CASE STUDIES AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF MORALE. ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND CONFLICT IN THE STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EDGAR A. KELLEY 1970 0-169 - s. LIBRARY I IMLCI‘ eigan Strttfi University IIIIIIII IIIIIII I IIIIIII 3 1293 01095 9355 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A33 .3'I‘L‘DISS FUD AI: AIALYJIS CI“ I53 HOLE CF IC‘fI’iLE, DIXIE/‘13 IZAI‘ICI 'XL ”II.- AIS, AXE) 2C 'F'LI I‘ I717 Inf . S'IIUY Cu. 3330.3171‘1’ 5' WHO 33.. ”VIRC..I*73. T3 presented by Edna? A. Kelley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Fh.j). degree in Administration 9 g—vij’lév/ r/{galé/i/ / Major professor Date "I ”l «V ABSTRACT CASE STUDIES AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF MORALE, ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE, AND CONFLICT IN THE STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS by Edgar A. Kelley There has been a growing recognition of the need to study environments in a way which recognizes that the interaction of peOple with their environment is a two- way process, shaped both by the form of the environment and by the psychological characteristics of people. At the same time, pressures for greater participation on the part of the individual, as he interacts within organ- izations, have been evident. Earlier studies in educational and industrial organizations have indicated that "morale" and "organ- izational climate" are partially determined by leader- staff perceptions and by the degree of dissonance or congruence which exists between those perceptions. Other writers have hypothesized that, in school environ- ments, the perceptions of organizational climate held by teachers are transmitted to students. Edgar A. Kelley In this study, earlier morale studies are re— viewed as a background to the develOpment of organiza- tional climate measures. The morale studies appear to have been insufficient in that (l) a clear definition of the term was not achieved and (2) studies of morale failed to identify either the effects of morale or methods to modify its impact. Organizational climate studies, based on earlier morale studies, seek to more closely identify the organizational parameters which impact upon individuals. Two major instruments are currently available. Halpin and Croft's Organizational Climate Description Question- ggigg (OCDQ) and Stern and Steinhoff's Organizational Climate Index (OCI). The OCDQ is a refined morale study and was developed for use in elementary school settings. Although used at the secondary school level, serious questions must be raised about its application at this level. The OCI was designed as a generalized instru- ment for the measurement of organizational climate in any type of institution. The use of the OCI and related environmental indexes developed by its authors offers hope for the creation of a body of knowledge which can identify the effects of organizational and individual interaction. From a review of morale studies and organizational climate studies, suggested ways of analyzing institutions Edgar A. Kelley are developed. Conflict theory and methods of conflict resolution are also introduced as central elements in the planning of organizational studies. The central emphasis of the two case studies which are presented is that measurement of organizational climate, while allowing the development of normative data, is designed as a "feedback" and "process" activity. Climate studies do not measure the "goodness" or "badness" of an organ- ization; in fact, the central assumption of this study is that there is no single "optimum" environment for secondary schools. An environment classified as "stable" and one classified as "in conflict" were studied in the case studies presented here. Although these can not be used to make generalizations about secondary school environ- ments, certain tentative findings indicate a need for additional research in the climate of secondary schools. These findings were: 1. Although mixed results were obtained, student perceptions differ in most areas from percep- tions held by teachers. 2. Increased years of schooling increase the probability of dissonance in the perceptions of environment held by students as compared to those held by teachers. 3. The pattern of organizational climate does not appear to be related to whether or not the school is experiencing identifiable conflict. 4. Increased years of schooling causes the individ- ual to more readily identify organizational press for control; conversely the organization is Seen as exhibiting less press for developmental activities. CASE STUDIES AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF MORALE, ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE, AND CONFLICT IN THE STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS by Edgar A. Kelley A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1970 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Considerable appreciation must be given to the members of my doctoral committee: Dr. John Suehr, chair- man, Dr. Samuel A. Moore, II, Dr. Cole Brembeck and Dr. John Howell. I have been most fortunate to have their guidance and support. Having earned all of my degrees at Michigan State University, I am most pleased to have had the trust of those four individuals who have, in my opinion, had the most influence on me both as an under— graduate and graduate student. Sincere thanks are also given to Glen Gerard, James P. Reilly, and F. R. Wilson, fellow students whose ideas and efforts in my behalf have been most helpful. Gratitude for the cooperation and helpfulness of school administrators and participants shown while conducting the case studies is also acknowledged. Because of the anonymity of the studies, these people must remain unknown. To my wife, Marie, who has been a source of inspiration and who has served so capably during this past year in the role of graduate student, mother, wife, consultant and friend, I express my deepest thanks and ii love. Finally, to a host of colleagues, friends, and relatives-~past and present--my deepest affection. May my services to them be as their confidence in me: "More than Yesterday, Less than Tomorrow." iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . Significance of the Study . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . Assumptions of the Study . . Definition of Terms . . . . Design of Research for the Case Studies . . . . . . . Organization and Reporting of the Study . . . . . . . THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALE STUDIES Introduction . . . . . . . . The Concept of Morale . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Defining Organizational Climate The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) The Organizational Climate Index . OCI Factor Structure . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . CONFLICT, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, AND CIiANGE O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . . . Definitions and Discussions of Conflict iv Page ii \era H 15 l6 16 18 20 23 23 25 35 38 38 38 45 51 56 61 64 64 66 Chapter The Individual and Conflict . . Conflict Resolution and Change . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . V. PROCEDURES FOR STUDYING AND IMPROVING SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . A Model for Current Study . . summary 0 O O O I O O I I I O 0 VI. A CASE STUDY OF A "STABLE" SCHOOL Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Selection of the Schools Studied and Data Collection Procedures Used . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation and Technique Analysis of Data . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . VII. A SCHOOL IN CONFLICT . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . A Brief Description of the School and Community . . . . . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . VIII. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, AND CONCLUSION Findings and Recommendations . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY o o o o o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 APPENDIX: Definitions of Scales for the Organizational Climate Index, Test Booklet, and Answer Sheet Page 70 74 77 79 79 82 87 89 89 91 92 94 103 105 105 105 106 111 113 116 118 124 TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE TABLE GRAPH GRAPH II: III: IV: II: LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS Tables Page The Relationship of Student and Teacher Perceptions of Organizational Climate Across Eight Factors of the Organiza- tional Climate Index . . . . . . . . 95 Planned Comparison Between Teacher and Student Perceptions of Organ- izational Climate on Eight Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Perceptions of Seniors as Compared With Perceptions of Juniors and Sophomores Across Eight Climate Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Perceptions of Seniors as Compared With Perceptions of Teachers Across Eight Climate Dimensions . . . . . . 98 Eight Climate Dimensions From A Stable School Compared to Those Obtained From A School In Conflict . 107 Graphs Student and Teacher Perceptions to Normative Data . . . . . . . . . . 101 Profiles of Two Schools Compared to Normative Data . . . . . . . . . . 109 vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction A favorite question for historians has been whether great leaders develop situations or are developed by the situations which are present in their environ— ments. Many past endeavors in the area of social science have attempted to provide descriptions which support the concept of the individual modifying the environment; other representations postulate that the environment has shaped the actions and reactions of men. With the rise of bureaucratic organizations and an increasingly diversified and specialized technology, there has been a growing realization that man should be described in terms which encompass both the individual and the organization in which he acts. The old question of which is more important in its impact--the organiza- tion or the individual--has given way to a synthetical approach which holds that "the interaction of people with their environment is a two-way process, shaped both by the form of the environment and by the psychological characteristics of people."1 Four types of environment have been conceptual- ized as important to the production of stress for the individual: the biochemical environment, the physical environment, the psychological environment, and the sociocultural environment.2 Major attention has been given to the first two areas by physical scientists; the latter two areas have been the focus of social scientists. Until ways are provided which permit the fusion of these concepts into total investigative approaches, understanding of the interaction of the individual and his environment will be, for any given situation, only partial. The dilemma is well illus- trated by Ewald's comment: "As it is, we seem to know more about the environmental requirements of bees, Santa Gertrudis cattle, and chickens than we do about human environment."3 He continues by identifying one of the reasons for man's lack of knowledge about his 1Stephen Carr, "The City of the Mind," in Environment for Man: The Next Fifty Years edited by W1 1am R. Ewa , Jr., B oomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1967), p. 199. 2John W. Dyckman, "City Planning and the Treasury of Science," in Ewald, Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ewald, Jr., "Introduction," Ibid., William R. pp. 5-6. own requirements--his human characteristics: "The con- cept of a single Optimum environment is for the human animal, not the human being: it is a ‘zoo view' of humanity that precludes human dignity." Although recognizing the need for fusion of environmental studies from varying disciplines, such a task is beyond the scope of this study. The attention of this study is directed to the general task of inves- tigating the psychological environment of organizations and its impact on individuals interacting within organ- izational settings. More specifically, the tasks of this study are to: 1. Review literature in the fields of morale, organizational conflict, and conflict resolution. 2. Present a process for the study of organiza? tional climate in secondary school settings. 3. Present the results of a case study involving the perceptions of organizational climate by teachers and students within a high school described as "stable." 4. Present a second case study showing organizational climate of a school described as "in conflict." 5. Compare the two case studies and make tentative generalizations for needed additional research and improvement of techniques. Studies of morale date from the 1920's; organ- izational climate is a more recent concept. Existing studies in these areas have investigated relationships between staff and administrative perceptions of organ— izational climate in educational institutions (and other types of institutions or organizations). Little attention has been given to the relationships which may exist between the perceptions of staff and the perceptions of clients. There has been general agreement that effects are present as a result of the relationships between the perceptions of teachers and students. Although research has been more common at the collegiate level, little research has been designed to study secondary school environments.4 Morale is reviewed in this study because of the significance which morale studies have had in the development of theories of organizational interaction. Morale studies, with their concern for the feelings of the individual, were the preliminary steps toward more detailed examinations of environments. Organizational climate instruments, with emphasis on the individual in his interactions with the organization and vice-versa, owe much of their genesis to morale studies. Two major instruments are available for the study of organizational climate in secondary schools. k . James V. Mitchell, Jr., "Dimensionality and Differences in The Environmental Press of High Schools," American Educational Research Journal, Volume 5 (November 1968), pp. 3513-530. ' The best-known instrument is Halpin and Croft's Organi- zational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). The OCDQ represents a sephisticated type of morale study, designed specifically for the investigation of elemen- tary school settings. It has, however, been used for a number of studies at the secondary school level. The second instrument, the Organizational Climate Index (OCI), was developed by George G. Stern and Carl Steinhoff.5’6’7 The OCI is the outgrowth of earlier attitude and environ- ment instruments and is designed to serve as a general instrument for the study of organizational settings. Conflict and conflict resolution, the third area considered in this study, is of importance for the develOpment of more effective models in the assessment of organizational perceptions. Certainly at a time when conflict has become increasingly a part of our social fabric; when "confrontation" has become a way of life as well as an action; knowledge of the effects of con- flict is essential. Serious concern must be given to 5Andrew W. Halpin. Theory and Research in Administration (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966), p. 142. 6George G. Stern. PeOple in Context (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970), Chapter I. 7Robert G. Owens, Organizational Behavior in Schools (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-HallTIIEb., 0 , Chapter VIII. ways of effectively providing conflict resolution which is helpful to the goals of individuals and institutions. Some steps are described in Chapter V for the use of organizational climate studies and conflict resolution techniques as a step in the direction needed. These steps are seen as representative of the skills adminis- trators must, in day-to-day practice, be ready to use for the analysis of organizational environments. Statement of the Problem This study reviews literature in three areas: morale, organizational climate, conflict and conflict resolution. From the review of literature, a restricted area of concern is developed: the importance of the interrelationships between teacher and student percep- tions of organizational climate and the effects of Con- flict on Climate. Two case studies are reported and techniques for the use of client-centered investiga- tions of secondary school environments are suggested. In the case studies reported, organizational climate is measured by the Organizational Climate Index (OCI). The OCI was administered to random samples of teachers and students in two secondary schools. The schools were selected on a basis of "objective" similar- ity regarding factors of size, per pupil expenditure, and amount of state support per pupil. The schools were selected "subjectively" to represent environments which were opposite in regard to conflict. One school is characterized as "stable" while the other school is "in conflict." The major hypothesis of the research in the first case study is that the perceptions of teachers and students as measured by the OCI will not show significant differences. The second case study compares perceptions from a "stable" environment with perceptions from a conflict environment. Significance of the Study In this study, there is an attempt to clarify the status of research in three areas related to second- ary school environments: morale, organizational climate, and conflict. Initial steps are made to integrate these three areas of concern. An integration of existing knowledge can serve as a basis for administrators developing methods which will more clearly define the components of an optimum climate for secondary schools. The development of such an optimum climate will require a keener sense of what is real and a willingness to act out the beliefs and commitments which are implicit in previous work by others. An optimum climate or environ- ment is seen as a variety of ever-changing environments which continually seek for more things that serve human interests with a full realization that: "The form of the environment influences not only our ability to achieve new information but also how we organize our experience in memory."8’9 Many goals could be served by the development of techniques for the continuing study of organizational environments. Three of the most important functions are (1) improved assessment of the impact of organiza- tional goals, (2) increased information about the human concerns of individuals within the organizational setting, and (3) improved identification of serious problems of dissonance within the school; such identification should provide for pre-planned strategies to defuse situations of nonproductive conflict. Improved insight, through the use of improved techniques for the study of environments, could lead to improved measurement of organizational growth toward desired goals, better identification of functional and dysfunctional human needs or perceptions within the organization, improved planning of inservice programs for teachers, additional counseling insight for either staff or student improvement, and continuing assessment 8Bertram M. Gross, “The City of Man: A Social Systems Reckoning," in Environment for Man: The Next Eifty Years, 9p. cit., p. 150. 9Carr, op. cit., p. 207. of the effects of new programs or policies. Better ways of planning for the maximizing of organizational goals and the satisfying of human needs should result from better methods of measuring organizational climate. Previous research has concentrated on percep- tions between different levels of the professional staffs of schools. This study, in its emphasis on client perceptions, is only an introduction to the type of research which will become more important--the measurement of interaction between organizations and all individuals who interact within them as well as all organizations with which boundary--spanning functions occur. This study is a preliminary step toward the type of analysis which would, for secondary schools, consider all personnel, all clients, the community, and the organizations beyond the community which have significant impact on the Operation of the organization. Such goals as have been stated for the study of climate or of environment must also recognize the limita- tions of such study: It has been a persistent technocratic ideal to imagine that the professional's special role is to determine people's needs, apart from their desires, to satisfy those "real needs" and then to wait for them to change their ways and express their gratitude. We are generally agreed that we should attempt to change people's perceptions of the possible, and thus their desires, through education and exposure to wider environmental choices. ...But that is quite another matter from imposing unwanted environments on peOple 10 out of some higher conception 96 their needs which they do not share. The case studies, which are presented in Chapters VI and VII, use the Organizational Climate Index (OCI) as a tool for the measurement of organizational climate. Research conducted thus far has used the OCI for (1) comparison of differing institutions (such as comparing public high school staffs with trainees at Peace Corps training centers) or (2) analysis of perceptions in educational institutions based on a comparison of teachers with administrators. For the case studies of secondary school environments, the OCI, a general instru- ment intended to serve as a base for the analysis of all formal structures, was selected in preference to the OCDQ, an instrument more closely tied to morale studies and also developed for use at the elementary school level. The OCI attempts to subsume existing instruments for the study of organizational climate and morale under a model for the study of all organizations on the basis of the relationships of needs and press. The basic belief eXpressed in this study is that the perceived needs of individuals are as important as any imposed conceptions as to what those needs should be. loIbid., pp. 204-5. See also Marshall McLuhan, Enderstanding Media (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), and $5 Reeves, ReaIIty in Advertising (New York: Knopf, 61). 11 The idiosyncratic phenomenal reality of an individual is not sufficient, however, for organizational planning. Therefore, to analyze both individuals and organizations in a way which will lead to understanding of group rela- tionships is the peculiar task of school administrators. As Mitchell has stated:11 Everyone suffers from inadequate, in— apprOpriate, or non—fulfilling environ- ments, and everyone stands to gain from their improvement. To study these en- vironments, their interactions with human needs, and their effects on be- havior would seem to be the sine qua non of intelligent and responSiEIe educational leadership. The concept of morale, which has been of great importance in many existing studies, is seen as being philosophically reducible. Models for the study of organizational climate can readily incorporate morale. This reductionism12 calls for greater attention to the study of organizational climate as a more inclusive process for the analysis of organizations and individuals. 11James V. Mitchell, Jr., "Studying High School Learning Environments, Student Needs, and Their Implica- tions for Behavior," Michigan Journal of Secondary Education, Volume 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1970), P. 19? 12The philosophical concept of reductionism refers to the expression of a body of knowledge (e.g., morale) in terms of.a different body of knowledge (e.g., organizational climate). Thus, if the Organizational glimate Index or similar instruments can replace exiEt- ing morale ifistruments, reductionism has occured. See Stern, op. cit., Chapter I. 12 Although existing efforts do not lead us past organizational climate, there is a need for models and research efforts to be directed toward two areas of needed research: (1) conflict resolution, and (2) methods of study which can assess all directions of organizational effect. This study is based on the premise that a major starting point for the develop— ment of such models is the use of existing instruments for the investigation of relationships between client perceptions and the perceptions of the staff and admin— istrators of formal organizations. Hypotheses Writers have hypothesized a close relationship between teacher and student perceptions. These hypo- theses, however, have not been carefully investigated beyond rudimentary points. From existing studies, it can be hypothesized that teachers with perceptions more congruent with organizational norms are more likely to have lower rates of absenteeism and are also more likely to remain within the organization. Studies involving students would lead to hypotheses that absenteeism de- creases and performance improves as perceptions become more congruent with those held by teachers or present 13 within the organizational setting.13 It has also been suggested that the self-image of students decreases with increased years of attendance in high schools. According to Paul Goodman,l4 who cites James B. Conant as the source of the idea, only about 15% of the stu— dents in schools--the academically talented-~avoid boredom or harm. "Schooling," he says, "isolates the young from the older generation and alienates them." Goodman criticizes schools as being a chief cause of alienation of the young. The case study presented in Chapter VI is de- signed to check one basic hypothesis across six first- order factors and two second-order factors of the Organ- izational Climate Index.15 Stated in the null form, this hypothesis is: HO: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of Organiza- tional Climate by students and their teachers as measured by six first- order factors and two second—order 13 G. G. Hamaty, Some Behavioral Correlates of Organizational Climates and Cultures, Final Report, USOE Contract No. 610-231 (Project No. 8-611-65), 1966. See also Mitchell, op. cit., 1968, 1970. 14Paul Goodman. New Reformation: Notes of a Neolithic Conservative (New York: Random House, I970), p. 86. 15A detailed description of the OCI factor structure is given in Chapter III. Appendix A provides descriptions of the thirty basic scales which are used to develop the factors. 14 factors of the Organizational Climate Index. For comparison, the data generated will be analyzed organizationally and in terms of three more specific questions. Planned comparisons will aid in more specifically defining dissonance or congruence of perception between all three grade levels of students, treated as a group, and teachers. A second comparison between sophomores and juniors, treated as a group, will contrast perceptions with those held by seniors. The rationale for this contrast is to uncover any possible changes in perception which occur as a result of additional schooling. The final comparison will check the relationship between perceptions held by seniors with those held by teachers. If Goodman and other writers are even partially accurate, significant differences should appear between the perceptions of differing groups of students or of any group of students as compared to their teachers. Other critics of school environments and educa- tional methods have suggested that all schools are similar in the type of atmosphere (or climate) which they present. In Chapter VII, the data from the school studied in Chapter VI is contrasted with data from another school. The former school is described as "stable" while the latter is "in conflict." In the 15 null form, the hypothesis being tested is: Ho: There is no significant difference between the organizational climate of a "stable" school and a school "in conflict" as measured by random samples of student and teacher perceptions of organizational climate as measured by the six first-order and two second-order factors of the Organizational Climate Index. Limitations of the Study Although the review of the literature is com- prehensive, no claim for definitiveness can be made. The case studies provide information which is relevant only to the two host schools and the findings must be considered significant only for those schools. Limita- tions come as a result of the major assumption of this study: there is no specific Optimum climate which should be identified or postulated for studies of organ- izational climate and organizational health. Data is important as a source of feedback for the host organ- ization and, insofar as possible, as materials which can provide normative data as to what is. The questions of what should be must be left to those responsible for the individual organization and to those who are most closely impacted upon by its actions and Operations. 16 Assumptions of the Study The basic assumption of this study is that there is such an item as organizational climate and that it can be measured. Other assumptions of this study are: 1. Organizational climate measures where an organization is. It does not measure a "good" or "bad“ organization. 2. The concept of optimum climate or environ- ment is a fluid and ever-changing concept. There is no single, optimum environment. 3. Morale studies have extracted the feelings of individuals about organizations but have failed to provide for a clear defini- tion of both individual and organizational needs. 4. Specific effects are present in the percep- tions of students and teachers according to levels of congruence or dissonance in the interrelationships of these groups. 5. The study of organizational climate is a process rather than an end in itself. It is useful only as a means for the creation of feedback and the development of conflict resolution procedures. Definition of Terms Four major terms are used repeatedly in this study: optimum environment, morale, organizational climate, and conflict. Optimum environment is defined in this study as an ever-changing situation which provides for maximum 17 satisfaction of human and organizational needs within specific institutions, societies, or organizations. It is not the achievement of an "ideal" Optimum; instead, it stresses the achievement of fluid, temporary systems which maximize goals while satisfying individuals. Morale is defined in this study as an individ— ual's behavior in a group which also represents his mental and physical well-being. Morale as a concept is criticized in Chapter II because it has lacked a clear definition. Organizational climate is defined as the "personality" of the organization and is seen as result- ing from the dynamic interrelationship between the needs of the individual_person and the needs of the organization. When there is maximum satisfaction of human and organ- izational needs, an optimum environment would exist for that point in time. Needs are seen as the goals, pur- poses and desires of individuals while press is the characteristic behavior of an aggregate of individuals in their interpersonal transactions. Press may also be defined as the "needs" of the organization. Organiza- tional climate, based on a needs—press model, is said to have congruence when the needs and press factors are similar or highly identical; it exhibits dissonance when there are significant differences between the goals, purposes, and desires of the individual as compared to 18 those of the organization. Any comparison of organiza— tions must keep in mind that the assessing of climate is not a way of saying that an organization is "good" or "bad;" it is only a way of measuring where the organiza— tion is in terms of the interpersonal transactions occuring within the organization. Conflict is a measure of the degree Of dissonance present in attempts to effect structural changes. Con— flict represents an unstable needs-press relationship which results in one or more of the following adaptive behaviors: (l) movement toward congruence, (2) with- drawal of participants, (3) maintenance of an artificial equilibrium by use of coercive techniques. Conflict resolution is defined as the use of methods designed to regain an thimum environment in which differences are processed or negotiated with all parties recognizing the rights of others as equal to their own. Design of Research for the Case Studies The case studies present data on two secondary schools. The two schools were selected from a pool of schools in the State of Michigan which satisfied the following criteria: district enrollment between 3,500 and 5,000 students, comparable sizes of central community, and equality of state support for schools (as measured by the state equalized valuation of each district on a 19 per pupil basis). Seven schools met these criteria, using the 1968-1969 average state equalized valuation per pupil figures. From these seven, the two schools studied were selected arbitrarily to represent a school "in con- flict" and a school which appeared to be "stable." After selection of "target" schools for case study purposes, permission was sought to conduct the study. After permission was received, random samples were selected from each of four groups within each sample school. The four groups sampled were high school sophomores, juniors, seniors, and faculty members. All four groups were asked to complete the Organizational -Climate Index (OCI). It is impossible for either the author or admin- istrators of the participating districts to identify respondents. Although studies of organizational climate should not be viewed as "judgmental" about the "goodness" or "badness" of a district or of its climate, there is a human tendency to interpret data in this fashion. For this reason, the names of the participating schools are not used, thereby minimizing any potential identification of the sample schools involved. The Organizational Climate Index forms were scored by National Computer Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota. Additional relationships were computed by use of "t-tests" and planned comparisons of the data generated. 20 The design used is considered as a preliminary step in the development of ways of analyzing organiza- tions from a "client-centered" base. The anonymity of the design was a result of two major factors: (1) the reluctance of districts to open school records to out- siders, and (2) the narrowness of the stated purpose of the case studies, i.e., the measurement of similarity of perceptions across groups. Additonal studies would gain value by closer attention to individual consequences arising from the degree of dissonance or congruence between an individual's perceptions and the consensual press as presented by a profile of the organization. Such procedures would make the date generated useful for both organizational and individual counseling purposes. Organization and Reporting 6f the Study This study is divided into eight chapters. Basic problems in the definition and study of organizational climate are presented in Chapter One. The rationale for the descriptive procedures used is outlined, terms are defined and the methods used for collecting data in the supporting case studies is briefly outlined. A review of the literature in the area of morale studies is provided in Chapter Two. The strengths and weaknesses of these studies, as compared to the concept of organizational climate, are discussed. 21 In Chapter Three, the literature related to organizational climate is reviewed and an extensive description of the two basic instruments presently available for the measurement of organizational climate in school environments is given. The basic outlines Of conflict and considera- tions of procedures for conflict resolution are pre- sented in Chapter Four. Consideration is given to the importance of an understanding of conflict as a basis for full utilization of the study of organizational climate in secondary school environments. The preceding three chapters are summarized in Chapter Five and a theoretical view of the type of study which is currently possible as well as a discussion of directions for the future is presented. Techniques for the study and use of organizational climate measure- ments in secondary schools are developed as a prelude to the case studies presented in Chapters Six and Seven. The procedures used for the collection and analysis of data for the case studies is given in Chapter Six and the first case study is presented. The data is analyzed and findings given. Chapter Seven discusses the second case study and poses the major questions which have been left unanswered. 22 In the final chapter, conclusions are drawn about the two case studies presented. Additional con- siderations are presented, including recommendations for further research about the organizational climate of secondary schools. CHAPTER II THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALE STUDIES Introduction Although the terminology changes, the continued interest of writers and researchers over the past few decades has been aimed at more clearly delineating the nature and effects of "morale," "tone," "atmosphere," "climate," "organizational personality," "the living system," or, as it will be specifically referred to in this study, "organizational climate." The interest in organizational climate has been almost entirely geared to the relationships which result from leadership behavior; for educational institutions, most studies have concentrated on the perceptions of staff as com- pared to the perceptions of administrators. The concept of morale, used as a general term, preceded the development of the specific term, "organ- izational climate." Morale studies appear to have foundered on (1) a lack of a clear definition of the term, (2) the inability of morale studies to indicate specific areas or styles of intervention which could be 23 24 used to improve the Operation of organizations, and (3), emphasis on morale as "low" or "high" without checking the effects of such categorization. The combination of these three circumstances led more recent researchers to questions about the interrelationships of morale, institutional norms, and psychological measurement of individuals. In the models of organizational climate, morale is retained as a concept but is subsumed under a larger framework that simultaneously studies the individ- ual and the organization in which he is interacting. As will be described more fully in Chapter VI, discussions of organizational climate have centered on the need of organizations to maintain organizational health and effectiveness. The primary focus has been the relationship between maximizipg the goals of the organization while satisficing the needs of individuals. The concept of organizational climate is based on the belief that emphasis on the internal relationships of complex organizations must precede broader analysis of external relationships or of the suprasystem. One majOr issue in the design of studies or research concerned with organizational climate has been the importance of congruence in the perceptions of individuals as compared to the group perception. Generally, congruence has been described as healthful while dissonance—-the lack of congruence--is seen as 25 debilitating. While writers have not dismissed questions of congruence and dissonance, a lack of understanding of the relationships of conflict, dissonance, or tension to productivity has led many writers to ignore these relationships.1 The Concept of Morale In describing the status of morale research as of the mid-1960's, Green2 indicated the many weaknesses which the concept of "morale" had in relationship to useful studies. Morale studies, which began after World War I and which received little attention from educa- tional theorists even after WOrld War 11,3 were generally plagued by a multiplicity of definitions. As Green4 states: 1Robert G. Owens. Organizational Behavior in Schools. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I970), p. 171. 2James E. Green. The Relationship Between Dog- matism of Principals and Teachers and—Teachers' Morale in Twelve Selectéd Secondary SOhOOls in Mich_gan (Michigan State UniverSity, unpuBIIShed doctoraI disserta- tion, 1966), Chapter II. 3J. J. Oppenheimer and Joseph H. Britton, "Faculty Morale," Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 23, (October, 1952), p. 386. AIEO see Frederick L. Redefer, "Factors that Affect Teacher Morale," Nation's Schools, Vol. 63, (February, 1959), pp. 59-62. 4Green, op. cit., p. 25. 26 One can find as many definitions for morale as writers defining it. Most appear to say that any environment conducive to equal Opportunity--in a context of freedom, of respect for human personality and dignity-—con- tributes to that releasing of poten- tial which brings both economic and psychological security, building high morale. This may not require elimin- ating physical obstacles, but only cultivating one's competencies and the freedom to exercise them effectively against all obstacles, physical and psychological. Morale, as an important concept available to the admin- istrator in his understanding and approach to his work, was an outgrowth of the Western Electric Studies of the 1920‘s. "One major finding of these studies was the realization that human variability is an important determinant Of productivity."5 The Western Electric studies are summarized in Roethlisberger and Dickson's book, Manggement and the WOrker. The essence of their comments, and the founda- tion of the human relations movement in management, is the description of the functions of an organization as being twofold: "producing a product and...creating and distributing satisfactions among the individual members of the organization."6 5Owens, Op. cit., p. 10. 6F. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, Management and the WOrker (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1939), p. 552. 27 Two years later, in Management and Morale, Roethlisberger raised certain concerns about morale. These concerns, which appeared to have been ignored in many studies of morale, were with the need for the replace- ment of morale--defined as the relations of individuals in groups and organizations--by a concern with "human situations."7 Calling for particularistic measurements for human beings, groups, and organizations regarding situational feelings,8 Roethlisberger states, "When situations are not congruent as to expectations and actuality, lip service may be given to a point of View which it is suicidal to practice."9 Elton Mayo10 indi- cated the importance of the morale studies in the absence of methods for assessing total "situational feelings." 7F. J. Roethlisberger, Management and Morale (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1941), pp. 189-194. It is interesting to note that Roethlisberger's concern apparently antiCipates the need for emphasis on the "climate" of the organization. Al— though the term "organizational climate" was not used for another 14 years (Francis G. Cornell, "SOCially Perceptive Administration," Phi Delta Kappan, XXXVI (March, 1955) pp. 219-223) aid the first study based on. concepts of organizational climate came even later (Chris Argyris, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing Organizational Climate: A Case Study of a Bank," Administrative SCience Quarterly, II (March, 1958), pp. 501420), Roethlisberger ca 5 or such a concept. 8Ibid., p. 194, italics added for emphasis. 91bid, p. 130. loIbid., "Foreword" by Elton W. Mayo. Italics added for emphasis. 28 Organizational and managerial problems must, Mayo asserted, be concerned with: ...the persistent human desire for con- tinuous and intimate association coupled with increasing press caused by rapid change which leads to anomie--p1an1essness in living--which in turn causes obsessive attempts by individuals seeking identifi- cation. The routine isolation of individ- uals and groups in their mutual relation- ships leads to suspicion, hostility, and eventually, disintegration...while material efficiency has been increasing for two hundred years, the human capacity for work- ifig together has‘in the same period con- tinually diminished...collaboration in a society cannot be left to chance. The close relationship between the "situational feeling" and morale, defined as the individual's physical and psychological well-being, is also indicated by the statement that "morale is meaningless unless it causes action and action requires organization, i.e., morale is the degree of confidence in an organization."11 MacCurdy's description of morale also stresses other important characteristics: morale tends toward homeo— stasis; extremes in morale represent extreme situations; and, morale is not measurable although basic tendencies may be apprehended. Writing in 1943, MacCurdy stressed two other factors which will become of increasing importance in The Structure of Morale 11 J. T. MacCurdy. 141’ (London: Cambridge University Press, 1943), p. Pp. 60-62, p. 128. 29 the development and discussion of concepts regarding organizational climate. Firstly, MacCurdy describes the increased morale which was occurring in Britain at times when the external situational factors of World War II were creating the greatest pressures, i.e., his findings indicated that many types of tension are produc- tive of greater feelings of "belonging" and of organized "effectiveness." Secondly, MacCurdy describes the same phenomena which Stern12 describes as "consensual beta press." Stern defines consensual beta press as being the point at which one's private world merges with that of others so that a common ideology is shared. MacCurdyl describes the events which lead to this feeling: The pressure towards conformity is tremendous because nonconformity robs the individual of that feeling of security which contact with the herd brings. The important thing is to note that the group dictates to the individual what he is to observe and how he is to interpret it, although he is unaware of the coercion. Most studies of morale seem to be indecisive as to whether morale is a measurement of environmental . l . conditions or of personality. Other concerns which 12George G. Stern, People in Context (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970), p. 7. 13 60-61. MacCurdy, op. cit., PP- 14John H. Suehr. "A Study of Morale in Education ' ' ' " f Educa- UtiliZin Incomplete Sentences, The Journal 0 _ tional Rgsearch, Vol. 56, No. 2 (October, 1962): PP. 75 31- 30 have been voiced describe the lack of clear—cut evidence of any relationships between high morale and organiza- 15’16 The mixture of tional or individual performance. psychological and sociological characteristics in morale studies indicated a need for clarification of the inter— relationships which develop between the individual and 'the organization.17 Recent studies of morale in educational settings have not added significant factors to the concept—-at least not concepts which can be applied to improve the administration or efficiency of educational organizations --including better ways for providing satisfaction for individuals within the organization. Zinser,18 in his study, found no relationship between institutional size and the morale of staff mem— bers. This finding applied in comparisons between size and: the board of education, administrative policies 15Paul B. Jacobson, William C. Reavis and James D. Logsdon. The Effective School Principal, Second Edition, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), p. 40. 16Robert Dubin, "Human Relations in Formal Organi- zations," Review of Educational Research, IV (October, 1959), PP. 362—63? 7James M. Lipham, "Leadership and Administration," thavioral Science and Educational Administration, 63rd Yearbook of the National Society fer the Study of Educa- tion, Part II, edited by Daniel E. Griffiths, (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1964), P- 120- 31 and practices, curriculum, personnel practices or policies, supervision techniques, teacher and student relations, the relation of teachers with parents and with the school community, the physical characteristics of the plant, services available to teachers, equipment available to teachers and the professional or personal attitudes of teachers. In 1963, at about the same time as interest was quickening in the concept of measuring both psychological and sociological parameters within the institutional setting, Greenwald19 applied a morale instrument to teachers and then applied a psychological test as well. His findings show positive and direct relationships between individual psychological factors and morale scores, i.e., persons with low morale had low scores on the psychological inventory and persons with high scores showed high self-esteem and psychological congruence. Hurley,20 in a study of the effects of adminis- trative changes on teacher morale, found that changes 19Albert Greenwald. A Study of the Relationship 9: Teacher Morale to Selected Interpersonal and Intra— pgychic Factors (New York University: unpublished doctoral diESertation, 1963). 20John Adams Hurley. Effects of Administrative Chan es on Teacher Morale (Arizona State University: unPub is e octoral issertation, 1968). 32 made with the purpose of enhancing teacher morale are not necessarily effective. In fact, in his study, teacher morale was lowered as a result of Specific changes designed to improve morale. Other findings related to teacher morale included the observation that administrative changes in procedures and policies tend to have an adverse effect and, additionally, such an effect has a greater impact on secondary teachers than on elementary teachers. Hurley's study only involved four schools and insufficient data is given to deter— mine whether the reduced morale was due to the changes or to the methods by which those changes were applied. In his recommendations for further study, he prOposes an investigation of the relationship of personality factors to the morale of teachers. As indicated by Greenwald's study Of five years earlier, such rela- tionships are of importance. Hurley's discussion of the morale factors studied fails to consider the poten- tial applicability of any form of organizational climate measurement. From his reporting of data, it appears that his major interest is organizational climate rather than morale. Hanes,21 in his study of teacher morale, found 21Roy Charles Hanes. A Study Of Leadership Behavior and Its Effects Upon the Morale and Attitudes 9§_Teachers in Selected Secondary Schools. (Colorado State CoIlege: unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1962). 33 that superior teachers have higher morale. Koura22 dis— covered that "a significant relationship between teacher morale and student achievent" exists. Such a relation- ship is not considered clear by other writers. Heald and Moore23 question whether "good" teacher character- istics are those found in school systems where "morale is high, pupil achievement is good, and, in general, the school-community is existing in a state of con- viviality." "Whatever 'good' teacher characteristics are, they have only a temporal validity, and then only for a given school system." In defending these asser- tions, Heald and Moore raise the question as to whether the potential for behavioral adaptation may be greater in systems where morale is low and where dissonance is present. A study by Lambert24 indicated a high relation- ship between the morale of a teacher and the leader 22Hussein Soliman Koura. An Expgrimental Study of Students' Achievement in RelatiOn to the‘Morale'OII' SelectedISecondary_School TeaEhers. (The University of Michigan: unpublished d6ctofél dissertation, 1963). 23James E. Heald and Samuel A. Moore, II. The Tgacher and Administrative Relationships in School Systems (New York: Macmillan{'l968), pp.ll4546. 24Donald Burton Lambert, A Study of the Relation- §hips Between Teacher Morale and the School Pfincipalls’ Leader BehaviOr (Auburn University: unpublished doctoral dissertation, I968). 34 behavior of a principal. This relationship was not sub- ject to other factors such as race, level of position, years of experience, sex, degree of educational attain- ment, school size, etc. Teachers who perceived their own morale as high did rank their principal's leader behavior as high; the reverse occurred for teachers of 25 and O'Connor26 both report a low morale. Leiman "halo effect" in which high morale teachers report that their leaders are fair, reasonable, understanding and friendly while low morale teachers feld that super- visors were unfair, unsympathetic, unreasonable, and unreliable. Suehr27 had studied the relationship of parental attitudes toward the school as related to teacher per- ceptions of morale. He found a significant relation- ship which could not be attributed to level of education or to socioeconomic factors. Although he calls for experiments to consider the effect of school changes on teacher, pupil, parent, and administrator morale, 25Harold I. Leiman. A Study of Teacher Attitudes and Morale as Related to ParticipatiOn in Administra- tion (New York University: unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1961). 26William Francis O'Connor, Jr., A Stud of Some §glected Factors Related to Teacher Morale (Cornell University: unpfiblished doctoral dissertation, 1958). 27Suehr, op. cit. 35 studies relating the morale of pupils to the morale of teachers have been virtually non-existent. The relationship of teacher perceptions to student perceptions has been implied by various authors. Little, however, has been done to carefully check the relationship. Morale studies tended to ignore the con— cept and the newer area of organizational climate has not, to date, dealt with the problem in any meaningful fashion. Berends28 cites numerous examples from the past twenty years in which social scientists have postulated a relationship between productivity and "group climate" or "group cohesiveness." Other sources have also referred to the problem and have spoken about the nature of motivation, the effects of congruence or dissonance, the role of tension and conflict, and the adaptive nature of the individual to the felt "press" of a situation. These topics are more carefully dis— cussed in Chapters III and IV. Summar Studies of morale have presented results that are largely similar. Teacher morale has been shown to 28Eugene Howard Berends. Perceptions of the Principal's Personality: A Study of the Relationships to Organizational Climate (Michigan State University, unpubliShed_doctoral dissertation, 1969). 36 be highly related to the leader behavior of principals. Parent perceptions Of the school have been related to teacher perceptions of morale. Teacher performance and morale perceptions have been positively related. These results would indicate that a probable hypothesis regard— ing performance and attitude of students would find a significant relationship between teacher and student perceptions of morale. Morale studies are subject to numerous criticisms. A clear definition of morale has not been presented as a basis for the numerous morale studies which have been conducted. Morale studies have failed to indicate positive ways in which an organization--and its leaders or members--can productively intervene to reduce dys— functional elements. Many morale studies have described "high" and "low" morale without considering the rela- tionship of such categorization to the "output" of the system. In reference to the latter point, the assump- tion of past research seems to have largely been that congruence is a positive result while dissonance is, ipso facto, dysfunctional and therefore to be avoided. The recent attempts to define and utilize concepts of "organizational climate" have postulated wider personality, sociological, and psychological factors than morale studies. The concept of organiza- tional climate does not, however, ignore morale; rather, 37 morale is subsumed under a more refined procedure for analyzing the effects of an organization and the feelings of the individuals operating within the organization. CHAPTER III ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE Introduction In the preceding chapter, the lack of a suitable definition for morale was cited. Much of the impetus for the study of organizational climate came from the loose usage associated with the concept Of morale. Morale, which was often viewed as a unidimensional con- cept, failed to indicate the state of the organization. The development of "organizational climate" as a concept seems to be closely related to the desire to view morale as a multifaceted term encompassing not only the feel- ings of the individual but their impact upon other individuals within the organization as well as the organization itself. Defining Organizational Climate Cornelll first used the term, "organizational climate," and defined it as "a delicate blending of 1Francis G. Cornell, "Socially Perceptive Administration," Phi Delta Kappan XXXVI (March, 1955), pp. 219—223. 38 39 interpretations by persons in the organization of their jobs or roles in relationship to others and their inter- pretations of the roles of others in the organization." Argyris,2 who next used the term, described organiza- tional climate as a "homeostatic state" of the formal, informal and personality variables in an organization. Halpin and Croft3 are probably most noted for their use of "organizational climate" as a concept. Their interest developed from a dissatisfaction with the loose usage of "morale" as a concept and with the desire to identify school profiles for specific factors tapped by morale studies.4 As defined by Cornell, Argyris, Halpin and Croft, organizational climate is a more specific term used to characterize the psychological environment or "living system" Of an organization. The term "climate" which had been in general use was interchangeable with other terms such as "tone," "atmOSphere," "personality," 2Chris Argyris, "Some Problems in Conceptualizing Organizational Climate: A Case Study of a Bank," Admin- istrative Science Quarterly, II (March, 1958), pp. 361-20, 3Andrew W. Halpin and Don B. Croft. The Organ- izational Climate of Schools (Chicago: Midwest Admifiig- tration Center, University of Chicago, 1963). 4Andrew W. Halpin. Theory and Research in Administration. (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966), p;*142T 40 "feel," etc.5 Halpin's definition of organizational climate best sums up an integrated concept of organiza— tional climate: "Analogously, personality is to the individual what organizational climate is to the . . 6 organization." Stern's definition of organizational climate uses a needs-press model as adapted from the work of H. A. Murray. Organizational behavior is viewed "as a function of a dynamic interrelationship between the needs of the individual person and the needs of the organization as they are expressed by demands on the individual."7 The foundation of Stern's argument for investigation of the "situational feeling" is drawn from Kurt Lewin's contention: Every scientific psychology must take into account whole situations, i.e., the state of both person and environment. This im- plies that it is necessary to find methods of representing person and environment in common terms as part of one situation... in other words our concepts have to repre- sent the interrelationship of conditions. 5Robert G. Owens. Organizational Behavior in Schools. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I970), pp. 167-68. 6Halpin, op. cit., p. 131. 7Owens, Op. cit., p. 169. 8 . . . George G. Stern, op. Cit., p. 5, Citing Kurt Lewin, Principles of Topologica Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill,7l936), pp. 12-13. 41 At the present time, organizational climate, defined as the dynamic interrelationship between the needs of the individual person and the needs of the organization, is not fully understood. One of the most useful current models was developed by Jacob W. Getzels and Egon G. Cuba. The "Getzels-Guba Model" describes an interrelationship between the nomothetic (organizational) and idiographic (personal and individ- ual) factors or characteristics. The entire concept of organizational climate as provided by Stern and as presented in the Getzels—Guba Model draws on the concept of the interactive relation- ship between the organization and the individual (or the environment and the individual). This is the same inter- relationship eXpressed by Murray's needs-press model which is based on Lewin's dictum that behavior (B) is the outcome of the relationship between the person (P) and his environment (E).lo Organizational climate investigations have sought to study not only the "morale" or "personality" of the individual; they have sought to interrelate the personality and morale of the individual with the "personality" and "morale" of the organization. 90wens, op. cit., p. 169. 10Ibid., p. 169 and Stern, op. cit., p. 6. 42 There are presently two instruments designed specifically to measure organizational climate. Both instruments were developed in the early 1960's. The best-known instrument is Halpin and Croft's Organiza- tional Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ). The second instrument, developed by Stern and Steinhoff, is the Organizational Climate Index (OCI). Before pro- ceeding to a more detailed description of these two instruments, certain reservations regarding the concept of organizational climate should be discussed. Owensll summarizes the concerns which exist in regard to the use of organizational climate instruments. Organizational climate has, to a considerable extent, postulated that the most effective relationship will occur when there is congruence between the felt needs of the individual and his perceptions as to the press of the organization. Both practitioners and researchers have given considerable attention to the desirability of attaining congruence, including school administrators who have given "high priority to efforts to create the kind of school situation in which teachers would find the organizational demands...to be just exactly what they--as individuals--actua11y desired." llIbid., pp. 169-171. 43 In contrast to this emphasis on congruence, Argyris12 has posited "that the needs of the individual cannot be totally congruent with the demands of the organization." Etzionil3 further contends that a "fit" between organizational demands and individual needs is difficult. Within his "compliance theory" Etzioni des— cribes three basic types of organizations: coercive organizations, which can force membership (e.g., prisons and mental hospitals); utilitarian organizations, which people join for remunerative purposes; and, normative organizations, which attract members on the basis of high commitment to specific ideals and goals. A further extension of Etzioni's categories results when we realize that some organizations may share features of more than one of his basic types. When careful consideration is given to the goal of organizational climate measurement, i.e., to better understand the interrelationship between the individual and the organization, it becomes imperative to consider the models and concerns thus far expressed by Argyris 12Chris Argyris, Personalityapd Organization; The Conflict Between the System andiThe Individual TNew York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 19577, as cited in Owens, Ibid., p. 170. 13Amitai Etzioni, A Comparative Anal sis of Complex Organizations (New York: TheiFtee Press, 1961), as cited in Owens, Ibid., pp. 170-171. 44 and Etzioni. Such consideration calls for a careful analysis of the characteristics and role of congruence, dissonance, tension, conflict, and the interrelationships which exist between the organization and the macrosociety. If morale studies may be praised for their concern with the individual and blamed for their lack of concern with the "health" of the organization, than organizational climate studies--while correcting this omission-—may be inadequate for the task of assessing the individual and the organization in the most effective way. In short, behavioral study of organizations is improved by the replacement of morale studies with investigations of organizational climate. Researchers and behavioral scientists will need, however, to search for even better techniques for weighing and assessing conflict, deter- mining the advantages and disadvantages of congruence and dissonance, assess the role of tension and conflict, develop viable ways of conflict resolution, and search for means of more accurately determining the character— istics of both the individual and the organization--each having what Thompson14 describes as "boundary-spanning" needs and each of which will be seeking to expand its "domain." 14James D. Thompson, Organizations in Action (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). 45 At the present time, measurements of organiza- tional climate provide hOpe for better understanding of the interrelationships which exist in organizational settings. After discussing the existing methods for measuring organizational climate, we will again take up, in the next chapter, the questions of congruence, dis- sonance, conflict, tension, and conflict resolution. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ)15 The rationale of the OCDQ assumes that something actually exists which can be called organizational climate. It further assumes that this "organizational climate" is closely related to the perceived behaviors of teachers and principals. The concept of perception is important in the discussion of organizational climate. Percep- tions refer to the psychological framework in which one person views the behavior of another, i.e., behavior is not necessarily what is; behavior is what is "seen" by the beholder. That peOple communicate through actions as well as words is a well-accepted belief; thus "percep- tion" refers to the total impression which another person 15Owens, op. cit., has been used extensively as a source for desatiptian of the OCDQ and its ramifica- tions (see pp. 174-184). Materials are also drawn from Berends, Op. cit., Halpin and Croft, op. cit., and Halpin, op. Cit. 46 has on one's behavior and, as such, the perception is considered "correct."16 The OCDQ was develOped as a result of an explor— atory study, funded by a grant from the United States Office of Education, which sought to “carve out an area of research from virtually uncharted territory and leave 17 The researchers the rest to others who would follow." (Halpin and Croft) specifically chose to concentrate on the interactive behavior of teachers and principals as reflected in "organizational climate" with a full 16An Old truism runs thusly: "Each person exists in three ways: the way he sees himself, the way others see him, and the way he actually is." Applied to the concept of perception and Of organizational climate, the following would apply. In a situation involving 31 people, the total sets of perceptions of self would be equal to "N", i.e., 31; the total interactive sets of perceptions would be equal to "N(N—1), i.e., 31 times 30, or 930. Each of these numbers divided by N gives a characteristic. 31/31 = l or self-perception; 930/31 = 30 or perceptions by others. Self-perception compared to the mean of perceptions by others would indicate what one really "is." Self-perception compared to the mean of the total sets of interactive perceptions, e.g., the mean of 930 sets, would indicate the congruence or dissonance between the individual and the "consensual beta press" of the organization. Thus, each person exists in four ways within an organization: the way he sees himself (self-perception): the way others see him (in a mean score of the perceptions of others); the way he really is (comparison of self-perception to the mean score of the perceptions of others); and, in his interaction with the organization (self-perception compared to the "consensual beta press" or mean score of the total interactive sets of perceptions. Boundary— spanning creates a multiplicity of further relationships. l7Owens, Op. cit., p. 175. 47 recognition that "other possible factors, such as the environment in which the school happens to exist," 18 would need to be examined at a later time. The OCDQ consists of 64 questions which are divided into eight subtests. Subtests #1 through #4 measure attributes of teacher behavior as perceived by teachers while subtests #5 through #8 measure the principal's behavior as perceived by teachers. All questions are answered on the basis of a four-point scale; the relative simplicity of the OCDQ has resulted in widespread usage. Respondents using the OCDQ are asked to rate 64 questions or statements according to the following four- point scale: 1. Rarely occurs 2. Sometimes occurs 3. Often occurs 4. Very frequently occurs The subtests measure eight factors. The first four characteristics describe teacher behavior. Sub- tests #1 through #4 are: l. Disengagement. This focuses upon the teachers' behavior in a task-oriented situation and is a measure of the degree of interpersonal dissonance which exists in the relationships among teachers. A group exhibiting disengagement is "not with it," 1 . 8Ibid., p. 176. 48 "going through the motions," "not in gear." 2. Hindrance is a measure of how the teachers feel about the principal's ability to facilitate work. It refers to the teachers' feeling that the principal burdens them with routine duties, committee demands, and other requirements which the teachers construe as unnecessary busy—work. It is a measure of 3. Esprit refers to "morale." how teachers view the ability of the job to provide a sense of accomplishment and, at the same time, to satisfy social needs. refers to the teachers' enjoyment of 4. Intimac friendly social relations with each other. It is a measure of social-needs satisfaction which is not necessarily related to task accomplishment. Subtests #5 through #8 measure teacher percep- tions of the principal’s behavior as grouped in four major categories: 5. Aloofness refers to behavior by the principal whichiis characterized as formal and impersonal. His behavior is universalistic rather than particularistic, nomothetic rather than idiosyncratic. He is guided by rules and policies and maintains an "emotional" distance from his staff. 6. Production Emphasis refers to behavior by the principal which is characterized by close super- vision and which is highly directive and task- oriented. Communication is unidimensional and the principal is not sensitive to feedback from his staff. Thrust refers to the principal's efforts to "move the organization." Such behavior is con- sidered to be highly task-oriented and the principal is seen as motivating teachers by the example of his own efforts rather than by close supervision techniques. This dimension of the principal's behavior is viewed favorably by teachers. 7. 49 8. Consideration refers to behavior by the principal which is characterized by an inclination to treat the teachers "humanly," to try to do a little something extra for them in human terms. From their original study, in which the OCDQ was administered to 71 elementary schools in various parts of the country, Halpin and Croft arbitrarily identified and defined six school climate profiles. These profiles—-or climate types--are: 1. Open Climate characterized by high esprit, low disengagement, low hindrance, average intimacy, average aloofness, high consideration, average thrust, and low production emphasis. 2. Autonomous Climate characterized by high esprit, high intimacy, 15w disengagement, low hindrance, high aloofness, low production emphasis, average consideration, and average thrust. Controlled Climate characterized by high esprit, 3. low disengagement, high production emphasis, low consideration, high thrust, average aloof- ness, high hindrance and low intimacy. 4. Familiar Climate characterized by high disen- gagement, low hindrance, high intimacy, average eSprit, high consideration, low aloofness, low production emphasis and average thrust. 5. Paternal Climate characterized by high produc- tion emphasis, high disengagement, low hindrance, low intimacy, low esprit, average thrust, low aloofness and high consideration. Closed Climate characterized by high disengage- low 6. ment, high hindrance, average intimacy, esprit, low thrust, high aloofness, high produc— tion emphasis and low consideration. There a number of questions which may be raised in regard to the OCDQ. Halpin and Croft assumed that U , , a o I Openness" of organizational climateis, necessarily, 50 good.19 The discrimination between the six "types" was based on rankings in respect to the school's score on 20 Later research has shown that principals' Esprit. perceptions expressed through the OCDQ tend to be significantly different than the perceptions of teachers 21 in the same schools. In addition, Halpin has ques- tioned the OCDQ over such issues as whether "open" climates can be attained in large city schools.22 In summary, the "OCDQ is apparently not well suited to large, urban, or secondary schools, and whether it can appro- priately be used for evaluating a school's effectiveness --a possibility which Halpin has raised--remains very much in question."23 As mentioned earlier, the OCDQ--in spite of its weaknesses--has been widely used. Until better instru— ments are develOped and tested, it provides useful information to the administrator or researcher. It has been widely used in all types Of educational settings 19ibid., p. 184. 20Berends, o . cit., p. 13, citing Halpin, op. cit., pp. 166-174. 21J. Foster Watkins, "The OCDQ: An Application and Some Implications," Educational Administration Quarterly, IV, No. 2 (Spring, 1968), pp. 57-58. 22 Owens, op. cit., p. 184. 231bid., pp. 183-184. 51 although its develOpment from an elementary setting makes some of these applications doubtful. One of the major reasons for its use has been convenience. With only sixty-four questions, it can be easily adminis- tered in less than an hour. Its format allows adminise tration on a group or individual basis. Scoring is complex, requiring computer procedures; fortunately, these can be handled at low cost through a scoring service. Interpretation can be more difficult as a thorough familiarity with Halpin's techniques is necessary.24'25'26 The Organizational Climate Index The Organizational Climate Index (OCI), as developed by Stern and Steinhoff, is a different approach to the description and measurement of 24Information on scoring the OCDQ may be Obtained from Andrew W. Halpin, School of Education, The Univer- sity of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. 25Personality types matched to the climate-types of the OCDQ are described by Donald P. Anderson, Or an- izational Climate of Elementary Schools (Minneapolis: Educationalhhesearch and Development Council of the Five Cities Metropolitan Area, Inc., 1964). 26Berends‘ study, op. cit., attempts to more closely investigate the personality of the principal as related to teacher perceptions of his personality as given on the OCDQ. Some attention is also paid to student efforts in school as compared to OCDQ profile scores for "Esprit" and "Intimacy." 52 organizational climate. WOrking from an early interest in human personality, Stern, independently of Halpin's work, has developed a series of instruments designed to measure human personality as related to interaction in, and choice of, institutional settings. Stern's instruments-—the Activities Index (AI), the College Characteristics Index (CCI), the High School Characteristics Index (HSCI), and the Organizational Climate Index (OCI)-—are based on the theoretical postulates of Lewin and Murray, e.g., behavior is an outcome of the relationship between the person and his environment. The AI has been widely used; the CCI has been less extensively used; and, the HSCI has been used in a limited number of instances. The OCI is the most recent of Stern's instruments and represents an attempt to develOp a general instrument applicable to the analysis of all formal administrative structures. Stern has pointed out the inherent difficulties in such an instrument, including the subcultural nature of p£§§§_ distinctions and a corresponding lack of clarity and specificity in the presentation of significant events to the respondent.27 Like Halpin, Stern sees the personality of the institution as analogous to human personality. Drawing 27Stern, Op. cit., pp. 8-12. 53 on the work of Murray, Stern‘s instruments concentrate on the needfipress relationship. Needs are roughly defined as referring to both the_physical and psycholog- ical goals or purposes which an interaction serves for an individual. Functional in character, needs may be inferred from behavior; they gain a unified theme only when subjected to interpretation. Murray28 had char- acterized needs as being "the tendency to actions of a certain kind." Press can be briefly defined as the "environ- mental pressures that lead to adaptive behavior.“29 Stern extends Murray's definition by asserting that "environmental press provides an external situational counterpart to the internalized personality needs." Murray had called the phenomenological world of the individual "beta" or private beta press. The concept of consensual beta press is used to represent the point at which one's private world merges with the private world of others so that a common ideology is shared; it 28H. A. Murray, "Toward a Classification of Interaction," in Toward a General Theory of Action, edited by T. Parsons and E. A. Shils (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 434-464. 29Henry A. Murray, et. al., Explorations in Personality (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1938)] p. T24. 54 is consensual beta press which is of interest for the description Of organizations.30 Consensual beta press represents conditions containing impediments and facilitators for felt needs. The needs-press model is seen by Stern as being the basis for studying the psychological ecology of organ- izations, i.e., the distribution and behavior of personalities within social organizations. As Stern states:31 The model can be used to predict, among other things, the effects of selection and of organizational change on morale and output (grades or production). It will be recognized that much existing research, such as attempts at the pre- diction Of grades from attitude test scores or the manipulation of produc- tion by modifying the psychological environment, may be regarded as special cases readily subsumed under this more general framework. The model also applies to the investiga- tion of dyadic interactions (in any situation). Needs and press, although complementary, are not considered to be reciprocal concepts. "The needs com- ponents of any given interaction relate to the situational press in an adaptive manner, but the character of that 30Stern, o . cit., Chapter II; see also G. G. Stern, M. I. Stein, and B. S. Bloom, Methods in Eggsonality Assessment (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956). 31Stern, Ibid., p. 9. 55 adaptation will be the function of the total person and the total environment at the given moment in time."32 Usingpthe OCI. The OCI is a self-administered questionnaire containing 300 items. There are thirty scales, with the ten questions representing each scale distributed throughout the entire set of 300 items. Responses are given on a like-dislike or true-false basis. Each item receives a score of 1 if answered according to the predicted response; a maximum score of 10 is possible for any scale. The thirty scales are hypothetical constructs and, while there is a high degree of homogeneity for each scale, are only indica— tive of a strongly saturated measure of whatever it is that each block of items has tapped. The underlying dimensions among the scales, Stern states, must be determined by other means.33 The Appendix includes a copy of the Organizational Climate Index text booklet, a standardized answer sheet for the Stern Personality and Environment Indexes, and a complete definition for each Of the thirty scales of the OCI. The thirty scales which are measured by the OCI are similar to the dimensions of the earlier Stern instruments. Factoring of the OCI by a principal 321bid., p. 8. 33Ibid., p. 16. 56 components--equamax procedure has resulted in the extraction of six factors. These six first-order factors describe two major second-order factors, 34,35,36,37 development press and control press. The second-order factor of develOpment press contains five of the first-order factors.1he second-orderiactOr of control press contains the sixth first-order factor. The factor structure of the OCI, organized under the two second- Order factor categories, is shown below:38 OCI Factor Structure I. DEVELOPMENT PRESS 1. Intellectual climate. This is the key factor of development press. It is based on the scales of Humanities- Social Science, Science, Reflective- ness, Understanding, Fantasied Achieve- ment, Sensuality-Puritanism, Ego Achievement, Exhibitionism-Inferiority Avoidance, and Change-Sameness. 2. Achievement Standards. This is the factor reflecting press for achieve- ment. Schools high on this factor 34Full definitions of the thirty scales are provided as taken from Stern, Ibid., Appendix A: See the Appendix in this study for an abhreViated verSion. 35Owens, op. cit., p. 186. 36Carl R. Steinhoff, OrganizatigpalClimate in a (USOE Cooperative Research Program Public School System Contract No. OE- -225, Project No. 8-083, Syracuse University, 1965). ”Stem: 994.21.? PP- Ibid., pp. 271-274. 68-72. 38 57 stress hard work, perserverance and a total day-by-day commitment to institutional purposes. It is de- fined by scales of Achievement, Counteraction, Ego Achievement, Emotionality-Placidity, and Energy- Passivity. Practicalness. The content of this scale suggests an environmental di- mension of practicality tempered with friendliness. The two scales involved are Practicalness-Imprac— ticalness and Nurturance. Supportiveness. The fourth factor dEhls with aspects of the organiza- tional environment that respect the integrity of the person and imply a support of dependency needs rather than a concept of personal autonomy. It might be considered as a measure of democratic paternalism. The scales defining it are: Assurance, Tolerance, Objectivity, Affiliation, Conjunctivity, Supplication, Blame Avoidance, Harm Avoidance, and Nuturance. Orderliness. The components of this factor are concerned with press for organizational structure, procedural orderliness, and a respect for authority. Conformity to community pressures and an effort to maintain a proper institutional image are probably concomitants to a high score on this factor. It is based on the scales of Order, Narcissism, Adaptability, Conjunctivity, Deference, and Harm Avoidance. II. CONTROL PRESS (Associated primarily with Factor 6, this includes loadings from other factors, primarily Factor 5). Impulse Control. This factor implies a highhlevel of constraint and organizational restrictiveness. There is little opportunity for personal expression or any form of impul- sive behavior. Loadings are with WOrk, Prudishness, Blame Avoidance, Deliberation, Placidity, and Nonexhibitionism (Inferiority Avoidance). 58 The Organizational Climate Index was developed by Stern to fill "a measurement gap at the primary and secondary school level." Although he reports that sufficient experience had been gained by working with his earlier instruments, and that specific instruments could have been developed for each category (or position level) of interest, "the endless proliferation of instruments this seemed to presage was not perhaps so inevitable a development as it had once seemed. The measurement of a generalized organizational climate by now had begun to seem more feasible, and the OCI was developed as the instrument for this purpose."39 The OCI data, Stern believes, suggest a clear "psychological differentiation“ which permits the use of the OCI, as compared to earlier instruments, in "a wider range of institutional types in order to establish more general environmental parameters."40 The OCI is seen by Owens as permitting descrip- tion of a school's organizational climate "either in terms of the dimensions or with regard to the data from 41 other schools." The OCI has been used in a variety of studies measuring staff perceptions of organizational 39Ibid., p. 261. 4OIbid., p. 71. 41Owens, op. cit., pp. 186-187. 59 climate and has also been used to measure the organ- izational climate in other settings, e.g., a Peace Corps training program.42 Use of the Stern instruments has caused Stern to hypothesize that "it is not unlikely that the staff climate is transmitted in some way to the classroom."43 In discussing Hamaty's research, Stern states that teacher absenteeism and turnover relate positively to teacher achievement and submissiveness needs in the upper grade levels (secondary schools). "It is probable," he states, "that it is the aggressive achievement- oriented secondary school teacher who is leaving, and the submissive ones who typify the building that stay, but the data for this is not available." The climate that exists for the staff also affects pupil perfor- mance; high develOpment press is related to lower pupil absenteeism. "The implication seems to be that the more protective and supportive the secondary school is of its staff, and the more structured and conventional the teachers, the better the students' morale and 42Steinhoff, o . cit.,; Robert G. Owens and Carl R. Steinhoff, "Strategies for Improving Inner-City Schools," Phi Delta Kappan L, No. 5 (January, 1969), pp. 259-263; Stern Op. cit.,; Anderson, 0 . cit.,; G. G. Hamaty, Some Behavioral Correlates of Organizational Climates and Culture, Final Report, USOE Contract No. 610-231 (PrOject No. s-611-65), 1966- 43 Stern, op. cit., p. 285. 60 performance." In a paternalistic, protective climate the pupils have higher performance but, at the same time, more teachers leave the system.44 Steinhoff's findings indicate another factor of concern in the study of secondary school settings: secondary school teachers are more independent and achievement-oriented than are elementary school teachers.45 Turnover is higher among secondary school teachers and it is the more capable teachers that are leaving; teachers who remain are likely to be supportive of the existing climate, of the status quo, and thus unresponsive to demands for needed change. Most of the research conducted concerning the perceptions of students has made use of Stern's High School Characteristics Index (HSCI). The HSCI is not suitable for simultaneous measurement of teachers and students for comparison of attitudes or of similarities in needs-press factors. Since factor analysis of the various Stern instruments has provided similar results, and since the OCI has been designed for the measure- ment of a "generalized organizational climate," the OCI may be hypothesized to be useful for the measurement of the interrelationships between student and staff percep- tions of the climate in a secondary school. 44Ibid., pp. 231-285, reporting on Hamaty, op. cit. 45Steinhoff, op. cit. 61 An early impression of the OCI creates the idea that its length is a major drawback for use in secondary school settings. Although it has 300 items and the OCDQ has only sixty-four, administration of the OCI requires about the same time as administration of the OCDQ-- approximately one hour. Scoring and reporting services for the OCI are available at nominal cost and a variety of relationships can be quickly and easily computed.46 Summary The study of "organizational climate" has develOped in the past decade as a more refined method of assessing "morale;" the instruments presently avail- able for use in school settings--the OCDQ and the OCI-- seek to check relationships and interactions Of the individual and the organization. Morale studies had centered their interest on the reactions of the individ- ual to the organization without the establishment of clear normative profiles of institutions. Halpin's efforts, represented by the develOpment of the OCDQ, postulate the existence of an "open" climate 46Information on the OCI (or other Stern instru- ments) may be obtained by writing to George C. Stern, Psychological Research Center, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. Materials and scoring services are available from National Computer Systems, 4401 West 76th St., Minneapolis, Minnesota. 62 as a "good" climate. The OCDQ contains 64 questions and is relatively easy to administer. Interpretation is a more difficult and precise task. The OCI, as developed by Stern and Steinhoff, provides a more varied measure of organizational climate than does the OCDQ. Designed for any organization, the OCI overcomes one weakness of Halpin's OCDQ--which was designed for use in elementary schools. Use of the OCI will, it is hOped, lead eventually to the development of normative data for the assessment of “climate" in educational settings. Such normative data is not intended to serve as a means of saying that a school's climate is "good" or "bad." Measurement of organiza- tional climate is useful only as a "feedback“ device to allow participants in an organization to assess the state of organizational health and productivity. Owens47 expresses the concerns which are proper for both the researcher and the participating organization in any study of organizational climate: ...it is quite important to determine ypy_one assesses the organizational c imate of a school. Although such an assessment could conceivably be used as a measure of effectiveness, the consequences of employing the concept of organizational climate this way must be considered. Utilized as objective data which can be fed 47Owens, Op. cit., p. 194. 63 back to the participants of the organization as part of the process of maintaining organizational health, the data from an organizational climate assessment can be helpful... for perceiving and solving problems. CHAPTER IV CONFLICT, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, AND CHANGE Introduction The interaction of individuals within organ- izations has been described in the preceding chapters as being distinct from purely personal goals and yet related to them. Concepts of equilibration ("balanced states," "congruence," etc.) assert that interpersonal relations tend toward a balanced system in which con- sistent patterns of valuation exist on the part of members of a system in relation to one another. Most research has focused on one point of View without regard for other factors. In understanding group climates and interpersonal relationships, the attention must be directed to "reality." Good interpersonal relations are not terminal objectives for organizations. A perfectly balanced system is not likely to occur--and, if it did, might prove to be highly distasteful. Imbalances and ambiguities will always exist. When they exist, stress exists. Authoritarian cultures or structures create a press for low tolerance of 64 65 imbalances. Yet, "potentially creative individuals and creative group settings require a high tolerance for imbalances."1 The very success of our economic and technolog- ical machinery has, Gross2 states, created an environ- ment where "revolutionary new forces are changing the rules and names of all games." These new power lineups are developing with new forms of conflict and new institutional rigidities. Conflict, the individual in relation to con- flict or stress, and methods or principles of conflict resolution are described in this Chapter. In Chapter V, further consideration will be given to the skills and procedures necessary for the analysis of organiza- tional climate and the creation of forms of feedback and conflict resolution which can lead to increased organizational health. lAbraham Zaleznik, "Interpersonal Relations in Organizations," Chapter 13, Handbook of Organizations edited by James G. March (ChiEago: Rand McNally and Company, 1965). 2Bertram M. Gross, "The City of Man: A Social ' " in Environment for Man: The Next Systems Reckoning, ____, iihlhhfiihgton, Fifty Years edited by William R. Ewald, Jr. Indiana: hindiana University Press, 1967), pp. 135-136. 66 Definitions and Discussions of Conflict Weber3 described conflict as empirically in- evitable, as "a social relationship oriented intention- ally to carrying out the actor's own will against resistance of the other party or parties." Conflict may be peaceful or violent. Violent conflict involves the use of actual physical force while peaceful conflict avoids physical force. Weber argues that attempts to eliminate conflict are forms of conflict and lead to the development of further conflicts. All situations retain conflict insofar as biological or social selec- tion remain as part of the situation. Conflict, or the potential for conflict, in— creases with a variety of factors: increased inter- dependence, increased pressure by external forces which require internal compromises on outcome preferences, increased variety in the groups involved within an organization.4 For schools, this has some definite implications. The very nature of the educational process implies interdependences which, in turn, are subject to stress and conflict. In recent years, the 3Max weber, Thg_2h§2£y_pf Social and Economic gggapggation (New York: T e Free Press, 1964), pp. 4James D. Thompson, Organizations in Action (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), Chapter 10. 67 increased participation which has been favored by so many writers is also a source of increased pressures. Conflict situations in regard to desired outcomes of the educational process are increasing. The increased involvement in recent years, by teacher and student groups as one set of examples, is productive of in- creased opportunities for conflict. Conflict can be viewed as destructive of social stability or as a breakdown of social control.5 It can also be viewed, however, as "absolutely necessary for the social process."6 Conflict within and between groups can be the source of vital, creative action.7’8 The substance of conflict is to effect structure changes. "Any given conflict can be explained only in terms of the association in which it arose, and conversely, any given association can be analyzed in terms of the con- flicts to which it gives rise." Conflict, like "role 5Robert Dubin, "Approaches to the Study of Social Conflict: A Colloquium," Conflict Resolution, Vol. I, No. 2, (June, 1957). 6Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in lpdustrial Society_(Stanfofd} Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press,*1959), p. 206. 7 ' ° ' the Individual and Chris Argyris, Integrating. the Organization (New York: Jo n Wiley and Sons, 1964), PP- - . 8L. A. Coser, "Social Conflict and Social Change," British Journal of Sociology, Volume VII, N0. 3 (September, 1957), p. 197. 68 allocation, socialization, and mobility" is one of the "tolerable processes which foster rather than endanger the stability of social systems." Despite interest in "conflict," "congruence," "organizational climate," "dissonance," "conflict regu- lation," and a host of terms, educational situations have not easily moved toward a position Of recognizing the "fundamental justice" of the causes of "organized" conflict groups" as these groups have appeared in response to increased interdependence within education- al institutions. The recent, and continuing, record of opposition between teacher groups and the hierarchial structure of educational organizations is an example of the slow and painful growth toward the development of procedures for conflict regulation. The current develop- ment of organized" student groups for purposes of con- flict is still another example. Under existing situa- tions, most educational leaders are only slowly coming to an awareness of the inevitability of conflict and a corresponding willingness to seek for new methods of dealing productively with conflict situations. The reaction to conflict is usually an attempt by those with power to suppres the actions of those 9Dahrendorf, Op. cit., pp. 208-213. loIbid., p. 297. 69 seeking to gain, or share, the power. The increased ratio of conflict is a predictable outcome of the in— creased interdependence of society and is understandably reflected in educational institutions. Conflict, con- sidered as a productive or destructive term, would appear to gain in positive effects insofar as means of conflict resolution are developed. Organizational health is, to no small degree, related to the means of conflict resolution which have been developed. Viable means of conflict resolution would appear to be hall- marks of Open, creative, and productive organizations. From a brief review of social conflict, certain premises are possible: 1. Conflict is inevitable. 2. Permanent suppression of conflict is impossible. 3. Increased interdependence increases the potential for conflict. 4. Conflict can be destructive or productive. 5. Conflict can be creative and vital and, as such, is necessary to organ- izational interactions. 6. People engage in conflict within organizational settings to effect structural changes. 7. Conflict can only be explained in terms of the association in which it appears--and the association (or organization) can be analyzed in terms of the conflicts which appear in its structure. 70 The Individual and Conflict Although organizational health is described above as related to the means of conflict resolution which have been developed, it is more accurate to say that organizational or environmental health is a measure of the satisfaction of private beta ppess for individuals within the organization. Sternll believes that the personality types of individuals within an organization will be similar because of similarities in needs con- figurations. Congruence is the likelihood of finding such similarities in spontaneously flourishing groups. Dissonance represents the situation in which an un- stable needs—press configuration between participants and the organization leads "either to a modification of the press in a more congruent direction or a withdrawal of the participants, unless an artificial equilibrium is maintained through the use of coercion." Stern states that congruence leads to a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment for the individual while discomfort and stress are the concomitants of dissonance. His discus- sion fails to consider the point which has been raised by other writers: is it possible for an individual to have a private beta press for dissonance? 11George G. Stern, People in Context, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970), p. 8. 71 Argyris sees conflict in society and conflict between the goals of the individual and the organiza- tion, but states:12 ...mental health is based on a certain degree of tension, the tension between what one has already achieved and what he still ought to accomplish, or the gap between what he is and what he could become. ...It is our hypothesis that the incon- gruence between the individual and the organization can provide the basis for a continued challenge which, as it is ful- filled, will tend to help man enhance his own growth and to develop organizations that will tend to be viable and effective. ...I consider it a dangerous misconcep- tion of mental hygiene to assume that what man needs in the first place is equilibrium. Argyris also describes as a major problem the reduction of frustration and conflict on the part of individuals in highly specialized areas. Often withdrawal tech- niques, or "noninvolvement," is used as a means of reducing tension or stress. The tendency towards withdrawal increases as one goes down the hierarchy.13 In schools, the burden of such frustrations would be at the student or parent level. When conflict is suppressed because of organ- izational behavior, the resulting dissonance created by 12Argyris, op. cit., pp. 5—6. 13Ibid., pp. 40-46. 72 the use of coercive or withdrawal techniques is harmful 14 to the individual. Mitchell, in reporting a study which used the HSCI as an instrument for the measure- ment of high school students' perceptions of climate, offers the following description: ...college environments tend to attract students whose need patterns are generally congruent with the environmental press of the institution in which they choose to enroll. The high school student has no choice in the matter; in the great major- ity of cases he attends the high school to which he has been assigned by virtue of his location, there to be influenced by environmental press that may have but adventitious relationships to his abilities, need pattern, and life goals. In such settings the prevailing environmental press may be even more critical as determinants of future choice behavior than for the college student, and the likelihood of need-press incongruences developing that would spawn large subgroups of alienated students would seem appreciably greater as well. Many theories of motivation assume that "all behavior tends toward the elimination of the exciting state, 15 toward equilibrium." This is, however, only half the problem:16 4James V. Mitchell, Jr., "Dimensionality and Differences in the Environmental Press of High Schools," American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 5, No. 4 (November, 1968), pp. 513—14. . 15Gordon W. Allport, Becomin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955), p. 65. 16Ibid., also referring to C. W. Churchman, "Ethics, 135313, and Dissatisfaction," Ethics, an Epternational Journal of Social, Political and Legal Ehilosophy, 63 (1952), 64f. Italics added for em- phasis in the quotation. 73 While we certainly learn habitual modes of reducing tension we also come to re- gard many of our past satisfactions to be as worthless as yesterday's ice cream soda. Though we want stability we also want variety. While we learn dependable modes of reducing tension we also abandon Old habits and take risks in searching out new courses of conduct. It is only through risk-taking and variatiOn that growth can occur...Indeed, the measure Of our intellectual maturity, one phil- osopher suggests, is our capacity to feel less and less satisfied with our answers to better and better problems. Allport underscores his conception of the importance of conflict when he asserts that, "Becoming is the process of incorporating earlier stages into later; or when this is impossible, of handling the conflict between early and late stages as well as one can."17 Oshikawa18 conducted a classroom experiment involving 128 subjects to check the effects of feed- back On individual conflict resolution. When individ- uals receive discrepant information, dissonance theory predicts that an individual becomes more convinced that his original preference was correct and increases his preference for the original choice. Lewinian theory predicts movement in the direction of the communication received. Oshikawa's results supported the concepts ex- pressed by Lewinian theory. l7Ibid., p. 28. 18Sadaomi Oshikawa, "Consumer Pre-Decision Con- flict and Post-Decision Dissonance," Behavioral Science, Volume 15, Number 2 (March, 1970), pp. 132-140. 74 Conflict Resolution and Change As had been stated above, on numerous occasions, conflict is an inherent part of an individual's life. "One cannot rise above conflict. One can merely respond 19 Conflict tends to produce (1) The initial step, delay, to it in varying ways." three sequential reactions: usually leads to an increase of conflict and increasing tension or stress, for individuals or organizations. (2) The second stage, tension or stress, carries a certain amount of "pain" but, unless it is too acute, this stage Often leads to a stimulation of a higher mental and physical energy. The feelings of excitement stimulated may be regarded as highly pleasureable; "people who have become accustomed to working at high tension find it extremely difficult, (at times impos- sible), to adjust to situations in which no serious (3) Conflict resolution, the final step, is a multifaceted concept.20 conflicts need be faced." Conflict resolution is the ongoing process of making certain changes in the conflict--cooperation dichotomy. The resolution of conflict in group rela- tions determines the direction of social change. Five 19Bertram W. Gross, Organizations and Their Managing (New York: The Free Press, 1968), p. 187. 201bid., pp. 187-189. 75 possible outcomes of conflict resolution are mentioned by Gross: avoidance, deadlock, victory or defeat, compromise, and integration. No one method or one characteristic is considered to be automatically "best" for any given situation; no permanent means of approach- ing conflict resolution is considered to exist. Yet, as Gross21 says: It is integration that brings together the interests of members and nonmembers and makes it possible for an organization to achieve influence that individuals could not possible achieve separately. By this same token, it should be remembered that integration, like power, is also a sword that can cut in any direction. It can unite the forces of the devil as well as Of the angels. Whether any specific integration is to be regarded as good or evil must, like any other outcome of conflict, be determined entirely by one's ethical premises. Conflict resolution or regulation is possible, in a constructive manner, only when both parties to a con- flict recognize the necessity and reality of the con- flict situation and, in this sense, the fundamental justice of the Opponent's cause. To recognize this "fundamental justice" merely means that both parties see the conflict as an "inevitable outgrowth of the authority structure of associations." Effective conflict 21Ibid., pp. 68-73; also see Lewis A. Coser, "The Termination of Conflict," Conflict Resolution, Vol. 5, 1961, pp. 347-353, and Robert Dubin, "Industrial Con— flict and Social welfare," Conflict Resolution, Vol. I, 1957, pp. 179-199. 76 regulation requires a second condition--the organization of conflict groups. The organization of conflict and the regulation of conflict becomes routinized and des- tructive conflict decreases to the extent that systems are open.22 Organizational change is closely related to the 23 methods of conflict resolution being used. Griffiths states that controlled conflict is a method of intro- ducing change into organizations; that, in fact, "change 24,25 he is synonymous with conflict." Like others, believes that the use of outsiders and of temporary systems is necessary for maximum benefits from attempts to change. Such outside intervention is necessary since existing arrangements (the status quo) will be supported by the sub-systems within an organization. "Sub-systems resist conflict," Griffiths says, "and in the same 22Dahrendorf, op. cit., Chapter VI. 23Daniel E. Griffiths, "Administrative Theory and Change in Organizations," Chapter 18 in Innovation ip_Education, edited by Matthew B. Miles (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1964). 24Matthew B. Miles, "On Temporary Systems," Chapter 19, Ibid. 25Henry M. Brickell, "State Organization for Educational Change: A Case Study and a Pr0posa1," Chapter 20, Ibid. 77 manner resist change."26 Self-initiated programs of change, Miles27 warns, are likely to develop excessive degrees of conflict. Summary Conflict, described as inevitable, is also seen as potentially destructive or creative. The style of conflict resolution chosen (or ignored) will determine the nature of conflict. Conflict, described as a struggle between those who have authority and those who do not have authority in a given situation, is a means of effecting structure change. Conflict can be according to a theory of integration—-in which there is an attempt to achieve a "consensus of values among members of an organization"--or according to a model of coercion--in which some members are forced to behave in certain ways by other members of the organization.28 Congruence, a similarity of needs-configurations of the individual with the press of the organization, is described by some writers as healthful. Dissonance, essentially referring to the lack of congruence, is seen 26Griffiths, Op. cit. 27Matthew B. Miles, "Innovation in Education: Some Generalizations," Chapter 25 in Innovation in Egucation, Op. cit. 28Dahrendorf, o . cit., pp. 161-62, 176, 259- 261. ‘11—” 78 as debilitating. Yet, some writers claim that a certain amount of tension or dissonance is necessary for human growth. There seems to be little question that excessive conflict or dissonance can be harmful, especially when coupled with coercive techniques of conflict regulation; it is equally important, however, to recognize that excessive stability or congruence can be as disastrous for individual or organizational health. Owens29 has summarized the concerns on this point in his emphasis that avoidance of conflict leads to artificial con— gruence which fails to check reality. Developing adequate information systems to deal productively with conflict is far more productive than stratagems of avoidance. 29Robert G. Owens, Or anizational Behavior in Schools (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., , p. 163. CHAPTER V PROCEDURES FOR STUDYING AND IMPROVING SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS Introduction The concepts of morale, organizational climate, and conflict have been described in the preceding chap- ters. Morale studies, as the rudimentary forms of assessing the role of the individual in organizations, have been replaced by the more sophisticated concepts of organizational climate--which seeks to explore the interrelationships between the perceptions of the individual and the "personality" of the organization. Organizational climate instruments, at their present level, do not provide adequate procedures for planning appropriate interventions for organizational change. In addition, the lack of a client-centered approach to the study of organizational climate has been mentioned. As Mitchell1 has stated: "A few studies of high school 1James V. Mitchell, Jr., "Dimensionality and Differences in the Environmental Press of High Schools," American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 5, No. 4 Nove er, 6 , pp. - . Mitc ell mentions studies by James S. Coleman, The Adolescent Subculture, (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1961); Edwin L. Herr,‘fiDifferential Perceptions of Environmental Press by High School Students," Bersonnel and Guidance 79 80 learning environments have appeared in the literature but the evidence we have on the high school environ- ment is very sketchy..." The importance of conflict has been discussed and the lack of agreement or knowl- edge over its effects has been described. Future con- cerns in organizational studies will need to concentrate more adequately on the questions of conflict and con- flict resolution. Of the two organizational climate instruments presented in Chapter III--the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire and the Organizational Climate ngegf-the OCI seems most useful for the investigation of secondary school environments. In contrast to the OCDQ, the OCI is not restricted in its intended area of application to any one level of educational institu- tions or, for that matter, to educational institutions, pg£_§e, The OCI does present one conceptual weakness in that congruence of individual perceptions with institu- tional norms is presented as being "satisfying and fulfill- ing" while other literature would leave this point in Journal, Volume 43 (March, 1965), pp. 678-686; Eugene C. Kasper, Paul F. Munger and Robert A. Myers, "Student Per- ceptions of the Environment in Guidance and Non-Guidance Schools," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Volume 43 (March, 1965), pp. 674-677; add, George G. Stern, "Con- tinuity and Contrast in the Transition from High School to College," pp. 33-58 in Orientation to College Learn- ing--A Reappraisal, edited by N. C. Brown (Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1961). 81 considerable doubt. Further use of the OCI, however, should permit increased possibilities of data analysis and inferential conclusions as to the validity of this assumption. Considering the present level Of investigation for secondary school environments, the OCI is seen as a tool which may be valuable in fulfilling the follow- ing "call to action:"2 We are seeking to clarify the components of the optimum with man as the measure. ...While striving to extend the scope of our concern to important new areas, we must also continue and improve the kind of thing that we have previously been doing. The micro-environment is important; ...(it) should be as good as we can make it in the light of human needs of human beings. More specifically, the research which is presented in Chapter VI is an example of an attempt at improving past research in morale or present research in organ- izational climate. Three characteristics may be cited as examples of attempts at improvement: 1. The use of organizational climate measures provides information about individual perceptions, as did morale studies, but also provides additional information about situational norms. 2John T. Howard, "Some Thoughts on the Future," Environment for Man: The Next Fifty Years, edited by William R. Ewald, 3r.,(Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1967), p. 277. 82 2. The case studies presented make an initiatory attempt to apply an instru- ment (the OCI) to staff-client per- ceptual relationships. Previous studies have centered on relationships in staff-administrator relationships. 3. The case studies are presented as an example of a beginning model for develOping inclusive ways of analyzing environments, one in which the percep- tions of all participants and all other significant boundary-spanning activities must eventually be part of the area of study. The importance of more inclusive methods for the study of environments can be pointed out by the realiza- tion that the physical environment (which is not studied in this report) can account for up to one-fourth of the effects of a learning environment.3 Future research must expand and give attention to a comprehensive systems approach involving all factors of the environment. A Model for Current Stugy Any model for analyzing school environments must keep in mind that, regardless of its goals, the subject under discussion is behavior. The concept that the behavior of an individual is a result of the inter- relationship between his attitudes and his environment has already been expressed. The difficulty, as Rokeach 3John W. Dyckman, "City Planning and the Treasury of Science," p. 31, in Environment for Man: The Next Fifty Years, Ibid. 83 has pointed out, is that "we do not know whether we are dealing with two, or ten, or twenty attitudes."4 Al- though difficult to clearly identify, "expressed Opinion or behavior represents a change in attitude;" and we achieve these changes "through knowledge of personality 5 Such knowledge can be most usefully organization." employed, Rokeach suggests, when we "expose the person to information about states of inconsistency already existing within his own value-attitude system."6 Building from Rokeach's position, it would appear that the collection of information about the nature of an organization--its congruent and dissonant behaviors--is valuable only if processed. Such process represents the call for feedback which has already been briefly discussed in Chapter IV. Feedback without additional plans for action and for review, however, would be of minimal value. Such plans would include the reapplication of measurement instruments at regular intervals. The goal of a model for study is to improve administrative skills in the obtaining of optimal 4Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1969), p. 111. 51bid., pp. 141-146. 61bid., p. 167. 84 environments. Certain requirements for the building of optimum environments have already been listed. Many of these requirements--evaluation, involvement, feedback, reassessment--can be met in the context of methods and materials presently available to educators. The start- ing point, however, is a recognition that there is a multiplicity of gptimum environments and that these environments have continually changing characteristics. Although the need for achieving a fusion of varying techniques from many disciplines is also clear, the immediate need is to improve the quality of the techniques used for the analysis and improvement of the micro-environment. It is not a new demand but the demand for wider involvement has become more and more important--both for the operation of organizations and for any investigative techniques used. (It is this concept which is responsible for the emphasis on the need for developing fruitful client-centered approaches to the study of organizational climate.) The first step for education is to develop ways of more accurately assessing the impact of educational organizations on their primary clients, students. The teacher and the student are collaborators in education and, as Elton Mayo said more than thirty years ago, "collaboration in a society cannot be left to chance." 85 Conflict must be considered as part of the "constructive" characteristics of any attempt to deal with a multiplicity of constantly changing environments. Involvement and viable forms of conflict resolution (on a non-coercive basis) could provide increased "organ- izational control" through the increased involvement of participants--administrators, staff, students, parents, community--in the study, feedback, planning, action, and review phases related to organizational operation or organizational assessment. Procedures being suggested here for the study of organizational climate include the following steps: 1. Secondary schools should take immed- iate steps to assess the perceptions of all primary groups within the organizational setting. At the pre- sent time, the Organizational Climate Index appears to be the most useful instrument although steps should be taken to create new instruments. Primary groups are defined as: the board of education, staff, adminis— trators, community, parents, and-- most importantly--students. 2. Results from any measurement for any of all of the groups indicated should be analyzed and reported in full. Each person should have a profile of his individual responses as well as a pro- file of the organizational norms. of how greater involvement tional control through norma- us and Dora Cafagna, " Public Administra- 7For a discussion can bring greater organiza tive methods, see Phillip M. Marc "Control in Modern Organizations, tion Review, (June, 1965), pp. 121-127. 86 3. Perceived areas of dissonance should be the source of discussion between the groups exhibiting such dissonance. Differences between what "is" and what "should be" in the perceptions should be negotiated on a basis of non-coercive conflict resolution techniques. 4. Decisions reached should be implemented as rapidly as possible. Careful plan- ning, based on the attempt to incorporate as much knowledge as can be transformed to the creation and selection of possible actions, should be used. 5. The organization, after each planned intervention, must reassess itself, using the same instruments as previous- ly (or improved ones, when available) to correct, if necessary, and to assign value and meaning to the new patterns and attitudes created. The problems in the procedures outlined above are quite clear. So are the challenges. The model presented challenges us to deal with five aspects of social systems: 1. Individuals interacting in groups must be seen as the central elements and actors in social structure. 2. The performance of a social system. is to be measured by the satisfaction or frustration of the individual and group needs present in the situational setting. 3. There must be continuing processes of both conflict and cooperation between a social system and its members or its environment. 8Bertram M. Gross, "The City of Man: A Social Systems Reckoning," in Environment for Man: The Next Fifty Years, op. cit., p. 145, was used as a base for many ideas presente . 87 4. Procedures for working in ways involving increased interdependence and increased complexity of systems and sub-systems must be developed. A multiplicity of boundary-spanning needs and functions must be identified and investigated. 5. People must be prepared to work in situations involving imperfect coor- dination, knowledge, or control as a state of chronic change leads to system looseness. Problems presented by the model include the need for greater knowledge regarding the effects of dissonance and conflict as well as the need for aware- ness by participants regarding the existence of ever- changing optimum environments rather than any set ideal environment. Equally important is the need to clearly weigh what relationships can be drawn between one organ- ization and its self-evaluation techniques as compared to the results gained by the study of another organ- ization. As pointed out in the first chapter, there is a significant difference between "determining" pe0ple's needs and "imposing" unwanted enVironments on people. The researcher can bring a special skill in the role of outsider. Summar Chapter V summarizes the major points of the earlier chapters and suggests a model for the study of organizational climate in secondary school enVironments. 88 Major components of the procedures suggested are: (a) movements toward client-centered studies as being more useful for the current level of investiga- tion, (b) full reporting techniques for all data generated, (c) use of group dynamics to provide for conflict resolution of perceived dissonance tapped by climate measurements, (d) implementation of decisions reached by the use of conflict resolution procedures, and (e) plans for continual assessment and reassessment. The case studies presented in the next chapters make use of a client-centered approach. CHAPTER VI A CASE STUDY OF A "STABLE" SCHOOL Introduction The school described in the following case study is a high school with approximately 1,000 students and 50 teachers. The building is new within recent years and is moderately well-equipped. -The high school contains grades nine through twelve. The school takes pride in the long tenure of its teachers, the "goodness" of its students, and the relatively "stable" environment of the school district and the community. Brief conversations with teachers on two separate occasions have left this observer with some distinct impressions: 1. Teachers in this community have a dual attitude toward the school--perceptions are probably a function of their roles as both teacher and citizen or parent. 2. Newcomers to the school district are expected to "fit in." 3. Most staff members show no open hostility to the system or to its "climate" although some flashes of disagreement can be noted. 89 90 Observations of students in this school district would suggest that their own reality is separated from what occurs in the school. The generally quiet and ordered atmosphere of the school seemed almost too placid. Unfortunately, extensive first-hand impressions of the student population were not gathered and, accordingly, the impression given here may be misleading. Both Stern1 and Gibb2 have hypothesized that the climate perceived by teachers is transmitted to students. Steinhoff3 has indicated that teachers with long tenure within a school are likely to be supportive of the existing climate and, therefore, unresponsive to demands for needed change. In short, a protective and highly structured system evolves with both students and teachers perceiving the climate of the organization in similar fashion. Usually, the feeling is that the organization is "OK" as it exists. It has already been pointed out in Chapters III and V that the study of a 1George G. Stern. PeOple in Context (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1970.) 2Jack R. Gibb, "Sociopsychological Processes of Group Instruction," Forces in Learning No. 3. (Wash- ington, D. C.: National Training Laboratories, NBA, 1961.) 3Carl B. Steinhoff, Organizational Climate in a Public School System. (USOE Cooperative Research Program, Contract No. OE-4-225, Project NO. 8-083, Syracuse University, 1965). 91 school's environment does not provide a value-judgment as to the "goodness" Or "badness" of the school. Information gained from the study of a school environment is useful in two ways: (1) as feedback to the host school for its use in assessing whether desired goals are being achieved; and (2) as initial information in the development of normative data on the inter- relationships of teacher and student perceptions and behavior in secondary schools. The paucity of avail- able research regarding such perceptions, especially from students, has already been noted. Selection of the Schools Studied and Data Collection Procedures Used Seven schools in the State of Michigan were selected as meeting certain arbitrarily chosen criteria: type of community, size of school, per-pupil expenditure, and size of high school enrollment. From this initial group, one school was selected as being "in conflict" and one school was picked as being "stable." In Chapter VII, the school in "conflict" is compared to the stable school which is described in this chapter. After selection of the schools to be studied, permission was obtained to conduct the study. Both the superintendent and the principal of the high school agreed to the study being performed. The two schools 92 involved in the case studies described in this chapter and the next chapter are not named. Anonymity for both the districts and the participants was guaranteed before conducting the studies. One of the reasons for such anonymity was that additional data, not reported in these case studies, was collected for future use in the development of materials for the better analysis of the climate of secondary schools. Participants were initially chosen by use of a Table of Random Numbers and, thanks to their excellent COOperation, the instrument was applied to the members of the random groups selected. All respondents partic- ipated willingly and their right to choose freely as to whether they would participate was emphasized and protected. Methodology The Organizational Climate Index (OCI), the instrument used in this study, was distributed to the participants in group settings. The testing sessions were spread over a week's time, with three of the test- ing sessions (the student groups) being completed on the same day. Instruments were collected and initially coded by school personnel. Recoding by the researcher assured individual anonymity. 93 ‘ Instrumentation and Technique The Organizational Climate Index, developed by George Stern and Carl Steinhoff as a generalized instru- ment for the measurement of organizational climate among widely differing groups and in diverse settings, is available through National Computer Systems, Minneapolis, Minnesota. National Computer Systems also provides scoring services for the OCI. These services were used for the initial preparation of data resulting from the administration of the OCI to the groups described in this study. Completion time for the OCI varied for partic- ipants in this study. Some finished the 300 questions in forty-five minutes while other required almost two hours to complete the test. The 300 questions of the OCI provide information about the participant's perceptions of the organizational climate for his particular school. A copy of the test booklet, the standardized answer sheet, and a descrip- tion of the thirty scales is provided in The Appendix. Varying combinations of the results of the thirty scales provide six first-order factors and two second-order factors which characterize the major thrust of the organ- ization as perceived by its members. A full description of these eight dimensions is provided in Chapter III. 94 Analysis of Data For the six first-order factors and the two second-order factors, an analysis of variance technique was used to analyze each of the eight dimensions in terms of the following null hypothesis: HO: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of Organ- izational Climate by students and their teachers as measured by six first-order factors and two second- Order factors of the Organizational Climate Index. In analyzing the data for the above hypothesis, an alpha level of .01 was used; however, the accumula- tion of tests on the same data means that data should be interpreted as being tested at an .08 level of significance. Table I provides basic information on the results obtained. 95 Table I.--The Relationship of Student and Teacher Per- ceptions of Organizational Climate Across Eight Factors of the Organizational Climate Index. First Order Factors F-Scores* Intellectual Climate 6.18* Achievement Standards 3.41 Practicalness 7.88* Supportiveness 3.47 Orderliness .34 Impulse Control 6.07* Second Order Factors Development Press 4.44* Control Press 5.75* *F-Scores computed at 3,76 degress of freedom from the four groups of 20 members each compared in this analysis. Scores are significant at the .01 level (.08 level cumulative) with an obtained F-Score greater than 4.082, the value of F3 76 as interpolated from Table IV, page 679, William L. ’ Hays, Statistics. Tables II, III, and IV present relationships as clarified by planned comparisons computed for each of the eight dimensions. As presented in Table I, the null hypothesis is rejected (at the .08 level of significance) for both of the second order factors. The second-order factors-- Development Press and Control Press--may be considered as representing the two prime areas of thrust for an organization. For the school studied in this chapter, there are significantly differing perceptions of thrust and the strength of the press being exhibited by the 96 organization. The planned comparisons presented in the next three tables help identify the sources of these differences. Table II.--Planned Comparison Between Teacher and Student Perceptions of Organizational Climate on Eight Dimensions. First Order Factors F-Scores Intellectual Climate 4.73*** Achievement Standards 1.45 Practicalness l7.16* Supportiveness 5.61** Orderliness .45 Impulse Control 18.l8* Second-Order Factors Development Press 2.30 Control Press 13.45* *Significant at .01 level with obtained F-Score greater than 7.02. **Significant at .025 level with obtained F-Score greater than 5.39. ***Significant at .05 level with obtained F-Score greater than 4.06. Intellectual Climate. The key develOpment factor in the Organizational Climate Index, the raw scores and statistical interpretation of this factor would suggest, in this study, that the longer one is in the organiza- tion, the lower the perceived organizational thrust for this factor. Juniors and sophomores appear to be con- gruent in perceptions. Seniors are congruent with 97 teachers in perception of this factor but are dissonant when compared to SOphomores and juniors (significant at the .05 level). When viewed for the total organization, dissonant perceptions of this factor are present in the organization. Table III.--Perceptions of Seniors as Compared with Perceptions of Juniors and Sophomores Across Eight Climate Dimensions. First Order Factors F-Scores Intellectual Climate 9.50* Achievement Standards 6.86** Practicalness 5.67** Supportiveness 3.52 Orderliness .06 Impulse Control .02 Second Order Factors Development Press 5.58** Control Press 2.82 *Significant at .01 level with obtained F-Score greater than 7.02. **Significant at .025 level with Obtained F-Score greater than 5.39. 98 Table IV.--Perceptions of Seniors as Compared with Perceptions of Teachers Across Eight Climate Dimensions. First Order Factors F-Scores Intellectual Climate .26 Achievement Standards 6.22** Practicalness 22.67* Supportiveness 9.99* Orderliness .16 Impulse Control 12.67 Second Order Factors Development Press 9.12* Control Press 4.10*** *Significant at .01 level with obtained F-Score greater than 7.02. **Significant at .025 level with obtained F-Score greater than 5.39. ***Significant at .05 level with obtained F—Score greater than 4.06. Achievement Standards. On this factor seniors are dissonant as compared to either teachers or under- classmen. In both instances the finding is significant at the .025 level. The press for achievement apparently declines as grade-level increases. Teachers in this school demonstrate a comparatively strong press for achievement standards in relationship to the felt press exhibited by students. Practicalness. The highest press for this factor is exhibited by teachers who differ from students at a 99 significance level of .01. Like earlier factors, in- creased grade level brings a decline in the press for this factor at this school. Seniors differ from under- classmen at a .025 significance level while senior dis- sonance with teacher perceptions is significant at the .01 level. Comparatively speaking, students do not see the activities of the school as being as practical as teachers would report. Supportiveness. As with practicalness, teachers exhibit a higher press for supportiveness than do stu- dents. Teachers at this school would probably describe themselves as being practical aaa friendly. This at- mosphere of "democratic paternalism" provides for support of dependency needs rather than the development of autonomy.4 Although people are respected to some degree and the integrity of the person is maintained by teach- ers, students do not see these factors as being signifi- cantly present. Their dissonance from teacher perceptions is significant at the .025 level (see Table II) and seniors are even more emphatic in their level of dis- sonance, with findings being significant at the .01 level. As with the first three dimensions, increased years of student attendance leads to increased dissonance in 4Stern, o . cit. Also see the definitions of scales (Appendix A) and factors (Chapter III). 100 student perceptions of the organizational climate at this school. Orderliness. Across all measures and comparisons, there is congruence of perceptions regarding a high press for orderliness in this organization. The extremely strong press for this factor--even by normative stan- dards--is illustrated in Graph I. The most probable causes for a high press on this factor, according to Stern, are conformity to community pressures and efforts to maintain an "image." Impulse Control. The dissonant perceptions initially identified (see Table I) can be classified as being a result of differences between teachers and stu- dents. Students are highly congruent in their percep- tions, approaching F—scores of 0 when compared to each other (see Table III). As Table II illustrates, however, the level of dissonance between teacher and student per- ceptions is significant at the .01 level. From a com- parison of raw scores or as presented in Graph I, teachers exhibit a significantly higher press for this factor. Stern describes a high press for this dimension as resulting from constraint and organizational restric- tiveness. Students in this school are below the normative data in exhibiting such press while teachers exhibit a higher awareness of such a press. These differences may be a result of the differing functions of organizational Illllllulll I III I II I II 101 mmwsa —oiucoo mmmsa peasaopm>mo Poipcou mmpzaeH mmmcwpsoneo mmmem>epsoaa=m mmmcpmuepumia musmvcmum newsm>mreo< mamswpu Fmapom_—mpea p 6 .T +5 +4 t +3 r mmLoom stopcoom -9 -10 r h -11 '12th -. -_ ._— 10th 11th Student and Teacher Perceptions Compared to Normative Data. -..fi-nofion. Teachers Graph I. 102 expectations which teachers face in this particular situation. Development Press. Perceptions of development press are congruent among all groups except seniors. Their level of dissonance with other students is .025 while the significance level of their dissonance with teacher perceptions is .01. Development Press is a combination of the first four first-order factors-- Intellectual Climate, Achievement Standards, Practical- ness, and Supportiveness--and the impression given by this data is that the longer students are in attendance, the less they feel a press for accomplishment and the less they think of themselves in terms of the institu- tion. As illustrated in Graph I, the press for achieve- ment declines and the press of felt control increases. Whether these findings are true in other institutions or represent weaknesses of the organization must be left to future investigations as must further study relating such perceptions to ability, 'achieve- ment, and individual self-image. 'One could argue, perhaps facetiously, that seniors are ready to graduate at this school because the law of diminishing returns has taken over in regard to further developmental inputs within this organizational setting. Control Press. As illustrated on Graph 1, teachers in this institution are well above the norms 103 presently available for the Organizational Climate Index on this factor. Control Press is a second-order factor resulting from the first-order factor of Impulse Control with some additional loadings, primarily from the first- order factor of Orderliness. Student perception of the press for control increases with increased years of school contact. Dissonance of student perception of the press for control as compared to teacher perceptions of the same factor is significant at the .01 level. Although seniors are closest to teachers in perceptions of the press for control, significant differences in percep- tions are present at the .05 level. The possibility that these differences are a result of teachers facing community or administrative pressures because of their role-function should not be ignored although the data for such a comparison is not available. The high findings for teacher perceptions of Control Press--we11 above other normative data--wou1d lead to speculation that the prime goal Of this school system is control and discipline. Summar The outstanding features available from this case study and analysis are the identification of a controlled environment in which teachers appear to be 104 relatively passive, having adopted a set of behaviors which are aimed at creating a protective environment for students. Students seem to identify with the develop- mental aspects of this paternalistic climate and are simultaneously less aware of the control aspects. Identification decreases and awareness of control in- creases as the student approaches graduation. Whether this is a temporary phenomenon can not be ascertained without some type of continual environmental and organ- izational study. If it is not a temporary phenomenon-- in an age of growing unrest over public support of education—-it is a cause of concern for long-range school-community relationships. By outward criteria, this school is stable. The data generated does not predict what movements will occur but the seeds of potentially sharp conflict appear to be present. What are some possible effects of such con- flict? In the next chapter, the organizational profile of this school is compared with the organizational profile of a school which has been, and is, in conflict. i i I . 1 11 I I1 I I ||| l I‘ III! CHAPTER VII A SCHOOL IN CONFLICT Introduction A description of the selection and data collect- ing procedures for this case study was presented in Chapter VI. Permission to conduct this study was received from the school administration and the same basic procedures were used in both studies with the exception that the initial data for this case study was collected randomly from a sampling of the total popula- tion of students and teachers within the building under study. The organizational profile thus obtained is compared in this chapter to the organizational profile of the school described in Chapter VI. The methodology, instrumentation, and techniques are basically the same. A Brief Description of the School and Communipy This school district has about 100 pupils more than the earlier district reported upon. The high school, however, contains only the upper three grades and has a student population of 750 and a teacher 105 106 population of 40. Housed in a new building, the district encompasses, like the earlier district, a self-contained city which is both an industrial and agricultural center as well as serving as a marketing center for the area. The district is geographically closer to other large cities and has a racially diversified population--a factor absent in the population makeup of the earlier district. This factor has been the source of a number of conflict situations which have plagued the community, the school district, and the high school. During the present school year the high school has had a chronic situation of unrest. Mass fights, student boycotts, coercion of students by other students, and vandalism and violence in the school--and also against the principal's home and car--have occurred. In the closing months of the school year, an uneasy calm-- marked mostly by withdrawal from mixed social interaction --has been the outwardly perceivable climate at this school. Analysis of Data A "t-test" was used to compare this school's profile with that of the school studied in Chapter VI. An alpha level of .01 was used for the tests across the same eight dimensions reported in the earlier study. Because of the cumulative effect, findings can only be 107 considered valid at the .08 level of significance. All data was used to analyze the following null hypothesis: Ho: There is no significant difference between the organizational climate of a "stable" school and a school "in conflict" as measured by random samples of student and teacher per- ceptions of organizational climate as measured by the six first-order and two second-order factors of the Organizational Climate Index. Table V.--Eight Climate Dimensions From a Stable School (N = 80) Compared to Those Obtained From a School in Conflict (N = 46). First Order Factors ' "t"-Score Intellectual Climate 2.03 Achievement Standards 1.54 Practicalness .79 Supportiveness 1.45 Orderliness 4.39* Impulse Control 4.11* Second Order Factors Development Press 1.86 Control Press 3.46* *Significant at .01 level, two-tailed, with obtained "t"-scores greater than 2.58. Cumulative "t-tests" reduces significance to an alpha level of .08. The second-order factor of Development Press is a composite of the first four first-order factors as well as some elements of the first-order factor of Order- liness. In analyzing Development Press and its major components--Intellectual Climate, Achievement Standards, 108 Practicalness, and Supportiveness--no significant dif- ferences are found between the stable school and the school in conflict. Both schools are below normative levels on this dimension but the differences between them are not significant. The other second—order factor, Control Press, is a composite of loadings from the two first-order factors of Orderliness and Impulse Control. A comparison of the two schools on this dimension shows significant differences, both for Control Press and for the two first-order dimensions which are present. Although the differences are significant statistically, interpretation is difficult. While the school in conflict approaches normative behavior on control press, the stable school is significantly about normative levels (see Graph II). From the findings presented, one is tempted to speculate that the sources of conflict and the conflict resolution techniques employed may be more important than the actual climate factors. From the limited range of analysis presented here, no such finding can be given; however, this tentative hypothesis must await further investigation. Another tentative hypothesis would be that schools share, regardless of outward appearances, a typical pattern which differs only in degree of inten- sity of felt press. Again, this generalization cannot 109 mmmia Forecou mmmta peasao_m>mo ~0chou mmpzaeH mmmcwpsoeso_ mmmco>wpsoaasm mmmc—mueuomsa musmucmpm newsm>mwco< «Lassie FmapooppmucH +6 +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 0 mmLOUW ULMUCQHW Stable - -10 In Conflict Profiles of Two Schools Compared to Normative Data. Graph II. I I ll l||l lul‘ III III- 110 be supported by the data presented here but warrants further attention. Since the data used in this study does not differentiate sources (students or teachers) of per- ceptions, the interrelationships between their percep- tions in a conflicting environment cannot be estimated. Further attention must be given to this question. Most importantly, without extended investigations over a period of time, many other questions must remain unanswered. In Chapter VIII, these questions and others are related to the review of literature undertaken in the earlier chapters. Recommendations, a summary of findings, and general conclusions about the study of high school environments are presented. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY, FINDINGS, AND CONCLUSION In a recent column, Sydney J. Harris said: "An institution which has lost the capacity to be self- 1 Certainly an correcting invites its own overthrow." institution will not be able to move toward correction unless it knows which of its characteristics are the sources of dissonance or dysfunction. In this study, the primary emphasis was on reviewing central concepts of morale studies and the gradual evolution of organ- izational climate studies. Although concentrated efforts at using concepts of organizational c1imate--and the necessary accompanying measurements--have been lacking, there is a strong need for school administrators, edu- cators in general, and the pOpulation at large to become more aware of how organizations function and how environ- ments can be improved. This search will involve a need for better understanding of the nature and effects of conflict and conflict resolution strategies. The current 1Sydney J. Harris, "American Schools Invite Overthrow," Lansing State Journal, May 8, 1970. 111 112 emphasis on greater involvement or participation will increase the impetus for developing better ways of assessment and of human interaction. In the studies which have preceded this, little attention has been given to the perceptions of students within high school settings. No record of any type of investigative approach to the careful study of the interrelationships of student perceptions with teacher perceptions could be located. Although generalizations cannot be made from the case studies presented to other high schools, the model developed in Chapter V and the case studies reported in Chapters VI and VII present an initial attempt to assess teacher-student perceptual relationships. Certain themes have been stressed throughout the review of the literature and the presentation of the case studies. To briefly review: 1. Although normative data will result from increased assessment of high school environments, assessment is undertaken to tell a school where it is rather than where it should be, i.e., there is an a riori rejection of any concept of a single optimum environment. 2. The study of an organization is undertaken only so that the data generated can be given back to the host institution for its use in assessing needed re-arranging of priorities or needed changes in operation. Value-judgments are to be based on the needs of the client rather than the needs of the researcher. 113 3. Congruence or dissonance of perception is a more reliable indicator of where the organ- ization is than is normative data. When sub-groups of the organization are in dis- sonant states, steps should be taken to discover or uncover the factors leading to such dissonance. 4. The suggested steps for "processing" presented in Chapter V represent a value bias which holds that the individual has a just interest in the climate and operation of the organizations in which he interacts. Accordingly, client institutions such as schools must make every effort to discover the perceptions of their clients regarding the operation of the institution. In the case studies presented in Chapters VI and VII attention was directed toward an initiatory effort to develop ways of assessing schools. Group, rather than individual, data was collected in order to assess the impact of schools on six first-order factors and two second-order factors of the Organizational Climate Index. Of prime interest is the two second- order factors of Development Press and Control Press. In one context, these may be viewed as assessing whether the organization's major efforts are toward the individ- ual and group development of its members or whether the focus of energies is the control of one group of people by another. Findings and Recommendations The major findings of the first case study which sought to relate teacher and student perceptions may be briefly summarized: 114 Student perceptions are not a direct function of teacher perceptions, although findings are mixed on the relationships which do exist. The longer a student faces the school environ- ment described in the first case study, the less his identification with teacher percep- tions of the behavior of the organization. The school analyzed seems to be most strongly characterized by a press for order and control. Decisions may be more a result of community values and pressures than a result of decision- making by students or teachers. The dissonance of perceptions regarding the organization may be a source of potential future conflict. The first school, characterized as "stable," is compared to a school "in conflict" in the second case study. On the basis of this pairing and the results obtained, it is possible to speculate that: l. A basic pattern of press factors may be present in the perceptions of teachers as compared to the perceptions of students regardless of the state of organizational health. The intensity of a press control varies according to the organizational health. The data generated and the analysis given is extremely limited. Certain recommendations are possible regarding the need for further study. Studies should seek to operate over extended time periods so that inter- ventions may be undertaken and assessment techniques can check the quality of such interventions or of "process" activities such as those suggested in Chapter V. 115 A second recommendation would be for studies to seek the relationship of perceptions across a wider set of sub-groups, including administrators, parents, and the total community. Perceptions should be related to other items such as absenteeism, performance, stated goals, etc. One item of possible interest would be a long-range study of behavior to see whether the presence of conflict has any positive or negative effects on the individual's ability to adapt to situational changes. From the two studies presented in this report--or from other avail- able sources--there is no way of knowing whether a "stable" situation or a "conflict" situation is most helpful in its long-range impact on the majority of the students served by the institution. Studies such as those conducted for this report could be undertaken to assess classroom climates and to compare the validity of varying instructional methodologies in reference to instructional or behavioral goals. It would seem probable that many teachers have no knowledge base from which to evaluate the impact of their methods or their instruction on the students they serve. As has already been suggested, improved techniques of assessing organizational climate should have a multi- plicity of uses: assessing classroom climate, for staff or student counseling, for determining the effects of 116 conflict and, most importantly, for the organization to determine the state of its own "health" and assess whether its behavior matches its goals. Conclusion In Teaching As A Subversive Activity, Postman and Weingartner challenge teachers to begin each day by asking themselves three questions: "What am I going to do today? What is it good for? How do I Know."2 Organ- izations may be able to answer the first two of these questions. The lack of concentrated efforts to measure environmental "personality" raises a serious question as to whether the third question could be answered by those who are responsible for secondary schools or by those who interact within secondary school environments. For most schools, such a question can only be answered on the basis of a value system--certainly values play a part in the answer which would be given. Schools are also in the "knowledge" business and should have some way of knowing what is happening. Knowledge of organiza- tional climate should provide for a fusion of information and values. Such a fusion should be beneficial to all those who interact with the organization as well as 2Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner. Teaching As A Subversive Activipy_(New York: Delacarte Press, 1970). ll7 beneficial to the organization in its own search for better service and greater efficiency. It is not enough to know what we would like to be doing; we should have some way of knowing what is happening. Assessing the organizational climate of a secondary school on a regular basis is one way to provide such knowledge. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Donald P. Opganizational Climate of Elementary Schools. Minneapolis: Educational Research and“ Development Council of the Five Cities Metropolitan Area, Inc., 1964. Allport, Gordon W. Becoming. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955. Aranguren, J. L. Human Communication. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1967. Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization: The Conflict Between the System and the Individual. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1957. . "Some Problems in Conceptualizing Organiza- tional Climate: A Case Study of a Bank," Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. II, (March, I958). . Integrating the_Individual and the Organiza- tion. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964. Berends, Eugene Howard. Perceptions of the Principal's Personality: A Study of the7Relationshi s to Organizational Climate. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969. Brown, N. C., editor. Orientation to College Learning-- A Reappraisal. Washington, D. C.: American Councilion Education, 1961. Churchman, C. W. "Ethics, Ideals, and Dissatisfaction," Ethics, An International Journal of Social, Political and Legal PhilOSOphy, Volume 63, (1952). Coleman, James S. The Adolescent Subculture. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1961. Cornell, Francis G. "Socially Perceptive Administration," Phi Delta Kappan, Volume XXXVI, (March, 1955). 118 119 Coser, L. A. "Social Conflict and Social Change," British Journal of Sociology, Volume VII, No. 3 (Septemher, 1957). "The Termination of Conflict," Conflict Resolution, Volume 5, 1961. Dahrendorf, Ralf. Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1959. Dubin, Robert. "Industrial Conflict and Social Welfare," Conflict Resolution, Volume I, No. 1, (1957). . "Approaches to the Study of Social Conflict: A Colloquim," Conflict Resolution, Volume I, No. 2, (1957). . "Human Relations in Formal Organizations," Review of Educational Research, Volume IV (October, l959). Etzioni, Amitai. A Comparative Anal sis of Com 1ex Organizations. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Ewald, William R., editor. Environment for Man: The Next Fifty Years. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1967. Gibb, Jack R. "Sociopsychological Processes of Group Instruction," Forces in Learning No. 3. Washington, D. C.: National Training Labora- tories, NBA, 1961. Goodman, Paul. New Reformation: Notes of A Neolithic Conservative. New Yofk: Random House,_l9707 Green, J. Ed. The Relationship Between Dogmatism of Principals and Teachers and Teachers' Morale in Twelve Selected Secondary_Schools in Michigan. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966. Greenwald, Albert. A Study of the Relationship of Teacher Moralé to Selectedilnterpersondl and Ihtrapsychic Factors. Unpublished Doctofdl Dissertation, New York University, 1963. Griffiths, Daniel E., editor. Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. ‘63rd7Yearbooh of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1964. 120 Gross, Bertram W. Organizations and Their Managiag. New York: The Free Press, 1968. Halpin, Andrew W. Theory and Research in Administration. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966. Halpin, Andrew W. and Don B. Croft. The Organizational Climate of Schools. Chicago: Midwest Adminis- tration Center, University of Chicago, 1963. Hamaty, G. G. Some Behavioral Correlates of Organiza- tional Climates and Cultures. Final Report, USOE Contract No. 610-231 (Project No. S-611- 65), 1966. Hanes, Roy Charles. A Study of Leadership Behavior and Its Effects Upon the Morale and Attitudes of Teachers in Selected Secondapy Schools. Unpub- lished Doctoral Dissertation, Colorado State College, 1962. Harris, Sydney J. "American Schools Invite Overthrow," Lansing State Journal, May 8, 1970. Hays, William L. Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. Heald, James E. and Samuel A. Moore, II. The Teacher and Administrative Relationships in Sc 00 Systems. New York: MacMillan, I968. Herr, Edwin L. "Differential Perceptions of Environ- mental Press by High School Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Volume 43 (March,'l965). Hurley, John Adams. Effects of Administrative Changes on Teacher Morale. Unpublished Doctoral Disser- tation, Arizona State University, 1968. Jacobson, Paul E., William C. Reavis and James D. Logsdon. The Effective School Principal, Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. Kaspar, Eugene C., Paul F. Munger and Robert A. Myers. "Student Perceptions of the Environment in Guidance and Non-Guidance Schools," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Volume 43 (March, l965). 121 Koura, Hussein Soliman. An Experimental Study of Students' Achievement in Relation to the Morale of Secondary Sdhodl Teachers. UnpubliShed" Doctoral DiSsertatiOn, The University of Mich- igan, 1963. Lambert, Donald Burton. A Study of the Relationships Between Teacher Morale and the SchoOl Principal's Leader Behatior. Unpublished’Doctordl Disserta- tion, Auburn University, 1968. Leiman, Harold I. A Study of Teacher Attitudes and Morale as Related to Partidipation ih Adminis- tration. Unpuhlished Doctoral Dissertation, New York University, 1961. Lewin, Kurt. Principals of Topological Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936. MacCurdy, J. T. The Structure of Morale. London: Cambridge University Press, 1943. March, James G., editor. The Handbook of Organizations. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1965. Marcus, Phillip M. and Dora Cafagna. "Control in Modern Organizations," Public Administration Review, (June, 1965). McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. Miles, Matthew B., editor. Innovation in Education. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1964. Mitchell, James V., Jr. "Dimensionality and Differences in the Environmental Press of High Schools," American Educational Research Journal, Volume 5 (November, 1968). "Studying High School Learning Environments, Student Needs, and Their Implications for Be- havior," Michigan Journal of Secondary Education, Volume 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1970). Murray, Henry A., et. a1. Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1938. ' fling-.1 'rrium 122 Murray, Henry A. "Toward a Classification of Inter- action," in Teward a General Theory of Action, edited by T. Parsons and7E. A. Shils. Camhtidge: Harvard University Press, 1951. O'Connor, William Francis, Jr. A Study of Some Selected Factors Related to Teacher Morale. Unpublished_' Doctoral Dissertation, Cornell University, 1958. Oppenheimer, J. J. and Joseph H. Britton. "Faculty Morale," Journal of Higher Education, Volume 23 (October, 1952). Oshikawa, Sadaomi. "Consumer Pre-Decision Conflict and Post-Decision Dissonance," Behavioral Science, Volume 15, No. 2 (March, 1970). Owens, Robert G. Organizational Behavior in Schools. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970. Owens, Robert G. and Carl R. Steinhoff. "Strategies for Improving Inner-City Schools," Phi Delta Kappan, Volume L, No. 5 (January, 1969). Postman, Neil and Charles Weingartner. Teaching As A Subversive Activity. New York: Delacorte Press, 1969. Redefer, Frederick L. "Factors that Affect Teacher Morale," Nation's Schools, Vol. 63 (February, 1959). Reeves, R. Reality in Advertising. New York: KnOpf, 1961. Roethlisberger, F. J. Management and Morale. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, I941. Roethlisberger, F. J. and William J. Dickson. Management and the Worker. Cambridge: Harvard University Piess, 1939. Rokeach, Milton. Beliefs, Attitudes and Values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1969. Rosenberg, Morris. The Logieof Survey Analysis. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968. 123 Steinhoff, Carl R. Organizational Climate in a Public School System. USOE Cooperative Research Pfogram, Contract No. OE-4-225, Project No. 8-083, Syracuse University, 1965. Stern, George G. People in Context. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970. Stern, George G., M. I. Stein and B. S. Bloom. Methods in Personaliry Assessment. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956. Suehr, John H. "A Study of Morale in Education Utilizing Incomplete Sentences," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 56, No. 2 (October, 1962). Thompson, James D. Organizations in Action. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Watkins, J. Foster. " The OCDQ: An Application and Some Implications," Educational Administration Quarterly, Volume IV, No. 2 (Spring, 1968). Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and_§conomic Organ- ization. New York: ’The Free Press, 1964. Zinser, Ernest Melvin. Teacher Morale and Size of Secondary Schools. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Arizona State University, 1967. APPENDIX 124 125 Definition of the Thirty_Scales MeasuredbytheQrganizational Climate Index The thirty scales measured by the OCI are used to develop the six first-order factors and two second- order factors. These scales and the dimensions they tap are quite similar to those obtained from Stern's earlier instruments: the Activities Index (AI), the College Characteristics Index (CCI), and the High School Characteristics Index (HSCI). The OCI has been factored by a principal components--equamax procedure. Basic definitions of the thirty scales are given below. A more complete definition and a question-by-question analysis of meaning for the OCI is given in Stern's recently published book, People in Context (Appendix A, pages 315-362). 126 Abasement--Assurance (aha-ass): Self-deprecia- tion and self-devaluation as reflected in the ready acknowledgement of inadequacy, ineptitude or inferiority, the acceptance of humiliation and other forms of self-degradation versus certainty, self-confidence, or self-glorification. Achievement (ach): Surmounting obstacles and attaining a successful conclusion in order to prove one's worth; striving for success through personal effort. Adaptability--Defensiveness (ada--dfs): Accept- ing criticism, advice or humiliation publicly versus resistance to suggestion, guidance, direction, or advice; concealment or justifica- tion of failure. Affiliation (aff): Gregariousness; group- centered, friendly, participatory associations with others versus social detachment, social independence, self-isolation, unsociableness. Aggression--Blame Avoidance (agg--bla): Indif- ference or disregard for the feelings of others as manifested in hostility, either overt or covert, direct or indirect, versus the denial or inhibition of such impulses. Change--Sameness (cha--sam): Variable or flexible behavior versus repetition and routine. Conjunctivity--Disjunctivity (cnj--dsj): Organized, purposeful, planned activity patterns versus uncoordinated, disorganized, diffuse, or self-indulgent behavior. Counteraction (ctr): Persistent striving to overcome difficult, frustrating, humiliating, or embarassing experiences and failures versus avoidance or hasty withdrawal from tashs or situations which might result in such outcomes. Deference--Restiveness (dfr--rst): Respect for authority, submission to the opinions and preferences of others perceived as superior versus noncompliance, insubordination, rebellious- ness, resistance or defiance. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. l7. 18. 127 Dominance--Tolerance (dom—-tol): Ascendancy over others by means of assertive or manipula- tive control versus nonintervention, forbearance, acceptance, equalitarianism, permissiveness, humility, or meekness. Ego Achievement (e/a): Self-dramatizing, idealistic social action; active or fantasied realization of dominance, power, or influence achieved through sociopolitical activities in the name of social improvement or reform. Emotionality--Placidity (emo-plc): Intense, open emotional expression versus stolidness, restraint, control, or constriction. Energy--Passivity (eny--pas): Activity level; intense, sustained, vigorous effort versus sluggishness or inertia. Exhibitionism--Inferiority Avoidance (exh--inf): Self-display and attention-seeking versus shy- ness, embarrassment, self-consciousness, or withdrawal from situations in which the attention of others might be attracted. Fantasied Achievement (f/a): Daydreams of success in achieving extraordinary public recognition; narcissitic aspirations for fame, personal distinction, or power. Harm Avoidance--Risktaking (har--rsk): Fear- fulness, avoidance, withdrawal or excessive caution in situations which might result in physical pain, injury, illness or death versus careless indifference to danger; challenging or provocative disregard for personal safety; thrill-seeking; boldness, venturesomeness, temerity. Humanities--Social Sciences (hum): The symbolic manipulation of social objects or artifacts through empirical analysis, reflection, dis- cussion and criticism. Impulsiveness--Deliberation (imp--del): Rash, impulsive, spontaneous or impetuous behavior versus care, caution, reflectiveness. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 128 Narcissism (nar): Self-centered, vain egotisti- cal, preoccupation with self; erotic feelings associated with one's own body or personality. Nurturance (nur): Supporting others by pro- viding love, assistance, or protection versus disassociation from others; indifference; withholding support, friendship or affection. Objectivity--Projectivity (obj--pro): Detached, nonmagical, impersonal thinking versus autistic, irrational, paranoid, or otherwise egocentric perceptions and beliefs; suspicion. Order--Disorder (ord--dso): Compulsive organ- ization of the immediate physical environment, manifested in a preoccupation with neatness, orderliness, arrangement, and meticulous attention to detail versus habitual disorder, confusion, disarray, or carelessness. P1ay--Work (p1y--wrk): Pleasure-seeking; sustained pursuit of amusement and entertainment versus persistently purposeful, serious, task- —_ . oriented behaVior. Practicalness--Impracticalness (pra--ipr): Useful, tangibly productive, businesslike applications of skill or experience in manual arts, social affairs, or commercial activities versus a speculative, theoretical, whimsical, or indifferent attitude towards practical affairs. Reflectiveness (ref): Contemplation, intra- ception, introspection; preoccupation with private psychological, spiritual, esthetic, or metaphysical experience. Science (sci): The symbolic manipulation of physical objects through empirical analysis, reflection, discussion and criticism. Sensuality--Puritanism (sen——pur): Sensory stimulation and gratification; voluptuousness, hedonism; preoccupation with esthetic experience versus austerity, self-denial, temporance or abstinence, frugality, self-abnegation. 28. 29. 30. 129 Sexuality--Prudishness (sex-~pru): Erotic heterosexual interest or activity versus the restraint, denial or inhibition of such im- pulses; prudishness, priggishness; asceticism. Supplication--Autonomy (sup--aut): Dependence on others for love, assistance and protection versus detachment, independence, or self- reliance. Understanding (und): Detached intellectualiza- tion; problem-solving, analysis, theorizing or abstraction as ends in themselves. olvr :I__. w OOCOOOO 90999CC39r 065909.:j1-YCC 936C09 C9. .6... 993A {3:39 mXXoOmx:ooA. miCOAKCC tome 00909. ,. s ..C \JC —r , )8: I /I 93900“ 93331 909. C9CCm-C/C Q.. - .....QA... CA.(U...\/_ a @A JOAZC: 3:0 .COSOA :C OCOOOCO 95030 ......909 .-C ...-AC A....C ....wa ) \1 (..C ....C .-.... 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The statements refer to daily activities, to rules and regulations and policies, to typical interests and projects, to features of the physical environment, etc. The statements may or may not be character- istic of your situation because organizations differ from one another in many ways. You are to decide which statements are characteristic of your institution and which are not. Your answers should tell us what you believe the institution is like rather than what you might personally prefer. You won’t know the answer to many of these statements, because there may not be any really definite infor- mation on which to base your answer. Your responses will simply mean that in your opinion the statement is probably true or probably false about your organ- ization. Do not omit any item. DIRECTIONS On the special answer sheet print your name, and the other information re- quested. Then, as you read each statement in the booklet, blacken space T — when you think the statement is generally TRUE or char- acteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F —- when you think the statement is generally FALSE or not characteristic of the organization, is something which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. DIRECTIONS FOR USING NCS ANSWER SHEET The rows of response circles are numbered to correspond to the items in the Test Booklet. Each question may be answered either ® or ® In marking your answers on the Answer Sheet, make sure that the number of the Statement is the same as the number on the Answer Sheet. Be sure to answer either ® or ® for every Statement. 0 Be sure to use a No. 2% or softer writing pencil. 0 Do Not Use Ball Point or Ink. 0 Keep your Answer Sheet Clean. 0 Do not make stray marks. 0 Erase errors completely. 0 Fill the circle completely. Copyright 1958, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963 by George G. Stern 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Legend T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not characteristic of the organization, is some- thing which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. Criticism of administrative policies and practices iS encouraged. The competition for recognition is intense. Errors and failures are talked about freely so that others may learn from them. It’s hard to make friends here because there is so little opportunity to meet with other people. People treat the furnishings and equipment with care here. There are many differences in nationality, religion, and social status represented here. Work programs are well organized and progress sys- tematically from week to week. Policy matters often provoke widespread discussions that are both intense and lively. Important people here are always addressed as Mr., Mrs. or Sir. People here are always trying to manipulate the ac- tivities of others for their own advantage. Knowledge about national and intemational affairs is valued here. People here express their feelings openly and en- thusiastically. Discussions get quite heated, with a lot of display of feeling. Group activities are often released to the news- papers. People here hope to achieve future fame and recog- nition. - Procedures to be followed in case of fires, air raids, and accidents are not prominently posted. People here are interested in the analysis of social and political problems. Policy changes occur slowly and only after consider- able deliberation. Formal receptions or formal social affairs are seldom held here. Members of the top administration are expected to take a leading role in community affairs. No one needs to be afraid of expressing extreme or unpopular VieWpomts here. Formal seating arrangements are quite common here for all sorts of group meetings. People really look forward to vacations, leave or weekend breaks. . Its important here to be in the right club or group. DISElIISSlODS about ethics, morality, psychological pro ems or personal values are not unusual. Page 2 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. Applications of research, experimental analysis, sur- veys, and other forms of scientific method are en- couraged. Much has been done with pictures, draperies, colors, and decoration to make this place pleasing to the eye. Most of the group are young and unmarried. Everyone here has a strong sense of being a member of the team. Books dealing with mathematics or logic are of inter- est to many of the people here. It’s necessary to be polite under all circumstances in order to stay out of trouble here. It is fairly easy to keep up here without working too hard. Most activities are closely supervised. There is a lot of group spirit. Most people here seem to be especially considerate of others. Policies and methods of operation are frequently revised. Administrative policy, goals, and objectives are care- fully explained to everyone. When people here disagree with an administrative decision, they work to get it changed. . People here make every effort to please the admin- istrative staff. . Elections, peer-evaluations, or other forms of ratings of group members by one another generate strong feeling. The expression of strong personal belief is pretty rare around here. . People can get into very heated arguments wrth one another, and be the best of friends the next day- People here put a great deal of energy into ever)“ thing they do. People here are likely to dress colorfully. . People here like to speculate on unusual opportunl ties for quick advancement. The daily schedule includes some rough Phl's'cal activities. . , f Improving one’s knowledge of important aorks 0 art, music, and drama is encouraged here. h'n 5 People here often change the way they do t l g on the spur of the moment. . .21" People take much pride in their personal app“ ance. . t' There is a lot of interest here in P"meets for: (3:311:05. ing packages of food or clothing to help on 6n 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 60. 61. 62. 63. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Legend: T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not characteristic of the organization, is some- thing which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. One of the values most stressed here is open-mind- edness. The administration expects that. there will be no deviation from established practices no matter what the circumstances. Social events get a lot of enthusiasm and support. Achievements are weighed in terms of their practical value. A lecture by an outstanding philosopher or theo- logian would be of interest to many of the people here. People who are seriously interested in the natural sciences would be out of place here. Music is never allowed when people are working. People who have friends of the opposite sex show their affections openly. . People find others eager to help them get started. People here spend a great deal of time thinking about and discussing complex problems. People are seldom kept waiting when they have appointments with the administrative staff. Getting ahead requires much intensive outside work in addition to doing your regular assignments. Criticism or advice from an administrator is usually welcomed. . There are many opportunities for people to get to- gether in planned social activities after hours. . People here tend to be cautious and self-controlled at all times. The people here come from all parts of the country. The ability to plan ahead is highly valued here. People here are not likely to accept administrative ineptitude without complaint or protest. The administrative staff rarely refer to one another by their first names. The administration expects people to report viola- tions of rules and regulations. Daily newspapers are widely read. The way people feel around here is always pretty evident. Few people here would ever work to the point of exhaustion. People here are provided with opportunities to de- velop skills and talents directing or coordinating the work of others. Most people here would regard mountain-climbing or rugged camping trips as pretty pointless. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. Page 3 Posters, drills, or slogans stressing physical safety are not unusual here. Few people here would be interested in attending a lecture by an outstanding literary critic. Many social activities are unplanned and spontane- ous. People are expected to have a great deal of social grace and polish. This place has a reputation for being indifferent to the public welfare. Regulations are interpreted and enforced in an un- derstanding manner. Untidy reports or ones that depart from a specified style are, almost certain to be returned unaccepted. Most people here go to lots of parties and other social activities. The emphasis here is on the abstract rather than the concrete and tangible. There are many facilities and opportunities for in- dividual creative activity. Few people here would be interested in attending a lecture by an outstanding scientist. Uniformity of decoration is the policy here, with no deviation from the norm. Most people here love to dance. People who are always offering their assistance are likely to be regarded as a nuisance. Few people here are stimulated by intellectual activ- ities or problems. Almost anyone is likely to be blamed, even those who had little to do with it, if something happens to go wrong. Personality and pull are more important than compe- tence in getting ahead around here. Most prejects are done in groups rather than by individuals. People have little to say to one another here. The administrative staff are often joked about or criticized. Everyone in this group has pretty much the same attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. Most activities here are planned carefully. People here speak up openly and freely. Many people here try to pattern themselves after people who can help them. Personal rivalries are fairly common in this place. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. Legend: T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not ch thing which is not likely feel or act. Most people here are not very interested in what 126. goes on in politics or government. People here are not only expected to have ideas but 127- to do something about them. There is so much to do here that people are busy all the time. 138- Most people here tend to be shy in groups. 109 Most people here are concerned with the present “I ' rather than the future. 1.30 Risk-taking in the physical sense is part of the day- ' ' t -da 0 m. 0 y pr gra 131. Few people here are interested in literature, art, or music. 132. Quick decisions and action are not characteristic of this place. 133. Good manners and making a good impression are 134. important here. The activities of charities and social agencies are 135- strongly supported. Criticism is taken as a personal affront in this or— 136- ganization. Neatness in this place is the rule rather than the 137. exception. People are always ready to drop their work and take a coffee break. 138' Many people here are efficient at making or repair- ing things. M d , , , 1:39. o ern art and musrc get little attention here. Few people in this group have any background in 140' science. There are no restaurants in this community offering 141. unusual or exceptionally well-prepared food. Male-female relationships sometimes become quite 142. serious. 143 People are expected to work at their own problems 144- in their own way. Many peoplehere enjoy talking about poetry, phi- 145- losophy or religion. People .who work hard here do so in spite of the 146- realrzatlon that someone else will be getting the credit. 147. People will have it in for you here if you work too hard. 148. The work of the individual is always evaluated in terms of group goals and objectives. 149- Everyone is helped to get acquainted. A lot of people in this ' 150' _ place walk around w chip on their shoulder. 1th a Page 4 aracteristic of the organization, is some- to occur, is not the way people typically Familiar faces sometimes tend to disappear without much explanation. All work assignments are laid out well in advance, so that people can plan their own schedules accord- ingly. People here thrive on difficulty — the tougher things get, the harder everyone works. People here are usually opposed to the local admin- istrative staff. The important people in this place expect others to show proper respect for them. Any form of political activity is strongly discouraged by the administrative staff. There are very few issues here which arouse much excitement or feeling. Leadership here lacks vigor. There are a good many colorful and controversial figures here. Administrative policy supports the practical and the realistic. People here are sometimes reminded to take pre- ventive measures against illness. People who usually talk about music, theater, or other art forms consistently are likely to be regarded as a little odd. People here often start projects without trying to decide in advance how they will develop or where they may end. Individuals who are not properly groomed are likely to have this called to their attention. Service to the community is regarded as a major responsibility of the institution. Sound reasoning is rewarded here, even though it may lead to unpopular conclusions. Attendance is checked carefully. No one takes their work too seriously here. Family, social, or financial status are necessary ele- ments for advancement or success here. People here are not really concerned with deep philosophical or ethical matters. . A discussion about the latest scientific inventions would not be uncommon here. P601316 are encouraged to dress for personal comfort rather than for appearance. ‘ The administration does not concern itself WI dating habits of people here. P€0ple here have a great deal of freedom 1 they wish. th the odo 35 Thinking of alternative ways in WhiCh probli‘fi: might be solved or things done differently 15 couraged here. —. _—. .——-——-———-—— ,4 iii 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. I68. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. Legend: T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not characteristic of the organization, is some- thing which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. No one is expected to suffer in silence if some regu- lation happens to create a personal hardship. Good work is really recognized around here. Work is checked to see if it is done properly and on time. There are few opportunities for informal talk with administrators. When people dislike policy they let the administra- tive staff know it in no uncertain terms. Most members of the administrative staff have been here for many years. . Administrators are practical and efficient in the way they dispatch their business. People avoid direct clashes with the administration at all costs. Many people here will not hesitate to give strong public support to a project that the administrative staff is opposed to. There are no favorites in this place; everyone gets treated alike. Strong positions are taken here regarding civil liber- ties and minority groups. Open displays of emotion have no place here. People here can get so absorbed in their work they often lose all sense of time or personal comfort. It's easy to find people here to talk before clubs and social groups. There is little sympathy here for individuals, who have ambitious daydreams about the future. Conditions which involve some risk of physical dan- ger are usually tolerated here. People here are not concerned with the way our society is organized or how it operates. People frequently do things on the spur of the moment. Proper social forms and manners are not particularly important here. There are excellent opportunities here for members of minority groups. Many people here seem to brood, act moody, and are hard to figure out. The buildings and grounds often look a little untidy. Having a good time comes first here. People with manual skills are highly respected here. People here philosophize about different concepts of truth. 176. 177. 178. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. Page 5 Magazines such as Scientific American are read by many people who work here. Many people here have good personal collections of paintings and records. Stories and novels about love are a popular form of reading material here. The administrative staff is hardly ever concerned with the personal problems of the people who work here. Few people here are challenged by deep thinking. People are made to feel inadequate here for admit- ting that they don’t know the answers. People set high standards of achievement for them- selves here. People quickly learn what is done and not done here. People here are reluctant to call one another by their first names. When people dislike someone here, they make no secret of it. New ideas are always being tried out here. The flow of important information down from the administrative staff is smooth and efficient. People here tend to take the easy way out when things get tough. People delight in challenging official policies. Anyone who knows the right people in the admin- istration can get a better break. The administrative staff encourages people to take an active interest in political activities. People here tend to hide their deeper feelings from each other. Administrators put a lot of energy and enthusiasm into directing this program. Special events are given a great deal of fanfare and publicity. People here talk about their future imaginatively and with enthusiasm. ' Everyone here is “safety-first” conscious, anxious to avoid accidents and correct the conditions which produce them. There are copies of famous paintings in the halls, rooms, or offices. People who tend to say or do the first thing that occurs to them are likely to have a hard time here. There is a general idea of appropriate dress which everyone follows. The underdog enjoys sympathy and compassion here. Legend: T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or mig ht occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not characteristic of the organization, is some- thing which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. There always seem to be a lot of little quarrels going on here. People sometimes exchange each other’s responsi- bilities. It’s easy to get a group together for games, cokes, movies, etc. The work atmosphere emphasizes efficiency and usefulness. , Administrators are quite often occupied with serious considerations of basic goals and values. The latest scientific discoveries make few changes in the way this place is run. Paintings or statues of nudes can be seen here. The administrative staff does not consider sex a forbidden topic. People often run errands or do other personal serv- ices for each other. Administrators here are considered experts in their respective fields. The administrative staff has little tolerance for corn- plaints and protests. Standards set by administrative staff are not partic- ularly hard to achieve. The public is interested in everything that is done here. People spend a great deal of time together socially. People are often noisy and inattentive when brought together in groups. Most people dress and act pretty much alike. There is no wasted time here; everything has been planned right to the minute. People who get pushed around here are expected to fight back. Administrators will see people by appointment onlv. There would be little opposition to the formation of a committee to control conduct and ethics. Erscussions about improving society are common ere. People here can be wildly happy one minute and hopelessly depressed the next. The day to day activities do not require a sustained or intensive effort. Most people here are outgoing and extrovertcd. Unusual or exciting plans are encouraged here. 248. 249. 250. Page 6 Few people here smoke or drink. Most people here are well-read. People here feel free to express themselvse impul- sively. People here are always looking for compliments. People here expect to help out with fund drives, CARE, Red Cross, etc. Administrative staff members are frequently jealous of their authority. There is a specific place for everything and everyone here. People here follow the maxim “business before pleasure." Practical people are respected more than thinkers or dreamers here. People here often get involved in long, serious in- tellectual discussions. Many people here are engaged in research pertain- ing to their fields of specialization. The use of vivid or novel expressions in converse tion is generally frowned upon. Some of the more popular people here have a knack for making witty, subtle remarks with a slightly sexy finge. The administrative staff will go out of its waf to help you with your work. People here seem to enjoy abstract problem-solving and detached thinking. People here learn to accept criticism without talking back. . The successful performance of day to day duties 15 routine and undemanding. The quality of your work cannot be kept here. a secret People often prepare their work together. MOSt people pay little attention to rules and regu' lations. There are conventional ways of doing things here which are rarely changed. People do not know how to prepare to be. graded or rated because they do not know what iS being. looked for. People here work well under stress. 1 Almost no one here ever makes fun of the P901) e, traditions or policies of this place. - it. P901316 here are always trying to wrn an argumet ____‘ 252. 253. 254. 255. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. [O . ‘1 U1 Legend: T — True. Generally true or characteristic of the organization, is something which occurs or might occur, is the way people tend to feel or act. F — False. Generally false or not characteristic of the organization, is some- thing which is not likely to occur, is not the way people typically feel or act. People here expect the world will be a better place to live because of their efforts. Honors and special distinctions are generally award- ed and received without any show of emotion. The administrative staff expects that people will push themselves to the limit. The administration here frowns on any form of public attention. Not too many people want to become top leaders here. . People who are ill are encouraged to stay on the job and finish the day's work. Many people here read magazines and books in- volving history, economics or political science. Joking and laughing are usual in work situations here. Looking and acting “right” is expected. The people here are easily moved by the misfortunes or distress of others. Everyone has the same opportunity to make good. Communication within the organization is always carried on through formal channels. People are always very serious and purposeful about their work. The administration is satisfied to achieve short range goals and objectives. People who are concerned with developing their own personal and private system of values would not fit in here. ' The administration is research conscious. Little attempt has been made to make this place comfortable or attractive. There is a lot of steady dating here. People here mind their own business. People who attempt discussions on serious subjects are often made to feel foolish or out-of-place here. There is a lot of apple-polishing around here. Most activities here present a real personal challenge. The quality of your work is rated or evaluated fre- quently. Members of the administrative staff listen to people as well as direct them. - People ask permission before deviating from com- mon policies or practices. 276. 277. 284. 285. 286. 298. 299. 300. Page 7 People here generally look for novelty and variety. Most people here follow a regular plan for work and play. It is always difficult to get a group decision here without a lot of discussion. Administrators are sometimes given uncomplimen- tary nicknames. There is a recognized group of leaders who receive special privileges. Social issues are rarely discussed here. People respond to pressure here in a calm and mild- mannered way. People here feel they must really work hard because of the important nature of their work. Parties are colorful and lively here. A number of people here have had varied and un- usual careers. Few people bother with rubbers, hats, or other spe- cial protection against the weather. Classical music is practically never heard here. Programs here are quickly changed to meet new conditions. People are always carefully dressed and neatly groomed. “Lend a helping hand" could very well be the motto of this place. Many people here are superstitious. Formal rules and regulations have a very important place here. People here believe that “all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” People here are generally efficient and successful in practical affairs. There is considerable interest in the analysis of value systems and the relativity of societies and ethics. There is a lot of interest in the philosophy and goals of science here. Most people here attend concerts or art exhibits whenever they get the chance. Frank discussions about sex are not uncommon among people here. People here are usually quick to help each other out. Careful reasoning and clear logic are highly valued here. 1E5 "iiiiiiiiiiiitiiiit 31