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Psychological Group Counseling
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Seventh Grade Girls--
An Exploratory Study

presented by

Marie A. Ferguson

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ABSTRACT
PSYCHOLOGICAL GROUP COUNSELING
WITH SOCIALLY ISOLATED

SEVENTH GRADE GIRLS--
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

by'Marie.A. Ferguson

The study was concerned with social isolation which, as an in-
dicator of personal or social maladjustment, is a facet of the total
mental health problem of the public school. The purpose of the in-
vestigation was to explore the possibility that psychological group
counseling might be an effective treatment for socially isolated
seventh grade girls. An experiment was conducted which consisted of
ten weeks of semi-weekly group counseling sessions with two experi-
mental groups in a public school.

Subjects for the study were selected by first giving sociomet-
ric tests to the eight seventh grade rooms of the school, and subse-
quently interviewing the girls who comprized the low quartile in
number of sociometric choices received. The twenty-four girls in the
low quartile who indicated willingness to participate in the study
were randomly assigned to two experimental and two control groups.
One of the experimental groups was composed entirely of isolates and
the other included three highly chosen girls. One of the control
groups was given bibliotherapy and the other no special treatment.

It was hypothesized that the experimental groups would experb

ience improved self-concept, anxiety, and sociometric scores after

Marie A. Ferguson
2

counseling and that the control groups would not improve in these
variables during the experimental period. It was predicted that the
mixed group would improve more than the group composed entirely of
isolates. It was also hypothesized that subjects who perceived the
group experience most positively would experience the most significant
improvement in self-concept.

Self-concept and anxiety tests were administered to all the re-
search subjects, and sociometric tests to all the seventh grade rooms,
at the beginning and at the end of the experimental period and again
six weeks after the experimental period. A Perception of Group Ex-
perience Scale was administered to the counseled subjects at the end
of the counseling period. Comparisons were made between the pre-
experimental and post-experimental mean scores and between the pre-
experimental and follow-up mean scores of each group on the sociometric,
self-concept and anxiety tests. The t-test was used to test for sig-
nificance at the .05 level. Self-concept scores were correlated with
each of the eight sub-scales of the Perception of Group Experience
Scale by applying the Fisher's Exact Probability test.

The statistical analysis showed that there were significant im-
provements in mean scores of the counseled group composed entirely of
isolates on the self-concept scale both on the post and follow-up
tests, on the anxiety scale only on the post test, and in sociometric
choice score only on the follow-up test. No significant improvements
were found in the mixed counseling group, composed of isolates and
stars. In the control groups no significant improvements were found

in self-concept or anxiety scores. However, significant increase in

Marie A. Ferguson
3

the sociometric score of the bibliotherapy group was observed on the

followdup test, and also a significantly improved follow-up sociomet-
ric score resulted when the data relating to the control groups were

combined for analysis. No significant correlations were obtained in

comparing'self-concept scores with the Perception of Group Experience
Scales.

The findings suggest that group counseling is not effective
with a mixed group composed of isolates and stars, but that it might
be an effective way to improve the self-concept score and temporarily
reduce the anxiety score in a group composed entirely of isolates.
Implications are that improvement in sociometric score may result
from chance or from other unknown variables with or without group
counseling, since sociometric improvement was found in the follow-up
scores of one of the control groups and in the analysis of the data
from the combined control groups as well as in the one counseled group

composed entirely of isolates.

PSYCHOLOGICAL GROUP COUNSELING
WITH SOCIALLI ISOLATED
SEVENTH GRADE GIRLS--
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

by “a

CL
Marie AffiFerguson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1961

 

 

' :'. 'fi 77
I- / .,- |
I

5 /._-1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sincere appreciation is hereby expressed to Dr. Buford Stefflre,
Professor of Education, for his wise guidance throughout the planning,
executing, and reporting of the research. Gratefulness is also ex-
tended to Dr. Bill Kell, Professor of Psychology, who provided super-
vision for the counseling, and to Dr. John Jamrich, Professor of Educa-
tion and Dr. John Useem, Professor of Sociology and AnthrOpology, who
supplied helpful suggestions.

The writer is indebted to Mr. Nicholas Martinez, principal of
Windemere Park School, for permitting the experiment to be held at the
school and making the necessary schedule adjustments, and to Mr. John
Grabow, Guidance Director of Waverly School District, who assisted in
the testing and other phases of the investigation. The cooperation and
assistance of Mrs. Josephine Dutcher, the school secretary, and of the
seventh grade teachers is gratefully acknowledged.

Thanks are also extended to Mr. John Paterson of the Bureau of
Educational Research for assistance in selecting statistical proced-
ures, and to the graduate students who helped to administer the
sociometric tests.

Acknowledgements are due Dr. Paul Bruce, of San Diego State Col-
lege for permission to use the Self-Acceptance Scale, and to the Society
for Research in Child Development, Inc. and Dr. Alfred Castaneda of the
Department of Psychology, University of Texas, and his associates for
permission to use the Children's Manifest Anxiety Seals.

Finally gratitude is expressed to Dr. Clark Moustakas, Professor
of Psychology at Merrill-Palmer Institute, who inspired the writer in

the selection of the research area and in the pursuit of the investi-

gation.
ii

LIST OF
LIST OF
LIST OF

Chapter

I.

II.

TABLES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

.eeeeoneOeeoeeeeeeo

ILLUSTRA': I CNS 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

APPENDI CBS 0 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

It

T HE PROBL EH 0 O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O

A.
B.
C.
D.

G.

Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Delineation of the Study . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical Frame of Reference . . . . . .
Phenomenological Point of View . . . . . .
Perceptual Field . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Psychological Maladjustment . . . . . . . .
Alteration of Self-Concept . . . . . . . .
Summary...oo.............
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Hypotheses . . . . . . . .

Basic Assumptions . . . .
Definition of Terms . . .
Methodology . . . . . . .
The Sample . . . . . . .

Administration of Tests . . . . . . . . . .
Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . .
Summation of the Chapter . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE . . . . . . . . .

Part one: MENTAL HEALTH Q C O O O O O O O O O

A.
B.
C.

Introduction and Definition . . . . . .
Prevalence of Mental Health Problems .
Diagnosis and Analysis of Mental Health
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Mental Health .
Special Problem Areas . . . . .
Diagnostic Approaches . . . . .
Summary............
Prevention and Treatment Programs . .

Schools . . . . . . . . . . .
Agencies . . . . . . . . .-. .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Mental Health Literature .

iii

0 O O O O O O O O O

O O O O C O

Page

H

\OGDVIWUIJ-‘JT’UJNH

ix

Chapter

II. Part

Part

Two: PSYCHOLOGICAL GROUP COUNSELING . . .

A. Introduction . . . . . . .-. . . . . .
B. Function, Nature, and Theoretical
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminology and Personnel . . . . .
Group Versus Individual Counseling
Requirements for Success . . .
Theoretical Assumptions . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .V. .
C. Historical Backgrounds . . . . . .
D. Group Counseling with Adolescents
Agencies and Institutions . . .
Schools . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Summary of Group Counseling Literature

Three: THE LITERATURE or socronarar . . .

A. Origins and Development . . . . . . .
Definition and Theoretical Framework
Origins and Early DeveIOpment . . .
Tabulating and Analytical Techniques
Summary..............

B. Relevant Research in Sociometry . . .

1. Relation of Sociometric ChoiCes to

Personal Factors . . . . .
Personality Traits . . .
Physical Factors . . . .
Personality Adjustment .
Social Adjustment . . . . . .

School Adjustment: Intell gence

and Achievement . . . . . . .
Summary............

2. Relation of Sociometric Status to

503131 FaCtorB e e e e e e e e 0
Demographic Factors . . . . .

O 0 O O O O

O O O O O O C O O O O 0

Proximity and Degree of Acquaintance

Family Factors . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

3. The Application of Sociometry in

Improvement Activities . . . . .
Sociometric Grouping . . . .

Other Remedial Approaches
C. Summary of Sociometry Literature .

III C METHOWLOGY O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I O O

A.

Selection and Description of Experimental

sabjeCtS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Selection of Subjects and Composition of

Groups 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

iv

Page

Chapter

B.

F.

IV. THE

B.

C.
D.

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATTONS FOR FURTHER

Family Size, Social Class, Intelligence Level

Hypotheses.................
Predictions of Improvement in Self-Concept
Scores during Counseling . . . . . . . . .

Predictions of Improvement in Anxiety Scores

during Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predictions of Improved Sociometric Scores
during Counseling . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predictions of Correlation Between Gain in

Self-Concept and Scores Made on the Perception

of Group Experience Scales . . . . . . . .
Treatment of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Treatment . . . . . . . . . .
Testing Instruments and their Use . . . . .
The Self-Acceptance Scale . . . . . . . .
The Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale . .
The SOCiometriC Scale 0 e e e e e e e e e
The Perception of Group Experience Scale .
The Testing Program . .
Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . .
Predicted Changes . .
Predictions of Which Subjects would Change
Summary........o.........

FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

The Data Relating to Change in Self-Concept
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Data Relating to Improvement in Anxiety
Scores...................

The Data Relating to Change in Sociometric Scores
Findings Relating to Correlations between Gain in

Self-Concept Scores and Perception of Group EXper-

ience Scale . . . . .
Summary of Findings .
Experimental Groups
Control Groups . . .

RES EARCH O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O C O O C O

APPENDICES

BIBLIOGRAPHY C ‘ O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O

Page

69
7h

74
75
76

93

9A

102
107

116
12}
12h
125

131

137
151

10.

ll.

12.

130

l#.

15.

16.

17.

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Distribution of Sociometric Choices to Girls by Rooms . . 7O
Composition of Groups by Homeroom . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Means and Ranges on Large-Thorndike Intelligence Tests . 73
Test—Retest Correlation Coefficients for the SAS Scales . 81

Rank Order Correlation Coefficients between Teacher
Estimates and Sociometric Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Pre and Post-Counseling Scores in Self—Concept and
Self-Ideal Discrepancy for Group A . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Pre and Follow-up Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrepancy made by Group A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

pr. and Post-Counseling Scores in Self-Concept and Self-
Ideal Discrepancy for Group B . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Pre and Follow-up Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrc;ancy made by Group B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Results of t—Tests of the SAS Scores Comparing Pre and
Post Scores for Combined Groups A and B . . . . . . . . 97

Results of t-Tests of the SAS Scores Comparing Pre and
Follow-up Scores for Combined Groups A and B . . . . . . 98

Pre and Post-Test Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrepancy for Group C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Pre and Follow-up Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrepancy Made by Group C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Pre and Post-Test Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrepancy Made by Group D . . . . . . . . . -.° . . . . 99

Pre and Follow-up Scores in Self-Concept and Self-Ideal
Discrepancy Made by Group D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Results of t-Tests of Comparing SAS Scores for Combined
Groups C and D Before and After the Experimental Period. 101
Results of t-Tests of the SAS Scores Comparing Pre and
Follow-up Scores for Combined Groups C and D . . . . . . 101

vi

Table Page

18. Comparison of Pre and Post Counseling Anxiety Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group A . . . . . . . . 103

19. Comparison of Pre and Post Counseling Anxiety Scores and
Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group B . . . . . . . . . . 103

20; Comparison of Pre-Counseling Anxiety Scores with Post
and with Follow-up Scores of Combined Groups A and B . . IOU

21. Comparison of Pre and Post-Counseling Anxiety Scores
and Pro and Follow-up Scores of Group C . . . . . . . . 105

22. Comparison of Pre and Post-Experimental Anxiety Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group D . . . . . . . . 106

23. Comparison of Pre-Experimental Anxiety Scores with
Post and with Follow-up Scores of Combined Groups C
“d D O O O O O O O O O O O O I C O O O O O O O O O O O 106

2%. Comparison of Pre and Post-Counseling Choice Scores and
Pre and F0110'-up Scores Of Group A e e e e e e e e e e 108

25. Comparison of Pre and Post-Counseling Choice Scores
-and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group B . . . . . . . . 109

26. Results of Combining Sociometric Scores of Groups A and

B O O O O C O O O O O C O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 110

27. Comparison of Pre and Post-Experimental Choice Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group C . . . . . . . . 110

28. Comparison of Pre and Post-Experimental Choice Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group D . . . . . . . . 111

29. Results of Combining Sociometric Scores of Groups C and

D C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 112

30. Comparison of Pre and Post-Counseling Rejection Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group A . . . . . . . . 113

31. Comparison of Pre and Post-Counseling Rejection Scores
and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group B . . . . . . . . 113

32. Comparison of Pre and Post-Experimental Rejection
Scores and Pre and Follow-up Scores of Group C . . . . . 11G

33. Comparison of Pre and Post-Experimental Rejection Scores
and Pro and Follow-up Scores of Group D . . . . . . . . 114

3“. SAS Difference Scores and PGE5 Subscale Scores for
Counseled sabjOCts e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 117

vii

Table Page
35. Relationship Between Scale I and SC Scores . . . . . . . 118
36. Relationship Between Scale I and SID Scores . . . . . . 118
37. Relationship Between Scale IIa and SC Scores . . . . . . 119
38. Relationship Between Scale 11a and SID Scores . . . . . 119
39. Distribution of Scale 11 Scores by Group B Isolates . . 119
40. Relationship Between Scale III and SC Scores . . . . . . 120
#1. Relationship Between Scale III and SID Scores . . . . . 120
#2. Relationship Between Scale IV and SC Scores . . . . . . 120
A}. Relationship Between Scale IV and SID Scores . . . . . . 120
#4. Relationship Between Scale V and SC Scores . . . . . . . 121
#5. Relationship Between Scale V and SID Scores . . . . . . 121
#6. Relationship Between Scale VI and SC Scores . . . . . . 121
47. Relationship Between Scale VI and SID Scores . . . . . . 121
#8. Relationship Between Scale VII and SC Scores . . . . . . 122
#9. Relationship Between Scale VII and SID Scores . . . . . 122
50. Relationships Between Scale VIII and SC Scores . . . . . 122
51. Relationships Between Scale VIII and SID Scores . . . . 122

52. Summary of Findings Concerning Improvement in Experi-
mental Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

53. Summary of Findings Concerning Change in Control Groups..126

54. Condensation of Table 52: Summary of Findings Concern-
ing Improvement in Experimental Groups . . . . . . . . . 128

55. Condensation of Table 53: Summary of Findings Concern-
ing Change in Control Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

56. Comparison of Number of Changes in the Desired Direc-

tion in the Experimental Groups and in the Control
Groups 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 129

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chart Page

1. Sequence of Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 89

ix

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
A. Summary of Group Counseling Sessions . . . . . 137

Be Teeting IRStruments e e e e e e e e e e o e 0 11+].

CHAPTERI

m5 Esra-J1“; 33‘?

"No one is an island entire of itself,“ wrote John Donne; and
this sentiment is true in a sense. Yet in a certain sense everyone is
an island,* isolated by the physical and psychological processes and
perceptions which constitute the individual orgnism. Because of this
existential isolation, meaningful interpersonal relationships are
necessary to enable persons to become fully themselves. Northway, in
cementing on this quotation from John Donne, wrote: "Sociometry sinply
demonstrates flat the fundamental bonds which hold man to the Continent
are his own personal relationships." She spoke of Ian's "need to free
himself from his own insularity in a security which is greater than

himself and through which he himself becomes greater."317‘h5
A. Statement 25 525 Problem

The problem of concern in this study is the condition of soc isi
isolation. The center of interest is the person who does not have
maningful personal relationships, who has not, for some reason, been
able to "free himself from his own insularity." lhe particular focus
of the study is on social isolation in the public school where, as
sociometric studies have shown, between eleven and twenty-two per cent

of pupils at all grade levels receive one choice or no choices on

 

*‘i‘he Italian form of island is isola, which is related to the
English isolation. ,

socioaetric tests.17"‘ Since healthy personality developaent is depen-
dent upon satisfying interpersonal relationships, the indications
suggested by these statistics are tint up to six chi ldren in the aver-
age rooa suffer persomlity handicaps froa want of satisfying inter-
personal relationships. Gronlund has stated tint although in early
childhood personality developaent depends prinrily on relationships
with parems, from the tine of entering school peer relationships count
aost and will “determine to a large extent how the personviews the
world about his and has he vials hiiaself'."r"'“232

Another acct of the problea of social isolation is its rela-
tionship to the total aental health problem. There is evidence that
isolation sonstiaes indicates deep psychological problems)" In addi-
tion to the loss to society of the positive contributions norully
mooted froa the healtiv persomlity, the social isolate represents a
potential danger to society. In a study of over 5,000 pupils, in grades
3 to 8 in lew York State it was found tilt social isolation and truancy
were good assures of future delinquency.3u‘ In other studies social
isolation has been explored as a possible predictor of schizophrenia88
or mental illness. 197

B. Mose 35 2:: m
This study was done as an exploratory experiaent to determine
if psychological group counseling night he an effective way to treat
the problem of social isolation at the early adolescent level in the
public school. Because no other study has been reported in which socio-
aetrically determined isolates and underchosen were the subjects 'of an

interview grog: counseling experiaent,fl and because of the ooqlex
iature of the nrlables involved, an exploratory study was indicated.
Psychological gimp come]. ing was chosen as the treats-ant aethod on
the praise that within the therapeutic atnosphere the reality factor
of an interpersonal sitution would be conduciveto solving probleas
which were rooted in the lack of adequate interpersonal experiences.
Group counseling ins been found to be a particularly appropriate tech-
nique to use with adolescents because of their strong need for peer
acceptance and their struggle for independence froa adults.62’9h’ 1713525
‘ihe school was chosen as the locale for the experiaent because it is

the place of "total papulation «misuse-333 and has responsibilities

for conducting aental ivgiene preventive and therapeutic programs", 187

C. Delineation g! 2.3 m

‘ihe subjects of the stuihr were seventh grade girls who received
few or no choices on a socioaetric test which was adainistered to all
the seventh grade rooas of the school. his choice of seventh grade
students seced appropriate because they are young enougi to lave sons
of the "resiliency of childhooflsa:82 and yet old enough to participate
in interview groin therapy. Also the tins of transfeninto .junion
high sdiool has been considered as one of the periods of greatest need
for aental io'giene program.”8 Although there is no consensus with
respect to hoaogeneous or heterogeneous grouping by sex in counseling,
sons authorities live advocated hoaogeneous grouping of the slate sex
as the comselor.m7’h°8 This plan was adopted.

 

*Two sociometric studies with younger children using a play
grow W technique inve heal reported. 100: 109

The experinent was perforned at a new consolichted school where
students froa four different districts were for the first tine
together in the seventh grade. The school is on the outskirts of a
state capitol city, where all socioeconoaic levels are represented.
In the eight sevclth grade rooas there were approxiutely 225 students,
which provided the aininia lumber required to yield the senile tint
was called for.

Ten weeks of seal-weekly counseling session were held between
the Christ‘s and Easter vacations. The group aeetings were held at the
hose rum period, which was nnipulated to allow about thirty ninutes

for the sessions. Follow-up tests were given six weeks after the

counseling marl-ant was over.
D. Theoretical manganese-once

The theoretical franc of reference that underlies the approach
to counsel ing and the hypotheses of this aperiaent is a general phenoa-
enological point of view. Certain basic concepts are included which
belong to organisaic or holistic theory. Inasnich as Rogers has con-
bined and imegrated phenoaenological and organisaic concepts in his
approach to personality theory, his foraulations are 0st relevant
to this discussion ”6’37? The works of Coats and Stu/9993 and of cer-
tain omnisaic theoristsmz’flé’zw’zn have also been drawn upon.

PhemnenologicaILpoint of view

The phenoaological point of view is essentially the mtion that
each individual lives in his on subjective world as he perceives it,377
and that tron within this world all behavior is relevant and meaningful.”

The only way to understand beiavior is fnoa the point of view of the
behaver, hiaself.

Percgtual field
The phenoneml or perceptual field of an individul is "the

entire universe, including hiaself, as it is omerienced by the indi-
vidul at the instant of action."93‘2° There is, hovever, differen-
tiation in this perceptal field. Coabs and Snygg used the concept

of figire and ground to indicate awareness of detail in relation to the
total field. The rise of new figures and lapse into grouid constitute
the process of change.93 This notion is siailar to Levin's field
theory, but the inortant difference is tilt the pheiioaenologist in.
cludes the biological organisa amthe self as parts of the percqtual

field. 18°

Accordim to Rogers that which is consciousg perceived is
only a. sull part of the total world of uperiencefi“ The phenoneml
field includes preoonscious and unconscious elenents as well as con-

sciously perceived experience.

Sell-

The .Jor focus of personality thory froa the phenoaenological
point of view is the self. Patterson has called self theory “the core
or esseme of the Rogerian appmch,‘ and has also indicated that it
is coaing to be the focus in psychoanalytic and other personlity
the) ries.335‘3'h Patterson defined self-concept as “the orpnieation
of the perceptions of the ”1:335” Coins and 5mg explained that
the self is differentiated fro: the not-self in the perceptui field.
lhe 'patterned interrelationships" which an individual conceives as of
"hi-self fron his own point of view" cogrize the phenoaenal “11393126

6

The self-concept tends to rennin stable. The need to nintain
the self acts as an agent of selectivity of perceptions. figurines
is perceived aid interpreted in relation to the self as it ins becoae
established.93 Those aspects of the Civironnsnt thich are imnsistent
with the self-concept are likely to be ignored, rejected, or distorted,3%

but .y becoas sydaoiized and produce change in the self.
The social nature of the self-concept has been stressed by mst

theorists, partiailarly by Sullivan in his interpersoml theorygm by
the sociologists, Cooiq” and Head;285 and sore recently by social
transaction theorists.22h Representing the latter point of view
Kilpatrick stated that “self lid otherness cant be perceived apart
froa one anthem-22‘“ 1" Rogers represents a general position in his
state-ext. tint the structure of the self is forned as a result of inter-
actiom with environ-eat, particularly 'evaluational interaction with
others."37 6‘1‘98 Values are attached to these experiences of interaction
in terns of their significance to the organise in its need. for self-
actmlisation or its need for positive regard. VIlues any also be
taken directly froa others and introJected into the self-concept when

by are attached to an emerience of positive regard.376
These two needs of the organisa, naaely, the need for self-

actualiut ion and the need for positive regard require further eluciih-
tion, since thq are basic to an understending of conflict and of
ctange in self-concept. The notion that all belavior results true the
one sovereign drive of the organisa to actuliee itself, a funthaental
concept in orpnisaic theory, is also basic to phenomologists. Coins
and ng93 and Rogers376 referred to this mtivating force as the
drive to nintain and enhame the orgnisa. It as Goldsteiawho need
it thefdrive toward self-actualization, which he described as the need

 

7

of the orgmisn to realize its potentials.162 inside spoke of an
“essential inner mture' which is persistently I'pressing for actualiza-
tion. “277’232‘33 Lecky saw the one motivational source in hunn person-

ality as I'the necessity to nintain the unity of the systea."21‘°‘88"89

The need for positive regard was postulated by Roget-3.377 He
believed there is a basic need of the orgnisn for acceptuce and posi-
tive regard from others, and tint the introJection of positive regard
creates the need for self-reurd. Although Rogers sees these as second-
ary or learned needs, Patterson suggests tint they are inherent aspects
of the drive for self-actualisation and emerge with the energence of
the self-concept.335

Mien salad fitment

Psychological nladjustnent results fmn conflict of values with-

 

in the organisn. This conflict has been described by Rogers in several
ways. It ny be a conflict between the omnisnic pleaaire derived from
certain belavior and the need to avoid the punishment that accomanies
the behavior. Haladjustaent ensues from a consequent denial or distor-
tion of tin feelings of pleasure,_which nevertheless reinin wiry-unlined
in the unconscious to influence behavior. The conflict any be between
conscious values on the one hand, which are spurious because they have
been introjected from sigiificant others without true neanirg to the
organise, and genuine values on the other land, which have retained un-
conscious.376 In a mre recent statement Rogers suggests that the con-
flict my be between needs of the omnisn and needs of the self-concept
for positive self-read??? Patterson has Wired this». thmght of

Rogers as to llowsi

when positive self-regard dqaends on evaltntions of behavior
of others, discrepancies my develop between the need of the or-
ganism and the needs of the self-concept for positive self-
regard. There is thus incongruence between the self and

eaqoerience, or psychological aladjustaent. Phladjustaent is

this the result of attenuating to preserve the existing self-

concept fma the threat of experiences which are inconsistent

with it, leading to selecti e perception and distortion or

denial of e::perien::e.335=7eE

Rogers introduced the concept of the syabolisation of apes-ience
to explain the process that occurs when experience is accepted and inte-
grated into the self-concept. Organisaic experiences and needs which
are selectively denied, or distorted in the service of nintaining the
self-concept fail to becoae eyeboueed and integrated into the self
stmcture. Such aperiences are viscerally" felt or 'subceived' as
tireatening, and therefore rejected. Although behavior is usually
consistent with the self-concept, it my on occasion result free these
unsynbolized aspects of met-met; but the behavior will be denied
or explainedaway by the individual as not belonging to his. lhe
moonscious recognition of threat evokes aeclnnisas which defend the
self iuge by denial. or distortion of the experience. lhe greater the
incomruency between the self-lags and omnisaic reality, the are
rigid the defenses will be built and the greater will be the resultant ‘
tension andnladJIItaent. 375
lbslow's emanation of psychopathology is siailar to that

of Rogers in his state-ent tint 'psychopathology in general results
from the denial or the frustration or the twisting of m's essential

rature.'276

Alteration of self-comgt
Rogers' approach to personality theory its been through his

own observations of behavior change as a result of psychotherapy. His
thesis tint behavior is usually consistent with the self-concept lads
to the postulate tint behavior ctnnge will be affected by altering the

self-concept. Alteration in the self-concept, therefore, is the aia
of psychotherapy.

Change in the self-concept is possible in the therapeutic
situation m an atnosphere is provided which is free fro. thrut to
the individul. The therapist enters into a relationship with the
comelee which co-unicates to the counselee the therapist's eapathic
understandim and acceptance of the comselee, unconditioned by value
judgaents. lhe unconditional acceptance, even of the minlence and
conflict felt by the counselee, frees hia froa a sense of ths'eat and
enables bin to explore his own denied feelings and meriences. A new.
strucmre of the self emerges as these experiences are syabolised and
ittegrated into the self-concept. when full outperience is accepted,
defensiveness is no longer needed and the individul is freed for
spontaneous growth an! enuncenmt of the organist. In the words of
ihslow, psychotherapy helps |'to restore the person to tin path of self-
actualization and of developaent along the lines that his inner suture
dictates.'276'3m '

A further postulate of Rogers was that when a person is freed
to accept his own experience he also becones sore accepting of other

376

indivimals. Gordon, in reporting changes during group therapy,

observed this tendmcy in a group which was tested by a Q-technique

before and after participation in the group.“h

£221

‘ihe phenoaenological view of personality theory ins been pre-
. sented as an approach which gives prinry focus to the self-concept
and to the subjective per-cations and meanings of the individml's

10

world of aperience. Behavior is best understood froa the point of
view of the behaver. The activation for all behavior is the drive
toward self actulization and self nintemnce. The need to nintain
this self-concept results in selective perceptions of the enviroment.
'lhis need for self-nintemnce and the need for positive regard are
saetiaes in conflict with organisaic experience. lhis conflict my
result in the rejection of the organisaic experience or its distortion,
with a consequent incongruency betwea: the self inge and organisaic
reality. Defensive aechanisas are evoked to nintain the self-concept
and saladjmtnent occurs. In the non-thratening sitution of a thera-
peutic relationship an indivimal is freed to explore the denied aspects
of his experience and integrate then into the self stmctnire.

Relating this reasoning to the present stutv suggests tint
for social isolates who defend the self by withdrawal or other isolating
beiavior, an experience of group counseling can provide an oppor-
tunity for the energence of a new self structure. To experience re-
latedness, acceptance, and a sense of worth in a situation free from
that, and to be able to incorpmate this experience into the self-
concept could produce significant change in perception of the self.
To experience acceptuce and identification with their peers in the
group could «dance the eaergence of a new self stmcture. With in-
creased self-acceptance the defensive and isolating types of beinvior
could give way to relatedness and friendliness.

E. masses

Statenent of the macs“

Three grows of lupotheses were for-slated to indicate the
kinds of clunges which group counseling nimt he expected to produce
in social isolates. lhe areas of expected orange were in self-concqn,
level of anxiety, and socionetric status. A fourth set of hypotheses
suggested certain correlations between the clanges that night be ob-
served and perceptions groin) asters night luld concerning the gimp
experience. There were two canceling grows, one which was coqosed
entirely of isolates and another which included isolates and hidily
chosen individuals. It was ivpothesised that the nixed group would
cinnge nore than the group comosed entirely of isolates. This pre-
diction was based on the assumtion tint an experience of accspumg
by highly cinsen persons and identification with then muld he comive
to greater positive change in the self-concept. In M the hypotheses
were stated as follows: .

l. ‘ihe nean score on a self-concept scale in each of the tip
experinsntal groups will imron significantly as a result of grow
counseling and will renin at a significantly higher level than the
pro-test score in a six weds follow-q: test. There will be a trend
tonrd grater change in the isolates of the nixed group which incluies
non-isolates, than in the grow coqosed only of isolates.

2. ‘ihe nun score of an amtiety scale in each of the two
experinentai groups will imrove significantly as a result of grow
counseling and will min at a significantly lover level tinn the pre-
test score in a six week follow-up test. There will be a trend toward

12

greater change in the isolates of the nixed group than in the group
cmposed only of isolates.

3. The nean sociometric score in each of the two experimental
gmups will inprove significantly as a result of grow counseling and
will min at a significantly higher level than the pre-test score in
a six week follow-up test. There will be a trend toward greater change
in the isolates of the nixed group which includes non-isolates than
in the group comosed only of isolates.

it. There will be positive correlation between gain in self-
concept and the perceived level of identification with others in the
counseling group and the perceived level of acceptance in the counsel-
ing situation.

5. In a control group mich receives bibiotherapy there will
be no significant ciange in self concept, anxiety level, or sociometric
score.

6. In a control group which receives no special treatment
there will be no simificant Change in self concept, anxiety level,

or soc ionetric score.

fisic assugtions ‘
The basic operational assmptions which underlie this study
are as follows:
i. That sociometric screening is a reliable means of discover-
1m social isolates.
2. Tint self-concqat can be measured by the instrunent used.
3. Tint the level of amciety can be ascertained by the Child-
ren's Porn of the Manifest misty Scale.

13

h. Tint the perceptions concerning the group counseling exper-
iences can be neasured by the Perception oszoup merience Scales.

Definition of terns

Social isolationpm-In this study social isolation is Operation-
ally defined as the experience of those individuls the fall in the
lowest qmrti is of the class in the nunber of socionetric choices they
received. This delineation indicates the inclusion of isolates and
liar-isolates, acmally tines persons with less than three choices,
in the stuq. It is iqaortant to note, however, tint a definition of
social isolation my be approached in various ways, each of which
differentiates amng social isolates. lot necessarily all of the un-
closen on socionetric tests are insulated fron nuningful relationships.
Sociological aspects of social isolation include such factors as social
class, racial cleavage and newness to the group. Another. differentia-
tion is between voluntary and involuntary isolation, the forner includ-
ing persons with strong indivichal interests. In terns of group dynanics
the isolate is one who is unableto play his role in the gram”? or
lacks orientation in the total group.209 Sociometric patterns of
'social isolation vary fron the extrae of inability either to receive
or give either choices or rejections to the various conbinations of
these four variables.3°°

Him..m.mm.s-me category of highly chosen persons
signifies those individuals who fall in the upper qurtile of socio-
netric cinices. These individuals are sonetines referred to as $3
or leaders,

hol cal. to counse .s-signifies the process of inter-

acting and relating in a group which includes individuals who have

1h

problens and a counselor-therapist who seeks to provide a non-threatening
atnosphere of pernissiveness, understanding, and acceptance. The tern
will be used interchangeably with group psychotherapy.

Perception of counsel_ipg emerienceeerefers to an attemt to
neasure the degree to which group participants identified thenselves
with other group aenbers and the degree to which they felt accepted
by other group nenbers and by the counselor. Operationally, percep-
tion of counseling experience will refer to scores made on the eight'
subscales of the instrument designed to nusure and qmntify each indi-
vidial's perception of the group experience.

argued self-comeb-refers to positive change in scores which
nay occur between two administrations of the Bruce Self-acceptance
Scale.

IprovegWurefers in positive change in scores
which may occur between two administrations of the Children's mnifest
Anxiety Scale.

grand socinnetric larch-refers to an increase in the nuaber

of positive choices received on a sociometric scale.

F. Methodo lo

The s is

TVenty-five subjects were selected as the samle fron the
seveith grade of the Uindenere Park School in the outskirts of Lansing,
Michign. No selection procedures were used: first, a sociometric
test was administered to all eight of the seventh grade roons at the
school in order to identify the isolates; and second, individual inter-
views were conducted to detemine the willingness of individuals to

15

participate in the ewerinent. Subjects were than randomly assigned
to four groups differentially cowosed and/or treated as follows:
gperinental Grow a was conposed of eight isolates who participated
in grow counseling.

gerinental Group B was composed of five isolates and three highly
chosen individuals who participated in group counseling.

Coxtrol Group-2 was cowosed of five isolates mo were given biblio-
therapy.

Control Group D was cowosed of seven isolates 1110 received no special

treatnent.

Administration of tests

Four neasuring instrunents were used, maely, a socionetric
test, a Self-Acceptance Scale, the-Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale,
and the Perception of Grow Experience Scale. The first three instru-
nents were ach administered three tines: pre-testing at the beginning
of the experinental period, post-testing at the end of the experinental
period, and follow-up testing six weeks after the experimental period.
The sociometric test was given to the total seventh grade, while the
self-acceptance and anxiety tests were given to the individials who
mde w the two counseling and the two control grows. The”Perception
of Grow Ewerience Scale was administered only once, an! only to the

participants in the two counseling grows.

Treatment of the (Eta

To test the first three sets of hypotheses in which change was
predicted for the counseling groups, cosparisons were nde between the
pre- and post-test scores and between the pre- and follow-up test scores

16

in sociometric choice, selfvconcept and amccy. The t-test was wed to
determine whether simificant change could be observed between pre-

ani post-testing in either of the experimental or control grows, and
whether any change was observable between pro-test and follow-up test

in any of the four grows. To test the fourth set of hypotheses, which
predicted correlation between gain in self-concept and the various

subscores on the Perception of Grow Experience Scale, the
Fisher's Exact Probability Test was used.

G. Sanitation of the Chapter

The problem of this study has been presented as social isola-
tion and the purpose as stated was to explore the possibility that
grow counseling might be an effective way to treat the problem of
social isolation at the early adolescent level in the public school.

It was indicated that the stuchr was limited to seventh grade girls in
a certain school. The phenomenological approach to personality theory
was reviewed as a theoretical frsnework for the study. The sunnnarized
typotheses having to do with expected changes were stated, as well as
tie basic assumptions and the definitions of significant terms relating
to the hypotheses. An overview of the methodology described the sanple,
the testing program, and the treatment of the data. A

The plan for the reminder of the thesis is that Chapter II will
review relevant literature; Chapter III will describe the methodolow in
more detail, Chapter IV will present the data and discuss their treat-
ment and results; and Chapter V will suggest the implications of the
study. In the appendix an overview of the grow counseling sessions
will be presented.

CI-RPTER II “
REVIEW 0!“ mm LITERATIRE

There are three main areas of literature mich are related to
this stuchr. Part one will review the literature of nental health;
part two will review the literature of psychological grow counseling;
and part three will survey the literature on sociometry. This review
will not be mistive in any of these areas but will concentrate on
material that relates to children are! youth of elenentary and high
school age. The survey of until health literature will include dis-
cussions of (A) definitions of mental health, (B) the prevalence of
mental health problems, (C) analysis of mental halth problems, and
(D) prevention and treatment prograns. The section on psychological
grow counseling will cowrise (A) discussions of the nature, function
and theoretical assuwtions of psychological group counseling, (9)
. materials concerned with the historical setting, and (C) studies of
grow comseling with adolescents. The third section will consider
(A) the origins and development of socionetly, and (8) relevant research.
Sime nost of the literature is of cowarably recent origin,
tint is, within the last two or three decades, the treatment will tend
to be topical rather tlnn chronological, except when historical sequence

is of nonent.

i7

18

Part One: HEM HEALTH
A. Introduction and Definition

Since the present experiment falls within the general category
of nental health, it is relevant to examine the literature in this
field, particularly that which pertains to the nental hygiene (of school
aged children. Inasmch as nental health has been a doninant concern
in recent decades, volume of literature have been written on the
subject and numerous research studies have been nde. line hundred
and fifty-four entries were included in an evalmtion of nental health
published in 1955 by the United States Departlaent of Health, Education
and Uelfare.h29 In this publication and others137 the need for a acre
adequate base for research was pointed out, unsolved problems were
indicated,2h7 and the theoretical assuapticns of the aental health
aovenellt were discussed. 155 In the introduction to the volune the
conittee pertinently states:

Evaluation of mental Health Activities' is necessarily
difficult. It mist cope with the influences of numerous
variables, consider the validity of those basic assumptions
upon which mental health relies at the present tine, and
take into account the persolal beliefs and attitudes of

both the evaluators and those those activities are being
evaluted.b29:1

Mental health its been discussed in terns of having "global
leaning'mn and the adnonition has been given that it is not to be
equated with absence of disease.383 Bonney stated that it is 'a very
broad tern which includes physical, aental, enotioml, and social
aspects of adjustmentdisl"? Jahoda mrized theoretical statenents
thout wint aental health consists of by listing six “categories" of

19

criteria of positive mental health" as follows: attitudes toward the
self, style and degree of growth or self-actualization, integration,
autom, perception of reality, and environmental nastel'yféos'23 The
nultiple criterion approach, she suggests, provides for the recognition
of different types of aental health. Earlier2°6 she had listed five
such categories.

Research which adds to the understanding of wiat aental health
consists of includes longitudinal studies of mi children", 259:2”
Olson and Hughes' stucb' of "The Child as a whole, "333 Langdon's report
froa interviews with parents of well-adjusted children,235 the Toronto
studies of Well Children"318 and a conference report on healthy per-
somlity development.201

It law be stated in sunary that while mental health has been
an area of voluminous writim and reserach, there are unsolved probleas
both in those aspects related to research and in the lore theoretical
areas related to definition. with respect to both research in aental
ha lth and definition of the concept the theoretical assumtions of
each particular writer has been determinative. Jahoda's stateaent of
six 'categories of criteria of positive nental health"205 suggests an

approach in arriving at meaningful definitions.
B. Prevalence of Mental Health Problem

That the dinensions of the nental health proqu in the United
States are of stocking proportions is nde clear by numerous writ-
ers.5h9929217 Bonney "paragon sumries of research929217 which
indicate tint there are “approximately one nillion psychotics, between

eight and ten ai llion psychoneurotics, over two-thirds of a million

20

chronic alcoholics, fifty thousand drug addicts, seven million people
with criminal records, and 250,000 first adaissions to mental hospitals
every warms)“ 18 Relating these figures to the school population
would suggest tint an alarming slumber of children now in school will
constitute the disturbed and antisocial papulation of the future.

Research which has examined the mental health problem as it is
found in schools reports varying figures-23:58:133,217izaos327,37hs379sh27
but indicates in general that approxinteiy twenty-five per cent of the
public school population have personality inndicaps serious enough to
interfere with achievement and happiness.- Dorothy Rogers nude predico
tions tint from thirty to fifty out. of any one. hundred typiul-Mdren
night be expected to experience an measure of social or personal
failure because of uladjustnent.379

Several imestigatorsm .37h,332 have reported on the differ-
ences found betweal various schools in_the number of disturbed children.
Clancy and Snitter found this difference to tame fron five per cent
in some schools to thirty-five per cent inoihers in their study of
the schools of Santa Barbara County, California.87 Rogers' investiga-
tion in Columbus, Ohio yielded figures which indicated that on the
average, twelve per cent of- school children sinw poor mental halth,
an! amther thirty per cent have mderately poor adjustment.” 1‘

Variousarea surveys lave concmtmted on certain segments of
the populatbn or on liaited aspectsof the problem. a study in Miami
County, Ohio inclined studies of the mental health of high school
stirients,273 elenentary school children,”2 of rural stiflents,271 and
a stuchr of nervous traits among fmst graders.mi5 Andrew” studied
the mental health needs of pihlic school children in Battlefireek,

21

iiichigin. In another shadyn Andrew coapared two coamnities with
different social backgrounds and found a similar “or of mental
health iroblens in each. An investigation of‘seven to sixteen year
old children in a Baltimore district discovered 3.8 cases of epilepsy
and 37.9 cases of nental deficiency per thousand?“

Foreignstudies have reportedaaladjustment problems coanable
in siee‘to those in this country- The Somerset Survey infingland found
eleven per cent of the children emotionlly disturbed with eight per
cent needing psychiatric treataentr359 l UIESCO study reported that
in eight investiptions of schoolniadjustmentain Paris fmtn tulve
per cent of the childrenxere 'serinusly distlxbsd.'h32 Sinilansitua-
tions were indicated in law Zealand, m andtheiinited Kingdom.

Smizingtinse rqlortnsuggests tint .therr are presently
in tin United States mfiftsmr tuenty ,nillion seriouslyjisturbed
and antisocial individuals andtmt the prevalence of aentalhealth
problas in the schools ranges froLfive to. thirty-five peLcant. The
variance in the statistics reported by different investigators is due
in part to the differencaLiLresnrch instruments+ criteriakam. inter-
pretation of the data, as well as to the differential between schools.

 

C. W.Wofi Hentaliiealtnmblens.

Literature which related to the diagnosisand mlysinoraental
halth problem will beennsideredunder three. headimsnfirstrgctors
fiffectingmental Mam special problen areas inmentaLhnlth,
and third, diagnostic- approaches.

22

Factors affectinggental health
Investigators lave sought to determine what are the etiological

and conditioning factors in the. occurrence of mental health probleas.
Persoml, familial, societal, and school factors have been explored

in their relationshipto adjustnent problems. Anna. those who have
studied personal factors are YoungJiso who related persomlity to
adjustaent, Redl, who analyzed ego-frustration in "children who iate,«35’4
and Ives and her associates, who studied the "Neurotic Rorschachs of
Nor-oi Adolescents.'202 Richards371 node a study of the causes of
variation over a period of years in a child's adjust-exit and Anderson
looked at developmental level and adjustaentfl Landis and Page, iron
their analysis of aultiple factors related to aental disease, concluded
that aental illness is caused by physiological andconatitutional fac-
tors rather than psychological.233 Iortimy supported this view.318
Jersild developed the theory tl'at aental health is related to self-
cmcept.2n

The relation of familial factors to mental health has also

been considered. Rabinovitch mined the relationship between per-
sonality deveIOpaent and the calality of the early nothering experience?”
Henry investigated the relationship between fully interaction patterns
and children's cactioml prohieas.187 Bnich's preliainary findings
from a study of faailies indicated that inconsistencies in parents
carted disturbance in chi ldren.69 Despert concluded, fron her study

01‘ children whose parents were divorced, that the enotional climte

Is determinative of the child's adjustment, with or without divorce. “-2
Orr investigated factors related to sibling rivalry and why rivalry
disturbs differentially)” ive studieslzhez’fl maimed the- effects of

23

of television on children. cvrym round that 59.3 per cent of the
six-year olds in her stuchr the watch lairder programs were sastiaas
frightened by then and one-third were considered restless by their
tachers. Bender31 diagnosed as resa lts froa emotional deprivation in
infancy the cases she found which resented syndromes resenbling the
"so-called constitutional psychopathic personiity.‘ Five to ten per
cent of the 5,000 children over a ten year period in Bellwe Hospital
fell in this category. No reports considered factors which affect
institution-reared chi 1dren.3°’ 161

Sociolcg ically oriented investigators have looked at cultural
and social factors as they relate to aental health problems. Rennie
aade such a shady in subcomnities of how York.”8 nental disorder
has been related to race and nutionality,199 and to social structure.365
Anderson” analyzed the relation of background to adjustment. Swansonhr’
was interested in the effect of social class minership on personality
develoment. hccoby a.nd_fiihbs,268 t’tears,393 andothelrs39h investigated
‘3th practices as differentiated by social class andresultant
effects on personality adjustmt.-. that”? reported on thefive-year
stow of the Hellesley illnn Relations Service which. investigated a
comnity in searching for cases of aental illness. The study exaa-
ined the effect of groip belongingness and of isolation. hrker and
Hrightzz studied a saall aidweat town to discover the psychological
conditions and behavior of children as related to nental illness and
health. A con-inity study was nde in St. Paul, Minnesota concerning

223 and M71 reported. It was founLthatniltiple

which Kilinski
problen flailies representing. five per centof thecity's. faailies

absomadforty-six per cent of the comaity's health smices.

2h

The relation between various school factors and aental health
status ins attracted some investigators. The bearing'of teacher per-
smality on children's adjustment has been eoqolored.1°1:238 The ques-
tion of how teachers Judge children's adjustment interested vicican,’*38
who found in 1928 that overt behavior concerned teachers more than
fundamental problens. A reversal of this trend has been discovered in
more recent studies.58’u‘8' 198 The findings are relevant here which
lave indicated a wide variation anong schools in percertage of adjust-
nent probleas. Rogers?” felt this differential between schools was
conclusive evidence tlat school policies and practices do effect the
emtional adjustment of children.

while the literature indicates a wide range of interest and
orientation from which investigtors hive explored factors. that night
bear on aental health, it is evident tint the variables which have been
considered are interrelated. Personal, familial, societal, and school
influences in varying degrees lave their influence on society's child-
ren. Difficulties have previously been indicated (p. 2, above) which

render latch of the research inconclusive.

gee ialimblea areas

Much attention has been given to the search for predispositional
factors in delinquency and for background factors in schiZOphrenia.
Gough and Peterson166 applied the role-taking theory and inthaway133
used the HHPI to identify predelinquency factors. Personality clar-
acteristics of Juvenile delinquents. lave beat mained.386 Uattenberg
an! higenbam,h36 finding no predictive- trend between first and last
offense of 1,170 delinquents, concluded that delincniency stems from a

25

generalized personality disorder. Truancy and social in lation were
found to be good nasures of future delinquency in one stucv.3m The
Glueclts157 deter-ined that certain kinds of specific relationships
between a boy and och of his parents were predictive of juvenile
delinquency. Reviews of the Glueck study, 153 followup studies,1589159
and assessment of the Gluecli scales 156: 160 have appeared. A followup
study of delinquent and problaa children in Ohio was reported,177 and
nterial was published from a conference on drug addiction.” General
sources of inibrntion on the incidence, origins, and prevention of
Juvenile delinquency are Bovet's report to H1057 and Vedder's booh.33°
Research on backgroind factors tlat give rise to schizophrenia
included investigations by Plank3h7 and Lidzzui of fanny envirnnnnt.
The latter found that out of fifty patients studied who developed ’
schizophrenic patterns before the age of twenty-one, twenty lad lost
a parent froia suicide, instability, or divorce before their nineteenth
yar. me hypothesis was tested in another study88 that social iso-
la: ion is rented to the develop-ant ofschizophrenia. Hark?“ mained
attitudes of mothers of ale schizophrenics toward child behavior.
Rabinovitch356 and Beck26 studied factors in childhood schizophrenia.
These studies indiated a general concern to locate predisposi-
tbnal factors of delinquency and schizophrenia in persomlity charac-
teristics and familial relationships. Particularly pertinent to this
study were the investigations of social isolation as a possible pre-
dictive factor in both delinquency and schizophrenia.

Wstic agoroaches
flaw of the studies already cited rave included descriptions
of tools and methods used .in diagnosis. Some other references are

26

included here. Lorr255 used a factor aethod for amlyzing nladjust-
sent patterns in children. Shoben399 developed a scale to differen-
tiate between mthers of problea children and mothers of mnproblen
children. lillmnnh26ih28 comared three aethods of identifying inal-
adjiated children. A California study,58 involving thirty-seven school
districts in twenty counties, comiled an adjustaent index comosed

of 1.0. and achi malt scores, self-inventory, socioaetric and teacher
rating scales. The Quincy Youth Development Project of the University
of Chicago59 used a rather large battery of tests fir screening, includ-
ing standardized tests and instruaents developed for the project.

2'23!

In this survey of the literature which has discussed diagnostic
and analytical aspects of rental health research was cited which its
related various factors to aental hnlth problais, including personality,
physical constitution, and self-comept, family interaction patterns,
so: ial structure and chi ld-rearing patterns, and teacher personality.
Certain persoml and fani 1y factors lave been investigated as possible
background factors in delinquency and schizophrenia. thicularly
pertinent were the investigations of social isolation as related to
delinquency and to schizophrenia. Diagnostic approaches mentioned in-
cluded siaple aeasuring instruments and comlex screening devices with
wild: saladjustnent night be identified.

D. Prevent ion and Treatment Pm

Prevention programs and treat-eat prograas in the field of
aental health so frequently have overlapping sin that they shall be

27

considered together in this review. me reason for the overlap appears
to be tint discovery and treatment at an early stage of nladjustnent

is the approach to prevention of are serious problesa. This reaedial
treatment given when problems have begun to appear is what 03mm331
called "seconchry prevention,‘ while 'prinaiy prevention" refers to

the prenatal and environmental emeriences which are conducive to healthy
neurological and dispositioial development.

Reports of mental turgiene programs in schools will be reviewed
first, including both curricular and clinical types of approaches and
broad community plans. Studies which lave evaluated agency programs,
including followup studies, will close the section.

Schools

An evalation of aental health activities was sade in 1938..by
Ryan,382 who tad ude extensive visits to schools and clinics in any
parts of tin United States. He indicated the need for an understanding
approach to mental health and recommended that schools engage in aental
lcalth activities. In the two decades since his report aany schools
have incorporated mental lorgiene projects at various levels of inten-
sity and scape. Abrahamen gt 2.1 gave a progress report of the status
of aenial hygiaie activities in 1953, comiled from saplings of public
and private schools in forty-eight states.

The cast frequent approach to aental to'giene in schools has
been the provision for lectures, discussions, or other curricular activ-
ities on mental health. 5:135:189i’418 Delta County, Tens38° atteqated
to construct an entire curriculua on mental health as these. Four

projects, the Bullis plan,75 the Force project, 132 the Ojemann

28

plsn,323»329:33° and the Forest iiill Village project,39‘5 were all
directed toward the integration into the regular school curriculua of
teclmiques to inrove adjustaent. These four plans were evaluted by
the Group for the Advanceaent of Psychotherapy.l76 The Forest iiill
Village project”5 and others,182,216:337shh°o131:396 included clinical
treatment for disturbed children within the school setting, with clear
aim directed toward delinquency prevention and reduction of aaladjust-
aent. Host of these projectsmzsms337s395 included designs for
evaluation. Early discovery of probleas was enphnsized,h39.58 and

ass screening for optima nentalhealthwas the stated purpose in one
city.139 Mental hygieneJnr teachers as manual: Concern for
tgcher self growth machieveaent of good interpersonaLclassrooa
relstionshipsusre elmmsedby mustang-305306 Jar-allow and others,
353,309 vhile tencher training was the esphnsis in severaLreports.6'
189,200,3h2,3hh,358.363,32h Parent education, the union focus in the
St. Louis approach," hss also been includedas a part of other coa-
prehensive plans.3h2’395 Cooperation of within school services,131 or
between school and other cominity agenciesu”186’m‘2’m‘o was emhasized.
The focus was on mental health services on a broad coalalnity base in

Batman's discussion of the Quincy youth project” and in other
reports7998h:167,217,237s73s119slah,191

gencies

The reports of various child and faaily agencies comrise
evaluation and followup studies of delinquency prevention and treat-
aent progiaas. Evalia ti one were published of preventive progress in
groin) work agencies,366:367 fanny tigelieies,66l23’i a youth agency,313

29

Child guidance clinics and agencies203’215’h33'177 and the Jewish Board
of Guardiitns.2"‘1’l‘25 The comparison of results reported by different
agencies yields interesting contrasts. Brown stated that 59 per cent
of adolescents treated in a fani ly agency were uking good adjustment
when the case closed.66 Jacobsen reported nine successful and eight
unsuccessful cases after treatment for school phobia. 203 In followup
studies a child guidance center reported that 7h per cent of h30 cases
treated were successful after ten years.215 The Jewish Board of Guard-
ians reported that after one year 32 per cent of an untreated control
groin) and 51 per cent of a treated group had rude successful adjust-
ilient.2M

A carefully designed ten-year acti on-research program conducted
in the Cambridge-Somme, Massaclalsetts area-352 produced results
which throw some light on other evaluation studies. an reports35zeh2°
indicated that results of counseling therapy were inconclusive. Hitler
an! Mtsm‘z reported that the control groups provided a aeans of test-
ing the effectiveness of the prograa and led to the conclusion tint
the project did not reduce or prevent delinquency. The rather high
instance of successfully adjusted probleas was not significantly differ-
ent between experiaental and control groups .

While the results of this study would lead to the suspicion of
the unreliability of followup studies reporting success then control
groups were lacking, it was noted by Bouts" that other preventive
prograns,for example the work of tie Jewish Board of (hardians, might
be effective in preventing delinquency. The studies would seen to
indicate tint may problems tend to solvethenselves without treatment

if given time. ‘hio followup reports are related to this assuaption.

30

Witt-sch“l found tint bellvior disorders do not effect later adjust-
ment. A lT-year lbllowup investigation308 of individuals who had been
diagnosed as usubnornl" reported that only a few lived up to the pre-
diction of social inadequacy. One hundred and twenty-two of the orig-
inal 166 were contacted, of whom three-fourths were found to be econom-
ically self-supporting. Other evaluation studies of treatment prograas
iave been reported.303!362:m3l 151

mg

The intention of this division on treatment and prevention
programs has been to indicate the rain types of school approaches to
aental ngene, to point out the njor kinds of agencies which engage
in preventive and treatment programs, and to suggest the kinds of
results which are obtained from evolution airi followup progress. Lit-
erature which bears on the residential type of treat-ent institution
has been purposely oaitted since the aain interest in this stilch' is
the Imoral" child. References lave been indicated in eachof the
categories aentioned, mere descriptions of the prugraas and details

of the evaluative processes are available to the interested reader.

E. wof Mental Healthhiterature

The review of literature on aental health began with two gen-
eral observations: (1) that there is need for a are adequau base
in the evaliation of aental health programs,and (2) that the concept
of aerial health is difficult to define and can be imderstood best in
terms of theoretical points of view or of emirical research with normal
children. The incidents of mental health problminthellnitedjtates

31

was shown to be from 15 to 20 million, and the prevalence of serious
maladjustment in the schools to be from five to fifteen per cent of
the student pOpulation.

Factors in the etiology of mental illness were differentially
conceived of by different investigators, including personality and
constitutional factors, interaction patterns in the family, social
structure and teacher persoiality. The special problems relating to
delinquency and schimphrenia were considered. Some of the predictive
factors of future delinquency were found to be truancy, social isola-
tio n, and family relationships. Studies of the background of schizo-
phrenics suggested that family situations my be significant.

The kinds of mental hygiene activities that are to be found in
school programs of prevent ion and treatment were noted. These included
both specialized and integrated curriculum approaches, school based
Clinical progiams, am plans which focused on teacher growth and Class-
room relationships, or parent education. Broad commnity programs were
reported. Evaluation and followup studies of agency prevention and
treatment programs were observed. The results obtained in one study
through the use of a control groip indicated tiat results of evaluation
without control groups are apt to be unreliable. This concluding
statemait serves to underscore the earlier observation that in the
present stage of development the base for evalintion in mental health

programs is iiadequate.

32

p... hm Psmoexw. emup counseunc
A. introduction

Psychological group counseling is one kind of treatment which
his sometimes been utilized in tee-ital health pmgmms. This section
will be concerned with relevant literature on this subject. To prevent
confusion it needs to he pointed out that the terns “group counseling"
and "wow psychotherapy" will be used indiscriminately in this review
when both are equally applicable, although in general the usage will
be in accord with tin literature under discussion. The literature from
clinical sources consistently has used the eXpressions "group psycho-
therapy" am "group therapy," while the educational literature tends
to speak of "group" or "mltiple counseling." The subject of terrain-
olow will be further discussed in a later paragraph.

Titre is a sizable mantity of clinical literature on group
psychotherapy. Five years ago Corsini” listed over 1700 titles, mre
than four-fifths of which appeared after 19115. On the other hand,
there is a pmcity of educational literature on the subject. While
gimp techniques lave always been included in guichnce programs, the
group therapy procedure is quite recent. In the three-year cyclical reviews
of 'Guichnce through Grows" in the 125115 9_1_' EducationalBesearch the
first volume to include a subsection on gmup therapy was 1951,105 al-
though an article on group therapy in the schools appeared as early
as 19155.20h

This review will select from the available sources the litera-
ture which (a) defines the nature, function and theoretical assimtions
of psychological groin counseling; (b) indicates thehistorical

33

backgrounds, and (c) describes experiments in group counseling with

adolescents.
B. Function, Nature, and Theoretical Assumptions

There is a considerable amount of discussion in the literature
which revolves around the attexmt to define and understand the function
and rature of psychological group counseling. This section will review
the discussions and studies on (a) terminology and personnel, (b) com-
parison of individml and gmup therapy, (c) requirenents forlsuccess,

an! (d) theoretical points of view.

Terminofl and Jersey;

One dominant the. in the school literature has been the inter-
related questions of terminology and personnel. Scheidlinger389 ex-
pressed the view that group thermy involves attemts to heal and is
the prerogative of skilled psychotherapists, while mental hygiene and
gum: dynamics concepts are available to educators in their attempts
to enhance growth. Dreese,115 on the other land, and Liftonzhs took
the position that group guichnce methods are applicable to problems
basically informtional or choice making, but therapeutic methods are
required in the educational setting to serve people with problems in
persoml or interpersonal areas, particularly as these relate to educa-
tional adjustment. Wrenn stated that "the differences between counsel-
ing and psychotherapy appear to be differences in 939533 not in kind,
as existing on a continuum rather that being of a dichotomous natured'm‘"
Froelich introduced the term "multiple counseling" to correct the
confusion with respect to the indiscriminant use of "gmup counseling"

314

for both psychotherapy and 'nonegoinvolving gI‘Otp discussionsddm
It Siould be noted tilt the term "mltiple therapy" was introduced by
Dreikers to indicate two or more' therapists working with a single
client.116
Another focus of discussion has been the question of whether
teachers or counselors should fumtion in group counseling. lioile227
held that there would be less need for guidance personnel if regular
teachers were qualified to use group guidance techniques in the process
of regular instruction. 0n the other hand Stipenhls Laycock,237 and
tutor-’1‘6 took the position tl'at therapeutic growth cannot occur where

the teacher represents an evaluating authoritative figure.

Grmgversus inlividinlcmnseligg
In the dialogue that has been in process concerning the function

and nature of grotp therapy, one point of elpl'iasis192 has been that
grow theiapy is an economical use of the therapist's time in the light of
the growing umber of persons needing help. Others98’300’h03 insisted
that grow therapy has its own unique values. The advantages and re-
quirements of the group approach rave been noted.u9’m‘6 These, the
Woolfs indicate,are that the group represents society and that the
individual discovers tint others lave piobl'eas similar to his own.M-‘6
Corsini felt that there was a "cultural desand" for group therapy,
which grew out of the "social isolation engendered by technological
iqarovement."98’7 Similarities between group and individual counseling
have been noted.152 Others have indicated the conpinsntsry satire of
indivichal and 93”.}: counseling.”

35

Several experiaents lave been nde to comers individual and
group counselim. Funk evaluted group and individlal psyoiothsrapy.139
Froelich found significant increases in his grow counseliio participants
and none in those into lad individual counseling in two of his statisti-
cal collparisons on the criteria of self-knowledge. ”‘3'11‘1‘ Wright found
no difference between grow and individlal counseling on an of his
four criteria.“8 No studies195'37 found individual and group counsel.
ing equally effective. lnchins259 and Hoyt and Hoore196 both pointed
to the need of controlled elq>eriiIents cowering the two methods.

132(31er for success

A umber of witm109,259,270,3hl.h03,339 have recognized
that effective results come froa different procedures. The basic
requiraent seem to be that which was. statedby Redl,361 as the recog-
nition of the 'psychology of group life.“ Othersh12r1909226r93 have
underscored the imortance of the persomlity of the counselor and his
experience and values. Studies lave beat nde of the role of leader
and of group in grotp psychotherapy.9o:3h9

Researchers lave sought to discover the factors which she for
' success or failure in group therapy.91:3h1:27°a219 mlone's twelve-
aonth experimental prograa27° suggested that success is asst likely
‘when there is strong group sentiment, commiity of interests, inter-
group nobility, and democratic organisation. Kaufnn studiedsocial,
familial, and persomlity factors as related to necessJD Cohn gt _a_l_.
studied the roles played in an unproductive group.91

36

Theoretical asmtjgns

Practitioners who use grotp therapy represent different
theoretical orientation. Peres3’4l and Gorlow, iioch, and Telschowlés
have written on nondirective group counseling, based on Carl Rogers'
theoretical principles.376 Slavsonl‘06 and others,2’ 120’1‘16 described
analytical grotp counseling on the basis of Freudian assuiqations.”l
Dreilulrs116 l'as presented the Adlerian individual psychology base for
group psychological counseling. Moreno ins written extensively on group
psychotherapy based on the assumtions of his spontaneity-sociometric
theory.297’299’3°° It has been pointed out tint the procedures enployed
by practitioners who represent the various points of view are not nec-

essarily contradictory, but differ only in emphasis.98

M

It has been indicated that in the field of education there is
considerable asbiguity in the usage of the terms groupandmltiple
couseling, disagreenent with respect to the propriety of using the
therapy concept in the school, and conflict between protagonists who
told on the one hand that trained counselors, and on the other that
teachers, should practice group methods of guidance.

There is a fair sunroof concensus that group therapy, as
opposed to imiividual therapy, has unique valias, and that basic to
aiccessful practice is a recognition of group psychology. It as indi-
cated that procedure einloyed by group therapists with divergent theoret-
ical orientations, although different in emphases, are not necessarily
conflicting. Similar results obtain from all approaches; and the per-

sonality of the therapist and conposition of the group appear to be

37

highly determinative of procedures to be used and success to be obtained
in sch situation. V

C. Historical Backgrounds

The historical backgrounds of group psychotherapy are in a
sense as old as un's experience of wellbeing gained through group
associations,9ai921° but as a conscious discipline it is very recent.
ReputedlyOthe earliest intentionally therapeutic practice of rental
healing in groups was that begun by learner in 1776.98 However, the
period from 1905 througi 1931 is considered the pioneer period of aodern
gmup p_sychotherapy.98’226 Pratt's 'class sethod- with tubercular
patieits begun in 1905 appears- to be the earliest deliberate use of
group therapy in the mderir ers..353 A nuaher of other physicians and
psychiatrists"!123,239,256375’39oeh37 published accounts of grow
approaches to therapy in this period- Corsini stated that “at last
twenty different people entirely indqaendently of one anotherl'ave dis-
covered grow psychotherapy. "a”? I!

The contributions of Moreno and of Adler to the early develop-
ment of grow psychotherpay call for further observation. lbreno, as
early as 1908, published a hook??? describing his W with
oil ldren in View: which were to lead his later to the developaent of
psychodrain and tie Spontaneity Theater in 1911 295 as a group method
of therapy. lbreno is also credited as having first introduced the
tern I'grow psychotherapy' in 1932 at aconferenceof the American
Psychological Association, when he reconnended- the, "group. aethod" for
placing prisoners?" Heiers affirnedtlnt harem has been the-chic:

38

never in the deve10paent of a scientifically based group psycho-
therapy. "286' 267

Adlerh 'is given credit by Bierer36 as the first to use group
therapy systentically and fomlly. Adler began the practice in 1921
of interviewing children in the presence of parents and clinic staff.
It. ll: been counted, however, tint Adler's netlnd was in reality not
groip therapy, but "individial therapy in front of a group.'95*1h

In sugary, the sources indicate that the originsof group
psychotherapy reside in the history of nn's beneficial association in
groups. Messier in the eighteenth century and sale twenty therapists
in the early part of the twentieth century seen to'lnve independently
discovered group aethods of therapy. Pratt is accredited with the
earliest publication of a gmip method of treatment in 1906, Adler with
the first forulieed use of the nthod in- 1921, andiioreno with the

introduction of the tern "group psychotherapy“ in 1932.

D. MOW

Although the girls tho were the subjects of this stuw were
only at the threshold of adolescence as twelve and thirteen year olds,
the literature thich treats on group counseling at the adolescent level
18 aore nearly relevant than the interial on group counseling at other
a'Qiz-zs. Because the technique used .n this study was interview group
therapy, the literature to be reviewed will be generally limited to
that which deals with interview group therapy, although some of the
sthidies to be reported included other techniques.

It ins been pointed out tlat gmup therapy'is especially approp-
riate foradolescents because they are "too old to relate themselves

39

quickly to adults as substitute parents am! too young to see the need
for heip with their probieneuiho8 Otherezoe7hra6r381ih11 have noted
the effectiveness of grotp therapy as a treataent for adolescents.

The literature to be reviewed in this section will include
that which is concerned with group therapy with adolescents (a) in
agencies and institutions, and (b) in schools.

Agenciesfand institutions

In a report to the worid Federation of Mental iienithSui in 1952,
nine persons" were listed as having worked and published in the area
of interview group therapy with adolescents. Host of these were per-
sons connected with the Jewish Board of Guardians in New York City,
from which the most prolific reports of group therapy with adolescents
have cone. This agency began the practice of group therapy with child-
ren an! athlescents in 19311.“); Different methods according to age
level were utilized.l‘°h Activity and psychodram techniques as well
as interview therapy were used with adolescents. 101‘ lbst of the
experiments reported were with long-term groups lasting from several
mnth3289’h08 to three years,283 and were a part of programs which
included individual therapy. licComick233 reported concerning the
three—year group that in three persons there was turned change, three
inproved somewhat, and one did not improve. There was a relation be-
tween parental rejection and lack of imroveaent. Gabriel reported
the fomtion of a mixed group of children 9 to 11 through their chance
dmpping in at the sane tine whiie in indivictial therapy,1h5 but the
usual practice at tie Jewish Boarder Guardians was reported to be

 

*The nine persons were: P. L. Axelrod, ii. 5. Cameron, 5‘. J.
Curran, 8. Gabriel, I. P. Glauber, 1.. Lucas, 5. R. Slavson, -J. C. Solomon
and ii. Spotnitz.

b0

homogeneous grow ing by sex. 18,289,197 A msculine, nonthreatening
enviioment was considered crucial in the case of a younger boy,289
and for a group of 15 to 17 year old girls it was reported that they
gained insight by seeing themselves in others, in a less threatening
way/.1247 A permissive, nonthreateniig enviromient was considered essen-
tial.u‘6

Besides the Jewish Board of Gmrdians' work with adolescents,
two other agency. studies will be aentioned. Ackerman3 reported ten
years of weekly grow therapy meetings with mixed groups of adolescents
in which three or four therapists were present. Groups included all
392

categories of diapeatic types except psychoses. Schulman investi-

gated and treated anti-social psychopathology in adolescents through
grow therapy.
Institutions lave also been. the setting for grow therapy preca-

tice. iiotkov228 and Patterson336

reported iwroved adjustment after

a series of group therapy sessions with institutionalized delinquent
girls. woiian,hh3»Wi Gersten,15h Newburger and-Schauer,312 Hill,191
and Del'hcedol‘ll ewloyed group therapy with institutionalized delinquent
boys an! rworted certain values gained. host of these studies did

not report on control groups. lewhurger and Schauer-312 reported that
isolation in the institutional setting developed faster in the therapy
grow than in the control grow. This phenomenon was interpreted as

die to a saturation process, whereas in the control group swerficial
relationships were formed. EliasOph used group therapy and psychodrana
procedures with adolescent drug addicts.121 A grow approach treataent
was used at Boys muse.178 Inpatient adolescent82 and mentally retarded

fe‘lesu‘ were also treated by group therapy.

hi

semi:

Experiments in the school ailieu lave net with varying degrees
of success on various criteria. Tito investigatorsn-I’373 reported that
grow aexfloers enjoyed the eicperience. No objective data was reported
for these two grows, each of which discussed cocoon problems. A
junior high school eXperiaent in grow counseling61 resulted in the
motivation of the aeabers to seek individml counseling.

Several studies were concerned with behavior change and citizen-
ship grades. In an aperiaent involving 121 subjects in fifteen snll
grows Driver118 reported tint about 80 per cent unmoved in beinvior
and persomi growth. Shuinnnh01 reported "gratifying and profound
changes" brought about through group therapy with the nineteen aore
troublesaae boys froa two high schools, to aetrwith a counselor froa
the Conmnity Child Guidance Center in a neutral setting. Criteria of
change included grades and various interpersonal relationships.. Davis“)?
compared grow and individual counseling in terns of equivalent counselor
tine, measuring clange in citizenship belavior. The grow participants
cranged the rust. Both grow and individual counselees aade significant.
change in coaparison with a control grow which had. no treatment and
did not change. Richards370 and tapian31 ezqoeri-ented with group
counseling at the junior high level. Caplan reported significant
oranges in self-concept and citizenship nrks in a grow of toys after
grow counseling, while there were no significant changes in a control
grow, even though individual counseling was available to both groups.
One investigator”1 reported negative results in a follnimp shitty of
emotionally disturbed boys who ind participated in school-based group
therapy.

Sever-1 exp?
technique as used w
on mam retarde
in Iddition to renec‘
provided only with 1
technime in an m
uhlmrs. hymr ;
tended to be sore e
“11¢ng counsel
did an intensive 31
mi“ school studen
mined Positive
W“: W inprov
Myst: by m
t° pom indicat

mud. met: .9

E

mi: rev

an ”‘0: high

142

Several meriaents lave been noted in which a grow therapy
technique was used with underachievers and with retarded readers. In
one shawl” retarded readers who received help through grow therapy
in addition to remedial reading profited lire than abjects who were
provided only with remedial reading. Sanborn38h used a projective
technique in an evaluation stuchr of group guidance with twelve under-
achievers. anymr and Patterson25 found that indiviihal comeling
tended to be more effective in the iwrovenent of persoilil factors
while grow counseling tended to increase achievaent. Broeml 3t. 3.52
did an intensive stuchr with twenty-nine gifted underachieving freshmen
high school students in four therapy grows. ‘l‘l'n'ee of the grows
achieved positive cinnges in achieveaent scores, acceptance ofself and
others, and iwroved ability to relate to-.-peers, siblings, aierarents.
Analysis by aeans of kinescoped recordings of the grow which failed
to profit indicated obstruction of the grow process by two “neiirotically
paired" lie-hers.91

535.11
This review has indicated soae of the_studies inwhich junior

an! senior high school aged boys and girls have participated in grow
counseling eoqoeriences. Host of the publications of agency work in
this area lave been produced lystaff W the Juishjoard of
Gwrdians, which began experimenting with grow therapy aethods- in 193:.
Soae effective grow therapy with teen-tigers las been carriedout in
correctionaland other institutions. School-based group therapy ins
usurlly net with aiccess, although instances of failure were noted. In
rash of the research there was failure to pmvide control grows or an

abser
evidi

des 1'

NJ

 

1i}

absence of objective data, with a consequent reliance on subjective
evidence of success. Sore notable exceptions were desribed in which

designs were adecpate and reliable results seeaed evident.

E. Sir-mg of Grow Counseling Literature

The literature of grow psychotherapy has included nterial
from both clinical and educatioml sources. The recency of its origin
as a aethod is in evidence in a lumber of ways in the literature. The
newness is iwlied by the seaantic problen and the search for definitive
terminology, the concern about proper place antipersonnel, ani the dis-
cussions and research revo lving aromclthe question of whether. grow
therapy is a aethod.uniqueand_worthy in itself. In spite of the
recency of the method and- the ardency of the discussions there appears
to be considerable agreeaent on procedural techniques, even hy therapists
belonging to' opposing schools of thought. There is also agreement on
the basic requireaents for mom, which are thoughtto he a recogni-
tion of the psychology of the grow and also the quality of personality
of the leader and participants.

The‘ literature suggests that Hesaer as the forerunner of
grow therapy, which was discovered as a aethod by sons twenty indi-
viduais indopendaitiy between 1905 and, 1931. Pratt with his 'class
aetlod' approach for WW patients, harm in his spontaneity
theater in Vienna, arri Adler with his plan of individual child therapy
in the presence of a grow of adilts are accredited as-being theorigin-
ator‘s.

Group psychotherapy with adolescents m-mtedasanongoing
program at the Jewish Board of Win lewYorlL City. Ofthe few

Lib

school experiaents reported host were concerned with citizenship behav-
ior, while four eXperiaents with underachievers and retarded readers.
were noted. The research and subjective feelings daling with experi-
mnts in imich adolescents lave been exposed to grow therapy suggests
that the method is a good one for this age youth, but that more ob-

jective research data is needed.
Part Three: THE LITERATURE OF socmm

Sociometry is related to aental health both as a method of
ident ifyirg maladjusted persons and as an approach to treatment. In
the present stuchr it was used as the means of identifying social iso-
lates. A voluainous quantity of literature. on the subject has appeared
in the three decades since its emergence as a-scientif.ic systeain the
United States. For a discussion of the scattered sources which combined
give a cowlete review of the literature, the reader is referred to
llehnevajsa's chapter in 1h; w M310 Lindsey and Borgatta's
chapter in ihndbook 35 £252.} MM is another excellent source
for a review of sociometry literature.

This section will consist of (A) an overview of the origins and

development of soc ionetry and (B) relevant research in sociometry.
A. Origins and Developagit

The purpose of this sectionwill be to provide orientation con-
cerning the definitions and theoretical base, origins and early devel-
Opnent, and evolution of tabulating and analytical techniques of

cool ometry .

hS

Definitionvand theoretical vframework

The basic sources which define sociometry and present its
theoretical assumptions are the writings of Jacob Moreno, particularly
his definitive work, Q _s_ha_;_i_i_ Survive'2299 A your prior to this book's
publiation ibreno's definition of sociometry was stated as "...the
nathenatical study of psychological properties of populations, the
experiaental technique of and the results obtained by application of
quantitative methodsd Discussions by various writersl9,85,76,179,262i
101,153 as to what constitutes sociometry underscore the fact that it
is giantitative measure-ent of qinlitative relationships, the word it-
self having been derived'fronthe Latin words, _s.g_c_i_u_s, meaning social,
and m, meaning measure.

It was iwortant to ibreno that the qwlities of spontaneity
and creativity in intergroup relations be recognized, and this concept
he called the "cornerstone of socioxaetr‘y."301m His theoretical assuw-
tions were of. a philosophical nature, based on his faith that unkind
is a unity. iie introduced the concept _t_e_l£ to account for "grow
cohesiveness, reciprocity of relationships, coiaainication, ard shared
experiences.‘3°1’17 The tendenciesof the different parts of the whole,
of mid: nan is a part, to draw apart and draw together at different
tines Moreno called repulsions and attractions. He asserted: “These
attractions and repulsions must be related to an index of biological,
social and psychological facts, air! this index mist be detectable."3°133

Moreno was interested in more than nerely assuring the structure
of society, however. In 19149 he wrote that sociometry was concerned
to discover. the "deeper levels of society's structure" and also to pro-
mote ciange in society. basedon the “dynamic facts found in its

li6

structure."ho1 This concern to change society has operated through
the therapeutic function which has been an integral part of sociometry
froa the tiae of its first esergence. leiwievajsa called socioaetry a
coatination of 'Icience, therapy and philosophy - all intertwined in
such of socioaetric work...'31°'7o7 - He showed that this was a result
of the kind of person ibreno was-ma healer, scientist, poet, and phil-

CM“! 0

Origins and ears! develgpaent

Although the pwlication of _wh_g Shall Survive’iz” is considered

 

to inve initiated the science of socioaetry,2h8‘l‘°732°8’xl“ the basic
techniques were generated in Ger-w between 1918 am! 1923.293’291‘

In spite of this Gerun bachgrowd, havever, iioreno stated that 'socio-
retry owes its origin to the 0.5.}... He believed it was in socioaetry
tint I'colleetive originality" was found by social sciences in the United
States, and that socioaetry's rapid success was because it fulfilled

at iwortant med.3m"'i“'“

The publication of Socioaetric 33.1.3 ‘ in 1936, swerseded by
Socioaegzr 5 m1 3; W Relations in 1937-38 was of
crucial significance in the develop-mt of the field of socioaetry.
Lindsey and Bormtta noted that by having had a psychologistfiardner Hir-
ply,“ a sociologist, George Lundberg, respectively, as its first two
editors, Sonia-egg wasrprevented froa becoaingthe prinry property
of either psychology or sociolow.2h8’h°7

The ground rules of socioaetric mama-at technicpie as iioreno
set then forth were based on a siwle aeasuring instmaent which asks
tint each sewer of a defined gmw register his choice of a cowanion
for a specified activity. Jennings, Horeno's early collaborator,

147

adapted the socioaetric test for school room use and also made soften-
sive studies in an institutional setting.”8 She was interested in
the psychology of choice, the concept of notional cipansiveness, and

choice stability},08

lorthway and her associates at the University of
Toronto exercised early influence on the develop-ent of teciwtique in
socioaetr'ics315 and contributed to the understanding of the relation-

ships between sociosetric aeasures and persorwil factors.321

Tabulating and analytical tedinjgues

Methods for tabulating and analyzing socioutric data lave been

 

continuously under develwaent. ibreno”9 contrived the sociograa
which was refined iy iiortinmyBlS into the target sociogm, with
comentric circles representing levels of choice. later lorthway and
Quarrington319 introduced the idea of sectors in the target sociogras
to provide for the identification of secondary characteristics.
Forsyth and Katzl36 suggested the ntrix as a procedure fbr recording
social structure of a grow. Individe and grow profiles which would
reveal choice and rejection patterns were developed by Jennings?08 and
later refined by Bjerstedt38 so that are infernt ion could be recorded.
orisweii102 offered the first of several aethods of statistically
testing differential choice patterns within a grow. iiis chi-sqiare
test was expaMed by loonis and Pepinsiiy.253 An analysis of variance
approach was suggested by Seem. 397 Brofenbrennerfl‘ introduced proba-

bility statistics to provide a I'coniitant franc of reference" for

08 316

analyzing socionetric data. Standard deviations2 and percentiles
weretheusualanalyticunitsofneasureaentforthedatar lnceand

Perry258 with i-‘estinger127 worked out a method of analysis based on

’48

matrix algebra. Indices of social status were contributed by Proctor
and Locals,355 Kate,218 and Jaarich.2°7 The latter two provided ways
to consider the position of choceers in determining the status of the

chosen.

5.22:!

This overview of literature ins sluwn tint ibreno not only
origimted socionetry but also provided its basic theoretical assum-
tions and procedural aethods. Socionetry is a method for assuring
the structure of society in depths, based on the assumtion of the
unity of unkind, and is.alsc a process of therapeutic change. Al-
thougi Horeno's early experiments were in Ger-aw, he considered the
United States as the place of origin of sociometry as a science.

In the early developnent of socionetry in the United States
inortant inflmnces were the publication of a joumal, the work of
Jennims, who collabonted with Moreno, andslortlnny's Toronto. studies.
Among contributions inthe deselopnentof VWMWVCR
lorthtay's target sociogra-s, the ntrixprocedure cf Forsyth and Katz,
and Jennings' develop-tent of individual aniLgmupprofiles. Statistical
nethods of testing were contributed by Criswell, Leonie and Pepinsiw,
and Seenn. An analytical netind using probability statistics was
developed by Brofenbrenner; air! aethcds using ntrix algebra were
evolved by Luce and Perry with Festinger. Social- status indices were
PNVided by Proctor and Looais, by Kate, and, by Jaarich.

149

8. Relevant Research in Sccionefl

Research in socioaetry ins covered broad fields both in terns

of purpose and function and in areas of exploration. The aw studies
which lave concentrated on the development of nethod and on perceptual
socionetry will be oaitted in this review, as will also net of tinse
smdies which inve been directed towards the areas of college, calamity,
industry and the araed forces. 1hr nterial will be linited chiefly to
studies at the eleaentary and high school levels which iave related
socioaetric choices to personal factors and social factors, and mich
have evalinted the use of soc ioaetry in treatment or imroveaent activ-
ities. Exceptiom will be an occasional study at other age levels
which is particularly relevant to the point under discussion.

Relation oLsocicnetriachoicniogpersonaLfactors

inch interest ins been displayed by various investigators con-
cerning the relations tint exist between sociometric choice and personal
factors. Some of the designs lave been coprehensive, attespting to
discover the relations among a number of variables, while others have
focused on one or a few factors. To be reviewed here will be studies
which have examined the relations that exist between sociometric scores ’
a151d personality traits, physical actors, personal adjustment, social
Wustnent, and school adjustment.

Personality traits

One of the sajor concerns in the study of personality traits
Ms been to cospare the characteristics of the highly chosen with those
01' the least diosen. Such a stuihr was done by Jenningszoa in her work
at the la york mininQSchool for Girls. Choices were nde

So

differentially according to two njcr criteria which she described as
working-living associations and leisure associations. ‘ihe foraer she

called sociogroups and the latter psychegroups. iier analysis which

is relevant at this point is with the sociogroup. Jennings found cer-

tain personality traits to be descriptive of highly chosen girls and

mite opposite traits to characterize the underchosen. The traits of

the highly chosen, in sunnry, were those of understanding helpfulness,
' insight into grow welfare, ability to relate and establish rapport
with a wide range of persons, de-nding of 'iqoerscnal' nirness, and
taking definite stands on utters considered to be "right." The least
chosen were described as interfering with the group's activities, being
resentful of criticia, camisole and irritable, aggressive and don-
imnt.2°8’56’21° Other studiesh5s315 have produced results which were
in agree-ant tilt the general patterns found. in leaders are;aiqnnsive-
hers, say-patios, (Manic. energy, and ohiectiwihy, and that ieasLaccepted
individials are tin 'retiring, lethargic, ingrown, and self-centered.
persons.3“‘57 Wk characterised the iow status poopie aaoog the
rirthandsixthgndegirishesmdiedasdereatiet, seciusiwe, and
mreeiistic. Other studieshé’ 172332336 isms found the highly» chosen
to be characterized in their peersas inppy, friendly, cheermi, and
attractive in W- iwo readies-321’s36o found that highiy chosen
Childrenwere able to satisfy the needs of their choosers; and one
investiptorzso rqported that the highly chosen were sensitive to the
feel ings of others. i

A study of Bonneyso which cowerifive highly chosen with five

MM Wchiidren on ten personality 'trait-syndmaes' found
"‘9 Pomiarchudrcnas a 9mm to rate higher on the desirable

Si

trait-syndrones than the unpopular, but no particular type characterized
the individual children who received either exceptionally high or ex-
ceptionally low ratings by their peers. Other studies"6’172'232 tend

to support this conclusion tint individual children of high or low
status it» not fit any particular personality type. 'Bonney and iiorthway
underscored this fact when they stated that "...there is no one combin-
ation of traits tint is invariably found to be true of particular indi-
vidulls in either of these extreme categories."56i’4°3 Related to this
notion is the research16’h8’65'35" which has shown the existence of
similarity of interests and values between choosers and chosen, and
sinilarityhéil‘ei 163 or perceived siniinrityuc’a129 of personal qualities
amng initual friends.

‘hno other studies iave related choice level with personal types
of factors. Relating a single factor to sociometric status, McCallum,279
in studying creativity at the we-school level, found tint children of
high sociometric status did less copying of adult nodels than those
of average status, while those with low scores ccpied alaost entirely.
A group of investigators designed a study to determine if role-playing
skill was associated with socioaetric status. Highly chosen children
had significantly inre favorable observer ratings carols-playing per-
romance than under ciosen. ‘lhe findings were interpreted as suggest-
ing that significant components involved in peer status are the sane
as tibse needed for successful role piaying.3°7

l”terminal actors

Piwsical factors which have been studied in relation to socio-
netric choice include age, appearance, and athletic skill. Bedoian
fwd that averaged sixth grade pupils received low choices and tended

52

to be rejected, while underage children were highly chosen, except when
the age difference extended to are than nine months under the average
age.” ibrrison and Perrym found siailar results in grades four
through six, but found no such differentiation in grades seven and
eight, where there was a tendency for girls to choose older boys.
Several stndierléfltfi:231’nit51 found that highiy chosen children were
characterised as attractive in We lhisufhundto be true
at all levels intumstproncanced in girls at the junior and senior
him levels. One stuivnz reported that rejected persons were con-
sidered unattractive. Best liked persins inve been rated as possessing
a high degree of athletic skill by their peers.3h8 No studies28h’35
fauna! tilt high choice status lays actually did rate high in athletic
prowess as “aired by perfcuame.
Persoi'ni ity adjustaent

The relation between socionetric choices anidpersonal adjust-
nent has been engilored througi the use of various self-rating question-
naires and through piojective techniques. The California Test of
Persoiulity, which falls in the forner category, ins been used with
varying results, which tend to be significant. Forlano and
wrightstone,135 Scandrette,387 Phillips and permit,“ tigerstedt,39
and crossnn and firm-uterus each reported certain correlations between
various subscores on the California Test of Personality and sociosetric
choices. The findings indicated that the discrepancy value of the
California test scores is less when applied to all levels of sociometric
dioices than when applied only to the enctrenes. More of the personal
adjustment than social adjustnaent subscores on the California Test of
Personality were found to be related to sociometric neasures.387 Forlano
and itrightetone”S found that "rejection-by“ scores had greater

53

diagmstic value than the "chosen-by" scores. Grossnn and Hrighter175
found that questions dealing with nervous symtoas differentiated

the him from the low scorers most frequently, and 'feeling of belong-
ing“ was next in significance. Pernck3h3 related California Test of
Personality profiles of kinderprten children to the particular "stars"
they chose and found an indication of difference in personal adjust-ent
between those who chose one star and those mio chose the other stars.

Other instruaents lave been used to aeasure personal adjustment

in sociometric etudiee. iaedoinn28 working with sixth grade children,
and snoring“ working with fifth and sixth grades, aeasured aental
health with the liental Health Analysis of Thorpe, Clark, and Tiegs and
found tilt highhr chosen children scored significantly higher in aental
health than ieeet chosen children. Kuhlen and areteeh23° fbund the
measure of adjust-ent indicated 11y usingthe lboney Problsa Check List
to be associated with acceptability score. The nuaber of problem
checked ”often" rather tlnn total number of probleas checked was the
discriaimting factor. Keis lar'e siailar studyzzo was less discriaim-
box-y in design and resulted in little difference between high and least
Gibson. F'einberg126 found highly accepted hidi sclnol boys to lave
higher nrks on the favorable iteas of his Personal Histoiy Question-
mire. Bower58 reported that on a sociometric instruaent which called
for selection ly peers for roles, eaotional disturbance characterized
a significant nuaber of those chosen for hostile roles. Bonneyw found
Personality test smres not related to friendhhip forntions at the
Ole-eatery level but definitely related at the high school and college
leveie. Contrary findings were reported by French and Henshu‘o end by
POVell.351 in college level experiaents, where very little relationship

Sh

was found between choice status and self-ratings on personality
traits.

Projective instruments that have been used to deteraine per-
soml adiustaent in sociometric studies inve included the ‘lheutic
Apperception Test and the Rorschach. The himndereS reported that
civices of fourth grade children were not related to adJustnent as
nasured by the m. Northiiay end wigdor32° found certain Rorschach
factors which differentiated between my: and low sociometric scores.
Tinihlll‘z3 found a correlation coefficient of .32 between the Rorschach
and socioaetric status. Howell323 and pepineiq, Siegel and Vamtta,3’4°
on the other hand, found no correlation between the Rorschach test and
socioaetric names.

It is very clear that lack of agreement clnracterized the studies
rgorted. This is doubtless due in part to the present lack of refine-
ment in personality aeasuring instruaents. Bonney and lorthway explained
this conflict of evidence in terns of the differences betweenkinds of
measurement techniques aaployed, the content of the instruments, and
the nature of the group studied. They suggest that correlation with
socioaetric status is apt to be higher when more specific and overt

problem are measured.56

Social adjustment

While various aspects of social adjust-ent are iaplied in the
above discussion, other facets need to be poiited out which have been
related to socioaetric status, particularly the areas of social skills

are! behavior.

126

Bretsch,6o Peinberg, and Kuhlen and Bretsch23° found some

cOrrrelation between sociometric acceptance and social skills or

SS

participation. Bouncy“9 found significant difference in five out of
twenty-five social behavior categories he mined. Himly chosen
children were acre conforaing, acre cooperative in group activities,
and sailed oftener. lorthway317 indicated that there is a slight
correlation between sociometric status and social adjustment, and tint
choice status is related to skills when these are iqsortait to the
gioup. Schoeppe and iiavighurst's stuchr391 of boys and girls at the
ages of ten, thirteen, and sixteen, with respect to achieveaent of
developaental tasks, indicated a high correlation at each of these age
levels between socioaetric score and the tasks which reflect social
adjistaei't.‘

Sciool adjustaentt intelligence and achievaent

Studies which tave eoplored the relation between sociometric
scores an! gialities which constitute school adjustaent lave produced
conflicting results. A group of Toronto studies169:251i257 found no
significant relationships between peer choice and chronological age,
aental age, intelligence motient, school achieveaent, or subject
eehieveeent when these were studied as single was. ioehroand,
however, that children who were higher in school achieveieent than
aental age ranked significantly higher in socioaetric choice than
tines whose school achieveaent was lower than mental age.25l Other
investigatorsma’175 lave found low but significant correlation be-
'tween socioaetric choice on the one land and 1.0. and rading ability
on the other.

A series of studies by Bonneyhs’m and Leughiin236 covered
giades two to seven in comuting correlation coefficients between

sociometric and intelligence test scores with results ranging from .27

56

to .hS. Children with low intelligence tend to be rejected,2’-3:21h
while pupils with high intelligence tend to be evadiosem150’55353

The findings of Bonney53 and Grossan and lirighter175 {indicate tint
children of high intel ligence tend aore frequently to have low socio-
metric status tivn do those of low intelligence tend to be highly
civsen. mbe found that although children tend to choose sligitly
above their own intelligence level, initial choices are usually iade
among indiaithals who are are alike than those who do ivt choose each
other.21 Poteshin35° end Bonnebe also found the tendency for children
to choose at their own level of intelligence.

The relationship between peer ctvice and achievaeent ins been
found to be siniiar to that between choice and inteiiigence. Bonneth
and Latigl'ilin236 found the range of correlation between achieve-ent and
sociometric status in grades two to seven to be froa .11: to .36.
Studies which have comared the highly chosen with those of low choice
stains lave found significant differences in achieve-tent scores at the
sixth ~grade level, 175 with fifth and sixth graders,78 and with high
school students.65 Feininrglz" reported siniier findings in a study
of 2000 adolescent boys, an! Ohlsen and Dennis326 in a study of college
students. iieisltir220 found higher correlation between prestige and
achievement than between soci onetric status and achievenent. Gronlund
suggests tint the naming of this phenomenon night be that achievement
places one in an attractive position but civics depends on other fac-
tors.17h It was fond tilt there is a tendency for ritual choices to
be node by irdividuals who are siniier in echieweeent.h8oh07

57

M
In reviewing the literature relating persle factors to

socioutric names it was found that in general the highly chosen
tend to be eiqoansive and aware of gum needs, while the least civsen
tend to be self-centered. Researchers lave indicated that there is iv
particular codaiivtion of traits tint characterizes the individual
pagan. wiv fall at either extreae level. It as indicated that over-
age children are pro lilaly to be undercivsen, that the highly diosen
are thought by their peers to be attractive and skilled in athletics.
notwithstanding conflicting evidence, significant relationships have
been found between acceptance scores and the California Test of Per-
sonality and other self-rating instruments. Agreement is also lacking
between various investigators concerning the relation of the theoretic '
Apperception Test or the Rorsciach with sociometric status. Social
skills, social behavior, and the achieveaent of developaental tasks
rave each been found to correlate in sons degree with sociomtric
choice level. Disagree-ent ins been ivted with respect to results
obtaired i'ron investigators who have been interested in correlating
socioaetric status with intelligence and with achieve-ent, but con-
siderable chta ins been produced which indicates soae correlation at

the actress of sociometric assures.

R. elation of sociometric statustasocialfactors
Under this heading the research will be reviewed which has

explored the relationship of socioaetric choices to duographic fac-
t01‘s, proximity and degree of acquaintance, and family factors.

58

Demographic factors

Sociometric status and also the direction of choices lave been
studied with respect to their relation to social class and social
cleavage. There is a fair measure of agreement tint sociometric status
and socioeconomic status are related. Bonney and Northway suggested
that "traits are always perceived, not as isolated psychological vari-
ables, but as 'figures on a ground'," and that individual traits can
Operate fairly only where socioeconomic and ethnic siai larities

exist,5581i03 Bouncy,” loonis and Proctor,25h Lundberg and Steele,266

10 Cook,” and Neuprtennl

Grossmn and Hrighter, 175 Brown,65 Stendler,l‘

have all achieved results which indicate significant correlation between”

sociometric choice status and socioeconomic status. Potashin350 and

Phelps and iiorrochs31‘5 found positive but not determinative relation-

ship between the two types of factors. On the other hand, Davis,1°8

Dahlke,105 and Young and Cooper“51 found no significant relation, and

arovn and Bond67 found no correlation for boys but high correlation

fir girls. Davisme indicated that his findings might be peculiar

to the particular situation and not subgect to generalization. Crroniund17h

suggests the contradictory results are perhaps because of varying de-

grees of social stratification in the areas studied. Another stunt on

the relation between acceptance and social class was one by ‘l'i.i'fin.h22
'lhere is even acre agreement in the research concerning the

tendency for sociometric choices to be given to persons at the sale or

‘ higher level of socioeconomic status, and this has been slown at the

elmmy, high school, and college levels.h8’96'”3,261,263,253“,

3 11.107.th Stendler found that the socioecononic factors had greater

il'tili‘luence with respect to choices for out-of-sd'iool activities tlnn l

59

iii-school criteria.’*8 has found a sociometric differential on the
basis of class in the relationships betweai club aenbers and the adult
leader and also among nemers, in a stuch' of club neabership of lower
and middle class adolescent“?67

‘lhe relations between sociometric scares and race, religion,
and urban-rural cleavage have been explored. In the thirties Horenom
and Crisswell102 found a definite racial cleavage between legro and
white school children in metropolitan commities mich practiced
segregation. Baths and Schweihart359 and (ironlund17h found a tendency
for children in the upper elementary grades to choose within their
own race, but free crossing of lines by both mite and legro children
was noted. ooodmw and ngiuriis stuw163 slowed the tendency to fora
cleavages around rel igious-ethnic groupings. Lundberg and Steele266
found clique structia‘e along lines of church nenbership. Bonney51
studied seven college grows and found the tendency in six of then to
choose within the sane religious group. ‘lhree studies concerned with
when-rural cleavage in consolidated high schools found differing re-
sults: Bouncy found a cleavage, with urban students scoring higher in
sociometric status;52 Blanchard found sinilar score status between rural
and when students an! only a slight tendency towards within-group
choicesgm and Becker and locals found good litegration between rural
and urban students.”

Proximity and degree of acmaintance

Studies which lave related residential proxinity or length of
acquintanceship with sociometric choice have produced varied results.
Lundberg and Busley263 and othersl28’261’26h found significant rela-
tiomhip between choice status and proxiaity. Segoe398 found the

60

average distance between homes of nitual friends in grades three to
eigit to be .26 mile as conpared with .96 mile for unselected children.
In Gallagher's stuch'u‘9 about 17 per cent of children in grades two
through five chose friends who lived nearer than the average distance
between each child an! all his classnntes. Gronlund consented tint
sociometric choice is a different phenonenon than a child's actual
friends, and is less effected by proximity. potashin35° found 62 per
cent of :altually chosen children living near each other, but 52 per
cent of nonfriends also lived close together. neVault113 found no
relationship between the frequency of choice by laitual pairs and dis-
taine between homes. His study included grades one through twelve,
and indicated an increase in average distance between homes of nitual
pairs as age increased. Gronlund and Whitney171 found tint there was
no difference in umber of neighborhood play companions between the
higily chosen and last. chosen. Brown“ found no relationship between
sociometric status and location of the. hone in a stain! of. 1600 high
school studaits. Scandrette'388 found that degree of acquaintanceship
was significantly related to frequency of choice as a friend, although
the pattern night be reversed because of undesirable personality traits.
The evidence with respect to the bearing of proximity on choice as
indicated by these studies is inconclusive.

Fanily factors

Conflicting data have resulted also from the mlorations of
relationships between sociometric choice am! such factors as number of
Siblings, position in the family, and fanily merienceswand relation-
ships. Bonneyw'hh'm’sl and marin1°6 found a tendency for highly

61

chosen students to come from slnll families and for “only children" to
receive high choices, while children from large families teltied to
receive fewer choices. No overall correlation between choice status
and family size as found by investigators,"21:1451,65:252 nor between
choice status and position in family,65’ 106,125 although ‘l'l'iorpeh21
reported a slight tendency for younger members of families to iave
higher choice status. In extensive studieséS’hSI no evidence was
found tint children from broken homes were thereby effected in choice
status. Pernnence of residence proved to be significantly related
to acceptance in a stucb' which retailnd "new pupils" in the study278
but was not significantly related in asiotlnr shawl-‘51 from which the
"new pupils" were elimilnted. One study236 found the tendency for
sociometric status to be uintained idlen pupils changed schools.

The effect of family experiences and relationships on socio-
metric patterns has been a somewhat neglected area, although a few
studies inve produced positive findings. lwo investigators“: 125
found that children those parents are interested in sports and social
activities tend to receive high accqitance scores. Feinberg's study126
found this to be true at all economic levels. Fanily cohesivenesswl‘
and absence of favoritism126 have been observed as tendencies relating
to high sociometric choice, while pareital rejection tended to be
related to peer rejection in a stucb' by AusubelJ-7 Helper's stuchr
showed a direct relationship between the "incident of reward indicated
by mothers for daughters" and soci oaetric status. 185 Gronlund contented
on the fact tint investigators inve concentrated on the "relatively
animortant" objective types of factors about families and have neglected
the are ignortant area of parent-child relationships.171“?"h

62

Sunny

In the studies that rave related social factors to sociometric
ratings certain eras of agreement have been pointed out as well as
areas of disagree-ent. with respect to de-ogrqahic factors, several
investiptors lave found positive relationships between socioeconomic
level an! sociometric status, althougl a few contrary findings lave
been noted. There seems to be little or no disagreement that socio-
metric choices tend to be given to persons the are at the same or
higher socioeconomic levels. with respect to racial, religious, and
urban-rural cleavages sociometric choosii'g seems to reflect the degree
of integration in the particular col-unity. The influence of proximity
on sociometric choice has been inconclusive in the studies. Degree of
acqmintanceship appears to have a relationship to choice.

Conflicting evidence has been found with respect to certain
family factors, and scarcity of data is noted concerning others. Ihere
is some tendency for children froa'snll families and the “only chi id"
to ram in the higher choice status and for those from large families
to rank low, but this was not supported in certain investigations.
Position in the family does not seen to be significant, nor does the
broken home. Some evidence was presented that residential pemnency
gives children a better ctance to be well chosen, and that prental
interest in sports and social activities my be reflected in high
choice scores. The little available evidence was undisputed that
family cohesiveness and good parent-chi ld relationships are related
in high sociometric status. ‘

63

The application of. socionetlin immanent activities

Soc iometry has been applied in various ways to particular and
gemral problems of liter-relations amng group members. Most of the
studies to be noted here will refer to school experiments, although
note will be taken of tie application of sociometric utinds in other
settings. The Rims of problems which have been of concern lave in-
cluded isolation and low choice status, class cleavage, social climate,
and the delinquency behavior of a subgroup. Sociometric grow ing as
an inprovement measure will be considered first, followed by an exam-

ination of the use of sociometry‘ in other remedial approaches.

Soc iometric grouping

Jennings and Moreno eaqalored the results of grouping based on
sociometric choice at the new York Training School for Girls. Experi-
mental subjects who were assigned to livim qiarters on the basis of
sociometric choices found a better position within the group from the
start and achieved social integration more quickly than control sub-
jects.302 When sociometric grouping was applied to seating in the
dining room, the number of isolates decrased and the number of imitual
choices intrased in the experimental group, while the control group

”“19““ “‘3 °PP°8ite effects. Faunce and Beeglelzs

reported the
use of sociometric grouping in a smer cam to achieve social inte-
gration.

Host of the stixiies describing the use of sociometric grouping
in the school rave involved the assignment of students to snail work
groups. The method has also been applied to seating assignments and
to home noon assignments. It is to be noted that most of the studies

did not extract out of the experiments other kinia of influencewhich

6h

had a bearing upon the particular problems studied. This is true
even in studies which included a- control group.

Several studies at the eleaentary levell5e29lahooah52 reported
that the lumber of isolates was reduced after a period during which
the students worked in small grows constituted on the basis of
sociometric choice. These weriaents all lacked controls and in-
cluded, in addition to grouping, special efforts on the part of teachers
to direct the attention of others to the isolates to help them gain
recognition from their peers. Kerstetter air! Sargent222 described a
project which was directed toward the iiprovement of a situation in-
volving a closed subgroip of boys who mifested delinquent type be-
havior. flashers of the 311129le were divided and placed in two differ-
ent groups sociometrically assigned idlen work groups were fouled. The
result was that deliment behavior was reduced and the problem boys
were integrated into the classroom. An incidental result as that two
isolates achieved higher status. .

On the basis of sociometric seating alone Dineen and carryllh
reported reduction in social class cleavage between children from upper
an! lower socioeconomic levels. The six elementary grades were alter-
nately assigned to experimental and control program, and after sixteen
weeks immvement was noted only in the eaqierimental roons. An eighth
grade project72 coabining sociometric assignments for seating, work,
and laboratory partners in science resulted in greater increase of
mutual choices in the experimental group than in a control room which
worked in the traditioialaethod. iii-indson7 reported increase in the
degree of sociometric acceptance as a result of honeroom assigments
on the basis of sociometric choices at the high school level; however,

mntml of extraneous factors was not indicated.

65

Other remedial approaches

‘ihe use of sociometry in diagnosing group needs and in measur-
ing effects of remedial programs ins been the focus in the studies to
be noted in this fiml section. Three of these studieslz9’225’m9
used the sail group as the reaedial measure, although socioaetric
assigiments to the groups were not indicated. Socioaetric tests were
used to measure the effects of the eaqsedaent. After several months
of experimenting with small groups twill-29,109 reported that social
acceptance had incrased' and the lumber of rejections lad decreased.

The third225 reported reduction in the lumber of isolates and low
chosen in the experimental rooms and an increase of these in the con-
trol roons. . _

Studies which were concerned with the identification of isolates
thiaugh the use of sociometric tests in order to institute remedial
programs are of particular relevance to this study. In iiortiway's
study of “Outsiders'né a coabination of analytical devices were used
to classify children who were sociometrically located as isolates.
‘lhree distinct categories were discovered which lorthway called recessive,
socially uninterested, and socially ineffective. The true recessive
children she considered aspresenting pro-psychotic symtcas which were
beyond the power of the school to renew. Children in the other two
categories, she found from her studies, were amenable to redirection
by interested teachers. Roberts372 identified the isolates in fifteen
eleaaitaiy school classes and developed a six step program whereby
teachers could help them develop insight and social effectiveness. Post
testing proved the effectiveness of the program. licClelland and
iiutclil'l'e282 felt that it was iuportant to appoint isolates to positions

66

of responsibility. Cunninghamloz‘ and ‘ilablil‘19 both eaplnsized the need
to modify the values of the grotqo and their attitudes toward children
who were being isolated. Cox100 and Davis109 experimented with play
therapy as a my to help children who were rejected or isolated.

In sunly, it has been shown that sociometric grouping and
other types of growing have restated in reduction of the- number of
isolates in the total gang: and lave remedied behavior probleas associated
with a subgroqo. Seating, work group, and honerooa assigments on the
basis of sociometric choice are approaches which have differentially
rediced social class cleavage and incrased mtual choices and social
acceptance. It has been mted that in general the grouping experiments
have been contaminated with the inclusion of other procedures.

Sociometly has provided a useful technique for the identification
of isolates in order to apply remedial steps. Imrovenent procedures
have included individual attention directed toward isolates by class
room teachers, play therapy and a concern for the aodification of

group values.

C. 5mg of Socioth Literature

The first part of this section noted the literature which points
to the origins and deveIOpnent of sociometry. The undisputed credit
for the discovery of a scientific method for aeasuring aspects of group
relationships belongs to Jacob Moreno. Although this one Inn develOped
the procedural method, the theoretical framework, and the recording and
analyzing techniques, the method has drawn the interest of psychologists,
sociologists, and statisticians, who have contributed to the develop-

ment and refinement of sociometric technique.

67

The review of socioaetric research has indicated the prevalence
of conflicting data in my of the ares studied. Nevertheless, there
are trends in the studies which give indication of the kinds of quali-
ties children possess who are usually highly chosen by their peers.

As a group these children are friendly, outgoing, eoipansive, anemic
individials who relate well to m types of person, who are concerned
about the wellhre of the group, and who take strong stands on questions
of fairness and of right and wrong as they see it. They are plvsically
attractive, athletically skilled, an! are no older, but perhaps younger
than their classlates. They are well adjusted personally, skilled in
social behavior, an! are intelligent, and high achievers. They are apt
to be members of small pemnently located families which belong to
the higher socioeconomic levels. The parents are interested in sports
and social activities and the parent-child relations are pod.

It is important, however, to note that‘such a description refers
only to statistical averages, and rat to any individual or single
personality type. It is also pertinent to point out that in any of
the studies there was no control for interacting variables. In general

the research which has dalt with persoml factors has been aore con-

1’ licting in results produced than lave investigations which have con-
Piared social factors with sociometric choice. Research in the areas
0! the are significant interpersoml faaily relationships its been
scanty. 1

Evaluations of sociometric methods in treat-ent activities have
1 11 general indicated positive reallts. Sociometrlcqrnupingnsre-
8«Red in reduction of the nunber of isolates and underchosen; it has
helped to reaedy behavior problems; it las reduced class cleavage and

68

increased social acceptance and autual choices. Socioaetric methods
have also been useful in identifying isolates and aeasuring the effec-
tiveness of reaedial programs. Honuve‘r, the point its been ads that
in aost of these programs the effect of other remedial efforts which
were coabined with the socioaetric techniques ins contaniliated the
data to an extent that it is impossible to perceive the effect of
socioaetrically applied interaction as an isolated phenoaenon.

CRPTER III
mm

This chapter will discuss the procediral aspects of the elqaeri-
aelt including the fbllowing areas: (A) the selection and description
of the subjects, (B) the lvpotheses, (c) the treatment of the groups,
(D) the testing instruments and their use, and (E) the treatment of '
the data.

A. Selection and Descripiion of Subjects

Selection of subjects and cggosition of groups

To identify the isolates data froa the first administration of
a socioaetric test were amlyeed on the basis of the miner of persons
who chose each of the lib girls in the class. This amlysis indicated
tlat there were twenty-eight girls in the low qinrtile who received .
two choices or less, and twenty-seven highly chosen girls the received
between nine and twenty-five choices, with the reclining fifty-nine
filling in the aiddie range. Table l slows this distribution by hone-
rooms.

The twenty-eight in the low quartile, defined herein as isolates,
were interviewed individially to assess their willingness to participate
in the eiiperinent. They were told that an opportunity would be offered
to a few girls to participate in snll experimental groups where par-
ticipants could discuss utters which seemed ignortant to then. Hinim

explalntion was given concerning randomization, since not all who
69

7O

expressed willingness could be placed in the experimental groups.
Twenty-five of the twenty-eight isolates were willing to participate
and wa‘e randoaly assigned, eight to Experimental Grow A, five to
Elcperiiamtal Group 8, five to a Bibliotherapy Control Group C, and
seven to Control Group D.

‘UXBLE l.-Distribution of sociometric choices to
girls by roons

_h A—_— .— ____

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Number of Choices Received (PC Scores). 1
lione- ’* A J} ““1
Low Q. Middle 50% High Quartile i
Lb _ ll
Roost . ll- 12-
o l _2 3 11 S 6 7 8 9 10 2 _
l o 1 3 1 1 o o o 2 l o 2 l . 12
2 o 2 o : 1 o 2 o 1 l 1 2 l o 11
t
3 o 11 o 4 2 2 o o 2 1 2 o l o ‘ 1),
i l
h 2 o o 3 3 2 1 l 1 '10 l l 1 i 16
. 2
S 1 2 o 1 2 3 l o o 3 1 1 1 o g 13
6 l 11 o 1 1 o o 1 1 3 l o o 2 i it
7 1 2 2 f 2 3 2 o o o 2 o 3 o i 17
i
8 2 1 o 5 2 3 o 2 ii 1 i0 1 1 o J 17
i
e! c
Total 7 16 s :13 1h 9 5 9 9 8 5 lo I. g 1111
~ :YL *slh-l—'
0o ‘2 3
Total 28 ; 59 i 27 j 111;

 

 

‘lunber of persons choosing subject.

71

From twenty-seven highly chosen girls there were seven who
received no rejections. Three of the seven were randomly selected,
interviewed individial ly, and assigned to Experimental Group B. Thus
the bperiaental Groups A and B were initially equal in size, but
differentially constituted, Grow A containing eight isolates and
Group 8 containing five isolates and three stars.

Minor changes which occurred during the experimental period
reduced the number of isolates in the elqaerilaental glows but not in
the control grows. One girl dropped out of Grow A the third week
because her anther felt she should use her time for study. An isolate
was lost from Grow B the fourth week when her family mved away. The
seventh wedi a "star" was lost from Grow B when she became ill with
rheumatic fever. At the end of the elqaeriaent and before the post-
tests were given another girl from Grow A aoved to another district.
It as possible, however, to have the posbtests administered to her
by the school counselor. Thus for the post-testing there were seven
is) lates in Grow A, four isolates and two stars in Grow B, and the
initial manners, five and seven,respectively, in Control Groups C and
D, while for the follow-up test, Grow A was reduced to six isolates.
Table 2 slows the cowosition of the groups by hone rooa nenbership,
with footnotes imiicating losses at the time of the post and followup

tests.

72

ME 2.-Conposition of grows by homeroom

 

 

 

 

 

=- ‘W
m» resets“ (than cases) 223*: cast”:
112821
I: 111
7 .. 113
81
Total‘ 8 5 3 5 7

 

~ 'One less than this water at the post-test period and follow-
up period. .
hOne less than this nuaber at the follow-w test period.

Family size, social classLintelligence level

Items of descriptive chta were' obtained from school files and
a questionnaire filled out by the subjects concerning the nuaber of
siblings, socioeconoaic level, and intelligence scores of the subjects.
It was found that the average number of siblings in each of the two
experimental groups was about three and one-fourth, in Control Grow C
over one and one-half, and in Control Grow D over four and one-half.
In each of the grows there were only one or two individuals whose
fathers were white collar workers, with the ujority belonging to lower

middle or wper lower class families. Intelligence scores on the

73

Large-Thorndike Intelligence Tests becane available a few weeks after

the oqaeriaent was over. ‘ihe range for all the ocperinental subjects

was Iron 82 to 139 on the verbal and from 82 to 128 on the nonverbal.

The aeans and ranges for each of the four groups are presented in

 

 

 

 

m1: 3.
11131.1: 3.--Heans and Ranges on large-Thorndike
Intelligence Tests
Group Verb. l Non-Verbal

l3 Range Mean I“ Range Mean
Roper. Gr. A 5 90.128 10h.6 5 82-125 9h.8
Expat. Relates 3b 99-111 1011.67 3b 109-125 116.67
6" 9 Stars 2 911-112 103 2 92-111 101
Control Gr. 0 S 106-139 118.14 1; 101-121. 108
Control Gr. 0 7 32-116 99.113 6 813-119 103.33

 

 

 

ait refers to the amber of subjects for whoa Lorge-‘i‘horndike
Intelligence Test scores were available.

bile scores were available for one subject who was in an ungraded
Her scores would have reduced the

Special room for part of her work.
averages of Group B considerably.

If allowance is mde for the one subject in Gimp 3 known to

rate low in scholastic ability, for whoa there were is) Large-Thorndike

Test scores, then it is apparent that nan scores for Grows A, B, and

D were very sini lar while scores of Group C were cognarably higher.

B0th verbal and nonverbal aean scores for Groups A, B, and D fell

within the eleven point range between 911 and 105. Ibwever, both range

‘11:! mean scores for Group C, particularly on the verbal test, were

higher. It appears that there were no differences in intellectual

714

level anong the eXperinental and control grows with the exception of
Group C, which did on the average lave higher intelligence scores.

B. mums”

"ihe hypotheses were stated in M fora, along with a state-
aent of basic assuwtiom and the definitions of terms, in the first
chapter. low they will be stated in detail. ihere are six predictions
of change regarding each of three variables: self-concept scores,
anxiety sores, and socioaetric scores. Nrthermre, predictions were
mde of correlations between iwroveaent in self-concept measures and
eight subscales concerned with aspects of perception of the coweling
experience, in an attewt to predict which mbjects would change
through counseling. The precise hypotheses are as follows:

 

Predictions of igrovnent in self-comgt scores durig counseling

la. In Emperiaental Grow A the mean score on a self-concept
scale will improve significantlyafte‘rfiserie’s of
psychological grow coumeling sessions.

b. Six weeks after counseling the 'aean score will-reaain
significantly greater than it was before counseling.

2a. In the isolates of Experinental Group B the mean self-
concept score will iwrove significantly after. consoling.-

b. Six weeks after counseling the mean score will resa'in
significantly greater than it us before munseling.

c. Gain in self-concept scores after couns’elim will be
greater in the isolates of Dcperiaental Grow B than in
those of Group A.

3a. In the isolates of the combined aperiaental Grows A and
B the aean self-concept score will iwrove significantly
after counseling.

b. Six weeks after counseling the nan score will-resain -
significantly greater flash 'it was before counseling.

b.

Sa.

b.

75

In aBibliotherapy Control Group C there will not be a
significant change in self-concept score following an
experimental period.

Six weeks after the experimental period the mean self-
concept score will not be significantly changed from the
,pre-eaqaerinntal score.

In Control Group D there will not be significant change
in self-ooncqat score after the experimental period.

Six weeks after the emerimental period the mean -self-conctpt
score will not be significantly changed from the‘ pre— .
experimental score.

In the combined Control Grows C and D there will not be
significaxt change in self-concept score after the,
experimental period.

Six weeks after 'the experiwagtal period the pan score will
not be significantly changed. from the pre-eacperimental score.

Predictions of igrovenent in anxiety score during counselirg

7a.

b

O

13.

Co

I).

103.

b.

In Experimental Group A the mean score on an anxiety
scale will improve signficantly after ,a series of
psychological group counseling sessions.

Six weeks after the eacperimental period the man score will
remain significantly lower tin the pres-counseling score.

In the isolates of Ewerimental Grow B the mean anxiety
score will iwrove significantly after counseling.

Six weeks after munseling the mean score will remain signif-
icantly lower than the pug-counseling score.

Reduction of anxiety aft er counseling will be greater in
the isolates of Experimental Grow B than in those of
Group A.

In the isolates of the combined EXperinental Groups A and
B the mean anxiety score will improve significantly after
counseling.

Six weeks after counsel ing the mean score will remain signif-
icantly lower than the pro—counseling score.

In Control Group C there will not be significant change in
the mean amciety score after the mqoeriaental period.

The mean score six weeks after the eXperinental period will
not be significantly changed from the mean score at the
beginning of the period.

lla.

b.

12a.

be

76

In Control Grow D there will not be significant change in
the mean anxiety score after the experimental period.

Six weeks after the o‘cperiuntal period the hem smre will
not be significantly charged from the mean score at the
beginning of the period.

In the coinined Control Groups C and El there will not be
significant chame in the non arociety score after the
enqoerinntal period.

Six weeks after the experiaental period the neon score will
not be significantly changed free the scan score at the
begiming of tin period.

Predictions of ig'roved socioaetric score durig cormselim

13.

be

lbs.

1).

Ce

15a.

1).

16a.

1:.

11a.

b.

In Eweriaental Grow A the aean sociometric score will
significantly increase after a series of grow counseling
eweriences.

Six weeks after counnlirg tin can score will rennin
significantly greater than the pee-counseling score.

In the isolates of Experimental Grow B the scan socio-
aetric score will significantly increase after counseling.

Six weeks after counseling the an score will ruin
significantly greater than the pre-counselim score.

There will be a greater increase in socioaetric scores in
the isolates of Experiaental Group B than those of Grow I.
after counseling.

In the isolates of the coabined name-1 Groups hand
3 the non socioaetric score will significantly increase
after counseling.

Six weeks after counseling the! mean score will resin
significantly greater than the pre-counseling score.

In Control Grow C there will not be significant change in
sociometric score after the experiaental period.

Six weeks after the eweriaental period the scan score will
not be significantly charged froa the score at the beginning
of the period.

In Control Grow D there will not be significant change
in socioaetric score during the experiaental period.

Six weeksafter the experiaentaLperiod the aean store will
not be significantlychamedfmthascore at the beginning
of the eacperiaent.

18a.

1).

77

In the comined Control Groups C and D there will not be
significant change in socioaetric score after counseling.

Six weeks after the eaqoeriaental period the mean score will
not be significantly changed_ from the mean score at the
beginning of the experiment.

 

 

Predictions of correlation between in in self-cone t and scores
_We on . ercétion arms-M

19.

208..

b.

21.

22.

23.

2h.

25.

26.

Isolates in the two eweriaental grows who achieve higher
self-concept scores after the experimental period will
have felt significantly acre identified with other aenbers
of the counsel grow than those who do not achieve
higher scores. Scale I .of PGES)

Isolates in the experiaental grows who achieve hiyier
self-concept scores after the experimental period will
have felt a greater desire to be like others in the coun-
seling grow than those who do not achieve higher scores.
(Scab II of PCES)

Isolates of the nixed Grow B will Slow a significantly
greater desire to be like the non-isolates than like the
isolates in the group. (Scale II)

Isolates in the experimental grows who achieve higher self-
concept scores after the experinental period will love
felt signifiantly more acceptance ly other group aenbers
than those the fail to achieve higher scores. (Scale III)

Isolates in the experinntal grows who achieve higher self-
concept scores after the ewerinental period will lave
perceived other grow aeahers as significantly-lore accepted
by other people than those who do not achieve higher scores.
(Scale IV)

Isolates in the experimental gmups who achieve higher self-
concept scores will have lad a significantly more positive
attitude towards the grow leader than those who do mt.
(Scale V)

Isolates of the experimental groups who achieve higher self-
concept scores will perceive the leader as being significantly
more accepting tion those who fail to achieve higher scores.
(Scale VI)

There will be positive correlation between achievement of
higher self-concept scores and perception of grow exper-
ience. (ScaleVII)

The isolates of the experimental groups who achieve higher
self-concept scores will perceive the experience of others

78

in the grow as significantly more positive than
those who fail to achieve higher scores. (Scale VIII)

C. Bataent of Grew!

Cortrol grows
Treatment of the control grows was differentiated in that

members of Control Grow Cewere given copies of the booklet, lbw to

Get Along with. Others ,* while Control Grow D received no special
treataent. Brief~ individual interviews were held with the meters of
Grow C to tell the: tint although they were not selected for the
groupeweriaent they were being given an opportunity to read a book
which thq night find useful. The purpose of this procedure was to
detmine if bibliotherapy alone, with no opportunity for interaction,
world affect the variables of concern in this stuchr. It was ascertained
later that only one subject read the booklet through and that one
other girl read part of it am! lost it.

aerinental treatnent

The treataent of the two experiaental grows was aeant to be
til sane. Each group set regularly twice a week for half an hour or
less, with sonewint irregular attendance. The intent of the counselor
“8 to provide a nondirective relationship therapy experience, although
3°38 structuring proved to be essential in each grow. However, the
9101;: climte and experience differed fundamentally between the two
maps. In Grow A froa the first by there were indications of a
9min relationship and group awareness which would be iwortant to the
cut-ion of a therapeutic climate, whereas the nixed Group B

E

 

Sci *Bernice L. Neugarten, How to Get Alo with Others, Chicago:
“new Research Associates, Incujunior Huh; Series No. 5-1051, 1953.

79

seldon achieved an cpen, free atmosphere which would be conducive to
a gemine counseling experience. Films and other devices were used in
both groups as these seeaed appropriate, but more structuring was nec-
essary in (how 8. The lack of significant interchange and relating
in this group would seen to indicate that individmls from two widely
contrasting sociometric levels have serious difficulties relating at

a personal level. A fuller discussion of this question is in the last

chapter which discusses the iwlications of the study. An overview

of the grow counseling sessions is included as Appendix A.

D. Tesgg Instmnts and Iheir Use

The investigator who attewts to quantify personality variables
is confronted with nuaerous problems, not the least of which is the
choice of instruaents. As Anastasi and others have pointed out, at
the present stage of persomlity research uost available instruments
lack refiment and adequate validation. 3 Wylie has discussed nine
types of contaminating variables and other problews which are difficult
to control in the establishment of construct validity of phenomenologi-
cal data.u‘9

Since the focus of the present research was not on the construc-
ti on of instmnents but rather on the aeasurenent of the effects of
group counseling on certain variables, it was felt tilt the use of
existing tests was the preferred procedure if usable ones could be
found. lo instruuems were found which seeaed altogether adequate;
however, the search led to the'selection of a self-concept aeasure and
"1 anxiety scale, the use of which seeued jmtifiable within the scope
0f this aploratory stw. It was necessary to develop a sociometric
iI'AStrmaent and a scale to neasure the perception of group washer; with

80

respect to the counseling experience. Each of these instruments will
be discussed in this section and will be exhibited in Appendix B.

The Se lf-Accwtance Scale

In selectim an instrument to measure self-concept, a onjor

problea was to find a scale suitable for the seventh grade level.

The Self-Acceptance Scale by Bruce (which will be referred to as the
SAS), although standardized on sixth grade children, was found to be
adaptable for the purpose of this study. Bruce's instrument was designed .
to produce a Self-Concept score, an Idal-Self score, and a Self-Ideal '
Discrepancy score, the latter intended to be a self-acceptance measure.
The scale consists of ten descriptive statements which reflect “affec-
tive claracteristics about which individuals in our culture were thought
to love substantial feelings."68 One itu found by Bruce to be almig-
uous, though modified in the present study still tended toward ambiguity,
and us therefore not scored. No additional scores, social desirabil-
ity and becoming like one's idal, were omitted as not pertinent to

the present stuch'. The ten iteas were each checked on a five point
rating scale, first in answering the question, "An I like this person?“
and second, in answering the question, “Do I want to be like this per-
son?"

Bruce established retest reliability by giving the test twice

91th a week is interval between administrations to two sixth grade
classes. The resultant correlation coefficients for the three scales

01‘ the SAS are presented in Mia 11. Lower reliability on the Idal-Self

81

Tm]: h.-Test-retest correlation coefficients
for the SAS scales

 

 

 

3 Self- Ideal- Self-Idul

Concept Self Discrepancy
Class I 21 .83 .69 .80
C1383 II 26 e93 e511 .86

 

scale was attributed to its higher sensitivity due to its more limited
range, that is, the idal'oself concepts tended to be the same for all

the pupils.68 This result, it say be pointed out, is a confirmtion

of Wylie's criticism of such two-indices scales, tint social desirability
variables nay distort the individual'sreflection of his phenomenal
field with respect to his idal-self.M‘9 '

Validity of the SAS was based on its correlation with two other
measures. The author found a correlation coefficient of .35 (ll-18h)
between the Self-Ideal Discrepancy measure of the SAS and the Children's
Hmifest Anxiety Scale, and a coefficient,of .32 (ll-18h) between the
discrepancy measure and the Rocker Security-Insecurity Rating Scale.
Bruce pointed out that these relationships in sixth grade children
corroborated the findings by investigators whose experiments were with
0 lder subjects.68 In the present investigation a correlation coeffic-
ient of .58 was found between the Self-Ideal Discrepancy score of the

SAS and the Children's Mifest Anxiety Scale. However, it is. to be
noted that the subjects for whom this correlation was made were the
8elected sample used in this research and not a random sample of a

noral seventh grade population.

82

Although validity was dealt with in terms of the Self-Idal

Discrepancy score, the Self-Concept score might be a are useful
measure because of. the problea of contamination of reports of the Ideal-
Self by social desirability factors. Such contamination would affect
the validity of the Discrepancy score. Also, Bruce hiaself found
evidence which he felt cast doubt on the. adequacy of the Self-Ideal
Discrepancy score as a measure of self-acceptance. His subjects with
high Self-Ideal Discrepancy scores who ind experienced two years of
self-understandim classes scored significantly lower in anxiety than
subjects with high discrepancy scores in a group which did not lave
the self-understanding orientation. Bruce concluded that it was I'not
the discrepancy itself, but the feelings about it" that inittereci.‘58

The Children'slhnifesLAnxiety Scale
Since a dominant factor in most uladjustaent piobleas is anxiety

this variable was included as an area in which change was predicted as
a result of counseling. Choice of an instrument was limited; the
Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale was the only instrument which appeared
to be usable for the age level and needs of the experiment. Although
tie nomtive data for this scale l'ad been obtained for children no
higher than the sixth grade, it was selected as a suitable instrummt
for this study. The Children's malfest Anxiety Scale (to be referred
to as the CHIS) was adaptedfor childrenby Castaneda, iicCandless, and
pIllei'iao from. the hylor haifest Anxiety Scale and consists of forty-
t—‘vto statements. to be answeredby Yes or llo. The totalof the stataents
"lax-lied "yes" indicates the anxiety level. The scale also contains
eleven statements called an L scale which is intended to indicate

the falsifying tendency of the subject.

83

The test-constructors reported one-week retest reliability
correlations for grades four, five, and six, with separate figures for
girls and boys in each giude which averaged about .90 (l-361) for the
anxiety scale and .70 (Ii-336) for the l. scale. The authors reported
that intercorrelations between the anxiety and L scale scores were
about zero for inst of the groisas.83 In another stuchr the constructors
of the (ills cowared anxiety scores with sociometric scores and found
a correlation coefficient of 0.32 as the overall average for the several
rooms studied, that is, low status subjects tended to be high in
aniliiety.281

Sarason, in a discussion of problem concerning anxiety scales,
consented that constnict valichtion of such scales is at a "rudimentary
stage." He pointed out variables which tend to contaminate the results,
but stated that available evidence indicates that anxiety scales are
"tapping tendencies towards neuroticisa, naladjustment, and self-

dissatisfaction. "385

The Jocioutric scale

The purpose of the socioaetric test was twofold: first, to
discover the isolates and seconi, to measure change in socionetric
status which night result froa group therapy. The interest of the
investigator was in what Jennings called the I'psychegroup...where the
uniqueness of the individual as a personality is appreciatedflzlo’wa
Three choice criteria were timetfone selected froa leisure tine activi-
ties, which were differentially papular in the school. A fourth cri-
terion was “your favorite activity." First and second choices were
called for as well as |'least preferred" cowanion. Each category asked

St

for choices directed to boys and choices directed to girls. Choices
on these criteria were limited to persons within the homeroom. [A
second section of the test asked who was the individual's best and
second best friend in the entire grade. This was to discover if there
were people who lad friends only outside of their homeroom. A third
section of tie test was designed to gather background inforntion, not
connected with the hypotheses, concerning perceived characteristics
which were associated with high an! low choices.

An early form of the test was administered to a seventh grade
room in another school, with the result that minor. changes were nude
to siwlify instructionsand scoring. It its been pointed out by
Gronlund that the concern in sociometric testing is with the reliabil-
ity of test results rather than with the test itself. 17" Correlation
coefficients of test scores separated by the ten-week period between
the pre and post tests in this study would not be expected to be very
high. These coefficients ranged from .72 to .97 for the eight rooms,
with a man of .88.

With respect to validity of sociometric tests, Groniund commented
on difficulties resulting i'i‘roa the fact that there is little agreement
as to what the sociometric test is supposed to measure."17h'182 It is
sometimes considered to be valid by definition as a simple measurement
of choice behavior, but wider use calls for validation by relating
results to "significant psychological and sociological variables.17l“ 182'”
In this study rank order correlations were rude between homeroom teacher
judgments of sociometric stricture, limited to girls only, and the socio-
metric test scores. Correlation coefficients by room are indicated in

Table 5. It is noteworthy that the teacher whose scores correlated

85

most highly (.79) with the test scores taught the girls ptwsical educa-
tion and hose emnonics, which gave her opportunity to observe the
girls in less forsal activities than the normal classroom.

1131.3 Sun-Rank order correlation coefficients between
teacher estimates and sociometric scores

 

 

Houroon ii , r : Homeroom i r
1 13 .20 S 13 *- .149
2 11 .u‘ ; 6 14 .57
3 11. .37 I 7 17 .79
I. 16 .15 l a 17 .68

 

 

3The teacher was absent when the correlations were asked for.

‘ihe question of scoring socioaetric results has been a subject
of controversy. Weights say be applied in terms of choice levels;
sociometric status of the chooser my be considered; or a ratio may be
comuted on the basis of the mother of persons in the room. It was
decided to use unweighted raw scores in this study on the following
grounds. On the matter of assigning arbitrary weight according
to choice levels on the assumtion that a first choice should weigh
more than a second choice, both Gronlundrn‘ and Lindzey and BorgattaZI"8
point out that there is little evidence to support this practice. No
studies were reported showing that weighting did not improve the
stability of results.l‘0’ 170 On the question of sociometric status of
the chooser, the concern in this study was whether or not an individual
was chosen rather than with the sociometric structure of the room or

the status of the chooser. Also a practical prohlm was that this

 

86

stuchv did not malyze choice status of boys, but did include their
choices directed to girls. On the third question of analysis by a

ratio based on the miaber of persons in the rooa, two auttioritiesln’zha
have pointed out that such indices do not necessarily produce iaprove-
sent over raw scores for cowisoos within or between groups. Gronlund
denonstrated the lack of validity in the assmption that are choices
should be received by individuals in larger groups by observing that
there are also more person to belchosen. While Brofenbrenner's "con-
stant franc of referemn"6h is a useful metlnd to determine isolates
and stars on the basis of statistical probability, this stuchr used the
nore arbitrary method of delineation by quartiles for the practical
consideration of securing a sample large enough to meet the require-
nerts of the investigation. Norway-316 is representative of those

who have used the quartile method for delineation of "outsiders."

Percefiion of Group Mien“ Scale
The Perception of Group Bperience Scale (which shall be called

POSS) was devised as a criterion for predicting which subjects would
profit from psychotherapy. The scale was cosposed of eight subscales
which were intended to measure the aspects of the counseling experience
which were theoretically required as the conditions for move-ent.
lhe specific aspects of the counseling experience which the scale was
designed to nasure were as follows:

i. Subject's perception of identification with other group
members.

2. Stbject's desire for identification with other group
ushers.

3. Subject's perceived level of acceptance by the other
group ushers.

87

h. Subject's perception of the levd of acceptability of other

group members.

5. Subject's feeling toward the counselor.

6. Subject's perceived level of acceptance by the counselor.

7. Subject's perception of the group esqaerience for self.

8. Stbject's perception of the group experience for the

group as a whole.

In constructing the scale the investigator received helpful
suggestions concerning items and wording from a seventh grade teacher
and from a research technician who had worked with Interial at this
age level. A preliminary form of the test, adapted for a school room,
was given in another school to determine the suitability of form and
language for the seventh grade. Imsmch as the experimenter knew of
no similar attemt to casure these variables, and inasmuch as the
instrtnent was fashioned for the particular experience, the construction
of the instrument was entirely exploratory. The determination of re-
liability and validity was mt thought to be essential.

The testing program
The testirg program included three achinistrations of all the

 

tests except the P635, which was given only once, at the end of the
counseling period. The procedure for administering the sociometric

test was approxiutely the same on each of the three occasions. A

team of eight testers, costly graduate students in counseling or psychol-
ogy, with one or two school counselors, gave the test simltanously to
the eight rooms. Instructions given to the students assiu'ed them that
the testing was unrelated to school and tint their answers would rennin
confidential. Students did not write their mmeaon the tests, which

88

were mbered and distributed in order. Teachers provided seating
ciarts, and were then asked to leave the room during the testing.
Each student was provided with a roster of homeroom students.

The investigator achinistered the Self-Acceptance and Anxiety
Scales. On all testing occasions the same general instructions were
given mich are outlined above. After the initial screening of isolates
and stars tho were to cowose the experimental and control groups, the
Self-Acceptance Scale was given to all these subjects in one group.
The first administration of the Children's ilnifest Anxiety Scale was
to the separate cowseling grows at the second meeting of each'and to
the combined control grows on another day. The second administration
of the SAS and ones came the last week of the experimental period.

The two tests was given at one time to the entire group of isolates
and stars to were in the experimental and control grows. The follow-
up tests, given six weeks later, were also administered at one time to
all the subjects in the study.

The Perception of Group Eatperience Scale was arbinistereii by
tie guidance director of the school to the coilined emeriaental sub-
jects who had cowosed the two counseling grows, includingthefistars'
of Grow B. This test was given the week after. coumeling was over.
Sime in the origiral interviews with the subjects the eoqoeriuntal
nature of the program imd been indicated, this test was interpreted
to the subjects as an evaluation procedure.

The sequence of testing and other eaqoerinental procedures is
presented in W form in Chart 1.

89

 

 

Experimental
Date Activity Subjects
Week of Dec. 12a Sociometric Tests . . . . Entire 7th grade

SAS ........... Researchsubjects'
Individul interviews . . Research subjects

 

 

 

 

weehofJan.9 CH5........... Researchsuhjects
Jmo 9-31”. 10 mmeling o e o O O MSAaMB
Heekofihr. 13 SAS ........... Researchsubjects

CH5 0 e e e a e a e e e a ResurCh Subjccts
P685 e e e e e e e e e e a 0mm: ‘ .m B
Sociometric Tests . . . . Entire 7th grade

 

——

9221‘: Of April 21]» SAS 0 e e e e e e e e e 0 Ram}! subfiCts
' CMS........... Researchsubjects
Sociometric Tests . . . . Entire 7th grade

 

aScale pro-testing was done before the Christms holidays since
the aperiment was to begin shortly after the holidays.

CHART l.--Sequence of biperinental Procedures

E. Treatment of the Data

gredicted changes

The statistic which was used to test the various predictions of
change in the first three sets of hypotheses (Embers l-36) was the
t-test. with the sail size of the sample the t-test was chosen as

90

having the greatest power. For each of the experimental and control
grows the difference between pro-test and post-test scores for each
isolate in the particular grow was noted. The group variance of these

differences was fourth 5d2 - mid2 - ‘2 <12? and the t-test for-31m

id
applied: t . % '°.A one-tailed test of significance at the .05 level

\l§§-

was used. Ihe same procedure was also followed with data from the
codiined merinentsl Groups A and B, and for the contained Control Grows
C and D. Data that concerned the stars in the Drperinental Grow B was
omitted froa the statistical analysis. The procedure as outlined here

was applied in comparing both the pre-test and postg-test scores, and
the pre-test ani follow-up scores.

In testing the prediction of change in self-concept, both the
Self-Concept scores of the SAS and theSelf-Ideal Discrepancy scores
were arnlyzed. Only the anxiety measures of the CiIS were analyzed, '
althougi the 1. scores were observed. Four categories of sociometric
scores were processed: (l) the number of persons choosing each isolate,
(2) number of choices received by each isolate, (3) number of persons
rejecting each isolate, and (h) nudoer of rejections received by each
isolate.

Predictions of Which sub jects would drags

Tb test the fourth set of igpotehses (Timbers 37-1413) which

 

predicted correlation between gain in self-concept and perception of
the counseling eaqaerience, the Fisher's intact Probability Test was
ewloyed- This test is useful for analyzing data from two independent

91

samples which are still in size."02 Using the Fisher's method, each
of tie eight subscores of the Perception of Grow Eiqaerience Scale was
caspared first with gain in the Self-Concept score, and second with
gain in the Self-Ideal Discrepancy score of the Self-Acceptance Scale.
Sims the Fisher method requires that the scores of each of two random
sawles all into one of two discrete categories, differentiation was
made between "gain" and "no gain" in self-concept, and between "high"
scores arr! "low" scores on the perception scale. To achieve these
differentiations the median was used in both instances.' First the
differences between self-mncept scores before and after counseling
were determined and the median of these differences was noted. All
scores which fell at or above the median were considered as 'gain"
scores and those which fell below the median were called "no gain"
scores. Likewise the scores on the P685 which fell on or above the
median were considered to be the ”high" scores and those below the
median the 'low scores." Then the Fisher method was applied to rake
the statistical cowarisons. The same procedure was repeated in com-
paring gains in self-ideal discrepancy scores and PGES scores. The
Fisher Knot Probability formula is:

r -_(A .9: (c. D)! (A+ C)! (B. D)!
N! A! B! C! Di
Siegel's Table of Critical Values in the Fisher TesthOZ’256‘270 was

utilized in the analysis.

F- am

The methodological approach which was pursued in this stuchr
has beendiscussed in this chapter. It was shown that subjects were

Selected by sociometric testing and randomly assigned to two experimental

92

an! two control grows. The differentiation in cowosition of the two
experimental grows was described and descriptive data about the subjects

were given. Four sets of lvpotheses were presented, which are related

to the four variables under observation:
scores, sociometric scores, and perception of group experience scores.

self-concept scores, anxiety

The approach to grow counseling as the experimental tratment was
presented and the difference in procedure followed with the control

grows was explained.
A discussion of the testing program included descriptions of

the testing instruments, together with a report of the difficulties

involved in validating such instruaents. The fiml section discussed

the treatment of the data and indicated the statistical formlae

thich were applied to the chta to test the iwpotehses.
Chapter IV will present the data and indicate the results of

the statistical analyses, and Chapter V will suggest the conclusions

and iwlications of the study.

OWN
THERE)”

In this chapter the mta will be presented which will show how
each of the specific ivpotheses nastatistically tested. For the
ivpotheses which predicted iwrovuent during counseling and winter:-
ance of iwrovement six weeks after counseling tables will be presented
\liich coware the pro-experimental scores with the post-experimental
scores and with the follow-up scores in self-concept, aroriety, and
sociometric status. Iwrovement in self-concept and anxiety scores
is indicated by lowered scores, mile iwrovement in sociometric
cioioe scores is indicated by himer scores. One-til led t-tests will
be used to test for significance at the .05 level. In each table the
grow variance (5d?) and the 't' will be show and an indiation will
be nde of whether there was significant iwrovement (519.) or no
significant iwrovement 0.5.). The term 'after' or 'post' will refer
to the testing period immediately after the ten weeks of counseling,
white 'follal-w' (Fol) will indicate the testing period six weeks
filter the end of coumeling. For the last eight hypotheses which pre-
d icted correlation between chime in self-concept scores and the scores
on the Perception of Grow biperience Scale (PIES) two by two contin-
ancy tables will Saw the frequencies of "gain" or 'no-gain' self-
Concept scores in combirntion with 'high' or 'low' PGES scores. Ihen-
¢Ver the interest is in tin self-concept score throughout this chapter,

93

9h

both the Self-Concept and the Self-Ideal Discrepancy scores of the
Self-Acceptance Scale have been amused.

A. The mta Renting to M in Self-Concgt Scores

Hypothesis la.--In bperinental Group A the mean score on s self-
concept scale will igmcve significaitly after a series of psychological
group counseling sessions.

hble 6 culpares the pre-counseling and post-counseling scores
on the Self-Acceptance Scale (SAS) for subjects of Group 1, including
both Self-Concept (SC) and Self-Idal Discrepancy (SID) scores. It

sinuld he noted tint the "aims” scores indicate change in the desired

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

direction.
113.8 6.--Pre and post-counseling scores in selfi-
concept and self-ideal discrepancy for Group A
Sub- I Self-Concept Scores Self-Ideal Discrepancy Scores
ect
J Pm Post Dif. Pre Post ' Dif.
Sl ‘ 26 2h - 2 17 15 - 2
52 21 1.6 - 5 1h 3 ~11
S3 29 19‘ -10 25 lo -lS
Si; 25 21 - h 9 10 1
SS 29 26 - 3 20 15 - S
86 20 15 - S h 3 - 1
S7 22 2!; 2 lo 15 5
Sdz . 13. 11‘ t - -2. 82 Sd2 . h8033 t - .1052
Sig. v.5.

It my be observed that immvenent in the Self-Concept score
V0.3 significant well beyond the .05 level, but immanent in the
Self-Ideal Discrepancy score was not significant. Since the Self-
Concept smre alone, as indicated in Chapter III, say be as valid as

95

the discrepancy score as a seasure of self perception, it follows that
hypothesis 1 ‘ny be accepted as true by using the SC score.
W.ulhe neon score six weeks after counseling will rennin
s gn can y greater tun the pro-counseling score.
Table 7 cowares the pre-ccwnseling and follow-up SAS scores of

Grow A. It is clear from the data and statistical analysis tint the
gain in the Self-Concept score nde by Group A after counseling as
saintained for six weeks after the end of counseling at the .05 level
of significance. The win in Self-Ideal discrepancy score is not
simificnnt, but on the basis of the Self-Concept score the ivpothesis
my be accepted.

ME ?.-Pre and follow—up scores in self-concept
and self-ical discrepancy mde by Grow A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

W2. *— —‘—‘“‘T

Sub- _Self-Conc_ept Scores Self-Idnl Discrepancy: Scores
3‘“ m Follow-up 01:, Pre Follow-up ‘Dif.
Si 26 27 l 17 18 1
$2 , 21 12 -. ,9 11. 1 -13
83 i 29 17' -12 25 8 -17
511 I 25 21 - 11 ‘ 9 12 3
ss 9 29 20. - 9 20 12 - 5
S6 ‘ 22 22’ 0 10 13 3

5:12 - 28.3 t - -253 sa2 - 73.16 t - 4.1.5

Sig. LS.
Emmesis 2a.--In the isolates of Ewerinental Grow B the mean self-
concep score will iwrove significantly after counseling.
Mle 8 cospares the pro-counseling and post counseling SAS
Scores of Emeriaental Group B. The amlysis shows that there was no
significant iwrovenent during ccmseling. The hypothesis is rejected.

96

ME 8.-Pre and pet-counseling scores in self-concept
and self-ideal discrepancy for Grow B

Self-Concept Scores

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- Selfs-Ideal Discrepancy.r Scores
Jest Pre Post , Dif. Pre Post .Dif:w
Si 25 26 l 6 15 9
52 3h 36 2 16 22 6
S3 39 26 ~13 30 15 -1S
Sh 21 23 2 3 13 10

562-51. t--.5h 5d2-28 p.91.
'08. '08.

1.339112%

‘ihble 9 shows the pro-test and follow-up SAS scores with the
differences between the. for Grow B.

2b._--The. nean score six weeks after counseling will renin

iwroved over the pre—counsel ing score.

m 9.-Pre and follow-up scores in self-concept
and self-ideal discrepancy nde by Grow B

L

— n
I

 

-:

» self-Idal Discrepancy Scores

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- 3elf-Concept Scores

3:“ Pre Fol low-up D-if. Pre Fol lowaup Dif.
31 25 28 3 6 1'5 9
32 3b 113 9 16 3h 18
$3 39 36 - 3 30 23 - 7
SI: 21 21 o 3 18 15

562 - 26.25 t - .087 5:12 - 1211.25 t - 1.57
11.5. 11.5.

The analysis slows in significant iwroveunt.

Since there was

mt significart. iwrovenent at the end of counseling it would seea

unlikely that there would be significant difference at the tine of the

1‘bllowaup test. The imaotheeis is rejected.

Ir -li‘l‘t. re.

 

 

97
thesis 2c.-Gain in self-concept scores after counseling will be

grea er e isolates of Grow 8 than in those of Group A.

Since there was no iwrovenent in Grow B but significant
isprowenent in Gioup n, this ivpothesis is rejected.
mm 2.41:; the isolates of the codained Groups A and a the
scan se -concept score will iwrcwe significantly after comeeling.

Applying the t-test to the combined data contained in Tables 6
and 8 produces results as sinwn in Thble 1c. The analysis shows tint
there was no significant iwroweeent in scan score and therefore the
igpothesis is rejected.

m lO.-Results of tQ-tests of the SAS scores cowering pre
7 and post scores for coinined Grows A and B

 

 

 

w - 11 Sci2 _ t Sig. L.
Self-Ideal
DISCIM 8101‘s - .60 3.5.

thesis 3b.-The scan score six weeks after counseling will resin
s gn can iqirowed over the pre-counseling score.

Table ll shows the results of the t-test when the coabined con-
parisons of Groups A and B are mum, using the ate fron Tables 7
and 9.

The data show that there was no significant iwrcvenent in nean
score in the cowined grows A and 8 between the pre-counseling test
and the follow-up test. The lvpothesis is rejected.

98

m ll.-Results of t-tests of the SAS scores cowering pre
and follow-up scores for conbined Groups A and B

 

 

 

3 " 1° 542 t Sig. 1..
Self-Concept 110.119 --1.19 11.3.
Self-Ideal

Discrepancy 133.? .ll N.S.

 

Wpothesis haw-In Grow C there will not be significant iwrovenent in .
self-concwt scores after the experiaental period.

Table 12 cowares the pre-experinental and pcst-experinental SAS
scores of Grow C. The analysis shows that there was no significant
immanent in neon score after the experimental period. The ivpothesis
is therefore accepted.

mBLE 12.-Pre and post-test scores in self-concept
and self-idal discrepancy for Group C

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- Self-Conoept Scores Self-Ideal Discrepancy Scores
ject ‘

Pre . posit Dir .. Pre Post D11.
51 16 16 o 7 7 0
52 16 18 2 21 S 1
s3 23 28 S 12 . 19 7
$11 29 2h - '5 13 17 11
SS 12 lO - 2 l l- 0

2 '2 _
5d -11..5 t-O Sd '9.3 t-.66

l.S. l.S.
%thesis how-The neon score six weeks after the ewerinental period
w significantly iwrowed over the pre-experinental score.
Thble 13 shows the pre-emperintntal and fol low-up SAS scores with
the differences between then for Grow C.

99

mu: 13.-Pre and follow-up scores in self-concept and
self-idol discrepancy nde by Group C

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- lSelf-Concept Scores Self-Ideal Discrqnncy Scores
ject Pre Follow-up Dif. Pre Follow-up Dif.
s1 16 ~ 16 o _ 7 ' 6 v - 1
52 16 13 - 3 11 1 - 3
$3 23 21 1 12 15. 3
51: 29 23 - 6 13 11. 1
SS 12 12 a 1 3 7
Sd2 - 8.3_ t - -1.211 582 - 5.8 t - 1.07
l.S. 11.5.

Analysis of the data shows that there was no significant differ-
eice between the pre-test and follow-w scores. The hypothesis is
accepted.

”thesis Saw-In Control Grow D there will not be signigicant
wrovene n self-concept scores after the experiaentel period.

Table 111 cowares the pre and post-experimental Sns scores of
Grow D. The analysis shows that there was no significant iwnowenent
after the experiaental period. The typothesis is therefore accepted.

TAKE lh.-Pre and post-test scores in self-concept and
self-ideal discrepncy nude by Grow D

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

qr _
Sub- Self-Concept Scores Self-Ideal Discrwancy Scores
ject *— “fi _

preA Post 1111'. Pre Post Dife
Sl 17 l? 0 6 6 O
52 31 25 - 6 22 16 - 6
53 15 1h - 1 7 S .. 2
Sh 3‘77 13 u 2 ii 11 0
S5 1'3 13 - 3 7 3 '- h
56 18 18 O 7 11 11
S7 9 20 11 O 9 9

E33 - 28.118 t - -.029 582 - 25.117 t - T075

I.S. .eSe

100

%thesis 2.--The nean score six weeks after the cxperiaental period
w no s mificaitly iwnowed over the nun score at the beginning

of the experiaent.
Thble 15 cowares the pre-test and follcwaup SAS scores of Grow

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D.
m lS.--Pre and follow-up scores in self-concept and
self-idal discrepancy made by Grow D
Self-Comept Scores Self-Idal Discrepancy Scores
Sub-t #
J“ Pre Follow-up Dif. Pre Follow-up Dif.
$1 17 19 2 6 9 3
52 31 33 2 22 21. 2
53 15 13 - 2 7 u - 3
$11 15 13 - 2 11 2 - 2
SS 16 13 - 3 7 11 - 3
56 18 18 0 7 9 2
57 9 16 7 o 7 7
5d2 ' 11.95 t . aw Sdz . 13e8 t ' e61
.050 I050

The statistical analysis shows that there was no significant
iwrovenent in self-concept scores between the pre-test and the follow-
w test six weeks after the experinental period. The ivpothesis is
accepted.
$2M“ 6a.--In the conbined Control Grows C and D there will not

3 gn cant iwnovanent in self-concept scores after the experinental
period. »

lhble 16 shows the statistical results of coabining the SAS
scores of Grows C and D as presented in hble 12 and 1h.

The ate show that there was no significant iwrowenent in the

conbined Grows C an! D; and therefore the ivpothesis is accepted.

 

101

m l6.--Results of t-tests of cowering
SnSscoresforccnbiaedGz-eupsCandD
before and after the sognrinental period

 

 

 

 

 

E % A
I - 12 582 t Sig. 1..
Self-Concept 20.81 -.019 I.S.
Self-Idul
Discrepancy 19.9 .25 I.S.

Mgthuis 6b.--The non self-concept score six weeks after the experi-
aen per o will mt be significantly iwrcved fees the pre-aperiuntal
muse

Thble 17 mews the results of the t-test when the mta frcn
Tbbles 13 and 15 relating to Groin» C and D were cowined and anlysed.
The analysis shows that there was no significant iwcowsnent in self-
concept score 'in the cedained Grows c and 0 between pre-experimtal
an! followuw testim. The wpothesis, therefore, is accqted.

m l?.-Results of t-tests of the 915 scores

cowaring pre and followup scores
for confined Grows C and D

 

s - 12 582 t Sig. I...
Self-Concept 10.8 -.3h 11.5.
Self-16.1

DISCW 9a69 e713 'eSe

 

m of findigs concernig igrowenent in self-concgt scores
Ainlysis of thedata related to iwrowemnt in self-concept scores

has clown tint in Group A there was significant immanent in the seen
Self-Concept score after counseling and tint this iwmwenut was

 

102

nintained for six weeks after the end of the counseling period. There
was in significant iwrovenent in the Self-Ideal Discrepancy score in
this grow and no other significant cinnges in the self-concept seas-
ures were observed in any of the grows or cowiintions of grows.

B. Themta Relating to Mai-ent in Amie! Scores

The ivpotheses 13 to 211 ads predictions about iwrovenent in
anxiety scores. Thta relating to these hypotheses will be presented
in Thbles 18 to 23. Each table will sinw the scores of one of the
gtows or group codaiintions am! will coware the pre-experiaental
with the post-ewerinental scores, and the pre-experinntal with the

follow-up scores.

[nemesis 7a.-In aiperinutal Grow A the wean score on an anxiety
sca e w cove significantly after counseling.

%thesis Thu-The lean score will renin significantly lower six
w s counseling.

Thble 18 resents the data and indicates the results of cowar-
ing pre-counseling anxiety scores with post counseling and with follow-
w scores.

The cowarison of pre-counseling and post-counseling anxiety
scores indicates a rediction of the anxiety scores of Group A at a
significance level of .05, which warrants the acceptance of Typothesis
7a. The lower score was not nintained at the .05 significance level
m the follow-up testing was done six weeks later. Therefore
Mothesis 7b is to be rejected.

103

m 18.-Cowariscn of pre and post counseling anxiety
scores and pre and follow-up scores of Grow A

 

 

 

 

 

 

::-r——__E “hm

s 1 Pre to Post ’ Pre to Follow-up
J.“ Pre Post Dil‘ . Fol low-up Dif .

1 32 33 1 31 .. 1

2 18 11 - 7 9 - 9

3 26 11 -1S 5 '21

11 32 25 - 7 36 h

5 29 31 2 28 .. 1

6 12 ' 7 " S ' nose‘

7 19 16 - 3 15 - 11

 

 

 

“lo score: subject owed away.

582 - 32.33 t --2.26 5112 - 78.86 t ”1.1.7
519. 'eSa

Mothesis &.-In the isolates of Imperisental Group B the sun
anx e score will iwrove significantly after counseling.

mum: at. The scan miety score six weeks after counseling {1111
rua n gt icantly lower than the we-cowseling score.

Thble 19 presents the data and indicates the results of cowering
pre-counseling anxiety scores with post-counseling and with follow-up
scores of Group B. The ainlysis of the data in both cases indicates
tint there was no sigiificant difference between scan scores. There-
bre both Hypothesis 8a aid 8b are rejected.

m 19.-charison of pre and post counseling anxiety
scores and re and follow-up scores of Grow B

   

 

 

 

 

9 - ‘ Pre to Post 1' Fr Follow-up —
3”" Pa Post . 011‘. i Foliow$2 Dif,
T
1 13 ' 20 7 17 h
2 28 27 - 1 i 30 2
3 36 no 1. l 38 2
__ h 22 ¢Z§ 1i — 41 LL—
Sd2 - 15.58 t - 1.111 582 - 20 t - .22

LS. ls.

 

10h
mm-&.~kediction of anxiety during counseling will be greater
n s so esofGrouthhan in unsechrowA.
Since there was siyiificant reduction of the scan amciety score
of Grow A and no reaction of the sun score of Grow B, the hypothesis
is rejected.

Wow-Ill the isolates of the costined Grows A and a the
seen an: e score will iwrove significantly after counseling.

thesis .-The non score six weeks after counseling will renin
simulcantg lower than the pre-counseling score.
Thble 20 show the results of codiining the data fro- Tables 18
and 19 relating to change in anxiety scores in Groups A and B.

1111-: 20.-Cowarison of pre-counseling anxiety scores with
post and with follow-up scores of codiiind Grows A an! 8

 

 

 

I Sd2 t Sig. 1..
Pre to Post 3 11, 37.22 -1.21.. 11.5. ‘
Pre to Follow-up ‘ 10 59.1.11 -1.23. 11.5.

Since neither the lower post-comeling score nor the lower
follow-uw score represents a significant charge from the pre-counseling
anxiety score, both typothesis 9a and 9b are rejected.

nemesis 10a.-In Control Grow C there will not be significant in-
provenn n e seen anxiew score after the experineinal period.

thesis 10b.-Six weeks after the eweriaental period the scan
anti??? sco're'will not be significantly iwroved free the score at the

beginnim of the experiment.

105

Thble 21 presents the data and indicates the results of cowaring
pre-counseliw ninety scores with post-counseling and with follow-up
scores of Grow C.

m 21.-Cewarison of pre and post-couneling satiety
scores and its and follow-up scores of Group C

A

 

 

 

 

 

 

gtb- Pre to Post v Pre to Follow-up .
ject *
__ Pre Post fl - Dif. Follow-up ADif,
1 3 6 3 7 h
2 21 17 - 11 1k - 7
3 23 ‘ 19 - 11 23 0
1. 7 6 - 1. 6 - 1
2 2
5d n 11 t I a.” 5d ' 20.“ t ' out
1.5. 11.5.

The malysis of the Ota shows that there was no significant
difference between the pre-experinental and post score or betweu the
pre score and the follow-up anxiety score in Group C. Therefore both
Tfipothesis 10a and 10b are to be accepted.

51:22am: ila.-In Control Group D there will not be significant
wrovenen n the wean anxiety score after the experinental period.

%wu 11b. The scan score six weeks after the «perinatal period
it no s gnificantly iwroved over the pre-experi nental score.

Thble 22 presents the data and indicates how prominent“
misty scores of Grow D cowared with post-eweriaental and with
fOTTcw-up scores.

Slice the analysis of the data shows that there was no signifth
difference betweu pre and post-experiaental anxiety scores, or between

 

106

pre and follow-up scores in Grow D, both Typothesis 11a and 11b are
accepted.

ME 22.-Cowarison of pre and post-esperinental anxiety
scores and pre an! follow-w scores of Grow D

 

W

 

 

 

 

 

*

Silh- Pre to Post ' Pre to PM Tau-m3

JG“ L
2 ; 22 29 7 . 33 11
h . 18 6 -12 E 6 -12
5 ; 10 6 - ’4 f‘ 13 ‘3
6. g 10 13 3 g 13 3
5:12 - 56.28 t - -.856 582 - 61.95 t - ...523

I.S. 3.5.

thesis 12a.-In the ccabined Contnil Grows c and D there will not
s 91 can iwroveunt in the nean anxiety score after the experie-
aental period.

%theeie 12b.-Six ween: ate:- the «perineum period the lean score

w s gnificantly changed free the pre-corperinertal non score.
Thble 23 shows the rearlts of ccabining the inta fron Thbles 21

an! 22 relating to iwrcveaent innixiety score inGroups CandD.

The statistical analysis shows tint there was not significant iwrove-

and. between we and post-experiaertal scores nor between pre and fellow.

w scores. Therefore, both Mothesis 12a and 12b are accepted.

"REL: 23.-charison of pre-experinental anxiety scores with
post and with follow-up scores of cotined Grows C and D

 

I _"“
__ fi ._ -_ :-—

I - 11 582 t Sig. 1..

Pt. ‘8; Put 37a” -10” '05. v—
_ Pre to Follow-w 113.115 . .686 I.S.

 

 

 

 

 

107

WWW

The cowarison of pre and post-otperiaental seen anxiety scores

 

of the Diperiaenhl and Cortrol Grows ins shown that there was in-
proveaent in non amiety score, significant at the .05 level, in
merinntal Grow A. The reduced airtiety score for this group was not
aaintained at a significant level six weeks after counseling. There
were no significant changes in anxiety scores, either between pre and
post-aperiaental scores or pre and follow-up scores, in the Eweri-
aentalm'ow Bor ineitherofthetwoControlGroweCandD.

C. Thelhta Relati_ng to gas. in Socioaetric Scores

Data derived fro: the socioaetric tests included four types of
scores: (1) “er of persons choosing the subject (PC scores), (2)
total choices received by the subject ('8: scores). (3) muse:- of
persons rejectiw the subject (PR scores), and (11) total rejections
received by the subject (TR scores). A table for each of the research
grows will coware the pre-experiaental with the post-experiaental
choice scores, both PC and TC, and the pre-eotperinental with the follow-
up scores. Since the hypotheses concerning iwrcvenent in socionetric
status referred only to choice scores, the rejection scores will not
be presented until a later section, where that will be sustained for
whatever additictnl understanding they night add to the experiaent.
¥§thesis law-In Ewerinertal Grow A the tan socionetric score

w s 91 cantly increase after a series of grow ccuineling sessiorn.

thesis .-The can score six wedis after counseling will rennin
s y grater than his pre-counseling score.

 

108

Table 211 shows the cowarison of pre and post-counseling choice

scores and of pre and follow-up scores of Grow A.

m 2h.-Cowarison of pre and post-counseling choice scores
and pre and follow-up scores of Grow A

Sib- PCa Scores TCb Scores

 

ect : F
J ;Pl‘c Post 011’. P01 DH. H‘e Post Dif. P01. Dif.

 

 

 

 

 

1 1 1 o 1 3 2 3 3 o ’ 7 1i
2 1 2 1 2 1 i 1 2 1 i 3 2
3 1 o -1 1 2 1 ( 1 o -1 . 2 1
11 1 1 o ' 2 1 1 1 o i 11 3
5 o o o o o o o o 1 o o
6 o o o g o o ' o o o 3 o o
5:12 .10 1 .566 .110 x 2.66
t o 1 2.72 o 5 2.5

5890 E3. 5890 'eSs i Sige

 

 

 

1

‘Psrsms cinnsing abject r’l‘otal. choices given subject

lo sigiificaat increase ins observed betwen pre- and post-
counseling scores. Therefore wpothesis lb is rejected. There were
significant differences between pre-counselim and followup choice
scores in both the PC and TC scores. Therefore hypothesis 13b is
accepted.

Mgthesis yaw—In the isolates of Mari-ent“ Grow B the man
soc r c score will significantly imrease after counseling.

.. thesis .«The seen score six weeks after counseling will ruin
s gn can grater than the pre-counseling score.
The cowarison of pre and posh-counseling choice scores and of
pre and follow-up scores is presented for Group B in Thble 25.

 

109

ME 25.-Coq1a.rison or pre am post-counseling choice scores
and pre and follow-up scores of Group B

—‘_:—:_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

S] w PC Scar; 1 TC Scores _.
3'“ pm Post. 011'. 1 n1 Dir. , Pre Post 111:. an nu.
- T T ‘-
1 1 o o o 1 1 1 o o o 1 1
2 g 1 1 o o -1 ; 2 1 -1 o .2
3 1 1 0 -1 0 -1 } it 0 -h 0 -h
h 1 1 1 o 1 1. 3 1 3 3 o 6 3
562 ’a .25 3 3.66 ? 3.58 9.66
t 1 -lem e52 . -1a32 " 032
Sig. .; 1.5. j ms. 11.5. 1.5.

 

 

lo significant increase was observed betwen pre-counseling and
post-counseling scores. ‘l‘herefore ”thesis 1h- is rejected. Like-
wise, there was a: significant difference between the pre-counseling
am follow-up scores; therefore Mothesis lhb is rejected.
W.~Me will be a greater increase in socionetric scores

es of Grow B tun those otGroup A airing counseling.

Obserntion of Mice 2h and 25 shows that the cowlson of
pre and post counselim choice scores resulted in a ft' of zero .for
Grow A, and in a neptive, W-nonsigniticant 't' for Grog) ‘8.
Therefore the hypothesis is rejected.

mums“ 15a.-In the isolates of the coabined Groups A and B the
mean soc ic score will significantly increase during counseling.

thesis 15b.-‘rhe nan score six weeks after counseling will ruin
5311175315 greater man the pre-counsel ing score.
Usim the data mich ins been presented in 1'13qu 211 and 25 the
scores of the coabined groups A and B were analysed. line results are

 

110

presented in Table 26. The analysis shows tint there were no significant '
increases in any of the comes-inns either after counseling or at the
follow-Q pciod. More the hypothesis is rejected.

113.8 26.-12qu of coebining socionetric scores of Groups

 

 

 

 

 

 

sums
I I 10 Pre to Post Pre to Fella-up
5112 t 519. 562 t Sig:—
rc Score , 32 .56 11.5. 1.56 1.17 11.5.
11: Score 1 1.83 -1.17 11.5. 5.95 1.037 11.5.

 

thesis 16a.-In Control Gimp c there will not be significant ia-
crease n soc onetric score during the experiaental period.

{gathesis 16b.-‘me aean score six weeks after the experiaental period
1: no s gnificantly imreased over the score at the beginning or
W period.

he cogerison of pre and post-experiaental choice scores and
pre an! ibllow-ap scores is presented for (iron) c in ‘ihble 27.

ME 27.-Mason or pre an! post-aperiaental choice
scores an! pre and follow-up scores of Grow c

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- , .Pc Scores ; TC Scores
3'" Pre Poet on 1&1 m: “a: 1
- e 1 e L C Mt DH. L F01 D“.
1 2 1 -1 i 3 1 : 2 1 -1 1 3 1
2 . 2 h 2 t h 2 : s 7 2 a 6 1
3 o 1 1 1 2 2 : o 2 2 I S 5
1. 1 3 2 : 2 1 g 2 h 2 1 3 1
5 1 o -1 3 1 o g 3 o -3 1 1 -2
l L Ah
so2 . 2.3 1 .10 . 5.3 i 6.2
t e 1 3.208 g .388 2 1.078
Sig. l.s. ; 519. L 11.5. 1 1.5.

 

 

111

mlysis of the data indicates that there were 1» significant
increases in either of the cmice scores of Group C after the experi-
rental period. More Wpothesis 16a is sustained. m, in '
cowering the pre-operinental with the fella-up scores for this grow,
significant increase is noted in the amber of persons choosing the
abject. This indication of imminent in socionetric score at the
tiaeot the tonal-up test demtes the rejections: ltpothesis 16b.
Control (ix-mp C did ouperience immved cinice level. '

”thesis 17a.-1n Control Group D there will mt be significalt
ncrease n sociodtric score durim the esperinental period.

mesis l7b.-'lhe nean score six week's after the experinental period
s gnii‘icantly increased over the pre-aperinental score.

The mta and necessary coqaarisons for testing these two lupotheé
see are presented in nble 28, which comares the civics scores of the
two testing period. It is apparent that there were no significant
increases at the tine of the post-eagerinental testing. Therefore
Hypothesis 17a is accepted. It is also true that 19 significant changes
were observed between the pre-eocperiIental lid allow-up testing.
More mpothesis 17b is accepted.

m 28.~Coq:arieon of we ate! post-aqueriaental choice
scoresand pre and follow-up scores of Groq: D

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- PC Scores 1'6 Scores
Ject 71w 1
_ Pre Post 011'. Fol Dif. Pre Post nit. Fol DE.
1 2 o -2 2 o 2 o -2 2 ' o
2 1 1 o 1 o 1 1 o 1 o
3 o o o o o o o o o o
h o 2 2 1 1 o 2 2 1 1
S 2 6 h h 2 5 IS 10 10 5
6 o o o o o o o o o 0
E 2 Fe 0 5 5 g l 8
t :79 1:5; :95 1:23
513. 11.5. 2 11.5: 11.3. 11.5.

 

 

112

yum“ 18a.--In the confined Control Grows C and D there will not
5 gn can increase in socioaetric score during the experimntal

period.

%msis lab.-‘Ihe lean scare six weeks after the emerinental period
w no 5 gnificantly increased over the nean score at the beginning
of the experislent.

inking use of the data which has been presented in nbles 27 and
28 the scores or the contained groups C and D were analyzed. The results

are presented in Table 29.

ME 29.-Results of codaining sociometric scores of (iroups

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

c an! D
Pre to Post Pm to Follow-up
R - 12 * 2fi* ‘" ‘ 2
pc Score 1 . 2.81 1.2 3.5. 1.09 3.3! Sig. .
1
‘10 Score l .10.? 1.06 11.8. 8.06 2.03 519, .

 

 

As this table sipws, there was 19 significant increase in either
of the sociometric scores between the pre-experimental and post-experi-
mental testing. wpothesis 18a is accepted. Cornering pre-experimental
and tbilow-up scores shows that there were significant 1.16th in
umber of persons choosing the subject, and in total meter of choices
received by subject. It is obvious, therefore, that Mothesis 18b
met be rejected.

Findings that relate to g jection scores

Although no hypotheses were rude concerning rejection scores,

 

the differences beta-teen pre and post merinontal scores and between
pre and follow-up scores were tested by twoctailed t-tests. Tables

113

30 to 33 present the findings. lhq show that there were no significant

changes in either direction in am of the comarisons.

m 30.-Coq1arison of pre and post-counseling rejection
scores and pre and follow-q) scores of Group A

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- . PRa Scares 1'3" Scores
ject V
have Post 111:. an Dif. Pre Poet on. 361 Dif.

l 2 12 10 1 15 13 2 32 30 35 33
2 7 8 l 6 - l 7 12 5 ll 11
3 1 5 8 3 2 - 3 6 15 9 2 .. 1,;
h 6 9 3 8 2 8 21 13 15 7
5 13 7 - 6 9 - h 25 9 -16 15 10
6 8 l5 7 17 9 15 33 18 112 27
542 30 1.7.1.6 2311.9 291.5

t . 1.311 .914 1.57 . 1.36
889. NBS. ILSm 'hSw N35.

 

 

 

 

'Persons rejecting subject

b'i‘otal rejections given subject

m 31.-Ceq1arison of pre and post-counseling rejection
scores and pre and follow-up scores of Group B

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sub- H? Scores TR Scorea'

3‘“ pm Post 31:. ‘361 1311;? Pre Post 111:. ‘361 Dif.
1 1 7 6 6 5 2 12 10 12 1o _
2 17 15 - 2 7 ~10 36 33 - 3 13 -23
3 8 11 3 15 7 1h 18 h 26 12
h 7 8 1 3 - h 9 TO 1 J3 6
562 11.33 V 63 30 265.58

t 1.18 ‘ 0126 1.09 .21

519. 3.5. 3.5. 3.5. 3.5.

 

 

 

 

 

 

11b

ME 32.-Coq1arison of pre and post-expermntai rejection
scores and pre and follow-up scores of Grog: C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g. M
Sib- PR Scores ‘ TR Scores
t *‘ 5* : ~— ' —~
5“ Pre Post Dif. Fol Dif. § Pu Post Dif. Fol Dif.
1 3 1 - 2 o - 3 f 3 1 - 2 o - 3
2 8 6 - 2 7 - 1 7 11 13 2 17 6
3 h h o 2 - 2 1 7 5 - 2 6 - 1
h S 3 - 2 3 - 2 7 6 - 1 1. - 3
s h 6 2 8 h 1 h 8 i. i 13 9
582 3.2 1 7.7 f 7.2 T 30.8
t - 1 - 06h ‘ 016' 1 e
519. 3.5. 3.5. 1 3.5. g 3.5.

 

 

 

ME 33.-Coiparison of pre and post-eocperiaental rejection
scores and pre and follow-up scores of Gscup D

 

 

 

 

 

k *M

W TR Scores

1'“ 1 e Post 111:. 361 Dif. pm Post 111:. 361 on.
1 11 9 :- 2 S - 6 111 12 - 2 7 - 7
2 1 . 5 2 - 3 o - 5 6 3 - 3 o - 6
3 1 1h ‘ 13 - 1 15 l 29 32 3 37 8
11 g 7 1o 3 9 2 8 16 8 21 13
5 1 3 3 0 h l h 3 - l 5 l
6 g 111 11 - 3 1o - h 23 20 - 3 19 - h
7 1 h 3 - 1 1 - 3 6 3 - 3 3 - 3

l

562 1 11.33 10.5 17.117 57.23
t 1 ' 012' - 1.63 .- e ' e09

519. J 'aSe 'eSe 'eSe 3.8.

 

 

 

 

lens of the chnges in usher-“ rejections received or Inter

of persons rejecting the subject were significant when tested by a m-

Direction of diange in the Bameriaatal Grog» A an E

.n‘l’ L .

‘III 11 1. 7 .34

 

 

115

tended to be tanrds receiving ore rejections end in the Control Grams
(2 end D towards receiving less rejection, perticoieriy on the PR

860”.

w of ti con insocio-etric scores

An overview of the findings comerning change in sociontric
scores suggests thet the pttern of chenge sang the serious m.
as erretic. There were no significent themes in w of the groups
during tie experinentel period of ten weeks, but five significent
increeses in choice scores in the longer sixteonweek period.- Increeses
et the .05 level. of significance or better occurred in the choice
scores of Experimental Group h, in both nonber of persons choosingthe
m3»: end totei choices received; in Control Graip c, in m a:
persons choosing the subject; end in the codained Control Groups C end
B in both types of choice scores. lo significent clanges in either
direction were observed in rejectionscores. remencies were observed
which could be attributed to chaos, since they were stetisticeliy not
significem, towards increase of the seen choice score (PC) of the
combined Eatperisentei Comps A en! B, increased choice scores (both
we and m) or Control m 11, end decreese 1:11:11. m rejection score
01’ Group D.

when both signifiant chenges end directioni trends are token.
into account, the overeii picture smgests tint the isoietes or aperi-
mtei'annp B tmded to receive less choices otter counseling. .‘i'he
isoistes of both counseling groups tended to receive are rejections
after the operinent. Inhoth control groups thee-ens e tendency
towerd gein in choices and towerd redaction of rejections. Since gin

116

in choices received as stetisticelly es significent for the control
groups as for Imprint“ Grow A, it is to be concluded thet the
gun in Gmtp A as not necesseriiy releted to the experinentel treet-
sent.

The tendency for both or the min-om maps to gein in
number of rejections received while the control grows tended to re-
ceive fewer rejection: night have s reletionship to the eacperinent.
Circmtences .de it obvious to clessntes that the counseling sub-
jects were receiving speciel ettention. ihis mold hove hed s new-
tive effect. “the uni-weekly exit of the munselees during the hone-
roon period could luvs invoked neptive responses. Or the coumeling

experience could hove given the counseling objects I stronger seine
of self which wes notively received by peers. whether for thee or
sons other rusons, gin in rejections iv comeeling subjects would
tend to reducerejections neceiwedby the control swjects, become
Mme specifiedMerofrejectienstohedistrihited.

O

 

 

This section will show the reletiomhips between gein in self
concept scores en! the Perception of Group Experience Scele (n35).

Gein in self-comt will be indiceted iv difference scores
between pre and, post comsel ing in lath the Sew-Concept (SC) and Self-
Ideel Discrepncy (SID) scores of the Self-Jicceptmce Scele (SAS).
Perception of Group merience will be indiceted by the scores on uch
or the eight sub-scales of the P655 listed below. The scales 1:111
Inter be referred to by Roan mineral. In the following list the rungs
01‘ possible scores for eech subscele is noted in perenthesis.

ll?

Scale I (O to 12) Identification with group nesbers

56-11. 11 (o to 12) Desire to be identified with steep sneer:

Scale 111(0 to 12) Feelim accepted in group “ers

Sous l? (O - 12 ) Perceived sociesetric status of group sewers

Scale V (-S to e5) Positive feelings bwerd counselor '

Scele VI (0 to 8) Feeling of being accepted by couselor

Scale VII («4.1 to st) Positiveness of total esperience for subject

Scale VIII (.1; to +11) Positiveness of total eoqserience for others

Mle 311 gives the serious scores nde by the counseled subjects.
“the '33. end '51!)- coins refer to difference between pre-counseling
and post-camelim scores, with u adjust-ent of the sim so tilt
positive scores indicete dunge in the desired direction. High scores
on the P085 scsles indicste positive perceptions.

m Bib-«SAS difference scores and Pans subscele scores
for counseled subjects

 

 

 

 

 

Stb- Difference Scores P65 Scores

3'“ 5:: 5m 1 I m 117 V VI VII VIII
1 13 1s 1 6 6 6 6 s E 1. h
2 10 15 3 3 3 3 3 3 -2
3 s 11 1 0 1o 12 5 7 h 3
1. S 1 o o 1 1 .2 S -h -3
5 h -1 7 S 8 3 h 5 1 1
6 3 S 6 8 h 9 -3 h l -1
7 2 2 h 3 6 6 S 8 1h -h
8 -1 -9 8 6 9 12 2 h 3 1
9 -2 -5 6 h h h o 6 2 1
lo -2 -6 6 6 5 6 -2 5 -3 -3
11 -2 -10 2 o 12 12 2 h 1- 1

 

 

51: difference scores ad SID difference scores at or above the
eedian were considered “gain. end those below the sedien "no gain.‘

 

118

POSS ”scale scores at or above the median were called 'hifli' and
times below the nedian I'lom.“ ilhen several scores were idettical with
the nedian score, as m sum 17 and v, they were e11 answered to
be 'high.‘ Relationships between the variabhs are presented in two
1? two contingency tables.
mates“ lgwolsolates to achieve higher self-concept scores after
course ng ll have felt more identified with other “ers of their
counseling group than those who d3 mt.

hble 35 shows the relationships between Scale I and the SC
differeme scores. Mic 36 relates Scale I scores with SID differ-

CMC SOONSe

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m 35.-Relatiald1ip between m xw-Relati cheap between '
Scale I an! 51: scores Scale I and SID scores
Low 111911 Total Low High 1on1
Gain 3 3 6 Gain 11 2 6
so Gain 2 :1 5 lo out 1 h 5
Total 5 6 11 Total 5 6 11

The table of critical values in the Fisher test stews that these
relationships are not significant. 1he mothesis is therefore rejected.
thesis 20a.-Flsolates I‘D achieve higher self-comept smres after
cotinse w l have felt a greater desire to be like others in their

counseling group than those who do not.
Miss 37 and 38 show the relationships between Scale- 11 scores
and the a: and SID difference scores. The relationships are not sig-

nificant and the mothesis is therefore rejected.

 

119

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m 37.-Relationd1ip between 118.! 38.--Relntionship beMen
Scale III and 9: scores Scale 11a and SID Scores
Low 11191: 761,111 Low High 76m
Gain 3* 3f 6 Gain 11 2 6
lo Gun 2 A ; 5 we Gain 1 I. 5
Total h s 6 11 Total 5;. 6. 11

nthesis 20b.-Isoiates of the nixed Grog) B will show a significantly
grea er es s to be like tin non-isolates than like the isolates in

the group.

Mic 39 indicates how Scale II scores were distributed by iso-
lates of Group B. we differeme between the latter of scores given
to other isolates and motor given to stars was tested for significance
by the t-tcst. '

ms 39.--Distribution of Scale II scores by Group B

 

 

 

 

Isolates
“Subject Scores given Scores gifiven Difference 2
_ _1 to Isolates ' to stars; 5" " 2°66
1 2 h ' 2 t - 2.115
2 1 5 h
3 O O O
h 2 h 2 Significant
_ _ * at .05

Since the difference in prefererce of stars was significant at
the .05 level the to'pothesis is accepted.
“thesis 21.--Isolates who achieve higher self-concept scores after
counse ng will inve felt are acceptance by other grog: ne‘ers the
those who do not achieve higher scores.

lhble 110 shows the relatiomhips between Scale III scores and

Self-Concept difference scores, and Table 111 stews how Scale III scores

 

120

relate to Self-Ideal Discrepancy difference scores. The table of
critical values indicates, that these relationships are not simificant.
The motivesis is therefore rejected.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mu hon-Relationship between our hie—Relat ionship between
ScaleIIIandxscores ScaleIIIandSImscores
Lav Hi". Total. Low High - Mil
Gain 3 i 3 w1 6 Gun 3 3 J 6
lo out 2 1 3 I 5 In one 2 3] 5
Total 5 6 11 Totll S 6 11

guns thesis 22.-Isolates tho achieve higher self-concept scores will
perce ved other group sabers as are accepted by other people
m ”I!“ 'm b ”to

Thbles 112 and 113 show the relatiouhips betweu Sale IV scores

end tb 5c and SID difference scores.

m Mun-Relationship between 11th.: h3.-Relationship between

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scale IV and SC scores Scale IV aad~sm Scores
Low 111911 Total ' Low High Total
out w 3 *— 7 6 one ‘ 2 I. 6
1...... - 4 ' r u
so Gain 1 1 I. 5 so Gain 2 3 5
Total 21 7 11 Total 1. 7 11

The relationships are not significant and theaters the type-
thesis is rejected.

gates“ 2;.«Isolates tho achieve higher solf-coxcept scores will
we a s an icantly nore positive attitude toward the leader than

tines tho 1b tot.
Relationships between Scale V aui the self-comept scores are
shove in libles hit and 115. The relationships are not significant and

121

therefore the hypothesis is to be rejected.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

113.8 lain—Relatiaship between “E h5.--Relationship between
Scale V ard 5:: scores Scale V and SID scores
Low High Total ’ Low High Total
sets 2 ‘* 6 one 2 1+ 6
so Gain 1 3 2 5 lo Gain W2 3 s E
Total 5 6 11 Total -1. t 7 11

r‘u“ ._¢— 49..” - -mM-te ‘4'4'...
us I

mania gin—Isolates who achieve higher self-concept scores will
perce ve leader as are accepting tlnn those the do not.

Relationships between Scale VI and the self-concept difference
scores are presented in Tables 116 and 117. Since the relationships are
not significant the hypothesis is rejected

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m h6.-Relationship‘ between 1115 h7.-Belatiomhip between
Scale VI an! 5:: scores Scale VI and SID scores
low high Total Low High Total
Gain 2 It 5 Gain 2 ' l; 6
so cent 2 3 5 lo one 2 3 S

 

 

 

Total ‘t 7 11 Total “‘1 7 , ll
thesis 2 .«lhere will be positive correlation between pin in
se «oncep all! perception of group experience.
Relationships between Scale VII scores ani the two Vpes of
self-concept difference scores are presented in Tables 118 ani 119.
The relationships are not significant and therefore the lvpo-
ttnsis is rejected.

 

122

TABLE law-Relationship between

an Imp-Relationship between
Scale VII and SID Sores

Scale VII am 3: Scores

Total -

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low High Low liiw Total
Gain 3 3 6 Gain 2 h 6
so one 2 3 5 lo oeih 3 2 5
lbtal 45w 11 Total 5 6 11

5

Matinee thesis 26.-dram” tho 9313' in self-coneat scorts will perctivflthe

”m
”to

o othersinthegroupasmreposit

vedtantMu

ltbles 50 ani 51 present the relatiouhips betweat Scale VIII

scoresani theEandSIn scores.

m SO.-Relationships between
Scale VIII and 5c Scores

 

 

 

 

 

 

was Sip-Relationships between
Scale VIII and SID Scores

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lat High rot-1
Gain ' it : - 6
No Gain 1 1' v 5
lbtal 5 ' 6 ‘ 11

The relationships are not significant and the hypothesis is

Low High Total .
Gain E 2 ‘ 1+ 6
No Gain 1 1‘ 1f 5
Total 3 8 E 1.1
"J”Me

and discussion of rela tionshi s betwan in in self-co t
§;%smm "HIE sures E

Analysis of the data shows that there were no significant re-

lationntips between the subscele scores of the perception instrunent

ond achieve-ent of high self-concept scores.

This lack of correlation

nidzt be due to the inadequacy of tin instrunatt to neasure significant

mmlC’e

At least three types of contanimtion could be present.

123

It is possible that subjects were not activated to indicate their
true feelings about the grow experience. Since the test questions
were not disguised this factor nimt be operative. Another relevant
factor aidit be the nood fluctuation which diaracterises adolescents.
Feelings about the grow emerience at. the tine the RES was adninis-
tered aimt not lave adomately reflected the overall perceptions
relating to the counseling experience. A third consideration, at a
theoretical level, would be the question of conscious and uncmcious
perception, that is, whether subjects duo achieved high self-concept
scores and low perception scores were consciously aware of wint they
were outperiencing, or whether subjects who ndeno pin in self-
concept scores but high perception scores were experiencing accep-
tance at a level deep enough to dissolve the existing defenses of the
self. Perhaps the nest that can be said is that evidence is lacking
concerning the validiw of the instmnent, am therefore the tqpothases
relatim to it him not really been tested.

The the result thich proved to be simificant, that the isolates
of Group B would prefer to be like the stars rather tlnn like the
other isolates, has certain imlications mulch will be discussed later.

am

The experient- was to deteraine if group counseling is effective
in producing desirable change in self-concept, amciety and sooionetric
scores of isolates. The hypotheses predicted desirable changes for
counseled grams and no significant. clings: in the desirable direction
for control groups. The t-tests were one-tailed to deternine if
desirable changes occurred in any of the groups.

.I

1FUVC." '

 

1211

W
The findings that concerned the emerimental groups are smur-

izwd in lable 52, which identifies each typothesis by renter, shows the

direction of predicted change, whether or not the nean changed in the
predicted direction, an! winther such changes are significant at the

.05 level. The WI. < will be uscd_throughout to indicate in-
wt. nut is, SC pre < S: post means the post-counseling

score was predicted to be improved over the pre-counselim score
(not greater raw score.) In the prediction column "A" denotes
"anxiety score" in Hypotheses 7 to 9, and thioughout the table "fol"

has been used for "follow-up scores.”

The table stove that there were mt significant ianoveaents
in my of the variables except in Group A, and that Group A did expen-
ience imroved scores in at least one aspect of ach of the three basic
variables unler observation. Significant inprovenont in Self-Concept
score was observed in both post and follow-up test results, in Misty
score in the post testing; and iqnovenent was observed in the m
of persons choosing the subject and in total clo ices received in tin
follow-up testing. In Group B not only was there lack of significant
orange, but in only one variable was there change in the desired dir-
ection, mnely, the Self-Concept post-counseling no score. When the
combined scores of Groups A and B were amlyzed the neans tended to
ciange in. the desired direction in the Self-Comept and Anxiety scores

on! in the followup Socionetric scores. -

 

TABLE 52.-—Smary' of Findings Concerning Inprovemat

125

in Experimental Groups

M

 

Group Hypothesis Prediction Mean Direction 813
A la SCpre ‘1 SCpost yes yes
SIDpre <:.'SIDpost yes no
b SCpre <:_ SCfol yes yes
BIDpre r1: SIDfol yes no
B 2a SCpre <: SCpost yes no
SIDpre < SIDpost no
b SCpre ‘13 SCfol no
SIDpre e:: SIDfol' no
c SC(A) <:I SC(B)gain no
SID(A) < SID(B)gain no
A + B 3a SCpre <:: SCpost yes no
BIDpre <:’ SIDpont yes no
b SCpre <:: BCfol yes no
- SIDpre =:: BIDfol no
A 7a A-pre <:_ A-post yes yes
b A-pre r: .A-fol yes no
B 8a A-pre :ZI A-post no
b A-pre ~<z A-fol no
c A(A) (:1 A(B)gain no
A + B 9a A-pre <:: A-post yes no
b A-pre ~<Z A-fol yes no
A 13a PCpre <: PCpost no
TCpre <:. TCpost no
b PCpre << PCfol yes yes
TCpre <:' TCfol yes yes
B lka PCpre (I PCpost no
TCpre <:I TCpost no
b PCpre <1 PCfol no
TCpre“: TCfol no
c PC(A) ‘: PC(B)gsin no
. TC(A) ‘< TC(B)gain no
A + B 15a PCpre <1 PCpost no
TCpre ‘1 TCpost no
b PCpre <1 PCfol yes no
TCpre < TCfol yes no

F

Control groups

Findings relating.to the control groups are summarized in Table

53. Here the synboln¢v(approxinately equal to) is need to indicate

 

126

the prediction of no significant improvement between pre and post
counseling. An arbitrary t a .6 has been selected to determine
whether change has occurred. Direction of change will be indicated
when the derived ”t” is .6 or greater. If change is in the desirable
direction, significance (.05) will be indicated.

TABLE 53.--Snmmary of Findings Concerning Change
in Control Groups

 

Group Hypothesis Prediction Mean Direction Sig
C ha SCpre hwv SCpost no change
SIDpre M SIDpost >
b SCpre rvv SCfol <:: no
SIDpre rv' SIDfol ::>
D 5a SCpre nwv SCpost no change
SIDpre ,v/ SIDpost' no change
b SCpre A», SCfol no change
SIDpre rvv SIDfol
C + D 6a SCpre raj SCpost no change
SIDpre cwv SIDpost no change
b SCpre rw’ SCfol no change
SIDpre ’VV SIDfol ::>
C 10a A-pre an, A-post -=: no
b A-pre hw/ A-fol no change
D 11a A-pre A~I A-post a:: no
b A-pre rw’ A-fol no change
C + D 12a A-pre Aaa-A-post 4:; no
b A-pre »vv A-fol <1; no
C 16a PCpre fvv PCpost K11. no
TCpre A¢. TCpost no change
b PCpre a¢~ PCfol ‘1; yes
TCpre rvv TCfol (:1 no
D 17a PCpre nw/ PCpost (i: no
TCpre nn’ TCpost (6: no
b PCpre rw' PCfol rfiI no
TCpre cw» TCfol :1: no
C + D 18a PCpre Aux PCpost 1;: no
TCpre rvv TCpost (if no
b PCpre “A“ PCfol -: yes
TCpre AAA TCfol -<:: yes

scores but three significant changes in sociometric scores, all of which

The table shows no significant changes in self-concept or anxiety

127

were observed in follow-up testim. In Grow C the m of persons
choosing the subject significantly itcrensed, and in the mlysis of
the codaimd scores of Group C and D, both miner of persons choosim
and total choice scores imsed. Change in the desired direction was
observed in the follow-up Self-Concept score and poet-comeling satiety
score of Gnu]: C, in the post coumeling misty score of Group D, in

yes—as”

. »_—' Ta

both post, an! follow-up mean scores of the coinined groups C and D, and
in the njority of the socionetric scores. '

The overall trend indicated by Tbbles 52 and 53 appears to be
tint significant changes in self-concept, misty, and socioaetric
scores were affected in the Melina Group A, and tilt positive re-
sults were not achieved in any of the variables for Counseling Group B.
the control groups tended mt to change in self-concept and' anxiety
scores, but to cinnge in the desired direction in socionetric scores,
with three significantly immved scan scores. Significant immanent
was observed in the follow-up scores of (hog: C in Mar of person
choosing the subject, and in the cofiined Grams C and D in both water
01' persons choosing and total choices received.

Tables 51; and 55 are condensations of Miss 52 and 53, and are
useful in fixing father comarisons of the smeriuntal and control
9mm. Table 5).; refers to the experiaental groups and stews the totals
Of tamer of predictions nude, changes in the desired direction, and
number of significant charges. Mic SS refers to the control groups
all! shows the totals for each variable in meter of predictions made,
meter of oranges in the desired direction, ani number of significant
Changes.

1.28

m Sin—Condensation of Table 52: Suns-y d’ findings con-
cerning inroveaent in experiaental grams

 

 

Group: _ Variable _ Prediction Desired Dir. Sig.

A Self Concept 1; h 2
Amiety 2 2 l
Socionetric h ' 2 2

Total 10 8 5

B Self Comept 6 l 0
Anxisw 3 0 O
Socioaetric 6 O 0

Total 15 l O
a . B Self Concept 1; 3 o
Amtiety 2 2 O
Socioastric h 2 0

lbtal 10 7 O

rou1 W 35 16 > s

 

ms SS.--Couiensation of Thble 53: M of fimiings con-
cerning change in central groups

W

 

Group Variable Predictions Desired Dir. Sig.

C Self Comspt h l 0
Anxiety 2 1 0
Sociometric h 3 1

Total - 10 s 1

D Self Concept h 0 O
misty 2 l 0
Socionetric h h 0'

Total 10 5 O
C +D Self Concept '4 0 O
, Anxiety 2 2 O
Socionetric h h 2

Total 10 6 2

Total 3O 16 3

129

Mia 51; shows that althomh five out of ten pedictiom ude
abott Grow: A reunited in significant change, then the total predictions
relating to the experimental groups are observed only five out of
thirty-five resulted in simificant change. At the .05 level of con-
fidence two oranges would be eacpected by chance. Table 55 shows
tint in the control groups, out of thirty observations there were
three significant changes in the desirable direction. Again, somewtnt
less than two changes would be expected by chance. This comparison
points up the narrow range of overall difference between the results
observed in the acperimntal groups and those observed in the control
grows. Furthermre, if m of chines in' the desirable direction
are compared between the emerinental groups and the control grows
tie t-test shows the difference to be zero. This amlysis is shown in
Table 56.

ME 56.-Cosparison of number of oranges in the desired direc-
tion in the eocperinental grows and in the control groups

fi—w——~____———

'~ latter of (Images in Desired Direction Differ-

 

 

 

Dcperinental Groups Control Emmi ence
Self-Cogept 8 '— T -7
Amciety h h o
Socionetric ll 11 7
Sd2 - 1:9 t - o

A recapitulation based on the sinned totals of Thbles 51. and 55
and the analysis an». in nine 56 indicates um rm out of uni-w-
five predictions relating to the emerinental groups and three out of
thirty relating to the com-Jul gmiparesulted in significant desirable
Chases, while thencnsno differeme in the scan lumber of changes

130

in the desirable direction between experinentel end control grams.
lives, when conrisons ere nde in terns of giouped vorinbles end su-ed

totals the differences in results between operinentsl and control

groups are sea: to be slight.

 

'Ji-L-—---'" twifi‘i

 

 

 

damv

swan, camsmss m runners
mammu

E5!
The foregoing pages have described an signer-inert which was

designed to eaqalore the possibility tint group counseling warld be an
effective treataent for socially isolated seventh grade girls. Chqrter
I stated the problea, introduced the tupotheses, and set forth a pharma-
enological personality theory as a basisfor counseling. Chapter II
reviewedtherelevant uterahireintheareasofaentalhealth, group
counseling, and socionetry. The third chapter stated twenty-six lvpoth-
esee which were to be tested and described the precedes-es that were used
in conducting the carpal-ext. The fourth chapter presented the data and
the results of the statistical analysis and indicated which ionotheses
were to he accqpted and which were to be rejected.

The sacramental procedure comisted of identifyim social iso-
lates through the use of socioaetric tests and ranioaly assigning then
to two meriuntal and two control gmrps. One of the experiaental
grows cusisted entirely of isolates, while the other imluded isolates
and highly chosen girls. One of the control grows received biblio-
theraw and the other received no special treat-ent. 'lhe marinental
groups were given the experience of psychological group counseling
twice a weekfor ten weeks. Dependent variables included self-concept

scores, satiety scores, and sociometric scores. All of the research

131

 

—_—. -2 .-—-——-._~— , _r. ,

132

subjects were tested at the beginning of the experiment, at the end

of the experiment and six weeks later, to discover if group counsel-
ing was effective in producing change in these variables. In addition
the counseled subjects were tested to determine how they perceived

the counseling experience, in order to make predictions concerning
which subjects would change through counseling.

The analysis of the data showed that the experimental group
composed entirely of isolates did experience significant positive
change in self-concept and anxiety mean scores, and that the improved
self-concept score was significantly maintained for six weeks after
counseling. There was no significant change in the self-concept mean
score or anxiety mean score in the mixed counseling group or in either
control group. The fact that there was positive change maintained for
six weeks in self-concept mean score and temporary change in anxiety
score in the one counseled group which was perceived by the investiga-
tor to have developed therapeutically and no significant changes in
these variables in the other three groups suggests that group counsel-
ing might have been effective in producing change. However, it should
be noted that the pre-test self-concept and anxiety mean scores of
Group A were significantly less desirable than the pre-test scores of
the control groups. Consequently the observed changes could be re-
gressions toward the mean.

Although this same counseled group also achieved significant in-
crease in number of sociometric choices received, similar sociometric
:change was likewise observed in the bibliotherapy control group and in
the combined control group mean scores. Therefore the increase in

sociometric level in the one experimental group cannot be attributed

to the counseling experience.

133

The atteqat to predict which counselim subjects would change
by the use of a test to aeasure how the grow experience was perceived
proved to be barren. It we suggested in Chmter IV that this ineffec-
tiveness aid'it lave hen the to lack of validity of the instrument.

The perception instruont was useful as a name ofeaqaressed
desires of the isolates to be like other individuls in the group. at:
lheir significant preference to be like the stars rather than like
other isolates ins imlications which relate to the design of this 3
stuck. It was hypothesised that isolates of the aixed group would 3
opulence are simificant chame in the dependent variables than
those in the grain: comosed entirely of isolates. Although the hypo-
thesis as mt sustained, it has been pointed out that there was fail-
ure to achieve a therapeutic relationship within the aixed group. “this
expressed preference to be like nonisolates would suggest tilt stars
aimt in fact serve as valences to isolates in a group if a therapeutic
atmsphere could he achieved.

why a therapeutic cliaate was not adiieved is unlmown. A lack
of significant interchange and relating characterized the group. Hea-
bers. seeaed not to perceive the situation as other tuna school emper-
ience there the labits of politeness-adreepecttakaprecedence over
comaication at affective and aaningful levels. The reasons for the
smerficiality in the relatedness of the group are difficult to assess
beyond the general ohviom conclusions tint urntnown personal factors in
the tyinaics of the group were operating to inhibit aeaningful conni-
cd: ion. A tentative conclusion, based on the not that a deeper level
of relationship was achieved in the group coqaosed entirely of isolates,
would he tint individmls fma two widely contrasting sociometric levels

13h

have serious difficulties in relating at a personally aeaningful level,
and in perceiving themselves as a grow. Another tentative diagnosis
would point to factors in the group's perception of the counselor.

One of the few unstructured mlmtive state-eats written in the space
provided on the perception instrumt by one 'star' froa Group B was
this: '1 think they did rot like the grow became of the leader.'

Conclusion
Assuaim that the test scores mich were used in this experiaent
reflected me Wit seoas appropriate to conclude that, with

r__.—._._.m—ea:u‘..vwsr -l‘a ‘
1‘ . \U ‘ ‘
i
v
I

a qualification, psychological grow counseling is an effective treat-
aent for isolates in practicing desired (flanges in the self-structure and
in terporarily reducing enxiety. The qulification iqlied by the out-
cues of the stow is that inangeneous grouping of isolates is necessary,
tint is, psychological grow counseling is not effective with a aixed
grow composed of isolates and stars. Nrthermre, the straw imlies
tlat psyclological group comaeling of isolates is mt effective as a
mans of imroving their socioaetric status. It appears tint if left
to chance inroveaent in socioaetric choice status would occur as read-
ily as through counseling. It was earlier suggested that the incidental
effects of group counseling my lave tended to incruse the later of
socioaetric rejections of oounselees. ~ 3

Renting the results of the shady to the theoretical assumtion
that inroved self-concept wwld be reflected in iqaroved socioaetric
status lads to mrthsr consents. It might be that behavior perm
by which the isolate is judged my mt crime as rapidly as self-
perceptions change. It light be that habitual isolates lack kmledge

 

135

or skill to mks changes in patterns of interpersoml relationships.
It night also be that their peers lack insight or ability to change
their habitual ways of perceiving and Judgim individuals who lave
occupied the sociometric status of social isolation. It should be
renowned that there was change in sociometric status which did accos-
pany change in self-cornept, but there is lack of evidence that the
change was‘due to counseling, since there was also change in the con-
trol groups.

A final note, imlied throughout this report, needs to be under-
scored. ‘ihis stucv has dealt. with a very snll nutter of research sub-

jects. The smallness of the sample would tend to obscure the results
of the statistical.8nalyses. Theemploratory nature of the problem

precludes the unqualified acceptance of the conclusions but points

toward ares there further exploration is needed.

IQlications for further research

When this experiaent was planned a umber of alternatives in
designwere mained mich for various rusons were eliaimted. ‘me
results of the stuthr as it developed bear imlications that further
research, including some of these eliminated alternatives and other
aspects of design, sigmt be fruitful. The following suggestions are
approaches to further research which might contribute to the under-
stmriing of the value of psychological group counseling as a treatment
fcr socially isolated adolescents.

l. A replication of the study by another comelor aidmt help
to isolate the factors which inhibited a therapeutic experience in the
nixed group, and to confine or refute the probability of achieving
desirable resilts in other homogeneous groups of isolates.

136

2. A design which included a nixed group comosed of isolates
and of the prticular stars scionetrically chosen by the isolates of
tin group would throw additional light on certain variables: whether
a group thus conposed could relate more significantly, or whether, on
the other hand, the significant factor in the homogeneous gmup nig'it
have been the shame of clinte from the habitual low sociometric
status spammed in the honeroon to a clinte of comarable equility
in the honogeneous group of isolates.

3. A shun! night be quite valznble which could be conducted in
a school district large enough to yield a mre‘selective saqale, fma
which highly rejected subJects would be elinimted, and “pure isolates.
alone mad he used. _ i

h. A replication of the study night be done using boys imtead
of girls, or using a nixed group of boys and girls.

5. Work night he done to may and validate the Perception in-
stsuaert or to crate another such instrunent which would be useful in
predicting iaprovenent in counseling subjects.

6. Since social isolation was'measured only in terms of
sociometric choices by schoolmates, a study which would take into

acenunt sociometric stntus outside of school would help to refine

the results and clarify the implications of the study.

_ l _‘__,..._—<—~4.-.:I
‘ a I

fax—mg.“ 8-1.1‘u.

“KI (NV
p...“

APPENDIXA

SWY OF 6101!? canal-11m SESSIOB

 

APPEIJIXA

SW? 0? WP cmmm 5855103

m Aucogosed entirely of isolates

Fran the first neetim there were elenents of We inter-
action felt to be present in Group A. ibunselor felt she success-
fully commented to the group a sense of group responsibility, and

 

of her relationship to the group. In an early session the renrk by
one girl tint l'no one in here likes to talk,‘ indicated‘the sense of
idmtification with each other which characterized the group. At the
fourth and fifth aess ions there were vigorous discussions, with several
speaking at once, on topics including an exciting school mnce, criti-
cisn of teachers am school, and complaints of a sports decision deaed
unfair. Counselor attempted to restructure, encouraging subjects to
l isten while one person talked. ~

The tape recorder had been used in the first three sessions, and
was bscught apin for the sixth session. This occasioned an expression
01‘ panic from one number who had several tines discussed at length her
feel ing of panic when teachers called on her in class. Other group
III-here offered unierstanding and support. Counselor decided mt

to use the tape recorder.
At the eighth session there was decline in entmsiasn and con-

plaint. abut the adjusted 1m hour, which was later than the rest
°f the semth grade. The ninth session was a peak with good inter-
a""401: and almst umninous participation. Couplaints about certain

137

 

138

teachns were expressed. One girl told of helm teased rqaeatedly by
the boys, and other asters gave her advice. After that there were
tines tint mrale slipped and the various structuring devices discussed
at the end of this section were needed to keep the group going. At
tines there were indications of veiled hostility towards the counselor,
for eagle, when the group decided to “amiss. with a president
ltd other officers.

A crisis developed shortly before the eniof the experinent.
The gminddecided to write. One girl, who had wanted to step caning
a week or so earlier and ind shown a great dnl of general hostility,
readto thegmrpwhatshehndwritten, whichusthatshehated every-
one inthe group, prtiallarlyone glrlwhonshsmnsd. The girl railed
had been the mst verbal in amassing her own problens thrcumout the '
experimt, Ild registered sue sheds. (bunselor offered support by
sayim tint ever-you wants to be like, but also tried to convey accep-
tance to the hostile girl. ‘ihe allowing week a filnstrip ind been
planned: ”bit to Understand Other People,‘ which included a bit about
foregiveness. The girl for whu hate had been expressed said to the
instile girl that she lat forgive. The instile girl said: “Forgive,
but not forget." A truce sealed to take effect but there was not tine
enough to work out the involved feelings.

Structure provided for this groxp included mas cards at the
ra- st session and thesuggestion for the group nesbers to introduce
theaselves and tell a bit about their hnilies, hobbies, and other
itens of interest. Other structural elenents case at varied intervals
as needed. Several tines paper and pencils were supplied for drawing,
scribbling, or writing, when the groqa desired then, which appeared to

 

139

be useful in relasing tensions. Role playing was introduced as a gene
on one occasionwhengroup noralewas rather lowand nepers had pro-
posed playing I'gossip." The role pinying was used by the group to
express hostility towards certain teachers. On another occasion nounted
magazine pictures were used as a projective technique to induce stories
an! discussion fron the group. A filn, |'You and Your Friends," sti-i-
lated sone neanimful discussion, and the filnstrip, ”lbw to Understairi
Other People,‘ evoked sons affective interactim.

MB—comosed of isolates and stars
The nixed group got off to a bad start. There was a firedrill

at the tins the first session was to nest. After the firedrill sib-
jects were called on the public address systen for the counselim group
meeting. Self-introdictions were sterotyped, with no feeling of involve-
nent apparent. The early sessions of the group were without active
participation by group seabers except as counselor directed questions
or eon-em to individuals. A typed list of 'probleas" was used as
a possible stiisilus for discussion but there was in response. w the
fifth nesting there was sone sharing of probleas about disagreenent with
parents and about test difficulties, but only in response to (piestioning
by the counselor. However, one permn who arrived urly talked freely
and with affect before other sewers arrived about her difficulties at
hone. may silences characterised this group and enthusiasn was never
in evidence.

Toward the niddle of the eiqoerinental period stixailus techniques
were introduced which were nildly effective. Passages in which students
discussed personil problems were rad fron‘i‘he Inchmandnthe Child.305

 

1’30

mis readim evoked sone sharing of similar experiences. Another tine
sibJects were encouraged to write either a topic for discussion or
their biggest wish. The results provided nterial for ten sessions.
ma file, filnstrip, and mounted ”sine pictures used with Group A
were particularly useful with this gmup, sti-dating discussion and
questions about chitin and interpersonal beinvior.

Attenhnce and punctmlity was irregular, but on a few occa-
sions when attenuate was unusually snll there was freer co-anication.
The grow never relaxed enough to speak out without raising their
hands first for acknowledge-ent. ‘

 

APPENDIX B

TESTING INSTRUMENTS
Sociometric Test
Self-Acceptance Scale

Children's Manifest
Anxiety Scale

Perception of Group
Experience Scale

Sociometric Test

YOU AND YOUR FRIENDS

Your answers to the questions on these pages are to help us find out how seventh

graders feel about each other. What you write has nothing to do with school, and
no one in your room will see your answers, so answer with your true feelings. Do
not show your paper to others or discuss your answers. You may use the same per-
son's name as often as you wish in order to answer with your true feelings. Write
each person's full name, first and last. Do not write your name on the paper.

Section A These questions refer only to the boys and girls in your home room.

With whom would you _m9__s_t_ like to do each of the following activities? With whom
would you least like to do them? In the spaces below write the names of your
first and second choices of girls and first and second choices of boys, for each
activity, and also the name of the girl and the boy with whom you would least
want to do the activity. If it is an activity you would only want to do with
girls - or only with boys - leave the other spaces blank. Please answer as you
really feel.

1. Attend a basketball game

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

lat choice (girl) f (b0?) ._

2nd choice (girl) (boy)

I would least want

to do it with (girl) __ (boy)
2° 22%

1st choice (girl) ________ (boy)

2nd choice (girl) _ (boy) ___ “a

I would least want

to do it with (girl) (boy)_ _ w ._
3- Mass-9.0.2

1st choice (girl) - _- __ (boy)

2nd choice (girl) (boll) -

 

 

m - V f—

I would least want

to do it with (girl) ________, (boy)

 

 

4. Write your favorite activity:

 

(If it is one of the three above, leave the choice spaces blank below.)

 

 

 

 

 

1st choice (girl) (boy)
2nd choice (girl) -..-.-... (boy)
I would least want

to do it with (girl) (boy)

 

 

141

2

Section :3, These questions refer to the entire seventh grade in your school, all
the seventh grade rooms.

1. Who is your best friend in your grade at school?"

 

2. Who is your second best friend in your grade?

 

 

(If you haste finished Section A and Section B, do as much of Section C as you have
time for.

Section 5; These questions refer only to the people in your home room. Answer
as you really think.

1. Who is the most pepular girl in your home mom?

Who is the least popular girl?

 

 

2. What girl do you think has the most fun at school?

 

What girl has the least fun?
3. Who is the best looking girl in the room?
Who is the least good looking?
4. Who is the most popular boy in your home room?
Who is the least pOpular boy?

-v‘ 00—- _' "flow-“

5. What boy do you think has the most fun at school?

 

What boy has the least fun?

 

“o-ooo-e-o- v— ‘— “om—ow

6. Who is the best looking boy in the room?

Who is the least good looking boy?

 

142

S lf-A t S 1
e ccep ance ca e Number

THINKING ABOUT YOURSELF AND OTHERS

General lptroduction: Your answers to the questions on these pages are to help
us find out what seventh grade girls think about themselves and others. There
are no "right" or "wrong" answers. Each girl will answer differently. No one in
your room will ever see your answers, so answer with your true feelings, and do
not show your paper to those around.you. So that your answers will remain secret,
you are asked to put the number assigned to you on the page instead of’your'nwme.

General Instructions: You are to indicate your answers by
placing an "X" in the column which tells how you feel about each question.

SECTION I

Directions: Read the sentences which tell about different kinds of boys and girls
yourlage. After reading each sentence, answer the question which asks to what ex-
tent you feel you are like.the person described. Then answer the second question
which asks to what extent you would like to be like the person described.

VERY QUITE. eds- *fidl‘wlfoi
“MUCH :A ‘wsm VERY AT
:HUCH ALL

-_.~_....- me».-

 

 

1. This is someone who feels that others don't 2 3
like her - someone whom nobody seems to care about.; 3

Am I like this person?

 

f
i
i
X

i
would I like to be like this person? i 5

—~— 4.- .oq.— .ea

2. Here is someone who has lots of friends;
peeple seem to like her.

Am,l like this person? ;

‘WOuld I like to be like this person?

'- only. ...."... .-

3. This is someone who is thought to be a nice
looking person - to be reasonably clean and
neat in appearance.
Am I like this person? i - ' ;
Wouldl like to be like this person? ? . I

4. Here is a person who loses her temper and be- i ; I
comes angry because some little thing goes wrong. '

Am.I like this person?

- ".0... -

‘WOuld I like to be like this person?

5. This person's feelings are hurt easily, and
she is often upset and almost in tears.

Am.I like this person?

s
1..-] -epo~v~-~—n..--] .m-i -...-— . ~ —

‘Wbuld I like to be like this person?

 

3
T" -.._.
i
i
i

145

m
0
l
O
i ' .
‘ .— —— L’.‘ {—— *'
I
#—

 

'. ‘12., .

6. Here is someone who is a hard worker - who
tries to do his or her best in important things
that have to be done.

Am.I like this person?

WOuld I like to be like this person?
7. This is someone who doesn't care at all about
schoolwork or what is going on and who just sits
and daydreams a lot.

Am I like this person?

WOuld I like to be like this person?

8. This person is happy and cheerful most of the
time - and seems to enjoy what she does.

Am I like this person?
WOuld I like to be like this person?

9. Here is a girl who thinks she can do many
things about as well as most people her age.

Am I like this person?

WOuld I like to be like this person?
10. This is someone who feels scared when
:meeting new people and dislikes being in new and
different situations.

Am I like this person?

WOuld I like to be like this person?

144

v1?) RY
" l-i‘UCI
iSO

-.--...- 9.-..

- .o‘ux -—.-— u.

-——.- -—

 

 

Q
g A E \JHAT
' BIT ;

NOT
VERY
MUCH

O
a

NOT g
AT ;

 

 

—. ---...vw..~—-< . *O-“\-w-"-“.- ——.—...--<

 

 

 

m‘p- - IIV- m Dr,

 

— a-e age.-. ‘----4—

- ~-~-.—— o...-

 

E‘WII-"n -e ~«-.~ A- _ - e

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale
fr QUESTIONS ABOUT YOU
Instructions: Read each question carefully. Put a circle around the word

YES if you think it is true about you. Put a circle around the word NO if
you think it is not true about you.

1. It is hard for me to keep my mind on anything. YES NO
2. I get nervous when someone watches me work. YES NO
3. I feel I have to be best in everything. YES NO
4. I blush easily. YES NO
5. I like everyone I know. YES NO
6. I notice w heart beats very fast sometimes. YES NO
7. At times I feel like shouting. YES NO
8. I wish I could be very far from here. YES NO
9. Others seem to do things easier than I can. YES NO
10. I would rather win than lose in a game. YES NO
11 I am secretly afraid of a lot of things. YES NO
12. I feel that others do not like the way I do things. YES NO
13. I feel alone even when there are people around me. YES NO
14. I have trouble making up my mind. YES NO

15. I get nervous when things do not go the right way for me. YES NO

16. I worry most of the time. YES NO
17. I am always kind. YES NO
18. I worry about what my parents will say to me. YES NO
19. Often I have trouble getting my breath. YES NO
20. I get angry easily. YES NO
21. I always have good manners. YES NO
22. My hands feel sweaty. YES NO
23. I have to go to the toilet more than most people. YES NO
24. Other children are happier than I. YES NO
25. I worry about what other peeple think about me. YES NO
26. I have trouble swallowing. YES NO

145

27a

28.
29.
5o.
31.
32.
53.
34.
35-
36.
57.
3s.
59.
4o.
41.
42.
43.

45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.

53.

I have worried about things that did not really make any

difference later.

my feelings get hurt easily.

I worry about doing the right things.

I am always good.

I worry about what is going to happen.

It is hard for me to go to sleep at night.

I worry about how well I am doing in school.

I am always nice to everyone.

my feelings get hurt easily when I am scolded

I tell the truth every single time.

I often get lonesome when I am with people.

I feel someone will tell me I do things the wrong way.
I am afraid of the dark.

It is hard for me to keep my mind on my school work.
I never get angry.

Often I feel sick in my stomach.

I worry when I go to bed at night.

I often do things I wish I had never done.

I get headaches.

I often.worry about what could happen to my parents.
I never say things I shouldn't.

I get tired easily.

It is good to get high grades in school.

I have bad dreams.

I am nervous.

I never lie.

I often.worry about something bad happening to me.

146

page 2

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES
YES
YES
YES
YES

YES

YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES

YES

YES
YES
YES

NO
NO
NO
NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

. l

v 3: ~51

F‘P‘

T"”““ .1-.-,_.__.___._.. .1

1147

Perception of Group Experience Scale

FDVYOUMAKNTYOURGROUP

General Instructions: We want to 1mm how you feel about this group.
lYour answers 5 Efiese questions will have nothing to do with school,
so answer as you really feel. Do not show your answers to anyone.
Read each question carefully and follow imtructions. Cross out your
own name each time it appear.

I. We want to know if you think that other settlers of the group have
the same kind of feelirgs you lave. Write in front of each girl's
inns one letter, 2, b, or g, which best describes what you think.

3. I think she feels a lot like I feel.
2. I think she feels a little like I feel.
3. I think she does not feel at all like I feel.

II. We want to kmw if you would like to be like others in the group.
Write in front of .ch person's me one letter, a, b, orc which
best describes low you feel abott. her.

3. I would lib to be a lot like her.
3;. I would like to be a little like her.
3. I would not like to be at all like her.

111. Wewant to m howyou think sad: were: this group feels about
you. Write in front of each person's me one letter, a, b, or c,
which describes best how you think she feels about you.

3. I think she likes no. ‘

g. I think its does not like as.
g. I think she does not care, neither likes nor dislikes me.

FIT;

 

IV.

1148

We want to know how you think most students feel about each girl in
this group. Write g, g, or 5., which tells how you think they feel.

9. They m not like her.
3. They neither like nor dislike her, Jut don't care.

,an-v“,
I
,l

—.—_——f-t. . A

V.

VI.

11:9
We want to know how you feel about the group leader. Please put
an x in front of ash item that describes how you feel.
___It's easy to talk with her.
___I do lot like her. 7
__I sometimes feel afraid of tar.

____I would feel free to talk with lur about thims that are inor-
tant to as.

____I could not trust herwithq secrets.
____I feel it's hard to talk with her.

mane-r» -01: .‘K' 1-- “‘1"
I :4
5"1'1'1"? r),

___I feel I could trust her with q secrets.

___I would not want to talk with her about inortant letters.
____I like her.

___I feel comfortable with her.

We want to know how you think the lader of the group feels about
you. After uch of the statements listed below there are three
blami spaces. Put an X in the first space under a if you third: the
stataalt is“ true lost of the tine: put an X in the second space
under 2 if you thimh. statement is true some of the tint; put
an x in the third :pace under c if you thim statement is
almstnevertnie. Besureaiflputanlingggspaceaftereachof

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

our sateaents.

a. lbst of b..Scne of c. Almst

the ties the ties newer
She likes v 1.1.3. -—-: --- .r.._,
She understands how I feel. ' "" 11"“ [7.1.
~ ___4 i__—., ,__i.
Shelikesn. _ 3 , .
'L——J ‘I—J' l—ud.
She is interested in as. 3""; Jr—‘W r—-'

 

 

VII.

VII I.

150
He want to know how you feel about your experience in the group.
Place an X in front of each statuaent that you feel is true.
___It has helped us to understand melf better.
___It hrs helped are to understand the others better.
___It ins been a waste of tin.
___It has not helped as in understanding others.
____I would not want to «b it again.
__It has not helped are in understanding melf.
____I would like to do it again. ,
___I suggest tint other people do this.

We want to know how you think the other meters of the group feel‘
about the experience of the group. Place an x in front of each
statement tint tells how you think that feel.

___‘l'hey feel it has helped then unierstand each other.

___‘l'hey feel it has been a waste of tine.

___It ins helped then understand themselves better.

___1hey would mt want to do it again.

___‘mey feel it has rot helped them understand each other.
___They feel it would be worth doing again sonetine.

___‘ihq feel it has not helped them understand the-selves.

____‘l'hqr feel it has been a good way to spend the time.

. If there is anything else you would like to say about this exper-

ience, please write it here.

:Y fir—“J-.:‘fl

Y

AU.’

l.

2.

3.

h.
S.

9.

10.

ll.

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