EFFECTS OF PROGRAMMED AND HUMAN. V:

SUPERVISION 0N IMMEDIATE AND
DELAYED TEMPORAL DIMENSIONS
IN THE TEACHING OF A SPECIFIC

COUNSELOR s‘IIILL * '

Dissertation for the Degree of PM D.

MICHI IGAN STATE UNIVERSITY I
DAVID NATHANIEL DEGEMA
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ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF PROGRAMMED AND HUMAN SUPERVISION
ON IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED TEMPORAL
DIMENSIONS IN THE TEACHING OF
A SPECIFIC COUNSELOR SKILL

By

David Nathaniel Oegema

This experiment was focused on an investigation of various
methods of supervision for teaching concreteness, a specific counselor
skill. Two methods of supervision, programmed and human, were combined
with an immediate and a delayed temporal dimension. Programmed super-
vision referred to feedback, instruction, and reinforcement provided
by a multimedia (slides and audiotape) technique and a programmed
manual. Human supervision referred to feedback, instruction, and
supervision provided by a trained graduate-level supervisor. The
immediate temporal dimension was defined as an interaction following
each trainee response. The delayed temporal dimension was defined as
an interaction occurring only after a specific portion of the instruc-
tion had been completed.

A counselor training program was developed to analyze the
effectiveness of the independent variables on the teaching of concrete-
ness. Concreteness, or specificity of expression, was defined as the
ability to describe situations in behavioral or measurable terminology.

Concreteness was taught to the counselor trainees through the use of

David Nathaniel Oegema

Counselor Tacting Response Leads, or CTRL's. A CTRL was defined as a
counselor response lead which would evoke a client tacting response,
i.e., a verbal response which either described a particular abstract
concept in more operational or behavioral terms, or which gave specific
examples of whatever the client was trying to communicate.

This experiment involved a repeated measures design (Campbell
& Stanley, 1963) with four covariates and three posttest measures.
Three personality scales from Holland's Vocational Preference Inventory
(1970) were used as covariates, along with a pretest rating of the
number of CTRL's present in a five-minute audiotaped counseling segment.
Personality scales used were the Realistic, Conventional, and Social.
The short-term posttest measure included a 25-question standardized
cognitive test and a Zl-question affective measure. The long-term
posttest, given three weeks after the experiment, included a lZ-question
cognitive test and a Zl-question affective measure. Possible transfer
of training was measured through a rating of the number of CTRL's
present during a five-minute audiotaped counseling segment. Four treat-
ment groups were used, in addition to a non-active control group.

Instruction was presented in three phases. In Phase I a
multimedia technique was utilized to present an introduction to con-
creteness, along with roleplayed counselor-client interactions illus-
trating appropriate and inappropriate examples of CTRL‘s. In Phase 2
short client segments were presented through slides and audiotape, and
each subject (§) was asked to choose appropriate CTRL's from a prepared

list. In Phase 3 short client segments were presented through slides

and audiotape, and §s were asked to develop an appropriate CTRL on their

David Nathaniel Oegema

own. §s in the programmed supervision groups received supervision
totally through the multimedia presentation. §§ in the human super-
vision groups received supervision from a trained graduate-level
supervisor. §s who received immediate feedback were given 10 short
periods of supervision. §s who received delayed feedback received
two longer periods of supervision. Each of the three phases included
five client segments, for a total of l5 segments used in instruction.
Total instruction time was limited to 45 minutes. Each §_received
individual instruction.

The S; for this study were master's degree candidates in
counseling at Michigan State University. All §s were aware that they
were participating in an experiment. The original 49 S; were randomly
assigned to four treatment groups and one non-active control group.

The criterion measures used in this study were formulated
to examine the separate and combined effects of programmed and human
supervision combined with immediate and delayed temporal dimensions.
During the cognitive measures the §s were asked to place themselves
in the role of a counselor, listen to a short client segment, and
respond with an appropriate CTRL. The short-term cognitive test con-
tained 25 questions, and the long-term test included l2 questions.

All §s received the cognitive tests. Each §fs response was rated by
three independent raters. Interrater reliabilities were .92 for the
short-term test and .73 for the long-term test. The two audiotaped
measures, pretest and posttest, were rated by three independent raters.
Interrater reliabilities were .9l for the pretest and .58 for the

posttest transfer-of-training measure. On the affective measures,

David Nathaniel Oegema

§s were asked to respond to statements describing the instructional
experience by ranking their feelings on a series of seven-point bipolar
scales. Only §s involved in the four treatments were given the
affective measures.

It was hypothesized that S; who received instruction through
programmed supervision would make more CTRL's on the short-term cogni-
tive measure, long-term cognitive measure, and transfer-of-training
measure than §s who received instruction through human supervision.
§s who received immediate feedback were hypothesized to be superior on
the same measures to §s who received delayed feedback. An interaction
effect between supervision and feedback was hypothesized which would
result in the following order of effectiveness on all posttest measures
as ranked from high to low: immediate-programmed supervision > delayed-
programmed supervision > immediate-human supervision > delayed-human
supervision. It was also hypothesized that the same rank order would
be found as a result of §s responding to the short- and long-term
affective measures. The data were analyzed using multivariate and
univariate analyses of covariance. The four covariates were included
in all analyses. Alpha levels for the multivariate hypotheses were
set a priori at a=.05, which resulted in univariate alpha levels rang-
ing from a=.Ol to a=.05. An unbalanced design was used for all
analyses.

No statistically significant differences were found for any
of the hypotheses tested for the short-term measures, the long-term
measures, or the transfer-of-training measure. Statistically signifi-

cant differences were found between the treatment and control groups

David Nathaniel Oegema

on the short- and long-term cognitive measures. Individual treatment
groups were compared to the control group, with statistically signifi-
cant differences (0=.Ol) found on the short-term cognitive measure
between the control and the immediate-programmed supervision group, the
control and the immediate-human supervision group, and the control and
the delayed-human supervision group. A statistically significant
difference (a=.Ol) was found between the control and the delayed-human

supervision group on the long-term cognitive measure.

EFFECTS OF PROGRAMMED AND HUMAN SUPERVISION
ON IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED TEMPORAL

DIMENSIONS IN THE TEACHING OF
A SPECIFIC COUNSELOR SKILL

By

David Nathaniel Oegema

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services,
and Educational Psychology

1974

To
Flo
and

Jimmy

11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to recognize personally and express
appreciation to the following individuals:

To Dr. Herbert Burks, Jr., who served as the chairman of my
doctoral committee. I am greatly impressed by his dedication, guid-
ance, and personal attention during my period of study.

To Dr. Norman Stewart, who guided my professional training.
I admire his teaching skills and hope that some day my skill may
approach his.

To Dr. Bob Ninborn, who was always present and willing to
help. I wish that I had the variety of interests and knowledge of
counseling that he possesses.

To Dr. Fred Tinning, who was an advisor, neighbor, and
friend. He placed others above himself and always found time to help
a struggling student. Many of his ideas were included in this study.

To Dr. Dozier Thornton, who served as a committee member
from the Department of Psychology.

I would also like to express appreciation to my fellow
doctoral candidates who aided this study through suggestions, encourage-
ments, and participation as supervisors. My personal thanks go to
John Malacos, Nancy Voight, Pam Highlen, Dave Vandergoot, Steve Elson,

Roger Livingston, Ken Carrico, Nancy Martin, and Dave Fitch.

My wife, Flo, deserves special mention. She shared with me
all the heartaches and joys connected with these last two years of our

lives. No words can express what she means to me.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ......................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................ x
Chapter

I. RATIONALE ........................ 1

Introduction ..................... l

Purpose ........................ 4

Review of the Literature ............... 6

Simulation ..................... 7

Media ........................ 12

Modeling ...................... 15

Supervision ..................... 18

Feedback ...................... 22

Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRL's) ...... 24

Concreteness .................... 25

Summary ........................ 30

II. METHODOLOGY ....................... 31

Overview ....................... 31

Sample ........................ 35

Subject Assignment ................. 35

Subject Variable ................... 4O

Supervisors ...................... 40

Material Presentation ................. 41

Media Presentation ................. 41

Phase 1 ...................... 41

Phase 2 ...................... 41

Phase 3 ...................... 42

Treatment Groups .................. 42

Immediate-Programmed Supervision (Group 1) . . . . 42

Delayed-Programmed Supervision (Group 2) ..... 42

Immediate-Human Supervision (Group 3) ....... 43

Delayed-Human Supervision (Group 4) ........ 43

Control (Group 5) ................. 44

Measures ....................... 44

Chapter Page

Pretreatment Measure ................ 44
Short-Term Measure ................. 46
Long-Term Measure .................. 47
Transfer-of-Training Measure ............ 48
Facilities ...................... 49
Apparatus ....................... 50
Procedures ...................... 50
Pretest Measure ................... 50
Selection of Subjects ................ 51
Selection and Training of Supervisors ........ 51
Scheduling of Subjects ............... 53
Treatment Procedures ................ 53
Short-Term Measures ................. 56
Transfer-of-Training Measure ............ 56
Long-Term Measure .................. 57
Hypotheses ...................... 58
Hypothesis 1 .................... 58
Hypothesis 2 .................... 58
Hypothesis 3 .................... 58
Hypothesis 4 .................... 58
Hypothesis 5 .................... 58
Hypothesis 6 .................... 59
Hypothesis 7 .................... 59
Hypothesis 8 .................... 59
Hypothesis 9 .................... 59
Hypothesis 10 .................... 59
Hypothesis ll .................... 59
Hypothesis 12 .................... 59
Experimental Design .................. 59
Analysis of Data ................... 60
III. RESULTS ......................... 64
Covariate Effects ................... 66
Cognitive and Transfer-of—Training Measures ...... 66
Results of Tests for Hypotheses l and 6 ....... 69
Results of Tests for Hypotheses 2 and 7 ....... 71
Results of Tests for Hypotheses 3 and 8 ....... 72
Affective Tests .................... 74
Results of Tests for Hypotheses 4 and 9 ....... 77
Results of Tests for Hypotheses 5 and 10 ...... 79
Treatment X Control .................. 80
Results of Test for Hypothesis ll .......... 80
Results of Test for Hypothesis 12 .......... 85
Status of the Research Hypotheses ........... 85
IV. DISCUSSION ....................... 89

vi

Chapter Page
Overview ........................ 89
Limitations ...................... 93

Design ........................ 93
Equipment ...................... 94
Sample ........................ 95
Concreteness ..................... 95
Delayed Feedback ................... 97
Cognitive Measures: Short- and Long-Term ...... 97
Transfer-of—Training Measure ............. 98
Affective Measures: Short- and Long-Term ...... 99
Covariates ...................... 99
Conclusions and Implications .............. lOO
Suggestions for Future Research ............ 104
LIST OF REFERENCES ....................... 106
APPENDICES ........................... 115
A. SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..... 115
B. SCRIPT FOR PROGRAMMED SUPERVISION—IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK . . 120
C. HORKBOOK FOR INSTRUCTION ON THE COUNSELOR SKILL OF
CONCRETENESS ..................... 131
D. TRAINING SLIDE SEQUENCE ................. 140
E. ASSIGNMENT FORMS FOR TRAINEES AND SUPERVISORS ...... 141
F. SUPERVISOR'S AND RATER'S GUIDELINES ........... 142
G. INSTRUCTIONS FOR SUPERVISORS (TRAINING) ......... 147
H. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS ......... 149
I. WRITTEN TEST FRAMES, SHORT-TERM FORM .......... 150
J. PERSONAL REACTION SCALES ............. . . . 156
K. RATING FORM FOR AUDIOTAPED COUNSELING SEGMENTS ..... 159
L. RATING FORM FOR WRITTEN CTRL'S ............. 160
M. CORRELATIONS AMONG FOUR COVARIATES AND THREE DEPENDENT

VARIABLES ....................... 161

vii

Table

10.

11.

M-1.

LIST OF TABLES

Personal and Demographic Characteristics .........
Cell Sizes for Posttest Measures .............

Cell Means and Standard Deviations for Four Treatment
Groups on Seven Variables ........ . ........

Cell Means and Standard Deviations of Treatment X Control
on Seven Variables ....................

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Multivariate and Univariate
F Values Based on Four Treatments with Four Covariates

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based
on a Total Affective Test Score (Immediate and Delayed)
Across Four Treatments ..................

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based on
Affective Test Gain Scores (Immediate to Delayed) Across
Four Treatments ......................

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based on
Interaction (Groups X Repeated Measures) For Affective
Test ...........................

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Multivariate and Univariate
F Values Based on Treatment X Control Including Influence
of Four Covariates ....................

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Multivariate and Univariate
F Values Based on Treatments (Taken Individually) X
Control, Including Influences of Four Covariates .....

Summary of Tests of Hypotheses Analyzed by Multivariate
and Univariate ANCOVAs With Four Covariates ........

Correlations Among Four Covariates and Three Dependent
Variables Based on Four Treatment Groups .........

viii

67

76

86

Table Page

M-2. Correlations Among Four Covariates and Three Dependent
Variables Based on Treatment X Control .......... 162

M-3. Correlations Among Four Covariates and Three Dependent

Variables Based on Treatment (Taken Individually) X
Control .......................... 163

ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. Simulation Chart Including Levels of Simulation,
Trainee Behavior, and General Purpose of Each

Level .......................... 8
2. Assignment of Subjects to Treatment and

Supervisors ........... . ........... 54
3. Repeated Measures with Five Measures and Five

Groups .............. . ..... . . . . . 6l
4 Graphic Model of the Experimental Design ....... 62

CHAPTER I

RATIONALE

Introduction

 

The concept “counseling" has been defined in a variety of
ways. One such definition (Patterson, 1967) states:
Counseling (or psychotherapy) is a relationship, involving verbal

interaction, between a professionally trained person and an
individual or group of individuals voluntarily seeking help with

a problem which is psychological in nature, for the purpose of

effecting a change in the individuals seeking help (p. 82).
Assuming that Patterson accurate1y describes counseling, the task of
the counselor educator becomes that of training counselors capable of
verbal interaction and of effecting a change in the lives of others.

Ivey and Alschuler (1973) extend the role of the counselor

into an area they call "psychological education." Psychological educa-
tion assumes that the counselor is also an educator whose function is
remediation. The counselor would concentrate on the institution to
work on promoting psychological growth for all instead of the few in
crisis. The counselor would assume four functions.

1. He would work to increase the individual's intention-
ality, that is, to allow the individual to anticipate
alternative experiences and choose among them to attain
some desired goal.

2. He would use strategies to assure that the goals are

taught in the most Inclusive and effective ways poss-
ible.

3. He would stress that tactics employed should apply
to systems as well as individuals.

4. He would work to demystify the strategies and tactics
so that problem-solving skills could be taught to
the widest audience possible.

The approaches of Patterson, Ivey, and Alschuler involve
educating counselors and training them in the use of various skills.
However, the education process itself is in need of additional explor-
ation to determine what instructional techniques are of any benefit.
Bellucci (1972) states that "Counselor educators are constantly seek-
ing more effective methods relevant to the training and education of
school and college counselors. However, evidence regarding counselor
educators' relative effectiveness when employing various training
methodologies and procedures is, at best, contradictory and confusing
(p. 88)." The nebulous description of what occurs during counselor
training cited by Bellucci is expressed in similar terms by Hansen
and Warner (1971) in their concluding remarks regarding past research
on practicum supervision. They maintain that little has been added
to the useful knowledge of counselor education in areas of (a) the
role expected of supervisors and its effects on counselor trainees,
(b) new methods used in counselor preparation, and (g) counselor
changes during the training process. Whiteley (1969), writing on the
fate of counselor education, cites the need for a careful study of
what supervisors can do to enhance skill development of counselor
trainees.

The statements from Bellucci, Hansen and Warner, and White-

ley illustrate a general lack of knowledge about the effectiveness

of counselor training methods. Consumers who use the skills of the
counselor are'demanding that the guidance profession be accountable
for what occurs during the counseling process. The guidance profession
is attempting to meet the challenge of accountability (Costar, 1972;
Pulvino & Sanborn, 1972; Carey & Garris, 1971). One proposed method
of meeting this challenge for accountability is the use of instructional
objectives (Winborn, Hinds, & Stewart, 1971; Thoresen, 1969; Horan,
1972). An instructional objective, be it cognitive, affective, or
motor, is composed of three components (Mager, 1962):

a. Terminal behavior, i.e., the end performance behavior;

b. Conditions, i.e., the circumstances under which the
behavior is expected to occur;

c. Criteria of minimal acceptable performance, i.e., the

description of how well the learner must perform to

be considered adequate.
Once objectives have been defined in behavioral terms, the instructor
may create or select the necessary equipment and instructional compon-
ents that will assist in the attainment of these objectives. Winborn,
Hinds, and Stewart (1971) report that innovative teachers are experi-
menting with the use of instructional systems, programmed learning,
computer assisted instruction, simulation techniques, and instructional
media. Thoresen (1969) proposed the use of a variety of equipment such
as videotape, computers, and data-processing hardware to meet effec-
tively the challenge of training counselors. Thoresen also proposes
the use of a systems approach which would combine specific training

components in an effective and efficient manner. A systems approach

would include:

l. behaviorally stated performance objectives;

2. careful attention to the interaction of components;

3. information flow and feedback mechanisms;

4. various man-machine combinations.
The effective and efficient procedure described by Thoresen also
includes an emphasis on the cost-effectiveness of various instructional
systems. Training methods are continuing to be scrutinized for effec-
tiveness, but increasing emphasis is also being placed on efficiency.
Industry has considered the problem of efficiency for some time and
has developed a program referred to as PPBS, or the "Planning, Program-
ming, and Budgeting System" (Lopez, 1970). Thoresen emphasizes the
need for a similar type of planning, with a possible solution being the

systems approach.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness
of programmed supervision versus human supervision in teaching concrete-
ness, which is a specific counselor skill. Concreteness involves
expressing the client's concerns in specific and measurable terminology.
Supervision (programmed and human) was combined with immediate and
delayed temporal dimensions to examine any interaction between time and
feedback on the correctness of a particular response. Programmed
supervision refers to feedback, instruction, and reinforcement provided
by audio and video media and programmed written material. Human super-
vision refers to feedback, instruction, and reinforcement provided by

a trained graduate-level counselor. The immediate temporal dimension

is defined as an interaction following each trainee response. The

delayed temporal dimension is defined as an interaction occurring only

after a specific portion of the instruction has been completed.

Effective programmed supervision could lead to widespread

applications such as the following:

1.

Programmed supervision would be controllable, i.e., there
would be a conSIStency of Instruction across trainees.

The cost-effectiveness of such a program would meet the
challenge of accountability by providing a quality product
for a predetermined cost.

Instruction could occur at any time and would not be
contingent upon an interaction involving a given group
of people.

The trainee could recycle for additional training.

A programmed technique could provide a uniform evaluation
across trainees, with no opportunity for personality
conflicts to occur.

Instruction could be presented in the exact form the

pro rammer desired. The media used could be constantly
eva uated and revised in accordance with the latest

research findings.

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that super-

vision methods used in counselor training are differentially effective

in increasing the use of Counselor Tacting Response Leads, CTRL's.

More specifically, the objectives of this research were to investigate

the:

short- and long-term effectiveness of programmed and human
supervision;

short- and long-term effectiveness of immediate and
delayed supervision;

short- and long-term effectiveness of specific inter-
actions between programmed and human supervision and
immediate and delayed temporal dimensions;

4. short- and long-term affective reactions toward
experiencing programmed and human supervision presented
on immediate and delayed temporal dimensions;

5. transfer-of- -training effectiveness of instruction on
CTRL' s to the use of CTRL' s in actual counseling interactions.

The effectiveness of supervision and instruction was evaluated
by various outcome measures. The short-term cognitive measure used the
frequency of Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRL's) made in response
to 25 standardized written client statements as the basis of comparisons
among treatments. The long-term cognitive measure used 12 standardized
written client statements randomly selected from the short-term cogni-
tive measure. Affective reactions toward the experience were measured
by a seven-point bipolar scale administered on both a short- and long—
term basis. Possible transfer of instruction on CTRL's to use in actual
counseling behavior was measured by the frequency of CTRL's made during
a randomly selected five-minute segment of an actual counseling inter-
view involving a discussion of the client's concerns which had been

audiotaped at the trainee's practicum setting.

Review of the Literature

In this section, the relevant empirical evidence and current
modes of inquiry regarding the areas of simulation, media, modeling,
supervision, feedback, and concreteness will be presented and analyzed.
Each will be placed in proper perspective relating to its inclusion in

this experiment.

Simulation

Miller (1972) refers to simulation as a controlled
representation of a real situation. Eisenberg and Delaney (1970)
suggest that simulation is something that assumes the appearance of
something else without really being the same. Twelker (1969) dis-
tinguishes between "role playing" and "role performing“ simulations.
Role playing involves a person practicing or assuming the identity of
someone else for a given period of time. Here the person plays a role
that he is unaccustomed to for the purpose of understanding the situ-
ation of that person. Role performing, however, involves a person
practicing his own future role.

Various levels of simulation have been identified, ranging
from a low theoretical and abstract level to a high concrete and
specific level containing most of the elements found in the desired
terminal behavior. Stewart and Hinds (1970) identified four levels
of simulation for teaching skills in counselor education, i.e., read-
ing and listening, modeling, practice responses and roleplaying and
supervised experience. These levels and their relationship to trainee
behaviors and general purposes of instruction are shown in Figure l.

Gagné (1962) describes the concepts presented by Stewart and
Hinds (1970) as various forms of psychological fidelity. Gagné main-
tains that learning will increase in relation to the fidelity of the
simulation experience. The higher the fidelity, i.e., the closer the
simulation experience corresponds to the real-life situation, the
faster learning will occur. Gagné further maintains that fidelity

influences the transfer of learning to other situations. "Lateral

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transfer" occurs when a concept is generalized to a broad class of
situations at about the same level of complexity. "Vertical transfer"
occurs when subordinate principles previously learned transfer to new
principles at high levels (Gagné, 1965).

The effectiveness of using simulated experiences for instruc-
tion and clinical training is well-documented (Tinning, 1973; Stone,
1972; Eisenberg, 1969; Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Thayer, Peterson,
Carr, & Merz, 1972; Panther, 1971; Danish, 1971; Kersh, 1965, 1958;
Beaird & Standish, 1964). Gysbers and Moore (1970) state that
simulation offers both an opportunity to provide a specific training
emphasis and an opportunity to experience guidance functions not norm-
ally obtainable under regular practicum conditions. Such experiences
as case conferences, PTA meetings, teachers' meetings, school board
presentations, and daily counselor experiences have been portrayed via
simulation. Panther (1971) includes the possibility of having a
counselor-teacher consultation experience using simulation as part of
the counselor training program. Kersh (1958, 1963, 1965) developed a
simulated classroom experience for beginning teachers. Each trainee
was asked to respond to various filmed classroom problems normally
faced by a teacher. Several alternative feedback sequences were avail-
able, depending on which response the trainee had made. Beaird and
Standish (1964) applied the procedure developed by Kersh to the counsel-
ing setting. Interview behavior was taught to trainees using a filmed
simulated counseling situation.

Tinning (1973) compared the use of simulated patients to

real patients in the training of first-year osteopathic medical students.

10

Simulated patients were programmed to respond as real patients.
Tinning concluded that simulated patients in a simulated clinical
environment could be considered a viable alternative as a method of
instruction while providing a vehicle for transfer of learning. Simu-
lation can allow the instructor maximum control of the student-client
interaction by controlling the extraneous environmental factors. Tin-
ning also concluded that psychological fidelity is more important than
physical fidelity and that simulation provides an effective means of
training relative to the cost involved. Delaney (1969) summarizes much
of the recent work on simulation as follows:

1. Simulation is effective as an instructional technique.

2. The use of a television monitor to present stimuli is
appropriate.

3. Realism in simulation is not a primary requirement for
transfer of tra1ning. 1

4. Simulation positively affects actual performance.

5. Simulation provides for economy of time while reducing
long-term expense.

6. The application of simulation techniques to counselor
education is both feasible and effective.

7. The use of prompts or cues is desirable as part of the
simulation program.

The work of Ausubel (1960) is relevant to the last statement of Delaney.
Ausubel proposes that cues and advanced organizers are effective in
reducing the rate of learning and increasing the retention of new
material. New material becomes incorporated into a person's cognitive
structure insofar as it is subsumable (organized) under relevant exist-
ing concepts. Cues and advanced organizers help this process occur

smoothly and quickly.

11

Stone (1972) proposed a distinction between high and low
fidelity simulation. Manual (written) and audio methods of instruction
were considered low fidelity, while video and in vivo methods of
instruction were considered high fidelity. In comparing the effects
of using various fidelities of simulation for modeling a behavior,
practicing the behavior, and testing for acquisition of the behavior,
Stone found a statistically significant effect due to presenting model,
practice, and test at a high fidelity level of simulation. The Low
Fidelity Mode1--Low Fidelity Practice-Low Fidelity Test Groups were low
in comparison with all other combinations. Any other combinations
among low and high fidelity levels of model, practice, and test per-
formed about equally.

The literature reviewed in this section tends to support the
conclusions of Delaney (1969) but also identifies several important
topics for additional consideration. A central theme in the use of
simulation is its cost-effectiveness as compared to other methods of
instruction. A second theme involves the fidelity of simulation and
its effect on learning. Finally, a third major theme involves the
transfer of learning from the training situation to the actual real-
life situation.

In the present study these three major themes--cost-effective-
ness, fidelity, and transfer--were incorporated and investigated.
Simulated counseling segments were utilized to present instruction on
Counselor Tacting Response Leads. Cost-effectiveness was investigated

through a comparison of human supervision and programmed supervision.

12

Transfer of learning was tested through a planned follow-up involving

audiorecordings from the trainees' practicum settings.

Media

Many varieties of media have been developed and used in the
field of counselor education; yet few concrete statements can be made
about which media should be used in what situation. Several studies
have shown that videotape is an effective means of instruction
(Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Myrick, 1969; Higgins, Ivy, & Uhlemann,

1970; Yoakley, 1971; Ryan, 1969; Poling, 1968; Frankel, 1971). Audio-
tape has also received support for its effectiveness as a technique of
instruction. Yenawine and Arbuckle (1971) compared the use of audiotape
and videotape as vehicles for feedback to practicum students. Students
were found to be threatened by videotape at the beginning of practicum
and actually identified more easily with audiotape. Myrick (1969) used
exposure to audio or video models to increase the frequency of self-
reference in a group of counselor trainees attending an orientation pro-
gram. Video modeling was found to be less effective than audio modeling.
It was hypothesized that video modeling provided too many cues, resulting
in confusion rather than learning. In other studies (English & Jelenevsky,
1971; Markey, Fredrickson, Johnson, & Julius, 1970; Ward, Kagan, &
Krathwohl, 1972) no differences in outcome were found among audio, video,
and audio-video media as methods of instruction. The writings of the
various authors cited in this section suggest that both audio and video
methods may be effective, depending upon the situation. Video media

add additional stimuli to the situation which may or may not be

13

beneficial. McDonald, Allen, and 0rme (1966) suggest, however, that
simply using media such as audio-visual feedback during instruction
has limited value unless accompanied by supervision. A particular
combination of audio-video media using slides and audiotape has been
shown to be as effective as videotape (Atherton, 1971; Kersh, 1963;
Delaney, 1969). I

Two methods of instruction that use videotape are inter-
personal process recall (IPR) and microcounseling. IPR, which was
developed by Dr. Norman Kagan, involves videotaping a short counsel-
ing session. The session is then stopped, and the client and a clin-
ical "recaller" replay and review the tape in an attempt to help the
client understand the underlying dynamics of the interaction. The
recaller is concerned with teaching the client how to gain insight
through the "self-confronting" experience on the videotape (Kagan,
Schauble, Resnikoff, Danish, & Krathwohl, 1969; Kagan & Schauble,
1969). The second method of instruction, microcounseling, is an off-
spring of microteaching, which was developed by McDonald and Allen
(1967) at the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching.
Usually a 5-25 minute teaching session is the core of the program,
with 4-5 pupils experiencing intense supervision, immediate feedback,
and evaluation by means of audio or video recordings. Ivey (1971)
describes the microcounseling model as consisting Of the following nine
steps:

1. The trainee enters a room where he will interview a
client.

2. A five-minute diagnostic session between the trainee
and client is videotaped.

14

3. The client leaves the room and completes an evaluation
sheet of the interview process. Evaluation sheets may
be used in supervisory sessions with trainees.

4. The trainee receives written material regarding specific
skills to be learned in the session. Instruction about
the manual and feedback on the diagnostic session are
given the trainee by the supervisor.

5. Modeling of the desired skill is done by prepared video-
tapes. Modeling may include both positive and negative
examples.

6. The trainee views his first videotaped session, with
discussion and feedback from the supervisor. The trainee
is asked to identify from his tape both positive and
negative examples of the skill being taught.

7. The trainee and supervisor review the skill and prepare
for the next session with the client.

8. The trainee reinterviews the same client for five minutes.

9. Feedback and evaluation are given the trainee by the
supervisor.

Microcounseling has been shown to be an effective use of videotape in
the teaching of skills such as expression of feelings, reflection of
feelings, and attending behavior (Elsenrath, Coker, & Martinson, 1972;
Miller, Morrill, Ivey, Normington, & Uhlemann, 1973; Miller, Morrill,
& Uhlemann, 1970; Parker, 1972; Guttman & Haase, 1970, 1972; Haase &
DiMattia, 1970; Haase, DiMattia, & Guttman, 1972; Ivey, Normington,
Miller, Morrill, & Haase, 1968; Perkins & Atkinson, 1973; Wittmer &
Lister, 1972).

The present experiment utilized multi-media (slides and
audiotape) as the method of instruction. Groups varied in the manner
in which the media were used. The programmed supervision groups
received instruction, modeling, and feedback entirely through media

and a programmed instruction manual. Human supervision groups received

15

instruction and modeling through the multi-media presentation, but
relied on graduate-level supervisors for feedback and additional

instructions.

Modeling

As conceptualized in the present study, modeling involves
watching another person perform some behavior and then incorporating
this observed behavior into one's own behavioral system. Bandura and
Walters (1963) state that patterns of observed behavior are typically
acquired in large segments, rather than through a piecemeal process as
customarily depicted in modern behavioral systems. The learner may
reproduce more or less the entire response pattern following demonstra-
tion by a model or a verbal description of the behavior. This learning
occurs even though no overt response has been made nor reinforcement
received by the learner.

Miller and Dollard (1941) describe four factors essential to
learning: drive, cue, response, and reward. These four factors operate
in two types of "imitation learning," another term for modeling. One
type of imitation learning is called "matched-dependent behavior," in
which an observer learns to match a model's response as a result of
reinforcement which is expressed vicariously or directly. The learner
may respond to cues from the model or may be directed by internal stimu-
lation. A second type of imitation is called "empathic learning." In
this case, the model receives the reinforcement, with the observer being
vicariously reinforced. As a result, the observer imitates the modeled

behavior.

16

Rotter (1966) defines two types of control (internal and
external) in explaining a concept called "control continuum reinforce-
ment." This concept was based on the assumption that the effect of
reinforcement following an individual's behavior depends upon whether
the individual has perceived a causal relationship between his behavior
and the environment. External control occurs when a subject perceives
reinforcement as following some action on his part, but not being
contingent upon his actions. Internal control occurs when a subject
perceives that an event is contingent upon his behavior or his own
relatively permanent characteristics. This distinction between internal
and external control may explain why a person may not need immediate
reinforcement by an outsider to confirm his certainty that a skill has
been executed properly. The person operates on his own internal rein-
forcement until external reinforcement can be obtained later (Bellucci,
1972).

Nye (1972) analyzes the use of live and symbolic models in
teaching a new skill or strengthening an existing skill. Live models
(Krumboltz & Thoresen, 1964) such as counselors, teachers, and peers
can demonstrate a desired skill with little, if any, previous planning
or instruction. Learning is enhanced if modeling is followed by a
role rehearsal by the observer under controlled optimum conditions.
Truax (1966) concludes that the counselor serves as a model during the
counseling interaction even though no attempt has been made to do so.
Symbolic models are provided through written material, audiotapes,
videotapes, and films. This type of modeling allows for more direct

control of the desired behavior but may involve additional preparation

17

prior to its use. Social modeling, either live or symbolic, has been
shown to be dependent to a large extent upon the identification of the
observer and the model. Transfer of learning depends upon model char-
acteristics such as age, intelligence, socioeconomic status, social and
vocational competencies, prestige, and power (Bandura, 1969). Symbolic
modeling seems to work best when incorporated into three steps (Nye,
1972):

1. Presentation involving written material on the skill or
behavior to be learned;

2. Presentation involving an audiotape, videotape, or film
in which one or more individuals illustrate the behavior;

3. Presentation involving a role-played or role rehearsal
situation in which the learner actually tries out the
new behavior.

Bandura (1969) distinguishes between learning a behavior
through modeling and the later performance of that behavior by the
observer. A learning analysis focuses on the variables operating at
the time of exposure to modeling that determine the degree to which the
modeled behavior is learned. The performance analysis focuses on the
person's willingness to perform a learned behavior. Reinforcement
indirectly influences the course of learning by focusing the observer's
attention on the desired characteristics. This attention variable is
important since simple exposure to modeling does not mean that a person
will notice the intended behavior (Bandura, 1968). Bandura (1969) pos-
tulates a multiprocess theory of observational learning where modeled
stimulus events are transformed and retained in a verbal or imaginal

memory code. Later environmental cues guide the reproduction of the

matching responses, which are regulated largely by reinforcing outcomes

18

that may be externally applied, self-administered, or vicariously
experienced.

Modeling has been used in a variety of ways in instruction.
LaFleur (1970) combined modeling with reinforcement and an attentional
or pre-organizer factor. Modeling with the pre-organizer provided a
viable tool for instruction. Payne, Weiss, and Kapp (1972) found that
modeling and didactic supervision are additive when teaching counselors
the skill of empathy. Whalen (1969) and Frankl (1971) found video-taped
modeling to be effective in instruction. Additional studies (Bandura,
1969, 1971; Eisenberg, 1969; Bandura & Walters, 1963; Whalen, 1969;
Stone, 1973; Elsenrath, Coker, & Martinson, 1972) have illustrated the
effectiveness of using a modeling process as part of instruction.

Modeled client counseling segments were used in the present
study as part of the supervision process. Symbolic models via multi-
media (slides and audiotape) presented client statements to which a
modeled counselor responded with an appropriate Counselor Tacting
Response Lead. Gradually the counselor was faded out, with the trainee

required to respond to the client statements.

Supervision

The word "supervision" has a variety of meanings that vary in
relation to the context in which they are found. Supervision may refer
to a managerial or administrative function, a consulting function, a
counseling function, or a learning or instructional function. If a

learning approach to supervision is used, the emphasis is on discovering

19

the best procedure or conditions under which the trainee can make
maximum use of the instruction.

Supervision usually involves a supervisor listening to an
audio- or video-taped counseling session or segment of a session and
giving feedback to the trainee in the form of comments and suggestions.
Walz and Roeber (1962) analyzed the types of comments usually made by
supervisors and found that 47% of the supervisor's comments were
instructional and an additional 26% were questioning comments asking
the trainee to describe why he performed a certain behavior. The con-
clusion was that the typical supervisor's response is cognitive and
information-giving with negative overtones. Klas and Peters (1973)
analyzed the relationship between theory of what should happen during
counseling and what actually happens during a counseling session.
Agreement was found that counselors used direct questions, interpreted
the client's statements, summarized the proceedings, and clarified the
client's statements.

Delaney (1973) has presented an outline of a possible super-
visory session. The supervisor is felt to be responsible for (a) help-
ing the counselor develop appropriate counseling skills and (9) main-
taining ethical and professional responsibility for the client's
welfare. The supervisory process as outlined by Delaney has five
basic steps:

1. initial session

2. development of a facilitative relationship

3. goal identification and determination of supervisory
strategies

20

4. use of supervisory techniques and strategies

5. termination and follow-up.

In working with the trainee, the supervisor uses three strategies:
(a) instruction, (b) modeling, and (g) reinforcement. Kelly (1971)
echoes the importance of the reinforcement potential that the super-
visor possesses.

Truax and Carkhuff (1967) stress that a supervisor should be
active. A supervisor should listen, interrupt, role play--in short,
"teach." Beginning-level trainees learn best from positive examples
with specific and concrete instruction. Carkhuff (1969) identifies
the facilitative level of the instructor or supervisor as being a
critical variable in the level of trainee functioning. Trainees tend
to move in the direction of their trainer; that is, trainees gain the
most with high facilitative-level trainers and lose the most or termi-
nate with low-level trainers. Results of several studies (Pierce &
Schauble, 1971a, 1971b, 1970; Hamachek, 1971) support this assumption.
Hamachek (1971) found that movement does occur toward the level of the
trainer, but states that a supervisor needs to be more than just a good
"model." A supervisor also needs to be a good “teacher," which may
take more (higher) cognitive ability than is acknowledged by Carkhuff
and Truax.

Supervision is typically studied by comparing the effects of
various supervisors on the level of functioning of their trainees.
Such a procedure involves the comparison of a technique-oriented versus
a counseling-oriented supervisor. Payne, Winter, and Bell (1972)

describe a technique-oriented supervisor as one who works for a

21

positive relationship with the trainee, but who focuses primarily on
the trainee's effectiveness in using the skills of empathy, warmth,
genuineness, and concreteness. The supervisor provides instruction
with open, direct suggestions for change. A counseling-oriented
supervisor is one who follows a "non-directive" procedure with the
focus on a positive relationship without negative evaluations or direct
suggestions for change. The technique-orientation has received support
as being more effective (Payne, Winter, & Bell, 1972; Birk, 1972; Boyd,
1971, 1973; Payne & Gralinski, 1968). Guttman (1973), however, main-
tains that the evidence is not sufficient. She states that most of the
research is still theoretical and that what has been done is question-
able and nondirectional. Mazer and Engle (1968) maintain that the
counselor educator and supervisor should focus on teaching the trainee.
They state that the most effective method of teaching may be impersonal,
with imaginative instructional methods minimizing personality conflicts
that are common in personal tutoring and interfere with training.
Jensen (1973) investigated a unique approach to the supervision of
MA-level counselor trainees. He compared the effects of face-to-face
supervision versus remote supervision by means of audiotapes exchanged
through the mail. Face-to-face supervision allowed for a highly per-
sonalized and individualized interaction when compared to remote super-
vision. However, face-to-face supervision is more expensive in terms
of time and personnel requirements and may be impractical in off-campus
and in-service situations. Jensen concluded that no difference existed

between groups in measured trainee competency due to the type of super-

vision received.

22

With the assumptions that supervision is instruction, that
instruction involves a technique orientation, and that imaginative
instructional methods can minimize personality conflicts, it is main-
tained that programmed supervision as used in the present study is a
Viable instructional technique. Specifically,;thi§.gxpgriment compared
the effects of human face-to-face supervision versus programmed super-

vision presented through a multi-media approach.

Feedback

Feedback provides information to the individual on his
behavior and its consequences on the environment and others around
him. Truax (1970) states that feedback is the basis of the phenomenon
of learning itself. Feedback provides information to the counselor on
the consequences of his behavior and on the setting and personnel where
he works, as well as on the client. Truax states that for feedback to
provide this quality control, it must be systematic and specific as it
relates to both the counselor and the client, and that this should be
emphasized in the counselor training program. Truax and Carkhuff
(1967) stress the use of immediate and concrete feedback during train-
ing. They maintain that feedback from clients is essential in providing
information to the counselor so that the counselor can modify, sharpen,
and reformulate hypotheses concerning the interaction. The counselor
needs to look for direct feedback from clients, such as behavior improve-
ment, and indirect feedback from research findings or clinical innova-

tions so that he is constantly improving his skills and techniques.

23

Feedback, as it relates to counselor effectiveness, has
received little attention in the literature; yet much needs to be
known. One area of investigation involves the influence of the practi-
cum supervisor and the quality and type of feedback that is provided
(Graves & Graves, 1973). The effectiveness of immediate over delayed
feedback has been illustrated in some studies (Reddy, 1969a, 1969b).
However, the results on this issue are confusing. Canada (1973) com-
pared the effects of immediate versus delayed feedback on trainees
receiving instruction on making open-ended statements and found no
significant difference between treatments. McDonald and Allen (1967)
propose as a possible explanation that in some cases a person may not
need immediate external feedback or reinforcement, but instead may be
able to operate on internal reinforcement until an external source is
available later. Forster (1969) compared programmed feedback to human
feedback in providing test results to students. Students seen by
counselors reported being more relaxed, although they did not improve
as much in the accuracy of self-estimation as did the programmed feed-
back group.

Gagné (1965) includes feedback as a primary step in the
learning or pairing of new stimulus objects with previously learned
stimulus situations. Gagné hypothesizes that learning involves:

l. the identification of previously learned instructions
which are associated with stimulus objects,

2. the linking of the existing stimulus instructions to
a new proper class that the learner has not previously
encountered,

3. the identification of additional instances of the stim-
ulus class beyond which specific chains have been
acquired,

24
4. the confirmation of the response to the stimulus
more or less immediately after its presentation.
Gagné concludes that some form of feedback from the environment must
occur during the process for the learner to realize that his perform-
ance is correct. This feedback may develop into an internal process.

Twelker (1969) and Gagné (1965) stress the importance of

transfer of learning. Twelker states that transfer occurs when a
previously learned skill, habit, or behavior influences the acquisition
of another skill at a later time. Positive transfer exists when the
second task is facilitated, while negative transfer results in the
inhibition of the later skill.

The present study involved an investigation of the effects
Cdg§rfignedggte and delayed feedback via programmed and human supervision
NUSNAEHeJINEFnIfingf the skill of concreteness by counselor trainees.
19Mgssible transfer of training to the actual counseling situation was

assessed through the rating of an audiotaped counseling segment recorded
by each trainee at his practicum setting.

Counselor Tacting Response
Leads (CTRL's)

 

Concreteness

Concreteness, or specificity of expression, may be described
as follows:

A low level of concreteness or specificity is when there is a
discussion of anonymous generalities, when the discussion is

on an abstract intellectual level. This includes discussions
of "real" feelings that are expressed on an abstract level.

A high level of concreteness or specificity is when specific

feelings and experiences are expressed--"I hated my mother!"

or ". . . Then he would blow up and start throwing things";

25

when expressions deal with specific situations, events, or
feelings, regardless of emotional content (Truax & Carkhuff,
1964, p. 266).

The concept of concreteness is highly relevant to the "System-
atic Counseling" process taught in the M.A. counseling program at Mich-
igan State University (Appendix A). This concept is particularly
applicable in helping to "Construct Model of Client Concerns," (Sub-
system 5.0), "Implement Strategy," (Subsystem 7.0), and again in
"Evaluate Client Performance," (Subsystem 8.0).

Concreteness is taught to the counselor-trainee through the
use of Counselor Tacting_Response Leads, or CTRL's. A CTRL is a
counselor response lead which will evoke a client tacting response,
i.e., a verbal response which either describes a particular abstract
concept in more operational or behavioral terms, or which gives spe-
cific examples of whatever the client is trying to communicate. The
concept of a CTRL has its basis in the description of a verbal "tact"
(Skinner, 1957). A tact is defined as "a verbal operant in which a
response in given form is evoked (or at least strengthened) by a
particular object or event or property of an object or event (Skinner,
1957, p. 81)." The tact directs attention toward an object or event
in the environment. A tact attains strength by being reinforced in a
given verbal community. The response to the tact "refers to," “men-
tions," "announces," "talks about," "names," "denotes," or "describes"
its stimulus. Tacts, then, may be considered verbal responses which
(3) describe abstract concepts in behavioral terms or (b) give specific

examples of what is being communicated by the sender. Verbal tacts

26

may be descriptions of behaviors or environmental events associated
with the behaviors.

Four classes of client verbal tacting responses may be

delineated:

1. Those which offer operational definitions to previous
abstract referents (e.g., "When I said that I do
poorly in school, I meant that I have three C's and
two 0's in my classes.")

2. Those which are psychological and behavioral descrip-
tions of emotional experiences (e.g., "When I said
that I get upset, I mean that my face turns red, that
my voice gets high-pitched, and I start crying.“)

3. Those which tie generalizations about events to
specific stimulus events (e.g., "One time when I
felt angry was when my mother forced me to go to
school when I felt sick all over.")

4. Those which tie generalizations about events to a

variety of other specific stimulus conditions (e.g.,
"I also felt angry when my boyfriend went out with

another girl, and the time when the teacher wouldn't
accept my report since it was five minutes late.")
Although Skinner was the first to define a verbal tact, refer-

ences to a similar concept can be found as far back as the writings of
Freud (1950). Freud's initial position on the characteristics of
psychotherapy stressed two points: (a) the recovery of repressed
memories, and (b) the handling of repressed affects. One sign of
recovery was relief from repression. Even though Freud concentrated
on the unconscious, it is clear that the memories and affects were
concrete and specific. Rogers (1951), in his writings describing
empathic understanding, has focused attention on the specific exper-

iencing of the patient, which also illustrates being concrete and

specific. Ellis (1959) and Sullivan (1954) have also stressed the

27

importance of specificity (concreteness), noting that abstract
interactions may actually be nontherapeutic. Recent major writings in
support of concreteness include those of Truax and Carkhuff (1964) and
Carkhuff and Berenson (1967).
Carkhuff (1969) has developed specific guidelines for the use
of concreteness and its communication in the counseling process:
1. The helper should use specific and concrete reflections
and interpretations to foster similar development in
the client.
2. The helper should emphasize the personal relevance of
the client's communication so that time is not lost
in wandering or "storytelling."
3. The helper should ask for specific details and specific

instances. The client should have the opportunity to
discuss his concern but questions such as who, what,
why, where, and when may be needed to enter and follow-
through in an area of concern.

4. The helper will have to make decisions on the useful-
ness of concreteness based on his own experiences. One
guideline is that concreteness is most helpful during
initial and final stages of helping.

Carkhuff has developed a five-point scale for measuring the
level of concreteness during the counseling process (Carkhuff, 1969a,
1969b; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). Levels 1 to 3 are dominated by
varying degrees of vagueness and abstractness. In level 1, the helper
makes no attempt to define situations and feelings in concrete terms.
Level 2 is identified by discussions of some "real" feelings, but only
on a vague and abstract intellectual level. A level 3 helper touches
on specific and concrete instances, but never spends time to develop
the situations or feelings fully. A level 3 helper is considered to

be at a minimal level of facilitative functioning. Levels 4 and 5 are

separated only by varying degrees in the use of concreteness. A level

28

4 helper is frequently helpful in almost all areas in developing
concrete instances, while a level 5 helper centers around personally
specific and relevant concrete feelings and experiences regardless of
their emotional content. Thus, at relative low levels of concreteness
the helper might discuss family problems on an abstract or intellectual
level: "Your problems with your wife and children are a function of
many long and complex conflicts between various unconscious feelings
each of you have toward the other." At relatively high levels of
concreteness, the helper involves the client in discussion of concrete
and specific feelings, situations, and events regardless of their
emotional content: "Although it is not easy for you to talk about your
feelings of hostility and anger, it seems that every decision you try
to make, every time you talk about changing jobs, your wife refuses to
listen and you feel frustrated."

Concreteness is a variable that is largely under the thera-
pist's control. Three basic functions of concreteness have been
identified (Truax & Carkhuff, 1964; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967):

1. It insures that the therapist's responses do not become

too intellectual and abstract, but remain focused on
the client's feelings and experiences;

2. It encourages the therapist to be accurate in his

understanding of the client's statements and feelings

and to verify or clarify any assumed interpretations;

3. It influences the client to be specific in describing
feelings and experiences.

The use of concreteness varies throughout the interview. It has been
shown to be of significant value during the early phases of therapy

when an attempt is being made to define the problem (Pope & Siegman,

29

1962). Later parts of therapy again require an emphasis on
concreteness in the development of specific directions and goals.

Counselor tacting response leads (CTRL's) have been used to
elicit concrete terminology from clients. Stone (1973) used CTRL's
and concreteness as interchangeable terms. Eisenberg (1969) developed
a procedure for investigating various methods of teaching CTRL's to
trainees. Eisenberg presented short (BO-second) client statements
which required the counselor to respond with an appropriate CTRL.
Eisenberg compared the effectiveness of instruction among a control
group receiving no instruction, a group receiving reinforcement only,
a group receiving modeling only, and another receiving both reinforce-
ment and modeling. Groups who watched CTRL's modeled made more correct
CTRL's than the other groups. Eisenberg and Delaney (1970), writing
about the same experiment, noted similar conclusions. Models were pre-
sented by videotape. The authors concluded that CTRL's are of impor-
tant instrumental value in the process of setting goals and are largely
lacking in trainees. Pilot studies suggested that the operant level
for making such responses is quite low for counselors in training.

The skill of concreteness was used in the present study
because of its demonstrated deficiency in beginning trainees as well
as the fact that it can be taught and measured (Stone, 1972; Hamachek,
1971; Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Harris, 1973; Berenson, Mitchell, &
Moravec, 1968; Carkhuff, Kratechvil, & Friel, 1968; Heiserman, 1971).

3O
Summar

The present study involved an investigation of the effects
of immediate and delayed feedback via human and programmed supervision
on the teaching of the counselor skill of concreteness. A slide and
audiotaped multi-media approach was used to present simulated counsel-
ing segments taken from actual counseling interviews. Bellucci (1972)
and Hansen and Warner (1971) have noted that little evidence exists
concerning the relative effectiveness of different training method-
ologies and procedures. In the present study, programmed and human
instruction were compared with each other and with a non-active control
group. Data were obtained which can be used to assess the effective-
ness of each method on the specific skill of concreteness. Attention
was also given to the efficiency of each technique, thus allowing for
a cost-effectiveness comparison. Both efficiency and effectiveness
are important aspects of accountability. The present experiment also
involved a repeated measures design and a transfer-of-training measure--
factors which likewise need to be analyzed as part of the cost-

effectiveness rating attached to each technique.

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

Overview

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the
effectiveness of programmed supervision versus human supervision in
teaching concreteness, a specific counselor skill. In addition,
supervision (programmed and human) was presented on immediate and
delayed temporal dimensions. A counselor training program was developed
which involved a multimedia combination of slides and audiotape.
Specifically, the skill of using Counselor Tacting Response Leads, or
CTRL's, was the basis of instruction. The number of CTRL's present on
various measures was the dependent variable. Programmed supervision,
human supervision, immediate feedback, and delayed feedback were the
independent variables. Covariates included subjects' scores on the
Social, Conventional, and Realistic scales of the Vocational Preference
Inventory (Holland, 1970) and a pretest rating of the number of CTRL's
made during a five-minute audiotaped counseling session. A seven-point
bipolar scale was used to measure the subjects' reactions toward the
instructional experience. A follow-up transfer-of—training measure
utilized as a dependent variable the number of CTRL's made by the
subjects during five-minute audiotaped counseling excerpts taken from

tapes recorded at the subjects' practicum settings.

31

32

The concept of supervision has elicited a variety of meanings
including "managerial," "counseling," "consulting,“ and "instructional."
Previous research has focused on the comparison of technique-oriented
supervisors versus counseling-oriented supervisors. Both supervision
techniques are based on the assumption that supervision should be a
one-to-one human interaction. Jensen (1973) investigated the use of
remote supervision as an alternative to face-to-face supervision and
suggested that remote supervision is a viable method of instruction.
However, previous research has not investigated the use of a programmed
supervision technique as opposed to a human supervision technique.
Separate measures on both short- and long-term effects of instruction
were lacking. The effects of various subject variables, such as
personality type, on instruction were similarly not included in pre-
vious research.

The investigation of the effects of immediate versus delayed
feedback has been regarded as an important topic for research, but thus
far has produced no basis for supporting either position. The present
study involved an investigation of the effects of immediate versus
delayed feedback as applied to teaching the skill of concreteness. In
addition, unlike previous research, this study includes measures com-
paring the short- and long-term effectiveness of instruction taught by
immediate versus delayed feedback.

The separate and combined effects of the treatment variables
on the performance of the counselor skill of concreteness were investi-
gated in this study. The use of a multimedia presentation was based

on research showing its effectiveness under similar circumstances

33

(Stone, 1972). Simulated client and counselor segments used for
instruction and as the basis for the cognitive posttest were developed
by Eisenberg (1969) and used in previous research (Eisenberg, 1969;
Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Stone, 1972). Simulation as a method of
instruction has also been shown to be a viable alternative to real-life
instruction (Tinning, 1973).

This study was conducted with 49 master's degree candidates
at Michigan State University. These subjects were enrolled in the
Systematic Counseling program and were in attendance on April 9, 1974,
the day on which the study began. Subjects (§s*) were randomly assigned
to one of four treatment groups and a control group. Seven doctoral-
level supervisors were randomly assigned to S; receiving human super-
vision. Each supervisor worked with both the immediate and delayed
feedback groups. Each §_participated in a practicum setting of his
own choosing during spring term, 1974.

Four separate treatments were investigated in this study,
involving two types of supervision and two temporal variations on feed-
back given to Ss. Programmed supervision involved feedback, instruc-
tion, and reinforcement provided through a combined audio-video media
presentation and programmed written material. Human supervision
involved feedback, instruction, and reinforcement provided by a trained
graduate-level counselor. Supervision was combined with immediate

and delayed temporal dimensions. The immediate temporal dimension was

 

*Ss will be used for Subjects. §_will be used to refer to
an individuEl subject.

34

defined as an interaction following each trainee response. The
delayed temporal dimension was defined as an interaction occurring only
after a specific portion of the instruction had been completed.

Instruction was presented in three phases. Content across
treatments was similar, and all clients' segments were presented in
identical fashion through slides and audiotape. Methods of supervision
and temporal dimensions of feedback were varied and served as the
independent variables. Phase 1 of instruction introduced the concept
of concreteness and presented appropriate and inappropriate examples
of the concept through modeled counselor-client interactions. All
treatment groups received identical Phase 1 training. Phases 2 and 3
of training presented clients roleplaying standardized counseling
concerns. S; were asked to respond with an appropriate CTRL chosen
from a given list in Phase 2 or with a CTRL developed by themselves
during Phase 3. Concerns were identical for Phases 2 and 3, while
supervision and feedback varied across treatments.

Multiple measures within and across time were used. The
short-term measures were a 21-question bipolar affective test and a
25-question standardized written test. The long-term measures were a
12-item standardized written test taken from the 25-question test used
as the short-term measure and the identical affective test. Transfer
of training was assessed using as a criterion the number of CTRL's
made during five-minute excerpts from tape recordings made by the §s
at their practicum settings.

Both multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were

performed to test the hypotheses. Three raters were used for some

35

measures, with interrater reliability analyzed through the Hoyt re-
liability coefficient (Hoyt, 1941). The dependent variable for the
cognitive and performance tests was the number of CTRL's made on each
measure. The critical level of statistical significance was set a

priori at a=.05.

Sample

A sample of 49 §s was obtained from the third-term master's
degree candidates at Michigan State University. All S; were enrolled
in counseling courses in the Systematic Counseling program during
spring term, 1974 (see Appendix A).

Since the §s for this study were not drawn at random from a
defined population, a summarization of the personal and demographic
data is presented in Table l. Cornfield and Tukey (1956) advocated the
application of conclusions to a larger group than the sample, to a pop-
ulation "like those observed." A finite sample may be treated as a
random sample by assuming that the sample of Se was actually a random
sample from an infinitely large population of such samples. The reader
is left to determine for himself how closely the sample described here

allows for generalization to similar samples.

Subject Assignment

The subject pool for this experiment consisted of the 49 Se
described previously who were in attendance on the day of the experi-
ment. S; were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups and

a control group. Treatment groups were as follows:

36

Table 1

Personal and Demographic Characteristics of Sample.

 

 

 

 

 

Characteristic N %

*Age
21-25 26 53.1
26-30 12 24.3
31-35 6 12.2
36-40 1 2.1
41-45 2 4.1
46-50 1 2.1
51-55 1 2.1
Total 49 100.0

Sex
Male 23 46.9
Female 25 53.1
Total 49 100.0

Marital Status

 

Married 23 46.9
Single 25 51.0
Divorced l 2.1
Total 49 100.0
Identified Program
of Study
Rehabilitation
Counseling 31 63.2
Community College
Counseling 9 18.4
Secondary School
Counseling 7 14.3
Elementary School
Counseling 2 4.1

 

Total 49 100.0

Table 1 (Continued)

A“.

_—

37

 

 

 

 

Characteristic N %
Location of Under-
graduate Work
Michigan State
University 24 49.1
Other Michigan
Colleges 13 26.6
Colleges Outside
of Michigan 12 24.3
Total 49 100.0
Undergraduate
Degree
Bachelor of
Arts 35 71.3
Bachelor of
Science 13 26.6
Bachelor of Arts and
Bachelor of Science 1 2.1
Total 49 100.0
Undergraduate
Major
Social Science Areas 31 63.3
English and Communica-
tions 6 12.2
Math, Science, and
Physics 4 8.2
French 2 4.1
Other 6 12.2
Total 49 100.0

38

Table 1 (Continued)

 

 

Characteristic

 

Earned Graduate
Credits

16-30
31-45
46-60
60+

Total

Years of Previous
Work Experience

O-2
3-5
6-8
9-11
15-17
27-29

Total

34
11

N05

-a-44>4>

 

49

-'N
doom-hum

Nb

—l

O NO‘ONQ
o o o o o

O

d-‘NNO‘m

 

49

O NOOCDGO‘

 

*Mean=28, Median=25, Mode=22.

39

Group 1 - immediate feedback, programmed supervision
Group 2 - delayed feedback, programmed supervision
Group 3 - immediate feedback, human supervision
Group 4 - delayed feedback, human supervision

§s used were taken from two separate classes, a morning and an afternoon
session of the same course and the same instructor. A total of five

§s per treatment was assigned from each class, which resulted in 20 §§
from the morning session and 20 Se from the afternoon session receiving
treatments. The remaining nine S; were assigned to the control group.
This procedure resulted in a cell size of 10 Se per treatment group and
nine Se in the control group. One §_was lost on the immediate posttest
measure because of an improperly completed test. The loss of this S,
along with the lower number of Se in the control group, resulted in an
unbalanced design.

During the long-term cognitive measure, the total of 49 Ss
from the initial experiment was reduced to 31 Se. Subject mortality
was due to the fact that some §s were not in attendance on the day of
the follow-up. The long-term transfer-of—training measure included 42
of the 49 original Ss. Subject mortality on this measure was due to
§s not being able to find clients in the practicum settings, §s working
with clients who could not be audiotaped (deaf clients), §s not attend-
ing supervisory sessions, and §s not covering Subsystem 5.0 (Construct
Model of Client Concerns) of the Systematic Counseling process (Appen-
dix A) during the time period in which this measure was taken.

The statistical comparisons for this study involved unequal

cells and, thus, an unbalanced design. Using a balanced design would

40

have resulted in the loss of a majority of the data. All comparisons
were performed on a Control Data 6500 computer at Michigan State Uni-
versity. Multiple computer runs were made, using only §s having
complete data for the variables being compared. The various statistical
analyses and their corresponding degrees of freedom are stated in

Chapter III.

Subject Variable

During winter term, 1973, the §s were involved in a course
involving instruction, modeling, and role performing of the counseling
process using the guidelines of the Systematic Counseling process
(Appendix A). Following instructions on Subsystem 4.0 (Explain Counsel-
ing Relationship) and Subsystem 5.0 (Construct Model of Client Concerns)
the trainees were required to make an audiotape of these subsystems
with each trainee role performing the role of the counselor. Tapes
were rated and evaluated using the guidelines stated previously. From
these tapes, a five-minute segment of Subsystem 5.0 was randomly
selected and rated for the number of CTRL's present. This rating was
used as one of the covariates in this experiment. On several of the
posttest measures, CTRL's were used as the dependent variable. Thus,
it was assumed that a pretest rating on this variable would help to

increase precision.
Supervisors

A total of seven supervisors was used for the immediate and

delayed human supervision treatment groups. Three of the seven

41

supervisors worked with both morning and afternoon sessions.
Supervisors were doctoral candidates in the field of counseling or
counselor education. Supervisors were given instruction through the
use of written material (Appendix F) and individual interaction with
the experimenter. Supervisors had to achieve at the 80% level or
better on the cognitive posttest (Appendix I) to be eligible to be a
supervisor. §s were randomly assigned to supervisors with the restric-
tion that each supervisor had to work with one §_receiving immediate
supervision and one §_receiving delayed supervision during each class
period. All §s received individual instruction. Supervisors were
provided specific procedural instructions which were followed during

the training phase (Appendix G).
Material Presentation

Materials for this study involved a combination of materials
used in previous research and materials designed specifically by the

researcher for this study.

Media Presentation

The media used consisted of 20 slides (Appendix D) with a
corresponding narrative presented on audiotape. The tape presentation
was divided into three phases (Appendix 8):

Phase 1: Instruction centered on an introduction to the concept
of concreteness through the use of five modeled client segments
and a supervisor describing why each example would be judged an
appropriate or inappropriate CTRL.

Phase 2: Modeled client segments were presented on slides with a
corresponding narrative on audiotape. Each of the five segments
pictured a client describing a situation or event that happened

42

to him. The S5 were asked to place themselves in the role of

a counselor and choose an appropriate CTRL from a list of four
standardized responses (Appendix C). The programmed supervision
groups received feedback on audiotape, while the human super-
vision groups received feedback from a human supervisor. Ss

in the immediate temporal dimension groups received supervision
following each client segment, while the Ss in the delayed
temporal groups received supervision only after all five client
segments had been presented.

Phase 3: Modeled client segments were presented on slides, with
a corresponding narrative on audiotape. Ss in each treatment
group were asked to respond in writing with an appropriate CTRL
which they developed themselves. S5 in the programmed super-
vision group received feedback on their responses through audio-
tape and a self-rating scale included in the programmed workbook
(Appendix C). Ss in the human supervision groups received feed-

back from trained graduate supervisors. 55 who received
immediate feedback were given supervision after each client

segment. 55 who received delayed feedback were given supervision
only after all five client segments had been presented.

Treatment Groups

Four basic treatment groups were involved, in addition to
a non-active control group. Treatment groups will be described in the
following paragraphs.

Immediate-Programmed Supervision (Grgup 1): S; in this
treatment group received instructions and supervision totally through
slides and audiotape. During Phases 2 and 3 of training, supervision
was presented on audiotape immediately following each client segment.
A total of 10 short periods of supervision was built into the training.
No face-to-face human interaction occurred. Ss also used a programmed
manual (Appendix C) which included a self-rating scale and guidelines
for judging appropriate CTRL's.

Delayed-Programmed Supervision (Group_2): Ss in this treat-

ment group received instructions and supervision totally through

43

slides and audiotape. During Phases 2 and 3 of training, supervision
was presented on audiotape, but only after all five of the client
segments for a given phase had been presented. This resulted in two
longer periods of supervision, with one being at the conclusion of the
Phase 1 segments and the second being at the conclusion of Phase 2
segments. No face-to-face human interaction occurred. Ss also used

a programmed manual (Appendix C) which included a self-rating scale
and guidelines for judging appropriate CTRL's.

Immediate-Human Supervision (Group 3): S; in this treatment
group received instructions by slides and audiotape and supervision
from trained graduate student-level supervisors. During Phases 2 and
3 of training, a client segment was presented through the media. The
tape recorder was turned off and the S_allowed time to respond. Feed-
back and supervision were then provided by the human supervisor. A
total of 10 separate interactions occurred between S_and supervisor,
with five occurring during Phase 2 and five occurring during Phase 3.
Ss were given pages 1-6 of the programmed workbook (Appendix C), which
included prepared forms for the S_responses.

Delayed-Human Supervision(Group 4): Ss in this treatment
group received instructions by slides and audiotape and supervision
from trained graduate student-level supervisors. During Phases 2 and
3 of training, client segments were presented through the media. The
S_listened and responded to five segments during Phase 2 before any
supervision occurred. Upon completion of the five segments, the tape
recorder was turned off and the human supervisor provided feedback and

supervision. A similar procedure was followed during Phase 3. This

44

training procedure resulted in two longer periods of supervision.
Ss were given pages 1-6 of the programmed workbook (Appendix C), which
included prepared forms for the S; responses.

Control (Group 5): All Ss not assigned to one of the treat-
ment groups were assigned to a non-active control group. This group
watched videotapes of the Systematic Counseling process (Appendix A).
Using a prearranged time schedule, each control S_took the cognitive

short-term measure.
Measures

Pretreatment Measure

During winter term, 1974, the Ss were involved in a course
designed to teach counseling procedures as outlined in the Systematic
Counseling process (Appendix A). Each S was required to make an
audiotape of Subsystems 4.0 (Explain Counseling Relationship) and 5.0
(Construct Model of Client Concerns). A randomly chosen segment of
the 5.0 Subsystem was recorded from each S tape and rated by three
independent raters. The number of CTRL's presented in the segment
was used as the dependent variable. Interrater reliability was com-
puted using an analysis of variance technique developed by Hoyt (1941).
The reliability coefficient on the pretreatment audiotape measure was
.91. The number of CTRL's found on this tape was used as a covariate
measure.

A second pretreatment measure given was Holland's Vocational

Preference Inventory (Holland, 1970). During the first class period

45

of spring term, 1974, the experimenter introduced the experiment and
asked for participants from the MA candidates. A sign of being willing
to participate in the experiment was the completion of the Vocational
Preference Inventory. Scoring followed the procedure described by
Holland (1970), with raw scores being changed to percentiles. A
separate profile exists for males and females; thus, raw scores have
different comparative meanings depending upon sex. Three of the scores
from the Inventory were investigated as possible covariates, including
the Realistic, Social, and Conventional scales. As related to this
experiment, a person having a high Social score was described as a
person who would prefer teaching or a therapeutic role and who would
possess verbal and interpersonal skills. A person having a high Con-
ventional score was described as a person who would perform well on
structured verbal and numerical activities. A person with a high
Realistic score was described as a person who would lack verbal and
interpersonal skills and prefer concrete to abstract problems. On
each scale, a person who received a low score would be described as
having opposite personality traits. The scales used were selected by
the experimenter under the assumption that a person possessing an
outward-oriented personality would tend to use leads that elicited
additional but not specific information, while a person who possessed
a structured personality would tend to be specific or concrete in the

information he requested from the client.

46

Short-Term Measure

The short-term measure consisted of a cognitive and an
affective component. The cognitive measure was a 25-question standard-
ized written exercise where short written client segments were given
and the Ss asked to respond in writing with an appropriate counselor
lead. The client segments were developed by Eisenberg (1969), who
identified each segment as being a critical turning point in counseling
and needing additional clarification to be understood fully by the
counselor. The dependent variable was the number of appropriate CTRL's
(Appendix I). The affective measure was a series of five statements
involving a total of 21 separate responses (Appendix J). Each statement
described an aspect of the experiment and asked the S_to respond from
his own viewpoint. Each statement had two adjectives having opposite
meanings arranged on the ends of a seven-point bipolar scale. The
cognitive measure was given to all 49 Ss, while the affective measure
was given to the 40 S; who had received one of the treatments.

Eisenberg (1969) developed a total of 40 client segments
taken from actual counseling situations and identified by him as repre-
senting critical phases in counseling needing additional clarification.
Eisenberg reported that the items were not of equal difficulty nor
equally likely to elicit a CTRL, even by those who had received train-
ing in the concept. In the present study, the experimenter assigned
15 of the 40 items to the training phase and the remaining 25 items to
the testing phase of the experiment. An attempt was made to assign
items of low difficulty during the early stages of training and increase

the level of difficulty as training progressed. The posttest was also

47

judged by the experimenter to contain items ranging from low to high
difficulty. All Ss were exposed to the same items in the same order
of presentation.

The short-term cognitive measure was rated by three inde-
pendent raters. Reliability was estimated using an analysis of variance
technique developed by Hoyt (1941). The ANOVA was calcu1ated on a
Control Data 6500 computer using a program developed by Jennrich (1961).
The reliability coefficient for the three raters on the short-term

cognitive measure was .92.

LonggTerm Measure

A three-week follow-up measure involved a lZ-question stand-
ardized cognitive measure and a 21-question affective test. The cogni-
tive test contained 12 items randomly selected from the 25 item short-
term cognitive measure. Each S was asked to respond in writing with
an appropriate counselor lead to a short client statement. The
dependent variable was the number of CTRL's made to the 12 statements.
Three raters scored each test. Interrater reliability was estimated
using the analysis of variance technique developed by Hoyt (1941).

The ANOVA was calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer using a program
developed by Jennrich (1961). The reliability coefficient for the
three raters on the long-term cognitive measure was .73.

The identical 21-item affective test as given during the
short-term measure was readministered with Ss instructed to respond to
the questions from the viewpoint of the original training experiment

and testing situation. All S; in attendance on the day of the follow-up

48

measure were given the cognitive measure (32), while only those Ss
who were members of one of the treatment groups were given the affec-

tive test (26).

Transfer-of-Training Measure

During spring term, 1974, the members of the MA counselor
training program were involved in a counseling practicum, with sites
varying according to their area of interest. Each trainee met for a
weekly one-hour session with a practicum supervisor as assigned by the
University. Each supervisor was asked to obtain one audiotape for
each S, A five-minute segment was rerecorded from each tape and rated
by three independent raters for the number of CTRL's present. The
analysis of variance technique was used as developed by Hoyt (1941),
with calculations performed on a Control Data 6500 computer using a
program developed by Jennrich (1961). The reliability coefficient for
the three raters on the transfer-of-training measure was .58. The
experimenter had hoped that all tapes would be turned in by the time
of the three-week follow-up. In actual practice, tapes were turned
in up to the deadline of one month following the experiment. A total
of 42 of the 49 possible tapes was turned in. Reasons for the delay
in receiving these tapes include S_difficulty in obtaining clients,
supervisor delay in passing along tapes, and Ss not taping in certain
settings. No control procedure was included in this experiment to
account for differences in the transfer effect due to these time
delays. Observations by the experimenter were that the effects due

to delay were spread fairly equally across treatments. Other factors

49

influencing this measure included the type of client seen and the
specific supervisor style assigned to each trainee. Supervisor load
ranged from three to seven trainees. Experimenter observations show
S; of varying treatments to be fairly equally distributed over super-
visors. Each of these effects mentioned could have influenced the
variance of this measure and, as a consequence, may have reduced the
precision of the measure. A note should be made also of the low
interrater reliability when compared to the pretest audiotaped measure.
The same raters, using identical guidelines, were utilized for each
rating. The second measure yielded a lower interrater reliability
because of the poor sound quality of the tapes received, making parts
of the counseling interaction very difficult to understand. In actual
number of perceived CTRL's, the raters varied only slightly. Yet,

the raters reached exact agreement in only a few instances.

Facilities

 

A large classroom and 10 small counseling laboratory rooms
in Erickson Hall at Michigan State University served as the facilities
for this study. The treatment phase was presented to each S_indi-
vidually in the small counseling rooms. Following the training phase,
each S_returned to a large classroom and was given the short-term
testing measure. No specific time limit was set for the test. Since
treatments were scheduled at varying times during the class period,
the posttest was a continuous function with Ss entering and leaving

throughout the session. The facilities were considered by the

50

experimenter to be adequate to control for any disturbance caused by

this procedure.

Apparatus

Slides were presented by equipment rented from the instruc-
tional Media Center at Michigan State University. All slide projectors
were carousel projectors with the slides prearranged. Each S was asked
to change the slides as instructed on the audiotape. Each S also op-
erated a cassette tape recorder. Prior operating instructions on both
the projector and the recorder were given each S_by the experimenter.

All equipment and tapes were checked prior to their use to
assess their operating efficiency. During the session, however, one
recorder produced poor sound quality and one cassette tape malfunctioned.
Corrections were made as soon as possible. These experiences, however,
may have increased the frustration level of those Ss involved. The
affective posttest was designed to elicit reactions of Ss who exper-

ienced such malfunctions.
Procedures

Pretest Measure

A five-minute audiotaped roleplayed counseling segment was
obtained for each S, The segments were taken from an assigned practice
session in the class, Education 8190: The Counseling Process. Each
segment was rated by three independent raters for the number of CTRL's

present. The results were used as a covariate in the experiment.

51

Selection of Spbjects

The counselor training program developed in this study was
integrated into the Ss' training, with all scheduling and training
occurring during regularly scheduled class time. During the first
scheduled class meeting for spring term, 1974, the experimenter made
a brief presentation about the nature of the experiment and asked for
volunteers. The experimenter stated that he would be conducting his
doctoral research on the skill of concreteness. The skill of concrete-
ness was reported to be useful in counseling and a skill on which the
Ss had not received formal training. It should be noted here that the
Ss had participated in two previous research studies during the current
academic year. For each of the previous studies, the S; had received
a .5 addition to their obtained grade in the class in which they were
members at the time as an incentive for participating. This experi-
menter could not promise any credit toward their course grade, but did
promise a personal profile on the Vocational Preference Inventory,
feedback on the results of the experiment, and coffee and donuts on
the day of the experiment. All Ss who were willing to participate
were given the Vocational Preference Inventory. One student declined
to participate for unknown reasons. The experiment was to take place

the following class period, Tuesday, April 9, 1974.

Selection and Trainipgfiof Supervisors

Seven supervisors were involved in the experiment. All super-
visors were first or second year Ph.D. candidates in the field of coun-

seling at Michigan State University. All supervisors were fellow

52

students of the experimenter and were asked to participate through per-
sonal contact. Each supervisor was given a copy of the CTRL guidelines
and rating scales as part of training (Appendix F). The experimenter
made personal contact with each supervisor to aid in his training. Af-
ter the supervisors had become familiar with the concept of CTRL's,
they were given the 25-question cognitive posttest, which was the same
test later given to each S, A minimum criterion level of 80% appro-
priate CTRL's was set a priori to establish a competency level for each
supervisor. Rating of the supervisor responses was performed by the ex-
perimenter, with all supervisors meeting criterion on the first testing.
Each supervisor was given a detailed instruction sheet explaining the
procedure to be followed during the experiment (Appendix G). The ex-
perimenter assigned each supervisor to both an immediate and a delayed
temporal dimension supervisory session and reported this information,
along with specific times and rooms, to each supervisor through the use
of prepared forms (Appendix E). The experimenter designed the schedul-
ing of the supervisors such that each supervisor was involved with a1S
receiving immediate human supervision and a second S_receiving delayed
human supervision. This procedure was used to control for possible
confounding due to an interaction between supervisor and treatment.
Scheduling was also arranged such that all four treatments occurred
simultaneously to avoid possible confounding due to an interaction of

time and treatment.

53

Scheduling_of Subjects

Ss were randomly assigned to treatments based on the S_pool
elicited the previous week. Specific times and rooms were assigned to
each S through the use of prepared forms (Appendix E). Each S_was
assigned a code number which was used on all materials handed in. Ss
who were assigned to treatments but not in attendance on the day of the
experiment were replaced by randomly selected Ss from the control group.
The Se in attendance on the day of the experiment were the sample
described under "Sample Characteristics" to be used for possible general-
ization of the results of this experiment to similar populations (Corn-
field & Tukey, 1956). The scheduling procedure used is shown in
Figure 2.

Treatment Procedures

Each S_was given a prepared sheet describing the specific time
and place of his training. Control Ss were given identical forms
(Appendix E). Instructions were given the entire class by the experi-
menter on the use of the tape recorder and slide machines. Ss were
told to report at their scheduled time to their assigned place but to
remain in class watching videotaped counseling segments until their
specific time arrived. It should be noted that the use of the laboratory
rooms and the role-performing procedure were not novel experiences for
the Ss, but activities in which they had taken part on numerous occasions
during the preceding 20 weeks.

As each S_reported to his assigned room, he was given a

programmed workbook designed especially for his treatment group. Ss

Subject Pool

Section

Treatments

Code
Numbers

 

 

54

 

 

Ss

 

 

 

 

 

 

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
r t r t r t s r t s r t
244-8:3O F-8:3O C-9:20-a C-8:30—a 250-9:OO
245-8:3O 242-8:3O D-9:20-b A-8:30-b 250-9:OO

F-9:20 243-8:30 E-9:20-c B-8:30-c 250-9:OO
244-9:20 242-9:20 D-8:30-d A-9:20-d 250-9:OO
245-9:20 243-9:20 E-8:30-e B-9:20-e 250-9:OO

Ss=Subjects

A=Section

A1=morning section

A2=afternoon section

T=Treatment

T1=immediate-programmed supervision

T2=delayed-programmed supervision

T3=immediate-human supervision

T4=delayed-human supervision

T5=control

Figure 2.

Assignment of Subjects to Treatments and Supervisors.

55

 

 

 

 

 

\

 

 

 

 

/r2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T1 T2
r t r t r t s r t s r t
244-5:00 A-5:OO D-4:30-a H-4:30-f 250-5:20
245-5:OO 242-5:OO E-4:30-b O-4:30-g 250-5:20
244-5:45 243-5:OO C-5:20-c F-4:30-c ZED-5:20
245-5:45 242-5z45 D-5:20-f F-5:20-b
A-5:45 243-5z45 E-5:20-g B-5:20-a

r=room assigned
t=time assigned
s=supervisor

r+t=code number assigned

56

were reminded how to use the equipment. Total time of the training
was limited to 45 minutes, with no violations of this time limit occur-
ring. No minimum time limit was set, although the process could not

be covered in less than 30 minutes by any of the treatment groups.

Short-Term Measures

 

Upon completion of the treatment, each S reported to a large
classroom where the S was given a 25-question cognitive measure, a
21-question affective measure, and a biographic information sheet. No
time limits were imposed on this posttest. Subjects were instructed
to complete the cognitive measure first (Appendix I), then the affective
measure (Appendix J), and finally to provide information used for the

description of the sample.

Transfer-of-Training Measure

 

Each S was assigned to a counseling practicum setting by the
class instructor in charge of practicum for spring term, 1974. Six of
the seven supervisors used during training were also involved as
practicum supervisors. Six additional supervisors were also assigned
by the University. Each supervisor was informed that an experiment
was in progress and that a posttest audiotaped measure was needed from
each S, Specifically, they were asked to provide tapes which:

1. were clear and easily understood;

2. were recorded after April 9, 1974;

3. included at least a five-minute segment dealing with
Subsystem 5.0 (Construct Model of Client Concerns).

57

The same memorandum was given to supervisors two weeks following the
experiment and followed-up a week later by a personal note listing the
names of Se from which tapes had not been received. The experimenter
re-recorded a randomly selected five-minute segment of the tape. Each
segment was rated by the same three raters who had rated the pretest
audiotaped measure. Interrater reliability was much lower for this
second measure with a possible explanation being the poorer sound
quality of the second recordings when compared to the first audiotaped

measure.

Long:Term Measure

Three weeks following the original treatments, a set of
follow-up measures was given the Ss in attendance in class on that day.
Arrangements were made with the class instructor to use the last 45
minutes of the scheduled class period. S; were told by the experimenter
-that a follow-up measure to the experiment would be given, followed by
feedback on the Vocational Preference Inventory which they had previously
taken. All members present in class were asked to respond to a 12-item
cognitive measure. This measure was developed by randomly selecting 12
items from the original 25-item cognitive posttest (Appendix I). A
shortened form was developed because of the long period of time required
to complete the longer form. In addition, all Ss who had participated
in one of the four treatment groups were given the same affective meas-
ure as given during the short-term assessment. Ss were instructed to
respond to the affective test questions from the same perspective as

during the short-term measure. Upon completion of both measures, the

58

S; were informed of the four treatments given and the mean scores of
each group on the 25-question cognitive test. The Vocational Preference
Inventory Profiles were distributed, and interpretations of the scales
were given to the class as a group. The class was thanked for partici-

pating in the study.
Hypotheses

This study was designed to investigate two major topics in
counseling. The first area of investigation was the effectiveness of
a programmed supervision approach in teaching the skill of concreteness
versus a human supervision approach. The second area of investigation
centered on the effectiveness of immediate versus delayed feedback as
components of instruction.

The following directional hypotheses were formulated:

Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision
wIll make more CTRL' s on the short- term cognitive measure than
S; who receive instruction through human supervision.

H2: Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision
will make more CTRU s on the long- term cognitive measure than
Ss who receive instruction through human supervision.

Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision
wIll make more CTRL's during a five-minute audiotaped segment
taken from a counseling interview than Ss who receive instruc-
tion through human supervision.

1 S5 who receive instruction through programmed supervision
w 11 respond more favorably toward the experience on a test
measuring short- term affective reactions toward their super-

vision than Ss who receive human supervision.

g Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision
w 11 respond more favorably toward the experience on a test
measuring long-term affective reactions toward their supervision
than Ss who receive human supervision.

59

H : Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will
mgke more CTRL's on the short-term cognitive measure than Ss who
receive instruction with delayed supervision.

H7: Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will
make more CTRL's on the long-term cognitive measure than S; who
receive instruction with delayed supervision.

H8: Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will
make more CTRL's during a five-minute audiotaped segment taken
from a counseling interview than Ss who receive instruction with
delayed supervision.

H9: Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will
respond more favorably toward the experience on a test measuring
short-term affective reactions toward their supervision than Ss
who receive instruction with delayed supervision.

H10: Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will
respond more favorably toward the experience on a test measuring
long-term affective reactions toward their supervision than Ss
who receive instruction with delayed supervision.

H11: Ss who receive instruction through any one of the four treat-
ments will make more CTRL's on the short-term cognitive measure,

long-term cognitive measure, and transfer-of-training measure than
Ss who are members of the control group and receive no instruction.

In addition to the individual effects of programmed versus human super-
vision and immediate versus delayed feedback, a possible interaction
effect was hypothesized. The following hypothesis was developed for

the interaction effect:

H12: There will be a significant interaction effect between the
type of supervision and the temporal dimension of supervision on
all tests, both affective and cognitive, which will result in the
following order of effectiveness as ranked from most effective to
least effective: immediate-programmed supervision > delayed-
programmed supervision > immediate-human supervision > delayed
human supervision.

Experimental Design

 

This study involved a repeated measures design suggested by

Campbell and Stanley (1963). All Ss and supervisors were randomly

6O

assigned to treatments. Four covariates were used from two pretreat-
ment measures, and three posttest measures were given. The design in-
cluded four active treatment groups and one non-active control group.
The design may be represented as shown in Figure 3. Using a graphic
model, the design may be represented as shown in Figure 4.

The number of Ss involved in each measure and analysis is

shown in Table 2.

AnaLysis of Data

 

Data were keypunched by the experimenter and verified at the
Michigan State University Computer Center. The statistical analyses
were calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer using an analysis of
variance program developed by Jennrich (1961).

The four covariates used in this study were analyzed for
their significance in relation to the dependent variable. An analysis
of covariance was conducted to test any such relationship, again using
the program developed by Jennrich.

Interrater reliability was analyzed through an analysis of
variance technique developed by Hoyt (1941).

Both multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were
performed to test the hypotheses. Main effects and interactions were
examined. The critical level of statistical significance for all tests
was set a priori at a=.05.

The results of the analyses of the hypotheses are reported in

Chapter III.

61

Seguence
O1 02 R X1 03 O4 O5
O1 02 R X2 03 O4 O5
O1 02 R X3 03 O4 O5
O1 02 R X4 03 O4 O5
O1 02 R X5 03 04 05
Legend R-Random assignment

X=Treatment

X1=Immediate-programmed supervision
X2=Delayed-programmed supervision
X3=Immediate-human supervision
X4=Delayed-human supervision
X5=Control

O=Measures
01=Audiotaped CTRL pretreatment measure
02=Vocational Preference Inventory
O3=Short-term test package
O4=Long-tenn test package

05=Audiotaped CTRL transfer-of-training measure

Figure 3. Repeated Measures Design with Five Measures and
Five Groups.

62

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CHAPTER III
RESULTS

The results of this study were based on four posttest
measures, using a repeated measures design. A short-term test, a long-
term test, and a transfer-of-training test were the measures used.
Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted, with both multivariate
and univariate F values computed.

The short-term test consisted of a 25-question cognitive test
and a 21-question affective test. The long-term test consisted of a
12-question cognitive test and a 21-question affective test. The 12-
item cognitive test was developed by randomly selecting 12 items from
the 25-question short-term measure. The 21-question affective test
was a seven-point bipolar scale using a self-reporting technique. For
both the short- and long-term tests, all Ss involved in one of the
treatment groups were given the affective test, while all Ss involved
in the experiment (treatment and control) were given the cognitive
test. The transfer-of-training measure involved a comparison among
groups on the number of CTRL's present during a five-minute audiotaped
counseling segment recorded by each S_at his practicum setting. The
comparison for the transfer-of—training measure involved all groups,

both treatment and control.

64

65

The use of an ANCOVA technique allowed for possible
relationships between the covariates and S variables to be included
in the analyses. The Social, Conventional, and Realistic scales on
the Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, 1970) were felt to be
related to the concept of concreteness and, thus, were included as
covariates. The fourth covariate was a pretest rating of the number
of CTRL's present during a five-minute audiotaped roleplayed counseling
segment. This pretest rating corresponded to the posttest transfer-of-
training measure.

Both multivariate and univariate F values were calculated
'using an ANCOVA procedure developed by Jennrich (1961). Type I error
level (alpha) for the multivariate F tests was set a priori at a=.05.
The alpha levels for the univariate F tests were dependent on the
number of hypotheses tested with the multivariate ANCOVA. The actual
alpha levels for the univariate F tests ranged from a=.Ol to a=.05.
Since a multivariate procedure with four covariates was used, several
of the degrees of freedom were used in testing hypotheses involving
each covariate and hypotheses involving a statistically significant
difference from zero. An unbalanced design was used, with N ranging
from 22 to 25 depending on the analysis. Only Ss having complete data
for the variables being compared were included in the analysis.

In discussing the results of the analyses, the short- and
long-term cognitive tests will be discussed together. The short- and

long-term affective measures will also be discussed together.

66

Covariate Effects

 

Four covariates were included in this study. Three scales
from the Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, 1970) were predicted
to be highly correlated with the dependent variables on the cognitive
posttests and transfer-of—training measures. A fourth covariate was a
rating of the number of CTRL's made by each S_during a five—minute au-
diotaped counseling segment. An analysis of covariance technique was
used to test all hypotheses. The absence of Ss on various measures of
the repeated measures design resulted in an unbalanced design for each
analysis. Using only Ss having complete data on the variables being
compared resulted in varying N's for each test. This procedure also
resulted in varying correlations between covariates and other variables.

Correlations above the absolute value r=.30 are reported in Appendix M.

Cpgnitive and Transfer-of—Training Measures

The covariate, cognitive, and transfer-of—training effects
can be observed in terms of the resultant cell means for the four treat-
ment groups, as shown in Table 3.

An analysis of control X treatment with all treatments com-
bined produced the cell means as shown in Table 4.

A third analysis used an ANCOVA procedure to compare the four
treatment groups taken individually to the control group. The cell
means for this analysis can be compared using the treatment group means
from Table 3 and the control group means from Table 4.

The four treatment groups were compared using a 2 X 2 design

(Feedback X Supervision) with both multivariate and univariate F values

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68

Table 4

Cell Means and Standard Deviations of Treatment
X Control on Seven Variables

 

 

w u

Treatment N=22 Control N=3

 

 

Mean Standard Deviation Mean Standard Deviation
V1 69.50 20.56 51.66 16.07
V2 40.68 28.96 21.66 16.07
V3 47.27 32.17 31.66 20.20
V4 21.77 10.98 16.66 7.02
V5 71.22 8.69 2.00 0.00
V6 31.72 9.59 0.00 0.00
V7 20.27 10.14 14.33 10.11

 

V1=Social Scale

V2=Conventional Scale
V3=Realistic Scale
V4=Audiotaped CTRL Pretest
V5=Short-term Cognitive Measure
V6=Long-term Cognitive Measure

V7=Audiotaped CTRL Transfer-of-Training Measure

69

calculated. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 5 with no

statistically significant results occurring.

Results of Tests for Hypotheses 1 and 6

Hypothesis 1 was formulated to assess the effects of pro-
grammed and human supervision on the teaching of the counselor skill
of concreteness. The hypothesis was based on the assumptions that su-
pervision is instruction and that the best method of instruction is a
technique-orientation. Hypothesis 1 stated that programmed supervision
would be more effective than human supervision as measured by the short-
term cognitive test.

The analysis between programmed and human supervision for the
short-term cognitive measure utilized an ANCOVA procedure with four co-
variates. The univariate F value was not statistically significant
(F=.44, p=.52, df l, 12). Hypothesis 1 was, therefore, not supported.

Hypothesis 6 was formulated to test the effects of immediate
and delayed feedback on the teaching of the counselor skill of concrete-
ness. Previous studies (Reddy, 1969a, 1969b) have demonstrated that
using immediate feedback is a more effective learning procedure than
using delayed feedback. However, Canada (1973) compared the effects of
immediate and delayed feedback in teaching the use of open-ended state-
ments by counselors and found no significant difference between treat-
ment groups. Hypothesis 6 stated that immediate feedback would be more
effective than delayed feedback as measured by the short-term cognitive
measure.

The analysis between immediate and delayed feedback utilized

an ANCOVA procedure with four covariates. The univariate F value was

7O

 

 

 

. Table 5
Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Multivariate
and Univariate F Values Based on Four
Treatments with Four Covariates

Source df MS Multivariate FIa) Univariate F(b)
Feedback (F) 3, 12 .91 (.46)*

V1 1 50.24 .77 (.39)

V2 1 30.98 .41 (.53)

v3 1 50.04 .84 (.37)
Supervision (S) 3, 12 1.42 (.28)

V1 1 28.41 .44 (.52)

V2 1 362 29 4.74 (.05)

V3 1 3.60 .06 (.81)
Interaction (F X S) 3, 12 1.63 (.24)

V1 1 221.55 3.40 (.09)

V2 1 17.66 .23 (.64)

V3 1 111.91 1.88 (.19)
Error 14

V1 65.06

V2 76.44

V3 59.50

 

*Numbers in ( ) indicate p values

V1=Short-term Cognitive Measure

V2=Long-term Cognitive Measure

V3=Transfer-of-Training Measure

(a) Tested at a=.05
(b) Tested at a=.05
‘3‘"

71

not statistically significant (F=.77, p=.39, df l, 12). Thus, Hypoth-
esis 6 was not supported.

The possibility of an interaction between Feedback and Super-
vision on the short-term cognitive measure was analyzed with an ANCOVA
procedure with four covariates. The resulting univariate F value was
not statistically significant (F=3.40, p=.09, df 1, 12). Therefore,
the possibility of an interaction between feedback and supervision was
not supported.

The results of the tests on the short-term cognitive measure
indicated no statistically significant difference between programmed
and human supervision, immediate and delayed feedback, or an interac-
tion between feedback and supervision. Thus, Hypotheses 1 and 6 were

not supported.

Results of Tests for Hypotheses 2 and 7

 

Hypothesis 2 parallels Hypothesis 1 in predicting a differ-
ence between the use of programmed and human supervision in teaching
the skill of concreteness. Hypothesis 2 stated that programmed super-
vision would be more effective than human supervision as measured by
the long-term cognitive test.

The analysis between programmed and human supervision for the
long-term cognitive measure utilized an ANCOVA procedure with four co-
variates. The resulting univariate F value was not statistically sig-
nificant (F=4.74, p=.O5, df 1, 12). It should be noted that a Type I
error level (alpha) was set at a=.05 for the multivariate ANCOVA. Since

three hypotheses were tested at this level, the univariate F value would

72

have to be at a p value of .05/3 or lower to be considered significant.
Hypothesis 2 was, therefore, not supported.

Hypothesis 7 parallels Hypothesis 6 in predicting a differ-
ence between the use of immediate and delayed feedback in teaching con-
creteness. Hypothesis 7 stated that immediate supervision would be
more effective than delayed supervision as measured by the long-term
cognitive measure.

The analysis between immediate and delayed supervision for
the long-term cognitive measure utilized an ANCOVA procedure with four
covariates. The resulting univariate F value was not statistically
significant (F=.41, p=.53, df l, 12). Therefore, Hypothesis 7 was not
supported.

The possibility of an interaction between feedback X super-
vision on the long-term cognitive measure was analyzed with an ANCOVA
procedure with four covariates. The resulting univariate F value was
not statistically significant (F=.23, p=.64, df l, 12). The possibil-
ity of an interaction between feedback and supervision was not sup-
ported.

The results of the tests on the long-term cognitive measure
indicated no statistically significant differences between programmed
and human supervision, or between immediate and delayed feedback, and
no interaction between feedback and supervision. Thus, Hypotheses 2

and 7 were not supported.

Results of Tests for Hypotheses 3 and 8

Hypotheses 3 and 8 were formulated to assess a possible

transfer-of-training effect from the instructional experience to the

73

actual counseling situation. Instruction was presented in a sequential
learning fashion, with higher levels of simulation provided as the
treatment session progressed. The cognitive tests measured written
CTRL's, which would be considered a low level of simulation. The
transfer-of—training measure assessed the number of CTRL's made during
a segment of an actual counseling interview.

Hypothesis 3 stated that Ss who received instruction through
programmed supervision would make more CTRL's on the transfer-of-
training measure than S; who received instruction through human super-
vision.

The analysis of programmed versus human supervision on the
transfer-of-training measure utilized an ANCOVA procedure with four
covariates. The resulting univariate F value was not statistically
significant (F=.06, p=.8l, df l, 12). Hypothesis 3 was, therefore, not
supported.

Hypothesis 8 stated that Ss who received instruction with im-
mediate feedback would make more CTRL's on the transfer-of-training
measure than Ss who received instruction with delayed feedback.

The analysis of immediate versus delayed feedback on the
transfer-of-training measure utilized an ANCOVA procedure with four co-
variates. The resulting univariate F value was not statistically sig-
nificant (F=.84, p=.37, df 1, 12). Therefore, Hypothesis 8 was not
supported.

The possibility of an interaction between feedback and super-
vision on the transfer-of-training measure was analyzed using an ANCOVA

procedure with four covariates. The resulting univariate F value was

74

not statistically significant (F=l.88, p=.19, df l, 12). The possibil-
ity of an interaction between feedback and supervision was not sup-
ported.

The results of the tests on the transfer-of-training measure
indicated no statistically significant differences between programmed
and human supervision, or between immediate and delayed feedback, and

no interaction between feedback and supervision.

Affective Tests

A 21-question affective test was administered on both short-
and long-term bases. The affective test involved a seven-point bipolar
self-rating scale to measure Ss' reactions toward the instructional ex-
perience. Subjects assigned to one of the four treatments were given
the measure, while control Ss were not involved. For purposes of anal-
ysis, scores from the measures were transformed so that a low score in-
dicates a positive reaction and a high score a negative reaction toward
the variable being measured. The short- and long-term affective mea-
sures were combined and analyzed for differences across the four treat-
ment groups. The results of the ANCOVAs are shown in Table 6.

The results of 21 univariate ANCOVAs show no statistically
significant differences across the four treatment groups.

The 21 items of the affective test were then analyzed to
assess any change from the short-term measure to the long-term measure.
The results of the ANCOVAs assessing difference among the four treatment

groups with respect to change across measures are shown in Table 7.

75

Table 6

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based on a Total

Affective Test Score (Immediate and Delayed)
Across Four Treatments

 

 

 

Source (b) df MS Error (E) df (E) F Value (a)
l 3 1.27 1.47 21 .87 (.47) (c)
2 3 1.44 1.89 21 .76 (.53)
3 3 .80 2.20 21 .36 (.78)
4 3 5.00 3.63 21 1.38 (.28)
5 3 1.99 2.54 21 .79 (.52)
6 3 .58 1.56 21 .37 (.77)
7 3 .38 1.74 21 .22 (.88)
8 3 .86 1.18 21 .73 (.55)
9 3 1.41 2.13 21 .55 (.59)

10 3 5.96 2.20 21 2.71 (.07)
ll 3 6.29 3.63 21 1.73 (.19)
12 3 2.11 1.84 21 1.15 (.35)
13 3 4.78 3.56 21 1.34 (.29)
14 3 .68 3.75 21 .18 (.91)
15 3 1.73 3.46 21 .50 (.69)
16 3 3.97 2.53 21 1.56 (.23)
17 3 6.84 2.06 21 3.32 (.04)
18 3 2.66 1.63 21 1.63 (.21)
19 3 2.73 1.60 21 1.70 (.20)
20 3 1.14 2.59 21 .44 (.73)
21 3 1.72 2.01 21 .86 (.48)

 

(a) Alpha set at .01 for Sources 1-20 and .05 for Source 21.

(b) Numbers correspond to affective test items.

(c) Numbers in ( ) indicate p values.

76

Table 7

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based on Affective
Test Gain Scores (Immediate to Delayed)

Across Four Treatments

 

 

Source (b) df MS Error (E) df (E) F Value (a)
1 1 .49 .21 21 2.36 (.14) (c)
2 1 .OO .98 21 .00 (1.00)
3 1 .00 1.18 21 .00 (1.00)
4 1 1.59 1.20 21 1.32 (.26)
5 1 .49 1.05 21 .47 (.50)
6 1 .71 .59 21 1.20 (.29)
7 1 .96 .21 21 4.64 (.04)
8 1 .02 .35 21 .06 (.82)
9 1 1.25 .36 21 3.44 (.08)

1O 1 .78 1.26 21 .14 (.71)
11 1 2.82 .47 21 6.04 (.02)
12 1 .08 .68 21 .12 (.74)
13 l .49 _.74 21 .66 (.42)
14 1 .71 3.11 21 .23 (.64)
15 1 .08 1.22 21 .06 (.80)
16 1 .18 .89 21 .20 (.66)
17 1 1.96 1.42 21 1.38 (.25)
18 1 .96 .48 21 1.98 (.17)
19 1 .OO .53 21 .00 (1.00)
20 1 .18 .56 21 .32 (.58)
21 1 .02 .81 21 .02 (.88)

 

(a) Alpha set at .01 for Sources 1-20 and at .05 for Source 21.
(b) Numbers correspond to affective test items.

(c) Numbers in ( ) indicate P values.

77

The results of the 21 ANCOVAs comparing change across mea-
sures resulted in no statistically significant univariate F values.

The affective measures were also analyzed to assess any pos-
sible interaction between treatment and repeated measures. The results
of the ANCOVAs assessing possible interaction between treatment and re-
peated measures are shown in Table 8.

The results of the 21 ANCOVAs assessing possible interaction
between treatment and repeated measures resulted in no statistically
significant univariable F values.

The 21-question short- and long-term affective reaction mea-
sures were analyzed for differences among groups, for differences be-
tween tests, and for possible interaction between treatment and re-
peated measures. None of the multivariate or univariate F values were

statistically significant.

Results of Tests for Hypotheses 4 and 9

Hypotheses 4 and 9 were formulated to assess the affective
reactions of Ss who received one of the four treatments during instruc-
tion. Both hypotheses were stated in terms of the short-term affective
measure.

Hypothesis 4 stated that Ss who received programmed supervi-
sion would respond more favorably toward the instructional experience
on the short-term affective measure than Ss who received human super-
vision. Since none of the 21 separate ANCOVAs shown in Table 6 re-
sulted in significant univariate F values, Hypothesis 4 was not sup-

ported.

78

Table 8

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Univariate F Values Based on
Interaction (Groups X Repeated Measures)
For Affective Test

 

 

 

Source (b) df MS Error (E) df (E) F Value (a)
1 3 .18 .21 21 .86 (.48) (c)
2 3 1.00 .98 21 1.03 (.40)
3 3 .24 1.18 21 .20 (.89)
4 3 .69 1.20 21 .57 (.64)
5 3 .84 1.05 21 .81 (.50)
6 3 .55 .59 21 .94 (.44)
7 3 .36 .21 21 1.72 (.19)
8 3 .31 .35 21 .88 (.47)
9 3 .95 .36 21 2.60 (.08)

1O 3 .08 1.26 21 .07 (.98)
11 3 .03 .47 21 .07 (.97)
12 3 .13 .68 21 .19 (.90)
13 3 .38 .74 21 .51 (.68)
14 3 .56 3.11 21 .18 (.91)
15 3 .24 1.22 21 .20 (.90)
16 3 1.73 .89 21 1.95 (.15)
17 3 1.81 1.42 21 1.27 (.31)
18 3 1.36 .48 21 2.80 (.07)
19 3 .89 .53 21 1.68 (.20)
20 3 .46 .56 21 .82 (.50)
21 3 .69 .81 21 .85 (.48)

 

(a) Alpha set at .01 for Sources 1-20 and .05 for Source 21.
(b) Numbers correspond to affective test items.

(c) Numbers in ( ) indicate p values.

79

Hypothesis 9 stated that Ss who received immediate feedback
would respond more favorably toward the instructional experience on the
short-term affective measure than S; who received delayed feedback.
Since none of the 21 separate ANCOVAs shown in Table 6 resulted in sta-
tistically significant univariate F values, Hypothesis 9 was not sup-
ported.

A possible interaction effect was assessed between the treat-
ment and the repeated measures. Since none of the 21 separate ANCOVAs
shown in Table 8 resulted in statistically significant univariate F
values, the existence of an interaction effect was not supported.

The results of the analyses comparing treatment groups on the
short-term affective measure resulted in no statistically significant

univariate F values. Hypotheses 4 and 9 were, therefore, not supported.

Results of Tests for Hypotheses 5 and 10

Hypotheses 5 and 10 were formulated to assess the affective
reactions of Se who received one of the four treatments during instruc-
tion. Both hypotheses were stated in terms of the long-term affective
measure.

Hypothesis 5 stated that Ss who received programmed supervi-
sion would respond more favorably toward the instructional experience
on the long-term affective measure than Ss who received human supervi-
sion. Since none of the 21 separate ANCOVAs shown in Table 6 resulted
in statistically significant univariate F values, Hypotheses 5 was not

supported.

80

Hypothesis 10 stated that Ss who received immediate feedback
would respond more favorably toward the instructional experience on the
long-term affective measure than Ss who received delayed feedback.
Since none of the 21 separate ANCOVAs shown in Table 6 resulted in sta-
tistically significant univariate F values, Hypothesis 10 was not sup-
ported.

The results of the analyses comparing treatment groups on the
long-term affective measure resulted in no statistically significant

univariate F values. Therefore, Hypotheses 5 and 10 were not supported.

Treatment X Control

The four treatment groups were compared to a non-active con-
trol group on the cognitive and transfer-of-training measures to assess
the effectiveness of treatment versus no treatment. A summary of the
analysis comparing treatment (all four treatments combined) with con-

trol is shown in Table 9.

Results of Tests for Hypothesis ll

Hypothesis 11 was formulated to assess the effect of treat-
ment compared to no treatment. Hypothesis 11 stated that Ss who re-
ceived instruction by any one of the four treatments would make more
CTRL's on the short-term cognitive measure, long-term cognitive measure,
and transfer-of-training measure than Ss who received no instruction.

The analysis of treatment and control utilized an ANCOVA pro-
cedure with four covariates. The resulting multivariate F value was

statistically significant (F=52.89, p=.OOOl, df 3, l7). Univariate F

81

Table 9

Summary of ANCOVAs Showing Multivariate and Univariate F Values

Based on Treatment X Control Including

Influence of Four Covariates

 

 

 

Multivariate Univariate
Source df MS F (a) F (b)
Between 3, 17 52.89 (.0001)*
V1 1 11356.66 173.12 (.0001)*
V2 1 2734.70 35.97 (.0001)*
V3 1 13.53 .19 (.67)
Error (Within) 19
V1 65.60
V2 76.02
V3 72.19

 

(a) Tested at a=.05
(b) Tested at a=.05/3

V1=Short-term Cognitive Posttest
V2=Long-term Cognitive Posttest

V3=Transfer-of-Training Measure

*=Statistica11y significant

82

values were computed for each of the three separate posttest measures.
The univariate F value for the short-term cognitive measure was statis-
tically significant (F=173.12, p=.0001, df l, 17). The univariate F
value for the long-term cognitive measure was statistically significant
(F=35.97, p=.0001, df l, 17). The univariate F value for the transfer-
of-training measure was not statistically significant (F=.l9, p=.67,

df 1, 17).

The results of the univariate ANCOVA procedures indicated a
statistically significant difference between treatment and control for
the short- and long-term cognitive measure but not the transfer-of-
training measure.

Each treatment group was compared individually to the control
group on the three posttest measures. The results of the ANCOVAs are
shown in Table 10.

The multivariate and univariate ANCOVAs resulted in the fol-

lowing statistically significant F values:

The immediate-programmed supervision treatment group was statis-
tically different from the control group on the short-term cogni-
tive measure, with a resulting univariate F value of F=15.65,
p=.0012, df=1, 14.

The immediate-human supervision treatment group was statistically
different from the control group on the short-term cognitive mea-
sure, with a resulting univariate F value of F=20.35, p=.0004,
df=1, 14.

The delayed-human supervision treatment group was statistically
different from the control group on the short-term cognitive mea-
sure, with a resulting univariate F value of F=l66.l6, p=.0001,
df=1, 14.

The delayed-human supervision treatment group was statistically
different from the control group on the long-term cognitive mea-
sure, with a resulting univariate F value of F=40.27, p=.0001,
df=1, 14.

83

Table 10

Summary of ANCOVAs Showin Multivariate and Univariate F Values
Based on Treatments ITaken Individually) X Control In-
cluding Influences of Four Covariates

 

 

 

Source df MS Mulpigggiate Ungvgggate
61-65 3, 14 6.72 (*.0049)

V1 1 898.95 15.66 (*.0012)
V2 1 .03 .00 (.98)

V3 1 142.57 1.94 (.18)
Gz-GS 3, 14 1.68 (.22)

V1 1 201.01 3.50 (.08)

V2 1 9.28 .13 (.72)

V3 1 15.07 .21 (.66)
G3-GS 3, 14 5.94 (*.0079)

V1 1 1168.58 20.35 (*.0004)
V2 1 324.90 4.69 (.05)

V 1 .57 .Ol (.93)

84

Table 10 (Continued)

 

 

 

Source df MS Mulpigggiate Ungvgggate
64-65 3, 14 48.47 (*.0001)

V1 1 9541.18 166.16 (*.0001)
V2 1 2791.79 40.27 (*.0001)
V3 1 7.18 .10 (.76) -
Error 16

V] 57.42

V2 69.33

V3 73.29

 

G]=Immediate-Programmed Supervision V1=Short-term Cognitive Test

G2=Delayed-Programmed Supervision V2=Long-term Cognitive Test

G3=Immediate-Human Supervision V3=Transfer-of-Training Measure
G4=De1ayed-Human Supervision (a) Tested at a=.05
G5=Control (b) Tested at G=.05/3

* Statistically significant

 

85

The comparison of individual treatment groups to the control
group showed three of the four treatment groups statistically different
from the control on the short-term measure. Only one treatment group
was statistically different from the control on the long-term cognitive
measure. There were no treatment groups statistically different from
the control on the transfer-of-training measure. All analyses were
ANCOVAs with four covariates. Thus Hypothesis 11 received partial sup-

port.

Results of Test for Hypothesis 12

Hypothesis 12 was formulated to assess a possible interaction
effect between supervision and feedback. The two levels of supervision
and two levels of feedback resulted in four treatment groups. Hypothe-
sis 12 stated that an interaction would occur between feedback and su-
pervision, resulting in the following order of effectiveness as ranked
from most effective to least effective: I

immediate-programmed supervision > delayed-programmed supervision >
immediate-human supervision > delayed-human supervision.

A summary of all the hypotheses tested involving the four treatment
groups is shown in Table 11.

Since none of the hypotheses tested involving the four treat-
ment groups resulted in statistically significant multivariate or uni-

variate F values, Hypothesis 12 was not supported.

Status of the Research Hypotheses

In the following, each research hypothesis is restated and

its resulting status is summarized:

 

86

Table 11

Summary of Tests of Hypotheses Analyzed by Multivariate
and Univariate ANCOVAs with Four Covariates.

 

 

 

Comparison Igigfiiit Upivg¥agte P Value df
Programmed X human short-term .44 .52 (a) l, 12
supervision cognitive
Programmed X human long-term 4.74 .05 (a) 1, 12
supervision cognitive
Programmed X human transfer of .06 .81 (a) 1, 12
supervision training
Programmed X human affective None of 21 (b)
supervision ANCOVAs

significant
Immediate X delayed short-term .72 .39 (a) l, 12
feedback cognitive
Immediate X delayed long-term .41 .53 (a) l, 12
feedback cognitive
Immediate X delayed transfer of .84 .37 (a) l, 12
feedback training
Immediate X delayed affective None of 21 (b)
feedback ANCOVAs

significant
Feedback X short-term 3.40 .09 (a) 1, 12
supervision cognitive
Feedback X long-term .23 .64 (a) l, 12
supervision cognitive
Feedback X transfer of 1.88 .19 (a) l, 12
supervision training

 

(a) Alpha set at .05/3 for statistical significance.

(b) Alpha set at .01 for statistical significance.

 

87

1. SS who receive instruction through programmed supervision will make
more TCTRL' s on the short- term cognitive measure than Ss who receive in-
struction through human supervision.

Short-term cognitive measure: Not Supported

2. Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision will make
more TCTRL' s on the long- -term cognitive measure than Ss who receive in-
struction through human supervision.

Long-term cognitive measure: Not Supported

3. Ss who receive instruction through programmed supervision will make
more TCTRL' 5 during a five- minute audiotaped segment taken from a counsel-
ing interview than S; who receive instruction through human supervision.

Transfer-of-training measure: Not Supported

4. Se who receive instruction through programmed supervision will re-
spond more favorably toward the experience on a test measuring short-

term affective reactions toward their supervision than Ss who receive

human supervision.

Short-term affective measure: Not Supported
5. Se who receive instruction through programmed supervision will re-
spond more favorably toward the experience on a test measuring long-term
affective reactions toward their supervision than Ss who receive human
supervision.

Long-term affective reactions: Not Supported
6. Ss who receive instruction with immediate supervision will make more
CTRLTs on the short- term cognitive measure than Ss who receive instruc-
tion with delayed supervision.

Short-term cognitive measure: Not Supported
7. SS who receive instruction with immediate supervision will make more
CTRLTs on the long- -term cognitive measure than Ss who receive instruction
with delayed supervision.

Long-term cognitive measure: Not Supported
8. 55 who receive instruction with immediate supervision will make more
CTRLTs during a five- minute audiotaped segment taken from a counseling
interview than Ss who receive instruction with delayed supervision.

Transfer-of-training measure: Not Supported

88

9. S5 who receive instruction with immediate supervision will respond
more Tfavorably toward the experience on a test measuring short- term
affective reactions toward their supervision than Ss who receive in-
struction with delayed supervision.

Short-term affective measure: Not Supported

10. S; who receive instruction with immediate supervision will respond

more favorably toward the experience on a test measuring long-term af-

fective reactions toward their supervision than Ss who receive instruc-
tion with delayed supervision.

Long-term affective measure: Not Supported

11. S5 who receive instruction through any one of the four treatments
will _make more CTRL' s on the short- term cognitive measure, long- -term
cognitive measure, and transfer-of— -training measure than S; who are
members of the control group and receive no instruction.

Short-term cognitive measure: Partially Supported
Long-term cognitive measure: Partially Supported
Transfer-of-training measure: Not Supported
12. There will be a significant interaction affect between the type of
supervision and the temporal dimension of supervision on all tests,

both affective and cognitive, which will result in the following order
of effectiveness as ranked from most effective to least effective:

immediate-programmed supervision > delayed-programmed super-
vision > immediate-human supervision > delayed-human superv1-
sion.

Interaction test measures: Not Supported

CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
Overview

This experiment was focused on an investigation of various
methods of supervision for teaching concreteness, a specific counselor
skill. Two methods of supervision, programmed and human, were combined
with an immediate and delayed temporal dimension. Programmed supervision
referred to feedback, instruction, and reinforcement provided by a
multimedia (slides and audiotape) technique and a programmed manual.
Human supervision referred to feedback, instruction, and supervision
provided by a trained graduate-level supervisor. The immediate temporal
dimension was defined as an interaction following each trainee response.
The delayed temporal dimension was defined as an interaction occurring
only after a specific portion of the instruction had been completed.

A counselor training program was developed to analyze the
effectiveness of the independent variables on the teaching of concrete-
ness. Concreteness, or specificity of expression, was defined as the
ability to describe situations in behavioral or measurable terminology.
Concreteness was taught to the counselor trainees through the use of
Counselor Tacting Response Leads, or CTRL's. A CTRL was defined as a
counselor response lead which would evoke a client tacting response,

i.e., a verbal response which either described a particular abstract

89

9O

concept in more operational or behavioral terms, or which gave specific
examples of whatever the client was trying to communicate.

This experiment involved a repeated measures design (Campbell
& Stanley, 1963) with four covariates and three posttest measures. Three
personality scales from Holland's Vocational Preference Inventory (1970)
were used as covariates, along with a pretest rating of the number of
CTRL's present in a five-minute audiotaped counseling segment. Person-
ality scales used were the Realistic, Conventional, and Social. The
short-term posttest measure included a 25-question standardized cognitive
test and a 21-question affective measure. The long-term posttest, given
three weeks after the experiment, included a lZ-question cognitive test
and a 21-question affective measure. Possible transfer of training was
measured through a rating of the number of CTRL's present during a five-
minute audiotaped counseling segment. Four treatment groups were used,
in addition to a non-active control group.

Instruction was presented in three phases. In Phase 1 a
multimedia technique was utilized to present an introduction to concrete-
ness, along with roleplayed counselor-client interactions illustrating
appropriate and inappropriate examples of CTRL's. In Phase 2 short
client segments were presented through slides and audiotape, and Ss were
asked to choose appropriate CTRL's from a prepared list. In Phase 3
short client segments were presented through slides and audiotape, and
Se were asked to develop an appropriate CTRL on their own. Ss in the
programmed supervision groups received supervision totally through the
multimedia presentation. Ss in the human supervision groups received

supervision from a trained graduate-level supervisor. Ss who received

91

immediate feedback were given 10 short periods of supervision. Ss

who received delayed feedback received two longer periods of supervision.
Each of the three phases included five client segments, for a total of
15 segments used in instruction. Total instruction time was limited

to 45 minutes. Each S_received individual instruction.

The Ss for this study were master's degree candidates in
counseling at Michigan State University. All Ss were aware that they
were participating in an experiment. The original 49 Ss were randomly
assigned to four treatment groups and one non-active control group.

The criterion measures used in this study were formulated to
examine the separate and combined effects of programmed and human
supervision combined with immediate and delayed temporal dimensions.
During the cognitive measures the Ss were asked to place themselves in
the role of a counselor, listen to a short client segment, and respond
with an appropriate CTRL. The short-term cognitive test contained 25
questions, and the long-term test included 12 questions. All Ss received
the cognitive tests. Each st response was rated by three independent
raters. Interrater reliabilities were .92 for the short-term test and
.73 for the long-term test. The two audiotaped measures, pretest and
posttest, were rated by three independent raters. Interrater reliabili-
ties were .91 for the pretest and .58 for the posttest transfer-of-
training measure. On the affective measures, Ss were asked to respond
to statements describing the instructional experience by ranking their
feelings on a series of seven-point bipolar scales. Only Ss involved

in the four treatments were given the affective measures.

92

It was hypothesized that Ss who received instruction through
programmed supervision would make more CTRL's on the short-term cognitive
measure, long-term cognitive measure, and transfer-of-training measure
than S; who received instruction through human supervision. Ss who
received immediate feedback were hypothesized to be superior on the
same measures to Ss who received delayed feedback. An interaction
effect between supervision and feedback was hypothesized which would
result in the following order of effectiveness on all posttest measures
as ranked from high to low: immediate-programmed supervision > delayed-
programmed supervision :> immediate-human supervision o» delayed-human
supervision. It was also hypothesized that the same rank order would
be found as a result of Ss responding to the short- and long-term
affective measures. The data were analyzed using multivariate and
univariate ANCOVAs. The four covariates were included in all analyses.

Alpha levels for the multivariate hypotheses were set a priori at

(I

.05, which resulted in univariate alpha levels ranging from a=.01 to

a

.05. An unbalanced design was used for all analyses.

No statistically significant differences were found for any
of the hypotheses tested for the short-term measures, the long-term
measures, or the transfer-of-training measure. Statistically significant
differences were found between the treatment and control groups on the
short- and long-term cognitive measures. Individual treatment groups
were compared to the control group, with statistically significant
differences (9=.01) found on the short-term cognitive measure between
the control and the immediate-programmed supervision group, the control

and the immediate-human supervision group, and the control and the

93

delayed-human supervision group. A statistically significant difference
(a=.01) was found between the control and the delayed-human supervision

group on the long-term cognitive measure.
Limitations

Before discussing the positive implications of this experiment,
the limitations should be discussed. Each limitation has implications

for revisions or improvements in similar research studies which may be

conducted in the future.

Design

This experiment involved a repeated measures design, with S5
being randomly assigned (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The multiple-
measures technique was designed to be a strength in this study by pro-
viding a follow-up over time, a factor missing in most research designs.
The use of the repeated measures design, however, led to the possible
presence of certain confounding variables. One of the possible confound-
ing variables was S mortality. Posttest measures were given immediately
following the experiment, three weeks after the experiment, and up to a
month following the experiment. The sample for the follow-up measures
dropped from 49 S; in the immediate posttest, to 32 Se in the long-term
measure, to 42 Se in the transfer-of-training measure. Ss missing for
the long-term measure were not in attendance in class on the day the
test was given, which may indicate a lower motivation level on the part

of those Ss.

94

A second threat to internal validity was the possible effect
of history on the transfer-of—training measure. Audiotapes were
received by the experimenter over a period of two and one-half weeks.
Content across tapes was controlled through established guidelines, but
the time variable was left open. In addition, the longer the time
delay, the more likely that some effect between practicum supervisor
and S_might have occurred. Thus, if a similar study were to follow the
design of this experiment, the variables of supervisors and time should
also be controlled.

Since the sample was not randomly selected from a defined
population, the effects of this experiment are, in the strictest sense,
limited to the 49 Se. However, it is hoped the effects might be gener-
alized to similar populations in similar settings (Cornfield & Tukey,
1956). For the purposes of possible generalization, a detailed descrip-

tion of the sample is contained in Chapter II.

Eguipment

Several additional variables may have influenced the results
of this study besides the two threats to internal validity previously
cited. One possible variable was the use of the slide projectors and
tape recorders. The equipment was rented for use in this experiment.
The quality of the equipment was assessed prior to use; yet, one tape
recorder and one cassette tape malfunctioned. Both were corrected as
soon as possible, but the malfunctions may have influenced the S; using

them at the time.

95

£99191;

The sample used was a convenient one felt to be typical of
counselors-in-training. The Ss had, however, been involved in two
previous experiments within the current academic year and had not
received feedback on either experiment. For both experiments, the Ss
had received a grade bonus for participating, whereas no such bonus
could be given in the present study. Also, the Ss were not naive, but

rather were aware that they were participating in an experiment.

Concreteness

 

The use of concreteness as the dependent variable may also
have influenced the results of this experiment. The concept of concrete-
ness was used as the basis of instruction since it had been previously
identified as lacking in beginning level counselors (Eisenberg & Delaney,
1970) and was found to be measurable (Stone, 1972; Eisenberg & Delaney,
1970). The Systematic Counseling program (Appendix A) at Michigan State
University stresses the necessity of describing behaviors in measurable
behavioral terminology. This emphasis is similar in content to the
concept of concreteness, except that different terminology is used.

Thus, the skill of concreteness may already have been present at a high
level in this specific population before the experiment was conducted.
Concreteness also proved to be a variable fairly easily measured on a
written basis as shown by interrater reliabilities of .92 and .73, but
much more difficult to assess in spoken form as shown by interrater
reliabilities of .91 and .58. The guidelines for evaluating CTRL's

established a basic sentence format that needed to be present for a

96

response to be judged an acceptable CTRL. In writing, a person tends
to use complete sentences. However, our spoken language follows a
different pattern and is composed of a combination of sentences and
sentence fragments. The guidelines for CTRL's proved inadequate to
handle this situation. In addition, the number of CTRL's made by a
counselor within a five-minute segment is not totally within his control.
The amount of input by the counselor is dependent on the counseling set-
ting and the particular client with whom he is working. The counselor
works differently with various clients, depending upon how freely they
verbalize, their level of education, their age, and other such factors.
Whereas no controls were placed on these variables in this experiment,
such controls should be considered for future research.

The concept of concreteness also needs to be evaluated in
terms of its effectiveness and benefit in counseling. Concreteness is
useful in describing behaviors in specific terminology, but needs to be
used at the correct time and in the correct manner. A too liberal use
of the skill is as damaging as not using the skill. This experiment
used the number of CTRL's present but did not evaluate the quality of
the leads nor their effectiveness within the context of the counseling
situation. A personal observation by the experimenter was that the
counselors who were rated highest in using concreteness were not the
most efficient or most effective counselors. Concreteness needs to be
assessed in terms of its relationship to other counselor skills. Thus,
ratings of the mere number of CTRL's made are meaningless without some
framework for comparison. For concreteness to be used as a dependent

variable in future research, additional emphasis will have to be placed

97

on the quality of the CTRL's and the interrelationship of this skill

with other counselor skills.

Delayed Feedback

A further limitation involved the definition of delayed feed-
back as used in this experiment. Delayed feedback involved less than a
five-minute delay before feedback was provided. This relatively brief
amount of time may not have been of sufficient duration nor the measuring
instrument precise enough to record any differences due to this variable.

Cognitive Measures: Short-
and Long-Term

The short-term cognitive measure used 25 standardized client
frames identified by Eisenberg (1969) to be critical points in the
goal-setting stage of counseling and in need of additional clarification.
The long-term cognitive measure included 12 randomly selected questions
from the short-term cognitive measure. The client frames were not
representative of the total sample of client statements, as observed by
Stone (1973). Thus, strictly speaking, results cannot be generalized
beyond the test frames. However, the specific questions used are
delineated in Appendix I, and the reader may, therefore, assess for him-
self how comparable the test frames are to the population to which he
may wish to generalize.

The short-term cognitive test was developed using a 25-question
format, on the assumption that length would aid in differentiation among
Ss. However, the length did not accomplish this purpose, but instead

led to a fatigue factor, as reported by several Ss. The long-tenn

98

measure was shortened to 12 questions to control for the possible
fatigue factor. In both tests, the length did not appear to aid in
differentiation among treatment groups. Recommendations for improve-
ment on this measure would include the development of questions increas-
ing in level of difficulty and the development of a quality rating
system in addition to the "acceptable" or "not acceptable" rating

utilized in this study.

Transfer-of-Training Measure

An audiotape from each st practicum setting served as the
basis for the transfer-of-training measure. A five-minute segment was
randomly chosen from each tape and rated by three independent raters
for the number of CTRL's present. Limitations already cited concerning
this measure include the difficulty of rating the spoken conversation
and the variance among Ss due to clients and practicum settings.
Interrater reliability for this measure was .58, while interrater
reliability for a pretest audiotaped measure was .91. The pretest audio-
tape was a roleplayed situation using a coached client. The Ss were
making the tape for a course grade and were instructed to make the tape
as clear and comprehensive as possible. The transfer-of—training audio-
tape was made in an actual counseling situation with less than adequate
conditions in most cases. The S; had no control over the clients, no
prepared scripts, and no chance to re-record the tape for improved
sound quality. The re-recording of the second tape by the experimenter

resulted in some inaudible portions, thus making rating very difficult.

99

In addition, a rating of the mere number of CTRL's was felt to be an
inadequate basis for comparison.

Affective Measure: Short-
andLong:term

The affective measures involved a self—rating seven-point

bipolar scale with 21 questions to assess the Ss' reactions toward the

instructional experience. The experimenter felt this technique holds

promise for future research.

Covariates

 

The three personality scales from the Vocational Preference
Inventory (Holland, 1970) were easy to administer and score. The
assumption that a person's personality may influence his making certain
types of responses was neither proved nor disproved in this experiment.
Correlations as high as r=.65 between the Realistic scale and transfer-
of-training measure, =-.58 between the Conventional scale and long-term
cognitive test, and r=-.41 between the Social scale and long-term
cognitive test lend some support to the assumption. However, additional
experimentation is needed before any conclusion can be reached.

The audiotaped CTRL pretest was correlated with the Social
scale at r=-.4l. The audiotaped pretest was correlated only r=-.22 with
the audiotaped posttest. Correlations between the pretest and cognitive

measures were below r=.20. Thus, the audiotaped pretest added little

to this experiment.

100

Conclusions and Implications

This experiment was designed to compare programmed and human
supervision presented on immediate and delayed temporal dimensions.

The results of the ANCOVAs showed no statistically significant differ-
ences between treatment groups. The conclusions that are drawn must be
viewed in terms of the sample used and the criterion measure, i.e.,
CTRL's.

Accepting the results of the ANCOVAs at face value leads to
several important implications. This study showed no significant dif-
ferences between programmed and human supervision. This finding suggests
that both methods of instruction are equally efficient in teaching con-
creteness. If both are equally effective, it seems pertinent to examine
the relative cost of each technique. The cost involved with a programmed
approach is the initial investment in terms of equipment, slides, and
audiotapes. Once developed, the maintenance cost is rather low. The
program is reusable and requires a minimum amount of supervision.
Students can study the material at their own speed and at times conven-
ient to them. The concept can be reviewed by students as frequently
as necessary in order to ensure mastery learning. Human supervision
requires paid personnel who need a high level of expertise in the con-
cept before being able to teach others. Personnel possessing such
knowledge are limited. Arrangements have to be made concerning the
time and place for instruction. Instruction is usually not given on
an individual basis nor is there any control to ensure uniform quality

of the instructional experience. The analysis of cost-effectiveness in

101

the present study comparing programmed supervision to human supervision
was on a superficial level. The results of the ANCOVA's and the cost-
effectiveness considerations led the experimenter to favor slightly the
programmed approach.

In conducting an in—depth analysis and comparison of pro-
grammed and human supervision, several important considerations have
to be taken into account. One consideration would be the availability
of audio and video equipment and the facilities for their use. The
present experiment utilized an individual instructional procedure which
required separate rooms for each S, A second consideration would be
the desirability of individual compared to group instruction. The use
of the programmed supervision technique has not been applied as yet to
' the group situation. In addition, the interaction among group members
may be desirable. A third area to consider would be at what point in
the counselor training program the instruction should occur. A begin-
ning-level counselor trainee may need additional practice and instruc-
tion in specific skills, while a trainee nearing the end of his program
may desire a total "gestalt" of the counseling process itself. A
fourth variable requiring consideration would be the size of the target
population. A small population may not justify the expense of develop-
ing a programmed supervision package. The programmed approach would
become more feasible if the target population justified mass production
of the slides, tapes, and programmed materials.

In analyzing the affective reactions 0f.§§ toward the instruc-
tional experience, no significant differences were found between treat-

ment groups. The raw data suggested a slight difference between groups,

102

with the programmed supervision group feeling that the experience was
somewhat impersonal while the human supervision group felt that it was
somewhat personal. The differences, however, were not significant.
Since the Ss' reactions toward programmed supervision were not signif-
icantly different from the reactions toward human supervision, either
one is presumably an acceptable method of instruction.

Similar findings indicating lack of statistically significant
differences between immediate and delayed feedback suggest that feed-
back does not have to be provided immediately, but may be delayed with-
out influencing the amount of learning that will occur. This result
has to be viewed from the framework that delayed feedback actually in-
volved only a five-minute delay.

The experimental design used in this study provided for a
follow-up over time. Experiments frequently contain only a short-term
measure, with no indication of what occurs beyond that point. This ex-
periment showed that knowledge concerning the skill of concreteness con-
tinued over a three-week period. The repeated-measures design was lim-
ited by S_mortality. Control of S_mortality is essential if the re-
sults are to be considered representative of the entire sample used.

A statistically significant difference was found on the short-
and long-term cognitive measures between treatment and control. From
this finding, the conclusion can be drawn that instruction on CTRL's
was superior to no instruction. In comparing individual treatment
groups to the control group, the results become harder to explain.
Three of the four treatment groups were statistically different from

the control on the short-term cognitive test, i.e., the immediate-

103

programmed supervision group, the immediate-human supervision group,
and the delayed-human supervision group. On the long-term cognitive
measure, only the delayed-human supervision group was superior to the
control. These results suggest that the delayed-human supervision
treatment was the most effective in producing learning and retention
over time. These tests must be analyzed with the knowledge that four
covariates were used and their relationships factored out. Raw means
for the four treatment groups were almost identical. S; were randomly
assigned to treatments, which theoretically controlled for equivalence
among groups. A possible revision in the design might be the use of a
randomized block design instead of a covariate procedure. The random-
ized block procedure would result in any possible personality influences
being distributed evenly across groups instead of concentrated in one
group.

In summary, several conclusions may be drawn from this experi-

ment:

1. Programmed supervision may be considered a possible alter-
native to human supervision in teaching concreteness.
Relative cost-effectiveness considerations should be taken
into account before using either approach.

2. There is no difference between immediate and delayed feed-
back as they apply to instruction on the skill of concrete-
ness. This conclusion is guarded since delayed feedback
involved less than a five-minute delay before feedback was
provided.

3. Methods of measuring for possible transfer-of—training on
the skill of concreteness need revision, with ratings on
the number of CTRL's being a meaningless variable. A rat-
ing of quality or appropriateness also needs to be devel-
oped.

104

The relationship between a person's personality and his
making specific types of statements such as CTRL's is an
area holding promise for future investigation.

Suggestions for Future Research

Various areas for future investigation can be generated from

this experiment:

1.

The use of a bipolar self-rating scale was judged satis-
factory by the experimenter for measuring affective re-
actions. Scales such as the one used in this experiment
need additional experimentation, not only for their use
as measures of S variables but also to determine their
reliability and validity.

The cognitive measures may not be totally representative
of the sample of possible client statements. In addi-
tion, each statement proved to be of a fairly uniform
difficulty level. A method of using client statements
to differentiate between Ss needs to be developed.

Delayed feedback as used in this experiment involved a
delay of only five minutes or less. Additional exper-
imentation should be made, varying the time between in-
struction and feedback. .

The multimedia technique holds promise as an instruc-
tional technique. Further research needs to be focused
on various methods of instruction, such as the slide-
audiotape combination.

The transfer-of-training measure involving an audiotaped
rating needs additional refinement and guidelines. Addi-
tional research is needed to identify what factors in-
fluence transfer and how can transfer be measured.

The use of personality characteristics as they apply to
counselors needs additional investigation. The results
of this experiment implied that personality type may be
correlated with concreteness.

This experiment used a format that assigned trainees to
treatments. However, people may vary in their attitudes
and acceptance of programmed or human supervision. The
interaction between preference for a type of instruction
and actual instruction received needs to be investigated.

105

The basic question investigated in this study of the ef-
fectiveness of programmed versus human supervision needs
additional research. The results of this study reveal
no differences between the two methods of supervision as
they apply to teaching the skill of concreteness. The
same basic question could be asked of other counselor
skills such as empathy, warmth, and attention. Such in-
vestigations should include a quality rating as well as
a quantitative measure.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING:
A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

115

APPENDIX A

*S Y S T E M A T I C C O U N S E L I N G: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Norman R. Stewart
Bob B. Winborn
Richard G. Johnson
Herbert M. Burks, Jr.
James R. Engelkes

Counseling Systems Research Project
Department of Counseling, Personnel Services,
and Educational Psychology
College of Education

Michigan State University

January, 1973

*Permission granted by Herbert M. Burks, Jr. for re-typing for inclusion
in this dissertation.

116

SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING

In 1967 the counselor education faculty at Michigan State University
made an evaluation of the master's degree program in counseling. From
this study, which revealed a number of weaknesses in the existing
program, a new model was developed for counselor preparation. This
model was entitled "Systematic Counseling." The purpose of this brief
paper is to provide an introduction to this approach. Systematic Coun-
seling will be defined, its scientific bases will be specified, and

its distinguishing features will be outlined. Finally, a brief over-
view of the major steps in the Systematic Counseling process will be
presented.

I. Definition

Systematic Counseling is an approach in which the various aspects
of the counseling process are clearly identified and organized into a
sequence designed to resolve the client's concerns efficiently as well
as effectively.

II. Scientific Bases

Systematic Counseling represents a synthesis of three scientific
approaches--learning theory, systems analysis, and educational tech-
nology. Learning theory and the principles of behavior modification

provide the theoretical and experimental base. Systems analysis pro-
vides the organizational framework, and educational technology is the

source of methods and materials.
III. Distinguishing Features

There are several features of this approach which, when taken in
combination, serve to distinguish it from other approaches to counsel-

ing:

A. Counselor and client establish a mutually agreed-upon
objective for counseling and then work toward the
attainment of that objective.

B. The objective is stated in terms of specific observable
behaviors.

C. The counselor directs specific learning experiences
designed to help the client attain his objective.

0. As suggested in the proposed definition, an attempt
has been made to identify the elements of the coun-

seling process and to place them into an optimal

117

sequence. It should be stressed, however, that while
this sequence is considered ideal for most situations,
flexibility is provided for situations which deviate
from the usual.

E. In this approach, counseling is viewed as a 188rning
process. Through counseling, the client learns new
ways 0 obtaining information, new ways of making deci-
sions, and new ways of responding to his environment.
Moreover, he learns how to apply these learnings to
other situations beyond those concerning the problem
which brought him in for counseling.

F. The counselor uses a wide variety of resources in terms
of both techniques and people in helping the client to
attain his objective for counseling. Besides such
"standard" counseling techniques as listening, reflect-
ing, clarifying, asking questions, summarizing, and
furnishing information--near1y all of which are strictly
verbal in nature--the counselor uses a number of addi-
tional techniques or procedures as well. For example,
he may arrange for the client to observe a model of the
desired behavior, whether live, audio-taped, or video- ‘
taped; he may arrange for a client to visit a place of
business; he may set up behavior contracts or use other
forms of contingency management; he may use counter-
conditioning or role-playing. Most of the latter
procedures are not limited to the verbal medium. The
counselor also frequently involves significant others
in the client's environment (e.g., teachers, parents,
and peers) to observe client behavior and dispense
reinforcement for appropriate client behaviors.

G. Monitoring and evaluation of both client and counselor
performance are built-in aspects of this approach to
counseling.

H. Finally, systematic counseling incorporates a self-
corrective mechanism by which results from evaluating
the counselor's behavior are fed back to the counselor
to help him in working with other clients.

IV. Major Steps in Systematic Counselirg

Attached is a simplified flowchart of the major aspects of the
Systematic Counseling process. A flowchart is merely a graphic,
sequential description of the functions and decisions involved in the
counseling process. You will note that each element, or function, of
counseling is enclosed in a box and is labeled by a verbal statement,
or descriptor. The arrows indicate the order in which the various

118

functions are to be performed, starting at the upper left corner and
proceeding in counter-clockwise direction. Let us now look more
closely at certain sections of the flowchart:

Function 1.0 -- In Systematic Counseling, as in other approaches,
we stEFt with the counselor as the main functionary. Succeeding
aspects of the flowchart will show what the counselor does.

Function 818 -- The first specific function with which the counselor
is concerned is that of processing the client referral. The
referral may originate in a number of ways. It may be based on
counselor observation; or the case may be called to the counselor's
attention by others, such as teachers or other school personnel,
by individuals or agencies in the community at large, or by
parents or other members of the client's family. r, the client
may be a self-referral. The counselor then analyzes the appro-
priateness of the referral. If he decides that this is not an
appropriate case for him to handle, he will help the client find
appropriate assistance from other sources.

Function 818_-- If the counselor accepts the referral, he then pre-
pares for the interview. This involves arranging for an appoint-
ment and reviewing any available data on the client.

Function 4.0 -- During the first interview, the counselor explains
the cfififiseling re ationship to the client. This involves explain-
ing briefly the purpose of counseling, the respective responsi-
bilities of counselor and client, the kinds of things focused on
in counseling, and the limits under which counseling is conducted.

Function 5.0 -- The counselor then proceeds to construct a model of
the cTTent's concerns, i.e., he engages the client in conversation
about the difficulty so as to understand the problem in all rele-
vant aspects. He then verifies or checks his picture of the
client's concerns with the client himself.

Function 818_-- Next, counselor and client decide upon a mutually
acceptable goal and specific learning objective for counseling.

Function 118_-- The next major phase is to determine and implement
a strategy for attaining the client's learning objective. Major
strategies include information-seeking, decision-making, and
behavior modification. Examples of behavior modification proce-
dures commonly used are modeling, simulation, reinforcement,
and extinction. A plan of attack including intermediate objec-
tives and specific steps to be taken by client and counselor is
decided upon, and these steps are then carried out.

Function 818_-- In this phase, client performance is evaluated, both

in terms of improvement over the initial, firesenting level of
problem behavior and in terms of whether t e learning objective

119

has been attained. If the objective has not been attained, it is
then necessary for counselor and client to "recycle" through
(repeat) Function 7.0, "Implement Strategy," after which client
performance is again evaluated.

Function 818_-- After the objective has been attained and there is no

apparent need for further counseling, the counselor proceeds to
terminate regular contact with the client. He begins by explain-
ing the rationale and procedures for termination and resolves any
client or counselor resistance to termination. Next, he conducts
transfer of learning, emphasizing how the strategies and skills
learned during the counseling process can be applied by the client
to future problems. Finally, he establishes a plan for monitoring
the client's performance for a reasonable period of time after the
termination of counseling.

Function 10.0 -- In this phase the counselor follows up or monitors

the client's performance. This procedure usually involves one or
more of the following: (a) observing the client's behavior
directly; (b) asking the client how he is progressing, usually

in brief checkup interviews; (c) requesting information from

others in the client's environment who are familiar with his per-
formance; and (d) examining records and other written data con-
cerning the client's behavior. If the client encounters difficulty,
provision is made for further counseling.

Function 11.0 -- If the client has demonstrated successful performance

during the follow-up period, the counselor proceeds to close the
case. As part of this process, he invites the client to return

if new problems should develop and then completes his interview

notes and other records concerning the case.

Function 12.0 -- The next phase involves an evaluation of the coun-

+—®

 

selor's performance. Here, the counselor may engage in intro-
spection and may also seek the help of others in evaluating his
performance, including the client, fellow counselors, teachers,
supervisors, and others who are familiar with his work with a
particular client.

In the next and concluding step, the information result-
ing from the evaluation of the counselor's performance is trans-
mitted or "fed back" (as indicated by the symbol "F") to the
counselor to help him adapt his methods so as to be more effective
and efficient with the next client. This closes the loop and
completes the cycle, thus emphasizing the self-corrective nature
of the Systematic Counseling process.

1/73/g/HMB

APPENDIX B

SCRIPT FOR PROGRAMMED SUPERVISION-
IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK

APPENDIX B

SCRIPT FOR PROGRAMMED SUPERVISION - IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK
Introduction
Concreteness

This presentation focuses on a specific counselor skill
called concreteness. Concreteness refers to describing the client's
concern in specific and measurable terminology. The concept of con-
creteness has been emphasized in the work of Carkhuff and Truax, who
listed the following skills as essential to counselors: empathy,
positive regard, genuineness, and concreteness. One can visualize
concreteness in counseling as ranging from a high abstract level to a
low concrete level. A possible comparison to illustrate this point
would be a step ladder. Statements high on the ladder would be gener-
ally abstract and on a very intellectual level. As one goes down the
ladder, responses become very specific and measurable. A behavioral
objective written in measurable terms would be an excellent example of
a concrete statement.

Concreteness is useful in counseling and serves three basic
functions as identified by Truax and Carkhuff.

l. The use of concreteness ensures that the counselor's
responses do not become too general or abstract but
instead remain focused on the client's feelings and
exper1ences.

2. The use of concreteness encourages the counselor to
be accurate in determining what the client is saying

and not to assume any information that hasn't been
verified by the client.

120

121

3. The use of concreteness also influences the client to
be specific in describing his feelings and experiences.

Concreteness is most useful during the early phases of coun-
seling when an attempt is being made to define a specific concern and
the various elements of that concern, and again later in therapy when
the emphasis is on the development of specific goals and assignments.
Here at Michigan State University, the concept of concreteness would
be most helpful in llConstruct Model of Client Concern," Subsystem 5.0,
"Implement Strategy," Subsystem 7.0, and in the phase of counseling
"Evaluate Client Performance," Subsystem 8.0.

The counselor exerts a great deal of control over the amount
of concreteness in the counseling process. This control is exercised
by the counselor through specific leads or responses on his part. _A_
counselor response that elicits a concrete statement from the client
is called a counselor tacting response lead or CTRL.

In summary, the following points regarding the concept of
concreteness have been covered;

1. Concreteness is a skill desirable in counselors.

2. Concreteness refers to a specific and measurable client
response.

3. Counselors can elicit concrete responses from clients
through the use of leads or questions which are called
CTRL's or counselor tacting response leads.
This session today will be broken into three phases. Phase
1 involves models presenting appropriate and inappropriate CTRL's
through the use of slides and audiotape. Phase 2 presents brief client

segments with you as a trainee placing yourself in the position of a

counselor and choosing an appropriate CTRL from a list of four possible

122

alternatives. In Phase 3 you are asked to listen to a short client
segment and respond in writing with an appropriate CTRL.

We will now start Phase 1 of training, during which time you
are asked to observe appropriate and inappropriate CTRL's. Let me
demonstrate a part of a counseling interview where a Counselor Tacting

Lead was used.

Client (CL); I can't concentrate on my studies.

Counselor (CO): Tell me what you mean when you say you can't concen-
trate.

88; When I said I can't concentrate, I mean that when I sit down to

study at my desk, I begin to fidget and think about my girl friend
rather than study.

In this example, the counselor used a Counselor Tacting Response Lead.
In terms of our ladder of abstraction the client's concern was high--

the word "concentration" can mean many things. The counselor's lead

enabled the client to specify her concern in terms of behaviors--"I

gidget"--"I think about my girl friend"--and conditions--"study at my
es ."

Let's now turn to an inappropriate example.

.88: I am flunking out of school . . . losing my boyfriend . . . fight-
ing with my parents--a real bummer . . . I am really depressed.

88; Tell me more about it.
88; What do you mean? About what?

The counselor's response "Tell me more about it" in the inappropriate

example is not to be considered a tacting lead, since it is not at all
clear what the counselor is interested in. It did not help the client
specify her concern in terms of behaviors or environmental conditions

and left her confused.

Let's examine how the counselor could have helped the client be more
concrete in this situation by making a tacting response.

.88; I am flunking out of school . . . losing my boyfriend . . . fight-
ing with my parents--a real bummer . . . I am really depressed.

88; Can you help me understand what it means to be depressed for you?

123

88; 0h . . . I can't decide anything. I have trouble sleeping and
haven't been able to eat a thing since I moved back home!

In this example, the counselor lead, "Can you help me understand what
it means to be depressed for?you?", elicited specific information
about the feeling of degression. Since the lead forced the client to
be concrete, the counse or's statement is considered to be an appro-

priate CTRL.
Let us look at another appropriate example.

88; It's because I'm tall. People don't come right out and say it,
but I know deep down they really look down on me and look at me
as if I were inferior. I really resent that.

88; Can you describe an instance when you felt someone was looking
at you?

The counselor response was an appropriate CTRL since the lead would
force the client to describe a specific instance when someone looked
at her and how she felt at that time. The client would have to be
concrete in her description.

Another appropriate example is as follows:

88; I've never really had any close friends. It seems that everyone
around me has friends but me. No matter how hard I try, I never

feel as though I'm accepted.

88; Can you give me an example when you felt as though you were trying
to be friends with someone and felt rejected?

Again, the counselor response was an appropriate CTRL since the client
has to describe a specific example that illustrates the behavior he
was describing.

A final example will illustrate the use of CTRL's further:

88; It's this group of friends I have. Well, not really friends
exactly, because nobody seems to act like a friend. Everybody
says we're not really friends at all. But we all want to be

friends. Maybe you can help us.

88; Can you give me an example about what not really acting like
friends is all about? Describe a situation.

The counselor lead which asked that the client describe a situation
dealing with the client's friends and their actions once again satis-
fies the requirements for a CTRL.

124

The examples just given illustrate the concept of concreteness that

is presented in this session. In each example, the client presented

a situation that needed additional clarification to be understood
fully by both the counselor and the client. The counselor responded
with a lead which forced the client to define the problem in very con-
crete and specific terms.

We are now ready to begin Phase 2 of this training session.
During this phase a brief modeled client segment will be presented
through the slides and tape. On pages 3 and 4 of your workbook are
listed five possible counselor responses to each client segment. During
this phase, place yourself in the role of the counselor working with
each client. Listen carefully to each segment and circle the appro-
priate counselor tacting response lead corresponding to that segment.
Remember that the emphasis being stressed is on forcing the client to
describe his or her concern in specific and concrete terms.
Listen to the following client segment:

88; I'm scared. I'm always scared. I don't know what it is, but I'm
always nervous and I'm that way all day long. I never feel relaxed.

Please choose the appropriate CTRL from the four choices on page 3 under
segment 1. You will have 30 seconds. (Time lapse) The correct CTRL
for segment 1 is lead number 2 since the lead forces the client to give
a specific example when she felt scared. Response number 1 is incorrect
as a CTRL since it is just a reflection of what the client previously
stated. Using just a reflective statement does not allow us to predict
how the client will answer. Response number 3 simply asks the client

to continue, but we have no way of knowing what direction the client
will take. Response number 4 totally ignores the client's feelings and
turns attention to other concerns. Once again, response number 2 was
the appropriate CTRL.

Listen to client segment number 2:

88; I have trouble with my reading comprehension, too. I have to read
something three or four times before I pick it up, and I don't feel

my study habits are too good. I'm flunking out.

On page 3 of your workbook under segment 2, you will find four possible

counselor responses. Choose the appropriate CTRL. You will have 30
seconds. (Time lapse) The correct CTRL for segment 2 is counselor

125

response number 4. The client you have just heard was expressing
difficulty with reading which he felt was causing him to flunk out of
school. The segment contained little if any information that described
how he reads or what causes him to reread material three or four times
before he can understand it. Counselor lead number 4 asks the client

to give additional information on these topics and, thus, is considered
an appropriate CTRL. Alternative answer number 1 is a reflective state-
ment which may or may not cause the client to talk more, but we have no
way of predicting what the client will talk about. If you, as a coun-
selor, simply wanted general information, then response number 1 would .
be appropriate. Response number 2 will produce no additional informa- '
tion. Response number 3 is concerned with developing a strategy before
the problem itself has adequately been defined. Once again, response
number 4 was the correct response.

Please listen to the following client segment:

88; Here I am ready to graduate, and I still don't know what I want to
do with my life. I just can't seem to make a decision on what to
do after high school. Nothing seems interesting or appealing.

I'm really getting worried.

Next to segment 3, you will find four possible counselor responses.
Please circle the appropriate CTRL. You will have 30 seconds. (Time
lapse

The correct answer is counselor lead number 1. This response focuses

on the client's stated concern of not knowing what to do with her life
and asks the client to state additional information related to her voca-
tion. Counselor lead number 2 is scored as incorrect even though it
asks for specific information regarding the client's brother and sister.
The key here is that the client has not mentioned her brother or sister,
nor do they bear a direct relationship to the client's previous state-
ment. Alternative answer 3 is a summary or reflective statement and is
inappropriate as a CTRL since it does not ask for any additional specific
information. Statement 4 is also an inappropriate CTRL since no predic-
tion can be made about the client's probable response.

Please listen to client segment 4:

88; It's really getting me down. I'm the kind of guy who'd wind up
buying the Brooklyn Bridge. I just can't seem to say "no" to
people. My life is run by everybody but me. There are so many
instances. It upsets me--even frightens me at times.

On page 4 of your workbook under segment 4 are listed four possible
counselor responses. Please circle the correct CTRL. You will have 30
seconds. (Time lapse)

The correct CTRL for client segment 4 is answer number 4 since the
response leads the client to describe a specific example of the concern.

126

On the basis of the counselor lead we can predict that the client
will continue to talk about the same concern only in more detail.
Choice 1 is not a CTRL since it merely repeats part of the client's
statement and may not lead the client into giving a more detailed
description of his concern. Statement 2 doesn't lead to any predict-
able client response. Statement 3 offers a possible strategy to use

in working with the client's concern but is premature at this point
since the client's problem hasn't adequately been defined.

Let us try one more client problem during this phase of training.
Please listen to the following client segment:

88; . . . and one time . . . I was walking down the hallway in the
school. I got the funniest feeling that I wasn't walking at all
but that I was sliding along the floor like a snake . . . like I

was really a snake; it was creepy.

On page 4 of your workbook under segment 5 are four possible counselor
responses. Please circle the correct CTRL. You will have 30 seconds.
(Time lapse)

The correct CTRL for this client segment is response number 3 since
the response asks for further information regarding the client's situa-
tion that she has just described. With this counselor lead, one can
predict that the client will provide more information relating to her
concern. Choice 1 represents an attempt to reflect on the cl1ent's

experience but may not lead to any additional, concrete information.
Response number 2 asks for a possible cause of the experience but may
be totally unrelated to the client's situation. In this setting today,
you have to base your responses on the information provided. Thus,
response number 3 is the appropriate CTRL. Response lead number 4 is
also an incorrect CTRL, being classified instead as a reflective state-
ment.

This concludes Phase 2 of training. We are now ready to move
on to a more difficult phase. During Phase 3, you will be asked to
place yourself in the role of a counselor who is working with various

clients. Taped client segments will be presented, and you will be asked
to respond in writing with an appropriate CTRL. Use pages 5 and 6 of
your workbook which are labeled "Phase 3, Counselor Responses for Client
Segments."

Please listen to the following client segment:

127

88; I just feel depressed. Nothing goes right. It's really affecting
my school work. My grades are slipping and I know I'm not doing
well. I feel down no matter how hard I try.

Please write an appropriate CTRL for this segment. You will have 45
seconds. (Time lapse)

You should have completed writing your response at this time. Before
comparing your response to a model answer, let us go back and review
what the c ient said.

How did the client feel? Please answer orally. (Time lapse) If you
said depressed, you were correct; if not, you may be missing important
information presented by the client.

What overt sign stated by the client reflected this depression? (Time
lapse) Recall, the client stated, "It's really affecting my school
work. My grades are slipping . . ." If you identified the feeling and
the overt sign of the depression, you have listened well.

We now have the following information: (8) the client is depressed and
(b) her grades are slipping. However, at this point we aren't sure what
she means when she says, "I feel down no matter how hard I try." Look
at your response to the client. Does your response ask the client in
some way to clarify or describe this "feeling down"? (Time lapse) A
possible model response is found on page 7 of your workbook. Notice
that the modeled response is specific in asking for a description of

the feeling inside. (Time lapse) Now rate your response on the scale
found on page 8 of your workbook. You will notice that the same symbols
(-, O, +) are found on pages 5 and 6 where you have been asked to write
your counselor tacting response leads. Please circle the appropriate
rating of your response. If you have any questions regarding the appro-
priateness of your answer, circle the "0" meaning that you are unable

to rate the response.

Please listen to client segment number 2:

88; My father died last month, and since then life has been miserable.
My mother has really taken it hard. She cries an awful lot and

she's very depressed. I don't know what to do to help her.

Please write an ap ropriate CTRL on page 5 in the space provided for
segment 2. You wi 1 have 45 seconds. (Time lapse)

You should have completed writing your response b this time. Let us
again go back and analyze what the client said. he client was describ-
ing an incident in his life and the various consequences that it has

had for him. The client stated that his father had died, his mother
cries a lot and feels depressed, and that he feels miserable and is
uncertain how to help her. We have now identified four areas of the

128

client's concern that we may want additional information on. Analyze
your response to see if it asks for additional information on any of
the following topics:

1. The fact that the client feels his life is miserable.

2. When, where, or how often the client reports that the
mother cries.

3. When, where, or how often the mother feels depressed or
how the depression manifests itself.

4. What attempts the client makes or thinks about making to
help his mother or change the situation.

As shown in this example, a short client statement can need a lot of
additional clarification before the concern can be fully understood.
One possible counselor lead is found on page 7. Compare your response
to this model, but remember that your lead can deal with any of the
four areas just described. (Time lapse) Now rate your response using
the scale on page 8. (Time lapse)

Let us try another example. Please listen to segment number 3:

88; I just don't seem to be able to do anything right. No matter how
hard I try, it's never good enough. Somebody is always criticizing
the way I've done it. Nobody ever tells me I've done something
right, and now I feel like I can't do anything right at all.

On page 6 in the space provided for segment 3, please write an appro-
priate CTRL. You will have 45 seconds. (Time lapse)

Once again, there are a variety of possible concerns you may have
identified, but we are concerned here with the way you ask for addi-
tional information about the client's concern. The client is saying
that she feels she is always being criticized. However, we don't know
what the client considers criticism nor when, how often, or under what
circumstances the behavior occurs. Look at your response and analyze
your answer in terms of what additional information the client would
provide because of your lead. Is your lead specific enough so that you
could predict in advance the type of information the client would
provide? Compare your answer to the model answer on gage 7. Notice
that the mode answer allows us to predict with a hig evel of prob-
ability that the client will describe a specific situation when she has
been criticized. (Time lapse) Now rate your response using the scale
on page 8. (Time lapse)

At this point in the session you should be getting quite familiar with
the concept of counselor tacting response leads. The use of concrete-
ness in counseling is not designed to replace your use of empathy.
Rather, both empathy and concreteness have their place in counseling

129

when used aEpropriately. In this session, you are practicing the
skill of as ing the client for additional information so that both you
and the client can agree on the same components of the client's con-
cern. An adequate understanding of the problem is one of the major
determinants of successful counseling.

Please listen to the following client segment:

88; I'm really in a spot. Two boys are interested in me, but I like
only one of them. Yet, I hate to hurt the other boy. He's really
very nice and kind, but I just don't like him the way I do Tom.

I don't know what to do about this mess.

Please write an appropriate CTRL in the space provided on page 6. You
will have 45 seconds. (Time lapse)

The concern presented by the client is a common problem faced by people
of all ages. Yet, no situation is as clear-cut as it may appear. To

be certain that the counselor and client are focusing in on the same
aspects of the concern, one should have the client describe the concern
in greater detail. A possible model response is found on page 7 of
your workbook. Compare your response to this model answer and then

rate your own response, using the scale on page 8. (Time lapse) Remem-
ber, this segment is striving for mastery learning of the counselor
skill of concreteness. A second purpose is to build into you as future
counselors a self-reinforcing system so that you will reward yourself
for making correct responses. One method of self-reinforcement involves
self-rating so that you yourself become the judge of what is correct.
This allows for a system of internal reinforcement.

Please listen to the final training segment:

88; Why do I always get into fights? Every day it seems--another fight.
I don't really want to fight with the other guys, but somehow I
don't seem to be able to stop it. You know how some people say
"another day, another dollar." Well, with me it's "another day,
another fight."

Please respond with an appropriate written CTRL in the space provided
on page 6. You will have 45 seconds. (Time lapse)

This example may have been a little more difficult for you to respond
to with an appropriate CTRL. One possible response is found on page 7
of your workbook. Notice that the model response asks for additional
clarification about the client's fights. An attempt is made by the
counselor to have the client express the concern in specific terms.
Rate your response using the scale on page 8. Reinforce yourself for

a correct response through a thought such as I'You got it right" or "I
feel I know how to make appropriate CTRL's." (Time lapse)

130

Let us review the responses that you have made during Phase
3. Look at each response that you have made on pages 5 and 6. Your
responses should show improvement from the first response you made to
the one you just completed. (Time lapse) A brief review of what you
have learned today will help you clarify everything in your mind. Such
a review is found on page 9 of your manual. (1) A CTRL is not a vague
lead that leaves the client in doubt about what you, as a counselor,
expect of him. (2) A CTRL is more than a reflection or summary state-
ment. Using only a reflective or summary statement does not allow you.
as a counselor, to predict what the client will talk about. (3) A CTRL
requests specific information from the client. A CTRL allows for pre-
diction as to the content the client will discuss. In summary, a CTRL
elicits a specific and measurable response from the client which is
stated in terms of behaviors and conditions.

This concludes the training session. I hope you have enjoyed
the experience and have learned how to apply the concept of concreteness
in your counseling. You may review any materials you have, such as the
workbook. When you have completed your review, please report to the

supervisor.

APPENDIX C

WORKBOOK FOR INSTRUCTION ON THE
COUNSELOR SKILL OF CONCRETENESS

Introduction
Concreteness

This presentation focuses on a specific counselor skill
called concreteness. Concreteness refers to describing the client's
concern in specific and measurable terminology. The concept of con-
creteness has been emphasized in the work of Carkhuff and Truax, who
listed the following skills as essential to counselors: empathy, posi-
tive regard, genuineness, and concreteness. One can visualize concrete-
ness in counseling as ranging from a high abstract level to a low
concrete level. A possible comparison to illustrate this point would
be a step ladder. Statements high on the ladder would be generally
abstract and on a very intellectual level. As one goes down the ladder,
responses become very specific and measurable. A behavioral objective
written in measurable terms would be an excellent example of a concrete
statement.

Concreteness is useful in counseling and serves three basic
functions as identified by Truax and Carkhuff.

l. The use of concreteness ensures that the counselor's
responses do not become too general or abstract, but
instead remain focused on the client's feelings and
experiences.

2. The use of concreteness encourages the counselor to
be accurate in determining what the client is saying
and not to assume any information that hasn't been
verified by the client.

3. The use of concreteness also influences the client

to be specific in describing his feelings and exper-
iences.

131

132

Concreteness is most useful in counseling during the early
phases of counseling when an attempt is being made to define a specific
concern and the various elements of that concern, and again later in
therapy when the emphasis is on the development of specific goals and
assignments. Here at Michigan State University, the concept of con-
creteness would be most helpful in "Construct Model of Client Concern,"
Subsystem 5.0, "Implement Strategy," Subsystem 7.0, and in the "Evalu-
ate Client Performance," Subsystem 8.0, stage of counseling.

The counselor exerts a great deal of control over the amount
of concreteness in the counseling process. This control is exercised
by the counselor through specific leads or responses on his part. :8
counselor response that elicits a concrete statement from the client
is called a counselor tacting‘response lead, or CTRL.

In summary, the following points regarding the concept of
concreteness have been covered:

1. Concreteness is a skill desirable in counselors.

2. Concreteness refers to a specific and measurable client
response.

3. Counselors can elicit a concrete response from the client
through the use of leads or questions which are called
CTRL's, or counselor tacting response leads.

133

Phase 2

Counselor Response Alternatives
for Client Segments

Instructions: During Phase 2 of this session, you are asked to listen
to a brief client segment presented by slides and audiotape. Next to
each segment number below are listed four possible counselor leads.
You, as a trainee, are asked to place yourself in the role of a coun-
selor working with that client and choose the appropriate CTRL or
counselor tacting response lead from the four alternatives. Please

circle the correct CTRL for each segment.

Phase 2, Segment 1
1. "You never feel relaxed."

2. "Can you narrow that down? Give me an example when you
were scared."

3. "Yes, go on."

4. "Do you have any other concerns besides being scared?“

Phase 2,_Segment 2
1. "So you feel you are flunking out of school?"
2. "You aren't the only person who has trouble with reading.
A lot of people in school need additional reading instruc-
tion."

3. "We have a new class starting in two weeks for people
with reading difficulty. Would you like to join?"

4. "Could you help me understand what you are thinking
about when you begin to read."

Phase 2,_Segment 3

1. "What kind of things have you thought about doing after
graduation?" '

134

2. "How are your brother and sister doing in school?"

3. "You're telling me that you are uncertain about what to
do with your life."

4. “It sounds like you have a lot to worry about."

Phase 2, Segment 4
1. "You have a hard time saying 'no' to people."
2. "Yes, I understand. Go on.“

3. "We could train you to be assertive and say 'no' to
people."

4. "I am confused. Give me an example."

 

Phase 2, Segment 5
1. "That's a very unusual experience you have just described."
2. "Were you on some type of drugs?"

3. "To help me understand, can you describe what else is
going on around you when you feel this way?"

4. "You said you were feeling like a snake."

135

Phase 3

Counselor Responses for
Client Segments

Instructions: During Phase 3 of training, you are asked to listen to

 

a brief client segment presented by slides and audiotape. Next to
each segment number, respond in writing with an appropriate CTRL, or

counselor tacting response lead.

Phase 3, Segment 1 (-, O, +)

Phase 3, Segment 2 (-, O, +)

136

Phase 3, Segment 3 (-, 0, +)

Phase 3, Segment 4 (-, 0, +)

Phase 3, Segment 5 (-, O, +)

137

Phase 3

Model Answers

Presented here are "model" answers for Phase 3, client
segments 1 through 5. Model answers are provided as a basis for com-
parison and should not be considered as the only possible answers.
Use this page and the self-rating scale on the following page to

evaluate your answers made during Phase 3 of training.

Phase 3, Segment 1

"Describe how you feel . . . inside . . . when you're down."

Phase 3, Segment 2

"When do you feel most miserable?"

Phase 3,8egment 3

"Give me a recent example of an incident when someone
severely criticized you."

Phase 8,_Segment 4

"What do you mean when you say you "hurt" the other boy?"

Phase 8, Segment 5

fTell me about the most recent fight you have been involved
1n."

138

Self-Rating_§cale of Concreteness

Instructions: This scale is provided to help you rate your counselor
tacting response leads made during Phase 3 of training. Evaluate your
responses using the following ratings: '

(-) Response is not considered a counselor tacting response
lead.

(0) Response may or may not be considered a counselor tact-
ing response lead.

(+) Response is considered to be a counselor tacting
response lead.

 

 

 

Description of response Description of response
-abstract lead -concrete lead
-asks for general -asks for specific content
content

- O +
-no definite client I 7* -elicits measurable response
response may be from client
predicted

Scoring: (-) and (O) are unacceptable CTRL's.
(+) are acceptable CTRL's.

139

Summary Statements on Concreteness

l. A CTRL is not a vague lead.
a. "Tell me more about it."
b. "Go on."
c. "Give me an example."
2. A CTRL is not only a reflection or summary.
a. "Sounds like a very unusual experience.“
b. "You seem to be enjoying math class."
c. "You are saying that you often feel hurt by others."
3. A CTRL is specific in what the counselor requests from the client.
a. "What do you mean when you say you feel depressed?"
b. "Give me an example of when you feel hostile."

c. "What's going on in your head when you stare at boys?"

A CTRL is a counselor statement which elicits a specific and

 

measurable response from the client. The concern is expressed in terms

of behaviors and conditions.

 

APPENDIX D

TRAINING SLIDE SEQUENCE

APPENDIX D
TRAINING SLIDE SEQUENCE

This list is a description of the slides to be used in
training and the corresponding slide sequence. The list is given as
a reference in case you as a trainee are uncertain which slide should
be viewed. Please leave this list in the room when you have finished

the session.

slide 1 supervisor

slide 2 supervisor

slide 3 black woman (college age)
slide 4 woman (college age)
slide 5 woman (same as slide 4)
slide 6 older man

slide 7 black man (college age)
slide 8 supervisor

slide 9 older woman

slide 10 man (college age)

slide 11 woman (high school age)
slide 12 older man

slide 13 woman (high school age)
slide 14 supervisor

slide 15 woman (high school age)
slide 16 man (college age)

slide 17 older woman

slide 18 woman (college age)
slide 19 man (high school age)
slide 20 supervisor

140

 

APPENDIX E

ASSIGNMENT FORMS FOR TRAINEES AND SUPERVISORS

 

APPENDIX E

ASSIGNMENT FORMS FOR TRAINEES AND SUPERVISORS

Assignment for Trainees:

Trainee

Please report to room at

 

You will receive additional instructions at that time. Please use the

following code number for this session. Code Number

 

Assignment for Supervisor:

 

 

 

 

Supervisor

You will be working with trainee in
room at . The trainee
is to receive instruction.

 

141

 

APPENDIX F

SUPERVISOR'S AND RATER'S GUIDELINES

APPENDIX F
SUPERVISOR'S AND RATER'S GUIDELINES

Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRL's)
Concreteness

Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRL's)

Counselor tacting response leads are statements made by the

 

counselor which will evoke a specific concrete client response, i.e.,

a verbal response which either describes a particular abstract concept

 

in more operational or behavioral terms, or which gives specific exam-
ples of whatever the client is trying to communicate. A counselor
response would be considered a CTRL if it requests a behavioral des-
cription of a particular idea or concept, or if it requests a descrip-

tion of environmental conditions related by the client.

Classes of Client Responses

Four classes of client verbal tacting responses may be

delineated:

1. those which offer operational definitions to previous
abstract references (e.g., "When I said that I do
poorly in school, I meant that I have three C's and
two D's in my classes."),

2. those which are physiological and behavioral descrip-
tions of emotional experiences (e.g., "When I said
that I get upset, I mean that my face turns red, that
my voice gets high pitched, and I start crying."),

3. those which tie generalizations about events to spe-
cific stimulus events (e.g., "One time when I felt
angry was when my mother forced me to go to school

when I felt sick all over."),

142

143

4. those which tie generalizations about events to a
variety of other specific stimulus conditions (e.g.,
"I also felt angry when my boyfriend went out with
another girl, and the time when the teacher wouldn't

accept my report because it was five minutes late.").

Concreteness

H
r!

yam-.7

Counselor tacting response leads may also be referred to by
the term "concreteness." Concreteness involves expressing the concern 2..

in specific and measurable terminology. Concreteness is a variable

8

 

largely under the therapist's control. Truax and Carkhuff (1964) and j
Carkhuff and Berenson (1967) have identified three basic functions of Ir
concreteness:
1. It ensures that the therapist's responses do not become
too intellectual and abstract, but remain focused on the
client's feelings and experiences.
2. It encourages the therapist to be accurate in his under-
standing of the client's statements and feelings and to
verify or clarify any assumed interpretations.
3. It influences the client to be specific in describing
feelings and experiences.

Use in Counseling

 

Concreteness fits into the counseling process during the
early phase of counseling when an attempt is being made to define the
concern and again in later parts of therapy when the emphasis is on
the development of specific goals and assignments. In the "Systematic
Counseling Process" taught at Michigan State University, concreteness
would be most applicable in helping to "Construct Model of Client Con-
cerns," (Subsystem 5.0), “Implement Strategy," (Subsystem 7.0), and

again in "Evaluate Client Performance," (Subsystem 8.0).

10.

144

Guidelines for Evaluating
Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRL' s)

R8§ings are based on the counselor's statements, not those of the
c ents.

A CTRL is a counselor statement that will cause the client to

describe an abstract concern in terms of specific measurable
behaviors and/or environmental conditions.

A CTRL is specific in the information that it requests.

A CTRL elicits a description, clarification, example, or elabora-
tion of some previous client statement.

A CTRL is not simply a summary of what the client has said nor

simply a reflection of the client's feelings, but asks for addi-
tion specific information.

A CTRL may include aspects of empathy, but also requests a descrip-
tion or example of the feelings discussed.

A summary statement followed by a question such as "Is that it?"
or "Is that correct?" is not a CTRL.

Only one CTRL is to be recorded per counselor response. Even if
the counselor asks several questions before the client responds,

count this as one CTRL.
A CTRL may be a question that asks when, how many, how often, etc.
A CTRL may also ask for additional information such as "What does

listening to the radio do for your being uptight?" The key is if
the counselor statement is asking for specific and measurable

responses from the client.

Examples 0f Appropriate CTRL's

I just feel depressed. Nothing goes right. It's really affecting
my schoolwork. My grades are slipping and I know I'm not doing
well. I feel down no matter how hard I try. (F)

Describe what you mean by feeling depressed, feeling down. (M)

 

1.

145

I've never really had any close friends. It seems that everyone
around me has friends but me. No matter how hard I try, I never
feel as though I'm accepted. (M)

Can you describe an example of how ou have tried to make friends

but then felt you were rejected? (M

I have this problem. It seems that I have no interest in girls,
but boys fascinate me. I just love to sit in class and stare at
boys. I could do this for hours. (M)

What's going on in your head when you stare at boys? (F)

Examples of Inappropriate CTRL's

. . . and one time . . . I was walking down the hallway in the
school. I got the funniest feeling that I wasn't walking at all

but that I was sliding along the floor like a snake . . . like I
was really a snake; it was creepy. (F)

Sounds like a very unusual experience. (M)

I am flunking out of school . . . losing my boyfriend . . . fight-

ing with my roommates . . . losing my grant. I really feel
depressed. (F)

Tell me more about it. (F)

I've been on ADC for two years, and I'm tired of living off other

peo 1e. I want to find a job, but no one wants to hire a woman

"wit only one hand. (F)

You sure seem to be having a hard time of making it. (F)

Summar

A CTRL is not a vague lead,

a. "Tell me more about it"
b. "Go on"
c. "Give me an example"

 

146

2. A CTRL is not only a reflection or summary,
a. "Sounds like a very unusual experience"
b. "You seem to enjoy math class"
c. "You are saying that you often feel hurt by others"

3. A CTRL is specific in what the counselor requests from the client,
a. "What do you mean when you say you feel depressed?“
b. "Give me an example of when you feel hostile."
c. "What's going on in your head when you stare at boys?"

A CTRL is a counselor statement which elicits a specific and measurable
response from the client. The concern is expressed in terms of Behav-
iors and conditions.

APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SUPERVISORS
(TRAINING)

APPENDIX G

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SUPERVISORS
(TRAINING)

This memo is designed to provide additional information on
what I am asking you to do on April 9. The specific counselor skill
that will be taught is called concreteness. Concreteness is taught
through the use of counselor tacting response leads or CTRL's. This
simply involves teaching the counselor trainees how to ask specific
questions so that one could predict how the client will respond. This
is explained in the attached pages.

You, as supervisors, will be working individually with two
MA students, teaching them how to use CTRL's. The training will be
divided into three phases. Phase 1 involves an introduction to the
concept of concreteness, with appropriate and inappropriate examples.
This phase has been prerecorded and requires no input on your part.
Total time of Phase 1 is about eight minutes. Phase 2 involves the
presentation on audiotape of short client segments (such as on the
posttest), where the trainees are asked to choose an appropriate CTRL
from a list of four possible choices. During this phase you will be
asked to provide feedback on which answer is correct and why it is
correct. Phase 3 involves the trainees listening to short client seg-
ments and responding in writing with a CTRL they devise themselves.
During this phase, you will be asked to evaluate the appropriateness
of their answers, give additional instructions on the skill of concrete-

ness, and possibly role play, devise additional practice examples, or

147

148

provide some additional training as requested. The total time spent
with each trainee will be 45 minutes, which will be enforced.

Each supervisor will work with two trainees during each
class period on an individual basis. Both trainees will receive iden-
tical Phase 1 training. Trainees will receive different training
during Phases 2 and 3. One trainee will receive immediate instruction
following each response he or she makes. Thus, the trainee will
receive feedback at 10 places during the session. The second trainee
will receive instruction only after the Phase 2 segment is completed
and again after the Phase 3 segment is completed. The second trainee
will receive instruction at only two places during the session, but
each period of instruction will last a longer period of time.

My committee required a minimum level of expertise on the
part of the supervisors I use. The level established is 80% correct
CTRL's on the post test. The test involves 25 items. Please take
the test after reading the attached material and return the completed
test to me as soon as possible.

Specific times and trainees will be assigned to you by Fri-
day. A general time frame is 8:30 to 10:15 and 4:30 to 6:15 on Tuesday,
April 9. Thank you for your help. You may not realize how much your

help is appreciated until you're doing your own experiment.

APPENDIX H

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS

APPENDIX H
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS

During spring term, 1974, the members of the MA counselor

training program will be involved in a research project. The project
calls for a follow-up measure involving a taped interview from the
subject's practicum setting. From the tapes a five-minute segment
will be taken and rated for a specific counselor skill. The following
requirements must be met:

1. tape is clear and easily understood,

2. tape was recorded after April 9,

3. tape includes at least a five-minute segment dealing
with Subsystem 5.0, "Construct Model of Client Concern."

One tape will be needed from each student. Please place the tapes
inside my desk drawer (4EE). I promise (I hope) one-day service. That
is, any tape delivered to my desk by 4:00 will be returned the follow-
ing morning. Please indicate on the tape the beginning and ending of
the segment involving discussing the client's concern.

Thank you much for your help.

149

 

APPENDIX I

WRITTEN TEST FRAMES
SHORT-TERM FORM

APPENDIX I

WRITTEN TEST FRAMES Code

 

SHORT-TERM FORM

Instructions

The following pages contain a series of client statements made by high
school, college, and adult age clients. Each client statement has
been taken from actual counseling sessions. Each statement was con-
sidered to be a critical incident or turning point in the direction of
movement in the counseling process.

You are asked to place yourself in the role of the counselor who is
working with each client. Clients are being seen individually. A
relationship has been established by you and you are discussing the
various components of the client's concern. After reading carefull
each client's statement, respond in written form as if you were wit
him/her as a counselor in an actual counseling session.

The results of this exercise will in no way affect your grade for this
class. Your written responses will be coded to insure anonymity and
confidentiality.

Test Frames

1. Client (CL): This is frustrating. I know that counseling could
help me, but it makes me feel worse--not better. It's very
discouraging and I don't like that. It just makes me feel
worse!

 

Counselor (CO):

2. 88; This has been a trouble all my life. Even when I was little.
Now, when I have to give a presentation, or something, all
these feelings from all my life build up inside of me.

150

~ =-MI

 

151

I'm nervous, I guess. I'm not sure if it is nervousness,
really. Some kind of feeling like that, I guess. It's hard
to explain.

I've never, well, with rare exceptions, ever really had close B
friends. I don't seem to fit in too good. I've got a pretty '8
bad feeling. Could count my friends on one hand. Something

happens, I guess, between me and other people.

 

I have put applications in all the places I have known of that
work very muc , never at Motorola but . . . they have to take
a physical there and I fear that. But G.E. will be hiring
shortly and maybe they'll pick me up.

I can't seem to sleep at night. I'll be awake in bed and
toss and turn, but I just can't fall asleep. I'm awake for
hours, and then I am just dead tired in school. It's affect-
ing my school work and my relations with my friends, too.

Oh, well, I'm not a stupid person. I mean I've got a certain
amount of intelligence. And, uh, I find it fairly easy to
get along with people; although I'm terribly shy, and it's
hard for me to . . . to . . . to force myself . . . I have to
really force myself to do some things, especially by myself.
I usually have to have somebody with me to hold my hand, so
to spea .

10.

11.

152

I'm always getting into trouble with the teachers. They
never seem to appreciate me or anything like that. They're
always so bossy and order you around and everything. They
never show any respect or anything like that. All they do
is order you around; screw 'em! I think I'll quit school.

People! People really disgust me. They're so good. I mean
the way they carry on so, and the way they treat you all the
time. People are mean and cruel. It's a rotten world with
rotten people. I'm sick of the whole thing.

Here I am, a leader in the school. People like me. I think,
and respect me; but yet, I don't have any confidence in my-
self. I just don't think I am capable of anything.

Whatever I do I can justify it to myself. It doesn't make

any difference what it is--no matter how wrong or evil. I
can make myself feel better about doing it.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

153

There are these funny feelings sometimes when I think
something is going to happen. It's occurring more and
more. Nothing happens, but I can't seem to shake this
feeling. Sometimes it really builds up inside of me.

‘51:
When I'm in this particular class, I get all wound up and I
want to scream or run out of there. 81:

 

I can't decide whether to stay in school or not. I know,
everyone says you gotta get an education. You gotta get
a diploma. But school just doesn't interest me. I'd
rather get a job in the auto shop working on cars. That's
what I'm really interested in. Not sitting all day in a
classroom.

No matter how small a thing it is I do wrong, it bothers

me for days afterwards. Guilt, I guess you'd call it.

But it's getting out of hand. I have to do something about
it. Could you help me? I realize I shouldn't be doing
some things, but even when I don't, it still gets to me

and I can't do my work with this stuff on my mind.

Just a born loser, I guess. All my life nothing has worked
out. Like having the opposite of a Midas' touch. Every-
thing turns sour. I don't know what I'm going to do. I
get very frightened at all this.

17.

18.

19.

20.

154

It's forgetting. Everything. Well, not everything
exactly. Just things I'd want to forget, yet have to
remember at the same time. Know what I mean? It's hard
to explain . . . well, you know . . . don't you?

There's nothing wrong with me at all. The principal sent
me in to talk to you so that you "can straighten me out“
as he put it. I guess he thinks I need to be straightened
out, but there's nothing wrong with me at all.

It's my family. We just don't seem to get along well. We
constantly fight and bicker with each other. It's getting
so bad that I really dread coming home after school. No
matter how hard I try, I just can't seem to avoid these

arguments.

I was talking about forcing myself on somebody. If somebody
does let me know that I am forcing myself on them, that
would hurt me--and did hurt me. I fear feelings of being
rejected by others. This social rejection, and such.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

155

It's this friend of mine. He's worrying quite a bit lately.
It seems everything worries him no matter how small a
matter it is. Could you tell me why he's worrying so much
and how can I help him?

I've been feeling terrible, . . . Blahh. It's hard to
explain. It's like nothingness. Do you know what I mean?

It just seems that nobody cares about me. Nobody seems to
want me. Nobody is interested in me. I'm really not very
pretty (handsome); I know that, but I just wish somebody
would show me that they care about me.

Elevators. I never go on them. I haven't ridden on one in
years. Always walk. But that's the problem! Sometimes I

lose out on a lot by walking. We went to Chicago a couple
of weeks ago. Everybody went to the restaurant on the top

floor. I didn't. This thing about elevators is really
buggin' me more and more.

Boy, I freeze up on tests. Just can't take them, and with
:hg ACT's coming up, I'm concerned. Thought maybe you could
e p me.

APPENDIX J

PERSONAL REACTION SCALES

APPENDIX J

PERSONAL REACTION SCALES Code

Instructions: The following questions are designed to measure your

 

personal reactions toward the training experience dealing with the
counselor skill of concreteness. For this section there are no right
or wrong answers, but please answer each question. A single statement
is given which is followed by a series of antonyms (words have oppo-

site meanings) arranged on opposite ends of a 7-point scale. Each pair

 

of words is a separate question. Circle the number (1-7) that indi- r

cates your feelings toward the statement.-

Scoring: A 4 indicates a neutral feeling about the concept. A res-
ponse closer to either end (1 or 7) indicates a stronger agreement with
the concept on that end of the continuum. For example, if you were
asked to respond to the following statement:

I feel the instructional experience was:
useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 useless,
a rating of 4 would indicate a neutral reaction toward the experience,
while a rating of 1 would mean you felt the experience was very useful,

and a rating of 7 would mean you felt the experience was useless.

Statement: I feel the instructional experience that I have participated
in was:

useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 useless
meaningless l 2 3 4 5 6 7 meaningful
important 1 2 3 .4 5 6 7 unimportant

artificial l 2 3 4 5 6 7 realistic

successful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 unsuccessful

Statement: I feel my knowledge of the concept of concreteness is:

adequate l 2 3 4 5 6 7 inadequate
useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 useless
non-

applicable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 applicable
unimportant l 2 3 4 5 6 7 important

§3§temepg: I feel the method of presentation for teaching the skill

of concreteness was:

boring l 2 3 4 5 6 7 interesting
personal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 impersonal
negative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 positive
humanistic l 2 3 4 5 6 7 mechanistic
Statement: I feel the test on concreteness was:

challenging l 2 3 4 5 6 7 easy

short 1 3 4 5 6 7 long
realistic l 2 3 4 5 6 7 unrealistic
boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 interesting

Statement: My feelings toward myself as a counselor as a result of

the training experience on concreteness are that I am more:

qualified l 2 3 4 5 6 7 unqualified
nervous l 2 3 4 5 6 7 relaxed
prepared 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 unprepared
encouraged l 2 3 4 5 6 7 discouraged

158

On the back please include any comments about the training experience
that you have had. Also include any suggestions on how the training

experience could be improved.

APPENDIX K

RATING FORM FOR AUDIOTAPED COUNSELING SEGMENTS

APPENDIX K
RATING FORM FOR AUDIOTAPED COUNSELING‘SEGMENTS
Subject's code Rater's code

Instructions for raters:

 

83
Each tape contains a series of five-minute taped segments 1
of counseling interviews. Each segment is preceded by a number from E “1
1-60. Record the number for each segment as the subject's code. 1
Listen and rate each segment following this procedure: If

1. Listen and rate for one minute.

2. Stop the recorder and record the number of concrete
responses made during the one-minute interval.

3. Repeat the process until the entire segment is rated.

4. If the taped segment does not equal five minutes, place
an X through the boxes not used.

During the rating period, place a vertical line (1) in the
appropriate box for each concrete response lead made by the counselor.

Remember, you are only rating counselor response leads.

 

 

 

Ezamele
Time in minutes

1 2 3 4 5
Make a vertical line (1)

11 1111 l 111 l
for each CTRL made Total
Total CTRL(s) for CTRL(S)

2 4 l 3 1
each time period [::::]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

159

APPENDIX L

RATING FORM FOR WRITTEN CTRL'S

 

RATING FORM FOR WRITTEN CTRL'S

Rater Code

APPENDIX L

Trainee Code

Using the guidelines for ratings of CTRL's, please read each
client trainee statement and place a check (/) in the appropriate box
corresponding to the rating of that statement.

Appropriate
Statement CTRL'S

Inappropri ate)

CTRL'S

Statement

Appropriate
CTRL'S

Inappropriate
CTRL'S

 

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SDCDNOSU'l-wa

N—l—l—ld—lddu—Jc—J—J
O‘DmNmU'l-th—‘O

 

 

 

16

21
22
23
24
25

 

 

Total

 

 

CTRL's

 

Final Rating--Total Appropriate

 

APPENDIX M

CORRELATIONS AMONG FOUR
COVARIATES AND THREE
DEPENDENT VARIABLES

161

.umpgoamg mew megm_ so om. mo mspm> ops—omnm cm mcm>mz mcompmpmggoo apcow

 

 

~m.- umwu m>wpwcuou Egmuuueogm ucm wpmum meoom
mm.- pmmp m>wuw=mou agap1ugogm ucm mmem chowu=m>cou
8m.1 “mop m>wppcmou EgmpumeoF new mpmom _mmuom
F¢.- pmmumga Amen cmqmuopuam ucm m_mum meuom
mm. pmmp m>wumcmou Egmu1mcop ucm ummy m>wp_:mou sgmpnugogm
mm.- pmma w>wpwcmou Egmuumcop new mpmum Pacowpcm>coo
mm. mgzmmms mcwcwmgpumouemymcmgp new mpmum owpmmemm
mm. mpmom meoom ucm mpmom pmcowpcm>cou
«L cmgmqsou mmpnmwgm>

 

 

mnzogw pcosummg» Lao; :o ummmm
mmpaowgm> acmucoamo mugs» new mmumwgm>ou Lao; mcos< mcowumpwggou

F12 w—nmh
mm4m<Hm<> hzmozuamo mmmzh oz< mmh<am<>ou anon wzoz< monh<4mmmo0
z x~ozmmm<

162

 

.uwugoaoe ago meLmF Lo cm. 48 mapm> opspomnm co m=w>mc meowpopoggou choa

 

 

<m.- pmma w>PuF=moo Egmpuugosm use mpmum Pmmuom
mm.- umopmga gape umampopuam use mpmom meuom
_¢.- pmmp m>mpwcmoo Egmuumcop can m-mom _mwuom
~¢.- pmmu o>wuwcmoo egmuumcop ucm m—mum Pacomucm>coo
we. apnom _mwoom vcm wpmum pocowucm>=ou
mm. umwp m>rpw=mou Egmpumcop uca pmmu m>wuwcmou Egmuiugocm
Rm. ogsmmme mcwcpmguueougmwmcmgu ucm mpmum uwumwpmma
8L umgmasou mmpamwgm>

 

 

Pogucou x ucmsumme» co uwmmm mm—amwgm>
ucmucmamo mugs» ucm mmpmwgm>oo Lao; acos< mcowpm_mggoo

.muz mpnmh

163

 

.umugoamg mga gmmng so om. Go wzpm> manpomnm cm mcw>ms meowpmpmsgou xpcow

 

 

_m.1 ummp m>wuwcmoo Esmpupgonm van m—uom meoom
mm.- ummu m>wupcmou Egmuuugogm new umUm chowu=m>coo
mm.- “mm“ m>muwcmou EgmuumcoF use mpaum Fmpuom
mm.- ummpwgm Ampu umamuowusm ucm mpmum meoom
mm. umou m>wpwcmou Egmuumcop use pmmp m>waw=mou ngpnpgogm
nm.1 pmwp m>mumcmoo Egmp1mcop use «Faum Pacema=m>=oo
mm. meammme mcwcwmgunmougmmmcacu can mpoom ovumwpmmm
em. upmum Pocowu=m>coo ecu mpmom Fuwuom
«L cwgansoo manMVLm>

 

 

Fogucou x flappmsum>wvcH cmxmhv “cmsummgh :o cummm
mm_nmwgm> pcwccmqmo mmggh ucw mmpmwgm>ou Lao; mcoe< mcowumpmggou

mu: m—nmh

Typed and Printed in the U.S.A.
Professional Thesis Preparation
Cliff and Paula Haughey

144 Maplewood Drive

« -'1 East Lansing, Michigan 48823

 
 

Telephone (517) 337-1 527

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