re; A 1 :71 El ABSTRACT VALUE SYSTEMS AND MEANINGS 0F MARKET-PLACE ACTIVITIES by Myron Bill Neace Values are believed to be major determinants of human behavior. An increasing number of writers are supporting the view that values play important roles in marketing behavior. This study attempts to ascertain the degree of relationship between values and meanings attached to market-place activities. Three hypotheses are tested. 10 Occupational stratification will prove to be more meaningful for discriminating among value profiles than stratification by the other demographic variables of sex, education, religion, and age. A higher correlation exists between value profiles developed by occupational stratification and the meanings attached to ‘market-place activities, than for the other demographic variables of sex, education, religion, and age. The category within each variable that has the highest economic value dimension mean score also has higher mean scores on market-place activities than the other categories. ,__._‘——-"‘ _.--"" Tvo instr Vernon-Lindsay It measures 51 social, politj Second, the meaning 0 1718 narket- p1 services; g3; 2 Myron Bill Neace Two instruments are used to gather data. First, the Allport- Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values is used for developing value profiles. It measures six value dimensions: theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religion. Second, semantic differentials are constructed to aid in determining the meaning of the sixteen market-place activities under investigation. The market-place activities are: advertising of consumer goods and services; guarantee and warranty of consumer products; new products and services; newspaper advertisements; personal salesmanship; premiums; AM radio commercials; nationally branded products and services; packaging and labeling; magazine advertisements; regular model changes of consumer products; locally branded products and services; television commercials; service and repair of consumer products; credit purchases; and FM radio commercials. Three methods of analysis are used: (1) tests of significance of difference among value dimension mean scores within each demographic variable; (2) correlation of values and meanings of market-place activities by categories within each variable; and (3) comparison of mean scores on the sixteen market-place activities with the economic value dimension mean scores by categories within variables. Correlation coefficients were very low regardless of the variable used to classify the data. This seems to indicate that values account for only a small proportion of the variance in the meaning of the market- place activities investigated, and that values may not be important in evaluating market-place activities. Thus, values of individuals are neither the only, nor necessarily the major, determinants of behavior. Althoc'éh t positive and neg and meaninés 0': process may ICC. place. Results it occccation, )‘ie by- sex also re values and sea variables did. elsays result activities. 3 Myron Bill Neace Although tenuous, there is some indication that a pattern of positive and negative associations exists among the six value dimensions and meanings of market place activities. Therefore, the evaluative process may require value conflict resolution before behavior can take place. [Results indicate that classification by sex, closely followed by occupation, yielded the most contrasting value profiles. Stratification by sex also resulted in a low but somewhat stronger relationship between values and meanings of market-place activities, than other demographic variables did. _§ relatively higher economig_value orientation did not alwayswrgsult_in more favorable meanings attached to market-place ~__ .. I...‘- activitie§;_ . .__..,~ -xm... p-smath Indications are that further research in three areas might prove fruitful. First, additional research similar to this project would confirm or reject these findings. Second, experimentation with different methods of classifying samples, other than single demographic variables, might prove more effective in relating values and behavior. Third, the individual dimensions that compromise meanings of market- place activities should be studied to determine if specific points of controversy exist. VALUE SYSTEMS AND MEANINGS OF MARKET PLACE ACTIVITIES BY Myron Bill Neace A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration 1967 © Copyright by MYRON BILL NEACE 1967 It is in the deve the follow: tc'v'ard the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is not possible to name all who, directly or indirectly, aided in the development of this research. The author, however, recognizes the following individuals as having made significant contributions toward the completion of this study. Dr. William Lazer, chairman of the thesis committee, who inspired and guided this research project. Dr. Lazer's influence upon the author extends far beyond this single work. Dr. Leo G. Erickson, whose constructive suggestions were significant to the development of the project. Dr. Orvis Collins, who counseled with the author during the formulation stages of the study. Dr. Bernard J. LaLonde, who counseled with the author during the latter stages of the study. Dr. Thomas A. Staudt, Head, Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration, who served as advisor and chairman of the author's Guidance Committee, for his continuous encouragement and example of excellence. IDr. Ronald L. Jensen, who developed the computer program for the statistical analysis used in the study. ii ace-omen: 7-1510? TAB; us: or my; Chapter 1. DC; Sc 8: 11- RE'. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPEmICES I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope of Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of Marketing Practices . . . . . Measuring Marketing Productivity. . . . . . Formulation of Business Theories. . . . . . Scope of Investigation. . . . . . . . . . . . HypotheseS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terms and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Value Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Possible Contributions of the Study. . . Major Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Significance of Value Research. . . . . . Values as Determinants of Behavioral Activity Values as Dynamic, Interactive, and Culturally Derived. . . . . . . . . . . . Values Seen as an Organizing Process. . . . Values as an Organizing Process in the Business Community. . . . . . . . . . . . Sources of Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . Support, Description, and Evolution of the Dominant Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Variant Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . Businessman and Values. . . . . . . . . . The Importance of Religious Values to Businessmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Value Themes. . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . Compromise and Self reliance--Two Characteristics of Values . . . . . . . . An Overview of the Businessman's Values . . iii Page ii vi xi COGNO‘ONMLHDWNH H H l—‘ 11 12 14 14 17 19 20 22 28 31 32 35 36 37 38 TABLE 0? CO. Chapter De (I! 5—4 In "- H-i m in A . :Urr‘lrnnrr (n 3- TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Chapter III. IV. Importance of the Role of Values in the Market Place. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Marketing Management Concept. . . . . Implementation Requires Knowledge of Consumers' Values . . . . . . . . . . . . Programming Market Values . . . . . . . . . RESEARCH DESIGN 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature of Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Housewives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . College Business Professors . . . . . . . . Business Executives . . . . . . . . . . . . Interviewing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . Summary of the Sample Characteristics . . . Data Collection Techniques. . . . . . . . . . Factors Affecting Selection of Research Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Value Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meaning Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . Method of Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Value Profile Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . Occupation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Results of the Value Profile Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship of Values and Meanings Attached to Market-Place Activities. . . . . . . . . Occupation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Results of the Relationship Between Values and Market-Place Activities. . . . Possible Reasons for the Weak Association Between Values and Meanings of Market- Place Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Results of the Correlation Analysis. Analysis of Economic Orientation to Market- Place ActivitieS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page 40 41 42 43 44 44 44 46 46 47 47 47 51 51 52 57 63 64 64 65 65 71 75 80 85 9O 91 91 96 96 104 116 116 117 120 122 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Chapter Further Analysis of Meanings Attached to Market-Place Activities. . . . . . . . . Summary of Results of Analysis of the Semantic Differentials. . . . . . . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test of HypotheseS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test of First Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . Test of Second Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . Test of Third Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . Relationship of Findings to Other Studies . . . Value Profile Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . Occupation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meanings of Market-Place Activities . . . . . Conclusions and Implications for Further Study. APPENDICES o o o o I o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o B IBL IWHY O O O O O O O O O O I I O O O O O O O I O O O Page 128 132 133 133 133 134 134 135 136 136 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 146 202 K: a U) o 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. LIST OF TABLES Universe, Subuniverse, and Sample Totals. . . Sample Structure Based on Occupation. . . . . Sample Structure Based on Sex . . . . . . . . Sample Structure Based on Religion. . . . . . Sample Structure Based on Age . . . . . . . . Sample Structure Based on Education . . . . . Significant Differences Among Value Profile Scores by Occupational Categories . . . . . Ranking of Value Dimensions by Occupation . . Range of Value Dimension Means by Occupation. Significant Differences Among Value Profile Scores by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ranking of Value Dimensions by Sex. . . Range of Value Dimension Means by Sex . . . Significant Differences Among Value Profile Scores by Educational Categories. . . . . . Ranking of Value Dimensions by Educational Level. Range of Value Dimension Means by Educational Level I O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Significant Differences Among Value Profile Scores by Religious Preference. . . . . . . Ranking of Value Dimensions by Religious Preference Range of Value Dimension Means by Religious Preference. . . . . . . . . . . . Significant Differences Among Value Profile Scores by Age Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 48 49 49 50 50 51 66 67 68 72 73 74 76 77 78 81 82 83 86 LIST OF TABLE. 30. Ranking Age ( 21- Range ( 22- Freque: Betht HE R: 33. Corral; Mean: Busiz UM corre‘l‘ ME an j 23' C0391; HEan Heus 26' FrQQUe Bet; Mark H ' CCrre: MEap COrre; KEaI ‘d‘ 3r VI Corre Meal 1E: 31. «c Correl 13.. LIST OF TABLES - Continued Table Page 20. Ranking of Value Dimensions by Age Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 21. Range of Value Dimension Means by Age Groups. . . . . . . 88 22. Frequency Distribution of Correlation Coefficients Between Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation. . . . . . . . . . 92 23. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation: Business Executives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 24. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation: PrOfessors. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 94 25. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation: Housewives I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 95 26. Frequency Distribution of Correlation Coefficients Between Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 27. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Sex: Male. . . . 98 28. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Sex: Fmale I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 99 29. Frequency Distribution of Correlation Coefficients Between Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market- Place Activities - Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 30. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Education: less than 13. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 101 31. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Education: 13-16 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 102 32. Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Education: more than 16I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 103 vii LIST OT TABLES hbh 33. Frequenc‘J BELVECI Market- 34. Correlac and He. Religi. 33° Correlat “Emir. Jew Correlat MEanir. RELigi 37' Correlat MBani: Other . EreqUEnc Ben‘ee Marita o (1011-918 and 1% 1953 ' C°rrela LIST OF TABLES - Continued Table 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. Frequency Distribution of Correlation Coefficients Between value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion. . . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market—Place Activities - Religion: Jew I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market—Place Activities — Religion: Protestant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Other I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Frequency Distribution of Correlation Coefficients Between Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market—Place Activities - Age . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: less than 26 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: 26-35 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o I o 0 Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: 36-45000000000000000ooooooo Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: 46-55 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: greater than 55 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Summary Totals of Significant Correlation Coefficients of all Categories (17) of the Five Demographic Variables... . . . . . . . . . . Ratings of Market-Place Activities by Occupation. . Ratings of Market-Place Activities by Sex . . . . . viii Page 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 118 123 124 LIST OF TABLES - Continued Table 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. Ratings of Market-Place Activities by Education. . . . . Ratings of Market-Place Activities by Religion . . . . . Ratings of Market-Place Activities by Age. . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations of value DimenSionS I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I T-Values of Value Dimension Mean Comparisons by variableI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation: Business Executives .-. . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities Occupation: Professors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Occupation: Housewives . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Sex: Male. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Sex: Female. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Education: less than 13. . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Education: 13-16I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities Education: more than 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Jew . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Page 125 126 127 180 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 IJSTCF TABLE. Table 63. T-Values Dinens; Activi: 6 W . T-Values Dinensi. Activit; 6 ‘; .. ° T-Values C Dinensio ACtivit: 6 U! . T'Values C; Dimensior Activitie Dimension ActiVitie . T'ValUEs of DiDEns Activ i0: itie (.7‘ (30 o T‘ValuES of Dimension Activitie LIST OF TABLES - Continued Table 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Protestant. . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Religion: Other . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: less than 26 . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place ACtiVitieS " Age: 26'35. 0 o o o o o o o o T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place ACtiVitieS " Age: 36-45. 0 o o o o o o o o T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Activities - Age: 46-55. . . . . . . . . . T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place . Activities - Age: greater than 55. . . . . Page 195‘ 196 197 198 199 200 201 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Questionnaire, Including Stub Data Sheet and Statement of Purpose. . . . . . . . . . B. Statistical Tools of Analysis . . . . . . . . C. Printout of Computer Programs Used in the Calculation of Statistical Tools. . . . . . D. Means and Standard Deviations of Value DimenSionS I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I E. T-Values of Value Dimension Mean Comparisons by variable I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I F. T-Values of Correlation Coefficients of Value Dimensions and Meanings of Market-Place Actj-VitieSI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I xi Page 146 168 170 179 181 184 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Values, as evidenced by choices among alternatives, lead to various connotations of human activity. [Because values provide a PFPQSWQP, I I I I 1 I reference 1n_deci§ion-mak1ng, ~awcorrelationmgfuvalue systems_and mean- . rq~hw ' ingswattaehed teyarious marketplace.aetifities can._be..expe¢t.ed., '30 shed u...- some lightmon several controversial matterswithin themarket place. The premise of this study is that different value systems have contributed toward confusing and often conflicting interpretations of market-place activities. Specifically, it will: 1. ascertain and compare value systems within selected groups; 2. determine and compare the meanings attached to market- place activities within selected groups; and 3. measure the relationship between values and meanings attached to market-place activities within selected groups. Scope of Problem Recently there has been much speculative literature about several aspects of the business community. Business behavior, output, and goals 1 Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils (eds.), Toward a General Theory .Ef ACtion, (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), pp. 159-189, passim; and eOrge Caspar Homans, Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, Inc., 1961), pp. 30-50. have been debp confusing, voi knowledge of \. Social process Values on markr. Such kno‘ledge ‘ nation of market and (3) fODUlét ‘ l ‘ I'M ,- ~I. There has h t . ““1358 system : ceceptive P6Cka 3 ‘n; 1. ,. 0.:tion 0f {ht have been debated.2 The argmments, however, have often been fragmentary, confusing, void of underlying premises, and sometimes illogical. A knowledge of values is a prerequisite to any intelligent criticism.of social process or results.3 The need for knowledge of the impact of values on market-place activity provided the impetus for this study. Such knowledge will be useful in at least three general areas: (1) eval- uation of marketing practices, (2) measurement of marketing productivity, and (3) formulation of business and marketing theories. Evaluation of Marketing Practices There has been an increasing amount of criticism by various segments of the society (including members of the business community) of our business system, particularly of some marketing activities.4y}Price-fixing, deceptive packaging, mislabeling, and other similar activities in flagrant violation of the law should feel the full brunt of social sanctions. But See for example, Steuart Henderson Britt, The Spenders, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960); and Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, (New York: Pocket Books, Inc., 1958). In order not to be misleading the author wishes to caution the reader that not all literature about the business community, either implicitly or explicitly referring to values, is speculative. Some of the literature, although few in number, is well premised, logically pre- sented, and deserves our full attention. See, for example: Kenneth E. Boulding, The Organizational Revolution, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953); C. West Churchman, Prediction and Optimal Decision: Philosophical Issues of a Science of Values, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961): Richard Bells and Clarence Walton, Conceptual Foundations gngusiness, (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961). 3 Frank Hyneman Knight, The Ethics of Competition, (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, Inc., 1953), p. 44. 4Marquis W. Childs and Douglas Cater, Ethics in a Business Society, (New York: New American Library, 1954); John Kenneth Galbraith, The fiéfluent Society, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958); and David Potter, EEQPIe of Plenty, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954). marketing activities within the limits of the law, such as "over-puffed" advertising, cannot be judged so clearly. iégperson's conclusions about them will depend upon his frame of reference--his value orientations--aswfl “n.1- ~.r~--' . . . 5 . lit relates to the object or concept under consideration. Continued debate and criticism.without a clear understanding of the bases of divergent points of view can only lead to sterility and compromise with- out conviction or purpose. Measuring Marketing Productivity There is a growing awareness and concern by marketing students of the necessity for developing better tools for measuring marketing behavior and productivity.6 Many of the critics and proponents of our market-oriented society, although analyzing the same data, arrive at Opposite conclusions about the output of marketing effort.7 Different 5Leo Postman, Jerome A. Bruner, and Elliot McGinnies, "Personal Values as Selective Factors in Perception," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XLIII (April, 1948), p. 154. 6"Editorial Postscript," Revised Edition, eds. William Lazer and Eugene J. Kelley, Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1962), pp. 679- 696; Theodore N. Beckman, "The Value Added Concept as a Measurement of Output," Advanced Management, Vol. XXII (April, 1957), pp. 6-9; Stanley C. Hollander, "Measuring the Cost and Value of Marketing," Business Topics, Vol. IX (Summer, 1961), pp. 17-26; William.Lazer and Eugene J. Kelley, Interdisciplinary Contributions to Marketing Management, (East lauising, Mich.: Michigan State University, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, 1959); and Abe Shuchman," "The Marketing Audit: Its Nature, Purposes, and Problems," Managerial Marketing: Perspectives and Viewpoints, op, cit., pp. 397-406. 7Two articles in a recent issue of the Journal of Marketing provide a classic example of this dilemma. See, Colston E. Warne, "Advertising-- A Critic's View," Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXVI (October, 1962), pp. 10-14; and Thomas A. Petit and Alan Zakon, "Advertising and Social Values," ibid., pp. 15-17. Authors of both articles agree that adver- tising is a representation of our societal value system, but they value systems, or frames of reference, lead to dissimilar conclusions. Confusion of means and ends exists, with means becoming ends in them- selves. The question arises, what are the values, the points of departure, used by different groups to measure and evaluate marketing productivity?8 Formulation of Business Theories Business theories, as such, are few and narrow in scope. Students of marketing, production and other areas of business are developing 9 their specialized theories without a basic frame of reference by which 7 (Continued) disagree about the contribution. Warne believes that advertising is taking us down the path of economic destruction and weakening our moral fiber because, as it is being practiced today, it leads to a waste of resources in the form of unstable goods, built-in obsolescence, meaningless product differentiation, 3 wasteful distribu- tion system, speeded-up replacements, and greater costs of advertising appeals. Concisely, Petit and Zakon believe that it is necessary for advertising to easily influence and anticipate our tastes if consumption is to be sufficiently dynamic to clear an ever expanding market. They believe that advertising supports our value system, is a reflection of the value system, rather than running counter to it, as Warne believes. 8 Bells and Walton, Op. cit., pp. 483-518. In this passage the authors discuss the role of values in the society, in the business community, and as they pertain to the individual businessman. 9 Cf., Joseph W. McGuire, Theories of Business Behavior, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964); Reavis Cox, Wroe Alderson, and Stanley J. Shapiro (eds.), Theory in Marketing, Second Series, (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1964); and James G. Miller, "Toward a General Theory for the Behavioral Sciences," American Psychologist, Vol. X (1955), pp. 513-531. they can be human behavi although sec Researc Ea} be expec frame of ref ralevance to This re mas; 1° Val Obj Val 2' the as C02: 1216:: I u %. the for .. 1e 1, , ~~ .J ‘luencir they can be tested, compared, and integrated into the total scope of human behavior. This omission has fostered conflicting positions, although seemingly logical within themselves. Research of value systems and meanings of market-place activities may be expected to lead to some insights in the development of a common frame of reference in which business and marketing theories will have relevance to a larger society. Scope of Investigation This research will be directed toward investigating the following areas: 1. value systems, as expressed through choices between objects,10 of selected groups and comparison of group value profiles; 2. the meaning of market-place activities within groups as revealed by preferences on bi-polar scales and comparison of meaning profiles among groups; 3. the extent of relationship between values and meanings among groups; and 4. the effectiveness of the research instruments used for collecting the data. H220theses ‘The major hypothesis is that systems of values are significant in up“. wflflfi§fi - influencingihe meanings attached to market-place activities. Specific 10 Parsons and Shils, op. cit., p. 408. Clyde Kluckhohn, in his chaPter, "Values and Value-Orientations," notes that "...values, then, C?“ be discerned by careful analysis of selections made in 'choice' filtuations." Elsewhere in this chapter the statement is made that the o..study of choice-behavior seems to offer the nearest approach to a reSearch method uniquely adapted to the study of values." byotbeses a1 ,1. occn for catj edu: .2. a h; dew att.‘ \‘ari 3. the ecor 5C0! 54: like, f0: menu“ to SECiS‘On‘mn-‘E hypotheses are: [1. occupational stratification11 will be more meaningful for discriminating among value profiles12 than stratifi- cation by the other demographic variables of sex, education, religion, and age; J 2. a higher correlation exists between value profiles developed by occupational stratification and meanings attached to market-place activities than for the variables of sex, education, religion, and age; and 3. the category within each variable that has the highest economic value dimension mean score also has higher mean scores on market-place activities than the other categories. Terms and Definitions Values 1 Values are characteristics that serve as principles, qualities, or the like, forming the foundations from.which decisions are made with reference to existing situations (conditions of the environment of the decision-maker at the time the decision is to be made) and perceived futuresv/’Values emerge in the experience of people in evaluating objects. Hence, values are to be found in the relation between a human actor and the objects that are of concern to him. Values are made evident by choices or preferences among available alternatives. 1 See Chapter III, Research Design, for a detailed description of the groups sampled in this project. 12 The profile has six dimensions: theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious. (For a complete description, see semtion on Terms and Definitions, pp. 7-8). 13 In constructing this definition my thinking has been largely irifluenced by Clyde Kluckhohn. (See Parsons and Shils, op. cit., pp . 388- 433) . IYalues a U V f '3“; M; 1. tr" e; . “At A}. . ““0 l C C L 1Values are operationally described in the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey, 14 Study of Values. Six basic value orientations are described. 1. Theoretical. Interest in the discovery of truth and systemization of knowledge; a cognitive attitude. /2. Economic. Concern with utility and the practical I affairs of the business world--the production, marketing, and consumption of goods. /,3. Aesthetic. Interest in the artistic aspects of life, although not necessarily a creative artist. Judges according to form and harmony. 4. Social. Primary interest is love of people--the altruistic or philanthropic aSpects of love. 5. Political. The dominant interest in power, regardless of occupation. Strong desire for personal power, influence, and recognition. 6. Religious. Unity is sought; individuals attempt to fit themselves into the universe in a meaningful way. No individual belongs exclusively to any one of these orientations, but manifests a greater or lesser degree of each. His reactions in different situations show which orientations are dominant values for him. W~MQ‘~" Value Systems A value system is a set of latent characteristics made evident in the choices or preferences toward objects of concern to an individual faced with several alternatives of action,/ The relationships are more than a chance ordering of parts, but are interdependent, arranged in a 4 Gordon W. Allport, Philip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lindzey, Study of Values, Third Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960). pattern, and provide the foundation for order in personality.15 Meaning16 Meaning implies that which is intended to be, or actually is, expressed or indicated. This definition can be further segmented into "denotative meaning" and "connotative meaning." The former is used as a symbol referring to an object so that different people using the symbol refer to the same object.17 lThe connotative meaning of a concept is variable from one individual to another because the meaning has been developed for each person through his experiences with the concept. Denotative meanings do not usually change in a person's mind after each experience with the object. Connotative meanings can change after each experience, particularly if the experience has a heavy emotional content. 15Parsons and Shils, op. cit., p. 175: "Without stability and con- sequently predictability, which is the essence of order, ego and alter could not respond to one another's expectations in a mutually grati- fying way." See also, A. A. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation," Eychological Review, Vol. L (July, 1943), pp. 370-396. 16Much of this discussion comes from Ronald Gatty and Claude Allais, The Semantic Differential Applied to Image Research, (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University, Department of Agricultural ECoriomics, n.d.), pp. 4-5. 17 As an example of denotative meaning compare the symbols attached to the objects airplane and steamship. These two objects bring forth 8P<-‘—‘<::I.fic symbols that would be difficult to confuse. There is general agreement about these symbols such that when a person uses one, another Person can relate the symbol to the object referred to by the first per- son‘_ This does not mean each individual has the same feeling or belief about an object. Connotative meanings vary within an individual as he has clifferent exPeriences. Connotative meanings also vary between indj~V:iduals. Some persons believe airplanes are a safe means of travel, Others would respond to the contrary. The evaluative content of meaning is derived from its connotative dimension. This research will be directed at connotative meanings of market-place concepts. Some Contributions of the Study Values have long been the domain of the philosopher and, lately, the social scientist.18 If values doprovide much of the bedrock for deci- sion making as claimed, then an examination of values as they relate to such an important sociofeconomic_phenomenon as the market place should Proveflfsaitfuly ‘— From a broad perSpective this study is a contribution to the general knowledge of value systems as used in the evaluative process, and ultimately their effect on human behavior. By comparing value systems with responses toward market-place activities it can be determined Whether such a relationship exists. This research will also provide guidelines for further research on Values and value systems as independent variables. Major Limitations of the Study 1. The existence of ummeasured social, psychological and environmental factors makes it necessary to examine the variables from the standpoint of degree of correlation rather than one of cause and effect relationship. 8 See, Clyde Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?" The American Style: EFEEZSL in Value and Performance, ed. Elting E. Merrison, (New York: arper- and Brothers, 1958), p. 149. t1 '1‘) 10 2. The existence, on the part of members of the sample, of a wide range of awareness and knowledge of the subject matter under investigation. Also, some respondents having a "high" degree of awareness on one concept might well have a "low" degree of aware- ness on another. This limitation does not preclude the fact that persons can and do make choices (have opinions and attitudes) when confronted with alterna- tive situations.1 3. The results of the study cannot be viewed as repre- sentative of the entire society or even the community from which the sample was drawn. The sample was drawn from groups who have a direct interest in market-place activities. However, insights into the problem of values and meanings of market-place activities can be drawn from the results of the study. 4. The research design is essentially static in nature. That is, it is conducted at one point in time. Both values and meanings have a dynamic dimension. Generally speaking, though, group values and percep- tions are usually not subject to drastic changes over short periods of time. L. L. Thurstone, The Measurement of Value, (Chicago: University °f Chicago Press, 1959), p. 188. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Value research, long a province of philosophy, is now found inter- spersed throughout a wide spectrum of the behavioral science,1 economics, law, and religious literature. A review of the literature reveals three major themes: (1) definition of the concept of value; (2) development of tools for measuring values; and (3) attempts to determine which behavioral activities are conveyers of value.2 The focus of this chapter is on the Last theme, and includes brief discussions of the following: (1) the controversy over the validity and reliability of a scientific approach to the research of values; (2) values as important determinants of behavior; (3) sources of values; (4) values of the businessman; and (5) values in the market place. 1There is no clear understanding as to which disciplines are in- ‘fllfl1Ed within the behavioral science classification. It has come to include sociology, psychology, anthropology, and several of the branches wjftihinthese disciplines. This is the definition we intend unless other- w13€3 indicated. In its original usage it had a much broader meaning. See James G. Miller, "Toward a General Theory for the Behavioral sci€2nces," American Psychologist, Vol. X (1955), pp. 513-531.] The first theme, defining the concept of value was discussed in the Chapter. (See pp. 6-7) The second theme, developing tools for measuring values is the subject of Chapter III. first 11 Philoso;} realm of emit l. Flemise. rm. 5 1 and fact. A‘( the“ aPfiears t bil it), that V311. 12 The Significance of Value Research Philosophers generally considered the study of values outside the realm of empiricism3 until Dewey and his followers challenged this premise.4 The major thread of the debate centers on the dualism of values and fact.5 Although the outcome of this polemic is by no means resolved, there appears to be a move, even by the dualists, to admit the possi- bility that values may lend themselves to scientific inquiry.6;Behavioral For a typical stance see: William Graham Summer, "Reply to a Socialist," The Challenge of Facts and Other Essays, ed. Albert Galloway Keller (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1914), pp. 55-62; Dewitt H. Parker, "Discussion of John Dewey's 'Some Questions About Value'," Value: A Cooperative Inguiry, ed. Ray Lepley, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), pp. 223-244; , "Reflections on the Crisis in Theory of Value, 1: Mostly Critical," Ethics, Vol. LVI (April, 1946), pp. 193-207; Hans Reichenbach, "Philosophy: Speculation or Science," Nation, Vol. CLXIV (January 4, 1947), pp. 19-22; and L. 0. Robbins, Th3 Nature and Significance of Economic Science, 2nd ed., (London: Macmillan and COO, 1937), pp. 87-900 4John Dewey, "Some Questions About Value," Journal of Philosophy, Vol. XLI (August 17, 1944), pp. 449-455; Henry David Aiken, 'Reflections on Dewey's Question about Value," Value: A Cooperative Inquiry, op. cit., pp. 15-42; John Dewey, "The Field of 'Value'," 0p. cit., pp. 64—77; A. Campbell Garnett, "Intrinsic Good: Its Definition and Referent," op. cit., pp. 78-92; George R. Geiger, "Values and Inquiry," op. cit., pp. 93-111; and Jacob Bronowski, 'The Values of Science," New Knowledge in Human Values, ed. Abraham H. Maslow, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959), p. 63. 5Some people claim that values are so subjective, so personal, that attempts to measure them are fruitless. Others believe that values are ordered (or patterned) and measurement is possible, or should be attempted unti1.reliable tools of measurement are developed. For a strong argument that dualism does not exist see, Ray Lepley, Verifiability of Value, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1944), passim. 6 Edward L. Thorndike, "Science and Values," Science, Vol. LXXXIII (January 3, 1936), pp. 1-8; and William R. Catton, Jr., "Exploring Techniques for Measuring Human Values," American Sociological Review, Vol. XIX (February, 1954), p. 55. 13 scientist agree that values play an important role as determinants of —" "_* —---*_'" -.-... behavior: This alone would seem to offer sufficient justification for ____,.”‘ 0‘ the systematic study of values. The field of values is generally conceded to be behavioral in character.7 Values, then, like other behavioral phenomena,_are subject . 8 to observation and test. Psychologists and sociologists both credit ‘w‘i’r ' -- 5n” _ aqf,‘-vrvs . inn-'0'" their respective areas with providing the theoretical underpinnings of value research.9 The behavioral scientists have been more successful in the development of tools for value research and in attempts to identify values than have philosophers.10 This is not to say that behavioral ll scientists are in complete agreement, but it appears that the pendulum 7Dewey, 'Hhe Field of Values," op. cit., p. 65; Ludwig Von Mises, Human Action, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949), p. 95; Talcott Parsons, The Social System, (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1951), Chapters VIII and IX; Dorothy Lee, "Culture and the Experience of Value," New Knowledge in Human Values, op. cit., p. 165; Franz Adler, "The Value Concept in Sociology," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. LXII (November, 1956), pp. 276-278; and Arnold M. Rose, "Sociology and the Study of Values," British Journal of Sociology, Vol. VII (1956), p. 5. For a view that argues values are pp; limited to a behaviorist evaluation, see: Garnett, "Intrinsic Good: Its Definition and Reference," op. cit., p. 82; and Adler, "The Value Concept in Sociology," op. cit., 274-275. 8 Rose, "Sociology and the Study of Values," op. cit., p. 1; and L.L. Thurstone, The Measurement of Values, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), p. 195. 9Donald Snygg, "The Psychological Basis of Human Values," Goals of Economic Life, ed. A. Dudley Ward, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), p. 348; J. E. Whittaker, "The Psychology of Value," British Journal of Statistical Psychology, Vol. XVI (May, 1963), p. 50; Walter Goldschmidt, "Values and the Field of Comparative Sociology," American Sociological Review, Vol. XVIII (June, 1953), pp. 287; and Florence Rockwood Kluckhohn and Fred L. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations, (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson and Co., 1961), p. 4, passim. 0Rose, op. cit., pp. 1-17. Complete agreement will probably never be reached. For a lively and running discussion of this subject, see the British Journal of Statistical Psychology, beginning with the May, 1958 (Vol. XI) issue and 14 is swinging in favor of those who believe value research is possible and necessary to understand human behavior. Describing values and patterns of values is a necessity if there is to be intellectual discourse. “Values are not inherent in words, dogtrine, or things, but are reflected in human conduct. Values cannot be dis: ¥_ ‘1, covered apart from and are always manifested in behavior. Values as Determinants of Behavioral Activity Values Seen as Dynamic,iInteractive, and Culturally Derived [Individual and group behavior is the result of two interacting forces: values and situation.14 The acquisition of values is a life- long process. To a large extent they are culturally derived.15 Each person gradually works out for himself, from infancy on, a set of guides ll (Continued) continuing up through the May, 1964 (Vol. XVII) issue. The controversy centers around two schools of thought, absolutism vs. relativism. The discourse, though at times technical and wordy, brings to the fore many side issues and is well worth any reader's time. 12 Von Mises, 0p. cit., p. 95. 13C. Kluckhohn, “Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?" The American Style: Essays in Value and Performance, ed. Etting E. Mbrrison, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 146; Adler, "The Value Concept in Sociology," op. cit., pp. 276- 278; and K. R. Srinivasiengar, ”Outline of an Emergent Theory of Value," International Journal of Ethics, Vol. XLV (July, 1935), p. 420. Feliks Gross, "Values and Social Change," Review of Mexican Sociology, Vol. XXV (Jan.-Apr., 1963), p. 289; and Cora Du Bois, 'The Iknninant Value Profile of American Culture," American Anthropologist, Vol. INTI (December, 1955), p. 1239. 15 William H. Catton, Jr., ”A Theory of Value," American Sociological Review, Vol. XXIV (June, 1959), p. 311. 15 or values for determining what is real and important.16 This process is largely affected by the person's environment. {Values determine a person's behavior, his choice of activities, the areas of his interest and his thoughts.17 They provide a focus for human activities and may be viewed as modes of organizing conduct, meaningful for guiding human action.18 In fact, it is through values that relation- ships with others are developed. [Values are considered powerful determinants of behavior for several reasons. 1. They determine what is regarded as right, good, worthy, beautiful, and ethical; they establish our vocation, life goals and many of our motivations. 1 2. They provide the standards and norms which guide day to day behavior, and thus constitute an integral part of an individual's conscience. 6Allison Davis, "American Status Systems and the Socialization of the Child," American Sociological Review, Vol. VI (June, 1941), pp. 351- 354. 17 Davis, loc. cit.; C. West Churchman, Prediction and Optimal llecision: PhilosoPhical Issues of a Science of Values, (Englewood (Iliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961), p. 368; and Von Mises, 10c. cit. C. Kluckhohn agrees with this point of view but takes a more uIOdest stand: "Values influence and, on occasion, determine action." ESee Clyde Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?", op. cit., p. 146J 18 Robbin M. Williams, American Society, 2nd ed. rev., (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), P. 413; and Hadley Cantril, The "Why" of Man's .EXEerience, (New York: Macmillan Co., 1950), p. 26. LA, 0 :1 ._ . ’VJ he OI bECC‘EE 3101‘; and at t: 16 a 3. They chiefly determine a person's attitudes toward issues (political, economic, social and industrial) with which he comes into daily contact. 4. They exert influence on the kinds and types of people an individual can associate with compatibly and the kinds of social activities in which he can engage. 5. They largely determine which ideas, principles, and concepts an individual can accept, assimilate, remember and transmit without distortion. 6. They provide an almost unlimited number and variety of moral principles which can be employed to rationalize and justify actions that have been taken or are being contemplated. To cope successfully with human relations, the businessman must become more cognizant of values, especially their role20 as an evaluative 'mechanism in the everyday decision making of subordinates, and more importantly, consumers. QEEEE§WEPEMS§¥1YWPIOEESS-°f~liVin-§ person must choose from.wany, EgflafififuEfggfimgpnfljffigg.M91ternatiyes. Each of us possesses and uses a Scale of values in arranging our actions.21 Preference of one alterna: Eive over another will, in the long run, exhibit a pattern. Such ‘ 19 Robert N. McMurray, "Conflicts in Human Values," Harvard Business .ReView, Vol. XLI (May-June, 1963), p. 131; and William D. Guth and Renato Tagiuri, "Personal Values and Corporate Strategy," Harvard Business Review Vol. XLIII (September-October, 1965), p. 123. \, 2 olbid., p. 133. 21 Von Mises, op. cit., pp. 94-95. patterning 1' is reason tc actual situa according u v _ ' "ttt‘mm SEE-Ed bv t‘ 17 22 patterning is attributed to a person's value system. In fact, there -— r' qt ‘— _ d...“ __‘-.._.—v-‘-ofia-I—-- is reason to believe that conflicts are resolved by subordinating the 23 actual situation to the permanent scale of values. Needs are satisfied according to the position of corresponding values on the scale. Values Seen as an Organizing Process The fact that persons seek_to associate with others who express v-u similar dominant interests, to enhance their own personalities, as well \ ‘-v -“~_’a--h- ' as to defend themselves from doubt and uncertainty,24 attests to differ- .._ or..-“ ing value systems. Differing value patterns are not unusual. Biological and psychological differences among individuals require varying types of 22Catton, "A Theory of Value," op. cit., p. 310. Inkeles modifies this position, which highlights an earlier statement that behavior is the result of values and situation, by stating, "...similarity in the patterning of response seems best explained by assuming that...values are shaped by the networks of interpersonal relations in which individuals are enmeshed..." [See Alex Inkeles, "Industrial Man: The Relation of Status to EXperience, Perception, and Value," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. LXVI (July, 1960), p. 28;] 23Jean Piaget, ”Will and Action," Bulletin of the Menniger Clinic, Vol. XXVI (May, 1962), p. 144. I don't believe Piaget is suggesting dogmatism. Such pertinacity is not logical in light of available facts. Carl Rogers, in a recent article, notes that the valuing process of the individual changes from.infancy to adulthood, and that the valuing process is effective to the degree that the individual is open to his experi- encing; that in persons relatively open to their experiencing there is an important commonality or universality of value direction; that these directions make for the constructive enhancement of the individual and his community, and for the survival and evolution of his Species. [See, Carl R. Rogers, "Toward a Modern Approach to Values: The Valuing Process in the Mature Person," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. LXVIII (February, 1964), p. 1652] Rogers' thesis provides us with a good description of the interaction of values and situation as determinants of behavior. 4 Clarence H. Danhof, "Economic Values in Cultural Perspective," Goals of Economic Life, ed. A. Dudley Ward, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), p. 89. activities t. 25 system, Differe tit-es conciu because of: different b. r1. erent role arestructu. Individuals mugs Vi t‘r; aim has a 18 activities which are essential to the functioning of any social system.25 Differences also exist in an individual's pattern of behavior. At times conduct is not consistent with previous behavior preferences, befause of: (1) multiple needs, which often conflict, and require different behavior patterns26 (adjustment of our value system to dif- ferent roles); and (2) changes in the perceived environment that require a restructuring of the value system to meet changing conditions. Individuals, having multiple needs, become members of different sub- groups within the social system to enhance their strivings.27 Behavior also has a dynamic quality.28 Persons adjust to meet new and different conditions. As adjustments take place, they must be purposeful, meaning- ful, and in most cases orderly. I é;§9339FY cannot remain healthy or creative unless it has a set of cpmmpn yalues that give meaning and purpose to life. There are certain common value elements shared and integrated from one individual to the next. These common values provide the necessary stability in an other- wise changing environment. This is essential for the continued 2 5F. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, op. cit., pp. 3, 4. 26 Irving A. Spaulding, “Of Human Values," Sociology and Social EEEESEESE: Vol. XLVII (January, 1963), p. 171. 27 C. Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?” op. cit., p. 187. 28 Du Bois, 'The Dominant Value Profile of American Culture," vi . . l 4' a‘ I f.‘ v A . n < . . . v 1 a J. . r :C .1. t. .C (A 0 ad LU. . o .C S It .- i n“ .C ) \Jo « .7 00 a... .C . 0 Y. 3. Ln h: E n .l E . C o 0.» cl. .1 e a.“ .1 L» S 0 9 cL IN n1. 0 .. a .1. c ( II\ CC 3 . .. C. S ml... KN r 3. his .C Min 9. six ud .‘L t .c n.“ t l ..C . c i .1» 0 a. Q . .. a . uh c Yr“ .~ s :L 5» nu LL ulu -: . to v!“ | . u. .\.v . C» m a. q nut. . 5 1;. -\~ .u s c. a ‘\ CL I .i k h a\\ h . I. » ... u as .hhu An.» s g 0 . O C.- f c D van} «m-U palm WU . .u MC K... v. a L T... a .n? C it Y'- xi. . \ t n5. 1 s: x C .. a E u. . \J u. i .Q .1! h ~4v .st‘ ‘7 .T ~l \o Q or.“ I 3 xv. .85 t u 1 cc E ‘1 I ‘n\ ..-s E u .. 3K in r 2 are I. .4 WW. 1.... 19 functioning of the society.29 Common values will have the following characteristics: (1) they can be expressed symbolically; (2) they must fit with the situation of the present and be linked to the historic past; and (3) they do not outrage men's reason but at the same time appeal to their emotions.30 During periods when there is an apparent absence of common values, or a shifting of these values, there is much uncertainty and confusion in determining behavioral activity. Values as an Organizing Process in the Business Community Some writers have concluded that an apparent lack of a meaningful system of values is symptomatic of our business community, especially in numerous market-place activities. Reasons given for this state of affairs are: (1) a collapse of the laissez-faire philosophy creating a 31 philosophical vacuum; and, (2) reluctance, on the part of the business 29 W. Lloyd Warner and Nbrman H. Martin (eds.), Industrial Man, (New Ybrk: Harper and Brothers, 1959), p. 8; Talcott Parsons, 'The Place of Ultimate Values in Sociological Theory," International Journal of Ethics, Vol. XLV (April, 1935), p. 299; and David F. Aberle, "Shared Values in Complex Societies," American Sociological Review, Vol. XV (August, 1950), p. 502. Aberle raises an interesting insight regarding the role of anmmon elements: they permit the existence of heterogeneity, which is essemtial for the continued functioning of the society. 30Clyde Kluckhohn, "Education, Values, and Anthropological IRelativity," Culture and Behavior, ed. Richard Kluckhohn, (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), p. 298. In talking about and to business- nunl, Warner and Martin provide strong support for Mr. Kluckhohn's second Point. [See, Warner and Martin, op. cit., p. 113 . 31William C. Frederick, "The Growing Concern Over Business ReSponsi- bllitya" California Management Review, Vol. II (Summer, 1960), p. 54. 20 community, to shift values from a philosophy guided by the principles of the Protestant Ethic to a philosophy guided by the principles of the Social Ethic.32 Business behavior, like all human activity, takes place within a social framework of a specific value structure. This is necessary to give direction and meaning to the role and responsibility of the businessman.33 He must solve the problem of human values before he can 34 understand group dynamics. Sources of Values Where do values come from? Can the locus of values be pinpointed? How are values acquired? The literature, although not entirely con- clusive, does provide some answers to these questions. ngluem§ystemswof individuals are acquired through two principal enyironmental forces; the culture, and groups in which the individual 35 has association. These forces are aptly described as dominant values 32 William.H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1956), pp. 178-184. A fuller treatment of this evolution is given in the next section of this chapter. 3Harold L. Johnson, "A Behavioral Approach to the Business Enter— prise," Southern Economic Journal, Vol. XXVII (July, 1960), p. 4; Guth and Taguiri, "Personal Values and Corporate Strategy," op. cit., pp. 127- 129; and Edmund P. Learned, Arch R. Dooley, and Robert L. Katz, "Personal Values and Business Decisions," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXVII (March-April, 1959), p. 114. 34Snygg, "The Psychological Basis of Human Values," op. cit., p. 348. 35 For an interesting discussion of the individual, the group, and the interaction of the two as the locus of values, see: Melvin Rader, fggics and Societ , (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1950), pp. 123- 21 36 and variant values. “QQmEPantmyalues are largely cultural values. Every aspect of individual behavior is influenced, to some degree, 3 either directly or indirectly, by culture. 7 -B?§?9-991t9r311Y?l9?§ are‘ a o 38 o a particularly perva31ve factor of influence. Dominant values are ”‘J', . «.WI'I.A WI>nfim ‘s-Q- y'mflofl" patterned (rank-ordered)39 and give to society its strength and sense of identify for orderly functioning.40 It's the.§l§£.fl£§.222 of the society. This does not imply a fixed or immutable system of common value elements. Because the functioning of the social system necessitates varying types of life activities, variations are permitted within the system.41 Variant values are also patterned and furnish the justifica- tion for behavior in different roles. 36 F. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations, op. cit., p. 3. W. T. Tucker, The Social Context of Economic Behavior, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), p. 23. 386. Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American values During the Past Generation?" op. cit., p. 151; and Catton, "A Theory of Value," op. cit., p. 311. 39F. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, op. cit., p. 10. 4OAberle, "Shared Values in Complex Societies," op. cit., p. 502; Erich Fromm, "Individual and Social Origins of Neurosis," Personality in _Nature, Society, and Culture, eds. Clyde Kluckhohn and Henry A. Murray, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), p. 409; and Warner and Martin, Lndustrial Man, loc. cit. 41F. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, op. cit., p. 3, Rostow supports this view'with the observation that "...the nation's affairs should be con- ducted by vigorous conflict and competition among individual, group, and 'regional interests. The vagueness of conventional articulation of the national ideals has, in itself, served the important function of permitting a maximum sense of association with the national ethos by groups whose more imediate interests and cultures widely diverged..." [See, W. W. Rostow, "The National Style," The American Style: Essays in Value and W: ed. Elting E. Morrison, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 250.] ' I- v . 1L i. :,u 7 L . t m\. u .. 94‘ a ..L p c a f: :e T. S 2L 5... . n.“ 5 9L. ‘0. mna MEG r I“ 5 ;.~ 5 . v is O 3 .1 Q. «c t I1 11‘ 0 at at ‘ D\H “I. .1 9L 5.» .C n at d I a a. hit. .0. n c .- e m C. AU 0.. an... a. .1 a . . .t a I al. 1 .. and 1. n at. 0 FC ...... . .L . t 9d at. . c r. C at t W (u ~0 . l n «L t with nI . I. ,3; S "LI vthl 0 n . .c v.4 n We ‘ s : 4 .1 ‘1k ‘aHN -: , 22 Support, Description, and Evolution of the Dominant Profile Several aspects of our society substantiate the existence of a dominant profile. IA cultural value system must be operative for such institutional activities as national politics, national advertising, and mass media to be an effective and viable forcef‘2 Some authorities contend that underlying values are the motivating force, the integrative tenets, and provide the organizing principles in any viable society.43 Even though the evidence strongly supports existence of a dominant pro- file, that profile is uneven, not fully integrated, and not consistently held by everyone in the society. The value profile, or Protestant ethic,45 practiced by early Americans still embodies much of the cultural value system of today. It supports the following values: 420. Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?“ op. cit., p. 147. 43 Warner and Martin, Industrial Man, loc. cit.; Aberle, "Shared Values in Complex Societies," loc. cit.; Clarence C. Walton, "The Place of Advertising in the Mass Communications Structure," Ethics, Advertisipg and Responsibilipy, ed. Francis X. Quinn, (Westminster, Md.: Canterbury Press, 1963), p. 27 fn.; and Eliezer B. Ayal, "Value Systems and Economic .Development in Japan and Thailand," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. XIX (January, 1963), p. 38. 44 Williams, American Sociepy, op. cit., p. 413; W. W. Rostow, "The National Style," loc. cit.; and Talcott Parsons, Structure and Process in kaiern Societies, (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1960), p. 173. 45 Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parson, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958); and Re 1i. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1926). 23 1. Self-discipline and work. Strict self-discipline, the rejection of worldly pleasures, and righteous success in this world through hard work came to be regarded as signs of grace that one was in God's favor and possibly in the elect. 2. Initiative and acquisition. The patterns of hard work and self-discipline gave economic advantage over com- petitors and led to the acquisition of wealth. Individual initiative was rewarded since success in one's work was interpreted as a sign of God's blessing. 3. Individualism and competition. The individual was placed almost entirely upon his own, and his one important relation and responsibility was to God. Each individual had to seek success as the sign of grace and this was consistent with competition.46 Even though many of the ideals embodied in the Protestant ethic continue to support our modern socio-economic society, several significant shifts have been discerned. In The Lonely crowd, Riesman 46 Helen Beem Gouldner, with Leonard Broom and Philip Selznik, "Industrial Sociology,“ Sociology, 2nd ed., (Evanston, Ill.: Row, .Peterson and Co., 1958), p. 521. Although religion is given an important role in the forming of thezeconomic order, it should not be interpreted as being omnipotent. Tawney noted the importance of political and economic influences. Weber suggested once capitalism became the dominant and pervasive economic order, it no longer needed religion. Ibid., p. 524. Rostow also makes tinis point with his readers when he writes, "...we fashioned national laxity'out of a mixture of seventeenth-century Protestant values, the dreams of the eighteenth-century enlightenment, and then, as time moved CH1, the cumulative experiences and myths we built upon them." [W. W. Rostow, "The National Style," loc. cit.] 24 suggests that peer group values are becoming the most important aculturating, or value forming, agency. He portrays modern man as "other-directed" in contrast to his nineteenth-century counterpart whom he depicts as "innerdirected."4 The inner-directed individual acquired values largely from early childhood family training and schooling (including religious training); behavior was guided by adherence to general principles, or abstract ideals, laid down during this period. This form of aculturation re- sulted in a sense of freedom for non-conformity within prescribed limits through the use of a built-in gyroscope which steered the individual through life. Wrong doing, or deviant behavior gave rise to guilt feelings because such was a violation of personal ideals. This life- style was also characterized as being politically moralistic and production-oriented. lModern-day man, or 'bther-directed" man, becomes aculturated largely by peer groups. He looks to his contemporaries for guidance and direction. His most important values are those which are also important to the peer group.) The "other-directed" person guides behavior through the complexities and intricacies of modern life by picking up cues from the environment with an internal "radar" device. Lack of conformity, or Wrong-doing brings on anxiety for fear that he may lose the love and aPproval of others. In contrast to the inner-directed person, other- 47David Riesman, with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, The Lonely EEQEQ, (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1950), pp. 29-40. 48 Ibid., p. 41. directed 0th: of conte: factors 1 l. I\ 25 directed types are politically manipulative and consumption oriented. Others have noted that Riesman, probably more than other analysis of contemporary American society, gives recognition to the historical factors bringing about the significance of peer groups. {1° The urban family is small, and the areas in which it participates as a unit are limited. The peer group fills a larger part of the child's life. 2. The high degree of social and technological change characteristic of modern society widens the gap between generations. Parental knowledge is rapidly outdated and the peer group becomes more important as the avenue to contemporary values and "know-how.“ 3. In modern society there is a relatively high degree of mobility. Children tend to move upward on the social ladder, especially through college education. The family no longer feels competent to instruct the child in his newly acquired class and status values and, therefore, leaves these matters to the peer group. 4. The economy is changing from one based on the expansion Oi of production to one organized around consumption. 9Ibid., pp. 41-42. It might be wise to caution the reader that Riesman says all of us have the capacity to possess each of the modes of cOnformity. It's not an either/or situation. He also notes that each of us may change in the course of our lives from greater dependence on one Combination of modes to another. Ibid., p. 47. What Riesman has given “8 is a generalization of different modes of American character. What is Significant for our purposes is the revelation of a shifting of the d0minant value profile. 50 " Gertrude Jaeger Selznick, with Leonard Broom and Philip Selznick, SOCialization," Sociology, 2nd ed., (Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson, and 0b., 1958), pp. 107, 109. 26 There is a fundamental shift taking place in the dominant value profile in America from a Protestant ethic to that of a market-place ethic.51 Several reasons are given for this shift. 51. An increase in employment of the service trades and white collar work, and a decline in employment in production, extraction, and agriculture; the shift from working with things to working with people. 2. A relative decline of small communities and a growth of metropolitan centers and their cultural dominance. 3. A change in the paths to success: more social behavior. 4. A secular change in family patterns and child rearing practices. 5. The school and peer group is assisted and extended by mass media serving as tutors in marketing techniques. The market orientation theme is observed by another prominent authority, who, somewhat disapprovingly, sees the individual personality being transformed into a market concept of value. Because of the growing emphasis on exchange values relative to use Values, noted by some authorities,/modern man finds himself both the Seller and the commodity to be sold on the market. Accordingly this has 51David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, "Polls, Political Apathy, and Character Structure: Problems of Measurement and Analysis," (unpublished paPer, 1948), quoted by Clyde Kluckhohn, "Have There Been Discernable Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?" op. cit., p. 184. 52 Ibid., pp. 184-185. 53 Erich Fromm, Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology 2; Ethics, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1947), pp. 68-116. 27 several effects: personal self esteem appears to depend upon conditions beyond the individual's control; conviction of identity is found, not in himself but in the opinion of those about him; and there is no permanent relatedness developed within the individual because changeability of attitudes is the only permanent quality of the market orientation.54 Change in the dominant profile has also been characterized as a shift from the Protestant Ethic to the Social Ethic. The tenets of the Social Ethic are: a belief in the group as the source of creativity; a belief in 'belongingness" as the ultimate need of the individual; and a belief in the application of science to achieve belongingness. Because change is becoming an ever-increasing quality of our society, the individual turns to the organization as the logical place to develop necessary roots.5 Although some disapproval of the shift of values is evidenced, not all reporters of the business scene are pessimistic about the shift in Values. Some benefits possibly accrue, or at least the change is a natural evolutionary process. 54Ibid., pp. 68-77. In a review of the literature, another writer reached similar conclusions using less emotional laden terms. The trends noticed were: (1) move from personal toward public values; (2) stability in short-run rising in importance at expense of future Success; and (3) heterogeneity becoming a major organizing principle. See, Clyde Kluckhohn, "The Evolution of Contemporary American Values," .Daedalus, Vol. LXXXVII (Spring, 1958), pp. 78-1093 55 Whyte, The Organization Man, op. cit., pp. 7, 178. 56 David M. Potter, People of Plenty, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), pp. 59-60- 28 Economists have been challenged to broaden their horizons when viewing the transformation from an inner-directed (economic) value sys- tem toward an other-directed (social) value system. "What it may more realistically mean is the generation of a more energetic, a more scientific, a more conscientious, a more elaborately creative engine for human welfare than even the most romantic and imaginative proselyters of capitalism have been able to conjure in their two hundred years of out- spoken advocacy."57 The Variant Profile The dominant value profile and the variant value profile are not easily discernible. They are very much mixed up together; interacting and affecting each other. Through the process of socialization58 all of us develop group values and disciplines for ordering behavior in the performances of our ¥ 57 Theodore Levitt, "The Lonely Crowd and the Economic Man," Sflguterly Journal of Economics, Vol. LXX (February, 1956), p. 116. Socialization is defined as the process of building group values into the individual. See Selznick, “Socialization," Sociology, op. cit., P. 79. Socialization has the following characteristics: (1) inculcates basic disciplines; (2) instills aspirations; (3) teaches social roles and their supporting attitudes; and (4) teaches skills. Although sOCialization produces a degree of conformity, several factors are pres- ent that encourage individuality and uniqueness: (l) socialization is not smooth and uniform; the individual being socialized by many agencies; (2) nonconformity may be a value in itself and transmitted like any other Value by the socialization process; and (3) the socialization process is some respects modified by a person's unique capacities, especially the biOIOgical consequences of an individual's early childhood and their abilities as a mature adult. See Selznick, "Socialization," Ibid., pp. 81-82. The last point, the importance of biological differences, we know Very little about. Others, besides Selznick, refer to its significance. See, for example, F. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, Variations in Value MationS, QB. cit., p. 3.] 29 many pursuits.59 \The most important socializing agency is the family. Within the family, parents and others, deliberately and unconsciously, mold children into conformity with accepted cultural roles.’ Other socializing agents are schools, religious institutions, and all who have access to the individual. In a heterogeneous society such as ours, socializing agents are faced with the problem of gaining access to the individual and of establishing conditions for making an influential impact.60 Notwithstanding the view that the dominant value pattern is basically aculturated by the time the individual is graduated from high school,61 variant value systems are acquired, modified, and completely change throughout one's entire active life by access of different socializing agents.62 Through childhood and adolescence the school and jpeer groups increasingly compete with the family for access to the . 3 individual.6 With adulthood the occupational group and the newly 59 Aberle, "Shared Values in Complex Societies," op. cit., p. 501. Tflne focus of this paper is on integration of subsystems with diverse Values within the total social system. 60 Selznick, "Socialization," op. cit., p. 105. 61 David Riesman, P. E. Jacob, and N. Sanford, Spotlight on the College Student, (Washington, D. 0.: American Council on Education, 1959), p. 5. 62 For an example of how value conflicts serve as a socializing PrOCess, see: George H. Theodorson, "The Function of Hostility in Small Groups," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. LVI (February, 1962), pp. 57-66. 63Selznick, "Socialization," loc cit.; and A. L. Brown, J. Morrison, and G} B. Couch, "Influence of Affectional Family Relationships on Character Development," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, V01. mi (October, 1947), pp. 427-428. estabiis for our pational influenc To research afldhis 30 established family achieve ascendent importance.64 This is significant for our research. We have hypothesized that value patterns among occu- pational groupings can be differentiated, and these differences influence meanings attached to various marketing activities. To predict a person's reaction to a given circumstance, the researcher must first determine the groups to which the person belongs and his role in each group, especially occupational groupings. In most modern societies there exists typical status ladders of occupation, income, education, and prestige. There is a similarity of responses among group members because perception, attitudes, and values are shaped by the networks of interpersonal relations in which individuals are enmeshed.66 The more an individual becomes involved with a group(s), the more he is affected by the rewards and punishments of the group(s) and the greater becomes its influence in shaping his variant value pro- file. Because of the importance of economic well-being in our society, occupation (as hypothesized) will be a significant variable in the formation of values. 64 Selznick, "Socialization," loc. cit.; and C. Kluckhohn, "Have 'There Been Discernible Shifts in American Values During the Past Generation?" op. cit., p. 146. 65Snygg, "The Psychological Basis of Human Values," 0p. cit., I). 346; and Elizabeth L. Lyman, "Occupational Differences and the Values Attached to Work," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. LXI (September, 1955), p. 144. 66 Inkeles, "Industrial Man: The Relation of Status to Experience, Perception, and Value," loc. cit. 31 Businessman and Values What is the position of the businessman as he is influenced by his values? Is there a difference between values of businessmen and others, especially as viewed in market behavior? For the past two decades the behavior of businessmen has been a popular subject for writers. The businessman has been observed and researched from several points of view: as an actor, a catalyst, a guardian, a friend, owner, technician, and a person.67 Implied in this material is the growing complexity, or growing awareness of complexity of the businessman's environment. This theme is usually emphasized by listing numerous groups affected directly and indirectly by his behavior. A typical list of such groups as: customers, organized labor (employees), suppliers, stockholders, government at all levels, and the community.68 This eXpansion of the business environment is certainly one of the contributing factors in the shift of the dominant profile for the businessman. The shift is uneven and incomplete, resulting in much anxiety on the part of the business community in its search for an operative philosophy for business conduct. 67 Herbert Sonthoff, "What is the Manager?" Harvard Business Review, Vol. XLII (November-December, 1964), pp. 24-26ff. 68 Richard Bells and Clarence Walton, Conceptual Foundations of BULnessJ (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961), p. 474; Luther H. Hodges, The Business Conscience, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1963), pp. 73-200; and Gary A. Marple, Myron B. Neace, and LaWl'ence Silverman, "Corporate Ethics and Morality: A Concept," Journal finman Relations, Vol. XI (Winter, 1963), p. 182. Perceii the Protest; nan hm to < admonished 1 0f the haZa; describe to extort the eciucatim1 i iiese and ‘ base to be P'Ot‘stau ”tags I 32 Perceiving the vacuum left by the shift of the supporting values of the Protestant Ethic; many writers have presumed to advise the business- man how to conduct himself. For example, the businessman has been admonished to reestablish his individualistic philosophy and to be wary of the hazards of encroaching bureaucracy.69 Many books and articles describe codes of conduct for the "successful executive."7O Others exhort the businessman to prepare himself with a strong liberal arts education for the complex decisions he will be expected to make. These and other "how to" writings fail to provide a basic orientation; a 72 base to build a viable philosophy--an operative system of values. The Importance of Religious Values to Businessmen It is not unusual that religion, especially as viewed from a Protestant ethic vantage, should play an important role in the United States. There is a close parallel between economic and religious development in America. However, it has been suggested that as 9 Whyte, The Organization Man, loc. cit.; and Alan Harington, Life in the Crystal Palace, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959). 70 Cf., Editors of Fortune, The Executive Life, (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1956); and Erwin Haskell Schell, Technique of _§xecutive Control, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1957). 71 Robert A. Goldwin (ed.), Toward the Liberally Educated Executive, (White Plains, N. Y.: Fund for Adult Education, 1957). 72This is not a criticism. Much literature of this nature does not liave as its objective, the development of a sound and meaningful set of values. Their objective, by and large, is to analyze and make known a condition(s), with, at times, broad generalizations about values; or a "how to" approach based on certain empirical evidence, without the benefits of an undergirding value system. capitali values w disagree philoso; values c the busi 33 capitalism became the dominant and pervasive economic order, religious values would decrease in importance and lose their impact.73 Others disagree, and warn that the loss of religious values has left a philosophical vacuum in the business world. They contend that religious values can and should provide the underpinnings for decision-making in the business world as well as in other areas of life.74 Harmony between religious principles and business conduct is possible. Although the religious teachings of Judaism and Christianity do not provide specific answers, both provide a framework, or set of principles, which businessmen may use as standards for judging various 5 courses of action.7 The National Council of Churches of Christ 73Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Cspitalism, op. cit., pp. 181-182. As an aside, we might note that in his analysis of the political and economic origins of our time, Karl Polanyi is of the conviction that the market economy (we know it as capitalism) came into being because social conditions were ripe for such an economic system. But conditions change, and as they do, and have, the market economy will exhaust itself, and is, because it can no longer adequately serve the needs of the social order. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957; see Part II, "Rise and Fall of Market Economy," pp. 33-219. If this is true, then possibly we should ask ourselves if such admonitions as these that follow are obsolete in the unalterable tide of social change? A discussion of this question would probably center around the permanence of the values espoused by Protestant ethic theology. 74 . .. . . Kenneth E. Boulding, “Religious Foundations of Economic Progress," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXX (May-June, 1952), p. 40; Reinhold Niebuhr, "The Cultural Crisis of Our Age," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXII (January-February, 1954), p. 36; and O. A. Ohmann, "Skyhooks: 'With Special Implications for Monday through Friday," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXIII (May-June, 1955), p. 34. 75Thomas C. Campbell, Jr., "Capitalism and Christianity," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXV (July-August, 1957), p. 44; Harold L. Johnson, "Can the Businessman Apply Christianity?“ Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXV (September-October, 1957), p. 76; and Learned, Dooley, and Katz, "Personal Values and Business Decisions," op. cit., p. 119. For an opposing view to Learned, Dooley and Katz, suggesting the "bonding" of reality to fit a permanent set of values, see: Piaget, "Will and .Action," loc. cit. nitn na Sc 135, he 34 sponsored a series of ten books on the ethics and economics of society, with many of the authors using a religious framework (Protestant- Christian) as a tool for analysis.7 Some writers reject the thesis that religion, and religious think- ing, has had much of an impact on business and the businessman. They claim business, which is materialistic, and religion, which is spiritually ()riented cannot be two sides of the same coin; this results in a dualistic lausiness environment and creates much uncertainty on the part of business- nnen.77 The proof that such a relationship exists has never been made (explicit.78 A recent study of 1700 businessmen revealed that four out of every five businessmen were dissatisfied with what organized religion had or 76 Some of the more popular editions are: Kenneth E. Boulding, lhe Organizational Revolution, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953); Howard R. Bowen, Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953); Wilbur Schramm, Responsibility in Mass Emmication, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957); and A. Dudley ‘fgrd (ed.), Goals of Economic Life, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 53). 7Raphael Demos, "Business and the Good Society," Harvard Business ReView, Vol. XXXIII (July-August, 1955), pp. 38-39; and Harvey C. Bunke, "Priests Without Cassocks," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XLIII (May- Juhe, 1965), pp. 108-109. Bunke is not apprehensive about the dualism (Vi-2., belief in dollar values in business but in nondollar values in Public affairs) as long as a balance is preserved. A number of other Writers have contemplated the "dualism" of value standards in our SOCiety. For a discussion of this subject, see: Marple, Neace, and Sliézverman, "Corporate Ethics and Morality: A Concept," op. cit., pp. 183- 78 James E. Worthy, "Religion and Its Role in the World of Business," Mrnal of Business, Vol. XXXI (October, 1958), p. 292. not done. in busine 1": “r CU ' 35 79 . not done. A majority welcomed the assistance of clergy well-educated in business, economics, and social sciences, but a sizable minority-- nearly twenty per cent--indicated they wanted no help from their churches. Other Value Themes The religious theme is only one of many that writers have used in tsuggesting a modus operandi for the businessman to fill the apparent philosophic vacuum. A historian, using a socio-political framework, counsels the businessman to reanalyze and rearticulate his ideals and values to reflect more adequately our democratic philosophy.8O From a political-economic point of view comes the recommendation of a philosophy of conservatism, characterized as "...moderate, legalistic, responsible, republican in a limited sense of that word and ppp- rather than anti- intellectual."81 A neo-traditionalist restates the best of the old values of private enterprise and holds them up as still meaningful and 82 adaptable to the conditions of today. 79Raymond C. Baumhart, S. J., "How Ethical Are Businessmen?" lkrrvard Business Review, Vol. XXXIX (July-August, 1961), p. 172. 80 Thomas C. Cochran, "Business and the Democratic Tradition," EVard Business Review, Vol. XXXIV (March-April, 1956), p. 47. 81 Robert G. McCloskey, "Conservatives, Businessmen, and Blather- 8kitxes," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXIV (September-October, 1956), P- 4:5. The author notes that this is only a partial, but important list Of QILalities of a conservative. 2 . O. A. Ohmann, "Search for a Managerial Philosophy," Harvard :QEEELSEES Review, Vol. XXXV (September-October, 1957), pp. 41-51. Social Re Rece has been that the decisions Values oj s”??02t : tries an. and lap: seii.eng me‘v’ious ‘O‘sld t. CK.) / l . rr f)— ;" l—o, Q? t l A ' :12 {.r} I It?! 1341' ‘ «(‘1 h 36 Social Responsibility Recently the question of social responsibility of the businessman has been a popular topic of discussion.83 This literature advocates that the businessman and his organization pursue policies and make decisions in light of the objectives and aims of society: the personal values of the businessman must support those of the society, and the support should be voluntary. In response to these urgings many indus- tries and firms have developed codes of conduct for their members. By and large, codes of conduct establish value-standards of behavior and are self-enforced.84 0f the 1700 business executives interviewed in a previously cited study, there was nearly unanimous agreement that a code would be helpful in decision making, but enforcement and adherence would prove difficult.85 As might be expected in a study of this scope, not all respondents favored a code, especially a formal one enacted by the individual's organization. The dissenters feel that the stimulus to 83Please refer to the Bibliography for a listing of the literature. .A few of the more popular titles are: Bowen, Social Responsibilities of 1316 Businessman, op, cit.; Fred H. Blum, "Social Audit of the Enterprise," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXVI (March-April, 1958), pp. 77-86; ZKeith Davis, "Can Business Afford to Ignore Social Responsibility?" jaalifornia Management Review, Vol. 11 (Spring, 1960), pp. 70-76; and Dan IL. Fenn (ed.) Management's Mission in a New Sociopy, (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959). 4A variation of this expression is the recent statement by the Natxional Association of Manufacturers of Marketing Values and the contri- butions that are made to the consumer in a free competitive market place, [See, National Association of Manufacturers, "Marketing Values," Lournal of Marketing, Vol. XXVIII (July, 1964), p. 673 This is one of manyr attempts by the NAM and others, to "sell" the American public on the Virttmes of traditional capitalism, which has strong overtones of the Protestant Ethic. £35 Baumhart, "How Ethical Are Businessmen?" 0p. cit., pp. 166-168. 37 act ethically should come from outside the business or trade group. This position finds strong support from other quarters. In a controversial article, one student of the business scene claims that businessmen should not be involved with questions about cultural, spiritual, social, or moral values. The job of the businessman is simple: to offer goods on the open market. Value satisfaction is determined by the neutral mechanism of the market place. w o Comprise and Self-reliance--Two Characteristics of Values An operative value system incorporates, to some degree, two signifi- cant points: compromise and self-reliance. Some writers characterize the environment of the businessman as one of inevitable compromise. There is both good and bad in compromise; the difficulty lies in calculating the tension between the values of compromise and adherence to principle.87 To overcome the negative connotation of compromise the concept of integration has been developed. Its proponents claim that integration of values is necessary both to promote the healthy person- ality through harmony of career with other aSpects of life, and to rmaintain the dynamic creativeness of our society. Integration resolves 6Theodore Levitt, "Are Advertising and Marketing Corrupting Society? It's Not YOur Worry," The Role of Advertising: A Book of Readings, eds. C. H. Sandage and Vernon Fryburger, (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1960), pp. 443-444. For a rebuttal of Levitt's argument, see, Clyde Bedell, "To the Extent Advertising and Marketing Are Corrupting Society--You'd Better Worry!" ibid., pp. 451-455. 7 Louis William Norris, "Moral Hazards of an Executive," Harvard Mess Review, Vol. xxxvm (September-October, 1960), p. 74. value c0' Con business evplicit uPon hi“. oneself. ' cc 38 value conflicts by substituting more enduring values. Considering the sheer amount of counsel directed toward the businessman with regard to his behavior, few, if any, writers provide explicit alternatives. In the last analysis, the businessman must rely upon himself to make these decisions.89 The philosophy of relying on oneself--existentialism-—sets forth these basic tenets: Man's first responsibility is to himself; know thyself; each individual is unique; and each decision builds from previous decisions. An Overview of the Businessman's Values The literature review certainly does not afford the opportunity to draw many definite conclusions. Writings prior to World War II expressed 88 Ohmann, "Skyhooks: With Special implications for Mbnday Through Friday," 0p. cit., PP. 36-38; and, Abram T. Collier, "Business Leader- ship and a Creative Society," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXI (January- February, 1953), pp. 34-35. In a later article, Collier continues his discussion of a creative society, and recognizes conflicts of principles (viz., liberty vs. order, truth vs. mercy, and spiritual vs. material), but reasons, as the logic of Lao tse, that in reality both conditions are necessary for both to flourish. [See, Abram T. Collier, "Faith in a Creative Society," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXV (May-June, 1957), pp. 40-41{] This is an example of dualism.(maintenance of conflicting values), which was discussed earlier in this chapter. Collier, and the others use paradoxical logic to rationalize this phenomena. 89 For an expansion of this view, see the following: Wayne G. Broehl, Jr., "Ethics and the Executive: The Small Decisions that Count," Dun's Review and Modern Industry, Vol. LXIX (May, 1957), pp. 45ff; Erwin C. Canhan, "For a Revised Sense of Values," Management's Mission in a New Society, ed. Dan H. Fenn, (New Ybrk: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959), pp. 75- 84; James W. Culliton, "Business and Religion," Business and Religion, ed., Edward C. Bursk, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), pp. 1-11; Samuel H. Miller, "The Tangle of Ethics," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXVIII (January-February, 1960), pp. 59-62; and Clarence B. Randall, "Free Enterprise is th a Hunting License," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CLXXXIX (March, 1952), pp. 38-41. 90John H. Rice, "Existentialism for the Businessman," Harvard Business Review, Vol. XXXVIII (March-April, 1960), pp. 142-143. the the: concept pendtiu: locus of for indj schools 39 the theme of individualism, influenced by the Protestant Ethic, as the concept on which to develop a meaningful set of values. Around 1946 the pendulum began a perceptible swing and the society or group became the locus of values. In recent years, writers have pointed out the necessity for individuals to develop a set of values which incorporates both schools of thought. Since no particular value system has proven completely effective, it seems there is a major task ahead in developing alternative frames of reference. An earlier quote is worth repeating: "What it [move from the Protestant Ethic toward a Social Ethic frame of reference] may more realistically mean is the generation of a more energetic, more scientific, a more conscientious, a more elaborately creative engine for human wel- fare than even the most romantic and imaginative proselyters of capi- talism have been able to conjure in their two hundred years of outspoken advocacy."91 The businessman's increasingly complex environment gives rise to the problem of compromising values for the sake of practicality. Some authors suggest an integrative approach but this does not remove the complexity. An approach that attempts to simplify the environment does not appear reasonable in light of known facts. Before any businessman can come to grips with this problem adequately he must assuredly be aware:of himself: who art thou? Possibly existentialism does offer a 91 Levitt, "The Lonely Crowd and the Economic Man," loc. cit. vav the hu hiaseii ii A fi: amount of literatur 40 way the businessman can overcome an amplified environment; by knowing himself first.92 A final observation pertaining to businessman's values is the meager amount of research, especially quantitative research. Much of the literature reviewed consisted of exhortations to the businessman rather than reports of research findings. There is some research, but it is sparse.93 The factor of interaction of behavior patterns between the business- man and others with whom he comes into contact has been conveyed through- out this review. The review will now turn to one of the major contacts any businessman or his organization must make--the consumer in the market place. Importance and Role of Values in the Market Place Several authors characterize our society as a marketing society. Suggass in the market depends upon knowing the values held by those mem- bers of the market place one is attempting to serve. g—t—I—v..o-—- —- . 92 See, Rice, "Existentialism for the Businessman," op. cit., pp. 135- 143; and Guth and Tagiuri, "Personal Values and Corporate Strategy," op. cit., p. 129. For reports on business values research, the following are highly recommended: Abram T. Collier, Management, Men, and Values, (New York: Harper and Row, 1962); and Guth and Tagiuri, "Personal Values and Corporate Strategy," op. cit., pp. 123-132. 94 See, for example: Fromm, Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics, pp. cit.; and Potter, People of Plenty, op. cit. Tu tions, homage censure process “Even Strateg the fi: 41 The MarketingyManagement Concept The philosophy of knowing the relevant market place, its institu- tions, and prOSpective consumers, has come to be known as the marketing (management) concept.95 Its pr0ponents claim that the market place-- consumers--is not only the end, but also the beginning of the economic process. Consumers become the focal point around which the firm, in a competitive environment, organizes its resources and develops policies, strategies, and tactics. In a sense, consumers direct the activities of 523-???9; The authors of a leading text in the field of managerial marketing, succinctly develop this idea as the bonding element of their subject: "While all individual actions taken in the functional areas can be con- sidered within management discretion, it is the market which sanctions a11.the preceding steps prior to the making of a sale. This is to say tflzat the market holds at least veto over the entire system."96 In other Vuards, "...the consumers' dollar vote is ultimately the guiding element 97 it! the ebb and flow of a market system..." 95 For a sampling of the literature on this subject, see the fOllowing: J. B. McKittrick, "What is the Marketing Management Concept?" .flfflgagerial Marketing: Pegapectives and Viewpoints, Rev. Ed., eds. William Lazer and .Eugene J. Kelley, (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Irlch, 1962), pp. 3-13; Anthony E. Cascino, "Organizational Implications 015 the Marketing Concept," ibid., pp. 370-378; Eugene J. Kelley and Wiilliam.Lazar, "Basic Duties of the Modern Sales Department," ibid., PF>- 378-384; and William.Lazer and Eugene J. Kelley, "Editorial Postscript," Q” pp. 679-696. 96 Thomas A. Staudt and Donald A. Taylor, A Managerial Introduction £0 IMarketing, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), P. 7 Eells and Walton, Conceptual Foundations of Business, op. cit., P. 274. greater furor be grating censure: process, Often f; EuEers. 9f value lTCPosec Vaiues } up 71 * ., .'°~S:a.. hp Lhi’c Viv“. Ice D 7*. II 4:5. 42 ' Implementation Requires Knowledge of Consumers' Values Th. __e im.121aierztation-9£.-ghe_ marketing _mana8etnsp.t__9oncept_ healed .to. a ggaagggmawareness of cansumer behavior and the roleofhvalueswinwcon-w fgmggwbchaxigg, In fact, the development of this concept parallels the growing awareness of the importance of values.98 Value systems of consumers are considered to be a significant aspect of the marketing process.99 Cgaagmers' values vary and often conflict with each other. Often the marketer becomes involved in a conflict of values with con- sumers. The mazkeging manager must take into account the dynamic nature pf yalues in the marketplace.100 Knowledge of common value patterns is proposed as a prime prerequisite for adequate market analysis.101 “If, yalues play anfiimportant role in the way people live, and affect their oaaaumption behavior, they should be a weighty variable in market . 102 segmentatrouaw 98 Eugene J. Kelley, "Marketing and Moral Values in an Acquisitive Society," Marketing: A Maturing Discipline, ed. Martin L. Bell, (Chicago: American Marketing Association, December 1960), p. 196. 9 David E. Hertz, "Marketing as a Social Discipline," The Social ,Egfiponsibilities of Marketiag, (ed.), William D. Stevens, (Chicago: American Marketing Association, December, 1961), p. 217. 100 Leon Arons, as quoted by Allen R. Dodd, Jr., "Viewer Attitude: The Vast Unknown," Printers' Ink, Vol. CCLXXXVI (February 28, 1964), p. 38A. 101 Opinion Research Corporation, "America's Tastemakers," The Eagrironment of Marketing Behavior: Selections from the Literature, eds. Robert J. Holloway and Robert S. Hancock, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 52. 102 Robert Mainer and Charles C. Slater, "Markets in Motion," .Eflrvard Business Review, Vol. XLII (March-April, 1964), p. 76; and Daniel Yankelovich, "New Criteria for Market Segmentation," Harvard Business W. Vol. x111 (March-April, 1964), pp. 84-86, 88-89. ”W“..- ___._._r- home: If would Si or model interdi; arena, review. the Opp hiltat 43 Programming Market Values If values and value profiles are as significant as claimed, it would seem reasonable to incorporate values into a systematic framework, or model. A few attempts have been made but they are crude, since interdisciplinary research methods are relatively new to the business arena. A brief review of two of these models concludes out literature review. In one case value systems of the environment are programmed into the operational structure of the firm resulting in a payoff curve which indicates an optimum profit position the firm should strive to reach. A position on either side of the optimum, the embodiment of an insufficient or surplus of values, leads to a decrease in profits.103 In an article with a philosophical orientation, the authors develop a model depicting the integrative aspects of the firm and its environment(s). Through the use of selective criteria and norms a firm can eXplicitly program values into its Operating system.104 In both articles the authors recognize the dynamics of the market place and suggest this aspect, within itself, is sufficient reason to encourage development of these and similar models. The remainder of this dissertation is given to the investigation of ‘Variables that may prove significant in establishing value patterns and hcnw the value patterns affect meanings attached to various marketing behavior . 103 Johnson, "A Behavioral Approach to the Business Enterprise," 02. cit., pp. 1-10. 104 Marple, Neace, and Silverman, "Corporate Ethics and Morality: A Concept," 02, cit., pp. 186-189. (ii/.117 — m CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction This chapter discusses three issues in the development of the research design: 1. the nature of the sample--bases of definition, size, and method of selection; 2. the data collection techniques--selection, description, and development of data collecting instruments, and interviewing procedures; and 3. the methods of analysis--description of the statistical techniques used in testing the hypotheses. Nature of the Sample Three criteria were used to define the universe: (1) geography; (2) interest in marketing activities; and (3) occupation. By limiting tile geographical area to the Lansing, Michigan Standard MetrOpolitan Statistical Area,1 greater cultural homogeneity is assured. The defirression of cultural differences permits greater reliance on other U. S. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Censuses of Population and EEEEEEES: 1960. Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(l)-73, (Washington, D- (3.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1962). 44 & vari bili pers have yrof Stra vita dere hous thit it 3 45 variables as discriminant dimensions, but limits the general applica- bility of the conclusions. Moreover, respondents could be contacted personally, to obtain a higher number of usable responses than might have been possible through the mails. A stratified non-random sample was selected. Interest in career profiles as a discriminant variable led to the selection of a sample stratified by occupation.3 Three subgroups were designated as being vitally interested in market-place activities: business executives, business administration and economic professors, and housewives. The first two as buyer and seller, the third as observer, researcher, writer, and educator, as well as buyer. All have a stake in the marketing process and its outcome. Each stratum was first treated as a simple random sample to determine an adequate size. For two of the strata (professors and housewives) respondents were selected by using random procedures. The third group (business executives) was not selected at random. Rather it was designed to assure a balance of functions performed, size of firm, and position held in firm. 2 During a pretest, questionnaires were mailed to ten businessmen arui ten college business professors throughout the state of Michigan “filich resulted in an unsatisfactory rate of return. 3 Occupational stratifications have proven to be a useful classifi- ciation in previous value studies. See, Gordon W. Allport, Phillip E. \Htrnon, and Gardner Lindzey, Manual, Study of Values, Third Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961), pp. 14, 16.] ——_———————- —— catic 8191 the s / 46 Housewives This subuniverse is composed of housewives with some college edu- cation or its equivalent,4 and was limited to two census tracts5 which are very similar in demographic and environmental conditions.6 Size of the subsample desired was calculated to be 100.7 There were 121 usable questionnaires analyzed. Participants were selected by systematic random sampling. Professors To assure a high degree of homogeneity predicated on institutional quality and personal preparation, this subuniverse consists of all professors holding full time appointments in the College of Business Administration at Michigan State University. The College of Business includes the Department of Economics. 4See discussion on "Data Collection Techniques," p. 51. 5Census tracts selected were EL-39 and EL-4O as designated and (liscussed in U. S. Bureau of Census, U. S. Censuses of Pppulation and jfipusing: 1960. Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-73, op. cit. 6Even though the median school years completed all persons twenty- five years old and older for both census tracts was 16+ (See Ibid., 13. 16), it was recognized that some housewives would not actually have llad exposure to some formal college education. We concluded that since the:two census tracts were areas of high educational levels, and other llighly similar environmental factors, that education by association Ccnnstituted an equivalent of 'some college education.' 7 . . . . Using a 95 per cent confidence limit With a max1mum error of ten Per cent, the sample size was computed to be: n = = (.5) (.5) = 100. ”b (.0025) D‘. contac tine o. of 196. tectec‘ SEVEnt; :- o v a _ ~LEIR: \ at r:- 47 Due to the limited size of the population an attempt was made to contact all College of Business professors residing in the area at the time of data collection, (approximately twelve weeks during the summer of 1964). From a subuniverse of ninety-nine, eighty-four were con- tacted and asked to participate. Sixty-nine usable questionnaires, or seventy per cent, were received and analyzed. Business Executives This subuniverse is composed of members from the Chamber of Commerce and Sales-Marketing Executives, both of Lansing, Michigan. Criteria used for selection were: (1) functional-manufacturing, wholesaling, and retailing; (2) size-large and small, based on number of employees: one hundred being the breaking point; and (3) position-top management and Iniddle management: general manager or above deemed top management, others middle management. The majority of those selected from the Chamber of Commerce were the (operating heads of their firms. Those selected from SME were the major niarketing representatives of their firms in the Lansing area. Sample esize was established at sixty-four. lglterviewing Procedures A team of trained interviewers, called on the selected housewives at: their homes and sought cooperation and explained the purpose of the x 8 Using a 95 per cent confidence limit with a maximum error of 10 per Cent, the sample size was: n . gq = (.8) (.2) = 64 2 (.0025) Conservative results from pretesting indicated that p (proportion of business executives judging marketing activities favorably) was .80 per cEnt. IESEE for c ShO'a'E Slabs // L‘ .. uOuSE PIGfg 48 research.9 Questionnaires were collected, usually, the following day. Professors were contacted by telephone or in person. Specific times for delivery and pick up of the questionnaires were established. Appointments were made with all business executives, with a follow- up letter confirming the appointment. (See Appendix B.) The research instruments were completed during the interview. Summapyiof the Sample Characteristics Below are several tables that summarize sample information. Table 1 shows the total number in the population and each sub-universe, the number contacted, and usable questionnaires received. TABLE 1. UNIVERSE AND SAMPLE TOTALS Universe Total in Sample Size Strata Strata No. Z Housewives 1760 121 7 Professors 99 69 70 Economics 29 19 66 Marketing and Transportation 18 13 72 Accounting and Finance l6 13 81 Management 16 8 50 Services: Business Law, Insurance, Office Administration; and Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Management 20 15 75 Business Executives 746 93 12 Chamber of Commerce 650 86* 13 Sales-Marketing Executives 96 36* 38 Totals 2605 283 11 *The sum of these two figures is greater than 93, due to the fact that: 29 of the interviews were from businessmen who were members of both °rganizations. . Each questionnaire contained a complete set of written instruc- t10118. See Appendix A. umber 1 ancL‘JE ”“4 O (”1' / wt, (1. 1:7 I) n 9—7 {I ’ 49 Tables 2 through 6 provide a summary of the sample showing the number of subjects in each cell based on the variables to be used in the analyses. TABLE 2. SAMPLE STRUCTURE BASED ON OCCUPATION I Number in . Percentage of Occupation .Strata. . Sample Total Housewives 121 43 Homemaker 103 36 Career 18 5 Business Professors 69 24 Economics 19 7 Marketing and Transportation 13 4 Accounting and Finance 14 5 Management 8 3 Services 15 5 Business Executives 93 33 Function Manufacturing 34 12 Wholesaling l7 6 Retailing 20 7 Services 22 8 Size Large (over 100 employees) 50 18 Small (100 or less employees) 43 15 Position Rank of General Sales (Marketing) Manager or above 74 26 Rank less than above 19 7 Total 283 100 TABLE 3. SAMPLE STRUCTURE BASED ON SEX Number in Percentage of Sex Strata Sample Total Male 8 , 157 55 Females 126 45 Tota1_ 283 100 H Cat'nol desist Protes Other Total 50 TABLE 4. SAMPLE STRUCTURE BASED ON RELIGION Number in Percentage of Religious Preference Strata Sample Total Catholic 38 14 . Jewish 12 4 Protestant 216 76 Other ‘ l7 6 Total 283 100 TABLE 5. SAMPLE STRUCTURE BASED ON AGE Number in Percentage of Age Level Strata Sample Total Less than 26 7 2 26-35 36 13 36-45 107 38 46-55 70 25 Greater than 55 63 22 Total 283 100 ¥ (Orr IEqu PIES: 011 u 51 TABLE 6. SAMPLE STRUCTURE BASED ON EDUCATION Number in Percentage of Years of Education Strata Sample Total Less than 13 49 17 13-16 136 98 Greater than 16 98 35 Total 283 100 Data Collection Techniques Factors Affecting Selection of Research Instruments The size of the sample and the many responses required presented a time problem. It was necessary to use instruments that would elicit :responses readily and easily within a convenient time span in light of the information deemed necessary for an effective analysis. Since the research project is designed to determine the degree of correlation between values and meanings, two research instruments were Irequired: one for gathering data on each of these mental processes. 10 The complex and multidimensional nature of values and meanings Prescribes that the instruments also be multidimensional to gather data CH1 the many aspects of each of these phenomena. 10 Florence Kluckhohn states: "Value orientations are complex but dEfinitely patterned (rank-ordered) principles, resulting from the transactional interplay of three analytical distinguishable elements of the evaluative process--the cognitive, the affective, and directive elements--which give order and direction to the everflowing stream of human acts and thoughts as these relate to the solution of 'common human' problems." Florence Rockwood Kluckhohn and Fred L. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations, (Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson and co.’ 1961), Po 4. \ w -———'— __.._ A 9.31 a: sell 52 In summary, the task was to find or develop information gathering devices that meet the following criteria: (1) require minimal time for completion in light of objectives of the project; (2) are structured for easy compliance by respondents; (3) are simple to administer; and (4) are effective in measuring the two complex phenomena of values and . ll meanings. Value Measurement Several methods are available for gathering data about values. For 12 example: content analysis of open-ended value dimension questions; 1 self-anchoring scaling;13 paired comparison scaling; 4 ranking of ‘ 10 (Continued) Osgood comes to a similar conclusion about the concept of meaning: "...human semantic processes are very complex, and that problems of meaning are inextricably confounded with more general problems of human thinking or cognition." Charles E. Osgood, George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning, (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1957), p. 318. Another authority notes that different combinations and strengths of dimensions yield different meanings. Clyde E. NOble, "An Analysis of Meaning," Psychological Review, Vol. LIX (November, 1952), p. 422. 1Pretesting verified the necessity of these criteria. 2William A. Scott, "Empirical Assessment of Values and Ideologies," American Sociological Review, Vol. XXIV (June, 1959), pp. 299-310. 13 ‘ F. P. Kilpatrick and Hadley Cantril, "Self-Anchoring Scaling: A ‘Measure of Individuals' Unique Reality Worlds," Journal of Individual Psyahology, Vol. XVI (November, 1960), pp. 158-173. 14L. L. Thurstone, "The Method of Paired Comparisons for Social Values," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XXI (January- March, 1927), pp. 384-400; , "The Measurement of Values," Psychologiaal Review, Vol. LXI (January, 1954), pp. 47-58; and Louis Guttman, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data," American Sociological Review, Vol. IX (April, 1944), pp. 139-150. aria ana "I {I 53 absolute or infinite values;15 analysis of social protest; differential value inventory,17 rating of value siturations,18 factorial analysis of ratings of paragraph value descriptions,19 observation and analysis,20 and joint choice and ranking of value situations with resulting value profile.21 Examination of these value measurement methods in light of the established criteria led to a selection of the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey, Study of Values. First devised in 1931, this instrument has since been 5William R. Catton, Jr., 'Exploring Techniques for Measuring Human Values," American Sociolagical Review, Vol. XIX (February, 1954), pp. 49-55; and Hornell Hart, "A Reliable Scale of Value Judgments," American Sociological Review, Vol. X (August, 1945), pp. 473-481. 16 Ira De A. Reid, "Social Protest; Cue and Catharsis," Phylon, Vol. XVI (June, 1955), p. 141-147. 17 O. E. Thompson, "High School Students' Values: Emergent or Traditional," California Journal of Educational Research, Vol. XII (May, 1961), pp. 132-144. 18 Roy E. Carter, Jr., "An Experiment in Value Measurement," American Sociological Review, Vol. XXI (April, 1956), pp. 156-163; and Robert Sommer and Lewis M. Killian, "Areas of Value Differences I. A Method for Investigations," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. XXXIX (May, 1954), pp. 227-235. 19 Charles Morris, Marieties of Hogan Values, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956). 20Ethel M. Albert, "The Classification of Values: A Method and Illustration," American Anthropologist, Vol. LVIII (1956), pp. 221-248; and Glenn R. Hawkes, "A Study of the Personal Values of Elementary School Children," Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. XII (Winter, 1952), pp. 654-663. 1 Gordon W. Allport, Philip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lindzey, Manual, Study of Values, 3rd Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960). 54 through two revisions, has been used in a variety of situations, and is generally considered to be both reliable and valid.22 For example, it has been used successfully for counseling;23 vocational guidance;2 and selection.25 As a research instrument, the Study of Values has been used to furnish support or invalidate hypotheses. It has provided clear 26 evidence of group differences between occupational classifications, as 22 Ibid., pp. 13-15; Hadley Cantril and Gordon W. Allport, "Recent Applications of the 'Study of Values,'" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XXVIII (October-December, 1933), pp. 259-273; and Elizabeth Duffy, "A Critical Review of Investigations Employing the Allport-Vernon Study of Values and Other Tests of Evaluative Attitudes," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. XXXVII (October, 1940), pp. 597-612. 23 C. M. Louttit and C. G. Browne, "Psychometric Instruments in Psychological Clinics," Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. XI (January-February, 1947), pp. 49-54; and Julian C. Stanley, "Insights Into One's Own Values," Journal of Educational Psyahology, Vol. XLII (November, 1951), pp. 399-408. 24Harold C. Seashore, "Validation of the 'Study of Values' for Two Vocational Groups at the College Level," Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. VII (Winter, 1947), pp. 757-763; and Joseph Gilbert, "Vocational Archetypes: A Proposal for Clinical Integration of Interest and Values in Vocational Counseling and Selection," Payphological Reports, Vol. XIII (October, 1963), pp. 351-356. 25 Ibid.; and E. Lowell Kelly and Donald W. Fiske, "The Prediction of Success in the V. A. Training Program in Clinical Psychology," .American Psychologist, Vol. V (August, 1950), pp. 395-406. 26 John F. Kinnane and Joseph R. Gaubinger, "Life Values and Work ‘Values," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. X (Winter, 1963), IHP- 362-372; and Allport, Vernon, and Lindzey, Manua1,iStudy of 'Values, op. cit., pp. 14-16. basic Value andi PM ‘1 'I' i. 13?. I "AC 7:. Chef ’6 (I) a 4., A -— "U ‘/H <1 .‘1 l'_. (1?- ff) 2... 55 29 well as religious,27 nationality,28 and social typologies. It has also found favor with researchers attempting to determine changes in 30 value profiles over periods of time. Another use of the Study of Values has been to determine more basic and underlying values through research showing the relation of . . . 31 value orientation and perceptual select1V1ty, and the comparison of 27Bernard Pyron, "Belief Q-sort, Allport-Vernon Study of Values and Religion," Psychological Reports, Vol. VIII (June, 1961), pp. 399-400; and Dorothy Tilden Spoerl, "The Values of the Post-War College Student," Journal of Social Paychology, Vol. XXXV (May, 1952), pp. 217-225. 28 Paras Nath Snigh, Sophia Chang Huang, and George C. Thompson, "A Comparative Study of Selected Attitudes, Values, and Personality Characteristics of American, Chinese, and Indian Students," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. LVII (June, 1962), pp. 123-132. 9 Waltraud M. Kassarjian and Harold H. Kassarjian, "Occupational Interests, Social Values and Social Character," Journal of Consulting Psydhology, Vol. XII (Spring, 1965), pp. 48-54. 30 Sproel, "The Values of the Post-War College Student," op. cit.; Paul L. Whitely, 'The Constancy of Personal Values," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XXXIII (July, 1938), pp. 405-408; Irving E. Bender, "Changing Patterns of Religious Interest," Humanist, Vol. XVIII (May-June, 1958), pp. 139-144; and E. Lowell Kelly, "Consistency of the Adult Personality," American Psychologist, Vol. X (NOvember, 1955), pp. 659-681. 31 Leo Postman, Jerome S. Bruner, and Elliott McGinnies, "Personal Values as Selective Factors in Perception," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XLIII (April, 1948), pp. 142-154; W. A. Bousfield and Gloria Samborski, "The Relationship Between Strength of Values and the Meaningfulness of Value Words," Journal of Personality Vol. XXIII (March, 1955), pp. 375-380; Donald R. Brown and Joe Adams, "Word Frequency and the Measurement of Value Areas," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XLIX (July, 1954), pp. 427-430; and Elliott McGinnies, "Personal Values as Determinants of Word Association," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XLV (January, 1950), pp. 28-36. 56 32 values with other attitude and interest scales. The Study of Values ranks six value dimensions: theoretical, eco- nomic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious. Answers (choices) are required to forty questions, so the procedure is fairly rapid (approximately twenty minutes), and straightforward. The study is objective, self-administering, and self-scoring. The Study of Values has been criticized from several points of view. One authority believes the use of relative scales reduces every- one's profile to the same mean level and should be supplemented by normative scales.33 Another claims the instrument measures only a limited number of value orientations and does not require a moral evaluation, but simply selection among them.34 Some charge that the Study of Values confuses two psychological dimensions which can be 35 separated: interest and value. Investigators have complained that 32 Kinnane and Gaubinger, "Life Values and Work Values," op. cit.; Gilbert, "Vocational Archetypes: A Proposal for Clinical Integration of Interest and values in Vocational Counseling and Selection," op. cit.; Kemper W. McCue, et al., 'Rorschach Variables in Two 'Study of Values' Types," Journal of General Psychology, Vol. LXVIII (January, 1963), pp. 169-172; Elizabeth Duffy and William J. E. Crissy, "Evaluative ,Attitudes as Related to Vocational Interests and Academic Achievement," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. XXXV (April, 1940), pp. 226-245; and I. Iscoe and O. Lucier, "A Comparison of the Revised Allport-Vernon Study of Values (1951) and the Kuder Preference Record (Personal)," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. XXXVII (June, 1953), pp. 195-196. 33Lloyd G. Humphreys, "Characteristics of Type Concepts with Special IReference to Sheldon's Typology," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. LVII (May, 1957), pp. 218-228. 4 Scott, "Empirical Assessment of Values and Ideologies," op. cit., p. 301. 35Joe Adams and Donald R. Brown, "Values, Word Frequencies, and IPerception," Psychological Record, Vol. LX (January, 1953), pp. 50-54. C2,: “fl- 5.» um“ SEE are DE! C CO? . .z.‘ I A: 1 \ml‘ red 0 be P I~u Fig Ql§ 57 the vocabulary level of the instrument is too high and have suggested simplified versions. In spite of these criticisms evidence indicates the Study of Values is an effective instrument. After reviewing the literature, N. L. Gage concludes, "...the test is already very good. Maybe that is why we cannot help wanting it to be even better." Meaning Measurement It was not until the publication of Osgood's source book on the semantic differential38 that objective research of meaning became an area of serious consideration by researchers. Osgood surveyed existing techniques from several aspects (physiological, learning methods, perception methods, association methods, and scaling methods), and concluded they were inadequate when weighed against the usual criteria of objectivity, reliability, validity, sensitivity, comparability, and utility.39 36Joseph E. Shorr, "The Development of a Test to Measure the Intensity of Values," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. LXIV (May, 1953), pp. 266-274; and Jerome Levy, "Readability Level and Differential Test Performance: A Language Revision of the Study of Values," Journal _9i Educational Psyahology, Vol. XLIX (February, 1958), pp. 6-12. 37 N. L. Gage, 'Study of Values: A Scale for Measuring the Dominant Interests in Personality," Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook, Revised Edition, ed. Oscar Krisen Buros, (Highland Park, N. J.: Gryphon Press, 1959), p. 202. 38 Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meanipg, op. cit. 39Charles E. Osgood, "The Nature and Measurement of Meaning," wological Bulletin, Vol. LXIX (May, 1952), pp. 206-222, 232. The tEChniques examined by Osgood were generally found to be inadequate in Validity and comparability. vas d activ Which DOIE Vari ire; 59m 58 Because of Osgood's findings, and criteria established earlier, it was decided to develop semantic differentials for each of the marketing activities to be investigated.40 Essentially, the semantic differential is a combination of controlled association and scaling procedures. The subject is provided concepts to be differentiated and a set of bipolar scales to indicate his association and intensity. Characteristically, it is mmch like the Study of Values. It is objective, straightforward, unambiguous, and self-administered. However, the semantic differential measures connotative meanings-- which are evaluative in nature; and it tends to disguise its purpose more effectively than the usual attitude questionnaire. Since its inception the semantic differential has been used for various purposes. Market researchers use it in determining brand , 42 , 43 , 44 image, corporate image, and consumer attitudes and preferences. See Appendix A for a copy of the questionnaire including the semantic differentials. Edgar Crane, Marketing Communications: A Behavioral Approach to Man, Messages, and Media, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. 582. 2WilliamD. Barclay, "The Semantic Differential as an Index of Brand Attitude," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. IV (March, 1964), PP. 30-33; and William.A. Mindak, "Fitting the Semantic Differential to the Marketing Problem," Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXV (April, 1961), PP. 28-33. 3 William T. Tucker, “How Much of the Corporate Image Is Stereo- tyPefl" Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXV (January, 1961), pp. 61-64; John F5 ZBolger, Jr., "How to Evaluate Your Company Image," Journal of Marketing, Vol. XXIV (October, 1959), pp. 7-10; and Theodore Clevenger, -lr., Gilbert A. Lazier, and Margaret Leitner Clark, "Measurement of Corporate Images by the Semantic Differential," Journal of Marketing Research, Vbl. 11 (February, 1965), pp. 80-82. 4 Paul M. Kjeldergaard, "Attitudes Toward Newscasters as Measured by the Semantic Differential," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. XLV 3'7? 59 It has been effective in comparing various groupings of people. There has also been an increasing use of the semantic differential in experimental research. The major points of criticism of the semantic differential are: (l) the semantic differential is an incomplete measure,47 and (2) the 48 developmental stage of the instrument is overly complicated. It is 44 (Continued) (February, 1961, pp. 35-40; Arnold M. Barban and Edward W. Cundiff, "Negro and White Response to Advertising Stimuli," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. I (NOvember, 1964), pp. 53-56; J. 0. Eastlack, Jr., "Consumer Flavor Preference Factors in Food Product Design," Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. I (February, 1964),;p.38-42. 45H. J. Hallworth and G. Waite, "A Factorial Study of Value Judg- ments Among Adolescent Girls," British Journal of Statistical Psychology, Vol. XVI (May, 1963), pp. 37-46; Howard E. Maltz, "Ontogenetic Change in the Meaning of Concepts as Measured by the Semantic Differential," Child Development, Vol. XXXIV (September, 1963), pp. 667-674; Yasumasa Tanaka, Tadasu Oyama, and Charles E. Osgood, "A Cross-Culture and Cross- Concept Study of the Generality of Semantic Spaces," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, Vol. II (December, 1963), pp. 392-405; A. Barclay and Frederick J. Thumin, "A MOdified Semantic Differential Approach to Attitudinal Assessment," Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. XIX (July, 1963), pp. 376-378; and Howard Maclay and Edward E. Ware, "Cross-Cultural Use of the Semantic Differential," Behavioral Science, VOl. VI (July, 1961), pp. 185-190. 6Howard R. Pollio, "Word Association as a Function of Conditioned Meaning," Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. LXVI (November, 1963), pp. 454-460; Samuel J. Messick, "Metric Properties of the Semantic Differential," Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. XVII (Summer, 1957), pp. 200-206; Austin E. Grigg, "A Validity Study of the Semantic Differential Technique," Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. XV (April, 1959), pp. 179-181; Robert D. Singer, "A Note on the Use of the Semantic Differential as a Predictive Device in Milieu Therapy,“ Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. XVII (October, 1961), pp. 376-378; James E. Brinton, "Deriving An Attitude Scale from Semantic Differential Data," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XXV (Summer, 1961), pp. 289-295; and Martin Fishbein and Bertram H. Raven, "The AB Scales - An Operational Definition of Belief and Attitude," Human Relations, Vol. XV (February, 1962), pp. 35-44. 47John H. Flavell, "Meaning and Meaning Similarity: I. A Theoreti- cal Assessment," Journal of General Psychology, Vol. LXIV (April, 1961), pp. 307-319; and Arthur W. Staats, et al., "Independent Manipulation of Meaning and (m)," Journal of General Psychology, Vol. LXIX (October, 1963), pp. 253-260. 48Jack Block, "An Unprofitable Application of the Semantic Differ- ential," Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. XXII (1958), pp. 235-236. 111‘; an CO I'l‘llllll! L (U 60 unrealistic to seek perfect scales in the real world,49 and the success and character of the semantic differential has attested to its validity, comparability, and practical usefulness.SO Development of the particular semantic differentials was a three step process: (1) selection of the concepts--marketing activities--to be investigated; (2) the formulation of bipolar stimuli; and (3) the physical construction of the instrument. Selection of concepts to be measured was guided by the amount of controversy various marketing activities seem to generate. The selection was determined by reviewing literature pertaining to marketing activities, interviewing experts, and talking with housewives. Some thirty marketing activities were considered before the final list of sixteen concepts was developed. It includes: 1. advertising of consumer goods and services, 2. guarantee and waranty of consumer products and services, 3. new products and services, 4. newspaper advertisements, 5. personal salesmanship, 6. premiums, 7. A.M. radio commercials, 8. nationally branded products and services, 9 Guttman, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data," American Sociological Review, op. cit., p. 150. 50A recent study designed to discredit the validity of the semantic differential as a research instrument failed. John Ross, "Change in the Use of the Semantic Differential with a Change in Context," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, Vol. IV (April, 1965), pp. 148- 151. CI‘ t1) rn 61 9. packaging and labeling, 10. magazine advertisements, 11. regular model changes of consumer products, 12. locally branded products and services, 13. television commercials, 14. service and repair of consumer products 15. credit purchases, and 16. F.M. radio commercials. Effectiveness of the semantic differential lies in the selection of bipolar terms used to measure the concepts under investigation. The objective in selecting bipolar terms was to include all meaningful dimensions of judgment as revealed in research reports on attitudes toward marketing activities, reports of Congressional hearings, and personal interviews with experts and representative members of the universe to be sampled. Where appropriate, similar scales were used on different concepts to permit comparative analysis. The final result was a range of five to nine scales for the sixteen concepts to be measured. (See Appendix A.) Physical development of the instrument entailed consideration of several factors. First, to avoid confusion and eliminate the hazard of respondents shifting and comparing judgments from one concept to the next, each concept with its bipolar scales was placed on a separate page. Second, selected scales were alternated in polarity direction to prevent formation of position preference. Third, seven-step scales were chosen 51 bacause previous research and pretesting indicated this number of 51 P- 85. Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning, op. cit., in: tee in: :1: tr‘. 9: I.“ WU ~ \I“! 62 intensity alternatives tends to be used frequently. Descriptors (slightly, quite, and extremely) were used for clarity. Although pre- tests with and without descriptors were inconclusive, follow-up interviews indicated a preference for them because of faster reaction time. One-sentence descriptions of the concepts to be evaluated were added because early pretesting indicated some difficulty in compre- hension. Follow-up pretests indicated little or no confusion of these concepts. Accompanying the semantic differential was a brief letter describing the project, a stub data sheet, and a page of directions. There were three pretests, with improvements and modifications after each, before a final form.was developed.53 52 Research on this subject is inconclusive. [See, Roger B. Allison, Jr., "Using Adverbs as Multipliers in Semantic Differentials," Journal of Psychology, Vol. LVI (July, 1963), pp. 115-ll7{] 3Although there appears to be no practical way to measure relia- bility and validity errors, [James H. Lorie and Harry V. Roberts, Basic IMethods of Marketing Research, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1951), p. 2041 an attempt was made. In a sample of twenty, consisting of housewives, professors, and newsmen, and With the use of a split-half reliability formula KZX;2xfl ’ calculations were made on replies to thirteen concepts. Results showed ‘just 7 cells falling below .50, whereas there were 56 cells with perfect scores (1.00). Fifty per cent of the 260 cells had scores of .90 or nuxre. This results indicates a high degree of ability to reproduce similar responses when these concepts are measured again. Osgood's :reliability test also indicated similar results. [Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning, op. cit., pp. 126-140. Validity was estimated by use of follow-up interviews with selected persons in the population, and by comparison of pretest results ‘With some external factors. There was some confusion as to concept identification; but this was remedied as discussed above. The pretest results were compared with certain external facts considered to be valid. WI: .1 It. CI IE 63 Method of Analysis Profiles of values and meanings attached to marketing activities were constructed using the following variables: Occupation, age, sex, religion, and education. Comparisons were made among them. The statistical tools used for this analysis are tests of significance of 54 difference at the 5 per cent level. The second part of the analysis required a correlation analysis between value scores and meaning scores using the same variables as above. 55 Computation was accomplished through the use of a computer. 53 (Continued) For example, professors were believed to be more critical of marketing activities than business executives. Pretest results confirmed this opinion. 54 See Appendix B for a discussion of the statistical tools used in the analysis. 55 For a write-up of the computer program see Appendix C. 8CC( is «N. is CE] CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS Introduction The empirical findings of the study are presented and analyzed in three sections. In the first section value profiles are analyzed according to five demographic variables. They are: occupation, sex, education, religion, and age. The variables are then subdivided into aseveral categories. Tests of significance and dominant value analysis axre used to make inter-group comparisons on both a quantitative and qualitative basis. Relationships among values and meaning attached to market-place activities are examined in the second section. The method of analysis is the determination of simple correlation. In the third section, the relationship between meanings attached to marluet-place activities and the economic value dimension is examined. This is accomplished by determining whether the category within each demographic variable with the highest economic value dimension score also rates market-place activities more favorably than the other categories. 64 V, I0 r1 r) 65 Value Profile Analysis The purpose of this section is to determine: 1. which demographic variable has the most contrasting value profiles among its categories; 2. the qualitative relationships among the value profiles of the different categories within each demographic variable; and 3. the behavior patterns of the different categories within each demographic variable. To conduct the value profile investigation, t-tests and dominant orientation analyses are made. The analysis is presented by demographic variables beginning with occupation, then sex, education, religion, and age. _Qgcupation Occupation is an effective value discriminator; better than any of tflie other demographic variables except sex. Table 7 indicates that a uuajority of the value dimension mean comparisons are significantly dif- fEErent when categorized by occupation. Therefore, stratification of the Sample along occupational lines results in contrasting value profiles. Business executives differ significantly from professors on five of the: six value dimensions. They differ on the theoretical, economic, aesthetic, political, and religion value dimensions, but not on the Social. If values play a vital role in determining behavior, then these tW0 groups will probably react differently to the same stimulus. Results are similar when business executives and housewives are ComPared. Five of the six value dimension means are significantly 66 .m Naoaoam< scum oo>auon§ ouaooqmdou mo Ho>oa odouuom mm u<¥ x _& x) \. | \i mo>HBomaom a> «Hammowoum I. mo>a3omoom w> .3 .3 \i .x .5 mo>Huaooxm mmoawmsm muommm on ob \. \. \I \ \ \ m m mo>auaooxm moocamam seawaamm Hmoauaaom Hoauom oauosummd uaaocoom Hmoauouoona muoamaoaan oon> maoaudmsooo mo conflumgaou mmmoom l‘ 4mmHmooma ozoz hmfiv nvZH¥2§ on HL‘~M~<'N. 67 n,xaocoam< scum oo>auon¥ m a m H m coamaaox HoUHuHHom Hoauom oauonumod oaaoaoom Houaumuoona m0>a30maom muommomoum mo>Hu=uoxm muocamam dowuomsooo an waaxamm coamaoaan onHo> «zSSBuoo 5 $052sz 5.55 no oz§2§ .m Ema. 68 TABLE 9. RANGE OF VALUE DIMENSION MEANS BY OCCUPATION* Mean Score of Occupation Categories Value Dimension Business Executive Professér Housewife 50- Economic 49- 48' 47' 46- Theoretical 45' 44- 43' Political Religious 42' Political Aesthetic Economic 41' Aesthetic 40 ......... zheose21eaa _ - _ - - --- - _ _ _ _ 4 - - _ - as R““““ saasal 38' Social 37- Political 36' Religious _ Social 35 Social Aesthetic 31' 30' 29' 28‘ 27' 26' ‘ ‘*Derived from Appendix D. diii impl E165! fro: Rea: proi marl. Di 69 different; the exception is the theoretical value dimension. This implies that these two categories would probably attach different meanings on the same stimulus. Value profiles of business professors are significantly different from housewives on four of the six dimensions. Economic and aesthetic value dimension mean comparisons are not significantly different. Reactions to value issues by business professors and housewives would probably be different, but of lesser magnitude than the two previous cases. If values play an important role in determining the meanings of market-place activities then wide variation would be eXpected among the different occupational strata. Table 8 discloses that business execu- tives and business professors rank value dimensions in a similar order of importance.1 Both rank economic, political, and theoretical values higher than they do religion, social, and aesthetic values. Value differences are much more pronounced when business executives and business professors are each compared with housewives. Unlike busi- ness executives and business professors, housewives consider religion and aesthetic values to be relatively more important than theoretical and political values (Table 8). These occupational value differences may be the source of difficulty often encountered in the performance of market- place activities. To get a better picture of probable behavior patterns (mental and physical), analysis was also made of dominant value orientations. 1This table is set up so that the value dimension with the highest Inean score in each category is ranked number one, and the value dimen- sion with the lowest mean score is ranked sixth. This will apply to the other value ranking tables when analysis is made of the other demographic variables. 70 Table 9 shows the range of value dimension means and cluster patterns. For example, it shows which value dimensions are dominant (rated high) and which are subordinate (rated low) to other value dimensions in each category, allowing comparisons to be made within each variable. As might have been expected, business executives have a very domi- nant economic value orientation. There is some clustering of the political, economic, and religion values at mid-range, and a very sub- ordinate social and aesthetic value dimension. Not surprisingly, business professors have a moderately dominant theoretical value orien- tation. Political, economic, and aesthetic value dimensions of professors are tightly bunched in the mid-range area, while the religion and social dimensions are moderately subordinate. Housewives show a rather narrow range of value dimension means (7 points). The result is a value profile in which the value dimensions are largely undifferentiated from each other. Projecting these profiles to behavior patterns one would find ‘business executives strongly oriented toward the practical affairs of the «every-day business world. Professors would exhibit behavior oriented toward the discovery of truth and knowledge. Housewives would tend to Seek beauty and unity in their behavior, but at the same time consider sill six value dimensions more equally in the evaluative process than do Professors and especially business executives. Different value dimension mean ranges (19 points vs 11 points) and unlike dominant value orientations between business executives and pro- f‘93801'8 tends to support the differences noted during the t-test analysis. A‘majcar value clash is observed once again between the business executive 71 and housewife. Business executives have a wide range of value dimension means (19 points) relative to housewives (7 points). Whereas business executives have a dominant economic value orientation, housewives have no dominant value orientation and tend to use all six value dimensions more or less equally. ‘ng The value dimension means of males and females are significantly different on each of the six value dimensions (Table 10). Stratification by sex results in all of the comparisons being significantly different. Stratification by sex results in value profiles with a greater contrast between the categories than when any of the other demographic variables are used. Table 11 illustrates that males and females rank the value dimen- sions in completely different orders of importance. Males regard economic, theoretical, and political values relatively high, while women place more importance on religion, aesthetic, and social values. Support for the contrasting value profile is found in Table 12. The range of value dimension means indicates that males have a dominant economic orientation and subordinate aesthetic and social value dimensions. Males have a moderate range of value dimension means (11+ POints). Conversely, the female profile shows a limited dominant religion k The contrasting ranking of value dimensions found here typifies the differences of the sexes in western society. Females are normally regarded as naturally non-aggressive and passive; the male as naturally aEgresive and active. Gertrude Jaeger Selznik, in collaboration with Leonard Broom and Philip Selznik, "Socialization," Sociology, Second Edition, (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, and Co., 1958), p. 1L4J 72 .m xfioaomm< Baum vo>auon* .oodoofiwaoo mo Ho>oH unwouoa mm u<« oaoaom \, \, \, \, \, \x m5 33: acawaflom Hoowuaaom Hoaoom oauonumo< uafiofloum Houauouoonfi moxom oau uaoamaoaan oDHm> mo nomauomaoo exam S mmmoom 520mm @292 immozmmmmbn EuEquHm .3 Baa. 73 TABLE 11. RANKING OF VALUE DIMENSIONS BY SEX# Ranking by Sex value Dimension Male Female Theoretical 2 4 Economic 1 3 Aesthetic 5 2 Social 6 5 Political 3 6 Religion 4 1 #Derived from Appendix D. 74 TABLE 12. RANGE OF VALUE DIMENSION MEANS BY SEX# Mean Score of Sex Categories Value Dimension Male Female 50 ' 49 ' 48 - 47 ' 46 ' 45 ' Economic 44 - Religious 43 _ Theoretical Political 42 - Aesthetic 41 ‘ 40 -------------------------------- _ Economic 39 Theoretical Social 38 ' Religion Political 37 ' 36 ‘ 35 ' 34 - 232:2?“ 33 ' 32 ‘ 31 ' 30 ' 29 ' 28 ‘ 27 ' 26 ' ‘- #Derived from Appendix D. 75 and aesthetic value orientation with the remaining value dimensions clustered just below midpoint on the scale. The female value profile, being very similar to the housewife value profile,3 is not differentiated and has a narrow range of value means (7 points). Males might be expected to exhibit behavior patterns oriented toward the practical aSpects of the real world, and to some degree a search for truth and power. Females, by contrast, might be expected to exhibit behavior slightly oriented toward unity and beauty, but using all value dimensions more equally than males. From the above analysis it can be concluded that segmentation by sex is an effective method of stratification. The contrasting value profiles, between males and females suggest the possibility of significantly different behavior patterns. Egiucation Stratification of the sample by educational level shows much less overall discrimination among the value profiles than was the case with true two previous demographic variables (Table 13). Only forty-four Percent of the value dimension mean comparisons are significantly diiiferent. Therefore, education is not a very effective variable for determining contrasting value profiles. There is no significant difference between the value dimension means 0f tfiie two lower educational groups over the entire six value array. 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Imom.- ooooeuuoo omoouo mom. omo.I moo.I mmo.I omm. «mom.I ouuooouo Hoaooooo mo umooum o oom>uom mmm. moo. mmo.I «mmm.. «mmm. mmm.. omomuuoaaoo Bamom>omom omo. moo. mom.I ooo.I «mom. «mom.I oouooouo oooaoum mooouoo Room. mmo. mmo.I «mmm.I Immm. sooH.I nauseoum moaooooo mo someone moooz Awesome ammm. moo. «com? :3? .33. Sam .I mucosoo 3.554. onmmwwmz Iomm. moo. mmo.I imom.I Immm. Iomm.I oumoooom oeu mamwoxoom Iomm. omm.- somm.I mmo.I mom. «mom.I mooooouo ouogouo smoocomooz Iomm. ooo. moo. «mmm.I omm. oom.I omumuuoaaoo omoom :4 Immm. mmo.I moo.I «mom.- mom. mom.- oasmaooo mom. omo.I mmo. mmo.I omo. Iomm.I omooauaoomom moooouom swam. aNmH.I moo.I OHH.I «ma. RHmH.I modufiduauuo>o¢ homommsoz mom. moo.I omo.I mom.I «mmm. mmm.I Boomsuom ouo oouaoouo zoz omo. ooo. mom.I moo.I mmm. mmo.I noooo umaaoaoo mo monsoon; o oooaouooo Imom. moo. mom.I iomm.I Imom. Iomm.I noom>uom o uoooo uoasuaoo o6 momomouopoo acmwmfiom Hoomumaom Homoom omuonuno< omaoaoum Hdomuouoony udOdnflflaflQ 03Hd> mum>mu0< ooonIuoxumz mozHZIodz 924 «205229 and; no mazmHonmmoo ZOHaijmoo mquzwh "Mum I mMHHH>HHU< MU¢AMIHMMm¢Z mo .mu mqmaa 100 .oomaouv soon 25: 2me 3:56 23 953.3555 mo mononunm monk .mm .mm .om 33a scum 3339. I H I I I I H H on. uo>o 3 mu m m w m mm .mm on. um>o on mm on mm m.” mm mm om on. I N. mm am mm mm mm «N on mm on. I 3. mm mom on an 3. we on mu 3. I o “"J o R on I I «as» we :30 em menu one! em I ma ma noon name . nomuonmuuamn amouoH muooououm demand—ova mo undo» fiZOHHdUDQM I mMHHH>HHU< Banal—“HMS mo moon—Hg g mZCHszAHA uni.» zumzaum mHZMHOEMOO zohgqgoo .mc ZOHHDmHMHmHn 625553 .3 mama 101 .Anosfiu>Iu Row M xauaomm< ommv ooduvumuou mo Hm>oH uduouom no ogu um uduuwmaaw«m# mqfl. amo. Noo.- mqo. one. Io~m.- mflmfioumaaoo oflvmm 2m moo.- mom. mmH.- me.- «ca. Hmo.- mmmuaOHsm “Humuo coo. mmo. wNH.- mmo.- ¢oo. qu. muusuoum “magmaoo mo “Hammm a mua>uom mwo. *mhm. mmu.- mNN.- «KN. ¢m~.- mflmfiouaaaoo nogmfi>ofime NaH. mmo. moH.- ouo.- HBO. mmN.- muuauoum umuamum mfifimooq ooH. Imam. HQH.- *Non.- omH. mHH.- muonuoum “magmaoo mo newsman Hove: “magma“ m¢o.- Imam. I¢H¢.- o-.- Iwfiq. mNH.- muamammfiuuu>u¢ Inflammuz omo. Nqfi. I¢m~.- mHo.- NNH. ~o~.- mafifiapwq as» mafimwxumm mom. *wnu. Imnm.- *Hom.- Iqu. qu.- mausuoum uuuamnm %HHmaoHuuz now. aou. «NH.- In¢m.- mom. aOH.- mflmfioumaaoo ofiumm z< oNH. Noo.- ONH.- ”Ho.- h¢fi. qu.- masflaaum ”Ho.- me. moo.- «Nmm.- «mam. mmo.- magmauamuHmm Huaomumm mNH. “NH. «50.- wmo.- m¢H. w-.- muaoaamfiuuo>w< “mammmsmz omH. oqfi. QJH.- NNH.- 5¢H. «0H.- m0oa>uom uuw mugsuoum auz «mN. HNH. *wh~.- oao.- ano. mmH.- nuoou uuasmaoo mo %uawuuuz a ouuauuuso omo. IROn. o~n.- Imam.- Imflm. H¢H.- noofi>uam ¢ muooo Mosunuoo mo wafimfluuu>u< GOHwHHUM HdUHUHHom Hdfioom UHuufiun0< UHEO—uoug HHUHUUHOOFH maoamnoSHQ u=Hu> mufi>auu< oosHqummez mUZHz ho wHZMHUHhhuoc ZOHH¢AMMMOU MH zHHU< MUdAmIHMMMIu now h Navaomm< ommv «camvmmaoo mo Ho>mH udmouoa mm man an uamommaawwmI HIH.- Iomm. mmm.- Imom.- Iomm. omo. umumuuoaaoo omumm 2m Hmo.- moo. Immm.- «mo.- Imem. Hmo.- Immanuusm umumuo mqo.- mmo.- omo. nmm.- Inmm. mmo.- mausuoum uoaumaoo mo ummmum w mum>umm amo.- Imam. mmm.- Imm¢.- Ionq. mmo. umumouoaaoo coamm>mmaa mmo.- mmo. mom.- mmo. mom. mmo.- muuauoum umugaum mmmaoom omo. Imom. Inmm.- Iomn.- Inna. moo. auusuoum “masmaoo mo ummaunu move: ummswmm mqo. QIH. Inmm.- ImmH.- Immm. mqo.- auaoaoumuum>u< mamuumm: mmo. mmo.- «mo. Iomm.I Imam. mmo.- mammonwg can mammmxumm Imo. awe. Imom.- mqm.- Inqm. one. muoavoum umuauum mmmmaomuwz moo. Imom. omm.- Immn.- Ionm. «no. ”Humouuaaoo omumm z< mmo.- mqo. moo.- Iq¢m.- Ionm. mam. naamamum occuo oqo. omm.- mmm.- Imam. moo. mmnuawauumum muaomumm moo. ooo.- IIH.- mmm.- Immm. omo. nuaoammfiuuo>u< “mauamsmz mmo.- moo. Imam.- Imom.- Iqom. mmo. mmu«>ucm can muuauoum smz HIH.- ans. nqc.- mmo.- Imam. mac. muoou “masmaou mo huauuumz a mouauuusu amo.- Imam. Immm.- Imam.- ImmI. «Ho. noom>umm I muooo “masauoo mo mamamuum>u< aoawaamm HmuauwHom Huwuom uauufiuuud ufiaouoom Hdoauuuooga mum>muu< moumqumxuuz naowmflmamn oaau> mquz ho mHZMHUHhhmoo ZOHadqmmmoo manna “ZOHHH904 MUdAMIHMMMdZ ho .Hm mqmIu now m Kawaomm< mmmv muamvamuou mo Hm>mH unmoumm m¢ onu um udduamaawamfi *oou. INoN. Hmo.I #m¢m.I oqfi. Ian.I mfiumuumaaoo omvmm 2m moo. omo. omo.- ooo.- mmo. ooo.- mummnuunm umomuo omo. omm. mmo. moo.- moo.- mmm.- uuooooum “masmaoo mo “momma o mom>umm Ioom. ooo. Iomm.- Immm.- Ioom. Iomo.- mmumuumaaoo nomom>mmmm mom. moo.- omo.- mmo.- moo. nmm.- muosooum omoaauo ammouoq oom. omm. oom.- Iooo.- Ioom. omm.- uuoaooum uoasoaoo mo mowaaao muons uamsmmm Imom. moo. oom.- Iomo.- Iomm. Ioom.- ouuuaumouum>o< acmuaqu Immm. mmo. mom. Imom.- mom. Immo.- mammuouq van mammaxoam mmm. mmm. mmo.- oom.- oom. Iomm.- ouuoooum oooauum ommmaomumz Ioom. moo.- Imom.- omm.- oom. Ioom.- omumouaaaoo among :4 omm. mmo. oom.- omm.- moo. moo.- masmamum oom. mmo. mmo.- omm.- mom. Ioom.- omnuaqammmmo Huaomumm mom. moo.- Inmm.- omm.- mom. moo.- uuaoaonmuuu>o< “monomzmz Hmo. oom. oom.- Imom.- «mm. moo.- amum>umm van unannoum 3oz «mm. moo. mmo. ooo.- nom.- mom.- moooo “masoaoo mo muauuuuz o muuauumoo Iona. moo. Immm.I Ioon.- Ioom. Ioom.- noompumm o «coco “masoaoo mo mammmuua>o< flowwflHOM HwOfiuHHom Hdfiuom Ofiuwfiumw¢ OfiEOQOOfl HQUHHMHomFH afloamawaan 05Hn> mum>auo< ouuHquuxuuz .0H zHHU< mo mo mquHlohmoo ZOHHun momma maaaa «nu maHuHuuaaum mo monomunm HomI .mm .mm .mm .«m moHndH Scum vo>HHon§ 105 0 mm I I l I NN HN H H on . Hm>o 5N NoH mm on w . w o¢ m6 «H MH on. HO>O mH Mn wH NH mH NH 0H mH mN #N on. I HN. RN noH 0N mN 5N ON NH OH mm mm ON. I HH. 5N {OH mH wH 5% m¢ HN ON NN HN OH. I o x .o: N .o: N .o: R .0d R .0: .Il «m.u mo mmoHo HUMOR. Hflfiuo UHHNUDOUOHW 3”.” UHHOHUQU HHOHUDQflHUQHQ monouomoum macawHHom moaosvoum fionoHHuM I mMHHH>HHU< MU ZHM3HMm MHZMHUHMMHOU ZOthHmmmoo ho ZOHHDMHmHMHn NUZHDOMMM .mm MAde 106 .AuoaHm>Iu How m wanomm< oomv ooaovadou mo Ho>oH unmouom no onu no uddUHmaames omm. mom. ooo. Iomn.- Immo. oom.- mmumoumaaoo cacao 2m mom. mmm.- omm.- mom. Iomo. oom.- amounuuom umomuo mom. oom.- oom. moo.- ooo. Iomn.- nousooum “magmaoo mo Manama a moa>umo moo.- mmm. mmm.. mom.- Iona. omm.- mauaouuaaoo aommm>mmma mmm.- omo.- mmm.- «mm. mom. ooo.- nauseoum newsman somaooo omm. omm. mom.- mmm.- ooH. HHm.- muonooum uoasoaoo mo someone moon: uumsmmm mmo. mam. omm.- omm.I Imoo. omm.- gunmaaamuum>o< mamuammz ooo. oom.- oom.- mam. ohm. oom.- mammunuo can mamwaxoum mom. moo.- mom.- moo.I mom. onm.- muusooum omoaaum smmuaomuuz mmo. mmm. omo.- omo.- omm. oom.- mauauuoaaoo among :4 mmm. mom.- ooa. ooo.- omo. nmo.- uaomamuo omm. nmo.- nom.- oom. «om. mam.- omnmauamomuo Huaomumm Iooo. moo.- mom.-- mom. mom. omm.- uuamammmuum>o< “momonsmz ooo.- mmm. mom.- ooo. mom. ooo.- maum>umm ecu monsooum soz mom.- oom.I mHH.I Iomo. mam. oom.- uoooo “manuaoo mo ouauuumz a uuuamumso oom. mom. oam.- Imom.- Iomo. Immo.- muum>uum o moooo “masanoo mo mammmuuupoa :OHwHHoM HouHuHHom HmHoom UHuosumo< uaaoaoum HonuouoonH sua>muuaoouuHquuxumz anoamaoaHn oaHo> UHHOEHHHO< MUdAmIHMMmdz ho mUZHz mo mHZHHUHhhMOU ZOHHIu now m xmvdomg< oomv madiHmaou mo Ho>oH unwound mm onu um unw0HMHame¥ IImmo. mom. omm.- omm.- ooo.- mmm.- umumouoaaoo omomm 2a mmm. mmm. mmm.- omm.- omm. omm.- Immanuusm ”Imago mam. oom.I mmm. mmm.- mmm. Immo.- auosooum Issuance mo “momma o uum>umm Imam. mom. mm¢.- Immm.- omm. omm.- nmmmuuaaaoo nomum>ommm Iomm. moo. mom.- moo. mom.- ooo.- ouuaooum omoauum mamauom Iomm. mom. mom.- omm.- omo. moo. nauseoum “masmaoo mo mmmauno mamas unmommm Imam. «mo. on.- mmm.- omo.- moo.- muaoaoomuuo>o< «cannon: mmm. oom. moo.- omm.- Iomm. Ioam.- mammmmum mam mammuxumm moo. Iaom. Immo.- mom.- mmm. oom.- nauseoum oaoauum mmmuaomumz mom. omm. Immo.- ooo.- omm. omo.- «mamuumaaoo omomm za ooo. mmo. moo. mom.- mmo.- omm. masmamuo omm. oom.- oom.- mmm.- ooa. HmH. omamaqsammam muaoouum Immm. mom. mom.- omm.- omo. omo.- auaoamuauuo>oa “monomsoz mom. mmo.- mmm.- mmm.- mmm.- mom. noom>uom on. aposooum auz omm.- mom. mmo. Imam.- Imam. omm.- noooo uuasaaoo mo muauuumz a uuuauuuso Iooo. ooo. mom.- omm.- mom. moo.- noom>uam o noooo uoasaaoo mo mammmuum>o< sonHHom HooHuHHom Hdaoom omuonuuo< omaoaoom Huumuouoony uaouucoamn ous> huH>Huu< oouHquwxunz mosz ho mHzmHUHhhmou ZOHHHHU¢ MU¢AmIHMMMIu mom m Navaomm< ommv ooaovamaou mo Ho>oH unmouom mo ago no uncommmcmmms moo. Immm. mmm.- Immm.- Immm. mmm.- nmumoumaaoo among an mmo.- Immm. moo.- Immm.- Iaom. moo.- mamoaonnm amouuo moo. mmo. mmo. omm.- mmo. mmo.- nuusoomm moasoaoo mo umumom m uum>uom moo.- Iomm. omo.- Immm.- Immm. mHH.- Imamuumaaoo nomum>umoe mmo. moo. moo.- Hmo.- omo. Immm.- muoaooum caveman mmmuuoq moo. Imom. mom.- Immm.- Imam. mmo.- muusooum “Iguanas mo momauao Home: Immomom mmo. Immm. Immm.- Immm.- Immm. moo.- muumaammuuo>oa mamuamaz oom. mom. moo. Iomm.- Immm. Immm.- mammumum can mammmxuum moo. Immm. mmm.- Iomm.- Immm. omm.- muosooum mooauum mmmuaomumz omo. Immm. omo.- Immm.- Immm. mmo.- amumuumaaoo among za moo. moo. ooo.- mom.- Iomm. moo.- masmaoum omo.- mmm. mmo. Immm.- Imom. omo.- mannaqamommm mascauom moo. moo.- moo.- Immm.- Imom. ooo. muaoaommuuo>o< mommmmsoz mmo.- Imam. Immm.- Immm.- Immm. moo. uuompuom man uuooooum 3oz dmo. H50. NNool #NH.I moo. OHH.I 06000 ngmflOU mo huddkhwaa ow mflufldhdflw omo.- Imam. Immm.- Immm.- Immm. mmo.- moompuom m moooo Hoaaoaoo mo mamomuuo>o< _donHHom HoOHuaHom Hofioom omuonuuod oHaoaoom HooauouoonH uaOHunoaHn oaHu> hum>muu< ouuHquoxunz mUZHzHHU< MUIu How m xmvaomm< oomv ooaovmmaoo mo Ho>oH unmouom mm ecu no uaoommaawmmo mmm. oom.- omo. mmo.- moo. mmo.- omomuumaaoo omooo so mmo.- mom. mmm.- omo.- mmm. moo.- omooouuom umoouo oom.- mmm. Immm.- moo. moo. ooo. ouusooum umaooaoo mo “mommo o mum>uam Immm. mmo.- mmm.- oom.- omo. mmo.- omomuuoaaoo camom>omom omm. mmm. mmm.- mmm.- mmm. mmm.- ouuaooum omoaoum mmmouom oom. omm. ooo.- omm.- omm. mmm.- moosooum amazoaoo mo ooooono muooz oomsooo Immm. oom. mmm.- Imom.- oom. Iomo.- ouaoaoomuum>o< mamooooz mom. mmm.- mom. mmm.- omo. omm.- oammmmuo oao oaaooxuom mom. oom. mom.- oom.- mmm. omm.- ouusooum omoaoum mmmoaomuoz Iomo. mmm.- mmm.- mmo.- oom. omm.- omomouuaaoo amomo :4 mmm.- oom. Immm.- mmm.- Immm. omm. oasaamom mmm. mmm. omm.- Immm.- omm. omm.- mammaoaommoo Honoouom mmm. mom. mmm.- oom.- Immm. oom.- ooamaaomuuo>o< oumomosmz mmo. mmm. ooo. ooo.- mmm.- mmo.- oaom>uuo ono ouosooum soz Ham. ooo.- mmm.- mmm.. mom. moo.- ooooo uoasoaoo mo monouuoz o «mucouoso Immm. moo. Imoo.- Immm.- omm. mmm.- omom>uoo o ooooo uoaaoaoo mo osmomuum>o< acmeHom HonuHHom Homoom UHuonumo<.omaouoom Hoomuouoofia anommaoamn 03Hm> mum>muo< oomeIuoxumz Mmmyo “ZOHOHAMM I mMHHH>HHU<.MU ho mHZMHUHhhMOU ZOHHon momma onuHa onu mamumuuaaun mo nonomnom Homo .nd .N¢ .Hq .o¢ .mm ooHAoH Baum vo>muon$ m 0N I. I. N N I. I. N N mN NN on. uo>o cN mNH w m mN NN 0N mH 0N mN mm Hm on. uo>o mH nH MH NH mH mH mN mN nN «N mH nH on. I HN. mN HNH Hm on nN oN HN 0N 5N oN 0N mH oN. I HH. on mmH ma cc Hm on on mN NN HN NH mH oH. I o s .oa R .0a fl .0: R .0: fl .0: fl .oa *m.H mo mmuHo uHouoa nn aqua Houoouw nn I ma no I on mm I 0N 0N mono omoH noHuanuumHn hoaonvoum HobuA ow< * Had I muHHH>HHU<.MU zoo—sumo mazmmommmuoo 235438 mo onSmHmmmHn 5553mm .om Baa. 111 .AaosHu>Iu Ham h vauomm< oumv oodovauoo mo Ho>oH odouuom mm ago on uauUHMHumHm¥ mON.I omH.I onN.I coo. amH.I ONN. mHuHouoEEoo OHumM 2m wNo.I nnN. aNn.I aoq. coo. mmm. ammonousm quouo omm. 0H¢.I «Hm. oom. ImHm.I HHm.I nuuavoum Hoasmcoo mo uHmnom o oom>uom m¢¢.- HNm. Nma.I oHH.I mmm. mmo. mHmHouanoo :OHmH>oHoH moo.I ¢o¢.I NH¢.I Noo.- NHn. «Hm. muusvoum woodman mHHwooq moN.I ¢0N. ahm.I mmm. wMH.I qu.I uuunvoum Hoaomaoo mo nowaono Hove: uwHowom HmN.I owH. wNH.I IwHw. man.I oH¢.I mucosumHuHo>v< ocHNumuz mmo.- Immm. moo. omo.- omo. mHo. mammomom ouu osmooxoom mNN.I mNH. HwN.I Imam. ocH.I ON¢.I uuosvoum wovawum IAHHmoOHuuz Inca. on. mmN.I 0Ho.I HNN. Imam. mHuHuuanoo Ovam z< mm¢.I Noo.I «mmm.- mnN. *an. Hon. masHaoum awe.- owH. who.I mmo.I omo. #moo. mHnmumamMme Hw:0muom oom.- mom.- omo. oom.- omH. omo. ouauamoouuo>o< “omomozaz Nwm.I HNN. HmH.I NNH. Hmo.I moo. mooH>nom van nauseoum 3oz woN. mw¢.I HNn. NHH.I 50¢.I wwN. avooo Hoadouoo mo huuuHuwz a oouuwuwso oom.- moN. #oow.I coo. mmo. mmH. mooH>uom a muoow headmaoo mo waHmHuum>u< commHHom HooHuHHom HwHoom UHuosuuod 0Hao=ouu Houmuouoona quHmaoEHn uaHm> muH>Huo< momeIuoxHuz mUZHzHHU< MU¢HMIHMMMIu mom h navaommd oomv ooaovaaou mo Ho>oH unmouom mm onu no uaooHMHame¥ Immm. mmm. oom.- Immm.- Immm. mmm.- omooouoaaoo omooo 2o mom. mmo.- oom.- Hom.- oom. mmm.- oooooouom omoouo mmm. oom.- omo. Hmo. mmH. Hom.I ouoaooum uuaaoaoo mo umomum o mum>uoo mom. mmm. omo.- Immm.- Immo. omm.- .Homuumaaoo aomoo>omom mmo. oom.- moo. moo.- mmo. moo. oousooum omoaoum mHHouoo Iomm. mmm. mmm.. Iooo.- oom. mmm.- oooaooum uuasoaoo mo omoaoao Home: nomaomo Ioom. mmo. mmm.- oom.- mom. oom.- ouaoamomuum>oo «cannons Imoo. omm. mmo. oom.- mmo. Iomo.- oaommmoq oao oamooouom Immm. moo.- oom.- omH.I mmH. omm.- ouusooom oooaoum mHHoaomuoz oom. mmm. ooo.o mom.- mmm. mmm.- omumuumaaoo omooo so omm. mmm.- mmo.- Ioom.- Imam. omm.- magmaoum mom. mmm. mmo.- oom.- omm. omm.- mmnouuaoomuo HI=Omuum Immm. mmo.- omm.- omH.- omm. omm.- .uaoaaoauuo>o< Humomosuz omo. oom. moH.- Iomo.- Immm. omo.- ouum>uoo oao ouoaooum amz mmm. mmo.- mmm.. mmm.. mom. omo.- ooooo Hoasoaoo mo mucouuoz o oouaoooso oom. mom. oom.- Immm.- Imoa. omm.- ooom>uoo o ooooo Hoaooaoo mo mamomuum>o< aOHwHHom HuoHuHHom HuHuom umuonuoo<.umaoaoum HduHuouoonH aGOHudoEHn osHm> mumpmuuo ouonIuoxuoz mmImN ”MQ< I MMHHH>HHU¢ MUdAmIHMMmdz mo mUZHz ho mHzmHlommou ZOHademmoo .o¢ MHmIu How h vaaomm< oomv ooaovaaoo mo Ho>oH udoouom mm onu um uaooHMHamHmI Immm. mmo. mmo.- IHom.- Immm. Ioom.- oHomuuoaaoo omooo so mmo.- moo. mmo.- Immm.- Iomm. omo.- oomonousm umoouo omm. omo. mmo. Imom.- moo. moH.- ouuaooum umaooaoo mo "mommo o uom>uom Iomm. moo. moH.- Iooo.- Immm. Imom.- omomuuoaaoo aomompmmmm Immm. omm.- Hoo.- omo. moo.- Iomm.- ouusooum ouoaouo mHHuoom Immm. mmo. ooo.- Iomm.- Iomm. Imom.- ouuaooum uoasoaoo mo ouoaoao Home: Homoomo Immm. mmm. Immm.- Imoo.- Immm. Immm.- ouaoauomuum>o<_oamooooz Immm. omo.- omo. Imom.- oom. Immm.- mammomom moo oaaooxuom Imom. Immm. mmm.- Iomm.- Imom. Ioom.- ouosooum oooaoum mmmoaomooz Imom. mmo.- oom.- Imom.- mom. Immm.- omuauumaaoo omooo so Iomm. moo. omo.- Iomm.- Immm. omo.- oasmamum omm. ooo. mmo.- HmH.- mom. Iomm.- maaonoaommoo Hoaoouom Immm.- ooo.- omm.- Iomm.- Immm. mmm.- ouaoawomuuo>o< uamomoxmz mmm. mmo. mmm.- Iomm.- Immm. omm.- omum>uom oao ouoaooum aoz omm. moo. mmo.- mmo.- mmo. Ioom.- ooooo uuaaoaoo mo mucouuoz o «mucouoso Iomm. mmm. oom.- Immm.- Immm. Ioom.- omum>umm o ooooo Hassoaoo mo maaomuuo>o< aonHHom HmomuHHom Homoom OHuonuuod OHEOdoum Houmuouoosa muH>Huu¢ ooonIuoxumz mQOHmfimfi—HQ 03Hd> mIIom "moa I monH>Hm a ooomm-mmxo ho mquHlommoo ZOHH44MMMOO .Hq MHmIu new 9 ”Hunommd oomv oodovanoo mo Ho>oH uuouuom mm ago no undoHMHanmo omo.- Iomm. omm.- Immm.- Immm. oom.- omomuuuaaoo omoom so ooo.- omm. mmm.- .Iomm.- Imoa. Immm.- amounuusm “moauo mmm.- mom. ooo. omm.- oom. ooo.- oouaooum uoauoaoo mo “momma o mompuom mmo.- Immm. moo. Immm.- Immm. Immm.- omomouuaaoo nomom>mmmm mom.- mmm. mmm.. oom.- Imom. oom.- mousooum oooaoum mHHouom mmo. Iomm. moo.- Iomm.- Immm. Immm.- ouuaooum uuasoaoo mo ouoaono Home: uomamoo mmo.- oom. Iomm.- omm.- Iomm. Imom.- .uauaoomuum>o< mamuoooz omo.- ooo. omo.- mmm.- Iooo. Immm.- mammamom ono mamooxuom omm.- oom. mmm.- mom.- Iomm. omm.- ouuaooum ooonoum mHHouomuoz mmo. ooo. ooo.o Immm.- Immm. mmm.- omomuuoaaao omomm so mmo. moo.- mmm. omm.- omm. moo.- mammamum mmo.- mmm. omo. Immm.- .Immm. ooo.- mononoaoumuo moaooumm omm.- mmm. omo.- Immm.- Iooo. omo.- ouuuamomuuo>o< uamomoaoz oom. ooo. mmo.- omo. rmmm. mom.- oaum>umm oao ouoaooum aoz ooo.- moo. mmo. oom.- Imom. oom.- ooooo awesouoo mo monouu z o mouaouoao ooo. Immm. mmo.- Immm.- Immm. Immm.- ooom>uoo o ooooo Hosaoaoo mo oumoaoum>o< :OHwHHom HooHuHHom HuHuom oHuonuao< umaonoum Houmuouoona huH>Huo<_oouHquoxumz uaomuuoaH9 onHu> mmIoo “mom I ommam>mao<_mo mo mHZMHlommoo ZOHadqmmmoo .N¢ M9949 115 .AuoaHo>Iu you m vaaomm< oomv ooaovaaoo mo Ho>oH uaouuom mm ago on uaooHMchHmo omo. omo. moo.- moH.- oom. mmm.- omomuuuaaoo oaooo so moo. ooo. omm.- mmo. ooo. omm.- oooonuunm oooouo ooo.- moo. mmo. omo.- omo. omo. ouoaooum umaaoaoo mo “mommo o.mom>uoo mmm. mmm. Immm.- Immm.- Immm. oom.- omomuumaaoo somoa>moom omo. mmm. mmm.- mom. omo.- mmm.- ouuaooum oooaoum mmmoooo omo. mmm. Iomm.- mmm.- Immm. omo.- ouuaooum uoasoaoo mo omooono Hmooz Homoomo moo. mmo. Ioom.- Immm.- mom. mmo. ououamomuuopoo mamuoooz mmm. ooo. ooo.- mmm.- mmo. ooo.- oommomom ooo maoooouom mmo. omm. Immm.- Immm.- mmm. omo. ouosooum oooaoum mHHuoomuoz moo. Imom. Imom.- Iomm.- Imom. omo.- omuouuaaaoo omooo so mmo. mmo. moo.- moo.- mmo. omm.- oaooaoum ooo. ooo. mmm.- mmo.- mmm. omo.- manoooaommoo Hooooumm moH. moo. mmm.- omo. moo.- ooo.- monogamouuo>oo.uumomosmz moo. ooo. Immm.- oom.- mmm. moo. oaum>uoo oao ouuaooum 3oz ooo. ooo. omo.- omm.- moo. ooo.- ooooo uoaaoooo mo monsoon: o mouoouoso moo. omm. omm.- Iomm.- mmm. omo. ouumpuoo o ooooo uoasooao mo ooooouuopoo :onHHom HooHuHHom HuHoom _oHuo£uuo< omaououm HdOHuouooza muH>Huo< ooonIuoxuuz mdomuauaHn uoHn> mm 2<2H mmBHHU< HU mo mHzmHlohmoo onadqmmmoo .nq 99949 116 these groups attach to market-place activities. A39. Segmenting the sample by age groups does not change the general conclusion found in any of the above analyses. Little of the variance in meanings can be attributed to values within any of the five age groups. Very few of the correlation coefficients above the youngest age group have a value greater than .50 (Table 38). Computing the coefficient of determination from Tables 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 indicates that the majority of the variance in the meanings of the market-place activities is not accounted for. Recognizing the fact that some differences exist in the strength of association between value systems and meanings of market-place activities among the different age groups, the overall conclusion must be that individual value dimensions do not account for much of the variance in the meanings these age groups attach to market-place activities. Even in those few cases where significant correlations permit judgments to be made, there are no cases where an individual value dimension accounts for more than fifty percent of the variance in meanings attached to any of the sixteen market-place activities. This is true for all age groups. \Summary Results of the Relationship Between Values and Market-Place Activities Table 44 provides a summary overview of the relationship between values and meanings of market-place activities. It summarizes the correlation coefficients between each of the six value dimensions and meanings of the sixteen market-place activities, showing which are Significant at the specified level of confidence. This table indicates 117 the number of times value dimensions account for more than fifty percent of the variance in the meanings attached to a particular market-place activity. The results serve to emphasize the findings of the earlier analyses. None of the six value dimensions are significantly associated with more than fifty percent of the meanings of the sixteen market-place activities. Most of the variance in the meanings of market-place activities remains unexplained. Of the six value dimensions, the economic and aesthetic value dimensions are most strongly associated with the meanings of market-place activities. The political value dimension has the weakest relationship with meanings of market-place activities. Similar results to those above are found by totaling the rows in Table 44. There is no market-place activity in which a value dimension accounts for even a moderate proportion of the variance in the meanings more than ten percent of the time. Once again, the conclusion is that Imost of the variance in each of the meanings given the market-place activities is not accounted for. Possible Reasons for Weak Association Between Values and Meanings of Market-Place Activities Three possible reasons for the weak association between values and meanings of market-place activities are offered:_ 1. For the purposes of this study the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey §£udy of Values and/or semantic differentials do not measure what they purport to measure. 2. Single demographic variables may not be adequate for segmenting this sample to determine the association of values and meanings. 118 o NmN\mHH m NNN\mHH m NNN\HN mHHum H mH 0 NH 0 m aHuHouanoo GOHmH>oHoH o o o m o o muusvoum voufiuym mHHoUOH 0 HH o m o m muusvoum Huazmaoo mo momcmno Home: uwHowom o Hm H HH o m ooauaoomuuo>oo monsoon: o m H w H m wcHHuouH van mamwaxowm o o o n o m muuovoum vuvauum AHHucoHumz 0 OH 0 n o a mHoHuuuano OHvux z< o w o n o o madmaoum o n o m H o mHnocuEmoHum Hu:0muom o n o m o m muaoaooHuuo>v< nomwmmSoz o o o m o o oooH>uom vac ouusvonm soz avooo Huasmcoo o n H a o N we mucuuumz o oouauuuso H ¢H o NH 0 m ouom>uom a moooo Hoaduooo mo waHuHuuo>u< moaoHHu> mo Rom . ooauHud> mo Non ouaoHuu> mo Nan How waHudsouu< 5mm uu new maHuasouo< Rmo us How mcHuasooo< Rmm on ousoHonmoou mucoHuHmmooo mucoHunmoou muH>Huo< mouHquoxuuz uauoHMHamHm mo Hunadz uauoHanme mo Hooasz uaauHMHanm mo Honasz oHuonuuo< UHanoou HuoHuonoonH unomuaoaun oaHu> ouqmomoo> oummomoozan m>mm may no Amoo mMHooommoo goo no mazumomomuoo zomaoouomoo azouHonoHo no mmoaoa ooozzoo .oo momoa 119 0 F) NNN\oo deHOH o mHmHouanoo omomm Em N oommmuuam quouo H muoduoum moanmcoo mo HmeoM w o0H>mom F) F. mHoHouoEEou commH>oHoH muonooum vowamum mHHmUOH muusvoum Hoadmcoo we mowcono Homo: umHowom F4 muaoaomHuuo>v< oaHNwwmz msHHoan mam maHmmxuwm muosooum movamum mHHNGOHuwz mHmHouanoo OHumm z< masHaoum mmnmcwamonm Honomuom mucosomHuuo>o¢ HommeSoz WOUH>H0m flaw wUUUUOHm 30Z C) C) vi C) C) C) C) C) Ci C) C) r4 CD C) CD "3 O C) W) C) U) d)-¢ In G) \O OI\O C) Olin C“ 0 CD C) C) 0 r4 r4 C) O C) 0 <3 0 O (D N O O C) C CD 0 '4 C) O C) C) O C) O (D H mmooo uoESoaoo mo huamuumz o mousoumoo H |\ d’ O Flud C3 C3 F)\O r4 N W) O \D 0 Id U1 m o O\ 01 4' F) C) U! 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Noo.H- uuuavon “assuaou mo uaumum w mofi>uom waH.n «mm. «mo.H- ahm.q- oom.m HHo.n- mflafluuuaaoo cogufi>uflaa Hum.~ mmm.H- ouq. - Hon. omo. - moH.n- muuauoum vowauum h:33 omm.m omm. “no. - ooH.n- mmo.m nuo.n- auuavoum “masaaoo mo mowauso Hmuoz uufismum wufl.n «mm.H oom.m- mm¢.¢- ooH.q omm.m- uuaoaunfluuu>u¢ magnumuz an.m «OH. - noH. “Ho.n- oqh.H m»¢.n- mafiaonuq was mafiwuxumm «NH.~ omo.~ m¢~.H- mua.n- ~n~.m nan.n- uuuauoum wounuum kHHuaoHuuz omm.q “Hm. - mHH.H- mmo.m- cam.H moo.m- nflafiouoaaoo oauum 24 oo~.~ o¢o. “mo. - nm~.¢- “ma.m aoo.H- masflaaum on.H Moo. Rho. - qnn.H- HN©.H nnn.~- magmaqamuaum Huaouuum mmm.m- Hmo. - wm~.H- mnm.~- oom.~ mn¢.~- uuauaomfiuuo>v< “unamasoz gum.H mmm. awh.H- omo.¢- mno.n ooq.H- noofi>uum can muosvoum soz qu.H moo. mun. - «on. u «on. mnH.~- uuoou nuasnaoo mo munuuumz a mouauuuso mNH.n mn¢.H hum.u- nmn.q- ooH.¢ “an.m- noufi>uom a auoou uoaamaou mo waflmfluuu>u< seawaaum Huouuaaom Haauom uauwfiumu< uwaoaouu Huoauuuoony nflOHmflflafln— 03Hd> kugwug OUwHMquxhg nqumn "uu4 . muHaH>Hau< uuuom mom. - HHo.~ Hum. nam.~- m¢n.¢ qom.~- mHuHouuaaoo aofiafi>uawa 5mm. - qu.H mom. - ohn.a- m¢~.n «on.H- muosvoum wouauum xafluooq mum. ”ac.“ no“. - mmm.m- mom.n nqo.~- muosuoum umaamaoo mo mawauno Have: “caswua mmm. - mmo.H QNH.N- H¢m.fi- H¢a.¢ n~¢.N- muaoawafiuuu>c¢ magnumuz mmo. - mfim. nqo. - mo¢.H- HHn.q Hnm.u- mafiaupmq can wafimuxomm qu.H- omn.H moo.H- aon.H- mwo.¢ mqm.H- «nonvoum uuuauum mHHucofiumz m mhfi. moH.H ooo.o mou.m- qu.m mmo.H- mflmfiouoeaoo oflwum z< 2 Hon. mmo. - mmo.H mHm.H- w¢fl.fl om“. - masfiauum mmm. - ¢oo.H Noq. oo¢.m- HN¢.N mum. - manaamamoaam Hauomuom Hwo.H- MNH.H omm. - ~H¢.~- can.q m¢¢. - muaoaomfluuo>v< “unamusoz no¢.H mm“. ¢o~. - mum. omH.~ oom.H- moUH>uom was muosuoum soz moo. - oho. 50H. mmm.fi- ~oo.~ nnn.~- avoou Haasnaoo mo muauuuaz a omuauuuao omm. emh.~ mmo. - mne.q- owm.¢ Hau.u- noug>uum ¢ muooo “assuaoo mo mafimfiuua>u< soamaaum Huoauaaom anuoow ouuwnuuo< uaaoaouu kuHuuuoofiy hua>au0< wuwamuumxumz wcownsofian o=Hu> . mm-o¢ "ma< - mmHaH>Hyo< uu<4m-auxmuuw mmm. mow.H mom.~I «wo.NI mmm.m «mH.HI mHmHuumaaou :oflmfi>oaua NN¢. mmm.H mmm.HI o¢w. ¢NH. I nnN.aI wuuscoum vavumum AHHuooq noa. «mm.fl «ow.N- o~w.H- Hn~.~ mun. - muosuoum “mannaoo mo wmwaago Hmuoz uuHawom won. mmm.H mom.HI mmm.mI 05¢.H mmo. muauaomwuum>u< oafluwwmz mmm. Nmm. one. I nnN.HI mom. can. I mGHHonmA vcm mafiwwxumm omm.H omo.H h¢0.NI m¢¢.NI “mu.“ qu. muonvoum vmuauum haaacofiuaz own. Hmm.m nw¢.NI nmN.MI Hom.N Han. I mamfiuuwaaoo cavmm z¢ mqq. m¢¢. mom. I «we. I on“. «ma. I nasfiauum omm. oom. m-.HI “mm. I «mo.a Ham. I mannaqamofium Hwaomuom mmm.H mmm. I ¢NN.H- nan. ma¢. I com. I muauaumfiuua>v< uwmwmmzuz oqm. ¢oH.H «wo.NI ~o¢.HI nom.H Hnm. mwoa>uum and muosvoun 3mz NmH.H mmm. NNq. I cam. I ¢mo. wmo. I avooo H063250 mo hunmuumz a mmuudkmso ooo. own.H who.HI omH.NI oqo.H mmm. mmoa>umm ¢ mvoou Hmssmdoo mo magmauuo>w< :onHHuM,HwofiufiHom Huauom oauosumu< ufiaouoouflflmoaumuouny maoamaoaan 03Hm> zua>quo< oomHquoxuuz mm z<:H mMHHHo< MU ho MHZMHUHMMHOU ZOHHIH .wo HAde BIBLIOGRAPHY Public Documents U.S. Bureau of the Census. U.S. Censuses of P0 ulation and Housin : 1960. 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