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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
Food Preferences of the one Horned Indian

Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros Unicornis,
In Kaziranga National Park, India

 

presented by

Kamal Chandra Patar

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

MEL—degree in F_isi1e_ries_& Wildlife

{2’64 6/ / [/2727 :2,

/1 Major professor

Date October 21, 1977

 

0-7639

APR 0 3 1999

FOOD PREFERENCES OF THE ONE HORNED INDIAN
RHINOCEROS, RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS,
IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

 

BY

Kamal Chandra Patar

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife

1977

A.
Cr“
in.“

ABSTRACT

FOOD PREFERENCES OF THE ONE HORNED INDIAN
RHINOCEROS, RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS,
IN KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

 

BY

Kamal Chandra Patar

The food preferences of the one horned Indian

rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) were determined in the

 

Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India during the dry
season of 1975-1976.

Square-meter vegetation plots were located over
lZOha of a short-grass rhino habitat. Grasses made up
77%, and forbs 23%, of the rhino's diet during the
November to April dry season. Highly preferred species

were Arundo donax, Hemarthria compressa, Carex

 

rubrobrunnea, Eleochoris fistulosa, and Lippia geminata.

 

 

Thirteen grass and forb species were eaten by rhinos but
not to the extent warranted by their abundance. Three
forbs were avoided as foods.

g. compressa, Q. rubrobrunnea, and A. donax to-

 

 

gether comprised 71.5% of the available forage and 91.1%
of the rhino's diet. They seemed to typify the ideal

dry-season habitat of the rhino. In some areas, however,

Kamal Chandra Patar

these Species seemed to be overgrazed. There was thus
some indication that maximum ungulatc populations had

been achieved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express sincere appreciation to P.
Barua, Indian Forest Service, Ex-Chief Conservator of
Forests, Assam, M.A. Islam, I.F.S., Chief Conservator of
Forests, Assam, and R.M. Das, I.F.S., Chief Wildlife
Warden, Assam, for their continued interests in the
field work. I am also grateful to M.P. Bezbarua, Indian
Administrative Service, Secretary Education Department,
Government of Assam for renewal of the State Overseas
Scholarship to complete my degree requirements. I am
especially thankful to Dr. H.P. Borthakur and his staff
at the Agricultural Soil Chemistry Laboratory at the
Assam Agriculture University in Jorhat for helping with
grass and soil samples. Special mention should be made
of the personnel of the Botanical Survey of India at
Shillong for thier plant identifications. R.N. Sonowal,
Forest Ranger, J.N. Bora, Forest Ranger, and R.C. Das,
Forester assisted in the field. I wish to express my
sincere appreciation to Thomas Butynski of the Department
of Fisheries and Wildlife at Michigan State University
who reviewed the manuscript and to Mike Burke, Department
of Horticulture, Michigan State University for typing

the manuscript.

ii

Special appreciation is extended to my guidance
committee chairman, Dr. George A. Petrides, Department of
Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University. He
suggested the thesis topic, offered many important
suggestions and edited the manuscript. Thanks are also
due to Drs. Rollin H. Baker and Christine S.F. Williams,
members of my guidance committee at Michigan State
University for their helpful suggestions and reading of

the manuscript.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll
METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Food Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Important Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Range Condition and Trend . . . . . . . . . . 25

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . 27
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

iv

Table

LIST OF TABLES

 

 

Page
Dry season food preference ratings for
forage plants eaten by the Rhinoceros
unicornis, Kaziranga National Park,
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9

LIST OF FIGURES

 

Figure Page

1 Mortality of Rhinoceros unicornis

in Kaziranga National Park . . . . . . . . 2
2 Map of India showing the location of

Kaziranga National Park . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Map of Kaziranga National Park showing

rivers, beels, islands . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Mean monthly distribution of

precipitation, and maximum and minimum
temperature during 1965—74, Kaziranga

National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 A rhino grazing with buffalos and deer

in short grass area of Kaziranga

National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Different habitat types in Kaziranga

National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

7 Species area curve for the vegetation
in Kaziranga National Park . . . . . . . . 15

8 A solitary rhino in the short grass
area, Kaziranga National Park . . . . . 17

vi

INTRODUCT ION

The one-horned Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros

 

unicornis) is one of the world's five living species of

 

rhinoceros (Hvass, 1970). Formerly extensively distrib-
ted, the Indian rhino is today limited to parts of Nepal
and to portions of West Bengal and Assam in India
(Prater, 1965). In Assam, the rhino occurs in Kaziranga
National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and Pobitora, Orang
Pava and Lackhowa Game Sanctuaries. It occurs and is
also protected on some islands in the Brahmaputra River,
but must compete with livestock there.

The 1972 census of Kaziranga National Park
(Lahan and Sonowal, 1973), revealed that the rhino
population had increased to 658, whereas only 366 animals
were counted in 1966. The 1972 population consisted of
203 adult males, 188 adult females, 44 sub-adult males,
37 sub-adult females, 67 calves plus 119 individuals
which were neither sexed nor aged.

In Assam the rhino's primary mating season is
from February to June, but mating occurs during all
months (Kakati and Rajkonwar, 1972) and (Mukherjee,

1966). Kakati and Rajkonwar (1972) further state that

NUMBER OF DEATHS OR KILLS

50

4O

30

20

IO

 

—— NATURAL DEATH A
— KILLED BY POACHERS I \
—-- YOUNG KILLED BY TIGER / \

  

o\./

    

l, l l
|965 l967 l969 IS? I |973 l 975

'YEARs

Figure 1. Mortality of Rhinoceros unicornis in Kaziranga

National Park

a female rhino at the Gauhati Zoo first accepted a mate
at 5 years and 11 months of age. The interval between
her calving and the next service was approximately 28
months. The gestation period is 18-19 months and the
period between births is 3-4 years (Mukherjee, 1966).
Single births are the rule.

In some parts of Asia, powdered rhino horn is
considered to have magical powers and is so highly priced
that poaching of rhinos is a continuous threat even at
Kaziranga despite rigid measures undertaken to control
it. Prior to 1966, rhino poaching in the present
Kaziranga National Park area reduced the population to a
low level. Before Kaziranga attained National Park
status, losses of rhinos probably also were caused by
the transmission of rinderpest and anthrax from domestic

water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) brought into the area by

 

herdsmen. In addition, tigers (Panthera tigris) killed

 

some rhino calves. Since the park was placed under
management controls, poaching has been largely eliminated
and all livestocks have been excluded. Since 1965, in-
creases in natural mortality including flood-caused
deaths and predator-induced kills have paralleled the
recorded growth in rhino numbers (Figure 1).

Kaziranga National Park (see Figure 2) is sit-
uated in the eastern part of Assam on the south bank of

the Brahmaputra River in Sibsagar and Nowgong Districts

 

72° 80° 88° 96°

   
  

KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK

BAY OFBENGAL

" I2°-

72° 80° 88°

 

 

 

Figure 2. Map of India showing the location of
Kaziranga National Park

from longitude 90°5/W to 90°40/E and from latitude
26°30/S to 26°45/N. The area is nearly flat.

In 1908, an area of 22,892ha was established as
the Kaziranga Reserved Forest. This reserve was declared
a Game Sanctuary in 1916 and later was enlarged to be-
come the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary with an area of
430km2. In 1974, this tract was declared the Kaziranga
National Park (Figure 3).

The large Brahmaputra River flows westward along
the northern boundary of the national park and is fed by
streams that originate from the Mikir Hills. Water
courses criss-cross through the national park before
joining the Brahmaputra. The Mordaiffolu River follows
the southern boundary and the Diffolu and Bhengra Rivers
flow through the national park from east to west.

In addition to these streams, the national park
is dotted with numerous beels (lakes or ponds which con-
tain water throughout the year). Beels and marshes are
the principal places in which rhinos wallow. These are
evenly scattered throughout the park and it is near
water that rhinos concentrate in the dry season, when
only 5.6% of the national park is wet. Rhinos are most
numerous in and around the wet areas of the southern and
western part of the park where the water table is highest.

The soils of Kaziranga National Park are deep

alluvial deposits. In the south-western portion, loams

mpcmHmH .mammn .mnm>fln mGHBOSm xumm HmcoHumz mmcmuflnmx mo mm: .m musmfim

 

 

Q 8259521 8:20.... miom

 

 

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are characteristic, while the north-eastern portion is
sandy. The most fertile soils occur in the southern
half of the park where the rhinos are most numerous during
the dry months.

Climatically, the area is tropical. The mean
annual temperature is 23.4°C with mean annual maximum
and minimum temperatures of 27.8°C and 18.9°C respec-
tively. Temperatures have been recorded as low as 8.9°C
and as high as 34.7°C.

A dry season prevails from November to March.
During the dry or winter months, the nights are cold, fog
is common, and dew-fall is heavy, frost and snow are
absent.

Pre-monsoon showers start in March and April and
heavy monsoon rains occur from May through September.
The average annual rainfall is 1827 mm; 76% of which
falls from May to September. Monthly precipitation is
usually highest in June (320 mm)anuilowest in December
(11 mm) (Figure 4).

At Kaziranga, four major vegetative types occur:
forests, tall-grass, short-grass, and aquatic areas.
The relative habitat composition of the park is 27.9%
forests, 66.5% tall and short grass and 5.6% water areas.
Numerous plant species occur in each habitat (Appendix 1).

Approximately 290 square kilometres in the park

are burnt annually. An effort is made to burn all the

PRECIPITATION IN MILLIMETER

700

600

500

400

300

200 *

IOO

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4.

50:90.: FMAMJJA

MONTHS

Mean monthly distribution of precipitation,
and maximum and minimum temperature during
1965-74, Kaziranga National Park

TEMPERATURE IN CENTIGRADE

tall-grass area, mainly in February and March to increase
the availability of forage and its utilization by wild—
life. Vegetative compartments are bordered by patrol-
paths and roads which tend to act as fire lines. This
practice is conducted also to control invading shrubs
and various diseases such as brown-spot on grasses and
ungulate liver fluke.

In addition to rhinos, several other species of
large wild mammals are common in the national park:

water buffalo, swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), hog deer

 

 

(Axis porcinus), sambhar (Cervus unicolor), barking deer

 

(Muntiacus muntiak), boar (Sus scrofa), gaur (bos gaurus),

 

 

 

Indian elephant (Elephas maximus), Sloth bear (Melursus

 

ursinus), tiger and leopard (Panthera pardus).

 

10

L 2’»

' ‘2' ~. v,‘ 25f.
“- “wan-,3). ,xv"'~.,

I“

 

 

 

v V . x

Figure 5. A rhino grazing with buffalos and deer in
short grass area of Kaziranga National Park

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Range condition and vegetative trends are
affected by foraging herbivores. In order to deter-
mine these factors, it is essential to know the order
in which forage plants are selected by various ungulate
species.

Rhinos are important grazers in Kaziranga
National Partk. This study was undertaken to learn the
food preferences and principal foods of the Indian
rhinoceros in its short-grass dry-season habitat.

Notes on range condition and trend also were to be

made.

11

 

12

 

Figure 6. Different habitat types in Kaziranga National
Park

METHODS

All portions of the short grass vegetative type
in the park were visited. Direct observations of rhinos
were made and the plant species which occurred there
were collected. Unknown plants were identified by the
personnel of the Botanical Survey of India at Shillong.

Study plots were located in those sections of
the short-grass habitat which were not utilized by other
large herbivores. These places were mainly near roads,
patrol paths and camps where patrol staff mounted on
elephants could drive away competitive ungulates such
as buffalos, barasingha deer and hog deer. Though these
species were easily seen from the elevated patrol
stations (situated on 10'—15' stilts) they were not often
present in the study area because of the constant move-
ment of the patrol staff.

On three areas totalling about 120 hectares,
other grazers were mainly lacking and 15-20 rhinos were
seen to feed regularly. These portions of the short-
grass habitat were sampled systematically using a one
square-meter frame. Fifty such one sq. m. plots were

marked by pegs and spaced at 250 m. intervals along

13

14

parallel north-south transects 100 m. apart. The distance
between plots was measured using a metal tape and lines
were kept equidistant using a hand compass. Vegetative
plots were sampled between 0900 and 1500 hours, when
rhinos usually moved away to their wallows or to wooded
and tall-grass areas.

Both Cain (1938) and Braun-Blanquet (1932) have
stated that the number of plots needed to sample
vegetative compositions is adequate when, after increas-
ing the number of plots, the slope of the species-area
curve becomes approximately horizontal. On this basis,
it was determined (Figure 7) that on these 120 ha, only
40 plots were necessary. Fifty plots, nevertheless,
were studied.

In each plot the number of individual shrubs,
forbs,and grasses present, were tallied by species. Each
plot was visited two to four times per month from December
through March. Forage availability and utilization were
measured during each visit if grazing had occurred during
the interval. The several observations at each plot were
averaged (Table 1). Plots completely eaten were not
revisited since the lack of moisture prevented further
plant growth.

After collecting inventory data on each visit to
the 50 plots, 20-50 specimens of uneaten plants near the

plots were clipped at the mean minimum grazing height

ACCUMULATED TOTAL NUMBER OF
SPECIES IN PLOTS SURVEYED

Ola-b
Omm

- h)
(D -5

mt?)

Figure 7.

 

 

15

 

1111111141
6 l2 l8 24303642485460

NUMBER OF STUDY PLOTS

Species area curve for the vegetation in
Kaziranga National Park

16

measured on the study plot. Clipped plants were
separated by species and placed in paper bags. All
plants were dried to a constant weight in an oven at 80°C.
The weights of the plant parts clipped were considered
to be equal to the weights of plant parts consumed.
Preference values were determined for each
forage species by dividing the percentage weight which
that species comprised among foods consumed by the per-
centage weight of that species among foods available
(Petrides, 1975). Species with preference values above
1.00 were those which were sought out as preferred foods.
Species with a preference rating of 1.00 would be neither
preferred nor neglected, but eaten in proportion to
their abundance in the field. Ratings below 1.00 rep—
resented forage species which tended to be neglected.
Species which were totally avoided were given a zero
preference rating. This method enables the quantitative
determination of relative rhino preference levels for
each plant species. In contrast to the calculated dry
season preference ratings, wet season food habits were
merely recorded from general observations. Direct
observations of feeding rhinos were usually made from
elephant-back at a distance of 10-15 m. Binoculars were
frequently used. Occasional observations were made at
patrol camps or from a jeep. Rhinos were observed
during their feeding periods which usually extended from

0600 to 0900 hours and 1500 to 1800 hours.

17

 

Figure 8. A solitary rhino in the short grass area,
Kaziranga National Park

RESULTS

Food Preferences

 

While 47 plant species were eaten by rhinos in
all habitats (Appendix 1), only 18 were consumed on the
120 ha short-grass study area. Nearly 77% of the rhino's

diet consisted of four grass species, i.e. Arundo donax,

 

Hemarthria compressa, Erianthus elephantinus and Cynodon

 

 

dactylon. The remaining food plants taken consisted of
14 forbs. Three forbs found on the study area were
avoided as foods by rhinos (Table 1).

During the dry season, rhinos primarily ate non-
woody vegetation. In order of preference (Table l),

Arundo donax, Hemarthria compressa, Carex rubrobrunnea,

 

 

 

Eleochoris fistulosa and Lippia geminata were consumed

 

 

to a greater degree than their abundance alone would
warrant.
Thirteen non-preferred plants were eaten. In

order of choice these were: Nasturtium indica, Polygonum

 

 

chinense, Centella asiatica, Ficus scandens, Cyperus

 

 

 

auricomus, Amaranthus viridis, Polygonum barbatum,

 

 

 

Oxalis corniculata, Hyllinga brevifolia, Pteridium

 

 

aquilinum, Fragaria indica, Cynodon dactylon and

 

 

l8

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Erianthus elephantinus. Forty-nine to 55% of the N.

 

indica, P. chinense, _C_. asiatica, F. scandens and Q.

auricomus was eaten, whereas 10-42% of the remaining

 

eight species was consumed.

Solanum torvum, Xanthium strumarium and

 

Polyggnum hydropiper were avoided entirely.

 

During the dry season, rhinos were seen eating

the following plants in the forest area: Amaranthus

 

viridis, Centella asiatica, Fragaria indica and

 

Pteridium aquilinum. Shrubs and trees were not utilized
there or elsewhere by rhinos during the dry season study

period. Preference ratings were not determined.

Important Foods

 

The most valuable species, in terms of the bulk
contribution to the rhino's diet in the short-grass area

(Table 1) were H. compressa, C. rubrobrunnea and A.

 

 

donax. Together, Hemarthria, Carex and Arundo seemed to

 

provide an ideal habitat for the rhino. They comprised
71.5% of the available forage and 91.1% of the total
food eaten.

A. donax, the most preferred species, is a grass
2-6 m. high, growing from a creeping rhizome. Known
regionally as nal, it occurs near beels in the wet por-
tion on the short-gress habitat. Comprising 6.8% of the

available forage, it accounted for 9.5% of the rhino's

24

diet during the dry season. Due to heavy utilization by
rhinos, buffalos and elephants it was being depleted
throughout the park.

H. compressa, the second favorite dry-season food,

 

comprised 50.6% of the available forage and made up 64.7%
of the rhino's diet. Known locally as lokosa, it appeared
to be the most important dry season food of the rhino
within the park. As is true for all species in the short-
grass habitat, this plant becomes unavailable during the
wet season due to flooding.

E. elephantinus a tall, clumped, reed-like grass,

 

locally called ekra, is a 4 m. high perennial. It
comprised 13% of the available forage and 10% of the

rhino's diet. E. elephantinus also occurs in the tall—

 

grass area with Saccharum sp. and Imperata cylindrica.

 

 

All of these grasses were eaten there for one to eight

weeks after burning. E. elephantinus is increasing in

 

the dry portion of the short—grass area as this non—
preferred grass spreads from the tall-grass habitat.
From the middle of June to September, when about
60% of the national park is under water, rhinos seek the
higher ground of the forest area. At this time, plants
which are eaten heavily during the dry period, notably

H. compressa and Q. rubrobrunnea, are submerged else-

 

 

where and thus unavailable. Forbs and grasses which are

little eaten during the dry season become more important

25

in the diets during the monsoon. Some shrubs are eaten
under these conditions as Laurie (1974) also observed.
Detailed study on these points is needed.

As the floods recede, the somewhat-submerged

grasses in aquatic areas,Leersia hexandra and Andropogon

 

 

sp.,are heavily grazed by rhinos. Other aquatic plants

eaten there are: Monochoria hastaefolia, Cypersus

 

diffusus, Eleochoris fistulosa, Sagittara sagitifolia,

 

 

 

Eichornia speciosa, Potamogeton crispus, Cyperus iria,

 

 

Jussaea suffruticosa, and Najgs major (Appendix 1).

 

 

These plants occur in both the short-grass and aquatic

habitats, but most show no green above-ground parts

during the dry season and do not seem to be eaten then.
In the tall-grass areas, the leaves and

inflorescences of the grasses Vetiveria zizanioides,

 

Saccharum sp. and A. elephantinus were seen to be eaten

 

 

somewhat but no detailed data are available.

Range Condition and Trend

 

Very heavy utilization by rhinos of their pre-
ferred food grasses was seen on the short-grass habitat
around Sohola Beel, in the eastern portion of the park.
It appears that the preferred dry season food species

A. donax, A. compressa, Q. rubrobrunnea and A. fistulosa

 

 

 

were being replaced there by A. hydropiper, X.

 

strumarium and g. torvum. The latter three species were

 

avoided as foods by the rhinos (Table 1). A. hydrOpiper

 

26

was increasing in the wetter portions of the short-grass

habitat and A. strumarium and A. torvum increased in the

 

drier sections.

Over the study area, 15-20 adult rhinos grazed
regularly during the dry season study period. Approx-
imately 777 kg per ha of vegetation was removed by rhinos
from the 120 ha study area then (Table l). About fifty
percent of the forage available from the nine most pre-
ferred species (Table l) was eaten. Though it seems
possible that overgrazing of these species may be occurring,
further study of their productivity under rhino grazing

pressure is desirable.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

In considering a program for the management of

rhinos in the park ecosystem, it is suggested that:

1.

Assessment of the rhino pOpulation and range
conditions be conducted annually.

Permanent plots be established to help evaluate
habitat trends within the park.

Studies on the food preferences of other large
herbivores be carried out to determine the avail-
ability of the plants occurring in the park, their
utilization and preferred herbivore stocking
density.

Changes in range composition should be assessed
periodically to determine whether overuse is occurring.

If the preferred and important forages A. compressa,

 

E. rubrobrunnea and A. donax became depleted or if

 

the neglected and avoided plant species show evidence
of increasing over considerable areas or in places
preferred by ungulates, then animal populations may

require management.

27

SUMMARY

Food preferences of the Indian rhinoceros

(Rhinoceros unicornis) were studied in the Kaziranga

 

National Park, Assam, India, from November 1975 through
April 1976. Studies were made of the forages available
and consumed by means of vegetation plots. Of the 47
plant species eaten, only 21 occurred on the lZO-hectare
short grass study area. In the latter group, 18 were
eaten. Feeding rhinos also were directly observed.
Preferred dry season food plants were Arundo

donax, Hemarthria compressa, Carex rubrobrunnea,

 

 

Eleochoris fistulosa and Lippia geminata. The species

 

eaten but not preferred were: Nasturtium indica,

 

Polygonum chinense, Centella asiatica, Ficus scandens,

 

 

Cyperus auricomus, Amaranthus viridis, Polygonum

barbatum, Oxalis corniculata, Kyllinga brevifolia,

 

 

Pteridium aquilinum, Fragaria indica, Cynodon dactylon

 

 

 

and Erianthus elephantinus. Common, but totally avoided

 

species were Solanum torvum, Xanthium strumarium, and

 

 

Polygonum AydrOpiper.

 

Plants contributing most to the rhino's diet

were: A. compressa, A. rubrobrunnea, A. donax, A.

 

 

elephantinus and A. barbatum.

 

28

29

More than 50% of the available A. dongA, A.

compressa, A. rubrobrunnea, A. fistulosa, A. geminata,

 

 

 

A. indica, A. chinense, A. asiatica and A. scandens
forages was consumed.

The three grasses A. compressa, g, rubrobrunnea,

 

 

and A. AQAA§_comprised 71.5% of the available forage and
91.1% of the rhino's diet. These grasses typify the
ideal dry-season habitat of the rhino. In some areas,
however, these grasses appear to be overgrazed. There is
thus some indication that maximum ungulate populations
have been achieved or possibly even exceeded.

A. S222§ was the most preferred dry season food,
comprising 9.53% of the diet and 6.8% of the food avail-

able. A. compressa, the second most preferred food, com—

 

prised 64.69% of the diet and 50.62% of the available food.
Fifty-nine to 81% of the available forage of the five
most preferred food plants was consumed.

During the dry season in the short grass habitat,

A. donax, A. compressa, A. rubrobrunnea, and A. geminata

 

 

are reduced. In this important habitat, A. hydropiper,

 

A. strumarium, and S. torvum tended to increase. It

 

appeared that the biomass of large herbivores may be at
or near the carrying capacity of the park.

Rhinos move to forest habitats when the short
grass area is flooded, usually between July and September.
Here some shrubs are eaten in addition to somewhat-

aquatic grasses and forbs.

30

It is recommended that the rhino population and
condition of the range be evaluated annually; that food
preference studies be undertaken on the other large
herbivores in the park; and that permanent plots be

established to help assess habitat trends.

LITERATURE CITED

LITERATURE CITED

Alcock, J. 1975. Animal Behaviour. Sinauer Assoc. Inc.
Sunderland, Mass. 505 pp.

Beruldsen, E.T. and A. Morgan 1932. Notes on botanical
analysis of irrigated pasture. Imp. Bur. Plant
Genetics. Herbage Pub. Ser. Bull. 14:33-43.

Bor, N.L. 1940. Flora of Assam. Govt. of Assam Publ.
Vol. 5, 480 pp.

Braun-Blanquet, J. 1932. Plant sociology. (Trans. rev.
ed. by G.D. Fuller and H.S. Conard). McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York 439 pp.

Cain, S. 1938. The species-area curve. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 19:578-581.

Datta, A.C. 1972. Some common weeds of the tea estates
in North East India. Tocklai Exper. Stat.,
Jorhat, Assam, Memor. No. 29 303 pp.

Field, C.R. 1975. Climate and the food habits of un-
gulates on Galana Ranch. E. Afr. Wildl. J.
13:203-220.

Goddard, J. 1968. Food preferences of two black rhino-
ceros populations. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 6:1-18.

Hvass, H. 1970. Mammals of the World. Methuin & Co.,
London 212 pp.

Kakati, B.N. and C.K. Rajkonwar. 1972. Some observa-
tions on the reproductive behavior of Rhinoceros
unicornis. Indian Forester 98:357-358.

 

 

Lahan, P.N. and R.N. Sonowal 1973. A brief description
and report on the census of large animals.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 70:245-278.

Laurie, A. 1974. (Unpubl.). Ecology and behaviour of
one horned rhinoceros. Proqress Report No. 4

2 pp.
31

32

Leuthold, W. 1970. 'Preliminary observations on food
habits of gerenuk in Tsavo National Park, Kenya.
E. Afr. Wildl. J. 8:73-84.

Leuthold, W. 1971. Studies on the food habits of lesser
kudu in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. E. Afr.
Wildl. J. 9:35-45.

Mukherjee, A.K. 1966. Extinct and vanishing birds and
mammals of India. Indian Museum, Calcutta

37 pp.

Pandeya, S.C., G.S. Puri and J.S. Singh 1968. Research
methods in plant ecology. Asia Publ. House,
Bombay 272 pp.

Papageorgiou, N. 1974. Food preferences and survival
of the agrimi (Capra aegagrus cretensis) on
Crete. M.S. Thesis, Michigan State UniVersity

47 pp.

 

Petrides, George A. 1975. Principal foods versus pre-
ferred foods and their relations to stocking
rate and range condition. Biol. Cons. 9 pp.

Prater, S.H. 1965. Indian animals. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc. Hornbill House, Bombay 324 pp.

Rogers, W.A. 1976. Seasonal diet preferences of impala
from southeast Tanzania. E. Afr. Wildl. J.
14:331-333.

Stoddart, L.A. and A.P. Smith 1943. Range management.
New York 548 pp.

Vaughan, T.A. 1972. Mammalogy. W.B. Saunders Co.,
London 463 pp.

Vessey-Fitzgerald, D.F. 1969. Utilization of the
habitat by buffalo in Lake Manyara National
Park. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 7:131-145.

APPENDIX

33

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35

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37

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38

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