A STUDY OF THE MORPHOLOGY
THE BLUE RIDGE ESKER AND CERTAIN RELATED

SEDIMENTARY CHARACTERISTICS

BY

Kenneth E. Keifenheim

A RESEARCH PAPER

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Geography

1974

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express appreciation to

Dr. Harold A. Winters for his advice and guidance in the

completion of this study.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . .

II.

Statement of Problem . . . . . . .
Justification . . . . . . . . .
Location of the Esker in Relation to the

Interlobate Area. . . . . . . .
Field Work . . . . . . . . .
Review of Pertinent Literature. . . .

General Characteristics of Eskers . .
Early Contributions to the Esker
Literature . . . . . . . . .
Recent Contributions to the Esker
Literature . . . . . . . . .
Mode of Esker Formation . . . . .
Glacier Conditions and Esker Formation

Origin and Transportational Distance of

Esker Sediments . . . . . .
Previous Study of the Blue Ridge Esker

TOPOGRAPHY AND TRIBUTARY ESKERS . . . .

Topography . . . . . .

Profiles of the Esker and Adjacent
Topography. . . . . . . . . .

Tributary Eskers . . . . . .

Significance of Tributary Eskers and Their

Spatial Distribution . . . . . .

iii

Page

vi

NH

WAN

ll
12

14
14

16
21

23

Chapter Page

III. STONE TYPES WITHIN THE BLUE RIDGE ESKER . . 25
Characteristics of Pebbles and Cobbles. . 25
Possible Origin of Locally Derived

Sandstone Sediments . . . . . . . 29

Comparison of the Lithologic Composition
of the Blue Ridge Esker and the Saginaw

and Huron-Erie Lobe Deposits . . . . 31
Sedimentary Characteristics . . . . . 34
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 41
Topographic Expression and Extent of

the Esker. . . . . . . . . . . 41

Certain Sedimentary Characteristics and
Relationships . . . . . . . . . 42
Formation of the Esker . . . . . . . 43
Deglaciation Environment . . . . . . 43
Relationship of Findings to Previous Work. 43
Suggestions for Further Study. . . . . 45
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

iv

LI ST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Lithology of pebble and cobble samples
collected from the Blue Ridge Esker, in
percent of total stones collected at each
site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2. Average lithology of pebble samples from
lobe and esker samples in percent of
tOtalo O I O O O O C O O O O O O 33

Figure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

Surface Formations—-Jackson and Vicinity . .
Drift Thickness-~Blue Ridge Esker Area. . .

Longitudinal Profiles of the Blue Ridge Esker
and Adjacent Areas. . . . . . . . .

Latitudinal Profiles of the Blue Ridge Esker.

vi

Page

17

19

30

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Statement of Problem

The purpose of this paper is to describe the
characteristics and interrelationships of the topography
and certain characteristics of sediments associated with
the Blue Ridge, or Ackerson, Esker located south and east
of Jackson, Michigan.1 The following four basic questions
were considered during the course of this study. (1) What
is the topographic configuration and extent of the esker?
(2) What can be determined regarding the formation of the
Blue Ridge Esker from a study of the lithologic composition
of esker pebbles and cobbles and an investigation of certain
sedimentary characteristics within the feature? (3) Are
there any associated features that are directly related to
the esker such as tributary eskers or esker troughs, and
what, if any, is their significance? (4) What was the
nature of the glacial environment in which the esker was

formed, and, more specifically, did the Blue Ridge Esker

 

1Hereafter, in this paper, the esker will be
referred to as the Blue Ridge Esker. It was originally
named the Ackerson Esker by F. Leverett but has since
become known as the Blue Ridge.

form wholly, or in part, with a supraglacial, englacial, or

subglacial stream?

Justification

 

A limited amount of previous work has been completed
on the Blue Ridge Esker. F. Leverett appears to have been
the only person to study the Blue Ridge Esker in detail,
but since the publication of his work (Leverett & Taylor,
1915) additional data have become available for use in
landform studies. For example, the use of topographic maps
and air photos provide detailed information that was not
available to Leverett. Also, exposures of related sediments
are probably more numerous at this time and provide an
important source for information regarding the internal
characteristics of the feature. Hopefully this study will
better help explain the distribution and formation of the
Blue Ridge Esker and some of the related landforms in
southeastern Jackson County.

Location of the Esker in Relation to
the Interlobate Area

 

 

The Blue Ridge Esker is located mainly within an
area of ground moraine southeast of Jackson (see Figure 1).
Part of the esker, however, also extends into areas under-
lain by glacial outwash that are adjacent to the ground
moraine. The outwash has been traced to the distal sides
of the Kalamazoo Moraine of the Saginaw Lobe and the

Mississinewa Moraine of the Huron-Erie Lobe as mapped by

 

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Martin. Figure 1 shows that the esker is located approxi-
mately along the southwest extension of the trend of the
interlobate area formed by these moraines (Leverett &

Taylor, 1915).

Field Work

 

This investigation was primarily based on field
work. The field work consisted of three main activities.
First, the extent of the esker and adjacent landforms was
mapped at a scale of 1:24,000 during the summer and fall of
1973. Air photos, U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps,
and a soil survey map of the area were utilized in the
mapping. Subsequently a field study of the esker and
adjacent areas was undertaken to check the accuracy of the
mapping and further refine the map. All except the most
remote parts of the esker were observed in the field study.

Second, pebble and cobble samples were collected at
six sites where exposures of sediments exist within the
esker. The sites were situated along the trend of the
feature to assure that the nature and variability of stone
types could be determined for different sections of the
feature. In situ stones were selected from a vertical or
nearly vertical exposure at each site. A grid, approxi-
mately three feet by three feet, divided into 100 squares,
was placed against the exposure, and the most central
pebble or cobble was then selected from the sediments

appearing within each square of the grid. If no

appropriate—sized stone was found within a square, the
sediments within that area of the grid were excavated until
a stone was found. One hundred stones were collected at
each site and were analyzed to determine their lithologic
composition.

Third, observations were made at all suitable sites
of sediment types and structures to provide information
concerning the internal characteristics of the esker.2

Additionally, laboratory analysis was conducted and
consisted of identifying the 600 pebbles and 600 cobbles
collected at sites within the esker. Five categories were
recognized in the classification of these stones: carbonate,
igneous-metamorphic, siltstone and shale, sandstone, and

others.

Review of Pertinent Literature

 

General Characteristics
of Eskers

 

 

An esker, as defined by R. F. Flint (1971, p. 214),
is "a long narrow ice contact ridge commonly sinuous and
composed chiefly of stratified drift." According to
Embleton and King (1968, p. 369), the sedimentary consti-
tuents of an esker ridge include much sand and gravel
although R. F. Flint (1971, p. 215) notes that boulders and

silt-sized material may exist in places. He further notes

 

2Exposures that were being actively excavated were
observed at several different times.

that most eskers are located in areas of low relief and
generally trend parallel to the direction of the flow of
the most recent glacier that existed in the area. J. K.
Charlesworth (1957, p. 420) also states that eskers are
often bounded by "narrow lateral moats or ditches," which
are commonly referred to as esker troughs. Many authors
believe that esker troughs are the result of subglacial
stream erosion (Rieck, 1972).3

Early Contributions to the
Esker Literature

 

Many authors have made important contributions to
the literature concerned with eskers. W. Upham, one of the
first, published numerous articles on the subject in the
late 18003 and early 19003 (1876, 1893, 1894, and 1904 are
a few examples). T. C. Chamberlain also authored publi-
cations concerned, at least in part, with eskers during
approximately the same time period (1884, 1893, and 1894,
for example). W. M. Davis (1892) described certain sub—
glacial eskers in New England, while G. Stone (1899)
probably drew increased attention to the feature when he
published his major work on the eskers of Maine for the
U.S. Geological Survey. F. Leverett, author of numerous

studies of glacial geomorphology (for example, 1902, 1915,

 

3Whether or not eskers formed in subglacial,
englacial, or supraglacial positions has probably been the
most debated issue in the esker literature, and this topic
will be discussed in greater detail in a later section of
this paper.

1929, and 1932), mapped and described a number of eskers
located in the Midwest.

G. DeGeer (1897), working in Scandinavia, proposed
a theory for the formation of "beaded eskers," which,
because of his research on these features, are today known
as DeGeer Eskers.

Thus, by 1920 as a result of work by these and other
authors many eskers had been described and mapped in vari-
ous countries, and several theories concerning their origin
had been proposed.

Recent Contributions to the
EsEer Literature

 

 

There are several authors of more recent publi-
cations who have made especially useful statements regarding
eskers. R. F. Flint has published numerous articles con-
cerning eskers in both North America and Europe (for example,
see 1928, 1930, and 1932). J. K. Charlesworth (1957)
devotes a small but significant part of his book to the
study of eskers, and C. Embleton and C. King (1968) also
summarize some of the more important esker studies in their
book on glacial geomorphology. R. Sharp (1953) has
published a definitive work in which the nature and origin
of some eskers in North America are discussed.

Much research has been conducted on eskers in
Scandinavia. Studies by A. Hellaakoski (1930), A. Matisto
(1951), and especially K. Virkkala (1958), M. Okko (1962),

and V. Okko (1957) are among the most important. Many of

these authors have been particularly interested in studying
the origin and transportation of eskerine sediments.

There has also been an increasing amount of study
on eskers that are presently forming in connection with
certain Arctic glaciers. For example, R. Price has com-
pleted numerous studies on the formation of eskers associ-
ated with Alaskan glaciers (for example, see 1964 and
1966), and J. C. Stokes (1958) has presented an interesting
article on the formation of an esker in an ice tunnel of a
glacier in Norway.

In 1972 R. Rieck completed a comprehensive review
of existing literature on eskers in which the major publi-
cations and topics relating to the study of eskers have
been identified. This is probably one of the most useful
and helpful works in terms of organizing and summarizing

the esker literature.

Mode of Esker Formation

It appears that the majority of studies dealing with
eskers are concerned mainly with the mode of their for-
mation. There has been some disagreement in the literature
as to whether eskers form primarily within, below, or on
the surface of the glacier ice. W. Upham (1891), for
instance, proposed a supraglacial formation for eskers he
studied because of the absence of overlying glacial till.
He believed that if an esker formed subglacially it would

be reasonable to expect that some type of ablation drift

would be deposited on the esker surface as the glacier ice
melted (p. 381). If no ablation drift existed on the
surface of the esker, he assumed that it formed in an ice
channel open to the sky. W. Crosby (1902) also favored the
supraglacial formation of eskers. J. B. Woodworth (1894),
on the other hand, found overlying till and boulders on the
eskers he studied (p. 216) and used the same line of
reasoning as that used by Upham to advocate a subglacial
formation for these features.

J. K. Charlesworth (1957, pp. 426-28) has offered
some criteria for determining whether eskers have formed
subglacially or supraglacially. He states that supra-
glacial formation should be considered if there are few
boulders to be found on the esker or if the esker becomes
broader near its distal end, which signifies a widening of
the supraglacial stream channel toward the margin of the
glacier. He further indicates that supporting evidence for
consideration of subglacial formation includes: a large
amount of locally derived material within the esker,
evidence that at least part of the esker flowed upslope,
erratics and till existing on the top and sides of the
esker, arched bedding within, and water-worn surfaces
beneath the esker.

W. M. Davis (1892) favored subglacial formation of
eskers and was one of the first workers to note the major
problem with the supraglacial formation theory. This

problem, often used as a basis to reject the supraglacial

10

theory, involves the process of superimposing the esker
sediments from a position on the surface of the glacier to
the ground beneath the ice without severely disturbing the
bedding and destroying the distinctive form of the esker.
An additional problem with the supraglacial theory is that
most glacial debris is carried near the base of the glacier
rather than on its surface, and hence C. Embleton and C.
King (1968, p. 371) point out that there is probably too
little debris carried in supraglacial streams for an esker
to be formed on the surface of the ice.

Some glacial geomorphologists now agree that most
eskers probably formed in subglacial tunnels, but they do
acknowledge the supraglacial and englacial formation of some
eskers (Sharp, 1953; Embleton & King, 1968; and Flint, 1971,
among others).

Glacier Conditions and
Esker Formation

 

It is also believed by many authors that the ice
associated with the formation of eskers must have been
stagnant (Chamberlain, 1884; Davis, 1892; Sharp, 1953;
Embleton & King, 1968; and Flint, 1971, among others). This
interpretation is based on the conclusion that, if active
ice movement were to occur after the formation of the
esker, it is most probable that its topographic form would
be destroyed. It is also doubtful that an ice tunnel, into
which esker sediments are deposited, could form within

active ice of a glacier.

ll

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A number of studies in Finland revealed that
sediments comprising eskers located in that country appear
to be mainly of local origin. A. Hellaakoski (1930), A.
Matisto (1951), and K. Virkkala (1958) all concluded that
material comprising eskers was derived locally for the most
part. A. Matisto reported that the transportation maximum
of the sediments in eskers he examined was about twenty
kilometers and that the average distance that the eskerine
material had been transported was ten to fourteen kilo-
meters. A. Hellaakoski studied the Laitila Esker, which
traverses an outcrop of the distinctive type Rapakivi
granite. He observed that the distance from the exposure
to the place where there was a maximum abundance of the
Rapakivi granite within the esker was seventeen to twenty-
four kilometers and that the first identifiable granite
appeared in the esker at five to eight kilometers from the
outcrop. K. Virkkala found that only about 40 percent of
the sediments in the esker he studied had been transported
over five kilometers. Thus, although there is some dis-
agreement among these authors concerning the distance
eskerine material has been transported, they do agree that
many of the esker sediments are of local origin. Virkkala
summarized the importance of his findings by stating that
"The source areas of the gravel and stone material of the

esker can be traced with rather great probability if the

12

bedrock, the topography and the retreat of the inland ice
are known with sufficient accuracy" (Virkkala, 1958,
p. 103).

R. Rieck (1972, p. 74) also notes that of the
studies he considered only one out of thirty-seven authors
who stated an opinion concerning the provenance of esker
sediments did not believe that the source of most eskerine
material was local.

Previous Study of the
Blue Ridge Esker

 

 

The only previous technical description of the Blue
Ridge Esker was published by F. Leverett in 1915. In his
study (p. 203) Leverett notes that the esker is situated
very near the junction of the Saginaw and Huron-Erie lobes
and terminates in a morainic spur about eight miles south-
east of Jackson. He describes the esker as being "more
massive" than the ordinary esker and having "an abrupt
embankment-like appearance" (Leverett & Taylor, 1915,
p. 203). He mentions that in places the esker is as much
as an eighth of a mile wide and thirty to forty feet high.
He also emphasizes that the sediments of the Blue Ridge
Esker are much coarser than "normal esker material"
(p. 203) and that it is not uncommon to find pieces of rock
with longest dimensions that exceed two feet, although most
of the boulders are of smaller size. Leverett offered the
following theory to account for the formation of the Blue

Ridge Esker: "Possibly it is the product of a combination

13

of ice deposition with subglacial drainage, and this may
account for the coarseness of its material and for its

unusual size" (Leverett & Taylor, 1915, p. 203).

CHAPTER II

TOPOGRAPHY AND TRIBUTARY ESKERS

Topography

On the basis of morphology the Blue Ridge Esker can
be divided into three segments, each of which has different
characteristics. These three divisions will be referred to
as the Northern, Middle, and Southern Segments.

The Northern Segment is that part of the esker that
is located between Wolf Lake and the area between Ackerson
and Cranberry Lakes where the topographic eXpression of the
esker is less apparent and disappears altogether in the
SE 1/4, Section 30, T. 3 S., R. l B. (see Plate I). This
segment is approximately 3.7 miles long, trends in an
almost straight east-west direction, and is characterized
by its greater width, though this varies significantly.

For example, the esker averages one-half mile in width but
ranges from less than an eighth to about three-fourths of

a mile in cross section. The topography adjacent to the
esker has average elevations of approximately 990 feet above
sea level. Maxium elevations of the esker crest exceed

1,030 feet in a few places within the Northern Segment, but

14

15

for most of its length here the crest is between 1,020 and
1,000 feet above sea level. Thus, the esker crest is from
approximately 10 to 40 feet above the adjacent land in the
Northern Segment.

The Middle Segment of the esker extends from the
approximate position of Greens Lake on the north to the
Grand River to the south. This segment is approximately
three miles in length and is generally narrower and has
higher elevations than the Northern Segment and is slightly
wider than the Southern Segment. The esker, in this
section, is sinuous, trends in a southwesterly direction,
and is generally about one-eighth of a mile in width. The
altitude of the adjacent topography averages about 980 to
990 feet above sea level. Elevations along the crest of
the esker in the Middle Segment exceed 1,050 feet in
numerous places and are seldom lower than 1,030 feet except
in the north near Greens Lake, where elevations are in most
places slightly over 1,000 feet above sea level. Thus, the
esker is as much as 50 feet above the adjacent topography
along much of its length in this segment, and in some
places its crest may be 70 or 80 feet higher than the
topography nearby to the east or west.

The Southern Segment is separated from the middle
portion of the esker by a lowland occupied by the Grand
River. This shortest segment of the esker is approximately
three miles in length. As in the Middle Segment, the esker

is sinuous in plan and trends in a northeast—southwest

16

direction. For most of its length in this segment the
esker is quite narrow, being less than one-eighth of a mile
in width at numerous places. Average altitudes of the
adjacent topography to the northwest of this segment range
from about 1,000 to 1,050 feet above sea level, while the
land to the southeast averages only about 980 feet. Within
this segment the crest of the esker attains its highest
altitude of slightly more than 1,080 feet. However, for
most of its length in this southern portion maximum alti-
tudes associated with the crest of the feature are usually
between 1,030 and 1,050 feet above sea level and are rarely
below 1,030 feet except near the southwest terminus near
Skiff Lake. Thus, the esker crest is as much as 100 feet
higher than the adjacent topography to the southeast in at
least one area, but throughout most of this segment its
surface is about 50 feet or less above the adjacent land.
However, the topography a short distance to the northwest
is relatively high, and in this area the esker crest is

often only 10 to 40 feet above the nearby land.

Profiles of the Esker and Adjacent Topography

Figure 2 represents a longitudinal profile of the
Blue Ridge Esker and two similar profiles of the adjacent
topography: one to the south and east and the other to the
north and west of the esker. These profiles appear to
represent a straight line; however, the reader should

recognize that they follow the sinuous course of the esker.

17

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Although there are many variations, it is evident
from the esker profile that altitudes along the crest of
the esker generally tend to increase with increasing
distance from the upstream (northeast) portion of the esker.
The topography adjacent to the esker in many places also
exhibits a slight increase in the same direction. This is
especially true in the areas adjacent to the downstream
(southwest) portion of the esker. This increase in ele-
vation in all profiles indicates that the esker trends
upslope in some places. Charlesworth (1957) notes that
evidence of an esker trending upslope supports a theory of
subglacial esker formation. Thus, if his interpretation is
correct, this situation indicates a subglacial origin of
the Blue Ridge Esker.

Topographic profiles of the esker also reveal that
a relationship apparently exists between the degree of
irregularity of the esker crest and the width of the esker.
The crest is most irregular in the Southern Segment, where
the esker is narrowest, and least irregular in the Northern
Segment, where the feature is widest.

Figure 3 represents four profiles constructed at
right angles to the trend of the Blue Ridge Esker and
adjacent areas. The tranverses along which these profiles
were constructed are shown in Plate I.

Profile A, which represents a typical cross section

of the Northern Segment of the esker, shows that in this

19

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20

area the esker has relatively low crest elevations and is
relatively wide.

Profile B is located downstream (southwest) from
Profile A but also within the Northern Segment. In this
area the esker is much narrower and smaller topographi-
cally, but its crest elevation is slightly higher than that
of Profile A.

Profiles C and D are representative of the Middle
and Southern Segments, respectively. In these areas the
esker is not as wide (approximately one-eight of a mile) as
at most places within the Northern Segment, but the altitude
of the crest is about 1,050 feet, approximately thirty feet
higher than the crest of Profile A.

It is apparent from Profiles B, C, and D that at
some places the Blue Ridge Esker is bounded by an esker
trough. Topographic map analysis and field study indicate
that an esker trough exists along almost the entire length
of both sides of the Middle and Southern Segments and about
one mile of the southwestern portion of the Northern Segment
of the esker. The surface of the trough is approximately
ten to twenty feet lower than the average altitude of the
adjacent land in most places, and it may vary from less
than one-half mile to more than a mile in width.

The esker trough may be an especially significant
feature because many authors consider its existence as
indicative of subglacial esker formation (Rieck, 1972).

Some workers propose that esker troughs are the result of

21

glaciofluvial action, and thus they believe that if the
esker stream was able to erode the trough it apparently
flowed in a subglacial tunnel of the ice (Rieck, 1972,

p. 40).

Tributary_Eskers

 

There are apparently several tributary eskers to the
Blue Ridge. One, referred to here as the Stony Lake Esker,
is located to the east of the Middle Segment and joins the
Blue Ridge in the NW 1/4, Section 6, T. 4 S., R. 1 B.

(see Plate I). This esker originates as a topographic
feature at least as far east as the center of Section 9,

T. 4 S., R. 1 E. and extends in an east-west direction for
a distance of about two and one~half miles. However, the
esker is not continuous topographically but instead con-
sists of a number of segments, the longest of which is only
slightly more than one-half mile in length.

The topography adjacent to the esker segments
averages between approximately 970 to 990 feet above sea
level. The crest exceeds 1,000 feet in numerous places,
and the highest elevations, more than 1,020 feet, exist
within the largest segment. Thus, the crest of the Stony
Lake Esker is about 20 to 30 feet above the adjacent land
in most places, with the maximum being 40 feet.

A second related esker, known as the Wolf Lake
Extension, is narrower than most parts of the Blue Ridge

Esker and forms a relatively straight ridge that is two and

22

one-half miles in length and is discontinuous in only a few
places. Mapping indicates that it originates as a topo-
graphic feature just east of Norvell Road in the SW 1/4,

NW 1/4, Section 15, T. 3 S., R. 2. E. (see Plate II).

The altitude of the topography directly adjacent to
the Wolf Lake Extension averages approximately 980 feet
above sea level, while altitudes along the crest of the
esker often exceed 1,000 feet. Thus, this feature is usually
about 20 feet or more above the nearby land. However, the
Wolf Lake Extension is an impressive feature within the
adjacent topography since much of its surface is not tree
covered and, therefore, its linear form is strikingly dis-
played along much of its course.

The Grass Lake Esker is a tributary to the Wolf
Lake Extension and appears to originate in the SW 1/4,

NW 1/4, Section 4, T. 3 S., R. 2 B. (see Plate II). It
extends in a north—south direction, is sinuous in plan, and
is slightly more than two miles in length. The topographic
expression of this feature terminates very near the Wolf
Lake Extension in the SE 1/4, Section 17, T. 3 S., R. 2 E.

The altitude of the topography adjacent to the
Grass Lake Esker averages about 980 feet above sea level
while the crest of the esker is generally between 990 and
1,000 feet. Thus, in most places its crest is 10 to 20
feet above the adjacent topography, and it is topographi-

cally not as apparent as the eskers previously discussed.

23
Significance of Tributary Eskers and Their
Spatial Distribution

The spatial pattern of the Blue Ridge Esker and its
tributaries reveals that an extensive, relatively well—
developed drainage system existed within the glacier during
the final deglaciation of this part of Michigan. Eskers
are also characteristic features of glacial stagnation.
Therefore, if it is correct to assume that the Blue Ridge
and its tributary eskers formed contemporaneously, the
spatial distribution of these features suggests that ice
stagnation was probably quite widespread in this area.
Additionally, numerous kames, also indicative of ice
stagnation, are located in various areas adjacent to the
Blue Ridge Esker system.

Apparently large masses of ice became disassociated
with the ice margin, whose position may have been retreating
to the north and east. The stagnant ice became perforated
with many cracks, holes, chambers, and tunnels into which
much glacial drift was deposited by mass wasting and supra-
glacial, englacial, and subglacial streams. Hence, instead
of an assemblage of landforms that formed in connection with
an ice margin that was associated with active ice that
tended to retreat in an orderly manner, this area is
characterized by ice-disintegration features such as kames
and eskers. Flint (1971, p. 207) notes that "In such a
situation not only is the locus of deposition of drift not

concentrated at the glacier terminus, but the deposited

24

drift assumes forms most of which are very different from
those of end moraines." Thus, the Blue Ridge Esker and
adjacent landforms were probably formed in an environment
characterized by the slow melting of large masses of stagnant
ice accompanied by the deposition over a large area of ice-

contact glacially derived sediments.

CHAPTER III

STONE TYPES WITHIN THE BLUE RIDGE ESKER

Characteristics of Pebbles and Cobbles

 

Pebble and cobble samples were collected according
to the methods described in Chapter I at five sites within
the Blue Ridge Esker and at one site in the Wolf Lake
Extension (see Plates I and II for the location of these
sites). An identification of the lithology of the pebble
and cobble samples (Table 1) reveals that carbonate pebbles
are the most numerous, averaging close to 50 percent of the
total pebbles collected at each site. Igneous-metamorphic
rocks are second in abundance and comprise nearly 30 per-
cent of the total pebbles. Shale and siltstone and other
rock types make up the remaining fraction of the pebble
samples. The samples of all sites appear to be uniform in
that the percentage of pebbles of the various rock types is
similar in all the samples except for site three, which has
an abnormally high amount of carbonate rocks and lower
percentages in all other categories, especially the
igneous-metamorphic group.

The lithologic types of cobble size differ markedly

from those described previously. The percentage of

25

26

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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. . mm . . mm mm m>am
. . vm v mm mm usom
H ma a oe mv mouse
. . ma N om mm 039
a ma m aw ow moo
Hmnuo mcoumpcwm wamnm oanmuoEmumz mumconnmo HwQESZ wuflm
can mcoumuaam ImsomcmH mHmEmm mannou
v m m mm we me
OH ma m mm Nv m>Hm
m mm H Hm ov udom
v Ha H ma ow mouse
4 ma m mm ow 039
w v . . hm mm mco
uwzuo ocoumocmm mamcm oanmuoEmumz wumconumu umnfisz muflm
paw wcouwuafim ImsosmcmH mHmEmm mannwm

 

 

 

 

 

 

.wuwm some um oouomaaoo monoum Hmuou mo unwoumm CH

.umxmm mmpfim msam map Eoum pmuowaaoo mmHmEMm wannoo paw magnum mo wmoaosuflqnu.a mange

 

27

carbonate rocks averages only about 40 percent of all the
cobbles collected, while there is only a slight increase in
the percentage of crystalline rocks. The major difference
is a marked increase in the percentage of sandstone cobbles,
which comprise about 25 percent of the esker cobbles
sampled.

Table 1 reveals that a marked change in lithology is
evident between sites three and four in both the pebble and
cobble fractions, although the former is not as apparent.
The percentage of sandstone cobbles from site four is
twice as much as that identified in the sample from site
three. Site four has the largest percentage of sandstone
cobbles in the esker, and this ratio tends to decrease
slightly downstream from this location. It appears logical
to conclude that somewhere between sites three and four a
considerable amount of locally derived sandstone was
introduced into the esker stream.

The data concerning the lithologic composition of
the esker sediments do not support the conclusions made by
Scandinavian authors regarding the origin and transporta-
tional distances of eskerine sediments. They found that
esker sediments apparently are largely of local origin and
probably have not been transported many kilometers.
However, it was previously shown in this paper that
approximately one-third of the pebbles and cobbles of the
Blue Ridge Esker are of the igneous-metamorphic group.

Obviously these crystalline rocks do not have their origin

28

in southeastern Michigan. It also may be possible that
some of the stones of other lithologic types are not of
local origin.

On the other hand, the abundance of sandstone within
the esker, especially the portion downstream from site
three, supports the concept that local bedrock may be a
source for a significant amount of sediment within eskers.
This apparent contradiction with the findings in Scandi-
navia may be explained by the following:

1. The effects of multiple glaciation. Since there
were at least three major stages of glaciation
before the Wisconsinan, during which the Blue Ridge
Esker was formed, it is entirely possible that a
large percentage of the esker's igneous—metamorphic
stones were derived from older drift within south-
east Michigan, thereby accounting for the apparently
large amount of crystalline stones within the
feature.

2. The thickness of previous drift. If the previous
glacial drift within the area was relatively thick,
it is quite reasonable to conclude that the glacier
ice may not have been able completely to penetrate
the older drift and erode sediments from the bed-
rock below. Hence. there would be few, if any,
local source areas of bedrock from which sediments

may be derived, and this situation would cause the

29

percentage of non-locally derived material within

the feature to be relatively high.

3. The characteristics of the bedrock surface. If
bedrock exists near the surface in or adjacent to
areas traversed by the esker stream, it seems
reasonable to suggest that a relatively large
percentage of sediments of this bedrock type may be
present within esker sediments since the glacier
ice may have readily eroded bedrock which was near
the surface.

Thus, the effects of multiple glaciation, the
thickness of the previous glacial drift, and the character-
istics of the local bedrock surface are probably all signi-
ficant factors in determining the amount of locally derived
sediments within eskers.

Possible Origin of Locally Derived
Sandstone Sediments

 

The origin of the increased amounts of sandstone
between sites three and four may be related to the bedrock
characteristics in the areas adjacent to the esker. Martin
(1936) has mapped the bedrock immediately beneath the
glacial drift in the Blue Ridge Esker area as sandstone.

A drift-thickness map (Figure 4), constructed from approxi-

mately 400 well-log records for the area,4 reveals that

 

4Well-log data, extracted from a map indicating the
location and depth to bedrock of water and oil wells in
Jackson County, was supplied by the U.S. Geological Survey,
Lansing, Michigan.

30

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memw wGDE wad-E «NU

 

mudumam wt... 304mm xi:

.......

Pu. on 0.... am xoomomm ”mi

3.5:» mi. to .59.,
0.... 2.5.3 6880 - , ._

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

<ME< memm MODE MDIE . mmmzxoik FEED

 

 

31

sandstone bedrock exists at shallow depth beneath the
surface within a part of the Northern Segment directly
downstream from Site three. This is indicated by a log
for a well located within the NE 1/4, Section 28, T. 3 S.,
R. l E., which shows thirty-eight feet of sand, gravel, and
boulders, probably associated with the esker, resting on
bedrock.5 Thus, it appears that the source for the
increased amounts of sandstone between sites three and four
is associated with an area of sandstone bedrock underlying
a portion of the Northern Segment of the esker. Addition-
ally, there are numerous other areas in the vicinity of the
esker where sandstone bedrock exists close to the surface,
and these may also have been source areas for some of the
locally derived sandstone.

Comparison of the Lithologic Composition of

the Blue Ridge Esker angrthe Saginaw
and Huron-Erie Lobe Deposits

Kneller (1964) analyzed pebbles from glaciofluvial
deposits in southeastern Michigan to determine whether their
source was associated with the Saginaw or Huron-Erie Lobe.
His data and findings provide a basis for differentiating

such drift of the two glacial lobes.

 

5It should be noted that there is some question as
to the exact location of this well. The well-log record
contains a poor, general description of the location.
However, as plotted on the map supplied by the U.S.
Geological Survey, this well is positioned immediately
adjacent to a part of the Northern Segment of the esker.

32

The author has averaged Kneller's data on the
lithology of these sediments for all samples collected in
both the Saginaw and Huron-Erie deposits (see Table 2).
Data concerning the pebble lithology of all six sites
within the Blue Ridge Esker were also averaged and are
shown in Table 2.

A comparison of the average pebble lithologies of
the two lobe samples and the esker sample reveals several
important relationships. First, the average percentage of
igneous-metamorphic pebbles of the esker and the Saginaw
Lobe samples are nearly equal, whereas the average per-
centages of this rock type in the Huron-Erie Lobe samples
is much lower (7 to 8 percent). A similar relationship is
also apparent when comparisons are made between the average
for siltstone and shale. Percentages of stone types from
the Saginaw Lobe samples and those of the Blue Ridge Esker
are nearly equal; however, the Huron-Erie samples averaged
nearly 8 to 9 percent more siltstone and shale.

Another significant relationship is revealed when
the average amount of sandstone within the esker is compared
with that associated with the two lobes according to
Kneller. The two lobe samples average nearly the same
percentage of sandstone, approximately 6 percent, whereas
the average of all six sites within the esker was about
twice this amount.

Two conclusions may be made regarding the relation-

ships between the samples of glaciofluvial sediments from

33

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m.m m.m m.a «.mm m.om .mnoq zmcflmmm

H.m N.mH m.m m.am H.mv umxmm
mmowm msam

m.m o.m m.oa h.mm N.mm maoq
«mflumucousm

umcuo mcoumpcmm monoumuaflm OHEDHOEmuoz mwumconumu mamfimm

paw mmamsm ImsomcmH
.Hmuou mo

unmoumm cfl mmHDEMm memm

paw onH Eouw mmHDEMm mannmm

mo mooaonuwa mmmnm>fill.m manme

 

34

the two lobes and those from the Blue Ridge Esker. (1) It
appears that the lithology of the Blue Ridge Esker is more
closely associated with that of the Saginaw Lobe rather than
the Huron—Erie Lobe because the average number of igneous-
metamorphic and siltstone and shale pebbles of the esker

and the Saginaw Lobe samples were nearly equal, whereas the
Huron-Erie samples of these stone types revealed differences
of about 8 percent with the averages for the esker samples.
(2) It may be concluded that a significant amount of sand-
stone was introduced into the esker stream from a local
source because the average amount of sandstone within the
esker was twice as much as that found within the two lobe

samples according to Kneller.

Sedimentary Characteristics

Leverett in 1915 (Leverett & Taylor, 1915) reports
that the size of the sediments comprising the Blue Ridge
Esker, for the most part, appear to be relatively large.
Although many exposures within the esker reveal mainly
sand- and pebble-sized material, there are numerous beds of
cobbles and boulders. Figure 6a is a photograph of a pile
of discarded boulders in a gravel pit at site three.
Figure 6b shows a boulder, within the same gravel pit, that
was measured to be five and three-quarters feet by six feet
by four feet. Boulders and cobbles were found in great
abundance in all exposures examined in the esker. Several

authors note that the presence of coarse material within

35

 

 

Figure 6a. Snow-capped boulders in gravel pit at
site 3.

 

 

Figure 6b. Large limestone boulder in the gravel
pit at site 3. Note the hat on the boulder for scale.

36

the esker sediments indicates that a swift current existed
within the stream from which they were deposited (Carney,
1908; Reeves, 1920; and Embleton & King, 1968).

R. F. Flint (1971) and Embleton and King (1968) both
believe that eskers are formed in contact with the glacier
ice. Flint (1971, pp. 184-85) has recognized at least
three criteria for the identification of ice—contact
stratified deposits, all of which exist within the Blue
Ridge Esker. These criteria are (l) abrupt changes and
extreme range in grain sizes, (2) included bodies of till or
flow till, and (3) collapse or slump structures within the '
sediments. ‘

Abrupt changes in grain size and extreme range of
sediment sizes were observed in all exposures examined in
the Blue Ridge Esker except at site six, which was over-
grown with vegetation. Figure 7 illustrates the abrupt
change from cobble- and boulder-sized material to fine sand
at site three.

A mass of flow till, approximately ten feet thick
and twenty feet in length, was observed along a northwest-
facing exposure in the esker at site five.' Although till
appears to overlie much of the esker sediments at site
five, this mass apparently was deposited from above about
ten feet into the esker Sediments. Possibly during a late
phase of deglaciation this till flowed off a mass of ice or
fell from the roof of the ice tunnel into the esker

sediments.

37

 

 

Figure 7. Abrupt change and extreme range in grain
sizes in an exposure at site three. A small shovel and
camera case are included for scale.

38

Slump and collapse structures (Figure 8) exist at
site five within the northwest-facing exposure mentioned
above. These features were formed when the supporting ice
melted, allowing the sediments to slump or collapse. Dis-
placement indicates that relative movement of two feet or
more occurred at several places.

Except for the structures described ab6ve, no
evidence of folding, faulting, or contorted bedding was
observed at any of the sites examined in the Blue Ridge
Esker. If the esker formed supraglacially or englacially
and the esker sediments were superposed upon the surface by
melting of underlying glacier ice, evidence of disturbed
bedding should be abundant. Lack of such characteristics
indicates that the esker probably formed at the base of the
glacier ice.

Sedimentary characteristics also indicate that the
esker stream flowed in a southwesterly direction. In every
exposure examined in the esker, with the exception of site
six, the most common bedding trends were associated with
foreset beds dipping toward the southwest.

According to Mr. Ron Stevik (1973, personal com-
munication), drilling to determine the subsurface extent of
the sand and gravel at site five indicates that these
sediments extend at least fifty feet below the working
surface of the gravel pit, which is approximately at the
same altitude as the topography adjacent to the esker.

Exposures observed show that the esker sediments extend at

39

 

 

Figure 8. Slump structures in the gravel pit
exposure at site five.

re:

..
W3 0% a.
a...”
9
m. x .v.
PM. with...
3! Ln“: .W‘; a. . Wat;
q? r
y in... m.
I: .n
9 .64 «a.
. I
4..
. a.
a}.
..«..
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. a.
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i v. 5 v .Wm . ..
a?
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a... ..... w 3.... i
. .. ... . 9
.5” u:

 

40

least ten feet below the surface and that, if the entire
fifty feet of these subsurface sands and gravels are part
of the esker, it would appear that in this area possibly
less than one—half of the esker sediments are exposed
topographically. If this interpretation is correct, it
indicates that the esker formed subglacially because only
such a stream would be capable of eroding a channel and
depositing sediments below the level of the present land
surface.

With the possible exception of site six, an average
of four or five feet of ablation till overlies the esker
sediments in all exposures. The till is very sandy, is
buff—colored, apparently contains only small amounts of
clay, and is very similar to the till that was observed
within the esker sediments at site five. Apparently during
the last phases of deglaciation varying amounts of ablation
drift were deposited upon the surface of the esker. This
resulted from either collapse of the overlying ice
accompanied by the deposition of drift or slumping of

glacial debris from adjacent masses of ice.

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Tgpographic Expression and Extent
of the Esker

 

The Blue Ridge Esker, which can be divided into
three segments, extends for a distance of about ten miles
within an area of till and outwash plain in southeastern
Jackson County. The esker varies in width from well over
a half mile in the Northern Segment to much less than one-
eighth mile in the southern portion. Height above the
adjacent topography varies from an average low of about
thirty feet in the Northern Segment to average highs of
about fifty to sixty feet in the Middle Segment. In one
place in the southern portion the esker is slightly higher
than 100 feet above the adjacent topography.

Additionally, it was observed that a relationship
exists between the degree of irregularity of the esker
crest and the width of the feature. Where the esker is
wide (Northern Segment), the esker crest is least irregular,
and where it is narrowest (southern portion), the crest is

most irregular.

41

42
Certain Sedimgntary Characteristics
and Relationships

The sedimentary characteristics of the Blue Ridge
Esker indicate several important relationships. First, the
lithology of the glaciofluvial sediments of the esker is
more closely associated with that of the Saginaw Lobe rather
than the Huron-Erie Lobe. This suggests that the Saginaw
Lobe contributed a greater amount of sediment to the Blue
Ridge Esker stream.

Second, on the basis of the relative abundance of
sandstone pebbles and cobbles within the esker, it was
concluded that much of the sandstone sediments were derived
locally from an area of bedrock located at shallow depth
immediately underlying a part of the esker or from a number
of areas in the vicinity of the esker where bedrock exists
near the surface. Thus, it was suggested that, if bedrock
is located near the surface in areas traversed by the esker,
sediments of that bedrock type should be relatively abundant
within the feature. If bedrock is not located near the
surface, it probably is not an important source area for
eskerine material.

It was also observed that as much as one-third of
the esker sediments (crystalline stones) may have originated
from a distant source, such as Canada. However, it was
noted that much of the apparently non-local sediments may
actually have been derived from older glacial drift in

southeast Michigan.

43

Formation of the Esker

Sedimentary and topographic characteristics also
indicate that the Blue Ridge Esker formed in a subglacial
tunnel or crevasse of the ice. Sedimentary evidence
supporting this conclusion includes (1) that in one place
no more than one-half of the esker sediments are topographi-
cally expressed, and (2) that no disturbed bedding other
than the slump structures at site five were observed.
Topographic evidence includes (1) the apparent uplepe
trend of the esker along some part of its course, and
(2) the location of the esker within an esker trough

throughout much of the feature's length.

Deglaciation Environment

The nature and characteristics of the Blue Ridge
Esker and its tributaries provide some basis for under-
standing the nature of the deglaciation environment in this
area. The spatial distribution of these features suggest
that a relatively well-developed drainage system existed
within a large area of stagnant glacier ice. The declaci-
ation process was characterized by the disintegration of
the stagnant ice in place, accompanied by the deposition of
ice-contact sediments and the formation of such features as

eskers and kames.

Relationship of Findings to Previous Work
As a result of an examination of the morphology of

the Blue Ridge Esker and its tributaries, it is possible to

44

 

recommend several modifications of Martin's 1955 Map of the

Surface Formations of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan.

1.

6

According to Martin (Figure l) a tributary esker
from the north joins the Blue Ridge Esker just north
of the Grand River. This esker is portrayed as
being approximately four miles in length and located
to the west of the Blue Ridge. On the basis of this
study the existence of such a feature is not
verified. There are, however, several kames in this
area which are arranged in a somewhat linear
pattern.

Martin indicates that the Blue Ridge Esker extends
about one and one-half miles to the southwest of
Skiff Lake. The area to the south and southwest of
Skiff Lake appears to be a complex maoranic area
consisting of many small knobs, depressions, and
ridges. However, none of these ridges is continuous
for any considerable distance, and they do not
appear to be connected with the Blue Ridge Esker.
Observation of topographic maps and field work
indicate that the southern terminus of the Blue
Ridge Esker is located to the west of Skiff Lake
rather than approximately one and one—half miles

to the southwest as portrayed on Martin's 1955

surface formations map.

 

6Figure l is based on this map.

45

3. Neither the Stony Lake Esker nor the Wolf Lake
Extension are represented on Martin's 1955 map.
The topographic expression of both eskers is
apparent in the field, and hence it would seem
appropriate to recognize these two eskers as part

of the Blue Ridge Esker System on the Map of the

 

Surface Formations of the Southern Peninsula of

Michigan.

Suggestions for Further Study
Although it was determined that much of the esker
sediments were probably contributed by the Saginaw Lobe it
was not possible to state whether the esker formed at the
interlobate contact or entirely within one of the glacial
lobes that existed in the area. This question concerning
the location of the formation of the Blue Ridge Esker

remains unanswered and merits further study.

LITERATURE CITED

LITERATURE CITED

Carney, Frank. "Pleistocene Geology of the Moravia Quad-
rangle, New York." Denison University Journal of
the Scientific Laboratories 14 (November 1908):

Chamberlain, T. C. "Hillocks of Angular Gravel and
Disturbed Stratification." American Journal of
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. "The Horizon of Drumlin, Osar and Kame Forma-
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. "Proposed Genetic Classification of Pleistocene
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1884):517-38.

Charlesworth, J. K. The Quaternary Era. London: Edward
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Crosby, William O. "The Origin of Eskers." Proceedin s of
the Boston Society_of Natural Histqu 30 (June
l902):375-4ll.

Davis, W. M. "The Subglacial Origin of Certain Eskers."
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DeGeer, Gerard. "Om Rullstensasarnas Bildningssatt."
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Embleton, Clifford, and King, Cuchlaine A. M. Glacial and
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Flint, R. F. “Eskers and Crevasse Fillings." American
Journal of Science 15 (l928):410-16.

46

47

Flint, R. F. "The Origin of the Irish Eskers." Geographi-
cal Review 20 (October l930):615-30.

 

. "Eskers and the Last Ice Sheet in Denmark."
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. Glacial and_guaternary Geology. New York: John
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Hellaakoski, Aaro. "On the Transportation of Materials in
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Kneller, William Arthur. "A Geological and Economic Study
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Leverett, Frank K. "Glacial Formations and Drainage
Features of the Erie and Ohio Basins." U.S.
Geological Survey_Monograph 41 (1902.

 

"Moraines and Shorelines of the Lake Superior
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. "Quaternary Geology of Minnesota and Parts of
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, and Taylor, F. B. "The Pleistocene of Indiana
and Michigan and the History of the Great Lakes."
U.S. Geological Survey Monograph 53 (1915).

 

Martin, Helen M. The Centenial Geological Ma of the
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Michigan Department of Conservation, Geological
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. Map of the Surface Formations of the Southern
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Matisto, Arvo. "On the Relation Between the Stones of the
Eskers and the Local Bedrock in the Area Northwest
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Okko, Marjatta. "0n the Development of the First Sal-
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48

Okko, Veikko. "The Second Salpausselka at Jylisjarvi, East
of Hameenlinna." Fennia 81 (l957):l-46.

Price, Robert J. "Landforms Produced by the Wastage of the
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1124.

. "Eskers Near the Casement Glacier, Alaska."
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Reaves, J. R. “The Anderson Esker." American Journal of
Science 50 (July l920):65-68.

Rieck, Richard Louis. "Morphology, Structure and Formation
of Eskers with Illustrations from Michigan and a
Bibliographical Index to Esker Literature.” Masters
thesis, Wayne State University, 1972.

Sharp, Robert D. "Glacial Features of Cook County Minne-
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l953):855-83.

 

Stokes, J. C. "An Esker-like Ridge in Process of Formation,
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Stone, George H. "The Glacial Gravels of Maine and Their
Associated Deposits." U.S. Geological Survey
Monograph 34 (1899).

 

Upham, Warren. "On the Origin of Kames and Eskers in New
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. "Criteria of Englacial and Subglacial Drift."
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. "Eskers Near Rochester, New York." Proceedings
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1893):181-200.

. "Evidence of the Derivation of the Kames, Eskers,
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Chiefly from Its Englacial Drift." Bulletin of the
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71-86.

. "Moraines and Eskers of the Last Glaciation in
the White Mountains." American Geologist 13
(January 1904):7-14.

49

Virkkala, K. "Stone Counts in the Esker of Hameenlinna,
Southern Finland." Bulletin de la Commission
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LARGE NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES AT
LANSING, MICHIGAN, DURING SPRING AND
THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO HUDSON BAY AIR

MASSES AND MIDDLE LEVEL

WIND FLOW PATTERNS

BY

Kenneth E. Keifenheim

A RESEARCH PAPER

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Geography

1974

AC KNOWLEDGMENT S

The author wishes to thank Dr. Jay Harman for his

advice and guidance in the completion of this study.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF FIGURES o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 iv
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Discussion of Middle Level Windflow Patterns and
Their Relationship to Surface Temperatures. . . 2
Discussion of Ice Conditions Over Hudson Bay and
the Formation of "Hudson Bay" Air Masses . . . 4
INVESTIGATIVE HYPOTHESES . . . . . . . . . . 7
DATA SOURCES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 8
PROCEDURES 0 I O O O O O O O O O I O O O 8
RESULTS 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O I O O O 10
Effects of Hudson Bay on Low Level Temperatures
in canada 0 I O O O I O O O O O O O O 2 0
CONCLUSIONS 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 2 3
Suggestions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

iii

Figure

l.

10.

Paths of
1973 .

Paths of
Paths of

Paths of
1973 .

Mean 700
1972 .

Mean 700
1973 .

Average Surface Temperature Departures from
Normal (°F)--May,

Average Surface Temperature Departures from
Normal (°F)--May,

Mean Monthly Temperatures at 850 mb.
1973 O O O O O O I I O 0

May,

Mean Monthly Temperatures at 850 mb.
1972 O O O O O O O O O D

May ’

LIST OF FIGURES

Cold Air Masses-—April, 1972 and
Cold Air Masses--May, 1972 . .
Cold Air Masses—-May, 1973 . .
Cold Air Masses--June, 1972 and

mb. Contours in Dekameters--May,

mb. Contours in Dekameters--May,

1972 O O O O I O

1973 O C O O O O

<°C)--

(°C)--

iv

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11
12

13

14

15

17

18

19

21

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INTRODUCTION

In Southern Michigan, spring is a season of quite
variable weather often characterized by outbreaks of cold
polar air or invasions of tropical air from the Gulf of
Mexico. Although an outbreak of cold air may cause un-
pleasant weather, it can also have a more severe affect on
the fruit growing and related industries of the state,
especially if it occurs in late spring. For example, on
May 18, 1973, a record minimum temperature of 25 degrees F.
was observed at Lansing, while freezing temperatures
occurred throughout much of the state, resulting in great
damage to Southern Michigan vineyards, apple, and other

fruit orchards.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to determine the paths
taken by cold air masses that have caused large negative
temperature departures from normal at Lansing, Michigan,
during spring. More specifically, an attempt will be made

to determine whether these air masses traverse the Hudson

Bay area before entering the Midwest. Since cold "pools" of
air and their movement are easily identifiable on 850 mb.
facsimile charts, these maps will be used to trace the paths
of cold air masses at this low atmospheric level.

Upper and middle level wind flows, in general, are
responsible for surface weather patterns and therefore this
paper will also attempt to establish a relationship between
the frequency of cold air mass invasions from the Hudson
Bay area and average monthly tropospheric windflow patterns.
Accordingly, the movement of cold air masses into the
Lansing area during April, May, and June of 1972 and 1973
and the mean 700 mb. windflow patterns for these months will
be examined.

Discussion of Middle Level Windflow

Patterns and Their Relationship
to Surface Temperatures

 

 

 

Air flow in the mid-trOposhere in the westerly wind
belt is wave—like in plan and forms a sinuous course about
the earth. The position of these planetary waves has a
great effect on surface temperatures because surface air
masses interact with them and move in response to the
associated flows. For example, if a strong ridge is located
in Northwestern Canada and a deep trough downstream, "this
flow pattern effectively deploys cold Arctic air masses
southward over the continent" (Namias, 1953, p. 24).
Similarly a southwesterly flow from a trough to a ridge

advects warm air from a southerly source to the more

northerly area of the ridge. Namias (1953, p. 25) sum-
marizes the importance of the relationship between planetary
waves and surface weather by stating: "It appears that,
especially for time periods longer than a few days, the
temperature of an area depends greatly upon the character-
istics of the planetary wave pattern about one-half wave
length upstream."

In the average or "normal" upper air flow, planetary
troughs and ridges generally occupy the same longitudinal
positions from month to month since many of these waves are
produced by fixed earth features such as coastlines
(Sutcliffe, 1951) or mountain barriers (O'Connor, 1963).
However, the position of mean troughs and ridges do change
from season to season and the actual waves assume atypical
positions rather frequently during any particular time
period. "The abnormal longitudinal positioning of planetary
waves is one of the basic factors producing abnormal
weather over large areas and long periods of time" (O'Connor,
1963, p. 1009). Even if the troughs and ridges are in their
mean positions "an abnormally northerly latitude of the air
flow in the ridges, or southerly flow in the troughs, will
be associated with unusual and sometimes extreme weather
conditions" (O'Connor, 1963, p. 1009). Thus, sharp inter-
and intra-monthly variations in the mix of air masses

normally affecting a region can result.

Discussion of Ice Conditions Over
HEEEEH_Bay andrtheiFormation of
Hudson Bay, Air Masses

Partly because of the extreme environment and the
obvious difficulties of empirical observation, very little
information is available concerning ice conditions over
Hudson Bay and the associated modification, if any, of the
overlying air masses. It has been suggested (Harman, 1968)
that a relationship may exist between the depth and extent
of ice cover on Hudson Bay and the degree of air mass
modification that results. Forward (1956) thought the
amount of snow cover determined the ice thickness attained
on the Bay. However, as of yet there has been a lack of
information concerning these two variables. Nevertheless,
several studies have been completed describing the yearly
ice conditions on the Bay as well as the formation and
movement, during spring, of the so-called "Hudson Bay" air
masses.

Hudson Bay is a large water body covering approxi—
mately 300,000 square miles in Northeastern Canada (Lamont,
1949). Because of the shallowness of the Bay and the
relatively low salinity and vertical stability of its
waters, combined with its high latitude, large areas of
pack ice develop over the surface of the Bay (Forward,
1956). Ice cover approaches 100 percent by late January
and the ice normally does not begin to break up until late
May (Forward, 1956). By late June the ice is broken into

small and medium sized floes but not until about July 10

are large areas of open water observed. In some years
large quantities of pack ice may persist until late August.

Snow cover in the interior of Canada has usually
melted by early May (Harman, 1968) while Hudson Bay is
largely covered by ice through June. Thus, this large ice
covered surface may act as an important heat sink during
the spring season. This has lead some meteorologists to
consider Hudson Bay as a likely location for the formation
of cold anticyclones during spring (Klein, 1957; Johnson,
1948). Cold air masses that appear to develop in associ-
ation with, or be modified by, Hudson Bay during the spring
season, therefore, have been referred to as Hudson Bay air
masses.

Bowie and Weightman (1917) were among the first
meteorologists to recognize the occurrence of Hudson Bay
air masses in spring. They noted that these air masses
occurred less frequently than other types of anticyclones
but most frequently in May. They were described as very
slow moving anticyclones that usually resulted in a change
to much colder weather.

Namias (1953) stated that warm periods in the
spring were usually terminated by Hudson Bay highs, defined
as slow moving anticyclones from the Hudson Bay area. He
also noted that periods of warm weather during this time of
year were seldom broken by air masses moving in from the

west.

Klein (1957), in a study of the major tracks of
anticyclones in North America, noted that the land-water
temperature contrast is very pronounced during May and that
these thermal differences are mainly responsible for an
increase in the anticyclonic frequency over Hudson Bay,
James Bay, and the Great Lakes during this period of the
year. Because of these thermal contrasts a higher frequency
of anticyclones is observed in central Canada than in the
western part of the country in the spring.

Johnson (1948) specifically studied anticlyclogenesis
in eastern Canada during spring and noted that the Hudson
Bay area becomes a favored site for the development of
anticyclones partly because of the stabilizing effect of
the very cold surface temperatures of this region. He
observed that, "During periods in which blocking is
effective over North America the resulting decrease in zonal
flow favors the development of cold low level anticyclones
in the area where radiational cooling is greatest. In the
spring months this is the region of Hudson Bay" (Johnson,
1948, p. 54).

In a study of negative temperature departures from
normal at Urbana, Illinois, Harman (1968) noted that a
large percentage of departure days in May and June appeared
to be associated with air masses that passed near Hudson
Bay before invading the Illinois area. Additionally, it
was found that thelpercentage of departure days caused by

these air masses increased "with an increase in the

magnitude of the departure" (Harman, 1968, p. 12). He also
noted the need for further research on the problem of the
role of Hudson Bay on the modification and development of
these so-called Hudson Bay air masses.

In summary, it appears that during spring Hudson
Bay may serve as a source area of cold air and be a favored
site for anticyclonic development. However, it also seems
apparent that troposheric windflow patterns may play an
important role in determining whether or not this cold air

is advected southward into the Midwest.
INVEST IGAT IVE HYPOTHESES

Two main hypotheses will be investigated in this
paper. First, a high percentage of the large negative
temperature departures from normal recorded at Lansing,
Michigan, during spring should be the result of the invasion
of cold air masses that passed over or near Hudson Bay
before entering the mid-Michigan area. Second, a relation-
ship should exist between mean monthly long wave positions
and the frequency of cold air mass invasions from the Hudson
Bay area. For example, if the mean monthly air flow is of
a zonal nature, the frequency of Hudson Bay air mass
penetrations in the Midwest should be relatively low.
However, if the mean flow pattern was characterized by a
strong mean ridge in central Canada and a deep trough in
the Midwest, the frequency of cold air mass invasions from

the Bay area should be relatively high.

DATA SOURCES

The observed mean daily temperature at Lansing for
all days in the months of April, May, and June of 1972 and
1973 were obtained from Climatological Data-National
Summary, while the Michigan Weather Service provided the
normal mean temperatures for these dates. Data concerning
the daily temperatures recorded throughout Canada at 850
millibars and the movement of cold air masses at this level
were extracted from the National Meteorological Center
daily facsimile maps. Information concerning mean monthly
air flow patterns at the 700 mb. level was obtained from

Monthly Weather Review.

 

PROCEDURES

Mean monthly 850 mb. isotherm maps of January,
February, April, and May of 1972 and 1973 were constructed
for Canada from temperature readings at twenty-seven
stations throughout the country. This task was undertaken
to determine whether Hudson Bay exerts a detectable cooling
influence on the air temperatures at low altitudes in
central and eastern Canada. These isotherm maps were then
compared to the mean monthly 700 mb. air flow charts for
the same periods to determine the possible influence of
long wave positions on low altitude temperatures in Canada.

Next, the observed surface mean daily temperatures

at Lansing for April, May, and June of 1972 and 1973 were

obtained from Climatological Data and compared to the normal
mean for all days in these months. All dates of negative
temperature departures from normal of 10 degrees F. or more
were recorded. Although there were 29 such days during the
study period, many of these departures occurred on consecu-
tive days. Hence, some consecutive departure days were
grouped together and were considered to be the result of a
single air mass invasion. (The validity of this procedure
was checked during a subsequent portion of the study and
was found to be acceptable.) In all, there were 16 days or
groups of days that appeared to be the result of separate
air mass invasions.

After the large departure days had been recorded,
the 850 mb. facsimile maps were examined to determine the
paths of the cold air masses which apparently caused these
negative departures. Maps of the departure days as well as
those of the several preceding days were examined and the
center (or coldest part) of the cold air mass was plotted
on a map. Only air masses actually affecting Michigan were
plotted. For example, on several occasions a large cold
air mass moved southeast or east across Hudson Bay while a
lobe or tongue of this cold air moved out from the center
of the air mass and pivoted around it to the south,
apparently in relation to the mid-level flow. When this
pattern occurred the center of the cold air lobe that
passed over or near Michigan was plotted rather than the

center of the large cold air mass itself. The points

10

plotted on the map were then connected and the line that
resulted was considered to represent the trajectory of the
center of the cold air mass. These paths were then plotted
on a single map for each spring month and compared with the
mean monthly 700 mb. charts for the same period to determine
whether a relationship existed between air mass movement

and mean middle level air flow patterns.
RESULTS

The tracks of movement of the cold air masses that
caused large negative temperature departures from normal at
Lansing, Michigan, during the spring months of 1972 and 1973
(Figures 1 through 4) were generally north-south, with most
of the cold air masses passing over or near Hudson Bay
before entering the Midwest.1 Almost all of these air
masses originated directly over Hudson Bay or to the north-
west of it and moved across Canada in a southerly or south-
easterly direction toward the Great Lakes. After reaching
this general area they appear to have curved northeastward
toward New England or Newfoundland in response to middle
and upper level windflow patterns.

The mean air flow of May, 1972 (Figure 5) was

primarily zonal and only one outbreak of a cold air mass

 

1One departure day in May and one in June were not
included in the study because they were thought to be the
result of precipitation rather than of qualities inherent
in the air mass.

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from the Hudson Bay area occurred. However, May, 1973,
exhibited a markedly different mean longwave pattern
(Figure 6). A mean ridge was located immediately west of
Hudson Bay in northern Canada while a deep trough was
centered over the Midwest. This pattern evidently led to
the repeated deployment of cold air from north central
Canada, across Hudson Bay, and into the Midwest. Five such
cold air masses can be recognized. Hence, it would appear

that longwave positions are of great importance in deter-

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Hudson Bay area will move into the Midwest.

In May, 1972, when the mid—level air flow was
primarily zonal (Figure 5), the Michigan area experienced
average monthly temperatures of about 3 degrees F. above
normal (Figure 7). Parts of northern Minnesota averaged
as high as 9 degrees F. above the monthly mean. Apparently
during much of this month mild air from the Pacific was
advected across the Midwest by the predominantly zonal wind
flow. May of 1973, on the other hand, was colder than
normal in most of the Midwest (Figure 8). Mean monthly
temperatures were at least 3 degrees F. below normal in
Michigan and Wisconsin. During much of this month when a
northern Canadian ridge and a Midwestern trough were
characteristics of the mean flow pattern, cold Arctic air
was advected from northern Canada across Hudson Bay and
into the Midwest. These different patterns strongly

suggest that the number of Hudson Bay air masses reaching

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the Midwest is a response primarily to variations of mean
longwave positions.
Effects of Hudson Bay on Low Level
Temperatures in Canada

The mean monthly isotherm maps of Canada at the
850 mb. level would appear to indicate that Hudson Bay has
little effect on low level atmospheric temperatures
(Figures 9 and 10).2 Although Figure 9 reveals a depression
of temperature in the area around Hudson Bay, Figure 10
shows that the coldest 850 mb. temperatures in southern
Canada are found well to the east of the Bay. In both
figures the lowest mean temperatures are north of Hudson
Bay, suggesting a relationship with the mean longwave
position as evident on the 700 mb. charts (Figures 5 and 6).
Mean monthly 850 mb. isotherm and 700 mb. air flow maps for
the months of January, February, April, and May of 1972 and
1973 all exhibit a close spatial relationship between mean
pressure height and temperature, such that the lowest
temperatures in southern Canada lay near the position of
the planetary trough. Hence, the location of the coldest
air at the 850 mb. level appears to be less of an adjustment
to surface conditions than to the position of the long wave

trough.

 

2Mean monthly isotherm and 700 mb. windflow maps
were constructed for January, February, April, and May of
1972 and 1973. However, only those of May for both years
are presented since all the maps exhibit the same relation-
ship.

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CONCLUSIONS

Most large negative temperature departures from
normal observed at Lansing, Michigan, during spring, 1972
and 1973, were the result of cold air masses that previously
passed over or near Hudson Bay. Furthermore, it appears
that in order for these outbreaks of cold air to occur,
upper and middle level wind flow patterns must be favorable.
More specifically, conditions are conducive for the
advection of cold air into the Midwest if a planetary ridge
in north central Canada and a deep trough in the Midwest are
present. Such flow also favors the develOpment of anti-
cyclones in the Hudson Bay area since it lies in the region
of the planetary wave where negative vorticity advection
and subsidence are occurring. These cold air masses are
then "steered" into the Midwest by the circulation aloft.

Although 850 mb. isotherm maps of Canada failed to
show a cooling influence of Hudson Bay on the lower atmos-
phere during spring, such an influence may exist at lower
levels of the atmosphere or at the surface. An examination
of surface temperatures during spring might prove more
useful than readings taken at 850 mb., which may be too

high to be affected by the radiation budget of the Bay.

The effect of Hudson Bay on air masses lying
directly over it appears to be an area that needs further
study. Since air to the north of the Bay (at 850 mb.) is

actually colder than the air overlying Hudson Bay, and is

24

usually advected across its surface during outbreaks of
cold air masses to the Midwest, Hudson Bay probably does
not act to chill the air to lower temperatures, but may
prevent this air from warming as it moves south. Hence,
air masses passing to the west of Hudson Bay might modify
faster and therefore be warmer when they reach the Midwest
than air that passes over Hudson Bay. However, further

research on this topic is needed.

Suggestions

 

Since examination of temperatures at 850 mb. did
not reveal obvious relationships to the Bay, construction
of surface isotherm maps of Canada for the spring months
might reveal whether Hudson Bay does exert a cooling influ-
ence on the surrounding area. Furthermore, a study con-
cerning the degree of modification of air masses over
Hudson Bay during spring as compared to the modification
of air masses from western Canada may prove helpful in
understanding the role of Hudson Bay as a climatological

agent.

LI ST OF REFERENCES

 

LI ST OF REFERENCES

Bowie, E. H., and Weightman, R. H. "Types of Anticyclones
of the United States and Their Average Movement."
Monthly Weather Review, No. 1 (January 1917),
Supplement No. 4, 73 pp.

Dickson, Robert R. "Weather and Circulation of May, 1972-
Continued Drought in the Southwest." Monthl
Weather Review, vol. 100, No. 8 (August I972)
pp. 648-52.

I

. "Weather and Circulation of May, 1973-Warm in
the West, Cold in the East." Monthly Weather
Review, vol. 101, No. 8 (August 1973), pp. 657-61.

 

 

 

Forward, C. N. "Sea Ice Conditions Along the Hudson Bay
Route." Geographical Bulletin, No. 8 (1956),
pp. 22-50.

Harman, Jay R. "The Hudson Bay Air Mass Type-Some Clima-
tological Implications." American Water Resources
Association Bulletin (December71968), pp. 9114.

 

 

Johnson, C. B. "Anticyclogenesis in Eastern Canada During
Spring." Bulletin of the American Meteorological

Society, 29 (1948), pp. 47-55.

 

Klein, W. H. "Principal Tracks and Mean Frequencies of
Cyclones and Anticyclones in the Northern Hemis-
phere." U.S. Weather Bureau Research Paper No. 40
(1957), pp. 14-15.

Lamont, A. H. "Ice Conditions Over Hudson Bay and Related
Weather Phenomena." Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, v6II‘30, No. 8 (October
1949), PP. 288489.

Namias, J. "Thirty Day Forecasting: A Review of a Ten Year

Experiment." Meteorological Monographs, vol. 2

25

26

O'Connor, James F. "Extended and Long Range weather
Forecasting." Journal of the American Waterworks
Association, vol. 55 (1963):1006-18.

 

Sutcliffe, R. C. "Mean Upper Contour Patterns of the
Northern Hemisphere-The Thermal Synoptic Viewpoint."
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological
Society, vol. 77 Tl96l):435-40.

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