AN ENVESTlGATION OF THE PERSONNEL
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF
LARGE SCALE DAIRY OPERATIONS

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MmHlGAN STATE UNNERStTY
FRANK W. ROCHE
1971

 

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled I

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
OF LARGE SCALE DAIRY OPERATIONS

presented by

Frank W. Roche

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Dairy Science

 

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ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 0F
LARGE SCALE DAIRY OPERATIONS

By
Frank w. Roche

The personnel management practices of 36 dairies were studied. These
dairies were chosen from a total population of 399 dairies in the United
States with 500 cows or more.

Ten functions of personnel management were identified and their
practice was studied on each dairy farm. The observed practices were
discussed in relation to current theory and practice of personnel manage-
ment in the industrial sector. This served as a basis for drawing con-
clusions and making recommendations with regard to improving personnel
management on large dairies.

The functions studied were manpower planning, maintaining personnel
records, setting up the organization structure, hiring personnel, training
and development, wage and salary administration, motivation and discipline,
communications, health and safety and labor-relations.

The Only functions to receive much attention from dairy owners and
managers were hiring, training and development and wage and salary
administration. Even with these functions active recruiting programs
were absent, almost all dairymen expressed a need for organized training
programs for dairy employees and many dairies lacked sufficient fringe
benefits for their employees.

Manpower planning was not typically an integral part of the overall
planning process. Personnel record keeping was regarded as a chore made

necessary to "net legal and payroll requirements. Little attention was

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Frank N. Roche
paid 11) developing an efficient organization structure and developing

responsibility centers. Methods used to motivate employees were con-

sidered more as means of preventing dissatisfaction, rather than creating

inherent motivation within the employees. The communications process

generally appeared adequate, relying principally on individual daily

contact between employees and their supervisors or owners/managers. The

health and safety of employees appeared to be up to the individual him-
self with management playing predominantly a passive role of warning.

Management-union relations appeared good on the six unionized dairies

visited in California. Non-unionized dairies were concerned with the

possibility of increased labor costs and changed employer-employee

relations detrimental to the company resulting from unionization.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF
LARGE SCALE DAIRY OPERATIONS

By

Frank N. Roche

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Dairy Science

1971

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to John A. Speicher
for his counsel and understanding during the study and throughout his
entire graduate program. Appreciation is also extended to Allen E.
Shapley for his constant encouragement and helpful suggestions in the
formulation of the study.

A sincere expression of appreciation is extended to the Rural
Manpower Center for supporting the author's graduate studies and funding
his research project. The author is particularly grateful to Dr. C. A.
Lassiter, Chairman of the Department of Dairy Science, for granting him
facilities for graduate study and for serving on his committee.

A special debt of gratitude is felt for the cooperation of the
other committee members: Larry Connor, Ph.D., Agricultural Economics;
Stanley Bryan, Ph.D., Business Administration and Winston Oberg, Ph.D.,
Business Administration.

The author is especially grateful to his wife, Dympna, for her

unselfishness and understanding throughout the course of this study.

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CHAPTER

I

II
III
IV

VI
VII
VIII
IX

XI
XII
XIII
XIV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION ...................... 1
Objectives of the Study .............. l

The Role of Personnel Management ......... 2
Personnel Management in Agriculture ........ 5
Personnel Management in Dairying ......... 8

The Functions of Personnel Management ....... l2
METHODOLOGY ...................... 15
MANPOWER PLANNING ................... 26
PERSONNEL RECORDS ................... 4l
ORGANIZATION ...................... 53
THE HIRING PROCESS ................... 7l
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ................ 89
WAGES . . . . ..................... lO4
MOTIVATION AND DISCIPLINE ............... 123
COMMUNICATIONS ..................... l42
HEALTH AND SAFETY ............. . ..... -lS8
LABOR RELATIONS .................... l72
DAIRY EMPLOYEES .................... l88
SUMMARY ........................ l97
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................... 204
APPENDIX A ....................... 2ll
APPENDIX B ....................... 2T4

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
I NUMBER OF DAIRY HERDS WITH 500 CONS OR MORE
BY DAIRYING REGION AND IN THE SAMPLE .......... I9
2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOUND MOST EFFECTIVE IN
HELPING DAIRY FARMERS SOLVE THEIR LABOR PROBLEMS . . . . 35

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

I ORGANIZATION CHARTS SHOWING TYPES OF ORGANIZATION
STRUCTURE FOR THE SAMPLE OF LARGE SCALE DAIRY
FARMS . . . . ........... . ........... 65

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LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES

TABLE PAGE
A NUMBER OF DAIRIES HAVING 500 CONS OR

MORE BY STATE AND IN THE SAMPLE .............. 2T0

B THE QUESTIONNAIRE ..................... 2T4

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The subject matter of this thesis is developed from the author's
awareness of a distinct lack of personnel management principles and
guidelines pertaining to agriculture, especially to large scale dairy
farms. The author is particularly interested in and aware of the
problems of large scale dairy farms. The overall goal or purpose of
this research is, therefore, to develop effective personnel management

guidelines for large scale dairy operations.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

 

Though having an overall goal in mind, it is necessary to be more
specific as to the individual objectives of the study. These could be
cited as follows:

I. Establish the functions of personnel management that are

presently perfbrmed on large dairy operations.

2. Appraise each function and its practices (i.e. means of
performing the function).

3. Provide some measure of the effectiveness with which each
function (or the overall program) is performed in guiding the
operation to the achievement of its goals.

4. Make use of the concepts of personnel administration generally
recognized in business to recommend how the functions might
be better performed on large dairy operations.

5. Develop hypotheses with regard to personnel management on
large dairy operations, which could later be empirically

tested.

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THE ROLE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Personnel management is generally recognized as an important
part of business management and almost all large business firms have
separate personnel departments. Some confusion appears to exist as
regards to terms used when referring to the management of people. This
subject can go under a variety of headings eg. Manpower Management,
Personnel Management and Human Relations, but for purposes of this
thesis no distinction will be made among these three. Sometimes the
term labor relations is also used as synonymous with personnel manage-
ment, but the term will be reserved in this text to refer to management-
union relations.

Huneryager and Heckman (l967)1 and many other authors of personnel
texts have pointed out some of the phases that the human relations
or personnel management movement has gone through. The first decade
of the twentieth century was a pioneering stage for management with
primary emphasis on developing systems and procedures for improving
overall corporate efficiency. Little attention was paid to personnel
management. Finance and investment were the focus of attention and
paternalism and "welfare management" were the approaches to personnel
problems.

The next phase could be termed the "engineering phase". Specializa-
tion became the vogue. Little distinction was made between men and
nechines. The years l9lO-1940, including both world wars, were
characterized by rapid technical innovations and management was con-

cerned primarily with costs, production processes and new product.

1Huneryager, S. G., and Heckmann, I. L., l967, Human Relations in
Management. South-Western Publishing Company, Cincinnati, OhTo, pp. 8ll-8l6.

 

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development. The human side of enterprise was still being neglected,
though by this time some of the more progressive companies were
beginning to establish personnel departments and some research efforts
were being directed along these lines.

It was not until the middle 1940's that the human relations move-
ment blossomed out into full force and the personnel function became
a major function of company organization. This movement has been
gaining impetus over the past 20 years. The behavioral sciences are

now playing a vital role in their association with the business

environment.

DEFINITION

 

What appears to be a good general definition of personnel adminis-
tration is given by Waite (1952)2. He states: "It is the function
of personnel administration to organize the utilization of the human re-
sources of business and industry in such a way that the frictions and
maladjustments between individuals will be minimized. The means by
which this is accomplished are many and varied, but they are all
directed to the single end of improving the relationships between labor
and employers and thereby facilitating the production of goods and
services".

The size of a business unit has little to do with the importance
of an adequate personnel program. The principal difference between
the large and small organization is the degree of subdivision of duties

bEtween members of the personnel staff (Waite, l952)3.

2Waite, William W., l952, Personnel Administration. The Ronald
Press Company, New York, p. l4.

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The universality of personnel administration, i.e. that it is
required, regardless of the size or field of activity in which an
organization is engaged, has been pointed out by several authors; Waite
(1952)4, Yoder, Heneman, Turnbull and Stone (l958)5, Yoder (l962)6,
Strauss and Sayles (l963)7 and Flippo (l966)8. Another feature of
personnel administration that is stressed in many of these books is the
pervasive nature of personnel management, i.e. that all managers and
supervisors at all levels in an organization are responsible for

personnel work in their own respective areas, even though the personnel
9

function per se may be centered in a staff department, Flippo (l966)
McFarland (l968)10.

Although almost all the personnel management texts have stressed
the principles involved in personnel management, they have been some-
what oriented toward the large organizations employing, perhaps, thousands
of people and where the various functions of personnel management have

themselves been split into various sub-departments or sections. The

 

4Op. Cit., p. 15.

5Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Turnbull, John 8., and Stone, Harold
C., I958, Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, p. 1-3.

6Yoder, Dale, I962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 7.

7Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., l963, Personnel --
The Human Problems of Management. Prentice Hall, Inc., EngTewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, p. vi.

 

 

8Flippo, Edwin E., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New YBrk, pp. 2172

9

 

Ibid., p. 7.

10McFarland, Dalton E., l968, Personnel Management, Theory and
Practice. The Macmillan Company, New York, anthhe Collier-Macmillan
Company Limited, London.

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universality of personnel administration was mentioned previously.
There is very little published material, however, specifically relating
to the small firm. The "Small Business Administration" (1961)H
has published some personnel guidelines for small businesses in which
they stress the importance and the role of this function in a small
business. Broom and Longenecker (1966)12 also point this out. In a
study by Baker (1955)13 firms were divided into various size categories
by number of employees -- the smallest category being less than 25
employees. The results generally showed that the smaller the firm the
fewer personnel functions were performed. The reason these smaller
firms are mentioned is that from a standpoint of people employed even

our largest farms employing, perhaps, up to 100 people, would still

be classified as small businesses in terms of industry.

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE

There has been little evidence to show that farm management as
opposed to business management has recognized the human relations
aspect of management. It would appear that as far as the management
of people is concerned that farmers are still in phase two that was
nentioned with reSpect to development in industry, i.e. the "engineering

phase". This paucity of research on the human side of farm labor was

 

nSmallBusiness Administration, 1961, Personnel Management Guides

for Small Business. Small Business Administration, Management Series
No. 26, pp. T;4.

12Broom, H. N., and Longenecker, J. G., 1961, Small Business
Management. South-Western Publishing Company, Cincinnati, pp. 529-532.

13Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Bureau of Business Research, C61Tége OTLCommerce and AdministratiOn,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

 

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stressed by Maurice Voland in a paper presented to the American
Agricultural Economics Association in Columbia, Missouri, in August,
1970.
Most of the farm management texts, though they do devote at least
a chapter to labor, focus on labor utilization, scheduling labor
throughout the seasons of the year and on labor efficiency in production,

Herrell Degraff and Ladd Haystead (1948)14

)16

, Andrew Boss and George A.

, J. Norman Efferson (1949)]7,
)19

Pond (1949)15, Robertson woods (1951
Black, Clawson, Sayre, Wilcox (1951)]8, Hopkins and Heady (1953
Castle and Becker (l967)20, Bradford and Johnson (l967)2].

Degraff and Haystead discussed the application of time and motion

study to agriculture and job simplication. Boss and Pond in their

 

14Degraff, Herrell and Ladd, Heystead, 1948, The Business of
Farmi 9. Norman: University Press, pp. 109-170.

153055, Andrew and Pond, George A., 1949, Modern Farm Management
Principles and Practices. Ithaca Press, the Webb Publishing Company,
t. au , pp. - .

16Woods, Robertson, 1951, Farm Business Management Revised.
J. B. Lippincott Company, Chicago, Philadelphia and New’York,
pp. 109-174.

17Efferson, J. Norman, 1949, Farm Records and Accounts. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York and Chapman andHalTLimited, London,
p. 138.

18Black, John D., Clawson, Marion, Sayre, Charles R., and Wilcox,
Walter W., 1951, Farm Management. The Macmillan Company, New York,
pp. 543-578.

19Hopkins, John A., and Heady, Earl 0., 1953, Farm Records.
The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa, p. 199.

20Castle, Emery N., and Becker, Manning H., 1962, Farm Business
Management. The Macmillan Company, New York, and Collier-Macmillan
Limited, London, pp. 309-329.

2‘Bradford, Lawrence A., and Johnson, Glenn L., 1967, Farm
Management Analysis. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 284-314.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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chapter entitled, "The Human Factor in Farm Operations“, discuss the
personal traits needed by the farmer to succeed and also the necessity
of team work. Woods points out that the treatment of the hired worker
by his employer influences the amount of work that the employee will
accomplish. He also stresses the need for individual treatment of
workers taking into consideration their various capabilities. The
importance of good living conditions for workers is mentioned and also
the difficulty of establishing satisfactory incentive programs. Black,
et_al discuss the difference between farm work and factory work. They
say that farm work is less repetitive and since materials do not come
in on a line, agricultural workers have to be much more flexible in
their skills. Agriculture, they say, does not lend itself so well to
specialization by tasks. Though Specific programs for personnel are
not mentioned, they do say that "the usual hired worker is interested
in wages, in the progress which he is able to make, in security and
in working conditions." The need for good management of labor is
stressed and although policies and programs for labor management are
not spelled out, there is some recognition of the need for them. In
a section devoted to employer-employee relations they point out that
on farms where a number of hired workers are employed, that employee-
employer relations begin to take on the same general character as in
industry. Castle and Becker give some pointers or guidelines to
successful techniques for managing labor, but again the area of policies
and programs is neglected.

A great number of macro studies of labor have been carried out
bY’the U.S.D.A. and the U.S. Department of Labor. An annotated

bibliography of studies pertaining to rural manpower was compiled

  
 

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by Harvey and Holmquist (1968)22. Another bibliography on mechaniza-
tion and labor in agriculture was prepared by Hall (l968)23. A large
portion of these macro studies pertain to the use of migrant workers
and working conditions and housing for the migrant worker. Prominent
among these studies is the productivity of migrant workers in the
fruit industry. There has been a lack of attention to the individual
functions of personnel management. Where there is some discussion that
would pertain to the present study of large scale dairy operations, it
will be brought out in the particular chapter of the thesis pertaining
to that topic.

In recent years some farm management students and researchers
have begun to focus a little more on what is actually involved in

personnel management on farms. Much of the limited literature that

exists in this area is as unpublished occasional papers.

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN DAIRYING
In a study on some labor efficient dairy farm organizations, Varden
Fuller (1957)24 discussed and suggested some policies pertaining to

personnel management on the dairy farm. Given and Hundley (1966)25

 

22Harvey, Jack L., and Holmquist, Garth, 1968, Rural Magpower:
An Annotated Biblio ra hy. Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper
No. 5, August, I968, Michigan State University, East Lansing.

23Hall, Carl W., 1968, Bibliography on Mechanization and Labor

in A riculture. Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper No. 6, September,
I968, Michigan State University, East Lansing.

24Fuller, Varden I., 1957, Some Labor Efficient Dairy Farm
ghganizations. Ag. Econ. No. 690:Department ongricultural Economics,
Michigan State University, East Lansing.

25Given, Charles W., and Hundley, James R., Jr., 1966, Human
Bglations on Dairy Farms. Rural Manpower Center No. 2, November, 1966,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, pp. 25-31.

 

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studied human relations on dairy farms in Michigan and clearly brought
out the fact that dairy farmers in Michigan were a long way behind
their industrial counterparts in establishing satisfactory personnel
policies and programs. Anderson and Greene (1969)26 studied the "Use
of Labor and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms”.
They (1) described the labor force and organization on Florida dairy
farms, (2) determined management practices with respect to recruit-
ment, training, supervision, payment of fringe benefits and other
incentives and (3) related organization and management practices to
labor efficiency. This would appear to be one of the first studies
where some of the individual personnel functions have been spelled out

as they relate to dairy farms. Allen Shapley (1970)27

developed a
training manual for personnel management in agriculture which is being
used by extension agents in Michigan to help improve the quality of
personnel management on farms (dairy farms in particular). The most
recent fairly comprehensive treatment of personnel management in
agriculture is a four state study (Florida, Georgia, North Carolina and
South Carolina) on Improving Employee Performance and is edited by

Robert s. Boal (1970)”.

The scarcity of application and the absence in the literature of

 

26Anderson, Charles L., and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of Labor

and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms. Agricultural
EconomiCs, Mimeo Report EC 69-12, Gainesville, Florida.

27Shapley, Allen E., 1970, Personnel Management in Agriculture:
Instructor's Manual. Rural Manpower Center—Special Paper No. 12,
Fébruary, 1970,MiEhigan State University, East Lansing.

28Boal, Robert S., 1970, Ed., Improving Employee Performance. The
Four State Committee on CooperativeResearch and EdUcation, FloFida,
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Four State Publication 1.

 

 

 

 

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l0
personnel management principles pertaining to farms has been undoubtedly
due to the small size of the majority of farms. These farms have for
the most part been family operated and use few, if any, hired laborers.
The large farms in the past were the cotton and fruit farms in the
southern part of the U.S. On these farms where large numbers of seasonal
employees were hired, the labor was typically organized in work crews
or gangs. Each gang had a boss who was responsible for the management
of his men, (Black, gt_al_l95l)29. These gang bosses relied on their
experience in management of people to get the job done. An effort
to improve this situation was made by the Department of Agricultural
Education, University of California, Davis (l965)3O when they developed
a manual to be used by trained personnel on, "Training Supervisors of
Farm Labor".

The present study, however, concerns large dairy Operations,
where the use of labor crews is not really applicable. In the past
dairy farms were typically organized in small family units, with all
or most of the labor input coming from the family. But dairy herds
are rapidly expanding in size while the number of dairy farms is
decreasing (Agricultural Statistics, 197O)3].

Due to the increasing size of the farm firm and its associated

expansion in number of employees, personnel management will play an

increasingly important role in overall farm management.

 

290p. Cit., p. 5.

30Department of Agricultural Education, University of California,
Davis, l965, Training_Supervisors of Farm Labor, A Guide for
Instructors.

3lAgir'icultural Statistics, l970, United States Department of
Agriculture, WEShington, p. 362.

 

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Michigan Agricultural Statistics (1971)32

show that dairy herds

in Michigan are also expanding in size. Projections made in Project 80
(l964)33 show an expected continued increase in the average size of
herd, while the number of herds will decrease. Presently there are five
herds in Michigan with 400 or more cows, but more herds of this size

are anticipated in the future. It would be well to be prepared to serve
the needs and problems of these large scale dairy operations. The

present research study is an effort in this direction.

LARGE SCALE DAIRIES

 

"Large", for purposes of this study, has been defined as herds
having 500 or more cows that are operated as a single unit. The
basis of this definition is a concensus among dairy Specialists that
at about this size the owner or manager becomes a full-time manager
and no longer performs daily chores. A New York study by Hughes and
Stanton (l965)34 would seem to support this concensus. It was thought
that by choosing 500 cows as a base number that we would be dealing
with farms employing from l0 to 100 hired personnel and that if looking
at personnel management practices, there would be a better chance of
finding them performed on farms of this size. On a small dairy, the

manager is concerned primarily with the management of his cows, but on

 

32Michigan Agricultural Statistics, l97l, Michigan Department of
Agriculture, Lansing, Michigan, p. 31.

33Project 80, 1964, The Dairy Industry. Research Report 45,
Farm Science, Michigan State University, EESt Lansing, pp. 4-5.

34Hughes, Earl M., Jr., and Stanton, B. F., l965, Time Spent on
Entreprenenrial and Related Activities (44 New York Dairy Farms l964-65)
Department ongriculturaTEconomics, A. E. Res. l87, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, pp. 12-l7.

 

 

 

 

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12
these large dairies the manager is now managing people rather than
cows. This manager is concerned, or certainly should be, with personnel
management.

Realizing the importance of personnel management to the owners or
managers of these large dairy farms, this research is directed towards
personnel management as it applies to large scale dairy operations.
These large operations would have more people employed, possibly be
concerned with more functions of personnel management and possibly have
more highly qualified and skilled managers. Again, it is emphasized
that this study assumes the universality of the functions of personnel

management as previously pointed out.

THE FUNCTIONS OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

It now becomes necessary to establish what indeed are the functions
of personnel management. Another definition of personnel management
which might be given at this time is that it is the planning, organizing,
directing and controlling of the operative functions of personnel.
These operative functions can be specified as the procurement,
development, compensation, integration and maintenance of the personnel
of an organization, Flippo (l966)35. This definition already gives
a good idea of some of the details of the personnel function. Almost
all of the personnel management texts break down the personnel function

into its component parts or sub-functions. From a review of these

 

35Op. Cit., p. 14.

l3
texts; Flippo (l966)36, Jucius (1967)37, Kindall (l969)38, McFarland
(l968)39, Strauss and Sayles (1967)40 and Yoder (1962)4‘, a list of
personnel functions was established. Not all of the authors identified
all of the following functions. In some instances some of the functions
identified here as being separate were considered as sub-functions of a
major function by some of the authors. Although some regrouping of
these functions has been carried out for the purpose and convenience of
this research, it is thought that the list of functions is a comprehensive
one and that it does cover all those functions that would be performed
by a personnel department of a large business. The following list of
functions was identified:

l. Planning manpower requirements.

2. Maintaining personnel records.

3. Setting up the organizational structure.

4. Hiring personnel (recruiting, selecting and placing).
5. Training and development.

6. Wage and salary administration including incentives and

benefits.

7. Motivation and discipline.

 

36Op. Cit.

37Jucius, Michael J., l967, Personnel Management. 6th Ed.,
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood Illinois.

38Kindall, Alva F., l969, Personnel Administration, Principles
and Cases. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, Illinois.

39

40Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1967, Personnel 2nd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

4l

 

 

Op. Cit.

 

Op. Cit.

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8. Communications.
9. Health and safety.

10. Labor relations (management-union relations).

GENERAL APPROACH

 

The first chapter was intended to generally introduce the Subject
matter and identify the objectives of this thesis. A broad review of
literature pertaining to personnel management in industry and in
agriculture has been presented. The lack of personnel policies and
programs in agriculture has been discussed. Their need has been
established through showing the universality of personnel functions
to all types and sizes of organizations. This function of management
has been shown to be even more important on large scale dairy operations,
where the manager becomes a manager of people rather than of cows.
Finally, the functions of personnel management have been identified.

Chapter II will deal with the methodology used in the research.

It will discuss sample size and sampling procedure, questionnaire
development, data collection procedure and the method of analysis.

The succeeding chapters will be devoted to the individual functions
of personnel management. Each chapter will begin with a review of
relevant literature pertaining to the particular function. Next, the
results of the research will be presented. These results will then be
discussed in light of previous research findings and prevailing
practices in business. Where specific improvements could be made on
these farms by adopting or adapting some practices from industry,
these will be suggested. Finally, some conclusions will be drawn
based on the observations made by the researcher and in light of present

research results and industrial practices.

 

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CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

THE CASE-METHOD APPROACH

 

The research method used was a descriptive multi-case-study
analysis of the large scale dairy farm operations throughout the
United States. This case study approach was chosen after a careful
review of literature pertaining to social science research. The value
of the case-method of research is shown by Melvin T. Copeland (1958)1
in his book, And Mark an Era, which describes the development of the
Harvard Business School and its reliance on case studies. The value
of individual observation on the part of the researcher is shown by
Glenn Jacobs (1970)2 in his book, The Participant Observer.

One of the characteristics of this present research is that very
little was known about how the functions of personnel management apply
or are practiced on large scale dairy operations. Thus, there was no
underlying theory of personnel management on dairy farms from which
hypotheses could be developed and tested. The industrial sector
does have a well-developed theory of personnel management, but the
hypothesis that these principles and practices also apply to farming
could not be tested without carrying out a similar study of industrial

firms. The funds or time were not available to do this. It was decided

 

1Copeland, Melvin T., 1958, And Mark an Era, The Story of the
Harvard Business School. Little, Brown and Company, Boston and
Toronto, pp. 208-238.

2Jacobs, Glenn, 1970, The Participant Observer. George Braziller,
New York.

 

 

 

15

   
   

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16
to use a descriptive case-study approach, to break new ground and to
apply principles developed in industry to dairying.

Simon (1969)3 points out that descriptive case-studies are
usually the jumping-off point for the study of new areas in the social
sciences, and rely heavily on borrowing from the theories and concepts
of other disciplines. This value and place of the case study method
is also supported by Rigby (l965)4, Jahoda, §t_al_(l965)5 and Good
and Hatt (l952)6. Jahoda, et_al_in discussing this method of research
mention that a case study may involve the examination of existing
records, unstructured interviewing, participant observation or some
other approach. Stouffer (1962)7 defends the use of the qualitative
case method and the use of unstructured questions. Jahoda, gt_al_
again point out that this approach relies on the integrative power of
the investigator and his ability to draw together many diverse bits
of information into a unified interpretation. This has led critics of
the method to view this method of analysis as a sort of projective

technique in which conclusions reflect primarily the investigator's

predisposition rather than the object of study. Even if this reproach

 

3Simon, Julian L., 1969, Basic Research Methods in Social
Science. Random House, New York, pp. 276-278.

4Rigby, Paul H., 1965, Conceptual Foundations of Business
Research. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NewlYork.

5Jahoda, Marie, Deutsch, Morton and Cook, Stuart W., 1965,
Research Methods in Social Relations. Holt, Rhinehart and Winston,
New York.

6Good. William 0.. and Hatt, Paul K., l952, Methods in Social
Research. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 330-340.

 

 

 

 

7Stouffer, Samuel A., l962, Social Research to Test Ideas.
The Free Press of Glencoe, New York, pp. 253L260.

 

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is valid in certain case studies, the characteristic is not
necessarily undesirable when the purpose is to evoke rather than to
test hypotheses. Stouffer points out that there is no reason why
the individual case record should not be an explicit entry as one of
the predictive items in a formal statistical analysis.

An excellent discussion of case work and the statistical method

was given as far back as l926 by George A. Lundberg8. A summary of
his article shows:

l. The case method is not in itself a scientific method, but
merely the first step in scientific method.

2. Individual cases become of scientific significance only when
classified and summarized in such a form as to reveal
uniformities, types and patterns of behavior.

3. The statistical method is the best, if not the only scientific
method of classifying and summarizing large numbers of cases.

In case study analysis, the question arises whether the classifica-

tion of, and generalizations from, the data will be carried out by the
random, qualitative and subjective method of common observation or
through the systematic quantitative and objective procedure of statistical
method.

As has been seen, empirical generalizations have always been

the precursor to the more accomplished statistical method and while in

the absence of definite quantitative data, it is a necessary and desirable
procedure. It is subject to all the dangers and fallacies to which the
senses unaided by tools, symbols or other objectifying processes are

subject.

 

8Lundberg, George A., l926, Case Work and the Statistical Method.
Social Forces, Vol. 5, p. 61.

 

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18

It is felt, however, that content analysis gives us the tools and
symbols to work with in this particular research. Holsti (1969)9 points
out the ability to work with both quantitative data, obtained from
frequency reporting of categories developed from unstructured questions
and qualitative data which may aid in clarifying the quantitative data.
Pool (l959)10 states, "It should not be assumed that qualitative methods
are insightful, and quantitative ones merely mechanical methods for
checking hypotheses. The relationship is a circular one; each pro-
vides new insights on which the other can feed." Scheuch and Stone

(l964)1] successfully demonstrated how content analysis could be used

to analyze open ended questions.

THE POPULATION

 

Having decided on using the multi-case study approach, the next
step was to determine the population size. This was done by telephone
calls to the Dairy Extension Specialists in the various states (ex-
cluding Alaska and Hawaii) asking them for a list of herds in their
respective states of 500 cows or more. The information was obtained
through the extension service in all states except California, where

it was obtained from the California Department of Agriculture. The

 

9Holsti, Ole R., 1969, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences
and Humanities. Addison-Wesley Publishing COmpany, Reading, Massachfisetts,
p. ll and p. 23.

10Pool, I. de 5., l959, Ed., Trends in Content Analysis. University
of Illinois Press, Urbana, p. l92.

 

 

HScheuch, E. K., and Stone, P. J., 1964, The General Inquirer
Approach to an International Retrieval System for Survey Archives.
Amer. Behav. Scientist, Vol. 7, pp. 23-28.

 

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l9
listing included 399 dairies with 500 cows or more and a break down
by state (see Appendix A).
It was decided to stratify the United States into dairying regions,
based on differences in the type of dairying typically practiced and
on geographic location. Six different strata were identified. The
location, total number and selected sample size of these strata are

shown in Table l.
TABLE 1

NUMBER OF DAIRY HERDS WITH 500 COWS OR
MORE BY DAIRYING REGIONS AND IN THE SAMPLE

Number of Herds With

 

 

Strat§_ SOO Cows or More Sample Size
Mid-West 6 6
Northeast and East ll 5
Southeast ll6 10
South 49 5
California 2lO 10
North and Northwest __Z_ _£1

399 36

The regions comprised the following states: (see Appendix A)

l. ‘Mid-West. Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana,
Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota.

This area is typically considered as a geographical region and
dairymen in the region typically produce their own forage supplies as
well as the grain for the concentrate ration. Proteins and other
supplements are purchased.

2. Northeast and East. New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine.

 

.‘l

 

 

20
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia and Virginia.
Dairymen in this region typically produce their own forage supplies
but purchase the entire concentrate ration.

3. Southeast. North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee,

 

Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Florida.

The region contains a large number of big herds, most of which are
located in Florida. Dairying in Central and Southern Florida is
typically characterized by the purchase of all feeds with the cows exer-
cising on free range which has little, if any, nutritive value. In
Northern Florida the climate permits dairymen to produce almost all
their own forage, though concentrates are generally purchased.

4. South, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Arizona
and Nevada.

A large geographical region in which most of the large dairies
are located in Western Texas, Southwestern New Mexico and around Phoenix,
Arizona. Dairying in this region is typically characterized as dry
lot -- with cows confined to corrals all the year round. All feed
is purchased.

5. California. The state has a sufficient number of herds to

 

qualify as a separate region.

The type of dairying practiced varies greatly from South to North.
The greatest concentration of herds is in the Southern part of the
state with the type of dairying practiced being analogous to that
described for Texas and Arizona. Many dairies in California are
unionized while those in the other regions are not.

6. North and Northwest. Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana,

 

Wyoming, Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota.

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A catch-all geographical region that was not sampled because of

the small number of herds and the extra distance involved.

SAMPLE SIZE

 

Sample size was primarily influenced by the time available and
the financial budget allocation for this research. Considering these
factors, the maximum number of herds that it was thought possible to
visit was 36. The number selected from each stratum was somewhat on
proportional basis. Because of a premium on information from the Mid-
West region, it was decided to visit all herds in the region. Since
the Northeast and Eastern type of dairying is the most nearly similar
to that of the Mid-West, a relatively larger proportion of herds from

the region were selected.

CHOOSING CANDIDATES

 

Appendix A gives a list of the number of herds of 500 cows or
more in the various states. Once it was decided on the sample size
from each region then a decision was made on what states within the
regions herds would be chosen from. This choice was based on the number
of herds in a state and their proportion relative to other states. AS
a result some states were left out. Another factor in leaving some
states out was that they did not have herds which met the criteria
for selection.

Sampling, by states, is shown in Appendix A.

In choosing the individual farmers to visit the help of the Dairy
Extension Specialists was again sought. Again, telephone calls were
made to the specialists in the various states and their cooperation was
sought in selecting those dairymen that should be visited. The following

criteria were used in selecting these herds:

1
Jo

 

 

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22

l. 500 cows or over in size.

2. That the owner or manager be willing to cooperate.

3. That the farm be known to have good labor relations (as

judged by the specialists).

4. That it be a commercial dairy enterprise, not a hobby or

institution.

This procedure proved very effective in all states except California,
where due to extension policy they were unable to assist in the selection
of herds. As mentioned previously all herds in the Mid-West were visited.

In California, the assistance of the Dairyman Magazine and various
feed companies was sought to arrive at a concensus on what farms would
meet the criteria for inclusion in the sample. This approach appeared to
be successful.

In a statistical study it is important to avoid bias. Yet, in
a study of this nature which is exploratory, descriptive and deals
with a small sample size, a certain amount of bias is tolerable. The
method of selecting candidates for inclusion in the study does reflect
the biases of the extension service. It was endeavored to minimize
this bias by providing the extension specialists with criteria for

selection of candidates.

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

 

The questionnaire was designed with roughly a two-hour interview
in mind. The organization of the questionnaire started with general
questions and then proceeded into the various functions of personnel
management. A copy of the questionnaire along with the categories of
response is shown in Appendix B. Design was not considered to be a
vital aSpect of the questionnaire, Since it would be used primarily to

guide an interview which would be tape recorded. The guidelines

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23
suggested by Backstrom and Hursh (l968)]2, Sellitz, gt_al_(l965)]3,
Festinger and Katz (l953)14 and Kerlinger (l964)15 were followed in
designing the questionnaire and in structuring the questions, all of
which were open ended. Another source of help in designing the questions

was Stanley L. Paynes, The Art of Asking Questions‘6.

The questionnaire
was pretested on three dairymen in Michigan to check the validity of the

questions and the approximate length of the interview.

INTERVIEW PROCESS

 

One complete day was set aside to visit each farm. The owner or
manager had been prepared for the visit either by the extension
specialist who also sent him a short synopsis of the research project
or by the author through a telephone conversation with the owner or
manager confirming an appointment. Appointments were typically confirmed
two or three days in advance. In almost all cases the interview with
the owner or manager was conducted before lunch, leaving the after lunch
period to interview some of the employees and to look over the physical
facilities. In interviewing the employees the author Specified that he

would like to talk to a herdsman, a milker and a feeder. Where one or

 

12Backstrom, Charles H., and Hursch, Gerald D., l968, Survey
Research. North Western University Press, pp. 67-128.

13Sellitz, Claire, Jahoda, Marie, Deutsch, Morton and Cook, Stuart
W., l965, Research Methods in Social Relations, Rev. Ed. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York, pp. 236-268}

14Festinger, Leon and Katz, Daniel, 1953, Research Methods in the
Social Sciences. The Dryden Press, New York, pp. 327-378.

15Kerlinger, Fred N., l964, Foundations of Behavioral Research.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,—NewYork, pp. 467-476}

16Payne, Stanley L., l95l, The Art of Asking Questions. Princeton
University Press, Princeton.

 

 

 

 

 

3

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24
more of these were absent no substitutions were made. The list of
questions to be asked to the employees was shown to the owner or
manager first in order to gain his approval. This was obtained in all
cases. In asking the owners or managers for permission to tape the
interview it was pointed out that taping would Speed up the interview
process and protect against mis-interpretation of what was said. This

was agreed to in all cases.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

 

The responses which were taped were later transferred in summary
form back onto the original questionnaires. Each individual question
was categorized according to the guidelines established in Kerlinger
(l964)17. These are: (1) that the categories should reflect the
purpose of the research, (2) that the categories should be exhaustive,
(3) be mutually exclusive, (4) be independent and (5) be derived from
a single classification principle. These categories along with the
frequency of reSponse within each category are shown in the Appendix B
under the appropriate question.

It is suggested that this approach does meet the research require-
ment of objectivity and that the measures and procedures are reliable
and not time dependent.

The major tables of frequency tabulation will be left in Appendix B,
and the salient facts will be referred to in the discussion. Simple
frequency tabulations are not considered sufficient. Frequencies can,

however, be supplemented by the use of qualitative data or through the

development of scales to Show intensity of feeling. The former approach

 

17Op. Cit., p. 606.

P ‘ '

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I. T

4:
jesc'i;‘.1ve rat
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Lafittattve a":
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oli- fw-

Tfere is r:

 

 

25
is being used in this study Since the main purpose of the research is
descriptive rather than to Show intensity of feeling. This is relying
on the maxim of Pool (1959)18 -- already referred to -- that both

)19 also

quantitative and qualitative data are important. Holsti (1969
supports this view.

There is no reason to suspect the content validity since the
results are considered plausible, and will be discussed in light of
existing research. The predictive validity, however, is limited by
sample size.

Certain functions of personnel management will have regional
differences and these will be discussed in the apprOpriate chapter.
Certain differences will exist between dairies that are unionized
and those that are not. Personnel management considerations do have
some influence on the physical facilities being built in certain

instances. Where necessary, objective measures of herd size, etc.

will be used to emphasize points.

 

TB
19

Op. Cit., p. 192.
Op. Cit., pp. 5-12.

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CHAPTER III
MANPOWER PLANNING

In industry manpower planning is considered a part of the overall
staffing function of personnel management. Staffing is a never ending
function of management. It involves: determination of manpower require-
ments (dealt with in this chapter), recruitment, selection, placement,
orientation, promotions, demotions, transfers and terminations (Yoder,
1962)].

The current practice in staffing is getting away from the old idea
of hiring as needed and releasing when the need ceases. There is a
growing tendency to employ for careers rather than simply for jobs. In
this respect, staffing policy should be consistent with general manpower
policy, which proposes to maintain full employment. Human resources have
become more costly and shorter in supply and the growing educational and
technical requirements of jobs mean that few jobs can be filled with raw
labor (Yoder, l962)2.

French (l964)3, points out that "without the right people in the
right jobs at the right time, any of the vital management processes can
become so inefficient as to threaten the existence of the organization".
Manpower planning is a prerequisite to achieving this. Yoder, 9331

(l958)4, in their Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations

 

1Yoder, Dale, 1962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p.272.

2

 

Ibid., p. 295.

3French, Wendell, 1964, The Personnel Management Process, Human
Resources Administration. Hofighton Mifflin Company, Boston, p. 120.

4Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Turnbull, John G., and Stone,
Harold C., 1958, Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations.
McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., New Y6rk, pp. 5.145145.

 

 

 

26

l
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far acre com-l»:

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. -s:'lt"‘.tg_ 7h:

 

 

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27
discuss this function of planning very thoroughly and they recommend
the use of continuous five-year staffing plans.
It is recognized, however, (Broom and Longenecker, 196l)5, that
large firms can and do utilize personnel tools and procedures that are
far more complex than those found in small concerns. Examples might
include extensive recreational programs, elaborate testing methods,
comprehensive personnel records, a multiplicity of training programs
and complex job evaluation procedures. The authors go on to point
out that the effectiveness of a small business's personnel program
does not depend on its complexity, or the degree to which it mimics
that of large concerns. It is the efficiency with which personnel
are utilized and harmony achieved which determines the effectiveness
of the overall program. This is not saying that more of the practices
of large companies Should not be adopted by smaller ones, but merely
that perspective should be maintained in evaluating their contribution
to a smaller concern.

In his study of personnel management in small plants, Baker (1955)6,
found that the prevailing practice in small companies at that time was
to hire persons only as they were needed. Of the firms with less than
25 employees, only seven percent planned ahead for their manpower re-
quirements. Twenty-four percent of companies with 150-299 employees

planned ahead. The author points out that where there is a stable

market for labor, planning ahead may not be a prerequisite for efficient

 

5Broom, H. N., and Longenecker, J. G., 1961, Small Business
Management. South-Western Publishing Company, Cincinatti, p. 532.

6Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Bureau of Business Research, CBllege of Commerce and AdmiETStration,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, pp. 38-49.

 

 

 

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28
hiring in a small company (less than 25 employees), unless the company
is rapidly increasing or decreasing in size or volume of production.
Otherwise the need for new employees may be sufficiently small or
infrequent to make advance planning unnecessary. As the size of the
company increases, however, the labor needs become more complex and

require some degree of advance planning.

STEPS IN MANPOWER PLANNING

 

Manpower planning is concerned with determining the kiflg_of
personnel desired for each job as well as a Specification of the
mm be hired (Flippo, l962)7.

In order to determine the kind or quality of personnel desired,
the design of the job must first be studied and secondly a study of the
job duties and responsibilities should be made to determine the human
abilities required for its execution.

Job design involves creating a job or unit of work to be manned.
There are many factors which should be considered in designing the job.
These include: (1) principles of organization, (2) technology, (3) labor
union policies, (4) abilities of present personnel, (5) available labor
supply, (6) psychological and social needs of man and (7) interaction
requirements among jobs.

The most commonly cited human relations problem in the area of
job design is employee dissatisfaction with jobs that are repetitive,
narrow, meaningless and routine. Such work is found on most assembly

lines. Solutions to these problems have included: -(1) allowing

 

7Flippo, Edwin E., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, pp. 109-14OT'

 

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29
employees to work up the line, (2) job rotation, (3) job enlargement
and (4) compensating the employees for such work by enlarged fringe
benefits.

Having basically designed the job, the next step is job analysis.
This involves the collection of information relating to the operations
and responsibilities of a specific job. Such information may be
obtained by:

l. Questionnaires; asking present job holder about his job.

2. Logs; keeping daily record of duties performed and time taken.

3. Observation.

4. Interviews.

The results of this job analysis lead directly to the development
of job descriptions and job specifications.

The job description is an organized, factual statement of the
duties and responsibilities of a specific job. Such a description
would normally include: (1) job identification (title, etc.), (2) job
summary, (3) duties performed, (4) supervision given and received,

(5) relation to other jobs, (6) machines, tools and materials,
(7) working conditions, (8) definitions of unusual terms and (9) comments
which add to and clarify the above.

Pigors and Myers (1969)8 state that "job descriptions can be
assets if they cover every position in the organization, offering an
operational view of the whole, and showing that every job in the enter-
prise has been designed and analyzed as an integral part of a total

effort". But a job description "can be a liability if it is inaccurate,

 

8Pigors, Paul and Myers, Charles A., 1969, Personnel Administration.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, p. 369.

 

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incomplete, out of date or if suspicion and antagonism were aroused in
its making".

Baker (1955)9 found that 10.5 percent of companies with less than
25 employees had job descriptions, while 31.2 percent of companies with
150-299 employees made use of them.

The job specification is a statement of the minimum acceptable
human qualities necessary to perform the job pr0perly. Items included
pertain to age, education, skills, experience and other characteristics
relating to the job.

Having determined the quality of personnel needed for each job,
the next step is to determine the number. This involves the use of work
load analysis and work force analysis (Flippo, 1962)]0.

Work load analysis involves forecasting sales, scheduling work and
determining labor requirements per unit of product. The result of this
analysis will tell the number of personnel required to process a certain
work load. .

Work force analysis is needed also since there will always be some
absenteeism. This analysis should cover absentee rates, turnover rates
and pending transfers and retirements. The analysis will modify somewhat
the results of the work load analysis.

The end result of this manpower planning is the Specification of

the quantity and quality of employees needed.

 

9Op. Cit., p. 60.

10Op. Cit., pp. 125-130.

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31
MANPOWER PLANNING IN AGRICULTURE

 

The «author was unable to discover literature pertaining to manpower
planning in agriculture, other than references to its need (Sturt,
1969]], 1+o1t. 196712, and king, 197013). Sturt points out that planning
is a basfiic essential to obtaining an adequate supply of farm labor.

Its lack; of practice by farmers is possibly due to the past abundance
and seenring unlimited supply of workers, including foreign workers.
Speaking at a macro level, Sturt states that "a farm labor profile
specifyilig needs by skills and days has proven a most useful approach
fer us in Michigan". Holt states that "systematic analysis and planning
'fin~the acquisition and use of labor is just as important if not more
l'mPortant than any other type of farm planning". Finally King states,

"we don't go out to buy a truck today without a set of Specifications.

Let's not do it when we wish to hire a man“.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PRESENT RESEARCH
The results presented in this section will cover the responses to
Questions 28 through 33 and questions 118 through 121. The questions

as well as the categories of response and their frequencies are shown in

Appendix B.

x

11Sturt, Daniel W., 1969, The Manpower Game. A compendium of

nOtesbased on previous papers, presented to the Kellogg Farmers
Group V, October 20, 1969. Rural Manpower Center, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, p. 12.

leolt, James S., 1967, How to Hold Your Farm Labor Force.
PaPar presented at the Northeastern Dairy COnference,”NiagralFalls,
New York, April 6, 1967, p. 26.

13King, Walter P., 1970, Employee Selection, Orientation and

DeV810 ment. The Four State Committee on Cooperative Research and
Eaucatgon. Florida/Georgia/North Carolina/South Carolina, p. 6.

 

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32

Responses indicated that 14 farms had definite plans to expand
or make cather major changes within a year. Nine of these plans were for
herd expansion. Eighteen had plans in mind for five years or so and
again theese were mostly for herd expansion. Most plans appeared to be
very general in nature. Only one manager produced a five year plan on
paper.

Labor figured prominently among the types of information used in
planning. Information on both labor availability and labor efficiency
was usecl. Due to their proximity to city limits and tax considerations
two farmers mentioned location.

The major unknowns as far as planning was concerned were: the
nmrket for milk, labor availability and waste disposal. Uncertainty
of the market for milk reflected concern about the future role of govern-

ment programs, consumer demand and price and competition from synthetic

milk Products.

ANTICIPATING LABOR REQUIREMENTS

In anticipating future labor requirements, by far the most frequent
resPonse was "cows per man". This statement was modified in some
instances to take into consideration the level of technology being used
and the amount of milk production.

Figures quoted for cows per man varied from 100-220 cows, depending
on the milking system being used and which men were included in the
estimation, i.e. whether outside help or just milkers were included.

One man reported that he went strictly by union requirements.

In the event of a man suddenly leaving, 13 of the farms relied on

the supervisor or herdsman to fill in until a replacement was found. Six

TEIied on an outside dairy hand such as a cow pusher, feeder or clean—up

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33

man to fill in. Of the eight respondents who said they carried extra
help on the: farm, seven were located in the East and Mid-West regions,
which typically carried on farming as well as dairy operations.

Most conmonly, all the planning pertaining to the operation was
done by the owner or one of the owners who managed. The conference
approach tr) planning was used in 12 cases, either of owners or owners
and their inanager. Five owners or managers found that they could delegate
certain planning tasks to a supervisor or herdsman. One large dairy
had an executive comittee comprised of the corporate staff that did

all the planning. This dairy had written five-year plans.

LABOR OUTLOOK

Responses indicatéd that the general outlook was for good avail-
ability of labor for dairy farms. This view was based on the expecta-
tion that wages would be higher, working hours and working conditions
would be better in the future, making dairying more competitive with
tme industrial labor market. Many expected it to be good while
unemployment in industry is high and some said that this made a higher
caliber man available for dairy work. Those expecting a poor labor
situation were mostly located in the South and cited turnover and a lack
of motivation due to welfare programs as being their reasons for this
PESSimistic outlook.

Labor Problems

Finding the right caliber of man and motivating men were the two
biggeSt problems with labor. The right caliber of man was considered
as POE who was willing to work and take responsibility. These factors
aPPEared to be more important than having the skill, which they could

vaUIre on the job. Difficulty in motivating men was due to their

34
"don't care attitude", an unwillingness to work attitude, or as one
dairyman summed it up "a socialistic attitude”. Personal problems
included drinking, financial problems and family problems. These
were mentioned mostly in the Southeast.

Whew1 asked had they made any changes recently to help alleviate
these prwablems, there were almost as many different replies as
respondents. Better conmunications was mentioned four times and
includecl using meetings, giving pep-talks and trying to generally
improve comnunications throughout the organization.

Research

Research was considered needed in methods of improving labor
efficiency and improving the image of dairying as a source of employment.
Most farmers wanted a lot more training done in all areas but particularly
to have information and courses available on techniques of personnel

management, motivation and comnunications.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The sources of information found most effective in helping dairy-

men to solve their labor problems are shown in Table 2.

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35

TABLE 2

SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOUND MOST EFFECTIVE IN HELPING
DAIRY FARMERS SOLVE THEIR LABOR PROBLEMS

 

% Time Index

Ranked No. 1 EDGEif. Base 100
Radio and T.V. O 45 20.8
Meetings 14 135 62.5
Individual consultation 49 182 84.3
University bulletins 3 107 49.5
Farm magazines 14 139 64.6
Industry 20 131 60.6

*The index was developed on the basis of giving six points every
time a source was ranked number one, down to one point when
ranked number six and zero points if not ranked. This index
was then converted to base 100.

Individual consultation with other farmers and Specialists from
companies and universities was ranked number one by almost half the
farmers. Information from industry and looking at industrial trends in
labor management was ranked number one by 20 percent. The index gives
a better overall idea of the relative importance of the various sources.

Individual consultation is still the highest, but there is not too

much difference between meetings, farm magazines and industry.

DISCUSSION

Some of the questions in this section were addressed to planning
In general rather than specifically to manpower planning. This was
dOne to determine the manpower content and implications of the

reSponses.

,3

 

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36

The: fact that many of these large herds are planning for future
expansicnns is an indication of the confidence of these dairymen in the
future nuarket for their product and their desire for more information
and projections about market trends would appear natural. Lack of
researcri in the past in this area of consumer demand and changing taste
patterns. as well as changes in areas of population have left many un-
knowns as far as the dairy industry is concerned. In recent years the
Americari Dairy Association (A.D.A.), the National Dairy Council (N.D.C.),
the Associated Milk Producers Incorporated (A.M.P.I.) and Dairy Research
Incorporated (D.R.I.N.C.) have been carrying out advertising and sales
promotion programs, nutrition and education programs, new produce develop-
nent and public relations and market research to help solve many of these
unknowns. In 1970, A.D.A., N.D.C. and D.R.I.N.C. were brought together
under the United Dairy Industries Association (U.D.I.A.) who were
to act as a central funding agency and to coordinate program activities.

Great optimism was expressed in Florida about the future increased
demand for milk. This is largely due to the rapidly expanding population
Size of the state.

Future herd expansion will increase the need for dairy labor on
individual farms. Advances in technology and increased labor efficiency,
however, can be expected to reduce labor need per unit of output.

More skilled dairy workers will be needed in the future and the need
for training programs in all areas was strongly indicated. The need for
supervisory training and personnel management training is widely realized
by these dairy owners and managers. Some mentioned that the only limiting
factor to herd size was management ability.

The cow per man approach to anticipating manpower requirements

Would correspond closely to what was discussed earlier under work load

 

 

5*»: rate at a”
have the" 313‘

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37
analysis.. The fact that many herds suffer from a very high turnover
rate wOLfld also indicate a need for some work f9:§g_analysis to determine
the rate: at which new men are required, so that plans can be made to
have them available when needed. Such planning did not appear to be
practiced.

Thee use of job descriptions and job specifications was seen to be
an integral part of manpower planning in industry. Only two of these
dairies liave written job descriptions covering all jobs in the dairy.
(me othev'dairy is just starting to develop job descriptions while three
others are considering it. This refers to dairies that are non-
unionized.

Six of the dairies visited in California were unionized. The
union does have job descriptions for the various jobs performed. Job
descriptions were found to be a help both to management and to the
employees. The wage rates negotiated with the union depended upon job
classifications and in the case of milkers the wages depended on the
System of milking being used and the number of cows milked per man per
day, Only one man indicated that he used the union exclusively as a
9Uideline to determining future labor requirements. The unions also
endeavor to provide a relief milking pool and to guarantee the avail—
ability of milkers, though several managers were not too confident in
this service.

The responses reported in this study pertaining to the future
1abor outlook were favorable to the future availability of labor. As
DOinted out those who thought it would be poorer were located mostly

in the South. This would agree with the observations of Anderson and

 

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38
Greene (1969)14 who found that most dairy farmers in Florida expected
the labor situation to be worse in the future, due to lack of interest
in dairy! work, competition from industry and government "give-away"

programs .

The: major problems and methods of improving the situation reported
in this sstudy, parallel closely the results of Anderson and Greene
(1969)]ES. They listed rapid turnover, undependability, lack of interest
and ineipficiency as being the main problems. There would appear to be
a close connection between turnover and caliber of man. The transient
nature (If many dairy workers was referred to by many farmers and this
observation was also made by Given and Hundley (1967)16 in explaining
the higher turnover of dairy workers in Michigan. Shapley (1969)17

found that off farm competition for labor was one of the main problems

in Michigan and Bratton (1966)18 found "getting good, dependable"

help the major problem in Lewis County, New York. Anderson and Greene
reported that 83 percent of their respondents said that welfare removed

the incentive to work. To relieve problems they found farmers changing

R

14Anderson, Charles L., and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of

£299? and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms.

A9r1<2:ultural Economics, MimeB'Report EC 69-12, GainesVille, Florida,
pp. 8-30.

15Ibid., pp. 28-30.

16Given, Charles W., and Hundley, James R., Jr., 1966, Human

Relations on Dairy Farms. Rural Manpower Center, No. 2, 1965. M1chigan
ate University, East Lansing, p. 12.

17Shapley, Allen E., 1969, Full-Time Employees on Michigan Dairy

FaPms. Rural Manpower Center, Report No. 20, MlChigan State Univer§lty,
E3EETLansing, p. 12.

18Bratton, C. A., 1966, Labor Practices on 71 Dairy Farms, Lewis

COunty,New York. A. E. Ext. 467, Department oflAgriculturallEconomics,
Ornell University, Ithaca, New York, p. 8.

 

 

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ions. . .

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39

from a stalit to a straight shift for milkers, improving hiring

practices , paying more, using bonuses, shorter work hours and more

training .

They reported a need for research into automated equipment,

tfime ancl motion studies and more training and techniques of personnel

managemen t. Shapl ey (1969

)19 reported that half of Michigan's dairy-

men coul<i not deal with the problem of industrial competition for labor

while true other half said they would increase salaries, cut back on

herd size or find new employees to try and solve their problems.

CONCLUS I ONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of this study, the observations of other

researchers and in light of tested personnel practices in the industrial

sector, the following conclusions and recommendations would appear

appY‘Opriate:

l.

19

Dairymen may find it to their advantage to pay more

attention to the need to plan their manpower requirements.
Additional research is needed to eliminate some of the unknowns
in the area of milk marketing. Particular emphasis should be on
changing population centers, consumers' changing tastes and
preferences for dairy products and the impact of synthetic

milk products.

The high turnover of labor on many dairies is due to the
transient nature of many dairy workers. Typically these workers
are from minority groups and do not partake in community

affairs. This sociological problem should be investigated

Op. Cit., p. 12.

,
p.
s

67‘

NJ.

Hr.

40
to see if these transients can become a permanent part of
a community. Retirement plans and various other inducements
to stay have failed on Florida dairy farms.
The development of job descriptions may prove beneficial
to large dairy operators. They would help dairymen clarify
their own organizational set up and responsibilities and could
also contribute to a pool of job descriptions for dairying in
a region. On the basis of this, more realistic training
programs could be established to serve the future needs of these

dairymen.

CHAPTER IV
PERSONNEL RECORDS

The vast majority of personnel departments in industrial companies
firest made their appearance as record keeping departments. They main-
‘tailied employment records for workers and managers, including such
factual material as date hired, background information, successive
jcflas held in the Company with dates and wages received, disciplinary
penalties imposed and other events in the relationship of the individual
tc: the organization. Sometimes they maintained time and production
twecords for the purpose of preparing payrolls and kept a record of
tflie rates paid for various jobs. Generally up to this time payroll
data was handled by the accounts department.

Later as the threat of unionization became evident in the 1920's,
tine personnel departments became responsible for the development of
various benefit programs for the employees. This was an effort to
Stave off unionization and represented the "paternalistic" approach
Of'tnanagement referred to in the introduction.

With the coming of unionization during the 1930's and 1940's
the: personnel departments took over the role of handling union
grievances and negotiating union contracts. This function became
known as labor relations and many personnel departments had their
titles changed to labor relations departments or industrial relations
departments.

Despite the changing emphasis and broadened scope of the personnel

departments, record keeping was still important and, in fact, became

41

 

 

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e .r‘ per":
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42

a grwovving function that needed to be carried out (Strauss and Sayles,
1963)‘.

The infinite variety and types of records and reports that can
be kept pertaining to employees was shown by Yoder, (335110958)?
Thangh their list iS long, covering almost all functions of personnel
management, the authors state that it is "neither exhaustive nor all
‘incflusive". The authors point out that it is essential that every
organization develop its own records to suit its own specific needs.
Ir1 this respect they state that all employment records should:
('1) serve specific needs, (2) have Specific objectives and purposes,
(23) be kept to a minimum with respect to number, scope and content,
(£1) be designed for least expensive handling, (5) be up to date,
(6) be worth their cost, (7) be related directly to tabulations and
reports that will stem from them, (8) be available when needed and
(9) be considered valuable by supervisors and line management.

Considering the extent of this record keeping function, it is
not: surprising that the modern trend is the development of Personnel
Management Information Systems (P.M.I.S.). Several authors, among

theun Morgan (1966)3 and Berry (1969)4 have pointed out the prerequisites

1Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1963, Personnel, the

flflflfingroblems of Management. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, pp. 397-399.

2Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Jr., Turnbull, John G., and Stone,
Harold C., 1958, Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations.
MCGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , NewWork, pp. 22.l—22.42.

3Morgan, Philip L., 1966, Automatic Data Processing of Personnel
Data. Personnel Journal 45, 9, 553-557.

4Berry, William E., 1969, What a Personnel E.D.P. System Should
99, Personnel Journal 46, 1, 18-21.

 

 

2.__._.--_._

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(I)
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u10 St“;

43
of a P.M.I.S. and what such a system should accomplish for the organiza-
tion. The system should:

1. Establish a data base which will incorporate the items of
personnel information which the personnel director Should
know about his employees.

2. Be able to integrate all personnel data and a useful composite
record and provide a simplified method of updating.

3. Allow for controlled retrieval of data and analysis that could
not be achieved with conventional clerical methods.

4. Adopt a systematic approach to data handling that will
convince employees that the organization's personnel policies
are being applied consistently day in and day out.

5. Be integrated in the overall Management Information System
in such a way that multiple handling and storage of data will
be avoided.

6. Provide cost savings, either thrOugh allowing the present work
to be done more efficiently, or through allowing much more
information and analyses to be handled.

Though small plants do not handle the same volume of data as
larger plants, Baker (1955)5 found that most managers of small plants
do have to keep a large number of records. The need for these records
arises primarily from three sources:

1. Management itself needs to have certain data available. A

system of personnel records is the only method by which current

information can be accumulated. These records serve two

.A—

5Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Bureau of Business Research, College of Commerce and Adminlstration,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, p. 153.

 

. |
15 only Effifi

m11and 117E

In1'15 s:

In!-
..nO that 59”

 

44
functions. The first is to record the entrance progress and
departure of each employee. The second is to establish
efficient personnel policies and practices.

2. Labor has also influenced the type of records kept. It has
been interested in such matters as seniority status, employee
promotion and reasons for termination of employment.

3. Several Federal and State laws require having information
available about employees.

In a small company, most of the needed personnel data may be

recorded on its payroll or time keeping records, Baker (1955)6. This

would appear logical since most of the small company's requirements

for employee data are related to the wages, hours and conditions of

employment. In a larger company with its more complex personnel

program, many more types of information about its employees are needed.

The only efficient method of keeping this is to have an orderly personnel

record system. Such personnel records should be kept separate from pay-

roll and time keeping records in a large company Since their primary
functions increasingly diverge as the size of the company increases.
In his study of small manufacturing companies, Baker (1955)7

found that separate personnel records were maintained to an ever

greater degree as the size of the company increased. Fifty-seven

percent of the companies with less than 25 employees kept separate

personnel records. The percentage of companies following this practice

increased steadily to 100 percent in the case of companies employing

150-299 employees.

 

6
7

Op. Cit., p. 154.
Op. Cit., p. 154.

 

 

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45
The fact that many of the very small companies do keep personnel
records other than payroll records is an indication of their value.
But the true value of records depends on the use that is made of them.
Reports or infOrmation gained from these records are needed in evalua-
tion and decision making with respect to efficient manpower alloca-

tion, utilization and conservation (Yoder, gt_gl_l958)8.

PERSONNEL RECORDS IN AGRICULTURE

This subject of personnel records is noticeable by its absence
from all farm management texts. The only labor records referred to in
these texts pertain to the amount of work performed and the labor
efficiency. Part of this lack is possibly explained by the traditional
small size of farm enterprises employing a correspondingly small number
of employees. Another part of the lack is undoubtedly due to the slowness
of the human relations movement to affect agriculture and the lack of
up-to-date farm management texts introducing newer concepts of management.

One of the very few references to personnel records, apart from
payroll records, discovered by the author was by Mitcheltree (1966)9.
This author suggested that the farm manager carry a notebook with him
for control purposes. This would enable him to write down what was
said when he criticized a man and what the response was from the hired

man. This, he said would prevent exaggerations and misunderstandings

and also be a valuable record in case dismissal was required.

 

8

9Mitcheltree, Wallace A., 1966, Supervision of Management of
Farm Labor. Journal of Farm Economics, 48, 5, 1149.

Op. Cit., p. 22-23.

IEWC' of saw
.151: as of ._.
a. 0’» far an}

.. t1e reas:
icc‘d-ESts, hga
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1333:, and TIC.

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46

In 1967, the Rural Manpower Center of Michigan State University10

published a short mimeograph report on "Suggested Farm Labor Records".
This report suggested means of maintaining records needed to satisfy
labor regulations (Federal and State minimum wage, workmen's compensation,
social security and internal revenue) and to provide information which
the farmer needs to pay his employees. Four general types of records
are suggested: (1) an employee data sheet, (2) a detailed employee
field record, (3) a statement of earnings and (4) some type of permanent
record of earnings, wages paid, social security withholdings, etc.
Examples of these suggested records are shown. None of these records
allow for any qualitative information with regard to performance other
than the reason for termination of employment. Records of grievances,
accidents, health, sick leave, absenteeism or performance review are

not considered. The employee is considered as a mechanical input, with
a cost, and not as a human person as the human relations movement and
modern management practice suggests. This is not suggesting that the
records outlined in the mimeograph are not useful -- for they are
essential, but simply that other records are also needed in developing
a successful personnel management program, especially where large

numbers of employees are maintained.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY
The results presented in this section are concerned with

questions 34-39. The original questions along with the categories

 

10Rural Manpower Center, 1967, Suggested Farm Labor Records.
Mimeograph No. 5, Rural Manpower Center, Michigan State University,
East Lansing.

.v"

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47

response and reported frequency are shown in Appendix B.

KINDS OF RECORDS KEPT

 

One half of the 36 respondents said that they kept basic payroll
information only. This information included name, address, age, social
security number, marital status, date hired, hours worked, rate of pay,
total earnings and deductions. Vacations and wage rate changes were
also noted and insurance forms were kept by all employers. Eight of H
the respondents did not carry any health or life insurance policies 1
and in the case of the six unionized dairies in California these
forms were kept by the union. Total earnings was supplemented by
bonuses and profit sharing where these were in Operation. Deductions
included social security, income tax, insurance policies, savings,
loans and union dues, where applicable.

The other half of the respondents reported keeping some additional
information to the above. The most common form of additional personnel
information was the use of job application forms by fourteen respondents.

One dairy made use of a screening test in selecting candidates and two
of the largest dairies required physical examinations as part of company
policy. Only one dairy carried out performance reviews of employees.
Most managers relied on memory to evaluate their employees and this was
a continuous process.

There did not appear to be any difference between union and non-
union dairies in the type of records kept.

Almost all the respondents said that it was legal requirements
and payroll needs that influenced the types of records they kept.

Most seemed to regard record keeping as a chore, without any return to

be gained and only three said that they used this information in

* M‘F‘TG
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48

determining individual performance.
Separate Personnel Records

The majority (20) relied solely on their payroll sheets to keep
all information pertaining to their workers. Twelve of the 14 using
application forms had a separate file for applications, while only
four had individual worker files, apart from payroll data, keeping
application forms and other personal data.

Use of Records

 

All the respondents indicated that the main use of their personnel
records was for wage and salary purposes. Their use in performance
appraisal and wage increases was mentioned twice in each case.

The majority of time clocks were found on the larger farms, due
to the more difficult task of keeping track of workers.

Keeping Farm Records

The personnel records kept were part of the business records. All
of the dairy operations visited had some sort of office arrangement for
handling its herd and business records. Herd records were always kept
close to the dairy barn, whether they were kept by the manager, herds-
man or secretary. Ten of these dairies utilized outside accountants
to keep their business records. This was particularly evident in
California where some accounting firms specialize in this activity.
Most of the farms that were part of another business or where the owner
had other business offices had their business records kept in these
offices. Seven farms utilized secretary-bookkeepers, while four farms

had an office staff of more than one person, actually on the farm.

 

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49
DISCUSSION

Maintaining personnel records appeared to be very much of a chore
to most managers, and they found it necessary to keep these records to
meet legal requirements as well as their own payroll needs. Very little
other use was made of these records from the point of view of giving
management information or being used to establish efficient personnel
policies and practices. The types of information included in the records
fell short of that reported by Baker (l955)n for small manufacturing
plants. There is no apparent reason for this lack on the part of
these dairy farmers, other than a lack of attention to or knowledge
of the benefits to be gained from keeping more comprehensive personnel
records. These records could then be used to develop sound personnel
policies and improve overall efficiency. Only one large dairy had a
comprehensive personnel management program and this was developed by a
personnel management specialist from industry. This program included
the development of a Personnel Handbook for the company, the use of
job descriptions and the use of performance evaluations. The company
appeared pleased with the results.

It is interesting to note that in cases where the farm or dairy
was part of another business, that even though this other business
employed a person to take care of personnel problems, this personnel
officer did not concern himself (or herself) with labor problems on the
farm. The most this office did was to run advertisements, file applica-
tion forms and take care of payroll. All other personnel matters

were entirely up to the farmer or dairy manager.

 

11Op. Cit., pp. l53-167.

39% Wins kee

h' :raist‘. :,

I
ZZ'C..5.:'~‘S i."
——__._
Base on
.n‘E'tS "‘5
'5.".CES t'e ‘
l. .TEr;
":ng
aria r
0f DEr
faF'Er
59: d:
2~ Dal-"yrs;
fms .
QECESSE
3? ‘17
prOSEEC

 

 

50

Though Baker (l955)12 found that unionized companies kept more

personnel records, this is not shown in this study. It appears that

the unions keep most of the records with regard to seniority, eligibility

for promotion, grievances and reasons for termination of employment.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of this study and in light of various

comments made by dairy farm managers as well as successful industrial

practices the following conclusions and recommendations seem appropriate:

1.

There is a distinct lack of information in dairying with
regard to the types of personnel records to keep. This

area needs to be examined very closely, to develop the kinds
of personnel management information most useful to the dairy
farmer and to show him how this information can be used to
set up policies and improve personnel practices.

Dairymen may find it to their advantage to use application
forms when hiring a new man. Bi-lingual forms may be
necessary in certain areas. These application forms could
sometimes be filled out by the manager as he interviews a
prospective employee and remarks with regard to quality of man
desired noted. There are many commercially available inter-
view check lists and application forms that would serve

this purpose.

 

12

Op. Cit., p. l6l.

51

The following types of personnel records have been of

benefit to industry. Dairymen may find it to their

advantage to adopt some of the following:

A.

Job descriptions and specifications for all jobs on the

 

farm.

Individual Application forms -- showing name, address,

 

social security number, etc. Also giving skills possessed,
the type of employment desired, an employment history,
educational record, military record, citizenship, marital
status, physical limitations record and references. An
interview check list can also be incorporated into the
application form and space left for the interviewer to
make comments.

Employment records

 

1. Job title

2. Wages or salary rate and dates of changes
3. Training record
4. Wage or salary information
production records where wages are based on production
hours worked,
total earnings and deductions
yearly earnings record
5. Seniority status
6. Requests for leave, transfer or promotion
7. Vacation record
8. Health and accident record
9. Absentee record

10. Grievances and action taken

ll.
l2.

52
Suggestions made and action taken

Termination record and reasons

Yearly Work Force Summary Record

 

l.

boom

Labor turnover report
Attendance report

Vacation report

Health and accident report

Grievance report

 

a"? are ‘

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CHAPTER V
ORGANIZATION

Organizing is based on the goals and objectives of the enterprise
which are formulated during the planning process. It reflects manage-
ment's thinking on the structure of and the relationships among the
various parts of the organization, (Haimann and Scott, l970)]. This
relationship of objectives to organization has been clearly stated
by Ernest Dale (1951)2 who says:

The organization structure is a mechanism designed to

help in achieving the goals of the enterprise. However small

an organization, it must start by determining its objectives.

For the resources of any organization are limited and must

be properly utilized if the company is to survive and to

prosper. This requires a formulation of objectives and an

assignment of responsibilities. Allocation of responsibilities

is essential, even if the organization consists of only one

man, for he must divide his time as effectively as possible.

The allocation of responsibilities becomes even more important

when there is more than one person in the organization ...

The term organization is commonly used with at least two meanings.
The first refers to an organization as a structure or a network of
specified relationships among individuals. This is a static concept.
The second is the concept of organization as a process, or as an
executive function in which the dynamics of organization change and

growth are central. Both these meanings are important in the study

 

IHaimann, Theo. and Scott, William G., 1970, Management in
the Modern Organization. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
p. 158.

2Dale, Ernest, 195l, Planning and Developing the Company
Organization Structure. American ManagementTAssociation, New York,
p. 23}

 

 

 

 

~53

 

 

v-Iv"

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I‘d‘ :- ‘

_ ..h. '
C

R. 5".

.4 ye.

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farts-r" Ur

on- an:“"‘
I. adv v 5

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:rgc":a. :

. "Er
”95*‘ce 4
we

5%:
Thai ‘ 3’

 

54

4 5).

of management (Yoder _e_t_ ELL. 19583, Yoder, l962 , McFarland, 1970

ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

 

Dalton McFarland (l970)6 defines organization structure as "the
pattern or network of relationships between the various positions and
the position holders". As well as possessing formal structures,
organizations also have informal structures. The former type of structure
is generally the result of planning, while the latter type develops out
of the interactions and sentiments of particular individuals comprising
the organization. Both formal and informal organizations do, however,
have structure (McFarland, l970)7. Massie (l964)8 points out that
informal organizations can help improve communications, develop
cohesiveness in groups and help maintain the self respect of members
in the organization. This fact should be recognized by the planners
or executives who set up the formal organization.

The most common form of organization structure is the hierarchial

model (McFarland, 197O)9. This model consists of a vertical dimension

 

3Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Jr., Turnbull, John G., and Stone,
Harold C., l968, Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New’York, p. 6.3.

4Yoder, Dale, 1962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 79-80.

5McFarland, Dalton E., 1970, Management Principles and Practices.
The MacMillan Company, Collier-MacMillan Limfited, London, p. 336.

6

 

 

 

Ibid., p. 337.
7

8Massie, Joseph L., 1964, Essentials of Management. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 54.

9

Ibid., p. 337.

 

Op. Cit., p. 338.

2‘ differ?“

‘ Q
aarijqr°zl
.iui ‘LV «'0'

 
   
    

CTE'C'IES OT

 

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re has
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errant "-

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55
Of differentiated levels of authority and responsibility and a
horizontal dimension of differentiated units such as departments,

branches or divisions.

COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

 

The basic components of organizational structure in the business
enterprise center on its horizontal and vertical dimensions. The basic
component in the vertical dimension is the scalar level, and that of the
horizontal dimension is departmentalization (McFarland, 1970)]0.

The vertical dimension is comprised of levels of authority which
are arranged into a hierarchy. All organizations distribute authority
vertically in gradations called levels ranging from that of the
executive at the top to the supervisory level of management near the
bottom (McFarland, 1970)‘1.

Departmentalization is the process of setting up groups of functions
and activities or tasks, for purposes of assigning them as responsibilities
of particular positions or people. The primary purpose of depart-
mentalization is to subdivide the organization structure vertically so
that executives or managers may Specialize within restricted ranges of

activity (McFarland, 1970)]2.

There are four main types of
departmentalization.
I. By function; eg. finance, production, sales.

2. By process; eg. bottling, crating, storing, shipping.

 

10Op. Cit., p. 340.

1]Op. Cit., p. 340.
12Op. Cit., p. 342.

l.
J

56
3. By geographical area of location; eg, branch plants and
branch offices.
4. By product; eg. engines, bodies, accessories, exports.
The primary problem involved in departmentalization is one of

coordination of all the functions or units (Haimann and Scott, l97013,

McFarland, 197014).

THE OVERALL FORM OF ORGANIZATION

 

The growth of an organization creates problems for the manager who
must decide how to expand the structure. Both vertical and horizontal
dimensions may be combined in various ways to achieve the desired result.

Basic Structural Types

 

Line Organization. Consists of the direct vertical relationship

 

which connects the positions and tasks of each level with those above
and below it -- often called the chain of command. McFarland (1970)15
points out that the line structure is indiSpensable to all organized
effort; any other form must relate to it in such a way that its
integrity and effectiveness of action are not impaired. The line
structure provides channels of communication upward and downward

linking the various parts together through connections with the ultimate
source of authority in the organization.

Line and Staff Organization.' Is similar to the line organization

 

in that each worker reports to a single supervisor. However, as the

 

13
l4
l5

Op. Cit., PP. 175-187.
Op. Cit., pp. 342-346.
Op. Cit., p. 354.

 

 

1'6 areas I

:ermel ."

I A. ‘

H-\ ‘5'.

y 5- U» y
.
Diff.
J c.
‘

 

57
size and complexity of a business increases, the need for Specialists
in the business enterprise grows. These specialists are set up in
staff departments and their function is to aid the line organization in
the areas or functions assigned to it. Examples of staff include the
personnel manager, quality control specialist and assistant to the
president (Broom and Longenecker, l96l16, McFarland, l97017).

Functional Organization. Is one where various activities such

 

as accounting and quality control are organized as separate departments.
This enables personnel in the accounting or quality control departments
to exercise authority over line personnel in matters pertaining to
accounts or quality. This division of authority may interfere with

efficient operations (Broom and Longenecker, 196l18

19).

, and McFarland,
1970

Committee Organization. Involves designating key executives to a

 

permanent committee with authority for action and decision -- these
differ from special ad hoc committees whose purposes are generally
investigative rather than decision making (McFarland, l970)20. An
example of the committee organization is found in executive committees,
who are charged with formulating broad company aims and policies and

carry powers of decision.

 

16Broom, H. N., and Longenecker, J. G., l961, Small Business
Management. South-Western Publishing Co., Cincinnati, pp. Ell-242.

 

170p. Cit., pp. 355-357.
18

19

Op. Cit., p. 241.

Op. Cit., pp. 357-36l.

20Op. Cit., p. 36l.

 

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58

Designing and Organization Structure
Peter Drucker (l954)2] points out that,

A good organization structure does not by itself
produce good performance -- just as a good constitution
does not guarantee great presidents, or good laws, or a
moral society. But a poor organization structure makes
good performance impossible, no matter how good the
individual managers may be.

When speaking of designing an organization structure it is well to

keep in mind the functions of this structure. McFarland (1970)22 lists

the fol lowing functions of organization structure.
1. Providing an efficient production system,
2. Providing a system of communication,
3. Providing satisfactions to individual members of the
organization,
4. Providing organizational and individual identities.
Qflice of Type of Organizational Structure
The decision as to what kind of structure will best accomplish
the work required of it presents first the problem of describing and
anaLVZ‘ing the presently existing structure and secondly developing a
plan and design for the desired structure (McFarland, l970)23.

Broom and Longenecker (1961)“ point out that the only two

practical alternatives for most small firms are the line organization

\

2
and R 1 Drucker, Peter F., l954, The Practice of Management. Harper
0W. Publishers, Inc., New York, pp. 225-225.

22
23

Op. Cit., pp. 368-271.
Op. Cit., p. 379.
24Op. Cit., p. 243.

 

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59

and the line and staff organization. The decision as to which of these

two types should be utilized can usually be made on the basis of the

company's size.

THE INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATION DESIGN

That the organization structure has an effect on individuals and
vice ‘versa is pointed out by Flippo (1962)25 and McFarland (1970)26.
The chief effect of organization structure upon individuals within it
is a tendency to fix the nature and scope of their activities and to
condition the direction of the growth and development of the executives
holding the various positions. 0n the other hand executives also in-
fluence the structure, through exercising leadership and altering that
part of the organization which is under their responsibility. It is

often desirable to adapt a structure in order to accomodate to the

Particular weaknesses or strengths of executives.

EfllflgfigITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

McFarland (1970)27 defines authority in management as "the right
‘10 gu'ide or direct the actions of others and to exact from them responses
which are appropriate to the attainment of the organization's purposes".
A" 1'l'flportant aSpect of authority discussed by many authors is that

authority must be accepted. They all agree that the source of manage-

ment's authority is acceptance by subordinates (Haimann and Scott,

\

McG 25Flippo, Edwin B., l962, Principles of Personnel Management.
”aw-Hill Book Company, New YITrk, p. 64.

26
27

 

Op. Cit., pp. 394-396.
Op. Cit., p. 403.

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1970‘28 , McFarland , 19702

9).

Management delegates authority to subordinates and in so doing
vests a subordinate with a portion of its own authority to operate
within prescribed limits (Haimann and Scott, l970)30. When manage-
ment delegates authority to a subordinate it also creates an obligation
on the part of the subordinate for the satisfactory performance of
assigned duties. The acceptance of such an obligation by the subordinate
manager creates responsibility. It is important that authority and
responsibility be comnensurate. This means that the subordinate must
have been delegated enough authority to undertake all the duties which
have been assigned to him and for which he has accepted responsibility
(Haimann and Scott, 1970):”.
QBGANIZAIION CHARTS

Structure of the organization may be graphically portrayed by
or‘SJanization charts. Such charts can be of considerable assistance to
management in portraying the existing organization, in improving
communications and personnel relations, and in analyzing the organiza-

tion for future planning purposes (Broom and Longenecker, 196132,

Haimann and Scott, 197033).

28
29

Op. Cit., pp. 190-193.
Op. Cit., p. 404.

30Op. Cit., p. 194.
31

32
33

Op. Cit., pp. 202-204.
Op. Cit., p. 248.
Op. Cit., p. 221.

 

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61
Although different types of organization charts are available,
about 95 percent of companies use the vertical organization chart,
which presents the different levels of the organization in a step
arrangement with the senior executive at the top of the chart and
the successive levels of management depicted vertically in pyramid

form. Horizontal and circular charts are sometimes used (Haimann

and Scott, 1970)“.

Baker (l955)35 found that in companies with less than 25
employees less than l0 percent had organization charts. In firms
employing 150-299 employees close to 50 percent maintained organization

charts .

QRGANIZATION STRUCTURE IN AGRICULTURE

The author was unable to discover any significant literature

Pertaining to this function in agriculture. Cash (l968)36 found that

there was a tendency on farms with larger. herds to separate the dairy
)37

and the farming enterprises. Anderson and Greene (1969 reported a

dl'vlsion of the labor between milkers, feeders and clean-up crew on many
Florida dairy farms.

For purposes of this study it was thought that the size of many
0f the farms visited would be approaching the organizational complexity,

\

34Op. Cit., pp. 222—224.
35

F éGCash, J. G., l968, Some Factors for Consideration When Planning
00" M‘Ilking Herds of 150+ Cows. Department of Dairy Science, UniversTty
inois, Urbana, Illinois, p. 5.

Op. Cit., p. 25.

 

3
and 7Anderson, Charles L. , and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of Labor
LElbor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms. AgricuTtural
conOmics Mimeo Report EC 69-12, Gainesville, Florida, pp. 18-20.

..é’

 

 

62

where the theories of complex organization or organization theory would

be helpful in explaining what is happening.

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO ORGANIZATION

 

The results and observations discussed in this section pertain
to questions three through 27, as shown in Appendix B. Many of these
questions do not pertain directly to the topic of organization, but
are considered important from the point of view of presenting some of
the more salient statistics of the farms visited. Where appropriate
these statistics have been presented separately for the five regions.
Due to the small sample size these figures cannot be meaningfully

analyzed statistically, though certain trends can be observed.

§Q£IE STATISTICS
The average size herd in the study was 1,579 cows. The largest
herds were located in California and the smallest in the East. The
majority of dairymen had been in the dairying business for more than
20 years and some had been in the business for more than 50 years.
Many had changed the location of their business during this time due
to economic pressures and the spread of urbanization.
Farms in the East were smaller in their conception, thus making
it more difficult to amass a large unit. This fact helps explain
the average of 3.7 parcels of land farmed by eastern dairymen, compared
‘30 Z .0 in the Southeastern region and l.5 in the Mid-West and California.
The Smaller size of farms in the East appears to be the result of the
Smal] land allotments granted to early settlers and the difficulty of
pu"Chasing large blocks of land in such an old established society.
Ten dairymen operated more than one dairy herd. For these

Tamils the average number of dairy herds was 3.3 with a range of two

63
to six.

The average number of youngstock on the farms was closely related
to the average number of cows. The herds in the Mid-West and East
that reported a low percentage of replacements raised were rapidly ex-
panding and, therefore, purchasing replacements from outside. Three
herds operated under contract system for raising replacements. Two of
these had an option to buy their own heifers back from the contractor.
In California, two Of the herds kept no replacements at all, while the

remainder had l00 percent replacement programs.

TYPE OF OWNERSHIP

The three types Of ownership, i.e., single ownership, partnership
and corporation were found in all five regions. There was a preference,
however, for the corporation in the Southeast. Of the 12 partnerships,
only one employed a full-time professional manager. Generally, one Of
the Partners managed the dairy operation. 0f the l5 corporations only
seven employed professional managers who managed the entire farm or
at least the dairy enterprise. 0f the nine single ownerships only four

emp] oyed professional managers.

l
JUMB\ER OF EMPLOYEES

 

The responses to number and kind Of employees were purely descrip-
ti V9 and due to the large differences between many of the farms little
anal ysis can be carried out. An attempt was made to categorize the
workers into various positions and the list does help to identify the
ma..lor job activities on these dairy farms. Milkers stand out as a
grow Of specialized people on every farm. On some farms the mi lkers
are responsible for getting their own cows in to be milked, while on

Others (particularly in Florida and Texas) cow pushers are utilized to

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64

bring the cows to the milkers. In looking at the number Of milking
cows per milker, it was found that the Southeast was the most
efficient, with an average Of 134 cows per milker. Again, when
pushers and milkers were considered the Southeast was still the most
efficient, with 126 cows per milker and pusher.

The labor force was constant on 23 of the farms. The remainder
indi cated higher requirements in sumner for silage and hay making.

Questions 12 through 22, though generally concerned with farm
Organization are not particularly relevant to this discussion on
Personnel management. The responses to these questions are categorized

in Appendix B and where necessary individual items will be referred to.

L’QRK STRUCTURE

Nineteen Of the farms operated on a split-shift basis, using the
Same milkers for morning and evening milkings. The remainder operated
a Straight-shift, utilizing different milkers in the morning and evening.
The split shifts were most notable in Florida and California and on
farms with flat-barn milking systems. Flat-barns were most common in
Florida and California also. These barns represented an Older type Of
mil king technology and many were being, or about to be replaced by
more modern parlor-type barns.

There was a tendency to move towards the use of straight shifts

as herd sizes increased and as the milking facilities were modernized.

LOURS WORKED
The most comnon arrangement for milkers was to work nine hours per
day 3 six days a week, having one day Off. In most instances the day Off

was not set, but in a few cases the day Off was rotational , thus 91V109

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65
a man a chance of having two days off together every seventh week.
Ten hours per day was quite common also, and eight hours per day less
common.

Outside workers typically worked longer hours, with ten hours per
day being the most common, and six days a week.

Unionization did not affect the hours worked -- though as men-
tioned previously they did have set rates per cow milked by various
systems. This insured a man of being paid for the time he worked and
amount of work done.

The couple Of instances Of very long hours Of outside work were

observed in the Mid-West.

RELIEF MILKING

The majority of dairies had set relief men to relieve milkers.
1" Some cases the supervisor was the relief man, while in other cases
relief work was handled by family members. The larger dairies
aPpeared to have a very good system for relief of both milkers and

outside men. On these farms relief work was a full-time job.

WATION STRUCTURE

 

None of the farms visited maintained organization charts. An
attempt was made, however, through questioning to establish such a
chart for each farm. As shown in Figure 1, six classifications of
o"Qanlzation structure were identified. They represent different levels
1." the evolution Of the management function. The respondents were
classified in the closest appropriate category.

The most comnon types of structure were III and IV. The simplest
StrUCture, type I, was followed in five dairies. Type V which is

qu‘te complex was observed on six dairies, while type VI which is the

C'f H’ I
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66

FIGURE 1. ORGANIZATION CHARTS SHOWING TYPES OF OR
GANIZ
FOR THE SAMPLE OF LARGE SCALE DAIRY FARMS. ATION STRUCTURE

IV.
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67
the most complex was observed on one dairy. In general, as the size
of herd increased and as more peOple were employed so did the com-

plexi ty of organization structure.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR LABOR MANAGEMENT

 

In most cases the owner or his manager were responsible for labor
management. Two owners mentioned that they and their managers did this
jointly. Eight respondents said that their supervisors were directly
responsible for the men under them and would only refer problems they

could not handle to the owner or manager.

DISCUSSION

It was Obvious from discussion organization structure with these
dai rymen, that very few had given much thought to this function Of
management. That some structure did exist was evident from the charts
which were established through questioning and the dairymen became very
interested in these charts as a way of viewing their organization.
The charts developed were Of the hierarchial model showing both the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the organizations.

In the classification developed, types I and II show only a
vert-i cal dimension, while all other classifications Show both vertical
and horizontal division of management. Type IV shows the clear use
Of departmentalization between dairy and farm activities with a supervisor
1“ Charge of each. This decentralization by process is carried further
1" 1lype V with the creation Of more divisions, and there is also
greater use Of the scalar level within the division headed by the herds-

man .

Some of these larger farms, having more than one dairy, were

68
decentralized to an extent and each dairy or division was set up as
a profit center. Organization types I to V represented line organiza-
tions , there was no use Of staff other than Office personnel.

Type VI was the most complex organization visited. It was com-
prised Of the President, Vice President (Farm Manager), Herd Health
Superintendent (Assistant Farm Manager) and the Controller. This
corporate staff comprised the executive committee also, which had
responsibility for planning. Four barn managers as well as other
division heads reported directly to the Vice President and Farm Manager
and each milking barn was set up as a profit center.

It was evident that many of these farms lacked an organization
structure that would enable them to operate more efficiently. There
was an unwillingness among many owners and managers to delegate authority
to workers and to creat supervisory positions of responsibility. Some
managers, though conscious of this, said that they lacked the caliber
0f man willing to take on any responsibility. This, however, left too
much responsibility with the owner or manager himself and severely
limited the time he could devote to planning and organizing functions

of management.

Wm. SPLIT SHIFT

 

A common topic for discussion among large scale dairymen is
the Shl ft arrangement. The tendency to move toward the use of a
Straight shift as herd sizes increase and as facilities are modernized
r'E’PV'PSW-‘hts an effort to give dairy workers hours and conditions more in
”"9- “ th their industrial counterparts.

Some of the dairies that tried changing to a straight Shift where

d‘fer‘ent men milked the cows in the morning and in the evening were

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69
forced to change back to a split shift due to mastitis problems de-
vel oping in the cows. Indeed, this is the main Objection to the
straight shift for the same man no longer milks the same cows morning
and evening. This means that there is a loss of control in identifying
problems and the morning shift man can blame the evening shift man
and vice versa. On the other hand, some dairymen reported improved
bacterial counts and mastitis condition when changing to a straight
shift.

It would appear that the milk quality and herd health status are
more closely related to management and control systems established than
to the type of shift used. The use of a straight shift does necessitate
certain changes in herd management but provided these are adopted there
aPpears to be no reason why the straight shift cannot work.

The workers themselves prefer a straight shift and those who
Previously worked a split shift and are now on a straight shift would

not be willing to change.

MSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

The following conclusions and recommendations would appear justified,
based on the type and frequency Of response and comments made by
indi Vi dual operators and also in light Of the review Of industrial
Practi ces.
1 . Large scale dairymen are not particularly conscious Of the
part an organization can play in helping them to manage.
2. The establishment Of simple organization Charts of their
present organization may help dairymen to view it more
objectively.
3. There is an unwillingness among many owners and managers to

delegate authority. This severely limits the capacity Of these

 

ORV

 

70
organizations to grow.
Owners and managers should seek young men who are willing to
take on responsibility and delegate to them the necessary
amount Of authority. Many owners are unwilling to pay the
price for a man of this ability. They should consider the
potential for growth, through having more capable employees.
The use Of straight shifts will increase in the future in an
effort to give dairy workers comparable working hours and
conditions as enjoyed by industrial workers. This will be
facilitated by improved systems of herd management and controls
which will minimize the presently feared cow problems associated

with changing from a split to a straight shift.

 

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CHAPTER VI
THE HIRING PROCESS

This chapter will discuss the recruitment, selection and placement
of new employees.

Flippo (1966)1 defines recruitment as, "the process of searching
for prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the
organization". The same author points out that recruitment is "positive"
in that its objective is to increase the selection ratio, that is,-the
number of applicants per job opening.
The selection procedure is defined by Flippo (1966)2 as, "a
series Of methods Of securing pertinent information about the applicant".
Selection he states is "negative" in that it attempts to eliminate

applicants, leaving only the best to be placed in the organization.

RECRUITMENT

 

Since the manpower needs of no company are completely static, the
recruitment function is a continuous one. The Small Business Administra-
tion (1961)3 points out that sound employee recruitment practices demand
that:

l. The short and long term manpower needs of the organization are

considered, including the probable turnover of labor. Job de-

scriptions and job specifications should be established, as

 

1Flippo, Edwin E., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, p. 472

21bid., p. 137.

3Small Business Administration, 1961, Personnel Management Guides
for Small Business. Small Business Management Series NO. 26, p. 51

 

 

 

71

 

Pr.

 

5.4 s .1

72
discussed in Chapter III on planning.

2. A regular recruitment program be organized, bearing in mind

that the principles of selection involve having a large number
Of recruits from which to pick the most suitable. The labor
supply will, of course, influence the number of applicants.

3. All sources of recruitment should be tapped so that the final

selection can be made from the total pool Of applicants.

The Small Business Administration (1961)4 lists the following
possible sources of manpower; present employees, former employees, chance
applicants, trade and industrial associations, clergymen, schools and
teachers, customers and suppliers, state employment agencies, commercial
employment agencies, advertising in the local press and trade magazines
in labor unions. These sources may be classified as external to the
firm, as compared to promoting and transferring employees already within
the company.

Baker (1955)5 found that the two external sources most frequently
used by small manufacturing companies were casual applicants and
recommended labor by present employees. The next most popular sources
were public employment agencies and recommendations of former employees.
Flippo (1962)6 points out that not every firm can afford to develop
every source Of labor to the fullest extent. It is, therefore, impor-

tant to try and ascertain the most successful sources of employees so

4Ibid.. pp. 8-9.

5Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Bureau of Business Research, College Of Commerce and AdminTstration,
'The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, p. 53.

6Op. Cit., p. 135.

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73

that the recruitment program can be more carefully aimed.

SELECTION

 

Having secured as many applicants as possible from whom to choose,
the next task is to screen them. The screening tools most commonly
used and identified by Baker (1955)7 are: the preliminary interview,
the application blank, the reference check, physical examination and
the personal interview.

Preliminary Interview: Conducting a preliminary interview will
save considerable time and expense, which would be involved in having
every applicant go through the entire selection procedure. This
interview is usually quite short and has as its purpose the elimination
Of the Obviously unqualified (Flippo, 1962)8. In order to insure that
potentially successful candidates are not eliminated at this point,
careful standards for rejection should be set up for use in this inter-
view, Baker (1955)9.

Application Blanks: These may have several purposes, all or
any Of which may be utilized by a particular company, depending upon its
particular need. These purposes include using the form as a permanent
record, eliminating candidates with obviously unsuited characteristics,
determining applicant's ability to follow instructions and providing

a basis for a subsequent detailed interview (Baker, 1955)]0.

Op. Cit., pp. 63-66.
8Op. Cit., p. 140.
90p. Cit., p. 64.

Op. Cit., p. 64.

74

Though certain biographical information such as age, education,
military service status, marital status, skills, past experience and
social security number are common to all application blanks, the questions
should not presume to pry too deeply into the applicant's personal
affairs (Small Business Administration, 1961)“.

References: The use Of references is common to many selection
procedures. The primary methods Of checking references include
telephone calls or personal calls to those close by; secondary methods
include the use of written references and reports from outside agencies

(Baker, 1955)]2. Flippo (1962)13

points out that the closer one can
get to the reference giver, the more accurate and valuable will be
the information obtained. But, the Small Business Administration
(1961)14 says that in judging references one should be circumspect,
since an employer does not usually dwell on an ex-employee's weak points
and does not wish to spoil the ex-employee's chances at another job.
Physical Examinations: The use Of pre-employment physical
examinations is more and more becoming recognized as an indispensable
step in the selection process. This examination, according to Baker
(1955)15 serves three functions. These are; placing individuals in jobs
which are suitable to their health and physical conditions, safe- I

guarding the health of present employees against communicable diseases

and guarding the experience record Of the company under workmen's

“

11
12
13
14
15

Op. Cit., p. 12.
Op. Cit., p. 64.
Op. Cit., p. 147.
Op. Cit., p. 14.
Op. Cit., p. 65.

 

 

f‘

75
compensation laws.

Testing: An employment test is an instrument designed to measure
selected factors which contribute to a man's ability to perform his job
(Flippo, 1962)]6. Baker (1955)17 states that "when properly
validated tests are used discriminately and intelligently, they are
useful instruments in helping to predict whether or not an applicant
will be successful on the job, in which he is to be placed. Strauss
and Sayles (1963)18 identify five general types Of tests that can be
used. These are; (1) performance tests, (2) intelligence tests,

(3) aptitude tests, (4) personality tests and (5) situational tests.

Baker (1955)19

questions whether tests should be used at all in
small companies. He states, that if tests are to be used, it is
advisable to secure the assistance of trained testing personnel from
outside the organization, rather than risk the possibility of misusing
psychological tests.

Personal Interview: Flippo (1962)20 states, that although the
interview is highly subjective and frequently inexact, that it is
nonetheless essential. The primary Objective of this interview is to

gather information not obtainable by other means and to determine the

16
17

Op. Cit., p. 155.
Op. Cit., p. 65.

18Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1963, Personnel: The
Human Problems of Mana ement. Prentice-Hall, Inc., EnglewoodCliffs,
New Jersey, pp. 442-44 .

19Op. Cit., p. 65.

20Op. Cit., p. 148.

 

76
individual's characteristics and qualifications in terms of his
potential success. Secondary objectives include informing or teaching
applicants about the essential facts connected with the job and with
the company, and developing an attitude of understanding and goodwill

between the prospective employee and the company (Baker, 1955)21.

Baker (1955)22

found that the methods of selection most frequently
used by small manufacturing firms were the preliminary interview, the
detailed interview, the application blanks and the reference check.
Larger companies made wider use of formalized procedures than did small

companies.

INDUCTION

 

The procedure of introducing or orienting a new employee to the
organization is referred to as induction (Flippo, 1962)23. Baker (1955)24
states that unless a new employee is cordially received and oriented to
his new surroundings he will begin to wonder if he was wise in his

choice of employment. It is, therefore, important that the new worker

be made to feel that he is a member of the company family and not just
another "hired hand". This author also found that companies of all

sizes were increasingly developing systematic induction programs. In
large companies this can be done on a group basis, but in a small company

this would not be necessary. One method for a small company is to have

21
22
23

Op. Cit., p. 66.
Op. Cit., p. 66.
Op. Cit., p. 151.

24Op. Cit., pp. 71-72.

77
the supervisor take charge of the induction personally. Another
method is for the supervisor to introduce the new employee to an Older
worker or "sponsor" who has been selected on the basis Of his under-
standing, judgement and personality.
The induction program should provide the employee with information
concerning the organization of the company, the nature Of the production

process and personnel programs.

HIRING EMPLOYEES FOR AGRICULTURE
Daniel Sturt (1969)25 points out that although farm labor supply
is a function of wages (or the wage package) as well as non-farm employ-
ment opportunities and unemployment levels in the non-farm sector, that
this is not the whole story. Supply is also a function of employer
recruitment practices, labor management and the work environment, coupled
with the societal image of farm work. He states that farm employers
have typically had an abundance of available workers and have not felt
the need for agressive recruitment procedures. The lack of job descrip-
tions has also hampered the development Of recruiting procedures.

Murrill and Pelissier (1967)26 reported on the development and
success of a recruiting program set up in the San Joaquin Valley,

CalifOrnia, to encourage the entry of new people into the dairy labor

P001. This program included the upgrading of the profession, the

\

25Sturt, Daniel W., 1969, The Manpower Game. Rural Manpower
Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, p. 11.

26Murrill, Frank D. and.Pelissier, C. L., 1967, Dairy Labor-
Ufifigenent Relations in the San Joaquin‘Valley. Paper presentedat
U ? nnual Meeting of the AmerTCan Dairy Science Association, Cornell
n1\Iersity, Ithaca, New York, June 25-29, 1967, pp. 4-8.

...O\ :3. 1.......

 

78
formation of an employment clearing house and referral system and
coordination and cooperation with pertinent agencies.
Dairy employment is no longer limited to men only and the fact that

27. This

women make good farm employees is pointed out by Graden (1971)
author shows the increased use of women milkers in Florida farms in
order to solve labor problems particularly turnover, and gives some
pointers for the successful use of women as milkers.

In these times Of urban unrest and air pollution Murley (1970)28
maintains that many workers and their families would welcome an
opportunity to move to the country to a job with security, satisfactory
working conditions, a place to raise their family, good schools, churches
and clean community living. Reaching these people with an attractive
job Offer should be easy through newspaper or magazine advertisement,
or perhaps through employmentagencies, friends, relatives and by the
grapevine. This author also points out the necessity for a good induction
program involving the worker's family. This includes introducing them
to their new associates, finding the church of their choice, acquainting
them with the schools and generally making them feel that you are interested
in them and that their living conditions and happiness is important to you.

Stevens (1966)29 in a study of "Farmers' Use of the New York State

Employment Service to Recruit Regular Labor" found that despite a

L

27Graden, Arthur P., 1971, Women Are Good Farm Employees. Paper
Presented at the Southeast DairyTonference, Jacksonville, Florida,
March 23, 1971.

. 28Murley, Ray W., 1970, Recruiting Dairy Farm Labor. Dairy
$c1¢ance Department, Virginia Pfilytechnic Institute, Blacksburg.

 

 

29Stevens. Virgil J., 1968, Farmers' Use of the New York State
5" Itayment Service to Recruit Regular Labor, 1966, A) E. Res. 270,
apartment of Agricultural Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, p. 21.

 

 

.F.
flvv

Tu

.Aiv

......

‘1. iris

 

79

generally tight labor market, only a small proportion of farmers
adjacent to these employment Offices made use of the services Offered.
Most farm workers found jobs without the direct aid of the Offices.
Those farm Operators who did place job orders with the employment
offices found that a creditable performance was turned in by the field
representatives in placing applicants in a relatively short time.

In a study carried out by the United States Department of Agriculture
(1969)30 on "Regular Hired Workers on Dairy Farms in New York and
Wisconsin", it was found that dairy farmers in both states were unable
to satisfy their requirements for workers. As a result, 21 percent of
New York dairy farmers and 13 percent Of those in Wisconsin would have
hired one or more additional workers in 1967. The reasons given for
the low supply of dairy workers were:

1. A lack Of sufficient recruiting practices.

2. Wages and benefits were not competitive with industry.

3. The working hours on dairy farms were too long.
)31

In his study of Michigan dairy farms, Shapley (1969 found

that about seven percent expressed a need for an extra man if they could

have got one.

In regard to the qualities desired in dairy workers, Anderson

and Greene (1969)32 found that the most frequently mentioned personal

.30United States Department of Agriculture, 1969, Regular Hired
ERIjgers on Dairy Farms in New York and Wisconsin. Draft received, p. 3.

3IShapley, Allen E., 1969, Full-Time Employees on Michigan Dairy
Farins. Rural Manpower Center, Report No.'20, October, l969jMTEhigan

We University, East Lansing, p. 12.

32Anderson. Charles L. and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of Labor
and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms. Agricultural
COnomics Mimeo Report EC 69-12, Gainesville, Florida, p. 26.

8O
traits desired were soberness, dependability, cleanliness, interest in
work and promptness. Most dairymen preferred a man to have some dairy
experience or at least some farm experience. Married men were generally
preferred and there was a tendency to favor younger men. Dairymen
were not too concerned with the educational level of employees (also
found by Shapley, 1969)33, but some were looking for high school
graduates.

The most common method of recruitment found by Anderson and
Greene (1969)34 was through personal contact.

The use of employment agreements in hiring farm workers was studied
by Armstrong (l969)35. He found that the employment agreement or
memorandum Of understanding had the following advantages:

1. It aids the farmer in thinking through a sound labor-

management program.

2. It stimulates discussion between the farmer and the worker

at the time of employment rather than at a time of disagreement.

3. It communicates the critical issues between the parties.

4. It assures representation of both parties.

5. It provides a record if disagreement occurs.

6. It provides bench marks when discussing changes or

modifications for future agreements.

33Op. Cit., p. 13.

34

F 35Armstrong, David L., 1969, Employment Agreements in Hiripg
an" Workers. Rural Manpower Center, Special aper NO. 9,7TpriT,
69 s Michigan State University, East Lansing, p. 4.

Op. Cit., p. 27.

 

81

Given and Hundley (1966)36

in their study of Michigan dairy
farms, found that hired men were seldom fired, but instead, were
usually placed in a situation which they found to be intolerable and

were thus forced to quit of their own accord.

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO THE HIRING PROCESS

 

The results presented in this section pertain to questions 40
through 56. The categories of response and their frequency are shown

in Appendix B.

RECRUITING

 

The most common method of making it known that a new employee
was needed was by word Of mouth. This was mentioned 14 times. Closely
related to this was personal contact with dairymen and workers in other
areas. Ten said that they always had a backlog Of applicants or
people coming by looking for work. This they said was even more evident
due to the generally high level of unemployment.

New employees came mostly from applicants who stopped by looking
for a job or replied to advertisements. Present employees were the
next most frequent source of employees. Where available, local men
were preferred to outsiders by many dairymen. The majority of respondents
found no particular source to be any more satisfactory than others.
Some, however, preferred small farmers who had given up farming, while

Others preferred to get people from other dairies.

R 36Given, Charles W. and Hundley, James R., Jr., 1966, Human
e‘lations on Dairy Farms. Rural Manpower Center, No. 2, NovemBer,
'933 , Michigan State University, East Lansing, p. 23.

 

 

.\-—

a.

F.1

0

‘2...

 

 

82
SELECTION

 

All the respondents interviewed prospective employees, at least to
some extent. Some interviews were very informal, while others in
conjunction with the use of the application form were quite detailed.
Only two dairies required their employees to have physical examinations.

In sizing up an employee the most frequently mentioned criterion
was his general appearance. Married men were preferred because of their
expected stability and responsibility and also because housing was
available in most cases. A man's work history was important and showed
his experience and background, giving some indication of whether he
was a transient or not. References were sought by 14 respondents.
Fourteen also said that experience was important, while eight said
that it was not and that they were willing to train a man. In the
interview many looked specifically for the man's general attitude and
enthusiasm as giving some indication of his willingness to work.

Eight said that they preferred young men Of less than 30, while 11
said that age was not important. The tendency to prefer younger men
was particularly noticeable where flat barns were used, due to the
extra physical strain involved in milking in these barns as compared
to a parlor barn.

Short milking tests were used by four respondents, as a check
on a man's ability to milk. One manager had a short written test
developed by a dairy equipment company. Applicants were asked to
read two short books about milk production and were later quizzed on
this. This test served as a screening device and the manager was very

happy with the results.

83
HIRING A SUPERVISOR

 

When asked what differences would there be in recruiting a
supervisor as compared to another employe, 19 Of the respondents said
that a supervisor would need more experience. A higher level of educa-
tion was sought by 11 respondents. Some of these only had minimal
requirements of being able to read and write, while many sought at least
a high school education. College graduates were sought by two respondents.
An ability to handle people was important for a supervisor and 10 said
that they would need a lot Of background information on a supervisory
candidate. Eight said that they had no experience in this area and
seven said that rather than hire a supervisor they would prefer to

promote a man from their present work force.

EVALUATION OF THE HIRING PROCESS

 

Fourteen dairymen reported “good“ success in hiring new employees
and two thought that they were doing very well. Others were not
so happy and the four who said they were not satisfied had high
turnover problems. The most frequently reported turnover rate was in
the 20 to 30 percent range. Six had less than 10 percent turnover and
four reported none at all over the past year. A turnover of 31 to 50
percent was reported by five dairymen and a manager of one of the
largest dairies said that he had a 900 percent turnover.

The most frequently mentioned problems in hiring new employees
was getting good men who were willing to work. This included being
able to find suitably experienced men for particular jobs. Closely

related to this was the problem Of finding men who were dependable.

84
USE OF CONTRACTS

 

Thirty of the 36 respondents had no written contract with any of
their workers. They relied solely on a verbal agreement as to wages,
hours and benefits. Six dairies in California were unionized and the
men working on these dairies had contracts with the union, while the
union had a contract with the dairy. The union contract Specified
in detail the wages, hours and working conditions expected for its

employees.

INDUCTING AND ORIENTING THE NEW EMPLOYEE

 

When a new man was hired, he was at least verbally informed
about his job by the manager or a supervisor. Two dairies made use
of job descriptions to help the man to better understand his job. Two
other dairies were considering developing job descriptions. An employee
handbook outlining the basic conditions Of the job and some information
about the company was used by one dairy, while one other dairy was
developing such a handbook.

The majority of respondents said that a new employee was introduced
individually to his fellow workers by the manager or supervisor. Often,
however, a man would be introduced to his immediate work group and
left on his own to meet the other men. Six respondents did nO
introducing at all and left this entirely up to the worker himself.

Two dairymen used informal meetings as an occasion to introduce a new

man .

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

 

The fact that many of the farms had a waiting list of applicants
IS very likely due to the relatively larger size of the farms visited

and the fact that they are well known throughout the surrounding area.

85

Farm employees generally know that there is a good chance of getting
a job on these larger farms and this would explain the large number who
reported that new employees generally came from casual applicants.
Some Florida dairymen advertised in the states of Georgia, Tennessee
and Alabama, in the hope of attracting some small farmers. This source
though very limited was much preferred to the usual source of Chicano
or Mexican workers who tended to be transient.

Although many dairymen would like to employ college graduates
in supervisory or managerial positions, they were quite critical of this
source because of their experiences. They found that the college
graduate thought of himself more as an executive rather than as a
working manager and were unwilling to perform this work function. College
graduates also expected high starting salaries, rather than starting at
a lower scale and proving their worth. Most dairymen appeared willing
to pay attractive salaries to a capable graduate, but only after he
had proved that he was worth it.

The selection process was not very comprehensive on many farms.
Many dairymen said that they could not be very selective, as they just
did not get the caliber of man they needed, applying for jobs. One
farm which was very actively trying to upgrade its caliber Of employees
was insisting on a minimum of a high school education for new employees.
The manager said that this was proving to be successful and through
offering good wages and working conditions he was able to attract men
1Nho would otherwise look to industry for jobs.

The biggest problem faced by dairymen was trying to get the right
caliber of man for the job. Due to the lack Of desired candidates
a"<l the transient nature Of many of those who were seeking these

3CHDs, many dairies suffered high turnover rates. The turnover problem

86
was always worst with milkers. Rarely was there a turnover problem with
outside men. The high turnover rate of milkers was thought to be in
part due to boredom with their job, their social isolation within the
community, their transient nature and the fact that moving was made
very easy because most dairies supplied housing.

The complete absence Of contracts among all dairymen, other than
those that were unionized was surprising, especially in light of the
advantages pointed out by Armstrong (1969)37. When questioned as to
why they did not use written contracts, most felt that they were
unnecessary. Many felt also that while the employee could bind the
employer to the contract, that there was no point in the employer
trying to bind the employee since an unhappy employee was better to
leave the organization.

In light of the increasing importance being placed on induction
programs in industry, there was very little evidence of this trend among
the dairies visited. While a few smaller dairies did an excellent job

in this respect, most of the larger dairies did a very poor job.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the results of this research, the Observations Of other
researchers and in light of proven industrial and business practices,
the following conclusions and recommendations would seem appropriate.

1. Dairymen may find it to their advantage to develop job

descriptions for the major categories of jobs. This would

enable the manager to more logically view each position and

37Op. Cit., p. 4.

 

87
to establish the specifications which must be met by the
new employee.
In order to make dairy employment more attractive each
manager may benefit from carefully reviewing the working
conditions, hours, wages and benefits he Offers and improve
them where it is practical to do so. This would enable him

to present an overall attractive employment package to a

prospective employee.

Dairymen may benefit from more active recruitment campaigns
in order to attract the caliber Of men they are seeking.

More advertising could be done on an individual and group
basis, pointing out the attractiveness Of the employment
package and the advantages of country living.

Assuming that a more active recruitment program would make
more high caliber men available for dairy employment, a more
comprehensive selection process may prove beneficial. The
use Of application blanks and a detailed interview should

be considered. References may be sought also and the use of
a preliminary interview may prove worthwhile. Larger dairies
may find a place for performance tests to check a man's
ability to milk and his knowledge of the basic physiology of
milk production.

Dairymen may find it to their advantage to utilize employment
contracts to the mutual benefit of employer and employee.

The availability of such contracts may prove attractive to a
prOSpective high caliber employee as it gives him a chance to
more carefully review the position.

More attention to induction and trying to make the worker

88
feel a part of the organization may prove beneficial to
dairymen. Researchers have a definite role to play in this
as more knowledge Of the social patterns and transient nature
of many of these present dairy workers is needed before

effective curative programs can be established.

0y"

I U ’1‘ i
.11- s 3»
F1. "1 h .
..U n V v

o\ 1 .Ta‘ 15L «.4.» r.l
a u, R Al‘u
r SJ P) .4 :5 p u
’1' AI :1. Th1 l I “I

 

CHAPTER VII

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

 

The efficiency of any organization depends directly on the ability
of its members to do their job -- that is on their training (Strauss
and Sayles, 1963)]. Training may be defined as the act of increasing
the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing his particular job
(Flippo, 1966)2.

In general, no firm has a choice of whether to train or not. The
only choice is that of method. The absence of a systematic training
program has been proven to result in higher training costs. This is
the result of a considerably lengthened training period and the likeli-
hood that the employee will not learn the best operating methods
(Flippo, 1966)3.

In relation to small businesses it is interesting to note what
the Small Business Administration (1961)4 has to say with regard to
training; "owner-managers Of small businesses Often feel that they have
no time or 'cannot afford' to train their employees". Such thinking

is based on a gross misconception, since your employees are indeed

1Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1963, Personnel -- The
flgman Problems of Management. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, p. 490.

2Flippo, Edwin B., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New YorT, p. 201.

31bid.. p. 201.

B 1 4Sma11 Business Administration, 1961, Personnel Guides for Small
"5 liess. Small Business Administration, Management Series NO. 26'

 

 

89

fi—fi

Au»
Alu-

155.

of:

F...
.H \
n) 1

 

90

your greatest asset. When they are receiving training they are "growing”
and at the same time helping your business to grow. It follows that
you simply cannot afford NOT to train your work force, both the "new
hands" and the I'Old hands". Strauss and Sayles (1963)5 also point out
this need for continually training existing employees to develop peOple
for promotions and transfers.

Most large firms provide a wide range of training and development

programs designed to help employees increase their knowledge and skills

 

and qualify themselves for continued employment and advancement.
Small firms on the other hand generally provide little formal training
and lean heavily on the programs Of larger businesses and government
agencies (Yoder, 1962)6. This latter statement is borne out by
Baker (1955)7 in a study of Personnel Management in Small Plants. He
found that smaller plants did not have highly organized programs and
generally relied on the worker's supervisor or an older employee to do
the training. In very small companies with less than 25 employees the
training was most frequently done by an older employee who is temporarily
assigned to the job.

It is important to remember that to an employee a learned skill
is an asset that can only be taken away by the complete elimination

of the need for that skill.

5Op. Cit., p. 490.

6Yoder, Dale, 1962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
P"entice-Hall , Inc., Englewood Clefs, New Jersey, p. 406.

7Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Burwaau of Business Research, College of Commerce andTAdminTStration,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, p. 228.

91

Training, however, is only one function of personnel management
and the success Of any training program is dependent on the success of
other aspects Of the personnel program. Where employees are already
highly motivated and closely identified with the goals Of the organization,
well conceived training programs will lead to better performance (Strauss
and Sayles, l963)8. Some of the advantages of training Operative
personnel are given by Flippo (l966)9. He cites the following values

of training: (1) increased productivity, (2) heightened morale,

 

(3) reduced supervision, (4) reduced accidents and (5) increased
organizational stability and flexibility.

The subject matter Of training is very broad and there are a
multiplicity of approaches to this task. A great deal of detail per-
taining to training and other functions of personnel management is
given in the Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations by
Yoder, ppppl_(1958)10.

A distinction is made in most texts between training and education.
Training is concerned with increasing knowledge and skill of doing a
particular job, while education is concerned with increasing general
knowledge and understanding Of the total environment. Both training
and education are involved in the development Of personnel to the
desired level Of skill, knowledge and attitude. In general, the higher
the job in an organization the more important education becomes as a
job requirement.

‘5‘

8Op. Cit., p. 505.
9

10Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Turnbull, John G., and Stone,
Harxald C., 1958, Handbook Of Personnel Management and Labor
Reliations. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, pp.T12.l-12.62.

Op. Cit., p. 202.

92
Mention has already been made to operative personnel and the value of
“training them. However, the strength Of any organization depends
'largely on its management. If the organization is to remain strong,
“it.nmst provide Opportunities for the continuing development Of competent
reaplacements for those who retire or die (Strauss and Sayles, l963)11.
Siince the 1940's there has been great interest in management development
Tyrograms. This is the result of a Shortage of executives created during
iflie war, but also due to the increasing complexity of management and
'that management should be regarded as a distinct type Of work, with
its own disciplines, its own criteria for achievement; something which

is both learnable and teachable (Flippo, 196612

14).

, Strauss and Sayles,
195013. Waite, 1952
Systems of training may be divided into those commonly used for

Operative personnel (Flippo, 1966)15 and those used in Management

16

Development (Flippo, 1966 , Haimann and Scott, 197017, Strauss and

Sayles, 195318).

1]Op. Cit., p. 525.

12Op. Cit., p. 215.

13Op. Cit., p. 509.

14Waite, William W., 1952, Personnel Administration. The
Ronald Press Company, New York, p. 238.

15

 

Op. Cit., p. 201.

16Op. Cit., p. 201.

17Haimann, Theo. and Scott, William G., 1970, Mana ement in the
Modern Organization. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, pp. 369-374.

18Op. Cit., pp. 509-525.

 

93
1. Systems for Operative Personnel
1. 0n the job training (most common)
2. Vestibule training
3. Apprenticeship
4. Special courses

2. Approaches and Techniques to Management Development

 

0n the Job Development Off the Job Development

1. Experience 1. Special courses or classes
2. Coaching 2. Role playing

3. Understudies 3. Sensitivity training

4. Position rotation 4. Simulation

5. Special projects and 5. Conference training

task forces
6. Multiple management

05

Committee assignments
7. Special meetings

7. Selective reading

Space precludes an indepth description of each of these methods,
but they are covered in the references cited. All the authors stress
the need for a constant review of the training program as an aid in
identifying weaknesses and making improvements.

There are certain principles of training that are generally

recognized in industry (Yoder,Ԥp_pl) 1958)19

and these might be
cited at this point. They are:
1. There is a tendency toward training individuals rather
than groups.
2. An increasing proportion of training is being done by foremen
and fellow employees rather than by a formal training staff.

‘90p. Cit., p. 12.7.

94
3. The part Of the learner is growing more dynamic rather than
more static, i.e. there is more participation on the part of
the learner.
4. There is better selection Of trainees.

5. Training is becoming more specific rather than more general.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE

None of the farm management texts reviewed paid any attention to
the special requirements Of training farm labor. Chapters in these
texts devoted to labor management were primarly concerned with labor
efficiency. In his thesis, Industrializing Agriculture: A Typology
of Entrepreneurial Farm Management Style (1968)20 Maurice Voland
points out that as industrialization of agriculture continues the
effectiveness of labor will be even more critical than it is today,
since labor although more highly skilled, will still be required to
operate the automated equipment now replacing large numbers of agricultural
laborers. This point is also made by Hecht (l966)21. But in order to
have a supply of skilled laborers, there must be training programs, and
as far as agriculture is concerned this whole area is sadly lacking in

policies and programs .

20Voiand. Maurice E., 1968, Industrializing Agriculture: A
typologp of Entrepreneurial Farm Management StyTE) Thesis Sumetted
or oc or O ilosophy Degree, College Of Social Science, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, p. 8.

2‘Hecht. Reuben W., 1955, Farm Labor Situation -- Trends and
Forces at Work. Paper presented’at NationaTlExtension Workshop on
arm Labor PrOblems, University of Nebraska, Center for Continuing
Education, Lincoln Nebraska, Vol. 1-4, p. 16.

 

 

 

95

StUrt (1969)22 states that the lack of any meaningful and useful
classification of farm jobs has inhibited the development of training
programs designed to teach appropriate skills to farm workers. He
goes on to state that "training, both on the job and Off the job, is
essential for most farm workers". He finds that a basic problem in
training is the low level Of education among farm workers. In 1967
farm workers had a median of 9.0 years Of education compared to 12.3

years for all workers.

Some of the advantages Of the management trainee in agriculture

are shown in an article by John Russell (1970)23 in which he refers to

the management trainee as a new breed of "hired man", perhaps earning
up to $10,000 per annum. Employing this caliber of man is justified
by labor scarcity, increasing size Of Operations, more technology and
an increasing need for management. Such a trainee would gradually
learn to operate the business, taking on added responsibilities through
time and maybe eventually go into partnership with the owner.

Some attempts are being made, however, to fill this need for
training farm workers. The University of California, Davis (1965)“,
developed a course and manual on, Training Supervisors of Farm Labor.

The objectives Of this course were to train farm foremen, superintendents

and crew leaders to:
\

N ZZSturt, Daniel W., 1969, The Manpower Game. A Compendium of
votes Based on Previous Papers, presented to Kellogg Farmers Group
3 October 20, 1969, Rural Manpower Center, Michigan State University,

East Lansing, p. 17.

23Russell, John, 1970, The Management Trainee -- A New Breed
91:_inred Man". Farm Journalj'November, 1970, p.7H.8.

 

24University of California, Davis, 1965, Training Supervisors Of
Fer‘mLabor, A Guide for Instructors, Department of AngCUltural
ducation, University of CalifornTE, Davis.

96
1. Understand and use principles of good supervision,
Maintain effective relationships with workers,

Handle personnel and relationship problems as they occur,

4500“)

Instruct new and inexperienced workers how to perform farm
jobs,

5. Analyze and break down jobs to determine time and labor
saving shortcuts.

25 of Cornell University developed a

In 1968 William W. Frank
manual and course to teach personnel management in agriculture
entitled, "Human Relations Problems on the Farm". This course covered
sucwi topics as motivation, perception, communications, learning,
management problems and how to get things done through people.

Allen E. Shapley (1970)26 modeled his training manual entitled,
"Personnel Management in Agriculture" on that developed by Frank.
Shatfley's manual is a detailed guide for teaching concepts and practices
01’ personnel management. The concepts relate to motivation, perceptions,
attritudes, communication and learning. The practices relate to salary,
frllige benefits and human relations as they relate to the concepts
studied. This course was specifically aimed at dairy farmers in
Ml.Chigan.

In relation to training given on dairy farms, Given and Hundley

F 25Frank, William W., 1968, Human Relations Problems on the

arm, Discussion Leader's Instruction Manual. The NeWork State
335ml of Industrial ancFEabor ReTations and the College Of Agriculture,
Cornell University, New York.

26Shapley, A11en E., 1970, Personnel Management in Agriculture,
'IDStructor's Manual, Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper NO. 12,

FeBruary, 1970, Michigan State University, East Lansing.

97
(1966)27 found that most training periods on farms in Michigan were
very! brief and inadequate. In fact, the training that was given
Often led to confusion for the employee mostly through abiguities
and Tnisperceptions on both sides. Anderson and Greene (1969)28 in
a stquy of the Use Of Labor and Labor Management Practices on Florida
Dairy Farms found that almost all training was informal on the job
trailiing. They cited only one instance of an operator having a formal
trainee program, though several Operators sent men to university short
(XMIrses and one man had been sent to the Graham Scientific Breeding
School.

Some local or county training programs for dairy workers have been
set up throughout the country. One such program was started in Kern
CcnInty, California, as a result of research carried out by Murrill
arui Pelissier (l967)29. This training program was set up by a sponsoring
(nantnittee of dairy farmers with the active assistance of the Agricultural
Extension Service, local veterinarians, health department officials
ancl equipment and service men. The general success Of the program is
(2‘1 ted by Murrill and Pelissier. Another successful program whose

Phi losophies were to hire, train and retrain the hard-core disadvantaged

27Given, Charles W., and Hundley, James R., Jr., 1966, Human

ERG-'1 ations on Dairy Farms. Rural Manpower Center, Number 2, November,
, 1c igan tate n1versity, East Lansing, p. 28.
28Anderson, Charles L., and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of Labor

and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms. AgricuTturaT
Economics, Mimeo Report EC 69-12, Gainesville, Florida, pp. 26-28.

29Murrill, Frank D., and Pelissier, C. L., 1967, Dairy Labor-
ManagementRelations in the San Joaquin Valley. Paper presented at the
nnuaT’Meeting Ofithe AmeriCan Dairy Science Association, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, June 25-29, 1967.

 

 

98
for dairy work is cited by Ri1ey Hogan (1971)”, Manager of Tampa
Independent Dairy Farmer Association. Maryland Agricultural Extension
SerWIice has developed short courses for dairy workers under the guidance
of IDr. Ray Murray. Michigan State University started a Dairy Farm Labor
School in 1965. The purpose of this school was to train young people
‘hiiall aspects of dairying through classroom teaching as well as through
pratrtical experience working on the dairy farm. This six month program
was funded by the Federal government and each participant in the course
was paid for the farm work he did while receiving his tuition free. In
1968 the school was transferred to Andrew's University, Berrien Springs,
Mi<:higan. Michigan State University Dairy personnel have continued

to give assistance to Andrew's University in many aspects of the program.

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO TRAINING

 

The results and Observations discussed in this section pertain
to questions 54 through 61 as shown in Appendix B.

Thirty-two of the 36 respondents said that a new man was given
training when he came on the job. The most usual method of training
was for the supervisor to see to it personally. Other methods of training
l'Tlcluded, putting a new man with an experienced man or starting him
91’— a lower job and allowing him to work up gradually. These practices
1"Ollow closely those reported by Baker (1955)31 for small businesses.
The length of training period was found to vary greatly and depended
Very much on the experience of the man coming on the job. Generally,

\

3OHogan, Ri1ey, Jr., 1971, Labor Program Report. Paper presented
at the Annual Southeast Dairy Conference, Jacksonville, Florida,
March 23-24, 1971.

310p. Cit., p. 228.

 

99

it was found that on these dairies milkers do have experience coming
on the job while outside men (feeders, clean-up men, etc.) may or may
not have experience. One farm had a six week training program for all
workers, regardless of position or experience. Another farm that was
utilizing all women milkers kept four women trained in advance to do
relief work until a full-time position became available.
Probation

A probationary period for new employees was in effect on 28
farms. Thirteen of these had no set periods while nine reported a
period of from two weeks to one month. The longer probationary periods
were tied to insurance eligibility which will vary with companies from
30-90 days. In most cases, however, the probation period is nominal
and there was a general lack of definite policies.

Retraining

 

Twenty-four of the farmers reported having some of their men
retrained after they had been on the job. Fifteen Of these farms sent
a total Of 18 men to Special breeding schools. Milking schools and
dairy shortcourses were not nearly so popular, but it is interesting
to note that five farms held their own shortcourses for their dairy
workers. This was done by their own trained herdsman and with the help
01’ the veterinarian. It was found that most farms make use of the '
VEtErinarian to keep the herdsman and milkers up to date. Many farms
make reading material available to their men to help keep them updated
and interested in their work. The difficulty Of getting workers to
aVall themselves Of courses even though they were encouraged was
Co'mlonly expressed, but just as Often there was criticism of available

Courses or the lack of same.

 

.—L~

Q»

 

100

Perhaps, some of this latter criticism is justified since 30
farmers said they would like to see their men receive more in-service
training. Though not much detail was forthcoming as to the type of
training preferred, 21 indicated general training, one specified milking,
while two dairies in Texas said they would like some courses in Spanish
since most of the milkers were Chicano. One man mentioned his reluctance
to have his men trained since as soon as he had invested his money in
the training the man would move to a better job. A comnent made by
one farmer was, that "if one of his men needed to brush up on anything,
then he didn't stay".

There was a lack of overall concensus as to who should perform
this training function. The frequencies reported in the Appendix
indicate that the Extension Service and equipment and feed manufacturers
were the most frequently mentioned by the 30 farmers indicating they
would like to see their employees get more training. Nine of these
30 though they recognized the need were unsure as to who should
Perform this training function or how it should be organized. Some
farmers expressing their private Opinions were critical of the value
of the Extension Service and its relevancy to their particular problems
as large herd owners. These farmers tended to look more to their
SUPPTiers for professional advice, since these peOple had a financial
interest in the success of the farm.

m of Personnel Management Training

Only five of the 36 farms had supervisors with any training in
per‘Sonnel management. Although 12 supervisors are reported as having had
$0'“e personnel training, six of these all came from one farm in Florida

Whlch sent all its supervisors to an Extension shortcourse in personnel

lOl
management. The vast majority of supervisors, therefore, rely on
experience to perform this managerial function.

One-half Of the Operators or managers had received some formal
training in personnel management. The most common sources were
agricultural and other degrees and special Extension shortcourses. How-
ever, exposure to personnel work in most degrees in agriculture is
normally minimal. Three of the Operators held business degrees and
one of these had a degree in industrial relations. Although half the
operators relied solely on experience in dealing with personnel problems,
they were all acutely aware of the need for good personnel practices and
many of them said that personnel problems occupied almost 50 percent

of their time. They also tried to read as much as possible in this area.

D ISCUSSION

 

The extent Of training given to new men coming on the job might
be quite surprising considering what is reported in the literature, e.g.
)32

by Given and Hundley (1966 and what is comnonly believed by dairy

sPecialists. It should not be too surprising, however, considering
the Size of herds being considered in this study (average size 1,579
)33

COWS). Anderson and Greene (1969 reported finding informal on the

job training on the farms in their study where the average size of
the herd was 545 cows. The average size of herd studied by Given and
Hund] ey was only 85 cows. Considering the size of many of these dairies,

It might have been expected to find more than one formalized training

p"")91r‘am.

\

32Op. Cit., p. 28.

33Op. Cit., p. 5.

102

One of the big problems that dairymen have concerns breeding.
This would seem to be reflected in the number Of farms who sent people
to breeding schools. Since the efficiency of milking determines to a
great extent the final profit Of the Operation or as one dairyman
put it, "unless our milkers do a good job Of getting the milk out of
the cows, all our farm and other work is a waste of time, since our
end product is milk", it is surprising that more people had not attended
mi lking schools. This is possibly due to most milkers being somewhat
experienced combined with their general unwillingness, as expressed by
many farmers, to attend courses and finally by a lack Of available
courses in many areas.

The lack Of a concensus as to who should perform the training
function Of dairy employees may be significant and indicate a lack of
unification of purpose among the various service organizations serving
dairy farmers. An indication Of the success Of such a joint effort is
pointed out by Murrill and Pelissier (1967)34

Though the number Of supervisors who have received training in
Personnel management is very low, this very likely reflects a lack of
available shortcourses, which are only Of recent vintage. Many farmers
r‘emarked that their foremen were poor handlers of men, or that they
wOUld like to promote a man to foreman if only he could deal with
People.

As far as the Operators themselves are concerned, they all
l"etioqnized that with their size of Operations a knowledge of business

as well as dairying is essential. This was reflected by some of these

\

34Op. Cit., pp. 6-8.

in Kern County, California.

15

103
men who had sons interested in the business, going to business school

or at least taking a number of business courses.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the type and frequency of response and comments made
by'individual operators in the area Of training and looking at these in
l ight Of industrial practices the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Generally, these large dairymen were conscious of the

value of training.

2. Before courses are set up for dairy workers or supervisors,
their particular needs should be studied more closely and it
may be advantageous to develop job descriptions and job
specifications.

3. Benefits may be gained by various organizations serving dairy
farmers pooling their resources together in develOping programs
for their clients.

4. Supervisory training programs are needed to serve these
large dairy farms and as farm size in general increases the
need for these courses is expected to increase.

5. Managers of these large dairies need to be very good business-
men and it is possible that as agriculture becomes industrialized
the managers with business degrees will be employing technically
qualified personnel in various areas Of agriculture. Surely
there is a lesson here for farm management students.

One final comment should be made. Though this study has dealt

exelusively with large Operations, there is no reason why the smaller

dair'ies should not also participate in and benefit from training programs.

I....._ .._._._-_._._-

CHAPTER VIII
WAGES

Employers in all organizations are vitally concerned with determin-
ing the best means of establishing sound wage and salary practices or
'insuring that their present practices are adequate. Strauss and Sayles
(”1963)1 define wage administration as "a systematic procedure for
establishing a sound compensation structure".

Yoder, pp pl (1958)2 point out that the first step in establishing
a \Nage program is to develop job descriptions and specifications. When
the various jobs are related to one another within the organization
'truay form what is known as the job structure classification. A wage
structure or classification is a job structure that has been priced
ir1 dollar and cent terms.

When the wage structure has been priced, methods of wage payment
must be set up to pay individual employees. Forms Of extra financial
Ccnnpensation including profit sharing, incentive programs, bonuses
anci fringe benefits are then added to the basic wage structure to give
the total compensation structure.

Baker (1955)3 points out that employees are more and more becoming

corucerned with the "total attractiveness" of jobs, that is, wages,

1Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1963, Personnel --
The Human Problems Of Management. Prentice-Hall, Inc., EngTewOOd
s, New Jersey, p. 581.

 

 

2Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Turnbull, John G., and Stone, Harold
C: . 1958, Handbook Of Personnel Management and Labor Relations. McGraw-
H111 Book Company, Inc. , New York, pp. 16.1-16.81.

B 3Baker, Alton W., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
ureau Of Business Research, College Of Comnerce and Administration,
e (Miio State University, Columbus, Ohio, p. 95.

 

 

104

 

105
hours, fringe benefits, working conditions and related matters. The
Small Business Administration (1961)4 says that it is important for
business firms to recognize that both the basic rate and also the
extra financial compensation are all a part of the total cost of hiring,
utilizing and keeping employees. In order to attract and keep good
ennployees a business must establish a firm and equitable wage policy

arnd Offer fringe benefits which compare favorably with those Offered

by similar or competitive enterprises.

Types of Wage Payment Plans

The principal types Of wage payment plans in use are identified

by Baker (1955)5 as follows:

1. Day work or time wages, those paid per hour, per day or
per week.

2. Individual piece rates that are paid on a straight unit
basis.

3. Group piece rates, where the unit basis of payment includes
a group Of workers rather than individuals.

4. Premium or bonus plans, in which extra production is paid
for by some more complicated plan than that provided by
simple piece rate compensation.

Selection of a Wage Payment Plan
Baker (1955)6 points out that the adoption of time rates is

 

generally advisable under the following conditions:

\

f ‘4Small Business Administration, 1961, Personnel Management Guides
-_QILSflnall Business. Small Business Management Series, No. 26, p. 22.

5

 

Op. Cit., p. 96.

60p. Cit., p. 99.

106

1. Standards of individual output cannot be readily or accurately
set.

2. Output is mainly composed Of Odd-lot jobs which differ as
to details of materials, process or Operation involved.

3. Quantity of output is less important than quality, material
and machine costs and workmanship.

4. Output can be regulated by management through the use of
conveyors or other means and is not influenced by the
worker's efforts.

5. Workers insist upon their use.

The experts are by no means in agreement as to which method Of
payment is best and more conducive to greater production -- the time
rate or the piece rate. The latter is Often referred to as incentive
wages and is always so defined when it calls for different rates
fIJr'different levels of performance. The Small Business Administration
(l!961)7 says that the piece-work or incentive wage system increases
prxaduction and/or sales, but that it may also give rise to discord,
bitzkering, production limitation on the part Of workers and other un-
Plfeasant byproducts. Some unions have largely Opposed this system.
Incentive wages are more practical and effective when:

l. The units of output are measurable and readily distinguishable.

2. A clear relationship exists between output and workers effort.

3. The job is standardized, the flow of work and raw materials is
regular and breakdowns are few.

4. Quality is less important than quantity.

5. Supervisors do not have sufficient time to devote much attention
to individual performance.

6. You need to know in advance the definite labor cost per unit.

Op. Cit., P. 24.

I“ . . a

107

Where applicable, piece rates almost invariably lead to greater

production.
Setting Wage Rates by Job Evaluation

Job evaluation attempts to establish an equitable relationship
among jobs within the company as well as with similar and identical
jcflas in the community, Baker (l955)8. Flippo (1966)9 points out the
fact that most employees are interested in both relative and absolute
wages. The morale and efforts of employees are affected when they feel 'i
that certain jobs receive pay that is either too high or too low with
respect to other jobs. Thus, an important problem concerning management,
urrions and individual employees is how to establish and maintain a
wage structure that satisfies all parties. The recognized systematic
approach to this is to adopt a system Of job evaluation and wage

classification. Job evaluation is largely a process Of measurement,

that is, measuring the worth of jobs within the firm for purposes of

establishing its base compensation.

There are four basic systems of job measurement:

1. Simple ranking system.

2. Grading (classification system).

3. Point system.

4. Factor comparison system.

With the simple ranking and grading systems the job is treated

as a whole and job descriptions rather than job specifications are

\

8Op. Cit., p. 109.

M 9Flippo, Edwin E., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
CGY‘aw-Hill Book Company, New York. p. 281.

live

In

108
generally utilized in establishing job categories. These systems are
non-quantitative.

The point system and facto comparison system represent quantitative
approaches. Job factors are selected and measured and job specifica-
tions are definitely required. These systems are discussed in detail
11y Yoder, pp_pl_(1958)10, Yoder (1952)H and Flippo (1966)]2.

Baker (1955)13 found that the majority of firms included in I

tris study of small manufacturing plants did not use job evaluation to

healp determine wage differentials between the various jobs in the

organization .

External Influences

As well as achieving a sound internal relationship among rates
paid for jobs, the rates should also be in line with wages paid for
similar jobs in the conrnunity. The common method for attempting to
achieve this sound external alignment is the use Of the locality wage
Starvey; The maximum and minimum rates to be paid for the various jobs
If! each labor grade or job class may be established by arbitration, the
aFHJlication Of a fixed percentage to the average actually paid for the

ke)’ job to get the maximum and minimum rate, or other method, Baker

(1955fl4.

\

100p. Cit., pp. 16.31-16.42.

P 11Yoder, Dale, 1962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
Ir‘efltice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,lNew Jersey, pp. 477-483.

12Op. Cit., pp. 282-293.
13Op. Cit., p. 109.
14Op. Cit., p. 108.

109

Fringe Benefits

 

The Small Business Administration (1961

points out that the

line between compensation proper and fringe "benefit" is so fine that

it is difficult to determine just where one ends and the other begins.

There is no general agreement on the subject and on the other hand,

yesterday's "fringe" has become an integral part of today's total.

and Longenecker (1961)16

Broom

state that employers should stress the nature

crf'the benefits and their cost, as otherwise employees will begin to

take them for granted and think only in terms of their paycheck. ii

The best method of calculating proposed fringe benefits according

'tc> Baker (1955)17 is to translate them into cents per man hour. This

same author identified the following as those items that are most

commonly considered fringe benefits:

Paid wash-up and clean-up time

1. Paid vacations 9.
2. Paid unworked holidays

3. Sick pay

4. Call-in-pay

5. Severance or termination pay

6. Paid rest periods 10.
7. Paid lunch periods 11.
8.

Group insurance

a. Life

b. Health and accident

c. Hospitalization

d. Medical and surgical
Bonuses

Pension or retirement plans

Baker (1955)18 found that the vast majority of small manufacturing

'flrins in his study granted some fringe benefits to their employees. The

four most cOITmon were paid vacation, paid holidays, sick pay and group

ins urance .

\

15Op. Cit., p. 22.

16
\Manegement.

17Op. Cit., pp. 115-117.

18Op. Cit., p. 118.

Broom, H. N., and Longenecker, J. G., 1961, Small Business
South Western Publishing Company, Cincinnati, p. 545.

 

110
Profit Sharing

 

Broom and Longenecker (1961)19 state that profit sharing plans have
functioned successfully in many small companies. They further state that
the larger company probably has greater difficulty than the small firm
in using profit sharing as a production incentive.

)20

Flippo (1966 identifies two main types of profit sharing plans:

(1 ) cash or current distribution and (2) trust or deferred distribution.
Lhider the current arrangement, benefits are distributed among participants {
iri cash at least once a year. The deferred type involves a trust fund, L
tflie benefits from which are distributed in the event of death, retire-

nuent or disability. Some managements prefer to place part of the profit

siiare in trust and to distribute the remainder in cash each year.

The Small Business Administration (l961)2] points out that bonuses,
profit sharing and pension plans can be deducted as business expenses
fiar tax purposes. provided the rules Of the Internal Revenue Service

are followed with regard to such deductions.

Mg ADMINISTRATION IN AGRICULTURE

NO comprehensive treatment of wage administration in agriculture
was found by the author. However, the comnents of various researchers
«enti Farm Management Specialists show the need for a more comprehensive
tY‘eatment of this subject in agriculture and the need to adOpt some

0f"the practices already discussed in industry.

\

19Op. Cit., p. 544.

20Op. Cit., p. 320.
210p. Cit., p. 27.

111
The trend already noted in industry to Offering a total remuneration

ckage was noted by Holt (197O)22. He stated that in addition to wage
tes, the hours worked per week, provisions for overtime and incentive

y and regularly scheduled wage increases are all part of a competi-

ve wage package. He states that farm employers will be forced to
nsider a remuneration policy rather than a wage rate in attempting

become and remain competitive.

)23 in their study of Dairy Labor-

Murrill and Pelissier (1967
nagement Relations in the San Joaquin Valley, California, found that
me dairymen were beginning to adopt wage scales based on job classi-
cations. The wage scales also reflected performance and tenure. They
und that few dairymen had been successful in using bonuses or incentives
increase production. Housing, as a fringe benefit, was found to have
creased in popularity due to complaints from both employers and
ployees. The trend was towards giving extra cash in lieu of housing.
th dairymen and their employees appeared to prefer this arrangement.
Fuller (1957)24 discusses both monetary and non-monetary rewards
i incentives for farm work. He points out the need to establish

:cified working hours and overtime for additional work. The use Of

ne system of profit sharing and/or production bonus is suggested, but

k

22Ho1t. James 5., 1970, Impact of the Industrialization of the
2551 Farm Work Force Upon the Agricultural Economy. American Journal
AAgricultural Economfics,Vol. 2, No. 5, p. 782.

23Murrill, Frank D. and Pelissier, C. L., 1967, Dairy Labor-
Eigement Relations in the San Joaquin Valley. Paper presented at
fiAnnualMeeting Of the American’Dairy Science Association, Cornell
Versity, Ithaca, New York, pp. 7-8.

24Fuller, Varden 1., 1957, Labor Efficient Dairy Farm Organizations.
Econ. No. 690, Michigan State University, EastLansing, pp. 84-88.

 

 

 

 

 

 

112
in order to make these systems work great understanding is needed on
the part of both employer and employees. Due to the confining nature
of dairy work, vacations of up to four weeks are suggested. The housing
supplied should be comparable to urban housing. The farm employee has
an opportunity to get meat, eggs and garden produce and many workers
could be leased some land and the machinery to work it in their time
Off. The author points out again that it is the total of monetary and
non-monetary rewards and incentives that must be competitive with
industry.

)25 examined the nature of the farm - nonfarm

Brown (1967
competition for employees. He states that the general areas in which
employers compete for the services of employees include: (1) the
cash wage package, (2) fringe benefits, (3) the wage and benefit agree-
ment, (4) working conditions and (5) employer-employee relations. Each
of these areas is discussed in some detail and guidelines suggested
as to how farmers can better compete.

Holt (1970)26 recommended the adoption Of many Of the fringe
benefits, already used by industry, in agriculture. He stated that
agriculture still relied on fringe benefits mainly Of food and housing,

and Often left to informal understanding questions Of illness, injury

or Old age.

 

25Brown, Lauren H., 1967, Making Farm Employment Competitive.
Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper NO. l, MiOhiganTState'University,
East Lansing.

26Op. Cit., p. 782

 

 

113

A point in favor of the fringe benefits now Offered by agriculture
was made by McAllister (l967)27. He pointed out that although farmers
paid lower cash wages than industry that they made up for some of the
difference by providing housing, farm produced food, job security and
other benefits not associated with industry.

Shapley (1969)28 found that a dairy farmer in Michigan could Offer
wages and hours competitive with industry and still make a return well
above his Opportunity cost if he uses up to date technology and operates
at the optimum level within the limits imposed. The limits imposed
included a minimum of one full-time hired man working 40 hours per
week, plus seasonal labor available during the summer months.

Examples Of incentive programs and fringe benefits used in

agriculture are given by Armstrong (1969)29.

RESULTS OF THIS RESEARCH PERTAINING TO WAGE ADMINISTRATION

 

The results presented in this section pertain to questions 64
through 72. These questions along with the categories of response and
the frequency are shown in Appendix B.

Setting the Basic Wage

 

In unionized dairies the wage rates were set by the union contract.

Ten respondents said that they set their basic wage rate according to

 

27McAllister, W. T., 1967, Dairyman's Big Problem: Labor.
The Milkpail, H. P. Hood Company, Boston.

28Shapley, Allen E., 1969, Alternatives in Dairy Farm Technolpgy
to Meet High Labor Costs. Research Report 80, Agricultural Business,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, p. 1.

29Armstrong, David L., 1969, Employment Agreements in Hiring
Farm Workers. Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper NO. 9, MiChigan
State University, East Lansing, pp. 39-45.

 

 

 

 

 

114
local competition or the going rate in their area. Closely related to
this were eight dairymen who said that they kept their basic wages in
line with other dairies. Eight also said that a new man started at
the minimum wage and advanced from there depending on his ability. This
latter response was most frequently mentioned in Florida and Texas. The
basic rate was also influenced by the job that a man was seeking and
by his experience.

Incentive Programs

 

Twenty-one of the respondents did not operate any kind of incentive
program. Incentive programs based on amount of milk produced were
used by nine dairymen. These programs generally involved having a
basic wage or salary for a certain level of milk production, with all
milk produced over this basic quota being eligible for the incentive.
Incentives were generally paid on a per pound or per hundred weight
basis and paid monthly.

In an effort to encourage men to stay on the job and cut down on
turnover, two dairymen had established incentive systems on the amount
of time worked. One such system involved paying a man $15 per month
for each consecutive month worked. A man could only collect this amount
on the anniversary of his employment and if he quit working before this
time he forfeited the bonus.

Twelve dairymen paid yearly bonuses ranging from $25 to $600.

Many of these bonuses were given at Christmas, and it appeared that
employees got approximately the same amount each year.

Profit Sharing

 

Profit sharing programs were being used by eight respondents,
while some others were considering establishing such a program. The

trust or deferred type of profit sharing program was the most popular.

 

115
Most programs demanded that a man be working for two years before
being eligible to join the program and a further 10 to 12 years before
he could reap the full benefit. One program asked that the employees
contribute two percent of their wages to the program and that this
would be matched by the company.

Fripge Benefits

 

Paid Vacations. Twenty-one of the respondents said that their

 

vacations were operated on a scale system. This system typically

r—“‘—=1_

allowed one week paid vacation after one year, two weeks after two years
and three weeks after 10 years. Some stopped at a two week maximum, while
one went to four weeks paid vaCation after 15 years. Five said they had
no policy on vacations and that if employees wanted to take some time off
they would have to ask for it individually.

Insurance. All respondents paid social security. This expense
was shared by employer and employee. Six respondents were not subject
to workmen's compensation and had a separate liability insurance to
cover accidents and injuries. One individual carried both workmen's
compensation and a separate liability insurance.

Life and Health insurance policies were carried by 26 of the
respondents. Eight had hospitalization and major medical insurance.
Eleven had hospitalization, major medical and life insurance while
seven had all of this plus dental and vision care plan. Retirement
or pension plans were in operation on seven dairies. Six of the seven
dairies that had a comprehensive life, health insurance and a retire-
ment program were the unionized dairies in California. These programs
were Operated by the union, with the employer paying the total contribu-
tion. Apart from these unionized dairies the percent of the insurance

programs paid by the employer ranged from 25 to 100 percent.

116

Housing. Twenty-one dairymen supplied housing, utilities and
maintenance for all or the majority of their dairy workers. A further
seven supplied housing and maintenance but not utilities. Four did not
supply any housing.

Personal and Sick Leave. Respondents were almost equally divided

 

on the question of whether personal leave would be deducted from wages

or whether a man could make this up another time or trade time with fJ
another man. Twenty-six said that sick leave was deducted, while seven U
said they would normally pay a man for sick time unless it was a pro- I
longed illness. One dairyman had a set program of so many days personal

leave and sick leave being allowed per year.

Farm Supplied Food. The majority of dairies allowed their men a

 

supply of milk. This varied from one gallon per day to all they needed
for their family. Meat was not normally supplied to workers, though
twelve said they did kill a beef for employees from time to time.

Lpppg, Twenty-three said that they did on occasion loan money
to employees. They did, however, try to keep this to a minimum and
were selective in the employees they made loans to.

‘Transport. Twenty-two respondents mentioned that their supervisors
had pick-up trucks for their job and could also bring these to and from
work. Two respondents said that whenever an employee was stuck for
transport that he could get a loan of the company pick-up truck.

Uniforms. Uniforms or coveralls were supplied by seven dairymen.
In some cases this was organized through a laundry service, while in others
the workers were expected to do their own laundering.

In determining the benefits to provide to workers, 13 said that
they did this through looking at the employees' need for security

or what they as managers would like to receive. Others looked at the

117
prevailing practices on other dairies, in industry or were subject
to the union contract.

Wage and Payment System

 

The majority of respondents had all of their men on a salary
basis. In some cases only the supervisors were salaried, while outside
men were hourly. Twenty respondents paid bimonthly, 15 paid weekly and
one man who had a bunkhouse and a cookhouse and employed mostly single
men paid monthly.

All but one respondent paid by check, either showing the itemized
deductions on the check or on a separate pay slip. Housing was not
shown as a deduction as it was considered part of the wage package for
tax purposes.

Nineteen Of the respondents said that overtime was paid at the
regular hourly rate, while four said they paid time and a half for
overtime. Ten respondents did not pay overtime.

nge Increases

 

Merit was the most frequently mentioned system of deciding
on wage increases. Next most frequent was an across the board cost of
living increase. Tenure was mentioned on eight occasions and competition
in the labor market on five occasions. Unionized dairies had their
wage increases negotiated by the union and this increase also set a

precedent for non-unionized dairies in the area.

ACTUAL WAGES

 

The summarized responses to question 72 show approximately what
a herdsman, milker and outside man could expect to make in the five
regions. Except for the cases pointed to by the asterisk, housing is

supplied in addition. Benefits are in addition to those figures shown.

118

The figures shown for a herdsman which vary from $680 per month
in the South to $1,127 per month in California are complicated by the
fact that not all herdsmen had equal responsibilities and authority.
As a result of this their salaries varied greatly. The figures shown
are at best a general indication.

In the case of milkers, the figures shown vary from $427 per
month in the Mid-West to $661 per month in California. These figures
are further complicated by various forms of incentive programs which,
where they are used, are in addition to the figures shown.

Outside men are generally on a much lower wage scale and Often

just above minimum wage level.

DISCUSSION

There was little evidence of a systematic approach being used to
establish the wage structure, other than where it was done by the
unions. This was not surprising considering the fact that the job
descriptions and specifications which are basic to such an approach
were lacking.

Approximately 40 percent of the dairymen operated bonus and incen-
tive programs. This is a bit lower than the 51 percent reported by
Shapley (197O)30. Although many dairymen would like to operate on an
incentive wage basis, their big problem was finding a system with

adequate control, that is, one that could not be abused too easily.

 

30Shapley, Allen E., 1969, Full-Time Employees on Michigan Dairy
Farms. Rural Manpower Center, Report No. 20, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, p. 5.

 

 

119
Newer milking systems being installed are now taking this into considera-
tion in an effort to measure the amount of milk produced by each man per
day. Milk often goes into a separate milk tank and permits quality
testing. These changes in tehcnology and associated herd management
changes will make the adoption of incentive programs more attractive.

Dairymen operating profit sharing programs appeared happy with
the results on worker satisfaction and morale. Some respondents were
afraid that such profit sharing programs would be good for building
morale while profits were good, but that workers would not be so under-
standing when earnings were not satisfactory. Anderson and Greene (l969)3]
in their study of Florida Dairy Farms did not find any profit sharing
programs in operation. Such programs are expected to increase in
popularity in the future, as dairymen will continue to catch up on the
programs Of their industrial counterparts.

Many of the fringe benefits offered by industry were evident on many
of the dairy farms. These included paid vacations, personal leave and
sick leave and insurance programs. Housing and farm produced food was
an extra benefit not offered by industry. The use of fringe benefits
appeared to be expanding, especially the use of various types of life
and health insurance packages. The employees themselves were conscious
of the need for life and health insurance and the need for some form of
retirement or pension program. Some respondents looked to retirement
programs as a possible means of reducing labor turnover. Although

retirement plans are a form of deferred compensation and are not incentives

 

31Anderson, Charles L. and Greene, R. E. L., 1969, Use of Labor
and Labor Management Practices on Florida Dairy Farms. Agricultural
Economics Mimeo Report EC 69-12, GainesVille, Floride, pp. 21-26.

 

 

 

120
for performance, they do foster loyalty.

Shapley (1959)32

found that 90 percent of dairy farmers in Michigan
offered their employees some kind of fringe benefits. These were
mostly in the form of housing, paid vacation and farm produced produce.
Similar results were reported by Anderson and Greene (1969)33 for
Florida dairy farms. The majority of Florida dairies provided housing
and paid vacations. Almost 50 percent provided milk and allowed sick 3
leave. Forty-four percent had insurance programs, but less than two 1
percent had retirement programs.
Some dairymen had mixed feelings about offering housing as a
benefit. One of the problems with offering housing is that it makes
it easy for a man to move, as he does not have an investment in his
home. Another problem with housing on dairy farms is that the houses
tend to be close together, and while this can reduce building costs,
it can add to the social problems. In many cases it is these social
problems, for example, wives not getting along that cause a man to move.
There was little evidence of a systematic program of wage increases
on the dairy farms. Most dairymen appeared content to pay just the
minimum they could get away with, as they could not find the caliber of
man that would justify a higher wage. This situation needs to be re-
evaluated, however, and research into the social aSpects of dairy

workers should be undertaken.

 

32
33

Op. Cit., p. 6.
Op. Cit., p. 21-26.

121
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the results of this research and in light of successful
industrial practices and the research findings of others, the following
conclusions and recommendations would appear appropriate.

1. The lack of a systematic approach in wage determination may
possibly be overcome through the adoption and use of some forms
of job evaluation and the establishment of wage classifications.
The wage classifications established should allow an adequate
range within each to allow rewards for extra performance.

2. Incentive programs based on milk production and milk quality
appear to have a definite positive role to play on dairy
farms. In order to successfully operate these systems, more
and better controls are needed to truly evaluate the individual's
performance. Incentives based on the amount of time worked
would also appear beneficial, especially in cutting down on
turnover.

3. The use of bonuses, especially Christmas bonuses should be
carefully evaluated for their contribution. The use of any
bonus system should be based on something tangible that the
employee can appreciate and not be left solely to the discre-
tion of the employer.

4. It is expected that the use of profit sharing programs will
expand in the future. Such programs, though difficult to
organize, have the advantage of giving an employee a sense
of belonging and a deeper interest in the success of the
company. This can also generate an atmOSphere of cooperation
among workers, directed towards the overall goal of company

success. Trust programs have the added attraction of helping

 

122
to keep men for the minimum period of the program whether it
be 10 or 12 years or more.
Satisfying the employees' need for life and health insurance
policies may prove beneficial to dairymen. Ten of the
respondents in this study did not carry life or health in-
surance on their workers. Such insurance policies appear
essential to the security of the employees and their families.
Pension plans are also expected to increase in popularity as
the dairymen offer a more attractive and comprehensive compensa—
tion package to their employees.
The use of housing as a fringe benefit needs to be re-evaluated
by dairymen, in light of the possible social problems associated
with it. Wider spacing of housing might alleviate many of
these problems.
In advertising their jobs, dairymen should emphasize the
benefits of country living, good housing, farm produced
produce and other benefits not available to the industrial
workers. Farm employment is basically secure and with
adequate insurance policies and basic wage rate dairymen
should be able to attract the higher caliber individual they

are seeking.

CA.” —-4-

CHAPTER IX

MOTIVATION AND DISCIPLINE

Nature of Motivation

The leader's or manager's fundamental responsibility in any form
of organization is to get work done through people. Huneryager and
Heckmann (1967)1 say this statement implies that getting the work of an
organization done is immediately and finally dependent upon the behavior
of the employees of that organization. Behavior, they say, can be
simply described as the total response of an individual to various
motivating forces. This means, therefore, that all rational human
behavior is caused, and that people behave as they do because they are
responding to forces that have the power to prompt - motivate - them
to some manner or form of action (Huneryager and Heckman, 1967)2.
Dimensions of Motivation

Three dimensions of motivation are identified by McFarland (l968)3:
(1) the forces and influence operating within the individual, (2) internal
influences within the organization itself and (3) external influences
in the organization's environment. In order to understand motivation

it is necessary to Observe and understand all three dimensions.

 

1Huneryager, S. G., and Heckmann, I. L., 1967, Human Relations
in Manageme_n_t. South Western Publishing Company, Cincinnati, p.

323.
2Ibid.. p. 324.

3McFarland, Dalton E., 1968, Personnel Management -- Theory and
Practice. The Macmillan Company, COllier-Macmillan Limited, London,

P- '
123

124

The Individual and Motivation

Scientific management thinking which began in the early 1900's
viewed motivation mainly from the point of view of the individual and
overlooked the impact of organizational factors (McFarland, l968)4.
Money and material acquisitions were considered the primary source of
employee's motivation and rank and file workers were the primary problem
in motivation. It is now known that money is not the sole motivating
force in employee behavior, that numerous organizational characteristics
are at work in motivation and that members of middle and top management
also have problems of motivation.
Organizational Motivation

There is an important interrelationship between the elements of
motivation pertaining to the individual and those concerning the
organization (McFarland, l968)5. This author points out that current
motivation theory treats the individual as a whole person with multiple,
complex, changing motivations. Motivation is a dynamic attribute.
It is also highly situational in character and tasks, technological
SYStems, physical facilities and other aspects of the organization's
environment having varing motivational impacts. Among the important
organizational variables affecting motivation are: (l) the organization's
structure, (2) company climate, (3) corrmunication patterns and (4) number

of levels (McFarland, 1969)6.

_._____~______
4Ibid.. p. 378.
5 .
Ibid., p. 379.
5
Ibid., p. 380.

rm ~

 

-P 'H - 'Efr-‘a..>m-u——

 

lt"

III

125

External Motivation

The external dimensions of motivation have not yet been widely
studied by researchers. McFarland (1968) states that careers and
()ccupations have varying degrees of built-in natural or intrinsic
motivation. Careers and occupations tend to attract people who see in
them a central life interest and a source of motivation. The
culture, customs and norms of society also play a strong motivational
role. The community and neighborhood have expectations about the way

people earn a living and their life style -- all of these play a part of

motivation.

MOTI VATION THEORY

The individual behavior and organizational components of motivation
have received most attention from researchers.

Hgman Needs

 

McFarland (1968)8 points out that motivation theory starts out
With human needs. Maslow (1954)9 provides a systematic classifica-
tion of human needs that other researchers have widely used in theory
building and to test concepts of motivation. Accordint to Maslow
human needs exist in a hierarchy composed of five levels.

1 . Physical or physiological needs.

2 . Safety and security needs.

3. Social needs, such as love, affection or friendship.

\—
7
Ibid., p. 380.
8 .
Ibid., p. 381.

9
Maslow, Abraham H., 1954, Motivation and Personality. Harper
and BPOthers, New York, Chapter 3.

126

4. Esteem and self respect. 6

5. Self-actualization.

The lowest order of needs are the physiological ones such as hunger,
thirst, sex, elimination and so on. Self-actualization, the highest
level of need is the most difficult to describe. It may be thought of
as the need "to become what one is capable of becoming". Unlike the
other needs, which can be satisfied, self-actualization is never fully
realized.

Maslow states that individuals move through the levels in the
hierarchy in the order listed. As the individual satisfies needs at

one level, the next higher level of need asserts itsel to occupy the
individual '5 energies and efforts. Individuals will vary in the progress
they make along the continuum, and it is more difficult, as a person
moves towards the ultimate goal of self-actualization.

msatisfiers and Motivators

 

Frederick Herzberg (1966)10

identified dissatisfying and motivating
techniques. He named these KITA procedures and motivators. His
acronym is a brevity code derived from the Observation that the
fastest way to get a man to do something is to kick him in the pants.
KITA's come in at least three packages -- negative physical, negative
PSYChological and positive.

Negative physical KITA's involve the use of corporal punishment
to motivate employees though this approach is rapidly disappearing.

The negative psychological KITA is still very much in use and involves

the sUbtle ways an employer can have an employee figuratively mentally

\—

10
P b Herzberg, Frederick, 1966, Work and Nature of Man. World
u HSh‘Ing Company, Cleveland.

 

127
kick himself into action. Negative KITA's result only in movement by
the actor, rather than in the deep down motivation desired. They do
not build espirit de corps; in fact, they may destroy it.

The dissatisfiers identified by Herzberg were: (1) company
policy and administration, (2) supervision, (3) salary, (4) inter-
personal relations and (5) working conditions. These factors were
found to serve primarily as preventatives to job dissatisfaction.
Because these factors dealt with the environment, Herzberg named these
factors the "hygiene" factors in an anology with the way the term is
used in preventive medicine. The hygiene factors meet a man's need to
avoid unpleasantness but they do not satisfy man's basic human need
for psychological growth.

Herzberg's positive factors are motivating factors. They are the
satisfiers needed for personal growth and self-actualization. These
motivators are: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility
and advancement.

Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor (1950)H

studied organizational climate and motivation.
He labeled two basic ideas about motivation and people as Theory X and
Theory Y. A manager who fits into the Theory X group leans toward an
organization climate of close control, centralized authority, auto-
cratic leadership and minimum participation in the decision process.

The reason why such a manager accepts this combination is that he makes

certain assumptions about human behavior. Theory X assumptions

 

nMcGregor. Douglas, 1960, The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York.

 

128

according to McGregor are:

1.

The average man dislikes work and will avoid it to the extent
he can.

Stemming from this, according to Theory X, most people have
to be forced or threatened by punishment to get them to make
the effort necessary to accomplish organizational goals.

The average individual is basically passive and, therefore,
prefers to be directed, rather than to assume any risk or
responsibility. Above all else he prefers security.

A manager who fits into the Theory Y group operates with a different

set of assumptions regarding human behavior. He feels that an effective

organizational climate embraces looser more general supervision, greater

decentralization of authority, less reliance on coercion and control, a

democratic leadership style and more participation in the decision process.

Theory Y assumptions are:

1.

Work is as natural to man as play or rest and, therefore,
is not avoided.

Self-motivation and inherent satisfaction in work will be
forthcoming in situations where the individual is committed

to organizational goals. Hence, coercion is not the only form
of influence that can be used to motivate.

Commitment is a crucial factor in motivation, and it is
a function of the rewards coming from it.

The average individual learns to accept and even seek
responsibility given the proper environment.

Contrary to popular stereotypes an ability to be creative
and innovative in the solution of organization problems is
widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

In modern business and organizations human intellectual
potentialities are just partially realized.

While endorsing the positive human values of Theory Y, or

democratic management, McGregor says implicitly that Theory X, or

an autocratic climate, may be more effective in certain situations.

Management should not allow itself to be locked into a strategy which

may prove inappropriate to its particular situation.

129

Classifying Organizational Climate

 

Likert (1967)12 identified four classifications or organizational

climate:
System 1 - Exploitive
System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative
System 3 - Consultative
System 4 - Participative

Each of these systems is composed of six elements which Likert
feels are key ingredients of organizational climate. These elements
are leadership, motivation, communication, decision, goals and control.
These dimensions can be measured on a continuous scale so that a
manager may rate his organization's climate. Likert feels that
managers should consciously strive to adapt their organizational climate
to participation because people will experience higher levels of need
satisfaction and, hence, become better employees.

The Current Consensus

 

Haiman and Scott (1970)13 summarized that most writers underscored
the "situation" as the leading determinant of organizational climate.
In organizations having a stable environment and using employees of low-
level skill, a more non-participative, autocratic kind of climate
appears to be effective. In rapidly changing firms, however, with
highly educated and skilled people, more democratic forms of management

get the best results. The authors state, however, that in 20 to 30 years

 

12Likert, Rensis, 1967, The Human Organization. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, pp. 14-24 and—120-121.

13

 

Op. Cit., p. 4405.

l3O
from now autocratic bureaucracy will be nothing more than a curiosity.
The forces bringing about this change and requiring a more democratic
climate are technology, education and professionalization of management.

Motivation and Transfers and Promotions

 

The importance of developing adequate policies governing promotions,
transfers and layoffs is shown by Strauss and Sayles (l963)]4. These
areas affect the vital process of the firm as well as employee
motivation. A firm that fails to develop satisfactory procedures must

be prepared to pay highly in terms of administrative costs, misallocation
of personnel, low morale and ineffectual performance.

Baker (1955)15

found that relatively few small companies had

a definite plan of promotion, demotion or transfer. Even in those
companies that had definite plans, the plans were unwritten. Baker
advocates the development of simple written plans for small companies

based on job analysis. "Job families" could be developed and a listing

made of the prerequisite training and experience needed.

DISCIPLINE

 

Just as the individual makes certain demands upon the organization,
so the organization expects certain things from its members. Codes of

behavior are established. Flippo (1966)16 summarizes the forms of

 

14Strauss, George and Sayles, Leonard R., 1963, Personnel -- the
Human Problems of Management. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, p. 486.

15Baker, Alton N., 1955, Personnel Management in Small Plants.
Bureau of Business Research, CoTlege of Commerce andAdministration,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, p. 183.

16Flippo, Edwin E., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, p. 404.

 

 

 

l3l
discipline used in business and suggests guidelines in carrying out
disciplinary action. He states that a supervisor should seek to
condition behavior and not merely to punish. The penalties that can
be used in business are identified as: (l) oral reprimand, (2) written
reprimand, (3) loss of privileges, (4) fines, (5) layoff, (6) demotion,
and (7) discharge. The following guides to disciplinary action are
given: (1) disciplinary action should be administered in private, (2) an
application of a penalty should always carry with it an explanation of
what constitutes proper behavior, (3) disciplinary action should be
applied by the immediate supervisor, (4) promptness is important in the
taking of disciplinary action, (5) consistency in penalty is highly
essential, (6) an immediate supervisor should never be disciplined in
the presence of his own subordinates and (7) after the disciplinary
action has been taken, the manager should attempt to assume a normal

attitude toward the employee.

MOTIVATION THEORY APPLIED T0 AGRICULTURE

The author was unable to find much literature pertaining to
the motivation of farm employees. Some agricultural researchers and
educators, among them Beckett 0965)”, Frank (l969)18 and Shapley

(l970)19 have used the theory of motivation based on human needs in

 

17Beckett, James N., l965, Training Supervisors of Farm Labor --
A Guide for Instructors. Department of Agricultural Education,
thriversity ofCalifornia, Davis.

 

18Frank, William W., l969, Human Relations Problems on the Farm --
Discussion Leader's Instruction Manual. College of Agficulture and School
of’ Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

19Shapley, Allen E., l970, Personnel Management in Agriculture --
Instructor's Manual. Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper No. 12,
Michigan State University, East Lansing.

l32
the development of personnel management courses for farm personnel.
The approach used by these authors deals with what McFarland (1968)20
classified as the individual and motivation. The organizational aspects
of motivation have not yet been applied to agriculture.
The lack of personnel management practices on farms has been noted
by many agricultural researchers, but reference to motivation has been

2] in an article on "Supervision and Management

rare. Mitcheltree (1966)
of Farm Labor" pointed out that wages only motivate to minimal achieve-
ment. "The difference between minimum and maximum achievement is the

area in which profit lies in the management of people."

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO MOTIVATION AND DISCIPLINE

The results presented in this section will cover the responses
to questions 73 through 85. The questions as well as their categories
of response and frequency are shown in Appendix B.
Motivating Employees

The most frequent response to how employers try to motivate their
employees was that they tried to help them to take pride in their work
and their working conditions. This was mentioned by 12 respondents.
Dairfies that showed cattle or who won production rewards would have a
[yicture of the employees involved in the local paper or dairy magazine.
‘They'felt that this greatly boosted the employees' morale and pride.

lYine respondents mentioned that they tried to show a genuine interest

 

20

2IMitcheltree, Wallace A., 1966, Supervision and Management of
Farwn Labor. Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 48, No. 5, p. 1149.

Op. Cit., p. 378.

133

in their employees and their welfare through frequent discussions with
them. Incentive wages were mentioned as a source of motivation on eight
occasions. Meetings and pep talks were used by seven dairymen since
they favored the group approach to stimulating discussion and generating
an atmosphere of teamwork. Six dairymen mentioned that they complimented
a man for good performance. Four said that they tried to instill an
atmosphere of competition among the workers, either between barns or
between milkers.
Employee Attitudes

The majority of employers felt that their employees' attitude
towards their work and the farm was generally good. Seven felt that
their employees did have some commitment to the dairy and its success.
Five dairymen said that while some of their employees were committed
to the farm, most regarded it as just a place to work and earn a living.

The average lengths of employment reported were the respondents
estimates for full-time employees. The most frequent categories were
three to four years and five to seven years, being reported by ten and
ll dairymen respectively. Three reported less than one year average
length of employment, while two had over eight years.

Family Influences

 

All the dairymen felt that the worker's family and his home life
had an influence on his work performance. When asked what they did to
encourage this source of motivation, ll said that they organized
picnics, parties or barbeques during the year, so that all the families
could get together and feel that they were all part of the farm organiza-
tion. Six respondents said that they relied on providing good housing
and utilities to the families in order to keep them happy. Other

lactivities organized by dairymen included the establishment of a wives

134
club, a little league baseball team and one employer took all his
employees out to dinner once a year. Many respondents though they
realized the importance of family influence found it difficult or did
not do anything to get the families involved so they too would feel a
part of the organization.

KeepingEmployees Informed

 

Twenty-nine of the dairymen felt that it was important to keep
employees informed as to the long run objectives of the business and
its recent successes or failures. This was thought to increase the
employee's understanding of the business and the role he played in
making it a success. It thus helped to motivate the employee to better
performance. Four respondents said that only some key men should be
informed about the business as others would not be interested or
would be even more confused as to what was going on.

Transfers and Promotions

 

The majority of employers were willing to allow employees to
transfer from one job to another within the organization. This depended
on the availability of an opening and on the man's qualifications for
the other job. These employers felt that such transfers helped to
improve employee relations while also enabling a man to seek a more
satisfying job. Eight respondents said they discouraged transfers and
two did not allow them at all. The reason for discouraging or not
allowing transfers was that it would cause too much disruption of
work schedules and could also cause friction among employees.

Twenty-three dairymen said that they did have promotions on their
farms, but that there were few opportunities. In order to be promoted

a man would have to have the necessary ability and experience and a

135
vacancy would have to exist. Milkers in particular had very little
room for promotion. In all cases promotions were preferably made from
present employees.
The same 23 dairymen said that all workers in their organization
had an opportunity for promotion provided they had the incentive and
the ability and a position was available.

Discipline

 

The two major rules to break on a dairy farm were to be late for
work or to beat cows. The disciplinary action used did not vary
greatly. Fourteen respondents said that they would give a man one or
two warnings and then dismiss him, while eight said they would give
three to four warnings before dismissing a man. Twelve dairymen used
a more democratic approach to trying to solve these problems. They
called a man in to discuss the problem with him and try to solve it.
If after this the man continued to break the rules, he would be dismissed.
Two employers said that they simply deducted pay for lateness.

Absenteeism

 

Only five respondents said that absenteeism was a problem. Three
of these said that they would replace a man who failed to call in sick
or did not report for work. The other two dairymen were prepared to
give a man a chance before they would dismiss him. One of the largest
dairies and the only one that could give figures for absenteeism
reported an average of 10 days per year absenteeism among over 100
employees.

Internal Disputes

 

In handling internal disputes among workers the most popular
method of solving the problem was to get the men together to discuss

it. The supervisor or manager would act as an arbitrator. Closely

136
related to this was the idea of talking to both men individually at
first, and if this did not solve the problem, then to bring them
both together for discussion. Five dairymen said they had never ex-
perienced this problem, while five others said they would leave it
to the men themselves to solve the problem.

Exit Interviewing

 

Thirty-three of the dairymen said that they talked to a man
before he left to find out why he was leaving and what his problems
were. If a man was exceptionally good they would try to dissuade him
from leaving. One manager kept a note in the employee's personal file
as to why he left. The one dairyman who did not find out why a man was
leaving said that he used to do this, but that he found it to be a
waste of time. One respondent had no experience in this area as he
employed all family labor, five brothers and seven nephews.

Discharge

 

On 21 dairies the owner or the manager were the only ones having
the authority to dismiss an employee. The supervisor in charge had
the authority on the other 15 dairies. Some managers found it a
problem to get a supervisor to exercise his authority to dismiss a man.
Notice of dismissal was always given verbally and generally a man
left that same day, getting one week's pay in advance as severance
pay. The unions did not interfere much with an employer's right to
dismiss a man, providing there was due cause. The unions did have
formal grievance procedures for such cases, but no instances of a man

being reinstated due to union action were encountered.

137
DISCUSSION

 

Dairy employers, in general, did not pay much attention to
motivating their employees. Mostly they appeared to want to prevent
dissatisfaction among employees rather than motivate them. It would
appear that most dairy employees did not have the opportunity to advance
very far along the continuum of needs identified by Maslow (1954)22
Physiological needs were generally well taken care of through providing
good housing and some farm produced food. It was seen in Chapter VIII
that 10 dairies did not supply any health or life insurance for their
employees, thus failing to meet some security needs. The social needs
of many dairy workers appear complex and as a group they appear to
live in social isolation. Whether this is their choice, or a choice
forced upon them is not known. Though some dairymen tried to instill
a sense of pride into their workers it is doubtful if their need for
esteem and self-respect is realized due to their social position.
Considering the lack of satisfaction with these needs, it is difficult
to imagine how these employees could even partially realize their need
for self-actualization.

)23 were evident

Few of the motivators mentioned by Herzberg (1966
on these farms. This is not surprising since the motivators identified
by Herzberg correspond closely to the higher needs of Maslow's.

The three dimensions of motivation identified by McFarland (1968)24

have direct application to dairy organizations. It has already been

 

22Op. Cit., Chapter 3.

23Op. Cit., Chapter 3.

24Op. Cit., p. 377.

138

seen that many of the individual's needs are not met by employers on
dairy farms. The organizational climate in general would appear to
have been good, since the majority of respondents felt that their
employees' attitude towards their work and towards the farm was good.
It will be seen in a later chapter that employees themselves were
generally content with their jobs and the employers they were working
for. The type of management would appear to be more Theory X than

)25

Theory Y (McGregor, 1960 or according to Likert's classification

it would be benevolent authoritative (Likert, 1967)26.
The foregoing are general observations made by the author. These
observations are based on the nature of the work on large dairy farms,
which involves a reasonably high degree of Specialization among the
workers. The workers have a certain job to do and appear in general
to do the job well. The work is mostly routine and does not require
a great deal of supervision, other than to see that the men are on the
jobs. It is the caliber of individual that is employed on dairy farms
that brings about the type of management that is prevalent. The majority
of dairy workers do not appear to be willing to take responsibility and
would prefer to be told exactly what to do and then do it, rather than
act on their own initiative. With this in mind, perhaps, the more
Theory X approach is justified.
The external dimensions of motivation, such as the intrinsic

or built in natural motivation of jobs would appear to be an important

aspect of motivation on dairy farms. This is especially true in light

 

25
26

Op. Cit.
Op. Cit.

139
of thee generally lower social status of dairy workers in the local
commuriity. Employees seek dairy work for its security of employment and
relatively high wages compared to what these workers could command in
other occupations with the same level of education. These reasons
would appear to be associated with the lowest level needs in Maslow's
hierarchy and not have intrinsic characteristics as McFarland (1968)27
states the professions have.

The average length of employment figures would appear to be better
than expected, based on previous comments about very high turnover
problems. This can possibly be explained by the fact that almost
all dairies had some employees who had been there for a long time and
that the high turnover was limited to a certain group -- generally
milkers. Also, the figures reported are guesstimates on the part of
the managers and may not be exact.

The size of the dairy organizations greatly limited their scope
for both promotions and transfers. Generally there were many functions
to be performed, with a small group of individuals in each. Also, the
number of levels within the organizations was generally limited to two
or three, thus limiting even further the scope for promotion. Managers
should, however, pay more attention to the possibility of creating
responsibility centers and encourage men to seek these positions. One
manager who tried this was most happy with the results and said he
discovered qualities in some men that he never thought they had.

Discipline would not, in general, appear to be a big problem on

dairy farms. Many dairymen were reluctant to use disciplinary action,

 

270p. Cit., p. 380.

140
other than warn an employee or Speak to him, as they feared losing the
man.
‘The fact that on the majority of these large dairies the owner
or manager only had the authority to dismiss an individual would
suggest the need for more decentralization of authority. Supervisors
should be encouraged to accept and utilize this authority knowing that

management will support them in their decision.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the results presented in this chapter and in light of
motivational theory developed for business organization, the following
conclusions and recommendations seem appropriate:

1. As part of a social study of dairy farm workers, attention
should be paid to the needs of these workers and how they are
satisfied. This study could be based on the hierarchy of
needs developed by Maslow (1954).

2. The results of such a study would yield valuable information
to dairymen. It would show what needs are presently being
satisfied and what ones are not. Motivators could then be
identified and incorporated into a new approach to managing
and motivating dairy workers.

3. Dairymen may benefit by continually encouraging their employees

to accept responsibility for their job and by trying to identify

those with supervisory capability. More responsibility centers
could then be established.
4. If dairymen can establish more responsibility centers and

have them headed by capable supervisors, they will then be

141
able to adopt a more participative management approach which
some authors feel will characterize all business in the

future.

CHAPTER X
COMMUNICATIONS

Effective communications are indiSpensable to effective leadership.
A leader cannot influence his subordinates toward the attainment of
enterprise goals without communicating with them. According to French
(1964)1 "communications are the basic connecting and facilitating threads
which weave all organizational processes t0gether toward the attainment
of enterprise goals. Human collaboration and cooperation in the management
of these processes would be impossible without communications."

McFarland (1968)2 points out that communication occurs at many levels
within the organization and takes many forms. There are two basic
kinds of communication situations: (1) interpersonal communications and
(2) communications between the company and its employees as a group.
Both areas of communication may be formal or informal, official or.

unofficial, latent or manifest, symbolic or direct.

FRAMEWORK 0F COMMUNICATIONS
A framework for understanding the communication process is provided
by Berlo (l960)3. He describes the communication model as consisting of:

1. A communications source -- a person or entity with an idea to

be communicated.

 

1French, Wendell, 1964, The Personnel Management Process: Human
Resources Administration. Houghton MifflinCompany, Boston, p. 453.

2McFarland, Dalton E., 1968, Personnel Management -- Theory and
Practice. The Macmillan Company, Collier-Macmillan Limited, Eondon,

pp. 511-512.

3Berlo, David K., 1960, The Process of Communication. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, New York, p. 32.

142

143
22. The encoder -- mechanism for translating idea into the message
eg. writing implements.
.3. The message.
The channel -- the pattern of flow through the organization
structure and the medium used, eg. typewritten, T.V., etc.
5. The decoder -- the eye or ear, or sensory device to decode
the message for the receiver.
6. The communication receiver.
The elements of this model are not always separate, and they do
not necessarily occur in a fixed order. They are not separate things
or people, but rather elements that are necessary for communication to

occur.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Management within a company is responsible for the coordination

4 has identified five key elements

of all communications. McFarland (1968)
lof the communications system of a firm: (1) the individual organization
member; (2) groups of various types and sizes, (3) data processing and

other computer based processes, (4) organizational networks and (5) out-

siders with whom the company deals for example, clients, suppliers and
servicemen.

Individuals

People in organizations spend much of their time talking to each
other'both directly and by telephone, etc. They also write memoranda,

orders, directives and reports.

 

40p. Cit., p. 513.

144

The most important kind of interpersonal communications in an
organization is that of superior and subordinate. This communication
is greatly affected by relative differences in status, prestige and
authority. The greater authority of the superior emphasizes the down-
ward flow of communications. It is important, however, that the relation-
ship between superior and subordinate is not built on fears and in-
securities as this will not bring forth the creative abilities and
extra effort that most employers seek from their employees (McFarland,
1968)5.

Factors affecting interpersonal communications, according to
McFarland (1968)6 are semantics, false assumptions and various
rigidities, stereotypes and polar thinking on the part of either
individual concerned.

m

All organizations consist of various groups such as divisions,
departments, work groups and social groups. A characteristic of groups
that is essential to their maintenance and development is known as
cohesiveness (McFarland, l968)7. Communication processes are necessary
for groups to deal with one another. Management may also want to
cxnnnunicate directly with a group. There appears to be an increasing
tendency in business to assemble groups of people for purposes of giving

‘theniinformation and for conference discussion (Flippo, l966)8.

 

5Op. Cit., p. 522.

6
7

Op. Cit., p. 523.
Op. Cit., pp. 513-514.

8Flippo, Edwin B., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, p. 419.

145
Computers
The use of high Speed computers for communications purposes
applies mostly to large businesses. Smaller firms may Operate on a
time-sharing basis to have accounts, etc. processed and this does play
a part in the communications process.

Organizational Networks

There is ample evidence to Show that the organization structure
of a firm affects the communications within it (McFarland, 1968)9.
French (1964)10 points out that the number of levels in an organization
affect the communications. Each level iS a potential filter of both
upward and downward communications. Physical distance between individuals
within an organization or between different parts of an organization
also creates barriers to communications.

The official channels of communication in a business correSpond
closely to the prescribed organizational relationships among positions
or people. Informal patterns of communication, generally referred to as
the "grapevine" are superimposed on the formal channels. It is important
that nmnagement take into account the possible informal channels that
1N111 develop when they are planning the organization structure (McFarland,
1968)]1.

Within the organization structure, various dimensions of communica-
ticwi may be identified. These are downward, upward and lateral

cxmmnunication. Generally, downward communication initiates action by

 

9Op. Cit., p. 515.

10Op. Cit., pp. 457-458.

110p. Cit., p. 515.

146
subordinates since it is primarily of a directive nature. Upward
communication is mostly informative and carries control information
regarding what has happened at various points of performance. Lateral
communication across departments or between people at same levels is
essential to the overall coordination of the various functions (Haimann
and Scott, 1970)]2.

Outside Groups

 

It is essential that a firm establish two-way communications with
its customers, suppliers and servicemen. The Small Business Administra-
tion (1962)13 states that a good way for a firm to go about this is
to first ask themselves, what the company expects of the suppliers,
for example, and secondly, what the suppliers expect of the company.
Listing these points will facilitate the establishment of better

communications between the company and outside groups.

COMMUNICATIONS PROGRAMS AND MEDIA

14

The National Industrial Conference Board (1966) has described

over 100 communication tools, programs, media or activities. Some

of the more important ones relevant to this study will be mentioned

briefly.

 

12Haimann, Theo. and Scott, William G., 1970, Management in
the Modern Organization. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
p. 73.

13Small Business Administration, 1962, Better Communications in
Small Business. Small Business Management Series No. 7. Sméll
Business Administration, Washington, D.C., pp. 30-34.

 

14National Industrial Conference Board, 1966, Employee Communica-
tion: Policy and Tools. Studies in Personnel Policy No. 200, National
*Industrial Conference Board, New York, pp. 44-84.

 

147

Meetings and Conferences

A meeting can be described as a group of pe0ple being called to-
gether to be told something. Communication is just one way. Flippo
(1966)15 distinguishes a conference from a meeting by the fact that in
a conference a group is called together for discussion and there is
effective two-way communications between participants under the guidance
of the leader. It is this latter approach, allowing full, free and
frank discussion, that is most advantageous to a firm.

Employee Manuals

 

An employee manual is useful to a new employee. It gives him the
company history and policies, the organization chart, safety regulations,
grievance procedure and other details which will help him to feel at
home in the new organization.

Bulletin Boards

A well kept, up-to-date bulletin board is excellent even for the
smallest company. It Should contain notices of holidays, changed
schedules, layoffs, training and education opportunities, new orders
received and any other piece of information which has not been covered
verbally.

Posters

In the proper place, posters can be useful in reminding employees
of health and safety regulations, housekeeping rules and so forth.
Employee Letters

An annual letter mailed to each employee's home is often a

desirable and feasible method of promoting employee loyalty. Letters

 

15Op. Cit., p. 419.

148
can also be used to quell rumors or to explain why some Specific action
is being taken that may affect employees.
House Organs
Even if only a one—page mimeographed sheet, a house organ can do
a lot for communications, especially if employees are encouraged to
send in newsworth items.

Employee Suggestion Plans

Suggestion plans are widely used devices that achieve some of the
goals of employee participation and upward communication (McFarland,
1968)]6. They are generally designed to elicit practical suggestions
of a technical or managerial nature, the plans are not recommended as
a method of obtaining gripes and complaints. Suggestions Should be
processed promptly and as objectively as possible. If rewards are
given, they can be based on a percentage of estimated savings.
Complaints and Grievances

Some grievance procedure whether Simply a verbal one, or a written
one Should be available to employees. The Small Business Administration
(1961)17 points out that to be effective a grievance procedure should:

1. Free the employee of the fear that stating a grievance will

antagonize his immediate supervisor or top management.

2. State clearly how the employee should present his grievance

and what will happen after that, step by step.

 

16Op. Cit., p. 533.

17Small Business Administration, 1961, Personnel Management Guides
for Small Business. Small Business Management Series No. 26, Small
Business Administration, Washington, D.C., p. 41.

149
3. Eliminate as much red tape as possible, getting to the problem
and its solution in a minimum of time.
4. Eliminate any disadvantage an employee may have in being

unskilled in putting his grievance into words.

COMMUNICATIONS APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE

The author was unable to find any literature or studies pertaining

to the communication process within the farm firm.

l9 . .
have incorporated communica-

Frank (1959)18 and Shapley (1970)
tions theory into the development of personnel management courses being
taught to extension agents. The agents in turn are expected to pass
this information on to the farmer in helping him to improve the overall

management of his business.

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO COMMUNICATIONS

The results presented in this section refer to questions 86 through
96. The categories of response to these questions as well as their reported
frequency are shown in Appendix B.

Coordination of Effort

All the owners or managers of the dairy enterprises were in daily
contact with their supervisors or the employees. This was the principal
method used to coordinate the efforts of all employees. Since dairy

work was of a routine nature, each man knew exactly what had to be done

 

18Frank, William W., 1969, Human Relations Problems on the Farm:
Discussion Leader's Instruction Manual. Schooliof Industrial and Labor
Rélations, and the College ongriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

19Shapley, Allen E., 1970, Personnel Management in Agriculture:
Instructor's Manual. Rural Manpower Center, Special Paper No. 12,
‘Michigan State University, East Lansing.

150

each day. Generally the farm employees met with their supervisor or
manager each morning after reporting for work, to receive their daily
instructions.

Nine respondents made use of bulletin boards to keep their
employees up to date. Six held weekly meetings with their supervisors
where they discussed and planned the future week's work and problems.
Monthly meetings were held by three dairymen. Occasional meetings
were held by six respondents. These meetings were held only when a

particular problem had to be solved or a new program was about to be

started.
Delegating Responsibility

Fifteen dairymen said that they could delegate responsibility to
their supervisors, but not generally to other men. Some were wary
of the amount of responsibility a man could take. The general impression
as regards employees accepting responsibility was that they could be
depended on to do their job, rather than taking responsibility in the
managerial sense. One problem that was mentioned with regard to
delegating authority was that newly promoted supervisors sometimes got
carried away with their new power of authority.

Almost all the dairymen felt sure that each man knew exactly who
his boss was and who to take orders from. Two respondents said that
sometimes their employees did get confused in this area, because they
received orders from more than one partner. This problem was being
solved by outlining definite areas of responsibility to the partners.

'nwenty-six respondents said that they always used the chain of
command when issuing orders to an employee. Some mentioned that they
would automatically step in the supervisor's place if they saw something

balru; done wrong. No real chain of command existed on nine dairies.

151

These were associated with the smallest and simplest types of organiza-

tion structure.

Ideas From Employees

Thirty-one of the respondents said they had at some time or other
received good ideas about possible changes from their employees. The
majority of these suggestions were concerned with small items affecting
the employees themselves, rather than the overall organization. Three
dairymen said that the change from a split to a straight shift was
their employees' idea. Some managers actively encouraged their employees
to come up with ideas and three were considering installing suggestion
boxes and giving rewards for the best suggestions.

Twenty-two respondents felt that their employees generally could
be helpful in planning changes. A further five said that certain
employees could be helpful. It was thought that each man could be
helpful in his specific area since the employees were closer to many
problems than management. Seeking the opinions of employers was con-
sidered by some managers to be very important and it helped them to feel
more a part of the organization.

The Manager and Communications

Seventeen managers or owners felt that they were doing "all right"
in getting their ideas across to their employees. Twelve said they
thought they were doing a "good" job, while one thought he was doing
Wexcellent". Two managers were not too happy with how they were doing.
They had language barriers with the Chicano workers and they felt that
the caliber of labor available was too poor to do an effective job. The
difficulty of overcoming resistance to change was mentioned by several

dairymen as a problem in getting their ideas across to employees.

152
Evaluation and Communication

The evaluation process of employees was mainly one of continually
observing the quality of their work. This was mentioned by 31 of the
33 respondents to this question. Other factors in evaluation involved
the use of production records, a man's dependability and his attitude
towards his work. One manager, who had previously used a yearly
evaluation report on each worker, had dropped its use due to lack of
time to carry it out and excessive turnover. One dairy organization
operating four milking parlors made use of closed circuit television
to observe the milkers and to make sure they were doing a satisfactory
job.

Twenty-three respondents discussed the positive and negative
aSpectS of a man's work with him, giving praise where it was due and
pointing out where improvements were needed. This was done periodically,
informally and during the course of the day's work. Five respondents
said that they only told a man where improvements were necessary. Two
cautioned against giving a man too much praise, while a further two
said they did little in this area.

Discussing Employee Problems

Owners and managers appeared to be receptive to discussing work
problems with their employees. Seven said they thought a man would
discuss problems he was having with his fellow employees first and only
then go to the supervisor or manager. Thirteen thought a man would go
directly to his supervisor, while 12 said he would go directly to the
owner or manager.

Twenty-two of the respondents said they always tried to avoid
getting involved in the personal problems of their employees, but that

from tine to time they did. These problems were generally concerned with

153
finance, drinking and family disagreements. Ten dairymen said they
always tried to help their employees in their personal problems and

encouraged their men to discuss anything they wanted to.

DISCUSSION

 

It appeared that the employers on these large scale dairy operations
were generally satisfied with the way they were getting their ideas
across to their employees. The superior - subordinate relationship
appeared, in general, to be good and although the flow of communications
was generally downward with orders and directives, there did appear to
be an opportunity for upward communications also. Upward communications
were evidenced by the employees having an opportunity to express their
ideas and also when management sought the ideas of employees on proposed
changes.

The routine nature of dairy work meant that each employee soon
got to know his job and what was expected of his performance. The
low caliber of help available on many farms made close supervision
of milkers necessary and this was the reason for using a closed circuit
television on one large dairy. There did not appear to be a great
status or prestige gap between supervisors and employees and where
Chicano workers were employed the managers favored Chicano supervisors
also. Some instances of whites refusing to take orders from a Chicano
supervisor were reported and vice versa also. On farms employing Chicanos
it appeared to be a distinct advantage for the manager to Speak Spanish.

Farm employees, as distinct from dairy employees, demanded closer
supervision in general. This was due to the non-routine nature of farm

work and the fact that almost every day a man would be doing something

different.

154

Only 25 percent of the dairymen held regular meetings of supervisors
to discuss problems and to make plans. Several other managers had
either tried this in the past or thought that they should start. Those
presently using this group approach were pleased with the results as
regards participation and coordination. One manager who held a weekly
meeting with his milking crew used this opportunity to give them a pep
talk and to discuss their problems. This manager favored the group
approach to work problems as it encouraged teamwork and helped motiva-
tion. Another manager of a large dairy and farm operation had a
monthly "gripe" meeting to which all employees were invited. Though not
long in operation, the manager thought that it was beginning to pay off
in terms of increased discussion and suggestions.

Though not generally associated with communications on the farm,
the computer is now playing an increasingly important role. It iS used
to supply the farm manager with vitally needed management information.
Examples are seen with users of Dairy Herd Improvement Records and other
Management Information Systems developed by state agricultural colleges
and private industry serving the farmer.

Generally Speaking, the organization structures observed did not
have»a.sufficient number of levels to pose too many barriers to
cxnnnunication. On some very large farms, however, physical distance
did prove to be a barrier to comnunications. To overcome this many
managers had radios installed in the pick-up trucks so they could keep
'hi contact with other supervisors and with the main office.

Only one dairy had an employee manual to serve as a means of
connuuiication. Although nine dairies had bulletin boards either in the
dairy office or in the main farm office, there did not appear to be

a great deal of information on any of them. Posters were not evident

155
eithena The same dairy that had an employee manual also published
a house organ periodically. This publication was well designed and
prhited and contained many photographs of employees and their

activities.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the results presented and in light of communications
principles and guidelines found to be successful in industrial enter-
prises, the following conclusions and recommendations would appear
appropriate.

1. Dairymen may find it to their advantage to give more thought
to the importance of and need for an adequate system of
communication within their organization. It would be
appropriate to review this area at the same time as develOp-
ing the organization structure. Clear channels of communica-
tion need to be established, taking into account the possible
informal channels that will develop.

2. The use of work-group pep-talks or discussions may prove
beneficial for each section under a supervisor. A competent
supervisor can conduct these himself, but intially he may
need the help and encouragement of the owner or manager.

3. Weekly or bimonthly meetings of supervisors may prove to be
a valuable tool in communications and coordination. Super-
visors should come to the meetings prepared to discuss their
future week's program. In this way the work of all sections
can be coordinated and everybody knows and understands what
is going on.

4. Management Should stress the importance of communications to

10.

11.

156
the supervisors and encourage them to attend supervisory
training programs where available.
On large farms or where parcels of land are widely dispersed
the use of radios in pick-up trucks used by the manager
and supervisors will greatly facilitate communications
and coordination of the work program.
The installation of a suggestion system may prove beneficial
to managers, because of the ideas and feedback it can
generate. Help in establishing such a system could be
obtained from farm suppliers or through the state university.
Employees Should be clear on the grievance procedure or what
to do if they have a complaint. Generally in these small
organizations that are not unionized, grievances will be
made known verbally, but there should be no fear of reprisal.
Employee manuals are advantageous. Large firms can afford
to have them printed and well designed. Small firms such
as these dairy operations could possibly get this information
types up and mimeographed.
More extensive use of bulletin boards may prove beneficial,
making sure that the board is kept up to date, so that
employees will look at it daily for new items of information.
Posters may be obtained from insurance companies and supplier
firms to remind employees of the need for safety and to provide
warnings where there is danger.
Though printed house organs are not essential to these large
dairies, many may possibly benefit from having a weekly news

letter published and made available to them. Employees Should

157
be encouraged to contribute items of information for publica-

tion in the news letter.

CHAPTER XI

HEALTH AND SAFETY

SAFETY

 

The total number of disabling injuries in all industries in 1970
was approximately 2,200,000. About 14,200 of these were fatal and
90,000 resulted in some permanent impairment. These figures do not
include the much larger, but unknown, number of minor injuries. The
National Safety Council estimated that work accidents cost the nation
$9.1 billion dollars in 1970; this amounted to $110 per worker in
industry. Figures of accident frequency rates and severity rates are
also presented by the National Safety Council for the various industries

(Accident Facts, 1971)].

In the past 50 years great progress has been made in accident

prevention. Simonds and Grimaldi (1963)2 state that in business firms

it is common for the establishment of a good safety program to cut the
accident rate to half or less. These authors have written a book called
Safety Management, which is the most widely used book on this topic.
The following paragraphs will summarize briefly the first chapters of
the book.

Accidents do not just happen but are "caused". With rare
exception, an unsafe condition or an. unsafe act, or a combination of

both is behind each accident. A work place where there are many

 

1Accident Facts, 1971 Ed., National Safety Council, 425 North
MichiganTvenue,Chicago, pp. 23-31.

2Simonds, Rullin H. and Grimaldi, John V., 1963, Safety Management.
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, Illinois, Chapters 17.

 

158

159
accidents is one in which production processes are not adequately under
control. The highest efficiency in firms iS generally found in conjunc-

tion with the best accident records.

SAFETY OBJECTIVES

 

The prime purpose of accident-prevention work is to prevent personal
injuries and deaths. Injuries cause suffering to the person involved,
possibly some permanent impairment, a loss of earnings to the worker's
family and the country at large suffers a loss of human resources.

A second major objective of accident-prevention work is the re-
duction of production and operating costs for the sake of profits. Cost
reduction provides a direct purpose for preventing all accidents.

There are also certain intangible gains to be made from the pre-
vention of accidents that do not lend themselves to measurement. The
two primary divisions of these gains are morale and public relations.

A company with a poor accident record will find it difficult to hire
and retain workers. A good safety record showing few injuries will re-
sult in a favorable public impression and may play some minor part in

promoting public confidence in a company's products.

SAFETY STANDARDS

 

Frequency and severity rates are the accepted standards by which
a company can appraise its industrial record and set goals for achieve-
ment. Four main classifications of injuries are made: (1) deaths,
(2) permanent total disabilities, (3) permanent partial disabilities
and (4) temporary total disabilities. These are referred to as dis-
abling injuries. In addition to these disabling injuries there are
injuries known as medical treatment cases. These are divided into

doctors cases and first aid cases. Only the disabling injuries are used

160
in calculating the frequency and severity rates.

The frequency rate of accidents used in industry iS the number
of disabling injuries per million man hours of work.

The severity rate is the number of days charged for disabling
injuries per million man hours of work. The time changes include,
first, the number of actual calendar days lost by the injured person
and secondly, Specific time charges taken from a table established by

the American Standards Association.

ACCIDENT PREVENTION

 

The owner or owners of a business Should see to it that safety
is one of their operating principles. They should take whatever steps
may be necessary by way of engineering and employee education and

control to guard against the occurrence of accidents.

ORGANIZING FOR SAFETY
According to Armstrong (1953)3 there are a few musts which should
be considered in organizing a safety program:
1. Safety must have top management approval, sanction and
support.
2. Responsibility for safety must rest with supervisory personnel.
3. Safety must be given equally important consideration with
other factors of production.
4. Provision must be made for prompt action in the elimination

of mechanical and personal hazards.

 

3Armstrong, 1. 0., 1953, Cited in Blake, R. P., (Ed.) Industrial
Safety. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 330-331.

161

Safety engineering, education, training and enforcement of rules

are all parts of the overall safety program (Yoder, §t_alg l958)4.

HEALTH

 

Most business and industrial firms provide some form of medical
service, although the extent of service ranges from first aid to
physical examinations by a plant physician.

The purposes of a company health program are similar, whether
it be limited or extensive in scope. From the employee's standpoint
it iS a humanitarian type of protection in the same sense that safety
methods are. From the employer's point of view it protects the health
of the employee and allows him to be more productive. In a much
broader sense, a good health program is presumed to be better industrial
relations and improve morale (Yoder, pt 31) 1958)5.

Flippo (1966)6 points out that poor physical and mental health
leads to a high level of absenteeism and a low level of productivity.

7

The occupational Health Institute , a non-profit educational and

certification organization created by the Industrial Medical Association,

will help firms establish health and safety programs and "111 certify

those programs that meet its requirements.

4Yoder, Dale, Heneman, H. G., Jr., Turnbull, John G., and Stone,
Harold C., 1958. Handbook of Personnel Management and Labor Relations.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, pp. 20.20-201271

51bid., pp. 20.31—20.32.

6Flippo, Edwin B., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, p.510.

7Occupational Health Institute, Functional Objectives. Chicago,
Illinois. pp. 8-11.

162
The Small Business Administration (1954)8 published a booklet
on Health Maintenance Programs for Small Businesses. The basic elements
of a health maintenance program are identified as follows:
1. Preplacement physical examinations.
2. Periodic health appraisals.
3. Care of minor ailments and occupational disabilities.

4. Health education and counseling.

HEALTH AND SAFETY IN AGRICULTURE

 

Accidental work deaths in agriculture accounted for 2,400 lives in
1970. Farm residents accounted for 1,700 of these deaths and non-farm
rural residents for the remaining 700 deaths. The death rate in
agriculture was 67 per 100,000 workers in 1970. This left agriculture
with the third highest death rate among all industries. Construction
and mining had 72 and 100 deaths per 100,000 workers respectively,
compared to an average of 18 for all industries. Disabling injuries
were suffered by 160,000 farm residents and by 40,000 non-farm rural
residents (Accident Facts, 1971)9

A large number of studies dealing with the incidence of accidents

in agriculture have been conducted. Some studies deal with the general

incidence, while most deal with a Specific topic such as tractor upsets

 

8Small Business Administration, 1964, Health Maintenance Programs
for Small Business. Small Business Management SerieSlNo. 16 (Second
Edition), SmalliBusiness Administration, Washington, D.C., pp. 4-10.

 

9Op. Cit., pp. 85-86.

163

(Schneider, 1967)10 and fatal accidents to farm people (Wardle, l958)11.

In a study of Accidents Occurring to Farm People in Michigan,
Hofineister (1968)12 reviewed the literature pertaining to accidents
in agriculture and summarized the situation as follows:

1. There have been few attempts at standardization. Differences
in rates between states are reported. These differences may
be due to reporting methods and definitions rather than
actual differences in accident rates.

2. There has been very little work done on accidents to farm
people versus exposure to those accidents expressed in some
time-work unit.

3. A standard definition of an accident and of any injury would
be desirable for comparison purposes.

4. Several of the studies used no approved random sampling
techniques.

5. Differences in accident rates by size of farm, but not by
type of farming have been reported.

6. Very little literature is available pertaining to accidents

sustained by hired farm laborers insured by workmen's
compensation policy.

Hofmeister (1968)13

developed the following definition of an
accidental injury. He said, an accidental injury is "an accident
which results in injuries which require professional medical care
or results in the loss of one half day or more of time from normal

activities".

 

10Schneider, Rollin, 1967, Farm Tractor Upset Accident Survey.
Extension Service, University ofiNeBraska, Linc6lh.

HWardle, N. J., 1958, Fatal Accidents of Iowa Farm People in 1957.
A.E. 833, Cooperative Extensibn Sérvice in Agricfilture and Home Economics,
Iowa State College, Ames.

12Hofmeister, Kenneth M., 1968, A Study of Accidents Occurring
to Farm People in Michigan. M.S. Thesislegricultural'Engineering
Department, MiEhigan State University, East Lansing, pp. 20-21.

13Ibid.. p. 8.

 

 

 

164

This definition was later adopted by the agricultural division
of the National Safety Council and is used in agriculture to report
accident frequency rates. The definition of frequency rate used in
industry was rejected by agriculture, because farm employees typically
do not take time off from work because of slight injuries, as in the
case of industry.

The study by Hofmeister (1958)14 in Michigan and three studies
)15

carried out in Ohio by Baker and Stuckey (1959 , Bible and Stuckey

17

(1965)16 and Philips and Stuckey (1968) were used by the National

18 to develop a manual on How to Conduct a Farm

Safety Council (1968)
Accident Survey. This manual is now being used by several states to
conduct farm accident studies.

New legislation affecting agriculture as well as other industries
has been enacted through the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.
The basic purpose of this act is to assure every working man and woman

in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions. The initial

standards pertaining to agriculture have been reported by the United

 

14Ibid.

15Baker, R. H., and Stuckey, w. E., 1959, Accidents to Farm
People, 29, 361 Reasons for a Safety Program. Research Bulletin 305,
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster.

16Bible, Bond and Stuckey, W. E., 1963, Accidents to Farm People
in Ohio, 22, 608th Emergency Call. Bulletin 439, OhioAgricultural
Extension Service , Columbus .

17Phi1ips, Howard and Stuckey, w. E., 1968, Accidents to Farm
and Rural Non-Farm People in Ohio. Extension Bulleti6500,0hio
C00peratiVe Extension Service, Columbus.

18National Safety Council, 1968, How to Conduct a Farm Accident
Survey. The National Safety Council, 425 NorthMichigan Avenue,

Chicago.

165

19. These standards pertain to:

States Department of Labor (1971)
(l) sanitation in temporary labor camps, (2) storage and handling
of anhydrous ammonia, (3) pulpwood logging and (4) Slow moving
vehicles.

20 found

In the study of Michigan Farm Accidents, Hofmeister (1968)
that only 50.7 percent of accidents occurred while doing farm work.
The accident frequency rate was 20.6 per million man hours for all farm
people, being divided into 18.7 for family and 31.2 for hired labor. Cuts
and bruises accounted for 40 percent of all accidents and fractures and
sprains for 18.3 and 13.5 percent respectively. Cows caused 3.6 percent
of all accidents, with 1.4 percent coming from kicks.

Four categories of injury were defined by Hofmeister (1968)2]:
(l) fatal, (2) permanent -- lost finger, hand, eye, will never walk
again, others, (3) severe -- broken leg, cut ligament, sprained back,
others (4) slight -- minor cuts, sprains, burns, others.

The author reported 65.5 percent of all injuries as Slight.

In a study of New York farms, 78 percent of which were dairy, Hoff
(1968)22 found a frequency rate of 18 accidents per 100,000 days for

all farm personnel and 35.7 for employees. If a 10 hour day is assumed,

these figures correspond closely with those reported by Hofmeister.

 

19United States Department of Labor, 1971, Safety and Health Standards
for Agriculture. U.S. Government Printing Office: 1971, 0-484-782 (4).

20Op. Cit., p. 85.

21Op. Cit., p. 9.

22Hoff, Paul R., 1969, Accidents in Agriculture. Information
Bulletin 1, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University,

Ithaca, p. 5.

 

166
RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO HEALTH AND SAFETY

The results presented in this section deal with questions 97
through 101. These questions, the categories of response and their
reported frequencies are Shown in Appendix 8.

Causes of Accidents

The most frequently mentioned cause of accidents was cows kicking.
This was mentioned by 23 respondents. Slipping was mentioned by 11
dairymen and eight reported handling and treating cows as a major
cause of accidents, while two dairymen had no accidents in the past
year.

Carelessness on the part of employees was blamed for most accidents.
Some employers blamed drink for many injuries that their employees
sustained both on and off the job.

Types and Severity of Accidents.

The most frequent types of accidents reported were minor cuts,
sprains and bruises. According to Hofmeister's (1968)23 definition
these accidents were classified as "Slight" in terms of severity.
Seventeen employees suffered serious sprains, 14 had fractures, seven
had serious bruising, nine had bad cuts and one was seriously burnt.
'These accidents were classified as severe. One fatal accident was
reported, where an employee was crushed to death in a feed mill. The
data collected did not take into account the definition of an accident

and as a result frequency rates cannot be reported.

 

230p. Cit., p. 9.

167

Preventing Accidents

Fifteen dairymen said they stressed safety all the time as a means
of cutting down on accidents. Regular visits from safety engineers
or inspectors from insurance companies was reported by seven dairymen.
The participation of insurance companies was mostly evident in California.
The safety inspectors inspected the facilities, farm equipment and
machinery for potential health hazards and made recommendations to the
owner. Six dairymen reported getting safety posters from their insurance
company. The elimination of kicking cows was mentioned by three
respondents, while two said that they had installed non-slip floors in
their milking parlors. One manager said that the language barrier

prevented him from giving safety talks, but no posters were evident

either.

Ensuring Good Health

All the dairymen had restrooms available for their employees as
part of their overall health program. The majority also had Showers.
Eleven restrooms had locker rooms attached. Two dairies that employed
women had a separate ladies restroom and lounge.

Eating facilities were not commonly provided, as the employees
generally lived in houses on the farm and went home to eat. Ten
dairies had vending machines available containing soft drinks, milk,
ice cream or snacks.

Some clothing was supplied by seven dairies. Twenty-seven had
first-aid kits available, but only 15 had fire extinguishers. Physical
examinations were required by two dairies as part of their health

program and 26 dairies carried some health insurance policies on their

employees.

168
EmployingOlder Men
Only five respondents said that they did not hire older men.

The general attitude towards employing older men was favorable, due to
their better dependability and extra experience. Twelve dairymen said
that they did not discriminate against age and that if a man was able
for a job, he would be hired regardless of his age. Ten said that older
men would be more suitable for jobs such as calf raising, cleaning or

observing cows in heat. Older men were preferred as milkers by four

dairymen.

DISCUSSION

Although the percent of dairy farm accidents resulting from
cows kicking is not available from this study, the high incidence of
this type of accident is readily apparent. This problem is more
apparent in flat barns where the man is in closer contact with the cow
than in parlor barns. It is standard policy on most dairies to
eliminate kicking cows, though this was only mentioned by three
respondents in this study. The high incidence of injuries due to
Slipping suggests the need for more use of non-slip surfaces espically
“1 the milking barn.

The types of accidents reported in this study were similar to
liuase reported by Hofmeister (1968)24 and other researchers. Eighty-

twti percent of all injuries in this study were slight compared to 65.5

Percent reported by Hofmeister (1968)25.

—\

24Op. Cit., p. 75.

25Op. Cit., p. 74.

169

The overall responsibility for accident prevention is the owner's.
Although 15 said that they continually stressed safety, the attitude
of many, that accidents were due to "carelessness" on the part of the
worker cannot be let go at that. This is especially true in light of
the comments of Simonds and Grimaldi (1963)26 who state that "with rare
exceptions, an unsafe condition or an unsafe act, or a combination of
both, is behind every accident". The unsafe condition may be a Slippery
floor or a poorly designed milking barn. Perhaps, the worker whose
"carelessness" caused the accident was following a wrong work procedure.
If he was then, perhaps, he had not been instructed in the proper
method by the owner or supervisor.

Nine respondents did not have any first aid kits available and 21
did not have fire extinguishers. This suggests a lack of attention to
safety and health procedures on these farms. Insurance companies should
be more involved in safety and health and dairymen should seek posters
and other materials from these companies to help remind their employees
of safety. Notices could be put on bulletin boards or messages put in
the pay envelopes of employees.

There was little recording or analysis of accidents carried out
and no dairymen mentioned the costs involved with accidents.

Preplacement physical examinations were required by only two
dairies. It would appear that the recommendations of the Small
Business Administration (1964)27 on health maintenance programs could

be profitably adopted by many large dairies. Restroom facilities

 

26
27

Op. Cit., p. 11.
Op. Cit., pp. 4-10.

170
generally appeared adequate. The use of protective clothing and
uniforms could be expanded. By supplying clean uniforms for employees
the dairyman can be surer of better hygiene in the milk production
process. It may also help to increase employee morale.

The physical facilities on a dairy are directly connected with
health and safety. They also play another important part in personnel
management on large dairies. The problem of high turnover and avail-
ability of low caliber individuals for dairy work has already been
mentioned. In an effort to solve some of these problems and to increase
their efficiency, many dairymen are now beginning to install very modern
milking facilities with built-in attractive working conditions. By doing
this it is h0ped to attract a higher caliber of individual into dairy
employment. Making the milking process less strenuous through installa-
tion of automatic equipment will allow increased use of older more

reliable men and also women as milkers.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Based on the results of this research and in light of the discussion
of health and safety in both industry and agriculture, the following
conclusions and recommendations are appropriate:

1. Dairymen may find it to their advantage to pay more attention

to the health and safety of their employees. Programs and
policies can be developed in this area. The guidelines set

up by the Small Business Administration would appear applicable
to large dairy farm organizations.

2. Records may be kept on accidents that do occur, how they

occurred and their severity. This would help the individual

dairyman to identify causes of accidents and to help prevent

171
them. The records could also serve as inputs for researchers
in farm safety.
Research is needed relative to accidents on dairy farms to
identify their causes, types and severity. The information
would be useful to equipment manufacturers and dairy managers
for the prevention of accidents.
Dairymen should keep in mind that the provision of safe
working conditions and a healthy work environment will have
an increasing effect on the caliber of the help they can hope
to attract for dairy employment.
Insurance companies have a vital interest in the safety
programs of their clients. Dairymen may seek the help and
advice of safety inspectors and engineers in making sure
that they have no hazardous working conditions. Safety
posters, films and other ideas to promote safety may also be
available from these companies.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 has initialized
standards to be met by agriculture and other industries.
Dairymen should be aware of the implications of these
standards for the management of their operations and be

prepared to meet further standards in future years.

CHAPTER XII
LABOR RELATIONS

The role of the labor union in society is a fairly secure one as
measured by the degree of its growth and public support. Until the
1930's unions grew slowly and struggled hard for their existence.
Survival was imperative to the unions as they faced bitter opposition
from employers and did not have the favorable legislation that they
have today (McFarland, 1968)]. From Slightly less than three million
in 1933, unions grew to some 15 million members in 1945 (Flippo, 1966)2.
Since that time the pace of growth has slackened and the most recent
estimate of membership made by the United States Department of Labor
(1970)3 is 20.2 million.

The vitality of the labor movement is the subject of much con-
troversy among unionists. Some feel that the spirit has gone out of
the movement, while others feel that setbacks and disappointments are
temporary. White-collar union membership is, however, on the increase,
as is government worker membership and membership of women. Despite these

increases, however, union membership has not kept pace with the growth

of employees in the labor force, or in employment in non-agricultural

 

1McFarland, Dalton E., 1968, Personnel Management: Theory and
Practice. The Macmillan Company, Céllier-Macmillan Limited, London,

p.

 

2Flippo, Edwin B., 1966, Principles of Personnel Management.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, p. 466.

3United States Department of Labor, 1970, Directory of National
and International Labor Unions in the United States. Bullétin No. 1665,
Bureau of Labor StatiStics, Washington, D.C., p. 55}

172

 

 

 

173

establishments (United States Department of Labor, 197O)4.

UNION STRUCTURE

 

The basic building block of union organization is the labor union
local. In 1969 there were nearly 64,000 locals chartered by the
AFL-CIO, representing about 77 percent of the membership claimed by all
unions. In addition there were 13,000 locals in unaffiliated national
unions (U.S. Department of Labor, 197O)5. It is the national union,
however, drawing strength from the larger federation, that is the primary
source of strength for the union local. National unions charter the
local union and provide a "union movement" point of view. Nationals
levy per capita dues on locals and in turn pay dues to their parent

federation. The national unions are governed by executive boards and

by the actions of delegates at national conventions.

LABOR LAWS

 

Labor law is complex and voluminous. It covers not only laws
regulating collective bargaining and union management relations, but
also such matters as child labor, hours of work, wages and fair employ-
ment. The United States Department of Labor (1964)6 in a bulletin on
Federal Labor Laws and Programs, lists and summarizes the various laws.
It is clear from their listing that there are many laws -- Federal, State

and Local -- to which management must give its attention.

 

4Ibid.. pp. 55-55.

5Ibid., p. 55.

6United States Department of Labor, 1964, Federal Labor Laws and
Programs. Bulletin 262, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Standards, Washington, D.C.

 

174

Four major laws passed between 1932 and 1959 provided the legal

basis for collective bargaining. These were:

1.

The Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932, affirmed the right of unions
to use concerted activities without interference by federal
law, and negated the court injunction procedure used by manage-
ment.

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act),
guaranteed employees: (1) freedom to bargain collectively

with the employer through representatives of their own choosing
and (2) the right to engage in concerted organized activities.
The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 (Labor-Management Relations Act)
ammended the Wagner Act of 1935 and changed the emphasis from
protecting unions and their rights to protecting employers,
individual workers and the public.

The Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959 (Labor-Management Reporting

and Disclosure Act) represented an effort to combat corruption
and undemocratic procedures in labor unions and to protect

the individual worker and management from abuses of union

power (Flippo, l966)7.

UNION SECURITY

 

Union security is a basic aim of labor unions. In labor agreements

security clauses are those which define the bargaining unit, state who

speaks for the union, with what authority, for how long and under what

conditions. The legal form of recognition is that of sole and exclusive

 

7

Op. Cit., pp. 456-461.

175
bargaining rights, awarded by supervised elections in the firm. McFarland
(1968)8 identifies four main types of union security arrangements with
respect to union membership. They all seek to maximize union member-
ship within the bargaining unit:

1. The closed shop. Each employee must become a member of the
union before he is hired. This system is found mainly in the
construction industry.

2. The union Shop. The employer may hire anyone he chooses, but
the employee must join the union within a Specified time if he
is to remain an employee.

3. Maintenance of membership Shop. All employees who are members
of the union on a given date must continue for a stated time,
usually the life of the contract.

4. Agency shop. No one is required to join the contracting union,
but those employees who do not choose to become union members
must pay dues to the union representing them as collective

bargaining agent.

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

 

Collective bargaining is the process in which the representatives
of the labor union and the business organization meet and attempt to
negotiate a contract or agreement which Specifies the nature of the
employee-employer union relationship (Flippo, l966)9. It is seen,

therefore, that collective bargaining involves management and union

 

8
9

Op. Cit., p. 572.
Op. Cit., p. 468.

176
both working within the legal framework set by government. This tri-

lateral or tripartite approach to the dicsussion of industrial relations

is used by Yoder (1962)]0.

THE BARGAINING PROCESS

 

The law requires that the parties "bargain in good faith", that is,
that they intend to negotiate an ultimate agreement; that they each
make compromises and concessions in drawing nearer to agreement and that
they continue to meet and talk with each other. Despite the wide
variety of Shapes that bargaining can take, there are certain fundamental
procedures and stages of action that can be identified. These are:

(l) the prenegotiation phase, (2) the selection of negotiators, (3) the
strategy of bargaining, (4) the tactics of bargaining and (5) the contract
(French, 1952)“, (Flippo, 1955)‘2, (McFarland, 1968)]3.

In the event of no agreement various pressures are brought to bear
upon management by the union, such as strikes, picketing and boycotts.
The basic management pressure is that of waiting until the absence of
the payroll makes itself felt on every union member. One approach to
solving the deadlock in agreements is to use a third party as mediator
who will attempt to bring the two parties closer to agreement through

persuasion. A second approach to resolving the deadlock is that of

 

10Yoder, Dale, 1962, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 138-271.

1lFrench, Wendell, 1964, The Personnel Management Process: Human
Resources Administration. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, pp. 351:358.

12

 

 

 

Op. Cit., pp. 459-475.

13Op. Cit., pp. 575-578.

177
arbitration. Arbitration involves two fundamental ideas: (1) that
the parties must agree voluntarily to submit their disputes to arbitra-
tion and (2) that the parties must agree to be bound by the arbitrators'
decision (McFarland, l968)14.

Flippo (1966)15 states that management generally gets the type of
union relationship it wants. If management wants to fight, the union
will accomodate it. Labor-management relations have, in some cases,
progressed from a status of militant opposition to armed truce to
working harmony and finally, in rare cases, to joint labor-management
cooperation.

The establishment of a constructive relationship in the advancement
of labor-management peace iS a basic obligation of both parties.
According to Flippo (1966)16 such a relationship should include: (1) labor
union and management acceptance of each other as responsible parties in
the collective bargaining process, (2) acceptance by both parties of the
free enterprise system with its concomitant obligations and the authority
of private ownership and private operation of business organizations,

(3) an emphasis on a problem solving approach with a de-emphasis on

excessive legalism and (4) an awareness of basic obligations to principals,

who include employees, stockholders, customers and the public.

 

14
15

Op. Cit., pp. 581-582.

Op. Cit., p. 485.

16Op. Cit., p. 485.

178
LABOR RELATIONS AND COLLECTIVE BARGAINING IN AGRICULTURE

Prior to 1900 unionism on farms was almost nonexistent. The reasons
for this are outlined in a paper by Willis Sloan (l966)]7. These reasons
include isolation of farms with limited means of communication, close
identification between farm workers and their employers, economic
opportunities in the cities and the fact that the trade union movement
was small and largely restricted to Skilled craftsmen.

In the early 1900's the American Federation of Labor tried to
organize field workers on the large, highly specialized California
farms. At the same time the Industrial Workers of the World was making
an attempt to organize farm workers on a national scale. By the mid
1920's, however, both movements had almost died.

The agricultural labor supply grew rapidly during the 1930's as
a result of the depression, drought, government-sponsored crop reduction
and acreage control programs, and technological changes in farming.
During this time the AFL, CIO, Trade Union Unity League, Southern Tenant
Farmers and Teamster's Unions, made renewed efforts in unionizing
agricultural labor. California was the scene of most union activity.
Between 1930 and 1948 there were more than 380 strikes involving 200,000
farm workers in 33 states. About half the strikes and nearly three-
fourths of the strikers were in California.

Since 1948 there have been numerous attempts to organize farm

workers. The AFL-CIO have continued their efforts and in 1959 they

formed the Agricultural Workers' Organizing Committee (AWOC). This

17Sloan, Willis, 1966, The History of Collective Bargaining in
Farm Labor. Proceedings of Maryland Farm Manpower Conference, university
0? Maryland, College Park, pp. 57-60

179
group supported a series of strikes against the lettuce industry in
Imperial Valley, California, in 1960-61. In May, 1965, AWOC called a
strike for higher wages for grape harvest workers in Coachella Valley,
California. The growers met the wage demands. In the Fall of 1965
grape pickers moving into Delano, California, made Similar wage scale
demands and when they were not met they called a strike in that area.
The strikers were joined by members of the National Farm Workers'
Association.

In the 1966 harvest season the grape strike expanded to include
picketing in the field, packing houses, cold storage plants, business
offices and the San Francisco docks. The activities generated consider-
able nationwide publicity and a great deal of public support. Caesar
Chavez emerged as a strong leader for the striking workers and eventually,
in 1970, gained recognition for the United Farm Workers' Organizing
Committee (UFWOC) as bargaining agent for the grape pickers.

Stanley Knebel (1971)18 states that it will only be a matter of
time before large-scale unionization of farm workers in California is
achieved. Congress is presently discussing proposed federal legislation
on collective bargaining for farm workers, and it is certain, according
to Knebel, that the legislative proposal will recognize the right of farm
workers to bargain collectively. Agriculture up to this point has
been excluded from the National Labor Relations Act of 1935. The focal
point in the present debate will be whether to simply extend the NLRA

coverage to agriculture or to start out fresh realizing that the agricultural

 

18Knebel, Stanley M., 1971, Collective Bargainin Legislation for
Agriculture. Proceedings of Maryland Rural Manpower onference,
University of Maryland, College Park, pp. 77-83.

 

 

180

industry has certain unique characteristics which require that it be
dealt with apart from other industries. The unique Situation of
agriculture is based on the relatively small size of the producing
units, the seasonality of employment and most important, the perish-
ability of crops. Whether NLRA coverage is extended to agriculture, or
a new act is passed pertaining to farm workers, a crucial issue will be
how to deal with the strike or threat of a strike at harvest time.

While California has been the focal point in organizing agricultural
workers, some activities have also been taking place in other parts of

19 O).

the Nation (Sloan, 1966 , Knebel, 19712 The National Farm Workers'

Association has been trying to organize workers in the lower Rio Grande
Valley of Texas. This effort, as in California, centers around the
Mexican-American population and also has church support. The United
Agricultural Workers' of America have been organizing crew leaders and
field hands in Florida since 1966, though so far they have shown little
in the way of tangible results.

Most agriculturalists think that overall unionization of the

21 22

agricultural industry is a long way off (Fuller, 1966 , Knebel, 1971 ,

23).

Shapley, 1971 Shapley analyzed the situation as it concerns Michigan

 

19Op. Cit.

20Op. Cit.

2lFuller, Varden, 1966, Emerging Farm Labor Issues. Paper
presented at the 44th Annual National AgriculturalOutlook Conference,
Washington, D.C.

22

23ShapTey, A11en E., 1971, Analysis of Collective Bargaining for
Michigan Farm Workers. Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of the
Michigan ASsociation of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, p. 15.

 

Op. Cit., p. 83.

 

 

181
farmers. He concluded that farmers in Michigan due to their attitudes
and beliefs about unions, would not push for unionization. Farm workers,
because of their distribution, social isolation, attitudes and goals
would not push for unionization either. Lastly, the unions who basically
have to make their decisions on the basis of economics, will not push
for unionization of farm workers because of the wide diSpersion of farm
workers, the low income levels of the workers, their transiency nature

and the way the numbers are changing over time.

RESULTS OF PRESENT STUDY PERTAINING TO LABOR RELATIONS

 

The results presented in this section pertain to questions 102
through 117. The questions, the categories of response and their
reported frequencies are Shown in Appendix B.

Extent of Unionization

 

Six of the 36 dairymen visited operated under a union contract. All
these dairies were located in California. On these farms the dairy
workers, which included milkers and outside men, were unionized, but not
farm workers or field hands. A11 dairies in California operate close
enough to unionized dairies, to be aware of unionizing activities,
though this was mentioned by only one of the four non-unionized dairies.
There had been some unsuccessful union activity in El Paso, Texas, but
no reported union activity in other areas.

The unionization of dairy workers in California started in 1935
with the formation of the California Milkers' Recreation Club. Member-
ship at that time was 17. In 1936 the union was granted a charter by
the CIO, but in 1937 they switched to the Teamsters under the charter
of Local 737. Present membership of Local 737 is approximately 1,000.

In 1949 the Christian Labor Association (CLA) began organizing dairy

182
workers into Dairy Employees Union Local No. 17. Present membership
of this union is also estimated at 1,000.
The unions operate a union Shop. An employer can hire a new employee
from any source, but after 30 days this new employee is required to join
the union if he is to remain on the farm.

Collective Bargainipg_

 

The union is recognized as the sole collective bargaining agent
for all the dairy employees of the employer. The Master Agreement of
the Teamsters specifies nine different job classifications. These are:
(1) working foreman, (2) hospital barn men, (3) feeders and green hay
haulers, (4) milkers, (5) milkhouse employees, (6) transport drivers,
(7) regular relief men, (8) maintenance men and (9) cow washers and/or
wranglers.

A committee chosen by the dairymen negotiate the contract with
the union. One dairyman reported that he negotiated his own contract
with the union.

In establishing the labor agreement, the union prepares a proposal
on a new wage and benefit agreement and presents this to the committee
of dairy farmer representatives for negotiation. After an agreement
is reached the contract is signed. The contract period is three years.

The major issues in bargaining sessions with the union were wages,
retirement programs and insurance programs.

Effect of Unionization

 

Non-unionized employees typically received the same wages and benefits
as union members. This was mentioned by four of the six respondents.
One dairyman said that his non-union farm employees received less than

those unionized. The remaining employer had no non-union members.

183

Five employers deducted union dues from their employees' paycheck.
One farm in northern California had dues collected by the union steward
directly from the employees.

There were no problems in working under union conditions for four
of the dairymen. One dairyman said that his flexibility in hiring and
firing was taken away by the union, while one other manager did not
like any interference from the union and wanted to get rid of it.

There was disagreement among the dairymen as regards the union
supplying them with services. Three respondents said they supplied
no services at all, two said they supplied qualified milkers and one
said they supplied relief men.

Four dairymen thought that the union had helped rather than
hindered their development. Reasons given included increasing the
efficiency of dairy work, supplying qualified labor and guaranteeing
both employer and employee certain work standards, thus easing the
problems of management.

Non-Unionized Dairies

 

All the dairymen that were non-unionized, except one who employed
only family labor, had considered the fact that one day their labor could
be unionized. One of these dairymen, in California, had already got
out of the union, while two others had been exposed to union efforts to
organize their employees.

Thirteen of the dairymen that were not unionized were not really
anti-union. They said they would accept the union all right, based
on what they had heard of unionized dairies in California. They did,
however, want some guarantees as to the availability of labor, its
quality and their freedom to strike. Eleven respondents were strongly

anti-union, three said they could prevent the union coming in by giving

184
equal wages and benefits, while two said that their employees did
not want to be unionized.

The majority of non-unionized dairymen felt that unionization would
hurt their business in some way. Nine said that their cost of labor
would be increased, while ten said that the employer-employee relation-
Ship would be changed to the detriment of the company. One manager was
concerned about strikes and two were concerned about their managerial
freedom being curtailed. Six respondents thought that unionization
would not hurt their business and three said that it could actually
help their labor management. Eight said that they did not really know
what to expect from unionization.

Five reSpondents out of 23 felt that they could not prevent their
labor becoming unionized. Four said that all they could do would be to
stall it, while three said they did not know if they could or not.
Eleven others were more hopeful of preventing unionization, four by
increasing wages and benefits, four through improving employer-employee

relations and three said their men would not want the union.

DISCUSSION

 

Unionization is not widespread among agricultural workers at the
present time. Although agriculturalists do not believe that unionization
on a large scale will come into agriculture for many years, certain areas
are likely to experience an increase in union organizing activity.
Legislative action granting the right to farm workers to bargain collectively
will facilitate union drives.
The areas of agriculture most likely to be organized first are
'those with a large concentration of farm workers in the same type of
work" It is precisely for this reason that unionization of dairy workers

started in the Los Angeles milk shed in 1935. This area still has the

185

highest concentration of dairy herds and employees in all the United
States. This concentration of employees in a relatively small area and
the fact that they are in Similar type work greatly facilitates union
organizing. It is likely that the next areas to experience dairy union
activity will be Phoenix, Arizona, West Texas and Florida. Other areas
in the country do not have this high concentration of large dairy herds.
Unions are also likely to seek an increase in their bargaining unit and
to include field workers as well as dairy workers on dairy farms.

The development of a good working relationship between the dairy-
men and the union is essential for the well being of both parties. The
dairy owner or manager may well find that what he sacrifices to the
union in flexibility and freedom to hire and fire, will be more than made
up for through services provided by the union. There was some difference
between the Teamsters union and the CLA with respect to services. The
CLA appeared to be more service conscious and one of their aims was
to provide a complete employment service to its members and to the
dairy farmers. This included supplying relief milkers when needed. The
Teamsters did not make the same effort to supply relief milkers. Both
unions attempted to supply dairymen with qualified labor and to ensure
that they would meet certain standards. The fact that four of the six
unionized dairymen felt that the union had helped rather than hindered
their development Speaks well for the union service in general.

The grievance procedure used by the unions involves the use of
an adjustment board consisting of two members representing each of the
parties, with a fifth member being called in the case of a deadlock.
Grievances are only sent to the board if prior settlement is not reached
between the employer and union representative. No cessation of work or

lockout is allowed during the discussion period. The decision of the

fit;

186
board is binding to both parties.

Dairies that were not unionized, had all thought about the
possibility of eventual unionization. Although many were strongly anti-
uriican in their attitude, unionization was acceptable to as many more.

A tnaijor concern of dairy unionization was the strike. This is a vital
issue for dairy farmers whose cows have to be milked twice a day. Shut-
dcnuris are not possible as in manufacturing. With adequate provision for
the avoidance of strikes and under the guidance of a service conscious
unitari and a facilitating management, there would appear to be few reasons
why unions could not contribute to the dairy industry.

'The prevention of unionization of dairy farms is very much up to
the management. Good personnel management programs and practices are
esserrtrial to the establishment of good employer-employee relations. In
the at>ssence of competitive wage and benefit programs, and the existence
0f 90<3<i employer-employee relations dairymen are Simply asking the union

to connea in and take over this function.

CONCLLJSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
'rlwe following conclusions and recommendations are appropriate
1" IISJFIt of pending legislative action pertaining to collective bargaining
1“ agr‘i culture and the results of this study.
1 . It appears almost certain that legislative action will
recognize the right of farm workers to bargain collectively.
Whether this action will simply amend the NLRA Act of 1935
by repealing the exclusionary provision for agriculture, or
develop a new act, certain unique factors associated with
agriculture will have to be provided for.

2. ‘The most crucial issue in developing machinery to extend

187
coverage of collective bargaining legislation to agriculture
is how to deal with the strike or threat of a strike. AlthOUgh
dairymen and their unions appear to have a good working
relationship at present, this aSpect of legislation will be
vitally important to the dairy producers.
The recognition of the right of farm workers to bargain
collectively will increase the amount of union organizing
activity. Union activity for economic reasons will be largely
confined to areas of high concentration of farm workers. AS
far as dairying is concerned this will mean continued efforts
in California with possible expansion to Arizona, West Texas
and Florida. Dairying in the remainder of the country would
appear to be too dispersed and not involve sufficient con-
centration of hired employees to attract the unions attention --
initially at any rate.
Dairy farmers Should watch closely the developments of collective
bargaining legislation applied to agriculture. They should
seek interpretation of this legislation as it applies to dairies
from their dairy organizations.
To help forestall unionization dairy managers should pay
attention to their entire personnel management program to see
how they as managers can fulfill their employees' needs, rather

than have them turn to the union for help.

CHAPTER XIII
DAIRY EMPLOYEES

The discussion of personnel management would not be complete with-
out seeking the opinions of the dairy employees. The objective of all
personnel management programs is to build good morale among employees
by developing a spirit of common interest in striving for common goals.
A small-business owner has an advantage over his large-business
competitor in accomplishing this. This advantage is the physical
closeness of the owner-manager to all his employees (Small Business
Administration, 1961)]. This closeness greatly facilitates communica-
tion, which is generally recognized as the key to obtaining the desired
teamwork. The small-business employer is able to discuss things
individually with his employees; their aims, their problems, how the
company is doing financially and he can generally build up a sense of
10yalty to the company in this way.

The development of good employee relations from a management
Standpoint has been the theme of the previous ten chapters. The
Chapters on communication and motivation are especially pertinent.

In this chapter a summary of employee attitudes and opinions will be
Presented. The discussion will relate the employee's opinions of their
job and working conditions to what has already been discussed in previous

chapters pertaining to the employer.

1 . . . . .
f Small Bus1neSS Administration, 1961, Personnel Management Guides
or Small Business. Small Business Management Series No. 26, Small
USTneSS Administration, Washington, D.C., p. l. '

 

188

189

RESULTS OF THIS STUDY PERTAINING TO DAIRY EMPLOYEES

The results presented in this section pertain to questions 123
through 139. These questions, the categories of response and their
reported frequencies are Shown in Appendix B. On each farm visited
the author tried to interview a herdsman, a milker and an outside
dairy worker -- generally a feeder. These men were not available on
every farm and in some instances there were language barriers precluding

an interview. Twenty-three herdsmen were interviewed, 28 milkers and

26 outside men.

AGE, EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT

The average age of the employees interviewed varied only from
36.5 years for outside men to 38.0 years for milkers. Herdsmen had an
average of 11.2 years of education compared to 8.8 and 8.7 for milkers
and outside men respectively. The average length of employment in their

present job was 5.3 years for herdsmen, 5.2 years for milkers and 4.2

years for outside men.

THE HIRING PROCESS

Personal contact through friends or other people was the most
frequently mentioned way of finding out about the possibility of a job
on the farm for the three groups of employees. Milkers and outside men
came looking for jobs more frequently than did herdsmen. Herdsmen on
the other hand were more frequently recruited by the owner or manager.

The size of the dairy operation and the challenge it offered was
the attraction of employment for seven herdsmen. Others came because
they needed a job, more money, or better working conditions. Two

herdsmen came to gain experience. Milkers were attracted mostly by

190
better working conditions and secondly by more money. The attractions
fOr outside men varied somewhat more. Seven were attracted to the dairy
because they needed a job, five for more money, five because of the
location of the farm and four for better working conditions.

Almost half the herdsmen interviewed had been herdsmen on other
dairies before they took their present jobs. Fifteen of the 28 milkers
had previously been milkers on other farms, five had done other farm
work, others had been in teaching, construction, mechanical or other
jobs. The background of outside men was more varied. Farm work was

the most common with dairy work and industrial work following.

ADVANTAGES OF DAIRY WORK

The most frequently mentioned advantage of dairy work compared to
other employment mentioned by herdsmen was the "way of life". Next,
in order, came liking to work with cattle, steady employment and freedom
within their job. The main advantage seen by milkers was the steady
employment offered by dairy work. This was followed by the fact that
housing was generally provided, they liked country living, and thought
that they would be better off in "real" terms on a dairy than in any
other job, considering their level of education. Outside work was the
main advantage of dairy work for the outside men. This was followed by
steady employment, being better off in "real" terms, housing and
having freedom within their job.

All of the 23 herdsmen interviewed had a farm background, with 11
mentioning a dairy background Specifically. Twenty-five of the 28
milkers interviewed had a farm background, and 20 of the 26 outside

men interviewed had a farm background.

191
WORKING CONDITIONS

The dairy employees appeared to be generally happy with their
working conditions. Most commonly they described their working condi-
tions as being "good". Five herdsmen described their conditions as
"excellent". Those who said that conditions were improving or very
poor were mostly concerned about the long hours they had to work.

The relationship between employees and management was generally
classed as being "good" to "very good". Only one respondent said it
was "very poor".

All the respondents felt that their relationship with their fellow

employees was, at least, satisfactory. The majority felt that it was

"good" or "very good".

COMMUNICATIONS

Herdsmen received their instructions from the owner or manager.
The milkers and outside men received theirs from the owner, manager
or herdsman. Generally it was from the herdsman, where one was employed.

Almost all the employees felt that they were well enough informed
about their duties. One herdsman was not always sure of his exact
responsibilities and needed clarification on this from the owner.

Practically all the respondents said they had an opportunity to
communicate their ideas and problems to management. On one dairy where
the manager appeared to be very autocratic, the employees did have

some problems communicating with him, including the herdsman.

STRAIGHT VS. SPLIT SHIFT

In general, the only people on a dairy farm to work a split shift

were the milkers. There was a marked preference among milkers for a

192
straight Shift. Their main reason for not liking the split shift of
morning and night work was that they could have little time off to be
with their families or to go out for an evening. Almost all the out-
Side men worked on a straight Shift. The herdsmen worked on a straight
Shift themselves and the reason some of them preferred a split shift --
for milkers -- was that it proved to be better, in their Opinion, for

production and cow health.

WAGES AND BENEFITS

 

The majority of employees thought that their wage, incentive and
benefit program was "satisfactory" or "good". Four herdsmen considered
they were underpaid for the responsibility and work load they had. Two
milkers and three outside men thought that they were underpaid. Those
who said they needed more benefits mentioned medical, dental and
retirement programs as being essential. Sick leave was also mentioned

as being desirable.

OPINIONS ABOUT THE DAIRY

 

There was a great variety of responses to what the employees
liked most about their place of work. The majority of herdsmen men-
tioned working conditions first and this was followed by working with
cattle, the people they worked with and the boss they worked for. Milkers
also mentioned the working conditions most frequently and this was
followed, in their case, by working with cattle, nothing in particular,
no one bothering them, good all round and a steady job. The pattern
0f response was that they had nobody bothering them. This was followed by
a good all round place to work, working with cattle, the pe0p1e they

worked with and good working conditions.

193

The majority of employees interviewed planned on staying on in

their jobs in the future. Fifteen out of 23 herdsmen planned on staying

on. Four said they wanted eventaully to have their own dairies. Twenty
of the 28 milkers planned to stay and four more said they would stay for
Fourteen

a while anyhow. The outside men were not quite so certain.

out of 26 said they would like to remain on, five were not certain and

fiaur said they would leave if a better job came up.

D ISCUSSION
The average herdsman had somewhat less than a high school educa-

‘t'ion. Although the herdsmen, as would be expected, had more education

tzrian the milkers or outside men, only four had bachelor's degrees in

ciaairy or animal husbandry. This was not too surprising in light of

<:<)mments made by dairymen that they found it very difficult to get

College graduates who were willing to be working managers rather than

As a result, managers were forced to seek experienced

e xecutives .
The average length of employ-

dairymen, or train their own herdsmen.
nrteant for milkers -- at 5.2 years -- would appear much longer than
expected from previous comments made by owners or managers. This
<::a1n be explained by the fact that the very high turnover problems were
c:=0nfined to the southern regions and that the most frequently reported

tUrnover rate was 20-30 percent. Another factor influencing this figure

was the fact that some of the farms having high turnover had Chicano

55"11F310yees and many of these spoke Spanish only, thus precluding an

i 7" terview.
The large number of applicants for jobs, noted earlier on dairy

'23 ms is supported by the fact that almost a third of the milkers and

C)U‘tS‘ide men had secured their jobs by coming and looking for them. Most

194

herdsmen had been recruited or got their jobs through personal contact.
This supports management's desire to have much more information on the
background of a Supervisor compared to another man.

Working conditions were very important in attracting milkers to
The observed policy on many dairies of trying to modernize

a job.
their facilities and equipment in an effort to attract higher caliber

men would, therefore, appear to be sound reasoning. The Size of opera-

tion posed a challenge to many herdsmen and this challenge undoubtedly

helped them fulfill their needs to a certain extent and served as a

source of motivation.
While all the herdsmen and the majority of milkers had farm back-

grounds and had previously been engaged in similar work, the back-
grounds and past employment of outside men varied somewhat more. It is
much easier for an employee without a farm background to work as an

Outside man on a dairy than to learn to handle cows and be a milker.
Dairy farming as a way of life, involving country living, much out-
<:l<30r work and steady employment would appear to be a good advertise-
rr1eent, based on the attractions it held for those employees interviewed.
A11 these factors contribute to the satisfaction of the employees and
1=0r individual employees may allow them to progress further along the
COntinuum of needs towards the eventual goal of self-fullfillment.
Many employers reported that they tried to take a personal interest
i h the well-being of their employees and to keep them informed of
“V l"lat was happening on the dairy. This policy appeared to pay off as
j Udged by the fact that the majority of employees considered the employer-
EE"Tllaloyee relationship to be "good" or "very good". The employees
a 7 so felt that they were well informed of their duties and that they

t301-le communicate their ideas and problems to management. This supports

195
the view of the management in that they thought they were doing well

in getting their ideas across to the employees.
Although the split shift may be popular with owners and managers

from a production and herd health point of view -- its days appear

numbered -- at least on large dairies -- judging by its popularity

among milkers. Dairymen will need to adopt different systems of herd

management to successfully incorporate a straight shift while at the

same time maintaining production and herd health.
Employees were generally satisfied with their wage, incentive

and benefit program. Many comnented that they were doing much better

on a dairy farm, considering their education, than they could do in any

other source of employment. It was surprising that more employees did

not mention a need for more benefits, Since ten dairies did not have

any life or health insurance programs. Many employees did not appear

to have an appreciation of insurance as a means of security and pre-

Fe rred extra cash. This was observed by several employers.

Consideration of the factors that employees liked most about

their jobs Shows up the importance of good working conditions, a

I ‘1 king to work with cattle and freedom within the job. From a manage-

Irient standpoint these factors are important in attracting and keeping

The desire of most employees to remain in their jobs

9 00d employees .
It was

a"d their contentment, Speaks well for management's efforts.

rr'eritioned earlier, in Chapter IX on motivation that management was
mstly concerned with preventing dissatisfaction among employees rather
t: han really trying to motivate them. This position is still held.
A1 though the employees did appear very content, their caliber, as

nehtioned by many dairymen was low, thus making them content with

196
less than it would take to satisfy or motivate the caliber of dairy

worker needed and sought by dairymen.

CHAPTER XIV

SUMMARY

Personnel management practices on large-scale dairy operations

were studied. The overall purpose of the research was to develop

effective personnel management guidelines for these Operations.

The prevailing practices on the dairy farms were considered in

light of current theory and practice of personnel management in industrial

This approach was based on the premise of the universality

organizations .
Industry

of personnel management to all types and sizes of organizations.

was chosen as a base of reference due to the fact that it has a well

developed theory of personnel management. Until recently, agriculture

Showed little evidence of recognizing the human relations aSpect of

management.
"Large-scale" for purposes of this study was defined as herds having

Thirty-Six large scale dairies out

500 or more cows in one Operation.
The United States was

Of a total population of 399 were studied.

3 tratified into Six dairying regions, based on differences in type of
dairying carried on and on geographical location. The six strata were;

the Mid-West, Northeast and East, Southeast, South, California and North

aJ'Td Northwest. The selection of dairy farmers within these regions was

b ased upon the recomendation of Dairy Extension Specialists. The
‘2 r“iteria for selection were a willingness on the part of the dairyman
to cooperate and a reputation of having a relatively good relationship

N ‘i th his employees.
Ten functions of personnel management were identified and studied.

rhese were; manpower planning, maintaining personnel records, setting
Lap the organization structure, hiring personnel, training and develOpment,

197

198

wage and salary administration, motivation and discipline, communications,

health and safety and labor-relations.
Manpower planning was not typically an integral part of the overall

Planning in general appeared to be rather an informal

planning process.
The

process and only one dairyman produced a five year plan on paper.

cows per man approach to anticipating future labor requirements was the

inost frequently mentioned. This approach was dependent on the level of

technology being employed. Most plans were for future herd expansion

aJid the major unknowns were the market for milk, labor availability and

vvaaste disposal. The future labor outlook was considered by most dairymen

1::3 be favorable with the major problem being that of finding the right

caliber of man.
The only personnel records kept by half of the dairies visited were

'tzliose relating to payroll information. Some additional information --

littastly in the form of application blanks -- was kept by the remaining
Record keeping was regarded as a chore, found necessary to meet

I’lialf.
There was a general lack

'I eegal requirements as well as payroll needs.

<:>'f attention to the benefits to be gained from a comprehensive set of

Fileersonnel records.
Organization charts were not kept by any of the dairymen visited.

C:hairts were developed for each organization through questioning the

O\Mner or manager. Six classifications of organization structure were

‘3 dentified. Many dairies lacked an organization structure that would

3 "able them to operate more efficiently. There was an unwillingness

or. the part of management to delegate authority and to set up responsibility

centers. Nineteen dairies operated a split shift for milkers, while the

remainder used a straight shift. There was a tendency to move toward the

“'53‘3 (If a straight shift as herd size increased and facilities were

199

The milkers showed a marked preference for the straight
The average

modernized.
shift. The average Size of herd visited was 1,579 cows.

number of employees was 32 with a range of 6-115.

More attention has been paid by agriculture to the functions of
hiring and training than to any other functions of personnel management.

Word of mouth was the most frequently mentioned way of making it known

that a new employee was needed. Almost one third of the milkers and

outside men had secured their jobs by coming and looking. Most herdsmen

on the other hand were recruited. Many of them were attracted by the

challenge of large herd management. Milkers were mostly attracted by the

working conditions. The way of life on a dairy farm, working with cattle,

the steady employment offered, freedom within the job, housing and
country living, and being better off in "real" terms than in other jobs

were the things that the dairy employees liked most about their jobs.

The selection process for new employees was very informal. It

consisted mainly of a brief interview, with fewer than half of the dairies

utilizing application forms. Dairymen generally felt that they were

having good success in hiring new employees. The most frequently

mentioned turnover rate was 20-30 percent and it ranged from 0-900

percent in the previous year.
Almost all dairymen were conscious of the value of training and

Save a new man some training when he came on the job. Training was

generally done by the supervisor with the length of the training period

Varying with the man's previous experience. One farm had a Six week

training program for all new employees. Two-thirds of the dairies had
sent employees to shortcourses for retraining, mostly in breeding.
p roblems existed in getting employees to attend courses and the avail-

ab‘i ”I ity of good courses. A lack of job descriptions on dairy farms

200
hindered the development of Specialized training programs. Dairymen
felt that the Extension Service and farm supply industries Should develop
the courses. Few supervisors had any personnel management training.
Owners and managers had little exposure to personnel training. However,
they did recognize the need for it as part of the overall management
process.

Wage rates were set by union contract for the six unionized dairies
in California. Other dairies generally set their starting wage according
to the going rate in their area. Incentive programs were used by fewer
than half the dairies. Those who had incentive programs based them
mostly on milk production. Many dairies would like to use incentive
Programs, but found problems in setting up adequate controls in such
a manner'that the program would not be abused. Almost 25 percent of
the dairies had profit sharing programs -- mostly of the trust or de-
ferreci payment type. These managers were satisfied with the results
on enmaloyee morale. Many of the benefits offered by industry were
eviderrt on the dariy farms. These included; paid vacations, health
and 1i Fe insurance, retirement, sick leave and personal leave. The
breadtfli of benefits offered varied greatly among farms. Almost all
dairies supplied housing and most supplied utilities to dairy employees.
The majority of dairies furnished milk to their employees. The majority
01: employees felt that their wage program was "satisfactory" to "good".
Some mentioned the need for more benefits, mostly medical, dental and
retirenuent. Many employees felt that they were doing better in "real"
terms 0'1 a dairy than they could elsewhere.

Shcnwing an interest in employees and their welfare and helping them
take PV‘T de in their work and working conditions were the most frequently

mentioned methods of motivation used. Other methods of motivation

201
mentioned included meetings and pep talks, creating an atmosphere of
competition among employees and complimenting good performance. The
majority of employers felt that the attitude of their employees towards
the farm and their work was generally good. It would appear that
dairymen were more concerned with preventing dissatisfaction among their
employees than with motivating them. They took care of their employees'
physiological needs but security needs were not met in all cases. Due
to their social position it iS doubtful if the employees could fulfill
their need for esteem and self-reSpect. Consequently, they could not
reach their final goal of self-actualization.

Employers were generally happy with the way they were doing in
getting their ideas across or communicating with their employees. The
superior subordinate relationship was good and although the flow of
communications was generally downward with orders and directives there
was also an opportunity for upward communications. Upward communications
were evidenced by employees having an opportunity to express their ideas
and by management seeking the ideas of employees on proposed changes.
Only 25 percent of the dairymen held regular meetings of supervisors to
discuss problems and make plans. The employees considered the employer-
employee relationship to be good. Workers felt they could communicate
their ideas to management and that they were well informed about their
jobs.

Cows kicking was the most frequently mentioned cause of accidents.
This was more evident in flat barns than in parlor barns. The next
most frequently mentioned causes of accidents were slipping and handling
and treating cows. Eighty-two percent of all injuries reported over the

past year were slight; one fatality was reported. Insurance companies

202
in California helped in accident prevention through making routine
inSpectionS. Most dairymen stressed safety as a means of accident
prevention. Twenty-five percent did not have first aid kits and almost
60 percent did not have fire extinguishers. Two dairies made use of
preplacement physical examinations as part of their overall health
program. Restrooms were available on all farms and the majority had
showers. Seven dairies supplied some protective clothing for their
employees.

Six dairymen operated under a union contract -- all were located
in California. The unions operated a union-shop and acted as sole
bargaining agent for all the dairy employees of the employer. A
committee chosen by the dairymen negotiated the contract with the unions
every three years. Major issues in the bargaining sessions had been
wages, insurance programs and retirement programs. Unionized dairy-
men were generally happy with the union and felt that it had helped
rather than hindered their development. All of the non-unionized
dairymen had considered that they might one day be unionized. Almost
50 percent of these said they would accept the union based on their
knowledge of unions in California and provided some guarantees were
given -- especially with regard to strikes. Forty percent were anti-
union. The majority felt that unionization would hurt their business
either through increasing their labor costs or by changing the nature of
the employer-employee relationship.

Based on the results of this study and in light of successful
personnel management practices of the industrial sector recommendations
for the improvement of each function of personnel management on large-
scale dairy operations were made.

Although this study has focussed exclusively on the personnel

203
management process on large scale dairy Operations, there is no
reason, provided perspective is maintained, why the principles and

guidelines developed in this study Should not apply to all dairy farms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

NUMBER OF DAIRIES HAVING 500 COWS OR MORE
BY STATE AND IN THE SAMPLE

 

 

NUMBER OF DAIRIES NUMBER IN
SIAIE_ WITH 500 COWS OR MORE THE SAMPLE
ALABAMA 3 O
ARIZONA 21 2
ARKANSAS 1 0
CALIFORNIA 210 10
COLORADO 2 O
CONNECTICUT 0 O
DELAWARE ' 0 0
FLORIDA 98 6
GEORGIA 2 1
IDAHO 1 O
ILLINOIS 1 l
INDIANA O 0
IOWA 0 O
KANSAS 1 1
KENTUCKY 0 O
LOUISIANA 5 O
MAINE O O
MARYLAND 2 1
MASSACHUSETTS 2 1

211

Appendix A (continued)

STATE

MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA

NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO

OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS

UTAH

VERMONT

212

NUMBER OF DAIRIES
WITH 500 COWS OR MORE

 

00000

00000

—‘ OO

C3000

16

NUMBER IN
THE SAMPLE

 

OOOOOOO-‘OOOOOO

A

OOOOO

Appendix A (continued)

STATE

VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING

TOTAL

213

NUMBER OF DAIRIES
WITH 500 COWS OR MORE

 

CDC-(=-

399

NUMBER IN
THE SAMPLE

 

OO

36

APPENDIX B

rum-ii";

APPENDIX B

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

GENERAL QUESTIONS

 

1. Name:

2. Address:

3. Herd Size: total cows ______3 cows milking
No. of respondents_i§i__

No. of Avg. No. Of Avg. No. Of Range
Herds Total Cows Cows Milkipg, Cows Milking

 

Mid-West 6 1,038 820 400-1,500
East 6 838 684 430-1,1OO
Southeast 9 1,924 1,479 GOO-5,100
South 5 1,271 1,060 400-2,1OO
California 10 2,224 1,675 SOD-5,100

4. How long has the farm been in the dairying business?

No. of respondents 36

Less than 5 years ......................................... 1
5-10 years ................................................ 6
lO-20 years ............................................... 7
More than 20 years ........................................ 22

5. Number of parcels of land?

No. of respondents 36

Avg. Range
Mid-West 1.5 1-3
East 3.7 1-8
Southeast 2.0 1-4
South 1.4 1-3
California 1.5 1-4

214

215

Farm acreage: total acres '

No. of respondents 36

 

 

Land Owned Rented Total Range
Mid-West 1,727 781 2,508 1,400- 3,600
East 2,897 234 3,131 1,200- 9,000
Southeast 4,696 283 4,979 1,135-15,000
South 3,427 320 3,747 17-15,850
California 1,397 134 1,531 60- 3,500

Number of dairy herds
No. of respondents 10
More than one dairy operation 10

Number of young stock , no. of bulls ,
rear yourself , contract , purchase .

 

No. of respondents 36

Avg. No. % Replacements NO. Using No. Keeping

 

 

Young Stock Raised Contracts Some Stock Bulls

Mid-West 694 67 1 6

East 467 52 0 4
Southeast 1,045 59 l 9

South 707 75 1 4
California 1,125 80 O 3
Structure of organization:

Single ownership , partnership , corporation ,

other

No. of respondents 36

 

 

 

Single Owner Partnership Corporation
Mid-West 2 3 1
East 2 l 3
Southeast 1 2 6
South 1 2 2
California 3_ 4_ 3_

KO
._1
N
....I
01

216

Number of employees: total number

Total number of respondents 36

 

 

 

East &
Mid- North South- Calif-
West East East South ornia

Number of respondents

by region 6 6 9 5 10
Owner/Manager 6 6 8 5 8
Dairy Supervisor 6 12 34 15 25
Milkers & Relief 45 42 99 42 137
Pushers 2 4 7 8 2
Feeders 13 7 10 12 28
Dairy clean-up -- -- 13 4 7
Lot clean-up & manure 5 9 l 2 13
Young stock 9 7 21 5 20
Breeders 1 -- 9 -- 7
Hospital & Maternity 3 2 3 3 --
Milling l l 1 2 7
Trucking 2 -- l 3 13
General 13 -- l3 6 ---
Maintenance 1 10 19 9 15
Others 1 37 -- 2 9
Farm Supervisors 4 10 6 3 11
Farm Workers 18 46 46 9 82
Others
Office 6 8 11 5 7

Tota1 Cows Milking 4,920 4,105 13,312 5,300 16,745

Cows/Milker 109 96 134 126 122
Cows/Milker & Pusher 105 89 126 106 120
Avg. No. Per Farm 21.7 32.3 35.1 26.7 38.7
Range 6-115

Is this labor force fairly constant throughout the year?
No. of respondents 36

Labor force constant 23
Higher in cropping season 13

 

12.

13.

14.

217
Milking system used?

No. of respondents 36

0.3 Herringbone ............................................
D.4 Herringbone ............................................
0.4 On one Side ............................................
D.5 Herringbone ............................................
D.6 Herringbone ............................................
D.8 Herringbone ............................................
D.lO Herringbone ............................................
0.12 Herringbone ............................................
0.20 Herringbone ............................................
D.3 Ross-Holms .............................................
Flat barn ...................................................
Stanchion barn ..............................................

Type Of “OUSIOQ? No. of cows per unit (corral) ?
Basis of herd division. ----

No. of respondents 36

a. Open lot free stall .....................................
Environmental control free stall & slats ................
Motel system ............................................
Dry lot .................................................
Free range ..............................................

b. Less than 50/unit .......................................
50-99/unit ..............................................
lOO-l49/unit ............................................
150-199/unit ............................................
200-299/unit ............................................
300-399/unit ............................................

c. Production ..............................................
Age or Size .............................................
Age or size & production ................................
None ....................................................

Feeding system used in dairy barns?
a. grain b. roughage

NO. of respondents 36

a. In parlor only ..........................................
Parlor & outside ........................................
Parlor & feed barn ......................................
A11 outside .............................................

b. All mechanical ..........................................
All fenceline ...........................................
Combination .............................................

a d

—J
#kood-bOW—‘dN-wa

d

d

—l
U‘l—J-DOS (DWU'IkD-hm U'l—‘h-HKD

—J

10
14
4
8

9
23
1

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

218

How is your feed supplied?

a. forage: types used
grow all , buy all , combination ,
pasture

b. grain
grow all , buy all , combination ,
pasture .

c. complete feed .

No. of respondents 36

a. Grow all ................................................ 14
Purchase all ............................................ 9
Grow silage or green chop ............................... 10
Purchase hay ............................................ 11

b. Grow all ................................................ 0
Purchase all ............................................ 26
Combination ............................................. 8
Mix own ................................................. 17

c. Complete feeds .......................................... 2

Do you have any other farm enterprises besides dairy?

No. of respondents 36

No other enterprises ........................................ 24
Chicken enterprise .......................................... 1
Beef or steer operation ..................................... 9
Hog enterprise .............................................. 1
Cropping .................................................... 2

Are the various enterprises broken down separately for accounting
purposes?

No. of respondents 36

Use enterprise accounting ................................... 17
Don't use enterprise accounting .............................

If so, is the labor force separate for each enterprise?

NO. of respondents __§___

Labor force separate ........................................ 5
Do you process any of your own milk?

No. of respondents _§6__

Process own milk ............................................ 10
Do not process own milk ..................................... 26

20.

21.

22.

219

What percentage of the processed milk is your own? How is
it marketed?

No. of respondents 10

100% is own produced ........................................ 4
50% is own produced ........................................ 5
66% is own produced ........................................ 1

Apart from being a milk producer are you involved in other dairy

activities? For example: showing cattle , sale of breeding

stock , marketing organizations , breeding associations
, Board of co-ops , others

No. of respondents 36

Showing cattle ..............................................
Sale of breeding stock ......................................
Breed associations ..........................................
Marketing organizations .....................................
Board of co-ops .............................................
Others ......................................................
No activities ...............................................

Can you give me some production figures for your herd either now

or after our interview?

 

milk per cow , culling rate , calving interval
death rates: cows , calves , income per cow
price of milk , price of feed

No. of respondents

 

10

7

14
18
10
15

7

Mid- East South South Calif-

West East ornia

Lb. milk 13,825 13,382 11,834 12,822 15,851
Lb. fat --- --- --- --- 608.
Culling rate 23.3 24.4 25.9 20.7 30.
Calving interval 13.3 12.7 13.3 13.0 12.
Cow death rate 1.7 2.5 1.5 2.0 2.
Calf death rate 8.9 6.1 7.5 6.8 10.
Price of milk 6.16 7.02 7.55 6.49 6.
Price of concentrates 56.50 75.43 64.50 64.25 72.
Price of hay 25.00 --- 30.00 41.50 41.
* 8.
Price of corn Silage. *8.80 *9.90 *l0.00 *8.32 13.
8.

*Cost of production

23.

24.

25.

220

What type of work structure do you have on the farm?
Straight shift ? Split shift ? Other ?

 

NO. of respondents 36

Straight shift .............................................. 17
Split Shift....... .......... .. ..... . ........................ 19

What are the general hours worked by employees?
Milkers ? Herdsmen ? Others ? Operator

No. of respondents 36

 

 

a. Milkers
Hours/ Days Days No. Of
Day Worked Off ReSpondents
7 3O 5 l
8 6 l 7
8 10 2 l
9 4 1 2
9 6 l 14
10 5 2 l
10 6 l 9
Varies 6 l 1
b. Outside men
8 6 1 2
9 6 l 13
10 5 1/2 1 1/2 l
10 6 1 18
11 6 1/2 1/2 1
12 6 1 1
How is relief milking handled?
No. of respondents 36
Set relief men..... ......................................... 24
Supervisor relieves...... ................................... 4
Outside man relieves ..... . ......................... . ........ 3
College shift on weekends ................................... 1
Family relieve .............................................. 4

221
26. Can you help me to picture the overall structure of the farm as
far as people are concerned. For example: Who reports directly
to you. Discuss.

No. Of respondents 36 (See charts on page 66.)

Type I ...................................................... 5
Type II ..................................................... 1
Type III .................................................... 10
Type IV ..................................................... 13
Type V ...................................................... 6
Type VI ..................................................... l

27. Who is responsible for labor management on the farm?
Manager ? Other ?

No. of respondents 36

Owner/manager ............................................... 22
Manager(s) ........... . ...................................... l6
Supervisors for their men ................................... 8

MANPOWER PLANNING

 

28. Do you intend to expand your operation or to make any major changes
within the next year?

Yes 14
No 22

Herd expansion ..............................................
Calf or heifer raising ......................................
Structural ..................................................
Facilities ..................................................

NWND

Within five years?

Yes 18
No 0

_1_
Perhaps 8

Herd expansion. ............................................. 1
Out of dairying .............................................
Change facilities .................................. . ........
Not sure.......... ..........................................
Move to other area ............................... . ..........

NOONNC‘

29.

30.

31.

222

What types of information do you find most useful in planning for
these changes?

Financial ...................................................
Costs .......................................................
Market for milk .............................................
Labor availability ..........................................
Labor efficiency ............................................
New technology ..............................................
Cattle availability .........................................
Location ....................................................
General. ....................................................

O‘NNGUWNONC‘O‘

What do you consider to be the major unknowns as far as planning
is concerned?

None ........................................................
Financial ...................................................
C05 125 .......................................................
Market for milk ............................................. 1
Labor availability ..........................................
Labor efficiency ............................................
New technology ..............................................
Location ....................................................
Feed Supply .................................................
Management availability .....................................
Manure disposal .............................................
Cow problems ................................................
Cow production ..............................................

awmwwwamOAN—a

In anticipating your future labor requirements, what guidelines
do you use to determine the number of men you will need?

No. of respondents 34

Cows per man ................................................ 1
Cows per man & milk per man .................................
Cows per man & technology ...................................
Milk per man ............ . ........... . .......................
Experience ............................. . ....................
Hours of work per man per day ...............................
Union contract.. ............................................
No set guidelines ...........................................

w—Iwmmoioo-n-

223

 

32. Do you have any set procedure for preparing for the event of one
of your present force leaving (quit, die, fired)?
No. of respondents 36
Carry extra men on farm ..................................... 8
Outside dairy hand fills in ................................. 6
Relief man fills in ......................................... 3
Supervisor fills in ......................................... 13
People waiting in training .................................. 2
Call union for service ...................................... 1
No set procedure ............................................ 3
33. Do you normally do all the planning yourself or can you delegate
some of it to others? To whom ?
No. of respondents 36
Conference of owners ........................................ 6
Conference of owners & managers ............................. 6
Owner does all .............................................. 13
Manager does all ............................................ 4
Manager works by policy set ................................. 2
Can delegate some ........................................... 5
RECORDS
34. What kinds of records do you keep on your workers?
No. of respondents 36
Payroll information only.. .................................. 18
Payroll & other records ..................................... 18
Application forms ........................................... 14
Selection test results ...................................... 1
References .................................................. 2
Absenteeism ................................................. 3
Sick leave .................................................. 4
Accidents ................. ..... ........... . ................ 2
Health (physical) ..................................... . ..... 2
Grievances .................. . ............................... 1
Performance review ............................ - .............. 1
General comments ............................................ 3
35. What influences the type of records you keep?
No. of respondents 36
Legal requirements .......................................... 34
Payroll needs..... .......................................... 34
Performance review .......................................... 3
Size of firm ................................................ 1

Not sure .................................................... 2

36.

37.

38.

39.

224

Are these records kept separate from your payroll records?
No. of respondents 36

Application file ............................................
Individual files ............................................
Not separate ................................................
What is your main use of these records?

No. of respondents 36

Wage and salary pruposes ....................................
Performance appraisal .......................................
Wage increases ..............................................
Personal reference ..........................................
Keeping track ...............................................
DO you have a timeclock for your workers?

No. of respondents 36

Have a time clock ...........................................
No time clock ...............................................

Who keeps the farm records?

No. of respondents _§§__

a. Herd records
Manager .................................................
Herdsman.. ..............................................

Secretary ...............................................

b. Business records

Manager... ..............................................
Wife ....................................................
Secretary.. ........... . .................................
Farm business office ........................ ..... .......
Outside business office .................................

Accountant employed .....................................

12
4
20

3

d—‘NNO‘A

13
23

12
16
8

OKD-bVN-b

1

225

HIRING

 

40.

41.

42.

43.

How do you make it known that you are looking for a new employee?
Advertising, where, personal contact.

No. of respondents 35

Through word of mouth ....................................... 14
Advertising ................................................. 8
Calling farm labor office ................................... 3
Calling union ............................................... 4
Always applicants waiting ................................... 10
Personal contact ............................................ 9

Where do you usually get new employees from?
Inside, present employees, competitors, applicants, employment
offices, unions, schools, migrant workers, others.

No. of respondents 35

Through applicants .......................................... 25
Through union ............................................... 3
Through labor office ........................................ 2
Through present employees ................................... 14
Sponsoring foreign imigrants ................................ 2
Personal contact with individuals ........................... 6

IS there any particular source you find more satisfactory than
others? If so, why?

No. of respondents 35

No particular source.. ...................................... 2
Europeans.. ....... . .........................................
Mexicans... ............... . .................................
Ex-small farmers ............................................
People from other dairies ...................................
City people ..... . ..... . ............................... . .....

#43de

What procedure does an employee go through when being hired?
Application blanks, interviews, physical.

No. of respondents 35
Fills out application form .................................. 14

Interviewed ................................................. 35
Gets physical examination ................................... 2

44.

45.

46.

226

How do you size up a prospective employee?
Qualities, references, background, education, experience, age,
marital status.

No. of respondents 35

Use of references ........................................... 14
General appearance important ................................ 22
Ask about work history ...................................... 17
Prefer farm background ...................................... 6
Require some education ...................................... 2
Education not important ..................................... 3
Experience required ......................................... 14
Experience not necessary .................................... 8
Prefer young men (30) ....................................... 8
Age not important ........................................... 11
Prefer married men .......................................... 19
Ask about drinking habits ................................... 6
Look for willingness to work ................................ 12
Look for ability to get along with others ................... 3
No sizing up process -- takes all ........................... 1

Do you give him tests of any sort?
What tests? How given? Probation period?

No. of respondents 35

Give written test to milkers ................................ 1
Put man milking to see if he can ............................ 4
No tests given .............................................. 30

What differences would there be in recruiting a supervisor as
compared to another employee?
Background, education, experience.

No. of respondents 35

More experience required ..................................... 19
More education required. ..................................... 11
Needs ability to think in situations ......................... 2
Needs ability to handle people ........... . ................... 10
Need good details of his background ..... . .................... lO
Needs good knowledge of his job .................... . ....... .. 8
Try to move men up through ranks ............................. 7

No experience in this area ................................... 8

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

227

What kind of success do you think you are having in hiring new
employees?

No. of respondents 35

Very good ...................................................
Good ........................................................ 1
Fairly good ................................................. 1
Good with high unemployment .................................
Getting harder ....... . ......................................
Not satisfied ...............................................

b—‘w-d-P'N

In the past year can you tell me how many new employees you
hired? How many left?

No. of respondents 33

Zero percent turnover .......................................
4-9 percent turnover ........................................
10-19 percent turnover ......................................
20-30 percent turnover ...................................... 1
31-50 percent turnover ...... . ...............................
120 percent turnover ........................................
900 percent turnover ........................ . ......... . .....

d-JmN-hOS-h

What are the major problems you face in hiring new men?
Moving family.

No. of respondents 29

Getting men who are willing to work ......................... 1
Finding dependable men ......................................
Men don't like split Shift ..................................
Men get bored in flat barn.... ....... ... ....................
Getting a true analysis of a man ............................
Personal problems (housing, drinking, financial) ............
The transient nature of milkers .............................
Affording wages. ............................................

Nwww-H-HU'IV

Having decided to hire a new man, do you draw up any kind of
contract with him?

No. of respondents 36

Only verbal agreements ...................................... 30
Contract with union ......... ..... ........................... 6

What procedure do you go through in drawing up a contract?
Not applicable.

What are the general terms of agreement in the contract? Can you
give me a sample contract?

Not applicable.

_ cmwi.

228

53. What iS the usual length of the contract period?
Not applicable.
54. When you get a new employee, how is he informed of his duties?
Job descriptions, job Specifications, job profile.
No. of respondents 35
Verbally by manager or supervisor ........................... 35
Through training period.... ................................. 4
Use job descriptions ........................................ 2
Use employee booklet ........................................ 1
55. How do you determine whether or not an employee fully understands
his job duties, etc.
No. of respondents 36
By observing him working .................................... 36
56. How is a new employee introduced to his fellow workers?
Individually, at meeting and by whom?
No. of respondents 34
Individually by manager or supervisor.. ........... . ....... .. 26
Left on his own to do this........... ....................... 6
Introduced at an informal meeting ........................... 2
TRAINING
57. When you hire a new worker, does he need to be given any Special

training, if so how does he get it?

Yes 32

How: a. 17 Supervisor sees to it personally
b. 6 Starts at lower job, gradually moves up
c. 8 Works with experienced man
d. 1 Works with man who is leaving

No 4

Why: a. 4 Experience required

ruiAua'.‘.-.fl- m :Msj
O .
I u

58.

59.

60.

61.

229

IS a new employee on probation for a particular period of time?

How long?
Yes 28

Time:

No 9

 

(DQOU'Q

4 1 week or less

9 2 weeks - 1 month

2 1 month - 3 months
13 No set time

1 Always on probation

Do any of your supervisors receive retraining while they are on
the job, e.g. through shortcourses or Special seminars?

Yes 24

 

Farms

.4
d-bNCDN—mew

No 12

People

8

18

dO-DIONCDKO

Method

 

Special milking school

Special breeding schools

Dairy comprehensive shortcourses
Management for supervisors

Vet keeps men up to date

Hold own short courses

Equipment schools

Movies on milking & herd health
Feeding

Would you like to see your employees receive more on-the-job
or in-service training?

Yes 30
What form: a. 7 Milking

b. 21 General dairy

c. 2 To work with Spanish
No 5

 

Doesn't care 1

Who do you think Should perform this function?

Universities .............................................. 4
Extension Service ......................................... 11
Manufacturers ............................................. 10
V0. Ag. Schools ........................................... 1
U.S. Labor Department ..................................... 1
Management on farm. ....................................... 4
Veterinarian .............................................. 1
Not sure ........................................... . ...... 9

230

62. Have any of your supervisors received training in personnel
management? How?

Yes 5

 

No. of people 12
Source: a. 3 Extension shortcourses

b. 2 During agriculture degree
c. 1 Business courses

No 31

 

63. Have you, as a manager, ever received any formal training in
personnel management? Where?

 

Yes 18

Source: a. 3 Business administration degree
b. 7 Agriculture and other degrees
c. 3 Army
d. 2 Outside business experience
e. 5 Extension shortcourses
f. 2 Seminars

No 18

WAGES

#_

64. How do you decide what starting wage to pay a worker?
No. of respondents 35

Union sets rates ..........................................
Competition in area ....................................... 1
In line with other dairies ................................
Better than other dairies.. ...............................
$20-25/ month less than regular ...........................
Minimum wage ....................... . ......................

(DN—‘CDOCi

65. Do you operate any kind of incentive program? Please explain.
Bonus on production or other?

No. of respondents 36

a. Incentive programs

Based on production ................................... 9
Based on bacterial count .............................. 2
Based on cows milked .................................. 2
Based on time worked .................................. 2
None.... .............................................. 21

66.

67.

231

b. Bonus

Yearly ......... . .......................................
Periodic ...............................................
None ............. . .....................................

DO any of your employees participate in a profit-Sharing program?

No. of respondents 36

Yes ........................................................
No .........................................................

What fringe benefits do the workers receive?

Get a listing of these: vacations and system, insurance - Workman's
compensation, life, health, housing-utilities, maintenance, personal

leave.

No. of respondents 36

a. Vacations
Scale program... ...................................... .
1 week paid per year ...................................
2 weeks paid per year ..................................
No policy - employees ask ..............................

b. Insurance

Social security ........................................
Workman's compensation.. ....... . .......................
Liability insurance. ................. ... ....... .......
HOSpitalization and major medical insurance ...........
Life and hospitalization and major medical insurance.

Above and dental and vision... .........................
Retirement programs ....................................

c. Housing

Housing and utilities and maintenance ..................
Above for supervisors only .............................
Housing and maintenance - not utilities ................
Bunk houses and cookhouse........ ......................
No housing ................... . .........................

d. Personal leave
Set program ............................................

Can make up ............................................
Deducted ...............................................

12
1
23

8
28

21
6
4
5

36
30
7
8
11
7
7

21
2
7
2
4

1
17
18

68.

69.

232
e. Sick leave
Set program ...........................................
Program for supervisors only ..........................
Pay for Sick days .....................................
Deducted ..............................................
f. Milk

Supply milk free ......................................
Don't supply milk .....................................

9. Meat
Meat at half price ....................................
Some meat only ........................................
Meat for supervisors only .............................
Don't supply meat .....................................
h. Loans

Do loan money to employees ............................
Don't loan money to employees .........................

i. Transport

Supervisors have pick-ups .............................
Can use pick-up if in need ............................

j. Work uniforms supplied

Supply this service for employees .....................
How do you determine what benefits to provide?
No. of respondents 32
Looking at accepted practices on other dairies ............
Keeping up with industrial competition ....................
Union bargains on behalf of the workers ...................
Looking at workers' needs .................................

How are the employees paid?

1
12

2
21

23
13

22
2

“GOV

1

By time, salary, how is pay check received, itemized deductions.

No. of respondents 36

a. System
All workers are salaried ..............................
Supervisors salaried - others hourly ..... . ............
Dairy workers salaried - outside men hourly ...........
All workers are hourly. ........... . ...................

All workers paid by the day ...........................

2

WNNVN

70.

71.

72.

233

b. Frequency of payment

Monthly ................................................. l
Bi-monthly .............................................. 20
Weekly .................................................. 15
c. Show itemized deductions ................................ 36

How is overtime handled?
Extra money - rate, or time off - holidays

No. of respondents 34

Paid regular hourly rate .................................... 19
Paid time and a half ........................................ 4
Trades hours with other men ................................. 1
No overtime ................................................. 10

How do you decide on wage increases?
Merit, tenure, union, other.

No. of respondents 36

Union negotiates increase ................................... 6
Annual cost of living increase .............................. 9
Merit .............................................. . ........ 25
Tenure ...................................................... 8
Competition in labor market ................................. 5
Profits ..................................................... 1

Could you Show me, either now, or after our interview an example
of the amount and make up of a wage and fringe benefit package of:
a. Herdsman

b. Milker

c. Outside man, eg. a feeder

No. of respondents 36

 

 

Herdsman Milker Outside Man
Mid-West $ 705 $427 $414*
East $ 700 $570 $361*
Southeast $ 694 $478 $338
South $ 680 $510 $340
California $1,127 $661 $484
$924* $658

*Housing not provided.

234
MOTIVATION

 

73. What are your experiences in the area of motivating employees and
are there any other ways that you find useful in motivating your
workers, besides the wages and benefits we discussed?

No. of respondents 32

Showing interest in employees and their welfare .......... ... 9
Helping them to take pride in their work and

working conditions... ....... ....... ..... . ................. 12
Using meetings and pep talks ...................... . ......... 7
Instilling atmosphere of competition ............ . ........... 4
Complimenting good performance ........................... ... 6
Using incentive wages ...... . ........... ......... ............ 8

74. What sort of attitude do you feel the workers have towards the

farm? Commitment, a place to work, what of their future.
No. of reSpondentS 35
Do have some commitment.... ........... ......... ............. 7
Good attitude in general ............ ... ..................... 22
Some are committed but for most it is just a job ............ 5
Most could not care less ............... . .................... 1

75. Can you tell me the average length of employment of your workers?

No. of respondents 30

One year or less ...... ..... ....................... ..... ..... 3
2 years........ ............. . ..... ..... ................ ..... 4
3-4 years.......... ............... . ................... . ..... 10
5-7 years ................ . .................................. 11
8-15 years.. ................. . ...... ........... ..... ........ 2

76. Do you feel that the worker's family has an influence on his
performance? Discuss this. What company does for families.

No. of respondents 35

Family has influence on performance.. ....... ... ............. 34
Provides good housing........................... .. ......... 6
Picnics, parties, barbeque.. ................ . ............... 11
Other activities ............ . ............ . ........ . ......... 3

77. Do you feel that it is important that the employees be kept informed
as to the long run objectives of the business and its recent
success and failures?

No. of respondents 36
Employees Should be kept informed................ ...........

29
No need to inform employees...... ..... . ..................... 3
Only some key men should be informed.... .................... 4

78.

79.

80.

235

If an employee wants to be transferred from one job to another,
what procedure does he go through?

No. of respondents 35

Transfers facilitated where there is an opening and

man is qualified .......................................... 2
Transfers are discouraged ...................................
Transfers are not allowed ...................................
No experience in this area ..................................

(JONCDN

How does a worker get promoted?
No. of respondents 34

Very little room for promotions .............................
Not applicable ......... . ....................................

If vacancy occurs and man has ability ....................... 23
2

Do all workers have the opportunity to get promoted?

No. of respondents gy;_

Yes ........... . ........................... . ......... . ....... 23
No ................... . .............................. . ....... 13

DISCIPLINE

 

81.

82.

What do you do with an employee who persistently arrives late for
work or breaks other rules? Discuss discipline in general. What
influences disciplinary action? Who has the authority? What
policies? Union rules?

No. of respondents 36

Give 1-2 warnings then dismiss... ................. . ......... 14
Give 3-4 warnings then dismiss .................. ..... ....... 8
Talk over problem with man to try and solve it --

if continues then dismiss ........ ... ..... . ................ 12
Deducts pay for 1ateness.... ....... ......... ....... . ........ 2

Is absenteeism a problem? How do you handle this? Do you have
any figures on this?

NO. of reSpondents 36

Absenteeism not a problem ......................... . ......... 31
Absenteeism is a problem. ........................... . ....... 5

236

 

83. How do you handle internal disputes among workers?
No. of respondents 34
Get both men together and discuss -- act as arbitrator ...... 13
Speak to men individually first -- then together if
necessary ................................................. 11
Let men settle it themselves ................................ 5
No experience in this ....................................... 5
84. If a man decides to leave on his own accord, do you find out
his reasons why? How?
No. of respondents 35
Find out why a man is leaving ............................... 33
Do not find out why leaving.. ............................... 1
No experience ............................................... 1
85. Who has the authority to fire a worker, and how is this handled?
Notice given? Verbal or written? Union procedure? Service pay?
No. of respondents 36
Owner or manager only ....................................... 21
Supervisor has authority .................................... 15
COMMUNICATIONS
86. What ways do you find best for coordinating the efforts of all
workers? Personal contact? Meetings?
No. of respondents 36
Personal contact daily ...................................... 36
Bulletin board ........................................ . ..... 9
Weekly meeting of supervisors ...... . ........................ 6
Monthly meeting of supervisors .............................. 3
Occasional meetings ......................................... 6
87. Do you find that you can delegate responsibility to the

supervisors or workers? What problems are involved?
No. of respondents 34
Can delegate responsibility to all men ...................... 14

Can delegate responsibility to supervisors .................. 15
Can delegate responsibility to some men only ................ 5

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

237

Does each employee know exactly who his boss is and who to take
orders from?

No. of respondents 35

Yes ......................................................... 33
Employees not sure ................................. . ........ 2

Do you always use the chain of command in giving orders?
No. of respondents 35

Always use chain of command.. ............................... 26
No real chain of command exists ............................. 9

How do the workers receive their daily work assignments?
No. of respondents 35

Dairy work is routine ....................................... 35
Others get instructions from Supervisor or manager .......... 32

Have you had any good ideas for changes come from your workers?
How did this work? Suggestion systems?

No. of respondents 33

Have had good ideas come from employees ..................... 31
Have not had any ideas from employees ....................... 2

(None had suggestion systems.)
00 you feel that the workers can be helpful in planning changes?

No. of respondents 33

Employees can be helpful .................................... 22
Some employees are helpful ............................ . ..... 5
Helpful to a point..... ............. . ....................... 1
Not really helpful .......... . ................. . ............. 5

How do you feel you are doing in getting your ideas across to the
workers? Barriers to communication or problems?

NO. of respondents 32

Excellent ................................................... 1
Good ........................................................ 12
All right ................................................... 17

Not too good..... ........................................... 2

 

94.

95.

96.

238

How do you decide on how well an employee is doing? Evaluation
process? Formal or informal, continual or periodic?

No. of respondents 33

By continually observing quality of work .................... 31
Dependability ............................................... 7
Attitude towards work ....................................... 6
Use production records ...................................... 12

Do you tell him how you think he is doing and discuss the matter?

No. of respondents 33

Discuss positive and negative aSpects of man's work --------- 23
Only tells man when improvements are necessary-.... --------- 5
Compliments man on job well done ............................ 1
Cannot praise a man too much ................................ 2
Very little discussion on this .............................. 2

If an employee is having problems with his work or seems dis-
satisfied in some way, to whom does he bring these problems for
discussion? How about personal problems?

No. of respondents 32

Discusses work problems with owner or manager ............... 12
Discusses work problems with supervisor first ............... l3
Discusses work problems with fellow workers first.. ......... 7
Tries to help with personal problems. ....... . ............... lO
Tries to avoid personal problems ............................ 22

HEALTH AND SAFETY

 

97.

What jobs on your farm are the most frequent causes of accidents?
Why do you think this is so?

No. of respondents 35

Have had no accidents in past year ..........................
No jobs in particular... ....................................
Slipping ....... . ................................... . ........ 1
Cows kicking ................................................ 2
Handling and treating cows.... ..............................
Handling feed.... ....... . ...................................
Farm machinery... ...........................................

\JNCDw-J-DN

239

98. In the past year can you tell me how many accidents have been
reported? Type? Severity?

No. of respondents 34

a. Type
Crushed .......... ... ......... . ............. . ....... ..... l
Fracture.......... ....... . ....... . ...................... 14
Bad sprain ..... ... ..... . ............. ..... .............. 17
Bad bruising ..... . ...................................... 7
Bad cuts ................................................ 9
Burn.. ....................................... ... ........ 1
Minor cuts, sprains, bruises ............................ 237

b. Severity
Fatal.... ............. . ................................. 1
Permanent .......... . .................................... 0
Severe .................................................. 48
S]ighto b ....... 0 000000000 O O O O O 00000000000000000 .0 O 0 O O O O O 237

99. Have you been able to do anything or are you planning to make
any changes in an effort to cut down on these accidents?
Examine equipment? Safety talks? Posters?

No. of respondents 30

Not doing anything ........................................
Visits from insurance company and safety inSpector ..........
Stress safety all the time.... ..... . ..... . ..................
Use posters from insurance company.. ................. . ......
Show films on safety ........................................
Give safety talks.. .........................................
Eliminate kicking cows..... .................................
Installed non-slip floors..... ............... . ......... .....

_.:
NMN—‘O‘U‘le

100. What steps do you take to ensure the continual good health of your
employees?
Good facilities? Washrooms? Clothing? Eating Facilities?
First aid kits? Physical examinations? Insurance benefits already
covered.

No. of respondents 36

RestroomS.... ................... . ........................... 36
Locker rooms. ....... . ..... ..... ............................. 11
Lunch room....... .................. . ...... . ................. 8
Workers' lounge. ....... ... ............... . ......... . ........ 5
Supply clothing ..... ..... ................................... 7
First aid kits ........ . ..................................... 27
Fire extinguishers... ....... . ............................... 15
Physical exams..... ........... . ............... . ............. 2
Health insurance ...... ..... ....... . ..................... .... 26

Vending machines ............ . ................. . ............. 10

240

101. Do you hire older men and is there a place for them in your
organization?

No. of respondents 34

Do not hire ................................................. 3
Not over 40-50 years ........................................ 2
Yes -- provided he can do the job ........................... 12
For certain jobs only ....................................... 10
Prefer older men as milkers ................................. 4

LABOR RELATIONS

 

102. Is any of your labor unionized? If not, is there any unionizing
activity? What is happening?

 

No. of respondents 36

Dairy labor is unionized .................................... 6
Some union activity. ............. . .......................... 2
No unionization ............................................. 28

103. How did this union drive start? When and why?
No. of respondents 6
1935 in Los Angeles County .................... . ............. 5

104. What type of shop does the union run? Maintenance of membership,
agency shop, union shop, closed shop?

Union shop
105. What is the bargaining unit established?

All dairy workers on the farm.
Details in contract.

106. Who negotiates on your behalf with the union?
No. of respondents 6

Committee of dairymen..... .................................. 5
Negotiates contract himself ................................. l

107. What in the bargaining process is establishing the labor agreement?

Unions present proposal to dairymen

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

113.

241

What have become the major issues in bargaining sessions?
Wages? Incentives? Benefits? Working conditions?

No. of respondents 6

Wages .......................................................
Insurance ...................................................
Retirement ............. . ....................................

Do non-union farm workers receive the same as union members?

No. of respondents 6

Non-union workers receive same as union .....................
Non-union receive less than union... ........................
No non-union workers ........... . ............................

How are union dues collected?
Payroll deduction? Other?

No. of respondents 6

Payroll deduction ...........................................
Directly from men. ........... . ....... ... ..... ... ............

Do you find it difficult to work under union conditions?

No. of respondents 6

No problem working with union ...............................
Some problems working with union .............. . ........... ..
Does not like union... ....................... . ..............
Does the union provide you with any services? What?

No. of respondents 6

Supply qualified milkers ......................... . ....... ...

Supply relief milkers.. .....................................
Supply no services... .......................................

Do you feel that the union has helped or hindered your develop-

ment? Why?
No. of respondents 6
Has hindered development ....................................

Has helped development ................ . .....................
Does not know....... ........................................

#0001

_|—.I.p

—l

—l

—l

—l.>—l

242

WHERE THERE IS NO UNION

 

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

Have you considered the fact that one day your labor may be
unionized?

No. of respondents 29
Have considered the fact ....................................
What are your reactions to this?

No. of respondents 29

Would accept union all right... ....... . .....................
Men do not want the union ...... . ...........................
Can prevent unions by increasing wages and benefits .........
Very much against the unions ................................

Do you think this will hurt your business? Why or why not?
No. of respondents 29

Will help in labor management ...............................
Will not really hurt... ............ . ..... ..... ............
Will hurt through increasing costs.... .....................
Will hurt through changing employer-employee relations ......
Will hurt if strikes are allowed.... ........................
Takes freedom away from manager .............................
Does not know ...............................................

How do you think you could prevent your labor from becoming
unionized?

No. of respondents 29

Through increasing wages and benefits .......................
Through better employer-employee relations ..................
Could only stall unionization ...............................
Employees don't want the union ..............................
Could not stop unionization.... .............................
Do not know ........................................ . ........

What is your general outlook on the labor Situation on dairy
farms over the next few years?

No. of respondents 34

Good availability ..........................................
Good while unemployment is high .............................
About the same ..............................................
Poor ........................................................

29

...;
mN—‘OKOCSOO

compo-bac-

1

CiVN-fi

243

119. What do you feel is your biggest problem with labor?
No. of respondents 33

Finding right caliber .......................................
Motivation ..................................................
Being able to pay wages .....................................
Communications ....................... ....... ................
Personal problems off the job.. ............... . .............
Personality conflicts .......................................
Turnover ....................................................
Shortage ....................................................
No problems ..... . ............... . ...........................

hN—‘N-waNm

120. Have you made any changes recently which you feel have helped
alleviate some of these problems?

No. of respondents 22

Better communications .......................................
Training sessions ...........................................
Regrouping men ..............................................
Change to split Shift .......................................
More time off ..................... . ..................... ....
Pay more ....................................................
Bonus plan .................................... . .............
Improved housing ............................................
Better selection..... .......................................
Job rotation ...... . .........................................
Updating equipment............. ............... . .............
Giving more responsibility ..................................
Using women milkers..... ....................................
No changes.... ............... . ......................... .....

121. As far as improving labor management on dairy farms, are there any
particular areas you feel need additional research?

No. of respondents 29

Labor needs additional training ............................. lO
Improving image of dairying .................. . .............. 3
Labor efficiency ..... .... ......... .... ...................... 5
Split vs. straight shift.......... ......... .......... ....... 1
Housing and wages ..... . ........... ... ............. ..... ..... 1
All areas.. ................................................. 1
Can't think.. ....... . ....................... . ............... 3
No .......................................................... l

244

122. Which of the following sources of information do you find most
effective in helping you to handle labor? Please rank them.

 

 

 

 

 

% Time Index
Ranked No. 1 Index Base 100
Radio and T.V. O 45 20.8
Meetings l4 135 62.5
Individual consultation 49 l82 84.3
University bulletins 3 107 49.5
Farm magazines l4 139 64.4
Industry 20 l3l 60.6
DAIRY EMPLOYEES
123. Position:
Age :
Education:
Length of employment:
Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 2§_ 2§_ g§_
Average age 36.8 38.0 36.5
Average years education ll.2 8.8 8.7
Average length of employment 5.3 5.2 4.2
124. How did you find out about the possibility of employment on this
farm?
Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 2§_ 2§_ 2§_
Came looking 5 9 9
Personal contact l0 l4 l4
Recruited 6 2 0
Labor office 1 O 1
Union 0 l 0
Advertisement l 2 2

 

 

 

 

 

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125.

126.

127.

245

What was the attraction in coming to work on this particular farm?

No. of respondents

Needed a job
More money

Better working conditions
The size of operation

The herd

The herdsman
Housing supplied
Union security
Location

Outdoor work

To gain experience

Nothing in particular

Herdsmen

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What type of work did you do before you came here?

No. of respondents

Herdsman

Milker

General dairy work
Farm work
Industrial work
Truck driving
Teaching
Construction work
Mechanical work
Other

Herdsmen

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Milkers

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Outside Men

 

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Outside Men

 

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What advantages do you see in this type of work, relative to

other jobs that are available?

No. of respondents

Steady employment
Way of life

Likes cattle
Country living
Outside work
Better off
Housing

Good hours
Freedom

Easy job

None in particular

Herdsmen

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Milkers

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Outside Men

 

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246

128. Do you have a farm background? What type?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men

No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_

Yes 23 25 20
Dairy ll 8 O
Crops 2 O O

No 0 3 6

129. What is your feeling concerning your working conditions here?

 

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Excellent 5 O 0
Very good 5 5 5
Good 9 l7 13
Satisfactory 2 5 6
Improving 2 l 1
Very poor 0 O l

l30. How would you rate the relationship between the workers and

management?

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Very good lO 9 5
Good 9 15 17
Satisfactory 2 4 3
Improving l O O
Varies greatly l O 0
Poor 0 O l

l3l. How would you rate the relationship between you and your fellow

 

workers?

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ gg_ g§_
Very good 8 7 4
Good l5 l8 2l

Satisfactory O 3 l

247

l32. From whom do you receive instructions about your job?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Owner lO 10 ll
Manager l3 3 3
Herdsman 0 l5 l2

l33. Do you feel well enough informed about your duties?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Yes 22 27 26
Generally O l 0
Not always l O O

134. If not, how do you think this could be improved?

135. Do you have an opportunity to communicate your ideas or problems
to management?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Yes 22 26 25
Not really 0 l 1
Some problems l l O

l36. What is your feeling concerning the present work structure of shifts?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 2§_ 26_
Likes straight shift 8 l3 2l
Would prefer straight shift 4 l 0
Never worked straight shift 1 O 0
Does not like split shift 2 8 3
Split shift is all right 1 3 0
Likes split shift 7 3 2

248

137. What is your feeling concerning the present wage, incentive and
benefit program?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 28_ 26_
Excellent 1 O 0
Very good 0 l l
Good ll 16 12
Satisfied 7 9 l0
Underpaid 4 2 3
Need more benefits 0 2 3

138. What do you like most about this place?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 28_ 26_
The people 4 O 4
Good boss 3 2 2
Working with cattle 7 5 5
Good working conditions 14 8 4
Steady job 0 3 0
Good housing 1 l 1
No one bothers him 0 4 l0
Good all around 2 4 6
Nothing in particular l 5 l

l39. What are your long term views about working here?

 

Herdsmen Milkers Outside Men
No. of respondents 23_ 28_ 26_
Plans to stay on l5 21 14
Like to be promoted O l 0
Will stay a while 1 4 l
Will leave for better job 0 O 4
Won't stay too long 0 2 0
Looking for new job l O 0
Plans to set up own dairy 4 O 2
Not certain 2 O 5

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