ing the adverse effects of ethnocentrism on the nation's educational programs. economic development. and political unity and stability. 157 Nigerian schools and educators must be encouraged to see their responsibility in Nigeria as that of fostering a sense of national unity and stability. Amman!) The cause-and-effect relationship of the general anxiety levels and the three evidences of ethnocentrism was not clarified because of the descriptive nature of the research. One way to further investigate the relationship would be through the use of a longitudinal study that would investigate whether Nigerian college students in the United States with high anxiety levels in general and high anxiety levels about residing and contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria would also have high general anxiety levels and high anxiety levels about residing and contributing their expertise outside of Nigeria after their return to Nigeria. The researcher did not determine why the Igbos. the Hausas. and the Yorubas perceived the others' ethnic groups as the most ethnocen- tric groups in Nigeria. Yet there is a strong possibility that preju- dice and linguistic and cultural differences may be significant variables responsible for this. One of the findings was that males tended to display more anxiety in general than females and that males also tended to display more anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria than did females. Further research may show why this is so. or on a wider dimension why one ethnic group of people (for example. the Yorubas) tends to display 158 more or higher anxiety in general than other ethnic groups (for example. the Hausas and Igbos). Would cultural conditions or influ- ences be a factor? Also. the researcher did not investigate whether government sponsorship of a student is related to a studentfls level of anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria or anxiety about contributing his/ her expertise outside of Nigeria. It is possible that the majority of the Nigerian college students who tended to display higher levels of anxiety about residing outside of Nigeria did so because of the moral obligation they owed to the Nigerian government or any organization that might have sponsored them through higher education for some specific responsibilities or contributions in Nigeria. Further research might shed more light on this. A major reason for undertaking this research topic was to investigate whether advanced formal education has any effect on individuals' ethnocentrism. This researcher did not attempt to examine what makes advanced formal education affect or not affect people's ethnocentrism. Again. further research could show whether the cultural environment or school environment in which advanced formal education is being pursued is a factor. In a multiethnic or multicultural nation such as Nigeria in which prejudice; stereotyping. ethnicity. or ethnocentrism contributes to the national disunity. infractions. and civil war. what should be the role of school education? What type of cross-cultural or cross- ethnic curriculum should be designed to deal with and reduce the 159 influence of ethnocentrism among Nigerians? Further research is needed on how to reduce the influence of ethnocentrism in Nigeria by Nigerian curriculum specialists. educators. cross-culturalists. sociologists. anthropologists. and politicians. If the influence of ethnocentrism is not reduced or eliminated. the communication barriers. political suspicions. and. above all. educational disparity between the North and the South that now exist may remain indefinitely strong and perpetually detrimental to Nigeriafis national unity. economic growth. and development. APPENDICES 160 APPENDIX A A SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT OF NIGERIAN ETHNOCENTRISM 161 162 AL§9c19:Bel1IJcal_ConIext_Q£_N19Q£1an_EIthcentrism Nigeria's ethnic problems since independence 25 years ago cannot be understood in isolation or abstraction. This is because the problems do not occur in a vacuum. To fully understand the problem of ethnocentrism or ethnicity in Nigeria. one must be aware of the ethno- geopolitical historical divisions of the nation. in addition to under- standing its cultural and economic backgrounds. For this reason. an attempt is made in this section to provide a survey of the nation. Nigeria. highlighting certain historical policies of the colonial British administration that greatly contributed to the present Nigerian ethnocentric experiences. WWW Schwarz (1968) stated that Nigeria received its name from Africa's third longest river. the Niger. which flows for about 2.600 miles from its source in Fouta Djallon Hills in Guinea to its mouth in Port Harcourt. Nigeria. An English woman. Flora Shaw. first coined the name and it was later used in a letter written to the 11mo5_o£_Loooon by Lady Laggard (the wife of the first British Governor-General of Nigeria) in 1897. With an area of 356.669 square miles (923.768 square kilometers). Nigeria is the thirteenth largest state on the continent of Africa. It is located between 4 degrees and 14 degrees north and 3 degrees and 14 degrees east. Its territory extends about 650 miles (1.050 kilometers) from north to south and 700 miles east to west. It lies west of the Republic of Cameroon. east of Benin Republic. south of 163 Niger and Chad Republic. and north of the Gulf of Guinea (Eooyoloooojj Britannica. 1985). Located within the tropics. Nigeria has a tropical climate with two major seasons--dry and wet (rainyL The dry season starts in October and ends in April. while the wet season extends from May to October (Burns. 1972). However. the duration of the seasons depends on the relation of an area to the sea or to the Sahara. There are three climatic patterns in Nigeria. First is a tropical wet climate in the Southeast. with uniformly high temperatures and heavy rainfall distributed throughout the year. Second is a tropi- cal wet and dry. or savannah. climate in the North and West. Third is a dry. or steppe. climate in the extreme region of the North. Usually rainfall is heavier and more reliable in the South. especially the Southeast. which receives more than 120 inches of rain annually. when compared with 70 inches in the Southwest. The amount of annual rainfall decreases progressively away from the coast. so that in the extreme North of the country. it is not more than 20 inches (WW. 1985) . Temperature and humidity are relatively constant all the year round in the South. while in the North considerable seasonal changes occur. and the daily temperature range becomes wide during the dry season. The mean monthly maximum temperatures are steady throughout the year on the coast. remaining. for example. constant at approximately 95 degrees F (35 degrees C) at Lagos and approximately 85 degrees F (29 degrees C) at Port Harcourt. The mean minimum 164 temperatures remain at 70 degrees F (211 degrees C) for Lagos and at 73 degrees F (23 degrees C) for Port Harcourt. In the extreme North. the mean monthly maximum temperature may exceed 100 degrees F (38 degrees C) during the hot months of April and May. while in the same season frosts may also occur at night. Due to the blanketing effect of clouds during the rainy season. and of dusk haze during the harmattan. the heat of the sun is not as fierce as might be expected. The humidity is high. but it falls during the harmattan. which blows for over three months in the North but roughly for more than two weeks along the coast. Dust is pervasive. and the climate excessively dry in Nigeria during the harmattan (WW. 1985). (See annual rainfall map on page .1 an: Nigeria's vegetation can be divided into two main sections--the high forest zone. which covers about one-sixth of the country. and the savannah. The high forest zone can be subdivided into the mangrove or swamp and rain forest. while the savannah can be subdivided into grass- land and scrub forests. (See vegetation map on page .) In} IDLEeopJuLNJoem Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa (Schwarz. 1965) and the largest Black nation in the world. At independence. its population was between 55 and 60 million people. In the mid-19705. it grew at an alarming rate. Presently. some demographers have put the 165 Mm . 3;. '5'.” .110 tit-vgltflojrjfljm ‘ “1111.1.“-‘1?15'U_72“QIII“T; . ‘ ' rrlf‘r‘r' .. Pomona W040“ . 1w (mnlmhnl. [11.51 Hunt: (mahuhrw, - 11mm: - Mum“, (.1...le Ibo Kanun ||lw m Yoruba IbIb-o Shuwn Arabs m Fulani "I Edo Olhovpoooios General ethnic composition oi Nigorla. 166 Annual RainfaIl Map saw-nu "‘0'“. of [nun-d:- nludm. upmm (an: II In» «hum: lull dry. and u .u an”. Inuudalrd "tr. you And [uInI [j 6.».- lunl and '00.." E a ("MI-in scanning-Jun. AI"). scum-4 sou-coma...“ mw'“ flavour-us..." gnu-......“ Hod # canin- A null-an d umal rm Iypn [and an Inn loud plum. Vegetation Map , r \N I c. E , n ‘ ’ 1‘ —- .. I... ... IA/ 101. \. ,_._.\ '/‘J'R\/ , ‘ 5. \ /‘“> ""‘> '\.\/ .. / ”we.“ I": :’-,‘V\'\ ... /I/ol- ' ”Genoa-ms} ,(\\ \,. , ,, x.,, v j J x ’5‘ r / N "z/ 10 ' I I o _ //‘ "Movaugun \ . , / . ‘/,/////2//// s.‘ HE‘N MDNVNV h; c..- 30“ I75 25 P I l d r: I .‘ ‘ .50 151, H IV" 10. J 1125 sf y o} Dr NE LN ANNUAL 5 g m manna: W ml" 167 figure between 80 and 100 million people CLho_Eoooomj§1. 1982; Nelson. 1982).1 MW Stokke (1970) said that the history of the Nigerian people is a history of the "movement of different peoples and a constant Process of fusion between them" “L 11). The statement is especially true when one considers a considerable movement of population that takes place in the country. Past census figures reveal that a great number of southerners migrate to the North and settle in most large northern cities such as Kano. Sokoto. Kaduna. Jos. Maidugiri. and others. The same census figures also indicate that a great number of northerners migrate to the South. In the South. a large number of people migrate from the Igbo and Ibibio areas and other parts of the Niger Delta to more industrialized and highly urbanized western states of Lagos. Oyo. Ogun. 0ndo. and Bendel. Many of these migrants work as laborers in the cocoa and rubber-producing districts or as self-employed tenant farmers. 1Eighty to 100 million people is usually used when speaking of the Nigerian population. However. it must be borne in mind that because of the political nature of the Nigerian census figures. they cannot be relied upon as the accurate census figure of the population of that country. The last accepted census figure was that of the First Republic conducted in 1963. The figure then was 55.6 million people. It was the national census of 1973 that put the Nigerian population at about 79 to 80 million people. The 1973 census figures were nullified by the Murtala Mohammad military government in 1975 after the South vehemently protested gross violation of census rules and regulations. and manipulation of census figures by the North. 168 cultivating food crops for sale to nearby towns (Eooyolooooja .BLlIiflfllSA. 1985). In the past many Nigerians have migrated to work in neighboring West African countries. such as Benin Republic. Ghana. Equatorial Guinea. Cameroon. and Sierra Leone. Also. a small but growing number of Nigerians continue to migrate to Great Britain. West Germany. Canada and the United States. It has been said that the Nigerian is a mixture of a variety of ancient peoples. such as the Berbers. Jews. and Arabs. who brought with them the traditions from the Mediterranean empires of Greece. Rome. Carthage. and Byzantine. Islamic traditions were introduced in Nigeria by the Islamic empires of North Africa. the Middle East. and Arabia (Hogben & Kirk-Green. 1966). This statement is backed up by Yoruba legend. which traces their ancestry and origin to a migration from the Near East. especially Egypt and other North African empires. The ethnolinguistic groups in the northern part of Nigeria have established historical contacts with the Arab world. That is one reason the northern population is made up of the "cattle-Fulanis." the "city-Fulanis." and the Negroes. Extensive intermarriages between the Hausa and the "city-Fulanis" make it difficult today to identify a Hausa from a "city-FulaniJ‘ It is not the case with the "cattle- Fulanis." who have consistently retained their Arabic characteristics as a result of interethnic marriage avoidance. The "cattle-Fulanis" have resisted intermarriage with the Black population (Akpan. 1977). 169 W The Hausa-Fulanis. the Yorubas. and the Igbos are the three major ethnolinguistic groups briefly discussed in this section. .Ihe_Hausa:Eulan1_gLQu2_in_Ihe_N9Lth. The Hausa-Fulani ethnolinguistic group is the more predominant in northern Nigeria. The next most predominant groups include the Tir. Kanuri. and Nupe. "The Hausa-Fulani. the principal group. not only in the North but also in Nigeria as a whole. can be found mainly around Kano. Sokoto and Kaduna States" (Iyizoba. 1982. p. 24). They are Moslems. Islamic religion is very strong in the northern states. where about three-quarters of the people are Muslim. Islam is so strong that it permeates the political. social. and economic life and institutions in the North. According to Trimingham (1962). the religion was expanded and strengthened by Usman Dan Fodio in 1802 (nineteenth century) when he conquered the entire northern territory in a jihad (Holy War) and established the Fulani Empire "from Gwandu (Gando) in the West to Adamawa in the East!‘ Hausa is the most widely spoken language in Nigeria. It is spoken by both the Hausa and the Fulani because it is the linouo.jnanoa in the North. The Fulanis. a pastoral ethnic group of an Arabic descent. moved into the Hausa lands. settled..and intermarried with them. Although the "cattle-Fulanis" remained with their herds and moved from place to place in search of water and pasturage. a large number of them wandered to the towns and cities and mingled with the Hausa population. These Fulanis quickly became established in positions of 170 influence. They are the politicians and the distinctive aristocratic group in the North today. Summing up the common relationship between the Hausa and the Fulani. Iyizoba (1982) wrote: The 1803 Jihad. apart from overthrowing the ruling Hausa dynasties and spreading the Islamic faith. also brought unity amongst the previously warring tribes in the area. through comnuuiidentifica- tion in the Islamic religion. All the ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria with the exception of the Tiv. share a comnuwiIslamic culture.(p.24) The Hausas were called "Hobe" by the Fulani. "Afnu" by the Kanuri. and "Gambaru" by the Yoruba. However. the name "Hausa" is a Songhai ethonym. meaning "east." but today they think of themselves as northerners. "mutanem Arewa" (Isichei. 1983). W. In southwestern Nigeria. the Yoruba ethnic group is the most predominant group. Other ethnic groups include the Edo. Western (Ika) Igbo. and Ijaw. Being the predominant group. the Yoruba people are found mainly in Lagos. Ogun. Oyo. and Kwana States. Like the Hausa-Fulani ethnolinguistic group. the Yoruba people have connections with the Middle East. Although the majority of the Yoruba people are farmers. they often live in large preindustrial cities. Each Yoruba subgroup is ruled by an influential paramouth chief. known as "Oba." who is usually supported by a council of chiefs. The two most powerful rulers the Yoruba people have are the "oni" of Ife (the accepted spiritual leader of the Yoruba people) and the "alafin" of Oyo (the traditional political leader). The spiritual and political influence of these two rulers extends through- out the Yoruba land. All the subgroups also share a traditional 171 religious system. which features the worship of such gods as Ogun (the god of war and iron). Shango (the god of thunder and lightning). and Orisha Oko (the goddess of farmland). The word "Yoruba" is of Hausa origin. The northerners used it to refer to the "Oyo" empire. It was first used in the modern sense in 1832 by a foreign missionary. Roban. involved in linguistic studies in Sierra Leone. Earlier. the Yoruba people were referred to by various forms of "olukumi" (my friend). a pleasant name for an ethnic group. Various forms of this name can be seen on a 1729 French map. northwest of "Jabon" (Ijebu). The word survives in modern times in the word "Lucumi." which describes people of Yoruba ancestry in Cuba who still speak a form of Yoruba and in a little Yoruba-speaking island in western Igboland called "Unukumi" (Koelle. 1963; Labat. 1930; Law. 1971; Thomas. 19l4--all cited in Isichei. 1983). Wm The Igbo people are the most predominant ethnolinguistic group in southeastern Nigeria. Other groups include the Ijaw. Efik. Annang. and Ibibio. Forde and Jones (1960) believed that the Igbo people and these other ethnolin- guistic groups are among the original inhabitants of Nigeria. This belief is yet to be historically authenticated since very little is known about the origin of the Igbo people and these other ethnolinguis- tic groups in Nigeria. Writing about the origin of the Igbo people. Uchendu (1965) said: When and from where the Igbo came into their present territory is not known. Their origin is a subject of much speculation. The 172 people have no cunmon tradition of origin. It is only rather recently that some Igbo-speaking communities have ceased to claim that they are not Igbo. It is for this reason that some Western writers in the colonial era treated the Igbo as "a people without history." We have since come to know better. A people with a culture are a people with some form of history. The Igbo have a culture; they have also a history--an unwritten history which it is the task of the cultural historian to piece together. The Igbo cultural historian is presently handicapped because there is little archaeological data from which he can draw. His only sources of data are cultural. fragmentary oral traditions and the correlation of cultural traits. (pp. 2-3) The Igbo people are said to live in small. dispersed settle- ments and have never organized into large political units. The tradi- tional Igbo society has been democratic. Among the Igbo people. the largest political unit has been the village group. governed by a coun- cil of elders. rather than by a chief. They are known throughout West Africa for energy and individualism. They are considered to be the most professionally visible and articulate of the Nigerian educated elite (Forde & Jones. 1950). The Igbo people are mostly Christians. although a few Moslems. animists. or pagans can be found. According to Iyizoba (1982). they were extremely receptive to the teachings of the European missionaries. especially British and Irish. during the nineteenth century. He argued that the receptivity of the Igbo people to Christianity was an expedi- ent means of getting western education through the missionaries. who ran most of the schools at that time. Their education was expedient because it enhanced their positions in society. Since the Igbo people did not have powerful traditional rulers like the Hausa-Fulani emirs or the Yoruba Obas. the Igbo elites were used to the British colonial administrators running the day-to—day administration of the government. 173 Since the Igbo people are highly democratic. the colonial administra- tion ran into difficulty with them when they attempted to impose "war- rant chiefs"1 on them. Because of their different geographical locations. historical and cultural backgrounds. and ethnic differences. these three major ethnolinguistic groups are great rivals in Nigerian politics. educa- tion. and economic development. Each of the groups is heavily ethno- centric. and their ethnocentrism is demonstrably evident in the politics and crises in Nigeria. This is discussed briefly in the next section. W W A great difference existed between the traditional political system and the colonial political system in Nigeria. Wm. Traditional laws and religion tremendously influenced traditional politics in precolonial Nigeria. Unlike what happens in Europe and most of the western nations. in Africa there is no sharp dividing line between the sacred and the secular (Parrinder. 1962). "The material and spiritual are intertwined. the former as a vehicle of the lattenJ' For this reason "the whole organization of society is maintained by the spiritual forces which pervade it" (p. 27). 1Warrant chiefs were Igbo people appointed by the colonial government to rule areas where traditional rulers were not available. 174 In the southern part of Nigeria it is known that ancestral worship had a tremendous influence on the traditional political system. Laws were attributed to the ancestors.I and not the traditional rulers. The "native priests" in a community were considered to be intermedi- aries between ancestors and God. The native priests! authority was derived from the belief that they were the representatives of the ancestors on earth or in a particular community. They informed the community about the wishes of their "god" (Iyizoba. 1982). No one violated any of the traditional norms and went free. Extreme'violation of traditional laws required a stoning to death or a banishment from the community. Unlike in the South. where traditional worship of ancestors was strong. in the North the dominant Islamic religion gave the emirs (regarded as the direct descendants of the Prophet Mohammed) the authority to become both the temporal and spiritual leaders of the people. The emirs were the aristocrats in the North. They ruled with absolute authority and "with no room for open dissensionJ' The common man could never challenge the rule of the emirs because Islamic faith requires strict adherence to Koranic teachings as interpreted by the emirs (Iyizoba. 1982). 1The ancestors. like the Supreme Being. are always held in deep reverence or even worshipped. By virtue of being the part of the clan gone ahead to the house of God. they are believed to be powerful in the sense that they maintain the course of life here and now and do influence it for good or for ill. They give children to the living; they give good harvest; they provide the sanctions for moral life of the nation and accordingly punish. exonerate. or reward the living as the case'may be (in Adeyomo. 1979). 17S .Ibe_pol1t1eal_sxaIem_oL_the_BL1jJsh_colonial_adm1nist£ation_1n mm The British began to rule Nigeria after the 1851 annexation of Lagos. European historians claim that the British reason for the annexation was to stop both the slave trade and export of slaves from Lagos. but Zsiegbu (1984) identified considerations of British trade. British alliance with local factions. and the significance of European (mainly Anglo-French) rivalry as other factors that determined the British annexation of Lagos. The British forces defeated and exiled Oba (king) Kosoko of Lagos when he refused to sign a "treaty" to end the slave trade (Burns. 1972). After Kosoko's defeat and banishment from Lagos. Akitoye (Kosoko's uncle) took over the Oba's throne and Lagos and signed the treaty to end slave trade with the British in 1853. Following the signing of the treaty. the British appointed and stationed a consul in Lagos to take charge of British interests on the coast (Burns.1972L When Akitoye died. his son. Dosumu. succeeded him but was quickly brought down by the British. who accused him of not abiding by the 1852 treaty. When Dosumu. with four of his top aides. met with the British acting consul of Lagos on August 6. 1861. in a British warship off the coast of Lagos. he was coerced into signing another treaty. which handed over Lagos to the British. That was how Lagos and the territories that later became Nigeria came to be annexed by the British colonial imperialists (Iyizoba. 1982). According to Schwarz (1968). the British used their imperial military forces and therBritish Charter Companies to subjugate the 176 entire southern and northern Nigeria. respectively. Fierce competition from the French and the Germans forced them to accelerate the annexa- tion process during the last two decades of the nineteenth century. The Charter Company that claimed northern Nigeria as the possession of the British was the Royal Niger Company formed by Sir George Goldie in 1879 when he amalgamated the»British firms in the North. The northern territory was administered by the Charter from 1855 to 1899. when the British government revoked the charter and began a direct administra- tion of the territory under the name Protectorate of Northern Nigeria" (Burns. 1972). In 1855. the delta areas had been proclaimed by Oil Rivers Protectorate after the signing of various treaties between the local rulers and the British consular officials. By 1893. British influence had extended inland causing the name to change to Niger Coast Protec- torate. In 1906. the colony of Lagos was merged with the Niger Coast Protectorate to form what was called the colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria (Burns. 1972). Both the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and the colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria were ama1- gamated in 1914 by the British to create what is known today as Nigeria. Ihe "Indirect 3“]en As soon as both Protectorates were amalgamated in 1914 to create Nigeria. Lord Luggard was appointed as the first British Governor- General of Nigeria with administrative headquarters in Lagos. It can be claimed that the ethnic conflict that has plagued Nigeria since 177 independence had its origin in the British amalgamation of northern and southern Nigeria. 'Whe'amalgamation marked the birth of a country with diverse ethnic and linguistic groups. each owing loyalty to its group. clan or emirate. but held together by the force of British Colonial administration which had no real interest in promoting a sense of national consciousness among the diverse peoples of the country" (Iyizoba. 1982). Indirect rule was the administrative machinery Lord Luggard used to govern Nigeria through their traditional rulers. This style of government was tremendously successful in northern Nigeria because of the power and influence of the emirs. which was evident in the traditional administrative and tax-collection systems they had set up in the emirates where they ruled. The British entered into agreement with them to maintain their authority and performed all government functions on Britain's behalf. In return for this favor. the British promised the emirs noninterference in their Moslem religion and lifestyle. This agreement barred the British from introducing Christianity and western education in the Moslem North (Schwarz. 1965). Unlike in the North where the emirs were both the political and religious rulers. in the West the obas did not have such a benefit. According to Awolowc:(l960). unpopular actions of the obas did not go unchallenged. An unpopular action resulted in either rioting by the community or dethronement of the oba if he was found to be wrong. These made the obas be thoughtful in their use of power and authority. 178 For this reason. the indirect rule was less successful among the Yorubas in spite of the presence of all the traditional administrative machineries suitable for indirect rule. However. it must be noted that with the British imposition of indirect rule. backed up with imperial military might. the Yoruba people had less influence on their obas. Thus. "the obas became despotic and unresponsive to the wishes of the people" (Iyizoba. 1982). Indirect rule was a complete failure in eastern Nigeria. There was no centrally constituted traditional political government among the Igbo people. They were too individualistic to be the kind of tradi- tional rules that were found among the Hausa-Fulanis and Yorubas. Decision making among the Igbo people was democratic and consultative in nature. The elders in the community usually made decisions regard- ing the community as a group. Another reason for the failure of indirect rule in eastern Nigeria was the British appointment of warrant chiefs. who had no traditional status in the community over which they were given authority. Writing about the traditional political process through which the Igbo people made political decisions. Forde and Jones (1950) stated. The making of major political decisions and the administration of criminal justice were carried out at public meetings. at which all the adult males of the community had a right to express their opinions. and the decisions agreed upon were ratified and ritually imposed by the lineage heads. In fact. the initiative. including the formulation of policy and the debate in the public meetings. was controlled by the leading members of the title society. who discussed affairs at their society meetings and secured the support of other title-holders. (p. 19) The British colonial administration in Nigeria contributed to the growth of ethnicity and ethnocentrism that has plagued Nigeria for the past 25 years. Community sentiments grew among Nigerians under the administrators (Forde 8. Jones. 1950). Granted that Nigerians were "separated from one another by geography. by differences of history and culture. and by ethnological. racial. tribal. political. social and religious barriers" (Coleman. 1958. pp. 793-94). the British policy is cited as deliberately fostering the idea that the peoples of Nigeria are different instead of encouraging the emergence of a single nation (Iyizoba. 1982). In 1920. Sir Hugh Clifford's] administration sought to secure for each ethnolinguistic group the right to Wnaintain its identity. its individuality and its nationality. its chosen form of government. and the peculiar political and social institutions which have been evolved for it by the wisdom and the accumulated experience of generations of its forebears" (Coleman. 1958. p. 194). According to Nnoli (1978). Sir Clifford's policy was a reflection of Lord Luggard's indirect rule. which encouraged Nigerians to maintain their separate identities. These policies resulted in the broadening of the social distance and the reinforcement of the development of ethnicity and ethnocentrism among the various ethnolinguistic groups in Nigeria. In keeping with the British promise of noninterference made by Lord Luggard to the northern emirs during the introduction of indirect 1Sir Hugh Clifford was a British Colonial Governor of Nigeria. 180 rule. the Land and Native Rights Ordinance of 1910. which declared all northern land as native land and as such under the Colonial Governorfis control. was aimed at limiting the activities of southern traders. businessmen. and especially missionaries and other professionals who might encroach upon the land and in so doing undermine the authority of the emirs (Nnoli. 1978L Iyizoba (1982) carefully observed the scope and characteristics of the Ordinance when he wrote: This policy of keeping Southerners out of the North was extended even to Southerners already living in the North. The British. in conjunction with the Emirs. insured minimum contact between North- erners and Southerners by dividing Northern cities into sections; a walled section for the indigenous population. another section for Northerners who were not indigenous to the town and "Sabon Garis" for Southerners or "native foreigners" as they were called by the British. (p. 36) Western education was not introduced in therNorth for fear that it might subvert the socio-political structure and thus undermine the authority of the emirs. Northerners were instead required to attend Koranic schools. Missionary activities were barred from the North for a while because they were the introducers of western education. The consequence was the educational gap between the northerners and the southerners. Discussing the effect of indirect rule on the political health of the nation. and especially on the northerners. Schwarz (1965) said. Indirect rule perpetuated ethnic differences and favored the traditional aristocracy as opposed to a new class free of tribal shackles. Isolating the North from disruptive influences that were transforming the South left the North backward. fearful. and resentful. and the South scornful of the North. (p. 29) 181 Indirect rule was simply an instrument of political polariza- tion of the North from the South. The result of such a polarization was "the creation of distinct political identities and separate administrative machineries by both regions" (Iyizoba. 1982. p. 38). W W The political parties that fought for Nigerian independence were formed along regional lines. and each was dominated by a major ethnolinguistic group. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was domi- nated by the Hausa-Fulani ethnolinguistic group. while the Action Group in the West and the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) in the East were dominated by the Yoruba and Igbo ethnolinguistic groups. respectively (Nnoli. 1978). The party leaders came from the dominant ethnic groups. Sir Ahmadu Bello (a Hausa aristocrat and the great? grandson of Usman Dan Fodio. the leader of the nineteenth century jihad) led the NPC. Chief Obafemi Awolowo. a Yoruba nationalist. led the Action Group. while Dr. Nomamdi Azikiwe. an Igbo nationalist whose struggle for Nigerian independence earned him the title "father of modern Nigeria." led the NCNC. Each party dominated its respective region and competed with the other two for power at the federal level. That was how Nigerian politics for independence became an ethnic- centered affair and thus encouraged ethnocentrism at the federal- government level. According to Amoda (1972). This regionalization of the parties had manifold consequences for the nation. It led to the peculiar form of the federal setup of Nigeria. which the Northern colossus dominates all the other regions combined. It led to the entrenchment within each region of 182 a party drawing its greatest support from the largest ethnic group in the region. And as a consequence of this. although all claim to be national. no party with effective support in all the regions has emerged. At independence. ethnicity and ethnocentrism became a factor in determining who governed where. Politicians became "linguistically" ethnocentric. "The political strategy adopted in a federal setup was to use the ethnic and cultural differences to keep out rival parties" (Amoda. 1972). The welfare of each politician's particular region or ethnolinguistic group took precedence over national interest for unity and stability. The conflict between these three contending parties intensified linguistic ethnocentrism and frustrated efficient govern- ment. Ethnocentrization of Nigerian politics by Nigerian politicians led to the lack of socialization of individual Nigerians into a national community. For this reason. the post-independent Nigeria is still struggling to be a one-united nation in which true democracy is practiced. W W Apart from structural imbalance of the federation. fear of domination. abuse of political power. interference with judicial process. corruption. nepotism. and sheer ineffectiveness of executive leadership (WW. 1968). one of the major causes of Nigerian crises is ethnic-centeredness. Ethnic-centeredness has always led to ethnic rivalries for leadership in Nigeria. Anxiety (uneasiness) that one ethnic group is about to dominate the others has been largely responsible for almost all the crises in Nigeria. For 183 example. the 1962-63 census crisis was created by the anxiety (uneasi- ness) southerners had about the possibility of northern domination because of their large population. The northern (Hausa-Fulani) popula- tion figure of 18 million compared to the figures of 7 million for the easterners (Igbo) and 6 million for the westerners (Yorubas) assured both the Igbos and Yorubas of northern domination in the federal government since seats were assigned on a population basis. The 1964 federal election crisis (caused by election malpractices) was ethnic-oriented. So also was the 1965 western Nigeria regional election crisis. which claimed many lives and ushered in the military intervention of January 15. 1966. "The Prime Minister [Sir Abubaka Tafawa Balewa]. being a Northerner. seemed unperturbed" (Iyizoba. 1982. p. 54) with the oubreak of social unrest resulting from the open hostilities and physical clashes between political parties because the crisis did not directly involve northerners. Instead of staying at home'to attend to the problems. he decided to travel to Ghana for the Organization of African Unity Conferences. When he came back. he hosted the Commonwealth Conference in Lagos. This angered the military. and they intervened. After the military coup d'etat of January 15. 1966. ethnic apprehensiveness. suspicion. and fear rose sharply in the North. Since no Igbo politician was killed with their Yoruba and Hausa 184 counterpartsfl the northerners regarded the coup as an Igbo coup and an attempt by them to dominate the country. This tended to be reinforced because a majority of the coup planners were Igbo military officers. while the majority of the victims were mainly non-Igbos. Although Adewale Ademoyega (a Yoruba. and the only surviving member of the group of five majors who planned and executed the coup) disputes linguistic ethnocentrism as the major factor considered in the planning of the coup. the Hausa-Fulani ethnolinguistic group refuses to accept it. Ademoyega (1981) therefore suggests that the only criterion taken into consideration for planning the coup was the desire to save Nigeria from the ethnic and regional politics that were disintegrating it. If the January 15. 1966. coup was not ethnic motivated. the counter-coup of July 19. 1966. was undeniably ethnic motivated. Ademoyega saw the counter-coup as a revenge by northern army officers. while Iyizoba saw the counter-coup's objective the northern officers' desire to return Nigeria to the status quo before the January coup. And that was "the return of the Northerners to the helm of Nigerian government" (Iyizoba. 1982. p. 58). The killing of about 10.000 to 30.000 easterners (mostly Igbos) after the northern army officers' overthrow of the military government that came to power after the January 15 coup led t0>a mass exodus of ‘The January 15. 1966. military coup d'etat claimed the lives of the Prime Minister. Sir Tafawa Balewa (a northerner). the northern Nigeria premier (Sir Ahmadu Bello). the western Nigeria premier (Chief Williams Akintola). Federal Minister of Finance (Chief Okotie—Eboh. a midwesterner). and some northern Nigerian senior army officers. Lt. Col. Unegbue was the only Igbo casualty of the coup. 185 about 2 million easterners from the North and even the West. and finally to a secession from the rest of Nigeria (Stokke. 1970). The secession caused General Gowonhs Nigeria to declare war on General Ojokwu's Biafra; thus civil war ensued. Ethnicity and ethnocentrism among Nigerian major ethnolinguis- tic groups have contributed to the instability of the federal govern- ment. be it military or civilian. Even in the recent General Buhariks military administration. ethnocentrism seriously raised its ugly head. His administration was accused of being dominated by senior army officers from the North. The southerners felt they were not well represented in the government. This was what presumably led to its overthrow recently by General Babangida. The preceding discussion is a perspective on the type of country the Nigerian students in various overseas colleges and universities come from: A country where ethnic tension is constantly prominent. A country where the Hausa-Fulani ethnolinguistic group would always be perceived as desiring to dominate the South at the federal-government level because of its size. A country where neither the Igbo nor the Yoruba and the Hausa-Fulani will allow the other to dominate the nation. A country where one ethnolinguistic group may admittedly not want to contribute to the economic and political advantage of the other ethnolinguistic groups. APPENDIX B HOMESICKNESS: AN EVIDENCE OF ETHNICITY OR ETHNOCENTRISM 186 187 Wises—Wm Homesickness or the desire for homeland is related to the feeling of "aloneness" and "estrangement" one experiences in a foreign land. In Biblical literature. the Israelites who were in exile in Babylon felt homesick and remembered Zion. They did not just remember Zion. but also the songs of Zion. Their cultural attachment to Zion could not be destroyed by their estrangement in a hostile foreign land. Also. another Biblical account reveals that the Israelites on their way to Palestine from their deliverance and exodus from Egyptian bondage remembered their home in Egypt. The Israelites who left Egypt for the Promised Land were the sons and daughters of those who went to Egypt because of the great famine. The last of them seemed to be Joseph. As far as the sons of Israel were concerned. their home was in Egypt. For that reason. when hunger struck them in the wilderness. they remembered the cucumbers. garlic. onions. meat. bread. and so on. they had in abundance and prepared in special ways. Cognitively. every man and woman remembers the aromatic smell of his or her mother's homemade food. Cognitively. everyone in a foreign land can still see. smell. or taste the type of food his or her mother used to fix when he/she was at home. It is the smell of one's mother's homemade meals. cultural foods. that contributes to the desire to get back home. For example. to the American outside of America. there is something special about the taste or flavor of mother's home- inade foods. such as apple pie. strawberry cheesecake. homemade ice cream. and mashed potatoes with chicken gravy. He may have these 188 things where he resides. but they are not the same as mother's homemade ones. To the Igbo outside his homeland. especially overseas. it is the cognitive remembrance of the aromatic smell and taste of motherks homemade equisi (melon) or Ogbono soup which is made of Okporoko (stalk fish). ayiya (butter leaves) with akpu. gari (cassava product) or nni-ji (pounded yam) which contribute to the desire to get back home. To the Yoruba. it is the aromatic smell of mother's homemade egusi (melon) or okra soup with inyan (pounded yam) or Amala which contrib- utes to the desire to get back home. Also. to the Hausa. it is the aromatic smell of mother's homemade tuwo (pounded rice) with specially prepared soup which contributes to the desire to get back home. There are many things that cause everyone outside his/her homeland to remem- ber home and desire to get back there. APPENDIX C "LINGUISTIC ETHNOCENTRISM" VERSUS "TRIBAL ETHNOCENTRISM": A DEFINITION OF TERMS 189 Linou15t1o_othnooootnism. This term shows the role language plays as a cultural identity distinguisher or as an ethnic group identifier. One of the cultural elements that distinguishes one cultural identity group from another cultural identity group. or one ethnic group from another ethnic group. is language. For example. the English are referred to as a cultural identity group because they speak English. In this example. English language acts as a very important distinguishing factor. It distinguishes the English from the Russians who speak Russian. from the Germans who speak German. from the French who speak French. from the Japanese who speak Japanese. from the Dutch who speak Dutch. and from the Americans who speak English with an American accent. Language is the identifier of its speaker or owner. In Nigeria. the Igbos are identified as the Igbo people because they speak Igbo. the Hausas because they speak Hausa. and the Yorubas because they speak Yoruba. Language is the one basic element that distinguishes the Nigerian people in terms of their ethnic groups. Mom. This is from the word "tribe." The word "tribe" was used by the colonial imperialists in their writings to identify Nigerian ethnic groups or African cultural identity groups. This word is no longer acceptable to the African elites. It has become anachron- istic. The word is degrading to the groups it is used to describe either in Nigeria or in other African countries. African cultural identity groups are not "tribes" but ethnic groups. For this reason. 191 the words "ethnic group" and "ethnolinguistic group" are interchange- ably used throughout this study to refer to the Nigerian cultural identity groups under study. while "linguistic ethnocentrism" is used to refer to the attitude of every major Nigerian language group. which consists of attributing to itself a central position in everything compared to other language groups. In linguistic ethnocentrism. each language group positively values its language achievements. peculiar characteristics. vanity. and pride. while making negative and derogatory remarks about other language groups' language. achievements. peculiar characteristics. vanity. and pride. Linguistic ethnocentrism is ethno- centrism on the basis of ethnic language affiliation. A linguistic ethnocentrist is one who provides help for and shows concern only to those who are ethnolinguistically affiliated with hinu He demonstrates regard for only his ethnolinguistic affiliates or ingroup members but disregard for ethnolinguistic nonaffiliates or outgroup members. APPENDIX D INSTRUMENTATION 192 .5; 193 c/o Professor Ted W. Ward Dissertation Director 516 Erickson Hall College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 Dear Nigerian Student: I am a Nigerian and a graduate student in Teacher Education Department, College of Education, Michigan State University. As a Nigerian, you are aware of the problem ethnocentrism or ethnicity poses to Nigeria's unity and stability. You are aware that very little research has been done in this area on Nigeria. The enclosed questionaire intends to descriptively identify whether Nigerian students differ significantly from each other's anxiety (uneasiness) on three evidences of ethnocentrism as they pursue advancedformal education overseas. The three evidences of ethnocentrism are: l) anxiety (uneasiness) about being elsewhere in the world except in one's own homeland 2) anxiety (uneasiness) about contributing one's expertise elsewhere in the world except in one's own country 3) anxiety (uneasiness) about contributing to the political or economic advantage of other ethnic groups except one's own. The responses to the questionaires will be used in a doctoral dissertation on the subject of ethnocentrism. The questionaire is anonymous, very simple and will not take more than 20 minutes to complete. The items have been numbered only for mailing administrative purposes. Your responses will in no way be identified with you since your name is not reguired. Thank you for taking out your time to respond to these questions and for making the data collection possible. Sincerely yours, I to amVO. Professor Ted Ward Dissertation Director 516 Erickson Hall, College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48823 1914 INSTRUCTION: Please respond to the following questions and statements as much as you can. Do not write your name anywhere on these pal. It is to assure you of absolute anonymity and confidentiality. The items will not take you more than 20 minutes to respond to. Thank you! ' Your Background: 1. Gender: (a) __ male (b) _ female 2. Age Categories: (a) 20-29 years (b) 30—39 years (c) __ 40-and over 3. I am: (a) Ibo (b) __ fiausa (c) __ Yoruba (d) Other 4. Marital Status: (a) married and my family is with me here at the university. (1:) married but my family is in my country. (c) __ single (d) Other S. I have been a student in the United States for about: (a) 6 months-l year ‘ (b) 2 years-4 years (c) 5 years-8 years (d) 9 years-over 10 years 6. This is my first time as a student in the United States? (a) Yes (b) __ No 7. I have attended and graduated from a U.S. institution before and returned home to work for some years and have come back again to the U.S. the second time for further studies. (a) Yes (b) No (c) Other 8. The higher institution I am attending is (a) a secular institution (b) a religious institution 9. The acaduic degree I am presently working toward is: (a) __ a Bachelor's degree (b) a Master's degree (c) __ a Doctorate degree 195 Circle the number that best expresses your opinion: 10. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Naturally a person feels strangely uneasy outside his/her own country. Normally when people get used to their new environment. they feel a little secure. It was very uncomfortable living outside my country when I first came to the United States. Presently, I do not mind being anywhere in the world including my own country. As long as my family back home has no objections. it does not make any difference where I live in the world. I always feel threatened by what people may think if I live elsewhere in the world except in my own country. Strongly No Disagree Disagree Opinion 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Circle the number that best represents your opinion: 11. (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) (f) It is natural for people to first share their new knowledge with the members of their family or community before sharing it with outsiders. People would naturally not be uneasy about using their expertise to help their own people rather than to help other people. As for me. I feel uncomfortable about contributing my expertise elsewhere in the world except in my own country. It does not bother some people to contribute their expertise elsewhere in the world rather than in their own countries. I do not mind contributing my expertise anywhere in the world including my country. If my family were to object to contributing my expertise elsewhere in the world except in our country. I would not contribute my expertise. Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral 1 2 3 l 2 3 1 2 3 l 2 3 1 2 3 l 2 3 Agree Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Circle the number that best reflects your concept: 12. 13. 196 (g) I will not feel concerned about (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) what people may think should I decide to contribute my expertise elsewhere in the world rather than in my own country. 1 Strongly Disagree Disagree It is uncounon for people to easily contribute to the political and economic advan- tage of other ethnic groups at rivalry with their own ethnic groups. l Hhere a person always fights for the interests of only his ethnic group, he will find it uneasy to fight for the political and economic interests of other ethnic groups. 1 As for me. I do not mind con- tributing to the political and economic advantage of other ethnic groups in my country. 1 If my contributing to the political or economic interests of other ethnic groups in my country will put my own group under them, it may be hard for me to do. 1 It does not make any difference to which of the ethnic groups I contribute to their political and economic advantage in my country. 1 I feel concerned about what people from my ethnic group may say if they perceive me as contributing to the political and economic advantage of other major ethnic groups in my country instead of my own group. 1 2 Neutral The state(s) in which I attended school in our country include: (a) (b) (c) Primary school Secondary school Post Secondary school Agree Strongly Agree I97 14. flhen I was a student in our country my closest friends were mainly: (a) Yorubas (b) Hausas (c) Ibos (d) Other (De Specific) 15. In the united States, my closest friends among the Nigerian students have been: (a) Ibos (b) ______ Yorubas (c) ______ Hausas (d) Other (De Specific) Circle the number that best reflects your perception: Not Never Some- Pre- Always In my own opinion: Sure Apply 5"." quently APPIY 16. (a) The Ibos are perceived as the most 'triballg' ethnocentric group in our country. l 2 3 4 S (b) The Yorubas are perceived as the most 'tribany' ethnocentric group in our country. I 2 3 4 S (c) The Hausas are perceived as the most 'tribaliy " ethnocentric group in our country. I 2 3 4 S (d) Other (De Specific) l 2 3 4 5 Circle the number that best represents your feelings: Strongly No Strongly Disagree Disagree Opinion Agree Agree 17. (a) I feel that there are some people who no matter the level of educa- tion they receive, may not be . less 'triballg " ethnocentric than they were before. 1 2 3 4 S (b) My advanced formal education overseas has contributed in making me to accept every Nigerian as a Nigerian irrespective of his/her ethnic origin. 1 2 3 4 5 (c) My advanced formal education overseas has helped me to learn why people fro my own ethnic group and people from other ethnic groups behave the way they do so that I am no longer bothered by it. 1 2 3 4 S (d) I have come to learn that I should not judge what other people do or do not do on the basis of what I do or do not do. l 2 3 4 S I98 Circle the number that represents the type of job you hope to do when you return home. When I return to our country to work: 18. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) I hope to teach in a post-Secondary institution. I hope to work in a Federal Ministry or Establishment. I hope to work for a Private Company. I hope to work for a Church Organization. Other (De Specific) Circle the number that best represents your return to your country. In my country. the tendency to: 19. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Employ persons from ones own ethnic group is preferable. Employ persons from outside one's own ethnic group. whenever possible. is preferable. Employ persons to satisfy socia pressures is advisable. ~ Employ persons in order to strengthen friendship is preferable. Employ persons only on the basis of a given qualification is preferable. In my opinion. persons should be employed on the basis of (De Specific). Strongly Disagree Disagree 1 No Opinion 3 Agree Strongly Agree thinking as a prospective employer when you Strongly Disagree 1 Disagree 2 Not Sure 3 Agree 4 Strongly Agree 5 Circle the number that best represents your main purpose in seeking advancedformal education overseas. 20. (a) (b) (c) (d) (I) To become an expert in my field. To improve my opportunity for a well paid job. To qualify for a better position in our national government. To gain social status and economic mobility. To use my expertise to help make Nigeria a place for all Nigerian ethnic groups to live together in peace. Strongly Disagree Disagree 1 1 1 1 2 2 Neutral Agree 4 4 Strongly Agree 5 S ** Questions 1 through 35 on pages 199 through 201 are copyrighted by the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc., P.O.Box 188, Champaign, IL. All rights reserved. These items may not be further reproduced without written permission from the Institute.** 199 Circle the number that best represents your opinion: Iaiile studying in the United States as a student: 21. Strongly (a) There is a tendency for changes to occur in a person's thinking or feeling about his country. 1 2 3 (b) There is a tendency for a person to be upset about the situation of things in his country. 1 2 3 (c) There is a tendency for a person's previous co-itment to his/her country to begin to fade away. l 2 3 (d) I feel that I am becoming upset about the situation of things in my country. 1 2 3 (e) I feel that my commdtment to my country is no longer what it used to be. 1 2 3 (f) Inspite of the present situation of things in my country. I am still commdtted to her. 1 2 3 (9) Other (De Specific) Disagree Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree Agree Please choose expression that is really true for you and mark the a. b. or c with an x. The statements represent how people feel or what they think about certain issues. box only if you cannot possibly decide on a or c. 1. 2. My interests. in people and ways to have fun. seem to change quite fast. (a) true (b) in between (c) false Even if people think poorly of me I still go on feeling OK about myself. (a) true (b) in between (c) false I like to be sure that what I'm saying is right, before I join in on an argument. (a) yes (L) in between (c) no I am inclined to let my feelings or jealousy influence my actions. (a) saetimes (b) seldom (c) never If I had my life to live over again I'd: (a) plan very differently (b) in between (c) want it the same I admire my parents in all important matters. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no It's hard for me to take “no“ for an answer, even when I know what I'm asking is impossible. (a) true (b) in between (c) false I wonder about the honesty of people who are more friendly than I'd expect them to be. (a) true (b) in between (c) false In getting the children to obey them. my parents (or guardians) were: (a) usually very reasonable (b) in between (c) often unreasonable Use the middle b c b c b c b c b c b c b c b c b c 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 200 I need my friends more than they seem to need me. (a) rarely (b) sometimes (c) often I feel sure I could “pull myself together“ to deal with an .ergency if I had to. (a) true (b) in between (c) false As a child I was afraid of the dark. (a) often (b) sometimes (c) never People sometimes tell me that when I get excited. it shows in my voice and manner too obviously. (a) yes (b) uncertain (c) no If people take advantage of my friendliness I: (a) soon forget and forgive (b) in between (c) resent it and hold it against them I get upset when people criticise me even if they really mean to help me. (a) often (b) sometimes (c) never Often I get angry with people too quickly. (a) true (1:) in between (c) false I feel restless as if I went something but don't know what. (a) hardly ever (b) sometimes (c) often I sometimes doubt whether people I'm talking to are really interested in what I'm saying. (a) true (b) uncertain (c) false I'm hardly ever bothered by such things as tense muscles. upset stomach, or pains in my chest. (a) true (b) in between (c) false In discussions with some people. I get so annoyed I can hardly trust myself to speak. (a) sometimes (b) rarely (c) never I use up more energy than most people in getting things done because I get tense and nervous. (a) true (b) uncertain (c) false I make a point of not being absent-minded or forgetful of details. (a) true (b) uncertain (c) false No matter how difficult and unpleasant the snags and stumbling blocks are, I always stick to my original plan or intentions. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no I get over-excited and “rattled“ in upsetting situations. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no I sometimes have vivid. true-to-life dreams that disturb my sleep. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no I always have enough energy to deal with problems when I'm faced with them. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no If I make an embarrassing social mistake I can soon forget it. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 20) I feel grouchy and just don't want to see people. (a) almost never (b) sometimes (c) very often I can almost feel tears case to my eyes when things go wrong. (a) never (b) very rarely (c) sometimes I wake in the night and have trouble sleeping again because I'm worrying about things. (a) often (b) sometimes (c) almost never Hy spirits usually stay high no matter how many trouble I seem to have. (a) true (b) in between (c) false I sometimes get feelings of guilt or regret over unimportant. small matters. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no Even if something upsets me a lot. I usually calm down again quite quickly. (a) true (b) uncertain (c) false I usually fall asleep quickly. in just a few minutes when I go to bed. (a) yes (b) in between (c) no I sometimes get tense and confused as I think over things I'm concerned about. (a) true (b) uncertain (c) false APPENDIX E CORRESPONDENCE 202 203 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY £01116! 0' IDUCAHON MST W ' MICHIGAN 0 “Id-ISM com OF EDUCATIONAL ADKINBTIATION mcxsouwui June 3, 1985 The Director Institute for Personality and Ability Testing 1602-0“ Coronado Drive Champaign, IL 61820 Dear Sir: A Request for Permission to Quote Selected Portions of IPAI Anxiety Scale Questionnaires For academic research purposes, I need your permission to quote selected portions of the items from the R. I. Cattell Anxiety Scale Questionnaires in the composite instrument I am constructing for my doctoral dissertation. The research is concerned with ethnocentrism among ligerian students in the Midwestern States of the United States. Specifically the study focuses on three evidences of ethnocentrism: 1) anxiety (uneasiness) about being elsewhere in the world except in one's own homeland; 2) anxiety (uneasiness) about contributing one's expertise elsewhere in the world except in one's own home country; and 3) anxiety (uneasiness) about contributing to the economic and political advantage of other ethnic groups except one's own ethnic group.- The use of the items will be acknowledged and copyright data informing the reader of ownership by the Institute for Personality and Ability testing will be provided in my text. I shall be grateful if my request if given a favorable consideration. Sincerely yours, Sam OnyeJindu Ole USUm-Wwwmh 20L) PO BOX 188 0 CHAMPAIGN. ILLINOIS “820-0168 0 217-352-4739 D 0.31:0 IITI'I'I'I'E m "IBOIILIT' III IIILI‘I'V 'I'EI‘I’IIG. Ilc. APPLICATION F0! PERMISSION 1'0 ImODUCE. ADA". MODIFY. AND/OI ”SLATE IPAT HAW OI Excnarrs meow IPA’I‘ will be pleased to consider your request to reduce. adapt. modify. and/or translate test materials to be used in your work. Kindly complete this form in duplicate. and return (A copies to IPA'I‘. If your request is approved. you will be sent a statement of the handling and /or royalty fee to be paid. Upon receipt of payment. we will return to you a copy of this ment signed by an [PAT official your possession of which will be your protection against possible charges d copyright violation. an: inpletioo of this form is a prior condition to permission. but does not guarantee that such permission will be granted. I. Namest Sam Onyejindu Oleka 2, mg“), Doctoral Graduate Student I. Med-amend” Mlfid Hard. Cgllggg Qt Engagignhfligw n at _.__ University, Erickson Hall {516, East Lansingl Michigan 48823 g, m‘ww 807 G Cherry Lane Apts.. East Lansing. Michigan 48823 ' O I 2 5_ WM” M.A. ”Theological 5’th Wheaton College Grad Sch Year 198 s. wwmww Wt (SID) 7. MWPATWYmWHuW. may sell/mm. e..g. nameoftest. testbooklet including form and edition; answer sheet. etc. If selected test items. list item numbers; if excerpts from Handbook. etc. give pageis). Statebowmsmyoepieewemld be.rmemdemsctlybewtbeywea|dbemed. lfatranslstion'mbeingrequested. pleaseinclude language(s) and/or dialects. (Use separate sheet if more space is needed.) TEST MATERIAUS) QUANTITY DESCRIBE USE Anxiety 59;}; mestionaire l (35 itJem_s) For Doctoral Dissertation Research 8. llleeearch. Hessstve‘l’Ileamdw dl’rejeet. (Useseparatesheetifmore moreisspaoe A Study of Three midences of E nocentrism Among Nigerian Students in Wt’lie United States. ing elsewhere in the world except in one‘s own homeland. b) Using one's expertise elsewhere in e wor excep n s 5 WW; 9'“ group S. WJmm-vhsnerfmmhermebhteleDms Michigan State University College of Education NPORTANTNOTE: Bysusnsmedest.clymmeetsmembudtbeAmmiossWAmedsdmcd-nsrpales- uzm.mmhnw'~dm.cMcummabdnym-mm I!" - ”Permission Requested ls Granted. I Agree m.- (l) [PAT will receive for approval. two (2) copies of any test material reproduced. adapted. modified. and/or translated by perniis sion.assoona_sitisproducedor reproducedmot notboflsterthsnsinlmonthsaflertbelstsrdste theofsigning thispsrmission.and before the project is undertaken. Omcss located at 1w Woodmld Drive. 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Identification oftest materials. or parts thereof. to be reproduced. adapted. modified. and/ortranslsted ._M'10 $‘13 _ f‘ " ' lb" ‘ ‘ ‘ Faun) No. ' ,' A ' ‘ one (I) -uc yahyrIRL—Pmelssingfee 17$ "‘ Totalfee ’25 'I‘liispermissiontenninateson M (Ifmmtimeorsdditi ' Iw‘uu‘dsylan-a‘m‘ _ "v ' Requestgranted Requestdenied SIGNED: - pm. August 15I I985 . _ A g _ .... 206 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING EAST LANSLN‘C. . MICHIGAN e “HMO“, HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS) 23s ADMINISTRATION lit'lLDINC. (51’) 359-2186 August 19, 1985 Mr. Sam Onyejindu Oleka 807 G Cherry Lane East Lansing, Michigan 48323 Dear Mr. Oleka: Subject: Proposal Regarding a Survey on Problem of Ethnocentrism or Ethnicity Regarding Nigeria's Unity and Stability" UCRIHS review of the above referenced project has now been completed. I am pleased to advise that since the reviewer's comments have been satisfactorily addressed, the conditional approval given by the Committee at its August 5, 1985 meeting has now been changed to full approval. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to August 5, 1986. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, Henry E. Bredeck Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Ted Ward MSl ii an Affirmative Adina [qual Opponent) Institution 207 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION EAST LANSING . IJCHIGAN . annoy 00mm or EDUCATIONAL wmnos mcnson HALL Dear Your help is needed for a doctoral study of the Nigerian students in the United States. The major focus of this study will be on the relationship between ethnocentrism patterns and the adjustment characteristics of Nigerian students. He will be sampling from fourteen university campuses and would like to include the Nigerian student groups on your campus. Can you provide a name and address for Mr. Sam Oleka to use in contacting the Nigerian student organization on your campus? He will be sending you a copy of the instrument to be used {or this study so you that you can be assured of its professional quality. Thank you very much for your help in this matter. Sincerely, d Hard m Academic Advisor for Sam Oleka HSL' I) an A/ftfiuuiw Anson/final Opportunity hunt-no- 208 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING . MICHIGAN . 486241035 a}? .r' :7 0 International Studies and Programs “WM” L I” 2 Telex 810 252 0737 MSU INT PRO ELSC» Office of Inwrnauonai Students and Scholars 109 Center for lmemanonai Programs April 19, I985 MEMO TO: Ted Ward FROM: David Hornet / RE: Sam Oleka's Project Attached are the names and addresses of the foreign student advisors at the institutions you listed in your memo of April 8, 1985. I am pleased that Sam is progressing on his dissertation research and look forward to seeing the data he collects. If I can be of assistance in contacting any of these people, let me know. Most of the advisors at the secular schools are colleagues with whom I've worked for some time. I am less familiar with those at the religious schools. DDH/scm Enclosure Mb! u on Artwmohm Amor Ecuo Oppoflu'llt‘, th,!*ls.."(w 209 SECULAR UNIVERSITIES Dr. David D. Horner, Director Office of International Students 6 Scholars 109 International Center Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824-1035 Dr. Jon Heise, Director International Center University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48104 Dr. Paul Webb, Director Foreign Student Affairs Eastern Michigan University Ypsilanti, MI 48197 Ms. Jolene Jackson, Director International Student Services Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, MI 49007 Mr. Hal Donaldson, Director International Student Services Wayne State University 470 Mackenzie Hall Detroit, MI 48202 Ms. Dorothy Brickman, Director International Student/Scholar Services Ohio State University Columbus, OH 43210 Dr. Alan Boyd, Director International Student & Faculty Services Ohio University Athens, OH 45701 Dr. Kenneth Rogers, Director International Services Purdue University West Lafayette, IN 47907 Ms. Margery J. Ismail, Director International Student Services Purdue University West Lafayette, IN 47907 Mr. Charles E. Warwick, Director International Students and Staff Affairs University of Illinois-Urbana 610 East St. John Champaign, IL 61820 Ms. Eileen Flanders, Director Office of International Programs & Scholars Northwestern University 630 Dartmouth St. Evanston, IL 60201 Dr. Michael Dean, Director Foreign Students and Faculty University of Wisconsin/Madison 500 Lincoln Drive Madison, WI 53706 Dr. Martin Limbird, Director Office of International Education Services Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 Dr. Josef Mestenhauser, Director International Student Advisors Office University of Minnesota at Twin Cities 717 E. River Rd. Minneapolis, MN 55455 210 RELIGIOUS COLLEGES/UNIVERSITIES Orlando Mastrapa Andrews University Berrien Springs, Ml 49104 Dr. William Stob Dean of Student Life Calvin College 6 Theological Seminary 3201 Burton, S.E. Grand Rapids, MI 49506 Arthur D. Volkmann Trinity Evangelical Divinity School 2065 Half Day Rd. Deerfield, IL 60015 William C. Hill International Student Advisor Wheaton College Graduate School Wheaton, IL 60187 Taylor University Upland, IN 46989 Jim Molemkemp, Director Admissions Grace Bible College 1011 Aldon St., S.W. P.0. Box 910 Grand Rapids, MI 49509 Geraldine Plunkett, Registrar Bethany Theological Seminary Butterfield 6 Meyers Rd. Oak Brook, IL 60521 Helen M. Fannings Director Student Services Garrett Evangelical Theological Seminary 2121 Sheridan Rd. Evanston, IL 60201 Grand Rapids Baptist College & Seminary 1001 E. Beltline Avenue, N.W. Grand Rapids, MI 49505 Weyburn Groff, Registrar Goshen Biblical Seminary 3003 Benham Avenue Elkhart, IN 46517 Bethel Theological Seminary 3949 Bethel Dr. St. Paul, MN 55112 George Nalywaiko Foreign Student Advisor Anderson College Anderson, IN 46011 Maisey Lake Administrative Assistant Elmhurst College 190 Prospect Elmhurst, IL 60126 21] Professor Ted W. Ward Room 516 Erickson Hall College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48824 February 5, 1986 Dear Thank you for your assistance to Sam Onyejindu Oleka, my doctoral student advisee, in making contact with the Nigerian students in your institution as needed for his doctoral dissertation data col- lection. Please convey my appreciation to the president and the secretary of the Nigerian Students' Union and the entire Nigerian students for the completion of the questionnaires distributed to them. The results of Mr. Oleka's research on ”Ethnocentrism Among Nigerian College Students in American Colleges and Universities“ will be available through the University Microfilms or through the Michigan State University Library. Sincerely yours Ted W. Ward Sam Onyejindu Oleka's dissertation director APPENDIX F NIGERIAN COLLEGE STUDENTS' GENERAL ANXIETY, ”RESIDING” ANXIETY, ”CONTRIBUTING“ ANXIETY, AND "POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC” ANXIETY FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 212 2I3 Nigerian College Students' General Anxiety Frequency Distribution Two Major Divisions for the Purpose of This Study Anxiety Relative Adjusted Cumulative Level Score N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (Z) ' 57 1 .4 .4 .4 ' 58 1 .4 .4 .7 ' 59 1 .4 .4 1.1 ' 62 2 .7 .7 1.9 ' 64 1 .4 .4 2.2 '5 ' Low 65 3 1.1 1.1 3.4 5 ' 66 3 1.1 1.1 4.5 -4 ' 67 1 .4 .4 4.9 5" 68 5 1.9 1.9 6.7 .2 ' 69 11 4.1 4.1 10.9 é ' 70 6 2.2 2.2 13.1 ': I 71 10 3.7 3.7 16.9 0 _,. 72 5 1.9 1.9 18.7 ' 73 12 4.5 4.5 23.2 ' 74 12 4.5 4.5 27.7 ' 75 9 3.4 3.4 31.1 ' Medium 76 13 4.9 4.9 36.0 ' ------ ., 77 18 6.7 6.7 42.7 ' 78 19 7.1 7.1 49.8 ' 79 10 3.7 3.7 53.6 ' 80 18 6.7 6.7 60.3 '6 ' 81 12 4.5 4.5 64.8 6 ' 82 17 6.4 6.4 71.2 _I I 5" 83 18 6.7 6.7 77.9 .2 ' 84 11 4.1 4.1 82.0 8 ' 85 15 5.6 5.6 87.6 '< ' 86 13 4.9 4.9 92.5 {3' High 87 6 2.2 2.2 94.8 EE ' 88 4 1.5 1.5 96.3 ' 89 5 1.9 1.9 98.1 ' 90 1 .4 .4 98.5 ' 91 2 .7 .7 99.3 ' 92 1 .4 .4 99.6 ' 94 1 .4 .4 100.0 Total 267 100.0 100.0 Standard Deviation = 6.530 Minimum 57.000 Maximum 94.000 Mean = 78.240 Mode = 78.000 Median = 78.550 Range = 37.000 Variance = 42.642 ZIA Nigerian College Students' "Residing" Anxiety Frequency Distribution Cumulative Freq. (%) Adjusted Relative Anxiety Level Freq. (%) N Freq. (%) Score '— 45957906674 0 e e e e e e e e o 0 1133468125 4..4.4..54II60.I.6. II23I7“ 1.]. 4.I4.54.II60.I.RU. I123.I.2 1.] I3I4I337837 I6 32 33 25 26 28 29 30 31 34 35 50I7I28838 O O O O O O O O O O 97496§I726 I2334 6677 I5I54I.6.0.55 4775e0.mW.5.0.4u4u I.5I.6.4hI.6.0.55 4.7.7.56..n|w56.4.4 1095775622 IZIIIZIIII 67890I2345 3333444444 J8flw0~£w6504lw£wo. Ema/H5 nw S7780n0. 9129709541114 0000000000.. I42133II .II 9I2970954II4 O O O O O O O O O O O I I42I33II 1] 5I650854I331 I I _o>om >uo_xc< 304 _o>om >uo_xc< cm_: >maum m_;h mo omoccam ecu to» mco_m_>_a LOHmz ozh 100.0 100.0 267 Total 3 3 1 00 03 04 e a: 8 ..C n ea 9.1. "P. aa RY Standard Deviation = 6.568 Minimum = l6.000 Maximum = 59.000 9 8 I08 90 . I00 0 04 .II 44.. = = n a net! add M08 MM Two Major Divisions for the Purpose 215 Nigerian College Students' "Contributing" Anxiety Frequency Distribution of This Study Anxiety Relative Adjusted Cumulative Level Score N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) I 4 1 .4 .4 .4 I 6 1 .4 .4 .7 __ I 8 1 .4 .4 1.1 g I Low 10 1 .4 .4 1.5 3 I 12 s 1.9 1.9 3.4 >.. 13 S 1.9 1.9 5.2 3 I 14 11 4.1 4.1 9.4 g I 15 10 3.7 3.7 13.1 3 I 16 22 8.2 8.2 21.3 .3 I Medium 17 33 12.4 12.4 33. I_ ______ , 18 28 10.5 10.5 44.2 I 19 38 14.2 14.2 58.4 I 20 43 16.1 16.1 74.5 c; I 21 21 7.9 7.9 82.4 > 3 I 22 15 5.6 5.6 88.0 3?. 23 14 5.2 5.2 93.3 .9 I High 24 S 1.9 1.9 95.1 g I 25 4 1.5 1.5 96.6 .< I 26 7 2.6 2.6 99.3 {;I 27 l .4 .4 99.6 E I 29 1 .4 .4 100.0 Total 267 100.0 100.0 Mean = 18.753 Standard Deviation = 3.392 Mode = 20.000 Minimum 4.000 Range = 25.000 Median = 18.908 Maximum 29.000 Variance = 11.503 216 Nigerian College Students' "Political and Economic" Anxiety Level Anxiety Relative Adjusted Cumulative Level Score N Freq. (%) Freq. (%) Freq. (%) I >. 'g ' 9 1 .4 .4 5; _.' 10 2 .7 1.1 m 2 ' ll 4 1 1.5 2.6 1; .3 ' Low 13 4 1 1.5 4.1 *’ >.' 14 3 1 1.1 5.2 us all 15 3 I I.I 6.4 .. 1 3 E 1 16 6 2 2.2 8.6 o :1 S- 3 ' 17 8 3 3.0 11.6 5 3' . 18 26 9 9.7 21.3 0 ' Medwm 19 17 6 6.4 27.7 f, ' ------ ’20 39 4 14.6 42.3 g ' 21 32 2 12.0 54.3 .2 '5 ' 22 34 2 12.7 67.0 m 3 ' 23 36 3 13.5 80.5 S _I I ’5 5" 24 15 5 5.6 86.1 '; .2 ' 25 8 3 3.0 89.1 '5 E' 26 16 6 6.0 95.1 ,_ < ' High 27 6 2 2.2 97.4 .2,'§,' 28 3 1 1.1 98.5 ;£ 3; ' 29 3 1 1.1 99.6 3 ' 30 1 .4 100.0 '— Total 267 100 100.0 Mean = 20.981 Standard Deviation = 3.571 Mode = 20.000 Minimum = 9.000 Range = 21.000 Median = 21.141 Maximum = 30.000 Variance = 12.755 BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abernethy. David. 391.11.13.11 Dilemma 915 Emulation Education: All Airican Case. Stanford. Ca1if.: Stanford University Press. 1969. Ademoyega. Adewale. .Hh1.H§ §I£u§K1.Ih§.§IQ£¥ QI.Ih£.E1£§I.N19§£11n .Coup. Ibadan. Nigeria: Evans Brothers Nigerian Publishers. Ltd.’ 1981. Adeyomo. 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