JMW!IlflIfllWflTWMW LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY NEEDS: PARADIGM FOR PROGRAM POLICY FORMULATION presented by CYRUS TEHRANI has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. . Mass Media —degree in __ Major professor Date February 26, 1987 "(II-‘- Afl—m A I F‘ I A - I . - 0.12771 MSU LIBRARIES BEIQRNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. -M ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY NEEDS: A PARADIGM FOR PROGRAM POLICY FORMULATION BY Cyrus Tehrani A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michgian State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Mass Media Ph.D. Program College of Communication Arts & Sciences 1987 ABSTRACT ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY NEEDS: A PARADIGM FOR PROGRAM POLICY FORMULATION BY Cyrus Tehrani This is a study of the needs and interests of the public and community leaders (elite) in the City of Kerman, Iran modeled after the United States Federal Communications Commission's ascertainment of community needs procedure. The object was to determine the productivity of such a procedure for use in broadcasting programming in a country where the government controls broadcasting and the broadcasters could be somewhat "removed" from audience and community leader opinions and needs. A sample of the general public and a group of community leaders in Kerman were asked to prioritize Cyrus Tehrani basic community needs and programming preferences. The management personnel for the Kerman broadcasting service also responded to the questionnaire. If the broadcasters were to differ significantly from either of the two other groups it would be good evidence that they were either not aware of needs and interests or were not responding to them. The results indicated that the elite have a tendency to be closer to the public and the local needs and share with the public in areas of local concern while the broadcasters differ on many issues with both the elite and the public. The needs assessment technique employed in this study, with some modifications, could be very useful to broadcasters in helping them in program planning and establishing a dialogue between the people and the polity. More generally the procedure can be used to help define the role and the mission of the mass media as a social institution in a developing society. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Thomas Baldwin for his guidance and insights. I would also like to acknowledge the constructive contribution and cooperative spirit rendered to me by Dr. Martin Block, Dr. Thomas Muth, and Dr. Stanley Stark, the members of my Doctoral Committee. My sincere thanks are due also to Mrs. Anne Cauley for her patience in editing the manuscript and to Mrs. Chobadi for her diligent work in typing it. Last but not least my thanks go to many generous people in Kerman who not only helped this project to be launched, but also provided hospitality far beyond any expectations. ii PREFACE Broadcasting systems to every country usually tend to refect the political, economic, social, cultural and 1 even geographical conditions of that country. Every nation, based on its social and political structure and economic system, adopts a unique policy of managing its broadcasting system. In general, however, one finds that the options available will fall somewhere within the area of a triangle made by following pure 2 conditions: 1. Public control 2. Political control 3. Commercial control 4. Combin These conditions are illustrated below: PUBLIC WI. (cultural, international prefix-alum) BBC 0 0 P38 Britiah overall 1 0.8. overall 2: x Boviat ovarall x Chinese ovarall v.3. Conarcial o Stationa mom m1. acumen. ML (entertain-ant, aaloa) (indoctrination) iii This typology is one of the most simple representations of available choices among the options. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm offer a different type of media system. They view the world communication system as operating, more or less under four major theories and 3 they label them as the following: 1. Soviet Communist 2. Libertarian 3. Social Responsibility 4. Authoritarian This classification, however, fails to differentiate alternatives and varieties that are available in each category. Paulau offers a more comprehensive classification of broadcasting systems. 4 He offers the following typology. TYPO State-Operated Public corporation Public intereat partnerahip Private enterpriae Control of Media Operated by governaent niniatry, depart-ant, or adainiatrative agency Operated autonoaoualy under atate charter Operated by legally private corporations with state atock intereata operated by private carver- ationa with weak govern-ant regulation Repreeentative Countriee Moat celauniat countriee Britain (BBC 0 ITA), France, Heat Germany. Meterlanda Italy, Sweden, Switzerland United States, Japan'e private etationa, Luxeabourg In all above mentioned categories, and regardless of their structure within any society and means of financing, one of the expected function of mass media is to serve as an important link between government and public at large. It is, therefore, imperative for them to become more responsive to needs and drives of the public served. In an idealized communication system one can, therefore, assume that one of the important variables in program policy formulation is the extent to which the publics' needs, requirements and expectations are being continuously conveyed to the communicators via adequate, reliable channels. In this case the measure of efficiency and efficacy of the system is highly related to the extent to which it reponds to community needs. There is some skepticism as to the role of public broadcasting and its purported impartialities. Those who hold this skeptical view argue that since, in many nations, public broadcasting is financed by the national treasury, public broadcasting must consequently be subserviant to the executive branch of government. It is not necessarily so, however. Judges and parliamentarians are also being paid by the national treasury. The independence and impartiality of publicly supported broadcasting systems is directly related to its structural position within the systems of government V and the characteristics of the personnel recruited to manage it. It is based on the assumptions that the survival and credibility of publicly supported broadcasting systems depend primarily on how adequately they do serve national and local objectives and address national and local needs. This is in contrast to private broadcasting systems where the primary objective is to maximize profit and satisfy stockholders. In attempting to reach maximum profit the programming strategy, a private system seeks to maximize the audience and this increases its program rating. To achieve such maximization, most commercial broadcasting systems adopt the so-called "lowest common demoninator" approach. The alternative is massive subsidization as in the most outstanding public systems. Ithiel de sola Pools suggests that producing "top quality mass programming takes an amount of capital, a collection of specialized personnel, and production expertise that is found only in such great organizations and centers as Hollywood, NHK, NIRT, BBC, etc."PT5PT (See Appendix A for a brief introduction to NIRT.) In contrast to a commercial system, when a broadcasting system is public and independent, such as the B.B.C. in England; the N.H.K. in Japan and the S.R. in Sweden, then its main objective is to satisfy the vi dual demands of independence and responsibility in servicing the general public. The purpose of this study was to conduct a survey in an Iranian environment for identifying community needs. The objective was to see whether the finding of this research could be used as an input for program policy formulation and the outcome would be conveyed to the public as programs which would address their expectations and legitimate needs. In the following chapters theoretical background, research methology, research findings, and some recommendations are being offered. While the purpose of the research was an attempt to pursue well intentioned objectives, for an institution of good reputation. Under new circumstances that institution, the NIRT, no longer exits! vii NOTES 1 Alan Wells (ed.). Mass Communication: A World View. (Palo Alto, California: National Press Book, 1974), p.3. 2 Ibid., p. 5. 3 Fred S. Siebert, T. Peterson, W. Schramm. Four Theories g; the Press. (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1956), p. 6 4 Burton Paulau. Radio and Television Broadcasting on the European Continent. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1967), pp. 51-76. 5 Ithiel de sola Pool. "The Changing Flow of Television," Journal 9; Communication, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Spring 1977), p. 148. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.................................. xii LIST OF FIGURES.......... ........ . .............. xiii CHAPTER I PROBLEM STATEMENT AND STUDY DELINEATIONOCCOOOOOOOO00...... ........ O 1 Introduction........................... 1 The Problem............................ 1 The Predominent Paradigm............. 3 The Divergent View................... 8 Background of the Study................12 Purpose and Methodology of the Study...22 Significance of the Study..............27 Outline of the Study...................29 Notes--Chapter I.......................30 II SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNITY LEADERS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND A SEARCH FOR A METHODOIJOGYeeeeeeeeeeeee37 Introduction...........................37 A Historical Perspective on Leader- ship in Iran.........................38 Iranian Leadership: A Definition....38 Unity in Spite of Diversity............41 The Iranian Leader Today...............43 Opportunities for Leadership...........45 Leadership Selection: Procedural Alternatives.........................47 The Positional Method..................50 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) The Reputational (Elitist) Method......51 The Issue Analysis Method............. 55 The Application of a Modified Two Stage Reputational Technique to the Iranian Milieu.......................59 Notes--Chapter II......................60 ‘III RESEARCH CRITERIA AND METHODOLOGY......65 Research Criteria......................65 The Master Problem List................66 The Study Questionnaire................68 Selection of the Study Locality........71 Selection of Community Leaders.........72 Selection of Random Sample of the Public...............................78 Selection of Broadcast Personnel.......85 Notes--Chapter III.....................88 IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA........... ........ 90 Respondent Preferences and DifferenceSO0.0...0.0.00000000000000090 Responde to Open-Ended Questions......104 V STUDY CONCLUSION......................114 VI FINAL REMARKS AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS.......................128 General Recommendations...............13O Final note OOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.135 APPENDIX A - A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF NIRT........136 APPENDIX B - MASTER PROBLEM LIST (MPL)..........14O APPENDIX C - QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY NEEDS IN IRAN............142 APPENDIX D - LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.............168 APPENDIX E - COMPUTER CALCULATIONS FOR X (CHI-SQUARE)eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee169 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) APPENDIX F - TABLES REPRESENTING STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCEOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00.0178 APPENDIX G - ACTUAL SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE IN FARSIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO0..0......184 APPENDIX H - DEMOGRAPHICS AND TV AND RADIO USAGE DATAOOOCOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000....198 xi TABLE LIST OF TABLES Page Table of Priority for Community Needs as Expressed by Three Groups Of Respondents..0.0.0.0.00000000000000105 Table of Priorities for Programs as Expressed by Three Groups of RespondentSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee106 Agreement Among Broadcasters, People and Elite on NeedSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee107 Agreement Among Broadcasters, People and Elite on Program Policy...........109 xii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1. A dynamic response model of a political systemOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0....0.0.00.0...15 2. The multi-step flow of mass communication system.....................................16 3. Public Broadcasting... ........ .............21 xiii CHAPTER I PROBLEM STATEMENT AND STUDY DELINEATION Introduction According to William Harley, the survival of broadcasting systems in the future depends on their gaining the means by which to better determine audiences and what kinds of programs will best meet audience needs.1 In the past, however, the emphasis in mass media research has not been such an identification process. Rather, researchers have tended to focus on the social effects and persuasion elements involved in the use of mass media, or, in a more general sense, on a unidirectional model in which the broadcaster is identified as a disseminator of information and the main actor in the generation of ideas and innovation without interaction with his environment. It is ironic that the public-at-large as a part of the mass media audience system has accepted the passive role of being at the receiving end of the media message and of not being directly involved as a determining element in program policy formulations. Even today, to the public the broadcast media remains more or less within the confines of what Herbert Hoover described as an object of entertainment of the curious.2 This same conception can be traced to early studies of the broadcast media conducted by pioneering scholars such as Paul Lazarfeld, Harold Lasswell and Carl Hovland, studies which are primarily focused on broadcasting in terms of social effect and political persuasion. These studies became a frame of reference and a model for younger generations of social scientists to follows. Their patterns of thought and basic postulates, dominating the field of mass communication for three decades, retained as a focus the predominantly Lasswellian definition of the media process as comprising "who says what, through what channels of communication, to whom, with what result."3 A review of these studies reveals that most considered how different categories of audience react to varying program types. As a result much is known about the audience and its reaction, but little is known abou: how media receive their initial cues from the public. What has been utterly ignored since 1948 is one of Lasswell's main propositions which strongly suggests that an important function of the mass media lies in their ability to survey the public in order to gather information on such cues--one social norms, roles and 5 problems. The Problem The Predominant Paradigm 6 7 8 Recent studies by Burns, Tuchman, Elliot and other scholars have revealed that broadcasters, like any other social group, tend to be involved in their own particular milieu and dimly perceive the multifarious needs of their audiences. Indeed Tom Burns suggests that interviews with 200 producers in 1963 indicated that there was but a very minute interest in the audience, that professionalism in broadcasting led to an ever-increasing reliance on peer judgement, rather than the approval of the clients.9 Yet this tendency, according to Burns, is in contrast to the general proposition that there should be "a code in behaviour where the first consideration is the need of the client and the quality of the work."10 Such a code appears to be lacking. Indeed, though in many parts of the world phrases such as "public interest, necessity and convenience" are used as statements of objectives to be met by the broadcaster, most of these mottoes remain superficial. Thus, Halloran states that despite the fact that "many decisions in media policy are made in the name of 'the public good' and 'the national interest,'" it is significant to ask, "what do these terms really mean, and who decides what is good?"11 It might be valuable at this point to draw a distinction between private commercial broadcasting and publicly-supported broadcasting. With the former, the primary objective is to maximize profit and satisfy stockholders. In attempting to achieve the greatest profit, the programming strategy of a private system seeks to maximize its audience and this increases program ratings. To achieve such maximization, most commercial broadcasting systems adopt to the so-called "lowest common denominator" approach which, according to Owen, means "any program that will be watched by a number of different viewer groups, i.e., the program is common to more than one group of viewers."12 When a system is not bound by simultaneous appraisal and rating as a standard, nor constrained by other limitations, then one can concede the validity of DeSola Pool's suggestion that producing "top quality mass programming takes an amount of capital, a collection of specialized personnel, and production expertise that is found only in such great organizations and centers as Hollywood, NHK, NIRT, BBC, etc." 13 (See Appendix A for a brief introduction to NIRT, the National Iranian Radio/Television System.) In contrast to a commercial system, a public and independent broadcasting system, such as BBC in England, NHK in Japan and SR in Sweden, has as its main objective the satisfaction of the dual demands of independence and responsibility in servicing the general public. In light of these two factors, it is evident that public broadcasting institutions must examine their operating capabilities and constraints in order to formulate rational, easily achieved objectives. These capabilities and constraints comprise human, economic and technical resources, as well as socio-political milieu and geopolitical location. In addition to these elements, audience characteristics also play an important role in formulating program policies. It is within the framework (or these operating conditions) that broadcasters must simultaneously match constraints with capabilities in fulfilling objectives. In fact, NHK in Japan has gone as far as producing a Linear Programming Model based on qualification of all 14 means of production and dissemination. Operations research experts at NHK were able to construct a mathematical model composed of sets of linear equations of capabilities and constraints to solve for variables that would satisfy an objective function. Although this optimization model was a pioneering approach to broadcasting planning and programming, it was still a purely experimental model and never went beyond that: even now NHK is relying on established methods. While most public broadcasting systems claim that they are fundamentally different from private broadcasting, their operational policies and program production and, especially their evaluation systems are still basically those of commercial broadcasting. Prior to March 11, 1976 on which day the FCC adopted a Report and Orderls for noncommercial broadcasting systems to ascertain community problems, needs and interests, most of the public broadcasting systems were falling into the familiar trap of accepting audience rating as a measure of performance. In fact there are virtually no documents to indicate that there have been, in any of the public broadcasting systems, any attempts at identifying community needs and the actual state of audience expectation. Studies conducted by scholars in this field have dealt primarily with political, behavioral, and attitude change (Berelson et al., 1954:16 Lang, 1962:17 W. Philips Davidson, 1959; 18 Carol Hovland, 1959;19 J. Klapper, 1960: 20), or with social behavior and the effects of violence (L. Berkowitz, 1962: 21 Albert Siegel, 196922) and, recently, with gratifications mass 23 media (Blumer and Katz, 1974 ). Further, the general paradigm forming the basis of these studies has been "a model of one-way influence: the communicator does something to the audience."24 In fact, Bauer states that out of these traditional studies evolves Lasswell's formulation of the process of communication cited previously that is the most familiar one to date: "who says what, through . what channels (medium) of communication, to whom (with) what results."25 To Bauer this formulation "has one monumental built-in assumption: that the initiative is exclusively with the communicator, the effect being exclusively on the audience."26 The gross derelication thus far, then, is that no effect has been made to learn about and understand the media decision-maker and to discover whether or not there is a link between audience and mass media (receiver-source). There is only one study available conducted by J. David Lewis as "an attempt(s) to identify the factors used by several hundred program directors and other programmers in making their 27 decision." The Divergent View Katz suggests that in order for broadcasting to meet its required objective "as a profession (it) has the obligation to diagnose the needs of its clients as part of the process of prescribing."28 Further, Charles Curran, Director of the BBC, indicates that the broadcaster's responsibility is to "obey the command of the public."29 The genuine role of the broadcasting organization in the future, then, will be to serve people's needs by methodologically identifying them and professionally translating them into program content. Broadcasters should thus give consideration to public issues and translate them into their on-the-air programs (output). According the Richard Moore, in order to meet its future mandate, the broadcasting system has to "redefine itself as a service enterprise...I mean, a system composed of institutions that continually determine how best to serve the entire audience." And recent incorporation of a systematic framework into current studies of the broadcasting system offers a promising alternative to the classical studies in meeting this goal. Through a systematic approach the entire broadcasting system could be placed within a set of boundaries that would encompass environmental input, i.e., audience needs and community issues, as part of the general framework of study. In other words, instead of examining the output (the program) and its impact, one can reverse the process by identifying environmental input as a determining element in program policy formulation. Then, comparison of broadcast programs with this public input would provide an adequate measure of the extent to which the system is functioning in the right way. Sharkansky maintains that "mass media could be used to serve as a transmission belt between people and policy."31 For example, in May 1968, the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in the United States broadcasted a program called "Hunger in America" which illustrated the dreadful condition of starving children and the shortcomings of welfare programs. As a result of this broadcast, the federal government and a subcommittee in the U.S. Senate, with the late Robert Kennedy as a member, considered the entire hunger issue, and the 10 government launched several dramatic measures to provide food and other necessities to the poor.32 This example alone indicates that when electronic media potential and capabilities are fully used, a better society can result. Thus, though unfortunately there is no record of what input stimulated CBS to engage its resources in producing a program on hunger, it is clear that the impact of the program, at least for a while, shook the entire political and administrative machinery of the United State government. In the United States both the Radio Act of 1927 and the Communication Act of 1934 require that broadcast licensees must operate "in the public interest, convenience, and necessity," though Thomas Baldwin maintains that "it never has been easy for the FCC to enforce or even to define this generalized standard."33 Nevertheless, the FCC since 1948 has made several attempts to provide guidelines for broadcasters to follow so that their overall performance could be evaluated at license renewal time. These attempts include the 1945 Blue Book, produced with the assistance of Professor Siegman of Harvard University, and later, in 1960, the programming policy statements and, finally, in 1968, the statements of procedures for ascertainment of community needs. While there are several studies 11 that indicate certain shortcomings in these 34 procedures, one can generally agree with Baldwin's conclusion that "the procedure, when followed conscientiously according to the instructions, does identify needs which can be, and are, translated into 35 programming." In general, ascertainment of community needs is a process by which broadcast stations are required to become aware of their community's needs and problems. It offers an opportunity to local managers to know actually what goes on in their community. In a handbook prepared by Thomas Baldwin and Bradley Greenberg for the Public Broadcasting System, a step-by-step ascertainment procedure is provided. According to the authors: The ascertainment of the public, as outlined in this handbook, will inform the station as to the priorities of the public with regard to local and non-local problems. What problems do the public judge as most important and least important. Out of this may come station programming decisions designed to make the public aware of the new problem areas, and/or to maintain their level of informedness about continuing problems.36 In addition to the public survey, ascertainment of community leaders offers a number of benefits among which, Baldwin and Greenberg maintain, 12 A significant one will be a very comprehensive list of human resources for the station. Second will be periodic, systematic and continuing information from these resource people as to their identification and description of the dimensions of the community problems and interests. Matching this information against the .problem priorities obtained from the public is designed to provide a more wholistic picture of the community.37 Background 9; the Study A theoretical framework within which linkages between audience and broadcaster could be tested rests, according to Defleur and Ball-Rokeach, on a basic assumption that: "A promising approach to understanding the relationship between mass media content and public taste...is provided by viewing the media as social systems that operate within a specific external system."38 Based on the principles of the systematic approach to the analysis of mass media, it is possible, then, these researchers maintain, to describe the correlations between components of the system and "to identify patterns of action exhibited by individuals in a sub-group who relate themselves to one another in such a system."39 . Although the analysis of mass media as a social system may appear to be an abstraction, one must 13 consider that it is a kind of abstraction that is not far removed from the observable and empirically verifiable. Clearly, the social systems approach facilitates an understanding of the operating principles within the system itself and an examination of its fundamental components which, as Cadwallader suggests, "can be analyzed, in cybernetic terms, as feedback mechanisms, input receptors, information channels, memory components, decision-making facilities and effectors."4o Based on these social systems concepts, then, one can use Walter Buckley's famous paradigm that a social system, as an open system capable of interacting with its own environment, brings multiformity into its own organization for the purpose of self-stabilization and self-organization, a capacity which he labels a complex adoptive system.41 In fact it is through such complex adoptive capability that the mass media have survived and can survive and grow in the future. This argument could be extended further to include the point that if it is possible for the system to be adoptive, then it must have had some link with its environment, a link that contributes to the existing impedance match between the two. 14 Based on social system concepts, then, numerous models could be adopted to demonstrate the functional role and position of mass media within a society. Among these models is the dynamic response model of David Easton, by which he demonstrates the "exchange and transactional" behavior among the members within environmental systems that cross the boundaries of 42 subsystems (Figure 1). This exchange and transaction model refers to a kind of mutually beneficial relationship, and it emphasizes the movement of an effect in one direction, simply across the boundary of 43 one system to another. The cultural sociodynamic model of Abraham Moles demonstrates the dynamics of each subsystem in its own terms and interactions (Figure 2). The black box labelled "socio-cultural inventory plus historical images and memories," according to him is the inventory that mass media receive of their form and message conflict. The media in turn relay their messages to the audience in the form of programs. (The creation of a mass culture often insures the impact of the media.) However, one segment of the audience, labelled here as "creators" is also producing new ideas and products. The intelligentsia (or general cultural elite) then discriminate between which is discarded or retained for incorporation in the socio-cultural inventory.44 Moles' model fails to demonstrate linkages between the elements of the model; nor is it clear under what 15 .Ammma .Hammnmoflucoum .OHH .Q ".u.z .muuflflo noosmflmcmv mflmhamc< debauflaom you xuo3oamum < .coumwm cfi>oo Huofiufifloa a uo HocoE uncommon .Eoumhw oaeoc>c d .H “OOHfiom onsoflm 2:930 (SPICE-h—wm xoaoumua coszaoE. 2:220 25 3558 .o co.m.o>coo\\ \ | ‘ \ xumnuomu coszaoE. E296 .mo_:_oa 9:. doom x6336“. toaaaw -20.th 3563 (5 7C& 0 ECO :, mic Eo: 202B *0 3Oxk 0th EoEco=>cw 522% .830 och .cmEco:>:m B.Boow .uzc. och 2:286 .203 3:23:53. nEBmxw 323.com 3:25:25 9:298 EASE-on 3.5.3525 'IVIOI 2:226 3.8m 955$ >:_ac0m._on_ lNBWNOUIANB 523w 3030.06 £22m 328.com l6 Q .I FUD! ENCE IAOIO COOKS "I SS (”5! II VALUE 5737‘“ fl GOVERNMENT w "£550.! CRW” » V convention a—9 moons) M A S S “STNTICS fl ”WHAT.“ MD M E D I A "NM“ N!“ m D WAT“ ”C00 CULTURAL W“——L——p’ NISYONCAL and" M0 um: Figure 2. The multi-step flow of mass communication system. Source: Abraham Moles, Sociodynamique g9 13 culture (Paris: Mouton, 1967), p. 30. 17 circumstances interaction takes place. In fact, what has been neglected in most of the models presented so far is a proposition for systematic understanding of audience linkage to the producers. From what has been said up to this point, it is clear that the mass media do not operate in a vacuum. However, their feedback links are not clear and appear to encompass several sources, including audience surveys and program rating systems. According to Lasslo, "In as much as the processes are adoptive, they result in a cognitive organization which maps the relevant states of the environment with increasing precision and range of prediction...by providing correlations between inputs from and to the environment in more instances and with more precision."45 Although Moles' model illustrates a total interactive system within which each element has a prescribed role, at the center of these systems stands the human individual with all his complexity, ambiguity and manifold potentialities. All we know about this central element of the social system is that he behaves not only in terms of certain instinctional impulses, but also in terms of "certain images"46 which are the constructs of his cultural conditions and his unique process of creativity. To Boulding, "the images not 18 only makes society but society continually remakes the image...the basic bond of any society, culture, subsculture, or organization is a "public image" that is, an image the essential characteristics of which are shared by the individuals participating in the group."47 Therefore, as Boulding also points out, any living system, of which the mass media is an example, in order to function successfully, structures 9; forms an "image" g: aspects ‘2; its environment which are relevant £9 48 whatever goals it might pursue. Weaver and Ness suggest that through fan mail, surveys, public opinion polls, and audience measurement there are very real, though delayed, reactions which can be observed and used by the communicator, particularly if the communication is prolonged over a period of weeks or months. But most important in radio and television communication is "feedback," or self-stimulation, which takes place within the mind of the communicator. What the communicator actually is doing is listening to himself as he imagines that the unseen audience is listening to him. He reacts to his own message as he pictures the "others" reacting to him. Then he governs himself in accordance with what he thinks is taking 49 place in the minds of these communicatees. 19 These hypotheses are valid in the United States and the United Kingdom as well as in other countries that are more or less in the same category with regard to modernization. But in most developing countries there is a great gap between the producer-creator and his audience members who reside in villages, in rural areas or in provincial cities. His education, social contacts, social circles, cultural expectations, political inclinations and religious beliefs are far removed from those of most of his audience, a situation which suggests that in order to bridge the gap between producer or creator and his audience a systematic method is needed. Assessment 9; community needs may well serve 39 do just that. The above discussion suggests that the conception of mass media as a complex adoptive system that interacts with its environment is not well known and understood. The nature of this interaction, which is not mechanistic nor organic, is that of an open system that has the ability to reorganize itself into new coherent and meaningful patterns of activity. As we know, machines wear out, organisms age, but social systems change indefinitely into new structures of meaning and group interactions. This characteristic of any given system may in turn rest on the specific 20 properties of its members, "their capacity for readjustment to new configurations, with renewed complementarily and sustained or renewed communication."50 To this author the appropriate model for a public broadcasting system would conform to the pattern as demonstrated in the accompanying chart (Figure 3). Based on this model, the source of the message is, the people, the members of the community whom the broadcasting system serves. Also according to this model, community demands, consisting of needs and wants accompanied by national goals and objectives, would be sought out prior to program planning through a periodic assessment of community needs. Two main sources of public and corporate information would give local managers and producers tangible guidelines for programming policy. Local managers, in the light of such information linking the system to its clients and to its corporate level broadcasters, could then simultaneously match expectations with capabilities and constraints to determine feasibility parameters for the selection of program content and style directly related to and in harmony with the environment. Whatever the outcome of this model, one can be sure that the programs would be highly correlated to 21 .ocflumoocooun ofiansm .m ousmfim 22 community and corporate desires. The elements of this system work continuously upon each other, and the feedback loop is a closed one. Satisfaction of one need would elevate levels of expectation and generate new demands to be fulfilled. Purpose and Methodology of the Study As a broadcasting tool, the assessment of community needs serves a variety of purposes in a developing society. It identifies the community's problems and its expectations of local broadcasters. It offers a viable picture of the community in which the broadcasting system can provide its services. It also demonstrates the expectations and needs of different social and economic categories. It provides feedback to central planners and network programmers. In general, it presents a mirror projection of the community's perception of its needs and problems and the radio and television programs it desires. This study was conducted in the City of Kerman. Its purpose was to identify community needs and the radio and television programs desired by three distinct groups: the elite, the public-at-large and local broadcasting directors. It also was intended to investigate areas of agreement and disagreement among 23 these groups. It was expected that a projected profile of the local community would have an influential impact on local broadcasters. In a traditionally centralized planning system, this research was an attempt to focus on a specific community by needs. It is important to mention here that Iran is composed of many diverse cultures localized geographically in certain parts of the country. In such a culturally diverse society, it is necessary for network programs to recognize regional differences and give more time and opportunity to local broadcasters for addressing local needs and promoting local culture. At the time this study was undertaken, the author intended to use the assessment of community needs as a tool for the entire country whenever there was a local center for radio and television broadcasting. The overall purpose was to demonstrate a useful tool for programming policy formulation and an instrument which could serve as a partial requirement for a proposed dynamic model for closing the loop between the receiver and source as described previously. In addition to these general objectives, this study possesses the following unique characteristics: 1. In most ascertainment studies only the community elite and the public-at-large are respondents. In this 24 study a third group was added, radio and television directors. This was done because most of these managers are not residents of the local community and would thus bring a different perception of community needs to the study. Another reason for approaching this group was to make them consciously aware of community problems which might, in turn, divert their attention from providing purely entertaining leisure-time programs to providing programs which might meet the people's expressed economic, psychological, and social needs. 2. As indicated by Baldwin and Greenberg in their ‘proposed handbook for the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, identification of elites provide "a very comprehensive list of human resources for the station."51 The role of community leaders in a traditional society such as Iran is extremely important, and, for this reason, special attention was paid in this study to the available methodology for identifying these leaders. In each Iranian community these leaders act as a source of disseminating information, guidance and innovation. And, above all, they are the main source of mobilization of biases. These leaders, regardless of their positions in the political spectrum, have a common interest in broadcasting activities. Each, from his own point of view, would like to use this modern tool to serve his purpose. 25 Since the social role and political influence of the community elite in Iran was so important, then, the following steps were followed (see Chapter II): a. explicitly examining the role, impact and influence of leadership in the Iranian community and this leadership's unique characteristics; b. reviewing all possible methods of identifying leaders in order to justify selection of one method compatible with the Iranian milieu; c. indicating the complexity of reaching the highly isolated political and religious leaders in a traditional society, since most of these leaders operate covertly and are highly distrustful of any research by government agencies or private scholars. Regardless of who governs Iran, political and religious leaders traditionally do not open themselves to an outsider. Rather, they remain suspicious. 3. Selection of the public-at-large was based on a method used by NIRT's local branch of its Public Opinion Survey Department for the following reasons: a. They have developed a unique sampling method for all cities in Iran where local broadcasting stations are located, a standard procedure which used to be utilized on a monthly basis prior to the 26 1979 uprising. Based on this procedure, a city map is divided into sections and each section into segments. Within each segment, areas of coverage are identified, and within each area avenues, streets and passages (kocheh) are marked, and houses are selected based on odd or even numbers; b. all personnel engaged in this department are local citizens who have had public survey experience. Their faces are thus familiar to the public, and their accents are local, qualities which are necessary in a traditional society which is not comfortable with strangers asking questions of household members. Such use of local office personnel thus reduced public mistrust. 4. The Master Problem List was taken from the Public Broadcasting System Handbook, and some local subjects were added. All three groups of respondents: elite, public and broadcasters, were presented with a four-part questionnaire: one section (IV) seeking demographical data and information on media usage habits; two sections (I and II) requiring indentification and prioritization of community problems and needs (Section II consisted of open-ended questions); and one section (III) requesting respondent input regarding broadcast programming 27 preferences. (See Appendix B for the Master Problem List.) All interviewing and collection of data was done by 11 local people who had previous field experience with NIRT's Public Opinion Research Department. (Questionnaires were self-administered in the case of elites and the questionnaire was translated into Farsi, the language of the people.) (See Appendix C for a copy of the questionnaire for each group of respondents. Appendix G is the Farsi translation.) The single questionnaire when used for three groups will provide an adequate measurement of the degree of congruency among the three groups with regard to perceived community needs and will indicate ways in which Radio/Television programming can best meet these needs. Significance g; the Study Through this study a number of community needs were identified which might be useful for those who may be concerned. Therefore, one can postulate that the findings of this study may prove to be helpful not only to broadcasters, but also to other responsible private or public agencies. Another implicit benefit of this 28 study is that it may serve to open the public's eyes to a wide range of community issues and problems. The outcome of this study could be presented to all regional managers of NIRT in Iran through a seminar so that similar attempts at assessment could be made in other, parts of the country. The author maintains that this study shall not be a "one-shot" affair, but rather that it must be continued and in each new atttempt improved, modified and adapted to the extent that both its methods and approach are tailored to the Iranian context. It is also important that a method be developed for rapid and economical translation of community needs into program production and transmission in such a way that the response period would be minimized. In a more futuristic context, one may envisage the creation of a center link to the community. This center coupled with either fiber optics or a cable system would receive input from the community and respond accordingly, thus rendering a multi-purpose community service. In this context the services that a, local station could provide are extensive. Communications technology, while it is a quantum leap ahead of its application and usage, offers a boundless capability to serve any community that is able and willing to exploit it. 29 Outline 9f the Study Following this introductory chapter which defines the study's focus and goals, Chapter II provides an historical perspective on leadership in Iran and explains methods utilized to select and identify leaders. One method is chosen for this study's purposes: a modified two-stage reputational technique. (Chapter III describes the study's methodology, while Chapter IV, via a presentation of data in tables, analyzes study results. Finally, Chapter V offers several conclusions to be drawn from the study and makes recommendations regarding their application. 3O NOTES-CHAPTER I 1 William Harley, "Public Broadcasting and the New Communication Technology," in The Future pf Public Broadcasting, ed. Douglass Cater and Michael Y. Nyhan (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), p. 310. 2 Herbert Hoover, in Broadcasting ip America: A Survey 9; Television and Radio, 3rd edition, ed. Sydney W. Head (Boston: Houston-Mifflin Co., 1976), p. 322 (From House CMMF, 1924, 1924:10). 3 Harold Lasswell, et al., Propaganda, Communication and Public Opinion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946), p. 121. 4 Leo Bogart, The Age pf Television (New York: F. Ungar Publishing Co., 1956), p. 348. 5 Harold D. Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in The Communication pf Ideas, ed. L. Bryson (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948). 6 Tom Burns, "Public Service and Private World," in Media Sociology, ed. Jeremy Tunstall (London: Redwood Burn Limited, 1974). 31 7 Gaye Tuchman, "Objective as Strategic Ritual: An Examination of the Newsmen's Notions of Objectivity," American Journal pf Sociology 77, No. 4, pp. 660-679. (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1976), p. 322 (From House CMMF, 1924:10). 8 Philip Elliot, The Making pf 3 Television Series (London: Constable, 1972). 9 Burns, p. 151. 10 Ibid. 11 James D. Halloran, Mass Media ip Society: Tpg Challenge pf Research (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1974), p. 8. 12 Bruce M. Owen, Television Economics (Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1974), p. 54. 13 Ithiel de Sola Pool, "The Changing Flow of Television," Journal pf Communication, 27, No. 2 (Spring 1977), p. 148. 14 Kazuhiko Goto, "Programming and Production" in International Studies pf Broadcasting (NHK Radio and Television Cultural Research Institute, 1971, Japan). 15Report Egg nggg, "Ascertainment of Community Problems by Non-Commercial Educational Applicants, Permittees, Licensees," Federal Register 41, No. 59 (March 25, 1976). 32 16 , Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study 9; Opinion Formation AA 2 Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954). 17 Kurt Lang and Gladys Engel Lang, "The Mass Media and Voting," in American Voting Behavior, ed. Burdick and Brodbeck (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1962). 18 W.P. Davidson, "On the Effect of Communication," ublic Opinion Quarterly 23, (1959). 19 Carl I. Hovland, "Reconciling Conflicting Results Derived from Experimental and Survey Studies of Attitude Change, "American Psychologist 14 (1959), pp. 8-17. 20 Joseph Klapper, The Effect 2; Mass Communication (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1960). 21 L. Berkowitz, "Violence in Mass Media," in Paris- Stanford Studies 1p Communication (Paris and Stanford: Institut Francais de presse, University of Paris, and Institute of Communication Research, Stanford University, 1962). 22Alberta E. Siegel, "The Effects of Media Violence on Social Learning," in Violence and the Media, ed. R.K. Baker and Sandra Ball (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969). 33 23 Jay Blumer and Elihu Katz, ed., The Uses pf Mass Communications: Current Perspectives pp Gratifications Research (Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1974). 24 Raymond A. Bauer, "The Obstinate Audience: The Influence Process and Effects of Mass Communication," in The Process and Effects 2; Mass Communication, ed. Schramm and Roberts (Urbana: Illinois Press, 1971), pp. 327, 328. 25 Harold Lasswell, et a1. Propaganda, Communication and Public Opinion (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1946), p. 121. 26 Bauer, p. 329 27 J. David Lewis, "Programmer'a Choice: Eight Factors in Program Decision—Making," Journal pf Broadcasting XII, No. 1 (Winter 1969-70). 28 Elihu Katz, Social Research pp Broadcasting: Proposals for Further Development (London: BBC Publications, 1977), p. 39. 29 Charles Curan, Broadcasting and Society Edinburgh Broadcasting Conference, March 23, 1970 (London: BBC Publications, 1971), p. 5. 34 30 Richard 0. Moore, "Public Programming and the Future: A Radical Approach," in The Future 9; Public Broadcasting, ed. Douglas Cater and Michael Y. Nyhan (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), p. 235. 31 Ira Sharkansky, Public Administration: Policy- Making 1p Government Agencies (Chicago: Markhan Publishing Co., 1970), p. 178. 32 Ibid., pp. 177, 178. 33 Thomas F. Baldwin and Stuart H. Surlin, "A Study of Broadcast Station License Application Exhibits an Assertainment of Community Needs," Journal 9; Broadcasting 14, No. 2 (Spring 1970), p. 157. 34 Mary Ann Heller, "Problems in Ascertainment Procedures," Journal pf Broadcasting, Fall 1977, pp. 427-433. 35 Baldwin and Surlin, p. 167. 36 Thomas F. Baldwin and Bradley S. Greenberg. AA Ascertainment Handbook for Public Broadcasting Facilities (East Lansing: Michigan State University, Department of Communication and Telecommunication, 1975), p. 2. 37 Ibid. 38 Melvin L. Defleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories 9: Mass Communication (New York: David Mckay Co., 1966), pp. 66, 167. 39Ibid. 35 40 Mervyn L. Cadwallader, "The Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organization," American Journal g; Sociology 65, (1959). 41 Walter Buckley, "Society as a Complex Adoptive System," in Modern Systems Research for Behavioral Scientists (edited) (Chicago: De Gruyter Aldine), 1968., p. 491. 42 David Easton, A Framework for Political Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965), pp. 109- 110. 43 Talcott Parsons, The Social System (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1951), p. 122. 44 Abraham Moles, Sociodynamique g2 lé culture (Paris: Mouton, 1967). 45 Ervin Laszlo, Introduction pg Systems Philosophy-- Toward A New Paradigm pf Contemporary Thought (New York: Gordon and Breach, Science Publisher, 1972), p. 132. 46 Kenneth E. Boulding, The Image (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), p. 22. 47Ibid. ' p. 64. 48 Harold D. Lasswell, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in The Communication g; Ideas ed. Lyman Bryson (New York: Institute for Religious and Social Studies, 1948; reprinted in Schramm and Roberts, p. 89). 36 49 A. T. Weaver and O. G. Ness, The Fundamental Forms 92 Speech (New York: The Odyssey Press, 1957), p. 6. 50 Karl W. Deutch, "Some Notes on Research on the Role of Models in Natural and Social Science," Synthesis 532 (1948), p. 9. 51 Baldwin and Greenberg, p. 2. CHAPTER II SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNITY LEADERS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND A SEARCH FOR A METHODOLOGY Introduction Prior to a review of the details of this study, some time must be devoted to the concept of leadership and its application in an Iranian environment since one of the groups selected for survey by this researcher was composed of community leaders or the elite. What does leadership mean in Iran? How does one identify this most important segment of the population? Indeed, these are the individuals who have the power to effect changes like those proposed in this study. How are they defined? What characteristics identify them and the roles they play? What is Iran's cultural basis for leadership. This chapter will atttempt a consideration of some of these issues. In addition, this second chapter will discuss leadership methodology in research circles. How are 37 38 leaders identified by researchers? What approach(es) do scholars outline for studying the elite? Is one known as a leader by his "position" within society, by his reputation, by his exercise of power? And which approach, or method of identification best fits the Iranian setting? A Historical Perspective pp Leadership pp Iran Iranian Leadership: A Definition The leadership of a society is a criterion of the values by which that society lives. The manner by which the "leadership" is chosen; the breadth of the society from which it is recruited; the way in which it exercises decision-making power; the extent and nature of its accountabilities--these and other attitudes are indicators of the degree of shared power, shared respect, shared well- being and shared safety in a given society at a given time.1 Harold O. Lasswell's words provide a pertinent beginning to a discussion of the style of leadership in Iran, a style which can be labeled as Institutional- Traditional or, in Max Weber's terminology, Rational- Traditional. This form of leadership originates from the nucleus of the family and encompasses all organizations within the entire nation. In other words, the role of the leader whinin the family in Iran becomes 39 a miniature model of all leaders at all levels of Iranian society. Leadership in Iran is "institutional" in the sense that it represents an organizational structure operating within society with a specified set of rules and regulations and administrative criteria. And every element within society with a specified set of rules and regulations and administrative criteria. And every element within the organization has a well defined role with ascendancy to power within the structure based on performance rather than appeal to the emotional and affective needs of the populace. Iranian leadership is "traditional" in the sense that it espouses a set of moral and ethical values passed from generation to generation within family as well as government, values such as sincerity, integrity, patriotism, loyalty to family and respect for the partiarchal figure. And it is this last element, respect for the partriarch, which perhaps underlies all the rest in that it is the central role of the father within the family, from whom all authority emanates, which forms the very basis of leadership style in Iran. Ann Willner offers a perspective elaboration of the principles outlined above: 40 Traditional and legal-rational authority are institutionalized in a belief system and are therefore vested in the role rather than in the person. In contrast, the locus of charismatic authority is in the capacity of a particular person to arouse and maintain belief in himself and his mission as the source of authority.2 In thus clearly differentiating traditional- rational authority from the charismatic, she states further that: Charismatic authority is therefore highly personal. It follows that traditional and legal-rational authority are relatively enduring, whereas charismatic authority is transitory and unstable, being contingent upon the particular person and his continued ability to inspire faith in himself as the fount of authority.3 Willner's definition of traditional-rational authority could well be applied to Iran and its form of leadership. Indeed, how could a nation have survived 2500 years if it had depended solely upon a charismatic leader? It is the institutional-traditional form of leadership, then, with its set of rules (the institutional), and its sense of mutual responsibility and loyalty (the traditional), that has insured the survival of this nation. In fact, traditional leadership and authority rest "on the belief in the sacredness of the social order and its prerogatives as 4 existing of yore..." And the security of this order and these prerogatives is ensured by the ruler, the 41 father-figure, whose role is prescribed by his society's cultural values. Again, according to Willner, Societies tend to differ in their cultural definition of leadership roles. The same traditions that may be tapped and exploited by an aspirant leader also determine in part who can successfully tap them and how he can do so. The margin for individual interpretation and expression between what is culturally acceptable and what is culturally prohibited in a leader or in leadership behavior may be widened in a society by a leader. However, the culture of a society sets limits upon the selection of the sphere of operations open to a leader.5 Unity 39 Spite p; Diversity A survey of the nation's demography will indicate that Iran is not a single homogeneous society. Instead, it is composed of different kinds of subcultures, groups, and ethnic diversities. A review of Persian history indicates that this nation from the very beginning was able to perpetuate yet hold together these diverse groups of peoples by a style of leadership based on rules and values which originated from within the nucleus of the family and was applied to the entire nation. This method of leadership has stimulated loyalty among ethnic groups such that they can look at themselves as one nation with a full sense of participation. According to Herbert H. Veeland, et al., 42 This identify-in-diversity is an important aspect of Iranian life. The various tribes have fought among themselves, have defended their right to local autonomy, but they have not sought to split off from the nation as a whole.6 In fact, the Iranian people have always been led by men who have demonstrated possession of fatherly qualities. Thus, the society in general could be analogous to an atomic configuration with a nucleus in the center and a number of electrons surrounding it. This composition is then connected to a similar one forming a larger unit. It is because of this pattern of concentric circles of leadership that the Persians have been able to survive the course of history up through the present. Indeed, it is interesting to note that although Iran has been invaded by Arabs, Seljuks and ‘Mongols, fortunately enough, the degree of influence has not been as immense as it could have been, and Iranians have maintained "distinctive identifies" from those of 7 the invaders. Persian society has withstood the buffetings of millenia of war, surviving disaster after disaster after disaster, as well as triumph after triumph. What binds these individuals together, in workshops, villages, and armies? First come personal loyalities. Attachments between master and servant, leader and follower, friend and friend, are deeper, stronger, longer lasting, and surer in Iran than in the United States.8 43 The Iranian Leader Today Though the qualities of good leadership in Iran today remain the traditional ones (strength, confidence, energy), the required skills are new and completely different. If in the past to be a good warrior was one of the main skills of leadership, today knowledge, education, decision-making ability, managerial capabilities and, above all, recognition of time, place and audience are of primary importance. There is no tribal community as there used to be. There is no longer a landowner caste nor any other traditional class structure. Instead, there are newly emerging leaders capable of managering fairly modern social organizations who must not only possess all traditional values, but also be able to see and take advantage of new opportunities for acquiring resources and for designing innovation leading to the optimum utilization of such resources. A leader is not only resonsible for his group, but also must demonstrate satifactory control of its members, regardless of the institution. Furthermore, he is the representative and highest ranking member of his group, bound by material and moral commitment. 44 Many scholars of Iranian studies differentiate leaders from followers in the Iranian system of social structure in the following way: 1. Leaders provide from their ranks the functionaries necessary to administer the political apparatus of Iranian society. Although individuals can be trained technically in methods of leadership for present needs, those who possess the natural qualities of leadership, such as courage and forcefulness (a "dominant personality"), which are found among the educated and "morally superior" are in the major stocktaking leadership positions. To use the words of Lewis J. Edinger: Leadership is a position within a society which is defined by the ability of the incumbent to guide and structure the collective behavior patterns of some or all of its members. It is at all times relational, interpersonal, and is based upon inequality of influence between the leader as the influencing agent and the followers as the object of his efforts to due their behavior so that it will conform with his personal objectives.9 2. Leaders coordinate an Iranian society in which the various occupational groups, such as merchants and farmers, are arranged in discrete, self-contained vertical compartments, with assumed conflicting occupational interests. Without such coordinated harmony, occupational feuds would break out and the cohesion of Iranian society would be threatened. 45 3. Leaders are equalizers of society. This is because intergroup harmony and cooperation, so essential to the social order, must be based upon an equitable distribution of wealth and social privilege in the society. 4. Leaders provide public service benefits for the others in the society. The leader must be able to determine when and on what terms services must be offered. 5. Leaders provide guidance. Their goals are the adjustment of individuals to their social groupings and the adjustment of social groupings to the general social order so that individuals will accept roles and assume responsibilities within a society guided by its leaders. The good leader, although he is to be strong and decisive and is respected for this, can never gain the confidence and support of the followers without sincerity. For, the Iranian argues, technical shortcomings can be remedied, but lack of sincerity cannot be rectified. Opportunities for Leadership Since political institutions, such as the party system or any other partisan group, are very new in 46 Iran, the emergence of leadership is related to the degree of personal performance and dedication to Iranian values. For example, a cadet who is serving in a development corps in a small city may, based upon his performance, be selected by the people, after his army term is over, to serve as a mayor of that town. In general, then, the Iranian social structure could be said to be analogous to a solar system wherein the sun is in the middle and in different orbits there are a number of satellites. Based on individual initiative, capability, and momentum, each human satellite (as a satellite in an orbit of varying distance from the sun) can change orbits. Indeed, if traditional Iranian society has been to some degree class-structured, numerous examples indicate that the personnel who composed these classes have been less rigidly assigned to them than might be supposed. Social mobility, then, has always been a possibility in Iran. In recent years especially, the magnitude of movement has been drastically enhanced. There are numerous examples of this mobility that some are frequently cited by Persians. One, for example, concerns a nineteenth century prime minister of Iran, Mirza Taghi Khan, Amir Kabir (the great Amir), as he is known, who was "truthful, incorruptible...and placed the 47 financing of the country of something resembling a 10 business-like footing." In addition, he established the first school with a modern curriculum in Iran. Yet in spite of his exalted position, Amir Kabir's father has been a cook and steward. Another kingly example is Nadir Shah, who came from a modest Iranian family into power. Moreover, there are many political leaders and ministers who have been recruited into political leadership. According to Lord George N. Curzon, Iran's rather rigidly defined social structure, in which mobility was always, nevertheless, a possiblity, gave a highly "democratic" tinge to the society. For every man sees a chance of someday profiting by the system of which he may for a moment be the victim and as the present hardships or exaction is not to be compared in ratio with the pecuniary advantage which he may ultimately expect to reap, he is willing to bide his time and trust to the fall of dice in the future.11 Leadership Selection: Procedural Alternatives Historically, one can trace concern for the study of leadership and the "political elite" to the writings of 12 Aristotle, specifically in his book Politics, or of Machiavelli in The Prince and Other Discourses, and also to an eleventh century Persian philosopher, Nizamul- 13 Molk. Most of these classical writings deal with the 48 intellectual explanation of power and leadership of a country. It appears that after the Renaissance, and particularly in the period from Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1679) to Max Weber (1864-1920), little was done to systematically investigate leadership.14 But, "in the last quarter of a century and particularly the last decade," says Robert Dahl, "the problem of providing operational meaning and measurements for the concept of power and influence has received a great deal of attention.15 Since the early 1950's, then, considerable effort has been made, by numerous scholars in political science and sociology, to establish a theoretical formulation and a methodology by which a study identifying leaders could be conducted. - Most of these early studies, generally falling into two categories, attempted to discover "who governs" (to use Dahl's formulation). The first category includes the writings of Lasswell, Lerner, Norton Long, Peter Bachrach and others. These are intellectual abstract narratives that are both highly complex and theoretical, and their authors tend to employ historical evidence to support their perspectives on the "political elite and their postulates about their behavior. The second category may be traced back to Lincoln Steffens' Shame 49 p; the Cities, published in 1904, and to subsequent studies by Lynd, Hunter and Dahl. Primarily of an empirical nature based on observation and exploration of the community elite,16 these studies have differed from those in the first category in methodology and techniques, especially since 1950. (For a review of most of these early writings, one can refer to several bibliographies, as well as Main Street Politics by Charles Press, which provides an extensive summary of 17 articles written up to the 1960s. What has emerged as a methodological framework for community elite studies in the two decades since 1950, then, has been summarized by Howard Ehrlich as follows: Three procedures are generally used for the identification of community leaders. Leaders may be assessed by criteria of position, by criteria of participation, and by criteria of reputation. Most researchers have relied on the latter two procedures and have made assessments exclusively on the basis of participation or on the basis of reputation. In a few studies in which both procedures have been used together, they have appeared to yield listings of community leaders of varying degrees of similarity. D'Antonio and Form, for example, report in their El Paso study 71 to 93 percent of the key decision-makers in one or more of the six issues they have studies were also reputed leaders.18 Each of the above mentioned procedures will be described below. 50 The Positional Method According to Terry, Clark, the positional method consists of "simply defining community leaders as the incumbents of high positions in major community institutions--government, political parties, industry, labor unions, and the like."19 Within this method, those who hold high political, administrative or economic positions, and perhaps others such as religious figures, are the true leaders of the community. The underlying assumption of this approach is that institutional leadership is equivalent to community leadership. Of course, this assumption has been challenged by a number of scholars such as Freeman,20 Dahl,21 and Polsby.22 And the refutation offered by detractors first centers around the problem of identification of institutions within a community that could be considered an important part of the community organizational structure. For example, Freeman, in his study of the community leadership of Syracuse, New York, used four categories to identify leaders: 1. Leadership in decision-making, 2. leadership in social activity, 3. leadership by reputation, 4. leadership by position. 51 He found that there is a high correlation (.74) between reputational and positional leadership, but only a .22 correlation between position and social activity, and a 39 correlation between position and participation in decision-making.23 Another example of the positional study is that conducted by D'Antonio24 and his associates which found ten institutions in areas such as education, labor, etc. that represented the community's main organizations. A similar attempt was made by Freeman25 who could discover only seven main institutions. And, in fact, the problem of identifying the important institutions within a community remains one of the main shortcomings of this method. A second criticism is that those who hold high offices may not be the "true leaders" but only figureheads, i.e., the problem of potential power vs. the actual exercise of power. The Reputation (Elitist) Method According to Harry R. Dick, "one of the most popular methods for the study of community infuence systems, or power structure, appears to be the utilization, in one fpgm or another, of the 'reputational' approach." Wolfinger suggests that "the basic assumption underlying this method is that 52 reputation for influence is an index of the distribution of influence."27 A pioneer study by Hunter in Atlanta, Georgia represents one of the earliest research efforts employing the reputational method for identifying community leaders. 28 Hunter describes his method by stating that: "The leaders selected for study were secured from lists of leading civic, professional, and fraternal organizations, governmental personnel, business leaders, and 'society' and wealthy personnel suggested by various sources."29 In essence, according to this method, a group of well-informed people is selected to nominate influential members of their community. These people in turn are asked to identify the community leadership. Based on the frequency with which an individual is nominated by the selected members, community leaders are identified. Harry R. Dick summarizes the procedures employed in the reputational technique as follows: Some fundamental procedures have come to be fairly standardized, typically consisting of the following general phases: 1) A preliminary master list of names of community leaders, or possible influentials, is compiled. These names are derived in a variety of ways, including nominations by heads of formal organizations in the community or by so-called knowledgable persons (individuals who are presumed to be "in the know" about community power dynamics), information 53 obtained from newspapers, and the investigators' personal judgments. 2) This list of names is submitted to a special panel of "knowledgeables" who are asked to select or vote for those whom they consider to be most influential. 3) Persons receiving the "most" votes by some arbitrary standard are selected from this list and treated as the influentials of the community. 4) Often an attempt is made to determine a special group of "top" influentials, or "elites," by asking the previously designated influentials who they think are most influential, and by additional techniques.30 31 Sollie in his study utilized three different means to identify community leaders within the framework of the reputational technqique: 1. a panel of experts, who were professionals who had lived and worked in the area for several years: 2. community leaders, who were suggested by the panel of experts; 3. a series of interviews with community residents following the "snowball" technique. (The snowball techiques involves asking a respondent, usually selected at random, to nominate persons by using some criteria of selection. The second person is selected from the names provided by the first respondent and the third person is chosen from the names provided by the second respondent.) Sollie found that, as a result of the use of these three methods, there was a high degree of agreement in 54 selection of community leaders, and thus concluded that the reputational technique could be utilized with confidence. And Walton,32 in reviewing 41 community studies, suggests that reputational techniques offer a better picture of the community leadership structure than do other methods. Indeed, a review of literature indicates that many scholars in recent years have adopted this technique and continue to regard it as a highly systematic method of studying the leadership of political systems.33 However, this technique, like others, is not without its critics. As an example, Wolfinger suggests that: There are two major causes of ambiguity inherent in asking respondents to name in rank order the most powerful members of their community: the variability of power from one type of issue to another: and the difficulty of making sure that researcher and respondent share the same definition of power.34 Wolfinger further maintains that "an individual's perception of political power varies with different issues." Thus, he believes that "general power rankings are misleading."35 Herbert Kaufman and Victor Jones are other critics of the reputational method; in fact, they were among the first who questioned the validity of Hunter's study. They claim that what Hunter found was reputation for 55 power which may be greatly different from "real" power. And they suggest that the only way one can see whether or not an individual has real power is through examination of instances in which a person has influenced the outcome of a decision in the desired direction.36 While it is important to consider some of the points that critics like the above have identified as deficiencies of this technique, one has to recognize nevertheless that reputational methods, with some modification, are still widely used, and seemingly with some success. One of the latest studies that has employed the technique was conducted by Marvin Zonis in his search for the political elite of Iran. He suggested that, due to the complexity of the research, the two-stage reputational technique offered the best possible methodology for this highly complex and 37 sophisticated task. The Issue Analysis Method Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz in their book Power and Poverty correctly assert that "the issue analysts concentrate their attention not upon the sources of 38 power, but its exercise." They go further to suggest 56 that pluralists, in contrast to reputationalists, want: 1. to select for study a number of "key" as opposed to "routine" political decision, 2. to identify the people who took an active part in the decision-making process, 3. to obtain a full account of their actual behavior while the policy conflict was being resolved, and 4. to determine and analyze the specific outcome of the conflict.39 The issue analyst usually accepts the notion suggested by Lasswell and Kaplan in 1950: that power in its real sense means "participation in decision- making."40 In this light, Polsby, an advocate of this approach to community leadership study, asserts that the researcher should get involved in a detailed examination of the entire decision-making process over a wide range of issues, for to him "power may be tied to issues, and issues can be fleeting or persistent, provoking coalitions among interested groups and citizens, ranging in their duration from momentary to semi-permanent."41 Since 1960 a number of researchers who have used this technique in studying community power structure have for the most part tended to conclude that power is pluralist. According to Hawley and Wirt, 57 This school tends to conclude that power was not concentrated in the hands of one group but was dispersed among a number of groups, each of which tended to be limited to its special sphere, with only the top elected political leader providing some coordination of power resources....these scholars tended to conclude that the mass of citizens have varying degrees of influence which may be indirect, in the sense that officials tend to anticipate and be guided by citizens' concerns. In general, pluralists apply the case study approach in analyzing the active roles community leaders play in dealing with community issues. Political scientists have used this technique extensively and believe that community power is dispersed in various ways among the members of the community. This technqiue also has its critics. For example, Charles Press Claims that The key difficulty with issues analysis is that it, too, rests on assumptions of simple rationalty, namely that only those whose actions are observable influence the outcome of the decision. This is one of the propositions of interest-group analysis which, in the hands of an inexperienced researcher, may lead to a shallow view of the political process.43 Summapy Regardless of their methodological differences, historians often defend the "greatest man in history" thesis, while political scientists and sociologists typically maintain the "social force" position. 58 Further, American political scientists frequently support the pluralist position in elite studies, with 44 sociologists advancing the stratification argument. 45 Donald Searing summarizes the entire controversy about leadership study: Leadership theory construction has been confounded by two often dogmatic controversies. One is the great man-social forces dispute in individual leadership studies. The other is the pluralist- stratification debate in elite research... In individual leadership analysis, "great-man-in- history" studies usually construct the familiar mechanistic model of social action, whereas the "social forces" approach typically turns the organismic model to good account. In aggregate or elite studies we find the same two models again: pluralist analyses producing the mechanistic, and stratification studies, the organismic in this case. I say models of social action, because few contemporary researchers explicitly argue that their model is applicable beyond a sub-class of cases similar to the one from which it has been constructued. Confusion and controversy arise when these limited and tentative models are rigidified into images of man and society understood as isomorphic to call contexts of social experience. The manner in which mechanistic and organismic models cut across both individual leadership and elite controversies may be summarized as follows: Individual Leadership Elite Studies Studies Mechanistic Models Great Men Pluralist in History Organismic Models Social Stratification Forces 59 The Application p; 3 Modified Two-Stage Reputational Technique pp the Iranian Milieu Taking into consideration the cultural basis for leadership in Iran to the unique characteristics of Iranian society, one has to adopt a methodology for leader identification which is compatible with the nature of that environment in which the study is to be conducted. In the preceding pages the author has attempted to describe the over-all leadership structure in Iran and then to review briefly several methodologies which have been employed by American scholars in identifying community leaders in America. Although it is very difficult to transfer any one of these methods to an Iranian milieu, one can modify certain aspects of each of these methods so that they can facilitate the research and be adaptable to the Iranian environment. Based on these considerations, then, the modified two- stage reputational technique served the purpose of this researcher in surveying community needs from the point of view of Iranian community leaders and the public-at- large within that community. How that technique was applied is discussed in the next chapter. 6O NOTES-CHAPTER II 1 Harold O. Lasswell, Daniel Lerner and Easton Rothwell, The Comparative Study p; Elites(Stanford University Press, 1952), p. 1. 2 Ann Ruth Willner, Charismatic Political Leadership: A Theopy (Princeton: Princeton University Center for International Studies, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, 1965), p. 2. 3 Willner, p. 3. 4 Max Weber, "The Three Types of Legitimate Rule," in Complex Organization, ed. Amital Etzioni (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961), p. 7. 5 Willner, p. 74. 6 Herbert H. Vreeland, et al., ed., Iran (New Haven: Human Relations Area Files, 1957), p. 123. 7 Marvin Zonis, The Political Elite p; Iran (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 120. 8 Vreeland, et al., p. 304. 9 Lewis J. Edinger, ed., Political Leadership pp Industrial Society (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967), p. 15. 61 10 Sir Percy M. Sykes, A Histopy p: Persia, A Vol. (London: McMillan and Co., 1921), Vol. 2, p. 340. 11 Lord George N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, 2 Vol. (London: Longmans Queen and Co., 1892), Vol. 1, p. 444. 12 Aristotle, The Politics p; Aristotle, trans, with introductory notes and appendices by Ernest Banker (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), 168-215. 13 NIZAM-UL-MULK, Siyasat-Name (The Book p; Government pp Rules for Kings), trans. Hubert Drake (London: Routledge and Kegan Pual, 1960). 14 Robert Dahl, "Who Governs," The Search for Communipy Power, ed. Willis D. Hawley and Frederick M. Wirt (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1974), p. 87. 15 Ibid., p. 87. 16 Hawley and Wirt, p. viii. 17 Charles Press, Main Street Politics: A Survey p: Periodical Literature Since 1950 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1962). 18 Howard J. Ehrlich, "The Social Psychology of Reputations for Community Leadership," in Hawley and Wirt, p. 231. 19 Terry N. Clark, ed., Community Structure and Decision-Making: Comparative Analyses (San Francisco: Chandler Publications, 1968), p. 473. 62 20 Linton C. Freeman et al., Metropolitan Decision- Making (Syracuse: University College of Syracuse University, 1962), pp. 12-15. 21 Robert Dahl, "A Critic of the Ruling Elite Model," American Political Science Review pp (June 1958): pp. 463-469. 22 Nelson W. Polsby, Community Power and Political Theopy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), p. 45. 23 Freeman, p. 15. 24 W.V. D'Antonio et al., "Institutional and Reputational Representatives in Eleven Community Influence Systems," American Sociological Review, 26 (1961), pp. 44-446. 25 Freeman. 26 Harry R. Dick, "A Method for Ranking Community Influentials," American Sociological Review, 25, No. 3 (June 1960), p. 395. 27 Raymond E. Wolfinger, "Reputational and Reality in the Study of 'Community Power,' American Sociological Review, 25, No. 3 (October 1960), p. 636. 28 Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953). 29 Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure, in Hawley and Wirt, p. 52. 3O Dick, p. 395. 63 31 C. R. Sollie, "A Comparison of Reputational Techniques for Identifying Community Leaders," Rural Sociology, 31 (1966), pp. 301-309. 32 John Walton, "Substance and Artifact: The Current Status of Research on Community Power Structure," American Journal pg Sociology, 71 (1966), pp. 430-438. 33 Frank London, American Journal pg Sociolpgy 60 (March 1955), pp. 522-523: C. Wright Milles, Social Forces 32 (October 1953), pp. 92-93; Louis Smith, Journal p; Politics 16 (February 1954), pp. 146-150: Donald S. Strong, American Political Science Review 48 (March 1954), pp. 235-237. For other endorsements of the reputational method see Gordon W. Blackwell, "Community Analysis," in Young, pp. 305-317; William J. Gore and Fred S. Silander, "A Bibliographical Essay on Decision- Making," Administrative Science Quarterly 4 (June 1959), p. 106; Arthur Kornhauser, "Power Relationships and the Role of the Social Scientist," in Problems pp Power 1p American Democracy, ed. A. Kornhauser (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1957), p. 196. 34 Wolfinger, p. 638. 35 Ibid. 36 Kaufman and Jones, "The Mystery of Power," Public Administration Review 14 (Summer 1954), pp. 205-212. 64 37 Marvin Zonis, The Political Elite of Iran (Princeton: University Press, 1971), p. 345. 38 Peter Bachrach and Morton S. Baratz, Power and Poverty (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 6. 39 Ibid. 40 Harold Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 75. 41Nelson W. Polsby, "How to Study Community Power: The Pluralist Alternative," Journal pp Politics 22 (August 1960): pp. 478-479. 42Hawley and Wirt, p. 136. 43Press, p. iii. 44John Walton, "Discipline, Method, and Community Power: A Note on the Sociology of Knowledge," American Sociological Review 31 (October 1966), pp. 2694-698. 45Donald Searing, "Models and Images of Man and Society in Leadership Theory," Journal p; Politics 31 (1969), pp. 3-4. CHAPTER III RESEARCH CRITERIA AND METHODOLOGY Research Criteria Within the framework of the foregoing discussion in Chapter I and II, this author conducted a community survey study in Kerman, a medium-sized city in Iran. While Baldwin and Greenberg's ascertainment proposal (referred to in Chapter I) was used as a guideline, the author adapted these procedures to the Iranian context. The purpose of conducting such a survey was to identify potential areas of public interest to which the broadcasting system should respond through its programming policy. Further, the success of the survey depended on four main criteria: 1. Appropriate selection of a city in Iran having a local station with production capability and capacity. In addition, the city had to be an adequate representative of its Ostan (Province): 65 66 2. Appropriate selection of community elites and community leaders; 3. Appropriate selection of a representative sample of the general public-at-large as an audience for broadcast programs: 4. Appropriate selection of local station programming and production personnel to identify community needs. Prior to discussing criteria, it is necessary to review the reasons for using the Master Problem List and the development of the survey questionnaire. The Master Problem List The primary goal of this research was to identify community needs as perceived and program preferences as indicated by the three distinct groups described in No. 2 and 4 above. To identify community needs, the research had two options: first, to survey the community itself regarding perceived needs and use this input to construct a questionnaire: second, to refer to an already existing Master Problem List in the CPB Handbook and tailor its contents to local conditions. The second option was adapted, and the Master Problem List proposed by Baldwin and Greenberg in the CPB Handbook was taken as a guide becuse it was complete 67 as far as vital issues were concerned and concise with regards to research. Having the Master Problem List as a main source of constructing the questionnaire, five response categories based on Likert scale were used. To some it may seem ironic that a problem list prepared for the public broadcasting system in the United States could be used in Iran. Yet the problems listed are semantically similar, e.g., juvenile crime, drug abuse, pollution, housing shortages, medical/dental care, etc., though they may not be necessarily the same in substance and content. For example, while the housing shortage is acute in Kerman, neither home structure nor architecture is the same. For the same reasons city services in Kerman are not identical to those in the United States. It must be mentioned that some segments of the Master Problem List were deleted and replaced with needs and problems of an indigenous nature. Question No. 38, for example, asks whether it is convenient to find a mechanic to repair one's car and question No. 39 asks about Kerman's road connections to the rest of the country. But, in general, the Master Problem List was highly useful and provided a constructive framework for the design and development of sections one and two of the questionnaire. In addition, NIRT's public survey findings over several years aided in the introduction of 68 new radio and television programs in section two of the questionnaire. The Study Questionnaire The questionnaire used in the study comprised a cover page and four sections as follows: 1. The cover provided general information about the interviewer's name, the number of approaches to be made to interviewees, and group classifications. 2. Section I of the questionnaire covered most of the problem/need areas. In this section guidelines suggested by Good and Scates were used. According to these guidelines, one must observe the following principles in designing a questionnaire: a. make it sufficiently interesting so that it will be responded to and completed; b. questions must be asked in such a way that responses will not be embarrassing to the respondent.1 In addition to observance of these guidelines, Baldwin and Greenberg's proposed questionnaire to the CBP Handbook was taken as a model. In this study five response categories (Likert scale) were adapted in order to provide a wider scope for response than the "yes" or "no" scale used in many ascertainment questionnaires. 69 3. Section II of the questionnaire offers lists of possible topics for radio and television programs. 4. Section III consists of open-ended questions, the purpose of which was to give the respondent an opportunity to indicate any needs/problems/programs not found in the preceding two sections. The open-ended question was placed at the end for two specific reasons: a. having respondents become acquainted with the general topics, and objective of the study, b. preventing respondents from getting on a tangent and missing the scope and nature of the study, 5. Section IV sought demographic information and was replicated from an already existing questionnaire at NIRT's Public Opinion Survey Center. In this section, nine demographic variables were chosen in order that the researcher be able to tabulate responses according to differing age, sex, occupation, education, etc. In general, the following steps were taken in the development of the research instrument: 1. The Master Problem List provided guidelines for identification of areas and categories of needs. 2. A survey of NIRT's radio and television programs, combined with a review of NIRT's Public 70 Opinion Survey Department's reports on audience preferences and a personal image of Iranian society and extensive discussions and consultation with researchers at the Communication Research Center of Iran helped in the development of Section II of the questionnaire. It is necessary to be mentioned here that numerous studies which were conducted by the members of NIRT's Public Opinion Survey Department and Commmunication Research Center of Iran were available to the researchers. Information collected from these studies, accompanied by the meeting with senior researchers, helped to develop the questions in Section II. 3. The questionnaire was translated into Persian and circulated in 'NIRT's Public Opinion Survey Department. At the same time, 20 people were chosen randomly from Tehran's telephone directory for testing the questionnaire. From these two groups two criticisms were offered. One was related to some of the Persian phrases which were not clear and the other to the number and scope of problems and programs covered by the questionnaire. Based on this feedback, the questionable Persian phrases were simplified, but no reduction in number of questions was made. 4. The final questionnaire was taken to Kerman for implementation. 71 Selection pg the Study Locality In selecting a location for this study, the author made the following criteria his guiding principles: 1. The city should possess a combination of traditional and modern life styles: 2. the city should reflect both traditional and modern modes in its economic structure, i.e., a combination of old and new industries, farming methods and social services; 3. the city should be representative of its region; 4. the city should have a local broadcasting station capable of producing local programs and other resources to meet its goals and objectives; 5. there should be an adequate number of receivers (both radio and television) throughout the city. The author chose the city of Kerman as one which satisfied the above mentioned criteria. Founded in 226 AD by King Ardeshir and located in the southeastern part of Iran, Kerman has been the administrative center (capital) of its Ostan (province) since the 10th century. The city's population, estimated at 100,000 (1975 Iran Almanac), comprises members of all the major religions in Iran. Further, Kerman reflects a general 72 characteristic of most Iranian cities in that while its roots are traditional, it is racing, along with other cities in Iran, towards modernization. With both old and new industrial sectors, Kerman's carpet industry is one of the world's most famous, and it has an operative coal mine and a copper refining industry under construction as well. It is estimated that this latter industry will provide Iran in the future with a source of revenue equivalent to that provided by oil. Finally, the city has one university, numerous elementary and secondary schools, and many other modern social service facilities. Selection pp Community Leaders According to Marvin Zonis, One problem that has long interested potential scientists is the variance between the distribution of power according to the formal institutions and structures of government and its actual distribution in the political system. The majority of empirical studies of foreign elites have failed to confront this problem but have been content, with some effort at rationalization, to assume that the holders of formal positions--be they legislators, cabinet members, political party members, or what have you--were in some way coterminous with the political elite.2 The concept of community elites here refers to individuals who actually exercise an inordinate amount 73 3 of power within a given community. Robert Dahl maintains that in every society, regardless of its forms and postures, there are tiny minorities who make key political, social and economic decision.4 The dilemma posed here is how to locate them. There are several schools that advocate a variety of ways to do this (some of these have been discussed in Chapter II); for example, Dahl is famous for his decision approach, while Floyd Hunter is well associated with stratification techniques for locating community leaders. In attempting to locate community leaders in Kerman, however, this author began using the position approach as the first step in identifying leaders with the following criteria as guidelines: 1. government position as a power base; 2. wealth as a power base (such as industralists, businessmen and owners of modern agro-industrial operations); 3. education as a power base (such as doctors, engineers, teachers, etc.): 4. social and political status (religion, family, politics) as a power base. In order to obtain a representative sample of individuals in the above four categories, a modified two-stage reputational technique was utilized. This 74 technique first identified the holders of formal positions within the government, then queried them as to who they believed the community elites were. This approach is in harmony with Lasswell, who maintains that: The search for a political elite may begin with what is conventionally known as the government. Conventionally speaking, government is the institution which is so named by the members of the community in question. Functionally, however, only the institution which makes the severely sanctioned choice can qualify. Since the true decision makers are not necessarily known at the beginning of research, the investigator can select government in the conventional sense as a convenient starting point.5 To locate holders of formal positions and regional directors of public and private offices, the local telephone directory was used, and from it the numbers of the following were obtained: 1. 70 government offices and agencies, 2. 18 banks and their major branches, 3. 2 universities (one the University of Kerman and the other a branch of a national university), 4. 3 vocational and junior colleges, 5. 15 high schools 6. 51 elementary schools 7. 78 private companies, local industries, con- tractors, and retail shops. 75 In addition to this selection from the telephone directory, a formal request was submitted to the office of the then Governor General and to the Chamber of Commerce for lists of government agencies and private companies, but both these letters remained unanaswered. Lists of local doctors were not classified in the telephone directory, but through personal contact the author was able to obtain the names and addresses of seven prominent doctors in town. From these lists a composite representation of visible and known leaders was attained which covered the following positional categories: 1. government position as a power base, 2. wealth as a power base, 3. education as a power base. In order to complete the list of people that had to be included in the second category, the author made personal contact with local friends and some officials to obtain the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of ten people (including local bazaar merchants) who were highly reputed and wealthy enough to exercise power. The most difficult part of this research was establishing contacts with political and religious leaders. These people are usually reserved (due to prevailing circumstances) and normally decline to 76 cooperate. Their reluctance became more acute at the time this research was conducted primarily due to the fact that in September 1978, when the author was in Kerman for this research project, Iran was on the verge of a social upheaval which subsequently led to a national revolution. While all religious leaders (clergy) declined to comment and rejected any discussion relating to radio and television, still they were kind enough to grant this author the privilege of paying personal visits to them. Local political groups were divided into two categories: pro-regime and anti-regime (regime refers to the Pahlavy dynasty). Each group had its own unique response to this research. Those who were pro-regime at the time of this research (September 1978) were confused and hesitant to express any opinion. They were highly suspicious of this endeavor and were under the impression that the system was trying to check on them. They therefore maintained that until the political climate cleared they could not answer questions. Those political leaders opposed to the regime comprised, religious groups, nationalists with liberal orientation, liberals and the political left. The author was able to meet them at several parties at the homes of local friends where they expressed their 77 overall view of the system and criticized it openly (of course, in the homes to which we were invited there was an atmosphere of mutual trust); they maintained that national problems were of such magnitude as to dwarf the remedies that this research was going to offer. They even went so far as to suggest that the entire effort was useless, indicating that the entire Iranian value system, Iranian methods of governing nationally and locally, Iranian life style and the degree of Iranian dependency on foreigners had to change completely. Most of them suggested that radio and television change from the present programming policy of copying the west to a novel Iranian-based one. However, when they were asked exactly what had to be done, no concrete answers were preferred. The discussion centered around Gestalt topics and focused on total systems. They insisted that the modus operandi of the entire socio-political system had to change, and that consequently, radio and television would have no alternative but to follow suit. Although social discourse with these people was highly enlightening, then, their contribution to this research amounted to discouragement and pessimism. Thus, while a modified two-stage reputational technique worked well in identifying community leaders in Kerman, the extenuating political circumstances in Iran at the time of this 78 study (September 1959) prevented a fully effective utilization of this method. From a total of 263 people who held responsible positions in the offices, agencies and companies comprising three categories of leadership, 25 percent (65 people) were randomly selected. After personal contact with all 65, only 39 people, or 65 percent of the selected population accepted our invitation for an interview, and the remainder excused Themselves. Appendix H provides detailed demographic and media usage information about the 39 elites or community leaders who participated in this project (See Appendix C for questions asked to gain these data). Selection p; Random Sample p; the Public pOne of the important aspects of this study was the creation of a sample of the entire population. To ensure this requirement it was necessary that the sample be selected randomly in order to give an equal chance to each unit of the population to be drawn into the sample. Such random selection proved to be very difficult in Iran, mainly because many conventional methods of identifying samples, such as using the telephone directory, city zoning, etc., do not work well there due to the different structure of the country's urban 79 settings. This problem was further complicated by the fact that there has been little social research actually conducted in Kerman: thus, people were not very receptive. Nevertheless, despite these constraints, the following process was undertaken in order to secure an unbiased, randomly selected sample. Most cities in Iran, especially those which are several centuries old, cannot be compared with American cities. In every Iranian city there is a center, called a "bazaar" or sometimes a "midan," where local merchants have their shops. Around this "bazaar" a cluster of houses is built with tall walls separating one house from another. The ony way to reach town from these houses is through narrow passways called "koche" which are usually eight feet wide (approximately one to two meters). Along each one of these "koche" there are between 10 to 40 houses. What has happened in recent years is that some of these old housing sections are being demolished or avenues are being constructed through other ones by widening these "koche" to include adjacent house gardens to make room for modern transportation. It is only in the new sections of Iranian cities that one finds proper city planning and zoning. Although there are 20 maps of Kerman covering the entire 80 city area, it is important to know that many of the sections are identical in character and composition of inhabitants. For example, the city sections covering housing for employees of the Ministry of Education are divided in half and placed on separate maps. The same is true for military personnel. Other sections are not developed enough yet. It was for these reasons that ten sections, representing all cluster of people of the entire city, were selected. The selection of these town resulted from consultation with local municipal, statistical department governing offices and, above all, with local NIRT's Public Opinion Survey Department. Descriptions of the ten sections are as follows: 1. Sections 11/31 and 25/31 of the city's map cover areas in which all classes live, from prominent merchants to peddlers. In addition to these people, in revised section 25/31 a number of retired and active officers of the army reside, mainly because it is located near the army base. It is worth noting that this section is the oldest part of the city, and the majority of people who live there are not well-educated, the average length of their studies ranging from no education to nine years (first cycle). 81 2. Section 1/31 covers areas in which personnel of the local Department of Education live, including elementary and high school teachers. 3. Section 20/31 covers an area largely inhabited by Zoroastrians (people who practice the ancient Persian religion). 4. Section 9/31 of the city's map covers housing projects for government employees, wherein most government employees, especially those that have been transferred from elsewhere, are situated. In this section local Christian and Jewish families are located as well. 5. Sections 3/31, 12/31, 19/31, and 14/31 comprise areas inhabited by people of varying income levels. These ten sections selected from the city map cover people from all walks of life who live in Kerman. Each section was divided into segments based on the number of streets and koche (the narrow alleys or streets described earlier). Within each segment the interviewer was instructed to start with the third house on his right and follow a route taking him to every third house. Often his position had to be changed from the right side of the street to the left so that he could reach his termination point. 82 g :5 a 5 9, A E E 83 The interviewer was instructed to start with a male respondent and then alternate between male and female. This would result in 50 percent male and 50 percent female respondents. If he reached a house where the required sex was not available, he was told to skip that house and go on to the next. For the age category, one- half below 35 years and one-half above was considered a guideline. This 50/50 approach was the only way the researcher could attain a suitable public sample since there was no other frame of reference available and all available statistical publications contain overall Province information which is generally vague. Altogether 159 people were selected, 70 male and 89 female from the public for interview (demograhic particulars are presented Appendix H). (See Appendix C for questions asked to gain desired data.) With regard to public sample, the following explanation seems necessary: 1. Since there are no up to the information, statistics for general profile of public in any city of Iran, it was therefore impossible to check whether the collected sample was representative or not. 2. The only available alternative was random sampling based on the method already described. It is, however, important to note that the employed method has 84 been used before by NIRT research groups and had been recommended as a reliable method. 3. Having adopted a recommended strategy for a public sample as described in preceeding pages interviewers were able to identify 159 people as respondents. Randomness by no means was sacrificed for number of public sample. 4. Considering political atmosphere at the time of this study (September 1979) it was not possible to reach a large sample without some difficulty. 5. Although the guideline was to use a 50/50 approach for sex and age categories, the actual collected data does differ slightly and the researcher found no reason for omitting them for the sake of balancing. All interviewing and data collection was done by 11 local people who had some previous experience in the area of field studies (having formerly worked for NIRT's Public Opinion Research Department). These interviews were given adequate training and carried with them the questionnaire translated into Farsi. (See Appendix D for a copy). 85 Selection p; Broadcast Personnel The third group of respondents were key personnel at the local broadcast station who form the membership of local management teams. These people were selected from the station's formal organizational charts by the author and the local director of NIRT's Public Opinion Survey Department and sent a letter of introduction from the researcher (See Appendix E). The total number of key personnel was 7 out of a total of 70 (10%) of the employees at the center. These 70 people, including a regional director, television production manager, radio production manager, technical manager, news manager, and two radio and television producers are generally responsible for the entire operation of the center as far as programming is concerned. They decide what should or should not go on the air. They also determine content and style for both radio and television, and, subsequently, based on their capability, they receive permission from the radio and television network director in Tehran for a certain number of local broadcasting hours. The network allocation for local radio broadcasting at the time of this research was only ten hours each day (from 9 a.m. to 12 a.m., 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. and 9 p.m. to 86 12 p.m.). The remaining hours belonged to broadcasting network programs and for television two hours, one hour before the network's starting hour and another hour any time except during prime time of (highly special) network programs. The allowance for weekends was four to six hours. Although this group was small, their involvement with this research served: 1. to make them acquainted with topics or issues that could affect their area of service: 2. to provide this researcher an opportunity to identify the degree of discrepancy between broadcasters' view of public needs and the views of the other two major groups. Demographic and TV/radio usage information on broadcast personnel is presented in Appendix H. (See Appendix C for questions asked to obtain these data). One questionnaire was used for the three groups of respondents, composed of four parts (See Appendix C): Section I: General questions on community issues/needs. Section II: Programming questions. Section III: Open-ended questions on community issues. Section IV: General information questions. 87 This single questionnaire, when used for three groups, provided an adequate measurement of the degree of congruency among the three groups with regard to the dimensions of community needs. Compatible with the nature of the study an attempt was made to explore potential capabilities of statistical methods. For this reason three statistical methods namely: ranking, x2 (Chi-square) and analysis of variance were employed. Based on the application of three methods, collected data was analyzed and the result of the findings are presented in Chapter IV. It is important to be mentioned here that the main purpose of adopting three methods was to demonstrate to the future researcher the final outcome of each method and its effectiveness for decision making. In addition it was also intended to make it simple for them to choose any method that best served their purpose. 88 NOTES--CHAPTER III 1 Carter V. Good and Douglas E. Scaters, Methods pp Research (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1954, pp. 615, 616. 2 Marvin Zonis, The Political Elite p; Iran (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 349, See, also, the following: George E. Schueller, "The Politburo," World Revolutionary Elites: Studies pp Coercive Learning (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1966), pp. 77-178 (a study of the members of the Politburo): Frederick W. Frey, The Turkish Political Elite (Cambridge: M.I. T. Press, 1965) (a study of members of the Turkish Parliament): Lester G. Seligman, Leadership pp A New Nation: Political Development pp Israel (New York: Aterton Press, 1964) (a study of members of the Israeli Knesset); and P.C. Lloyd, ed, the New Elites pg Tropical Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1966). In his introduction, Lloyd discloses that participants at the International African Institute's seminar "determined" that "the overwhelming majority of the elite of independent African states are in Government brueaucratic employment" (p. 7). 89 3 J.B. Bottomone, Elites and Society (London, 1964), pp. 8-9: Giovanni Sartori, Demoncratic Theopy (Detroit, 1962), p. 98: and Marshall R. Singers, The Emerging Elite: A Study pg Political Leadership ip Ceylon (Cambridge, 1964), p. 4. 4 Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961). 5 Harold D. Lasswell, "The Comparative Study of Elites: in Lasswell and Learner, ed. World Revolutionary Elites (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1966), p. 8. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Respondent Preferences and Differences From information collected, the following attempts were made to construct a framework for analysis: 1- Questions were ranked according to frequencies of response of three groups (Tables 1 and 2). 2- X2 (Chi-square) was used for public and elite (broadcasters were eliminated due to the fact that their group was small) to see whether there are any significant differences between these two groups with regard to needs and program choice. 3- Analyses of variance were used for all three categories of respondent to see whether there are any significant differences among them with regard to needs and program choice. Each one of these three methods provides insights to needs and program preferences of three groups of 90 91 respondents. In addition, since the entire purpose of this study was exploratory, alternative methods were employed in order to be able to identify facilitating capabilities of each for future research. The findings by each method are as follows: 1- Respondent Preferences and Differences According to Ranking Method: Based on frequencies of response to each question by members of the three groups Tables 1 and 2 were constructed. In these tables, for clearer identification of agreement and disagreement it was decided to add all strongly agree and agree responses together and add all disagree and strongly disagree response together. The same decision was made for the program policy section by adding vital and necessary response together and labeling them as most necessary. In this case not necessary remained the same and was labeled as least necessary. A review of the top ten questions as ranked in Tables 1 and 2 reveals that all elites strongly agree with the following ones: 1. Too many farmers are moving to your city. 2. Water service is good in Kerman. 3. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. 4. There is a drug problem in Kerman. 5. Life is becoming too complex. 8. 9. 10. The 92 Kerman is too crowded. Unemployment is high in Kerman. You have trouble finding mechanics to service and repair your car. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. Electric service is good in Kerman. statements with which elites most often disagreed were: 10. There is enough public transporation in Kerman. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. The municipal government does a good job. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. There is adequate housing in Kerman. I know the steps in the justice process. The goods you want in Kerman can be easily found. People moving into your community can find housing easily. Enough farm produce is available locally. You are prepared for the change taking place in Kerman. The ten programs indicated as most necessary in the cities were: 10. 93 programs on preventive medicine programs on simple home medical care programs on hygiene and cleanliness programs on getting good dental care programs on closing gaps between children and parents programs on simple home repair programs on introducing books, book reviews, and libraries introduction to Persian literature programs on how effectively to utilize your time at home programs on home and family budgeting The ten programs indicated as least necessary by elites were: 1. 2. 9. 10. introduction to western music programs on problems of living in apartment building programs on introduction to modern equipment such as calculators, computers, air conditioning, pumps, etc. programs on cooking programs on financial investing programs on growing house plants programs on national customs and home sewing programs on how the justice system works programs on home gardening programs on how to find a job 94 B. The public-at-large, while agreeing with the elites on most issues, differed on other issues such as gradual deterioration of local traditions and dissatisfaction with availability of certain goods and services. They ranked their top ten concerns as follows: 1. 10. There are too many private cars in Kerman. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. Life is becoming to complex. Kerman is too crowded. There is a drug problem in Kerman. Electric service is good in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. Modern conveniences for the home are available in Kerman. Too many farmers are moving to your city. The ten issues most strongly disagreed with by the people were: 1. 2. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. People moving into your community can find houses easily. The municipal government does a good job. There is adequate housing in Kerman. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. 95 7. I know the steps in the justice process. 8. It is easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. 9. The goods you want in Kerman can be easily found. 10. Enough farm produce is available locally. The ten programs the people indicated as least necessary were: 1. introduction to western music 2. programs on problems of living in an apartment building 3. programs on introduction to modern equipment such as calculators, computers, air condition, pumps, etc. 4. program on financial investing 5. programs on growing house plants 6. programs on simple automobile repair and services 7. introduction to Iranian music 8. programs on national customs and home sewing 9. programs on cooking 10. programs on how the justice system works C. Broadcasters did not share the same views as local elites and the public-at-large; they did not rank the same issues in their top ten choices. Instead, they emphasized recreation, college education, and air and water pollution. To them the top ten issues were as follows: 1. Water service is good in Kerman. 10. The 96 Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. There is a drug problem in Kerman. There is a water pollution problem in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. Too many farmers are moving to your city. Life is becoming too complex. You have trouble finding mechanics to service and repair your car. Too many people are moving from Kerman to the larger cities. issues most strongly disagreed with by broadcasters were: 1. 9. 10. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. There are adequate facilities (hotels and restaurants) for visitors to your city. Young people from Kerman can get into colleges. There is an air pollution problem in Kerman. The municipal government does a good job. Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for travel purposes. There is adequate housing in Kerman. People moving into your community can find housing easily. I know the steps in the justice process. You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. 97 Broadcasters ranked the following programs in their top ten choices: 10. programs on simple home repair programs on home gardening programs on closing gaps between children and parents programs on preventive medicine programs in simple home medical care introduction to Persian literature introduction to living conditions in other developing countries programs on how effectively to utilize your time at home programs on inexpensive home beautification programs on responsibilities of certain professions such as police, nurses and other people-selected service. Finally, the ten programs broadcasters indicated as least necessary were: 1. 2. 3. 4. programs on growing house plants programs on cooking introduction to western music programs on planning a balanced and nutritional diet programs on national customs and home sewing programs on housing (buying, renting, building) programs on owner-tenant relationships 98 8. programs on problems of living in an apartment building 9. programs on home and family budgeting 10. programs on how the justice system works 2- Respondent Preferences and Differences according to X2 (Chi-square) method: In order to be able to put the general findings in the preceeding tables in a concise form several statistical tests were contemplated. However, it became obvious that the limited number of persons to be identified as a local elite and policy makers at local radio and television inherently limits applications of statistical tools for analysis of collected data. Due to this limitation of sample size X2 (Chi-square) tests were used for only two groups of elite and public at large in order to see whether there is any significant differences between the two groups on any one of the questions. As it is indicated in Appendix E from calculated x2 the following categorizations are obtained: I. - When X2 is not significant 2 i.e. X. < 3.84 then: \ public and elites agree on existing problems 99 2 II. - When X is significant, in this case X2 ;.3.84 with confidence (P = 0.05) then: there is difference between agreement and disagreement of public and elites. Based on the above classification, the following summary of results on the first 40 questions related to community needs could be drawn: I. - When X2 < 3.8 \ Public and elite generally agree on the following issues: 1. Too many people are moving from Kerman to larger cities. 2. Kerman is too crowded. 3. The number of thefts has risen in Kerman. 4. There is a juvenile deliquency problem in Kerman. 5. The courts in Kerman are too lienient with criminals. 6. There is an air pollution problem in Kerman. 7. There is a water pollution problem in Kerman. 8. Water service is good in Kerman. 9. Electric service is good in Kerman. 10. The municipal government does a good job. 11. There is adequate housing in Kerman. 12. People moving into your community can find housing easily. 13. Modern conveniences for the home are available in Kerman. II. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 100 You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a dentist is a problem in Kerman. There is a drug problem in Kerman. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. Young people from Kerman can get into college. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. It is easy for people to find job in Kerman. Enough farm produce is available locally. Life is becoming to complex. You are prepared for the changes taking place in Kerman. You have trouble finding mechanics to service and repair your car. 2 - When X 3.3.8 public and elite differ on 1. following issues: The goods you want in Kerman can be easily found. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. I know the steps in the justice process. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. 101 5. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. 6. Going to a hospital is a problem in Kerman. 7. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. 8. Too many farmers are moving to your city. 9. Kerman is becoming too industralized. 10. There are too many private cars in Kerman. 11. Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for travel purposes. 12. There are adequate facilities for visitors to your city. When X2 test was applied for section two of the questionnaire related to programs of radio and television it was found that X 2 was significant (P = 0.05) only for six program areas. The public and elite differed on these issues: 1. Housing 2. Owner-Tenant relationship 3. Hygiene and cleanliness 4. Simple home repair 5. Introducing Iran and life styles in different regions 6. Introduction to western music 2 For the remaining 26 questions the X was not significant, therefore public and elites do agree on the following programs: 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 102 Problems of living in apartment buildings How effectively to utilize your time at home. Inexpensive home beautification. Growing house plants. Home gardening. Closing gaps between children and parents. Home and family budgeting. Getting good dental care. Preventative medicine. Simple home medical care. Simple autombile repair and service. Planning a balanced and nutritional diet. Cooking. How to use local service agencies. How the justice system works. Financial investing. How to find a job. Introducing books. National customs and home serving. Introduction to modern equipment. Responsibilities of certain professions. Introduction to Iranian music. Introduction to Persian literature. Introduction to living conditions in other developing countries. .— - mpwme—fi— _ ... —:—-— v . —--_.-' 103 3- Respondent Preferences and Differences Through Application of Analysis of Variance. Analysis of variance was used to investigate whether or not all three groups differ significantly among themselves with respect to needs and program policies. This statistical method served more advantageously then the other two proceeding methods in identifying areas of agreement and disagreement between the three groups. It proved to be an appropriate instrument in facilitating analysis of data. In this analysis when F ratio was found as great or greater than the appropriate table entry then F calculation > F table then this researcher concluded that the difference between the three groups are statistically significant and rejected the hypothesis of no difference, post hoc, between the means. Having found F significant then it was used for identifying items on which group differences exist. However, when F was not significant then, the null hypothesis was accepted. In other words, one cannot say that, from a statistical point of view, there are any significant differences between these three groups with respect to their response to questions under consideration. All calculations are presented in Appendix F. In 104 education, housing, and degree of industralization. They also do not share the same view on broadcasting policies, i.e. while elite and broadcasters are interested in programs such as western music and style of modern living the public is more concerned with programs that will address there immediate needs. These findings are surprisingly harmonious with the economic and welfare condition of the three study groups. It reflects needs of each group in accordance with their financial capabilities. The difference between broadcasters and the other two groups, elite and public, remains as it has been stated throughout this study. These findings are in Tables 3 and 4. Response pp Open-Ended Questions The following issues are identified by elites as major problems in the City of Kerman in response to the open-ended questions in Section III of the questionnaire. 1. In the main street of the City of Kerman traffic is highly congested during most working hours. 2. Skilled labour is not available in Kerman. 3. 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The following issues are identified by public at large as major problems in the City of Kerman in response to the open-ended questions in Section III of the questionnaire. 1. 10. 11. Water is not clean. Not enough inexpensive houses are available in the City of Kerman. Rents are too high. Public transportation is not adequate. Consumer goods are too expensive. Addiction to opium and other narcotic drugs. The City of Kerman lacks proper parks and recreation centers. Public telephone is available in only limited number at few selected places. Civil Servants lack proper motivation to work. The only time they can have things done is when they find some sort of connections. There are too many demonstrations by young people. Narrow streets in certain parts of the city are not paved at all. 112 12. The number of bakeries available in town is not enough. 13. There is no organization to be concerned about the problems of youth, specially when they are out of school. 14. University and technical colleges are closed most of the time during academic year for political reasons apparently. There are senior students who are waiting for a couple of years to be able to get their courses out of the way so that they can graduate. 15. Students from other parts of Iran have a difficult time finding a place to live in town. Present number of rooms in dormatories is not enough. 16. In some high schools students do not have school books. The following issues are identified by radio and television personnel as major problems in the City of Kerman in response to the open-ended questions in Section III of the questionnaire: 1. Not enough medical doctors in town. 2. Addiction to opium. 3. Lack of cultural and political awareness. 4. The City has to be taken care of better than it is now. 5. City needs good public works. 6. City needs recreation and sport centers. 7. For those government or private employees who are transferred from elsewhere to Kerman, Kerman life is very dull. It takes some time before one can find someone to associate with. 113 Here again it is evident that there are differences in perspectives between broadcasters and the public-at- large in the City of Kerman (at the time of this study) i.e. while broadcasters are looking for a more "societal" issues the public is concerned about immediate needs. It appears that broadcasters are more cosmopolitan while the public are more local. Fury—.7: .i a: W CHAPTER V STUDY CONCLUSIONS It is evident in tables of priorities (Tables 1 and 2) that the three groups of respondents do not share the same priorities on community needs, nor do they agree on certain issues. For example, elite and broadcasters do strongly agree that "finding mechanics to service your car is difficult" and "a youth revolution problem in Kerman is of concern," while neither of these problems appear in the top ten list of the public at large. In contrast to broadcasters, the elite in Kerman appeared to have a better perception of community needs. Indeed, in most cases their ratings were consistent with those of the public; they differed only on a few issues. There are some areas in which public and elite have common interests such as "the City of Kerman is too crowded" or "unemployment is high in Kerman" or "electric service is adequate" whereas none of these issues are within the top ten of broadcasters. 114 115 The reason for this similarity would seem to relate to the fact that the elites and the public are from the local community, while broadcasters are not local people. In fact, broadcasters in most cases had transferred to Kerman and, thus, were unable to accurately project local needs. But, there are several issues which are of concern of one group but irrelevant to the others. For instance, the public at large see the city being "highly crowded by private cars" and "local traditions being ignored," however, for elite these are of no immediate concern. While the elite and public share the same views that "public transport in Kerman is not sufficient" or "it is difficult to find help to get the things you need done," or "there is a shortage of agricultural products in Kerman." Broadcasters, in contrast, are concerned with inadequate availabilities of facilities such as: hotels, restaurants, medical services. They are concerned about the roads connecting Kerman to the other cities of the country. Discrepancies among the three groups indicate that the elite and the public are more concerned with immediate local needs while for broadcasters the needs are mostly cosmopolitan in nature. 116 Another explanation for the fact that broadcasters identified different needs is their educational level. See Appendix F wherein age and sex of respondent do not make a significant difference in percentage of response to each question, while education does. Males and females seldom differed in their order of priorities of local needs and program preferences; the same was true with age. But when education was taken into consideration, those with an education beyond the high school level did not rate the same needs as those below this level. In Kerman, as in most broadcasting centers at the time of this study, the average educational level achieved by local station managers was far beyond that of their counterparts in other organizations. This was primarily due to the fact that educated people at the time of this study were more attracted to broadcasting than any other government service except universities. Being more educated and having satisfied primary needs, such individuals will drive for life enrichment and intellectual enhancement. The problem remains for policy-makers to somehow utilize the public broadcasting system to serve all population groups within a nation. And the issue here is whether broadcasters should pursue their own interests or those of the local community. 117 Table 2, on program choice, shows that the group differences are more pronounced and there are a few areas on which all three groups agree together. For example, for the elite and the public, programs on hygiene, dental care, introduction of books, and book reviews are important, while broadcasters are interested in knowing about the conditions of living in other developing countries, on home beautification, on defining and introducing responsibilities of professional groups such as: police, nurses, etc. In the list of the least necessary programs, one observes similar patterns, for instance, it is least necessary to be introduced to modern equipment for the elite and the public, whereas for the broadcasters it is the least necessary to have programs on planning a balanced and nutritional diet. The public and the elite areas of agreement and differences are found as follows (in accordance with the Chi-square results): The public and elite generally agree: 1. Kerman is too crowded. 2. Electric service is good in Kerman. 3. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. 4. Too many local traditions are being ignored in Kerman. 5. Life is becoming too complex. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 118 Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for travel purposes. People moving into your community can find housing easily. Kerman is becoming too industralized. Too many farmers are moving into the City of Kerman. There is an air pollution problem in Kerman. Water services are good in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. The number of thefts have risen in Kerman. The public and elite generally disagree on the following issues: 9. 10. 11. It is easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. People moving into your community can find housing easily. There is a water pollution in Kerman. Enough farm products are available locally. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. There is an air pollution in Kerman. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. The young people from Kerman can get into colleges. Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for travelling purposes. There are adequate facilities (hotels, restaurants) for visitors to your city. 119 Public and elite differ on the following issues: 10. 11. I know the steps in the justice process. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. The goods you want in Kerman can be easily found. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. You are prepared for the changes taking place in Kerman. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for traveling purposes. Kerman is becoming too industralized. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. There are too many private cars in Kerman. There are adequate facilities (hotels and restaurants) for visitors to your city. When the Chi-square test was applied to section two of the questionnaire related to the programs of radio and television it was found that there were significant differences (P = .05) only for four of the following programs. 1. Programs on housing (buying, renting, building). Progams on owner-tenant relationship. Programs on introduction to modern equipment such as calculators, computers, air- conditioners, pumps, etc. 120 4. Introduction to western music. For the remaining 26 program types the Chi-square was not significant. Therefore, public and elites do have agreements on the list of the programs as it is indicated. From the analysis of variance, it was observed that there are 18 questions in general that the three groups do differ on. However, it was found that the elite and the broadcasters have similar views with respect to the following issues: 1. You an easily find a good dentist when in need. 2. Kerman is becoming too industralized. 3. There are too many private cars in Kerman. There are also areas in which the elite and the public have similar views such as: 1. There is an air pollution problem in Kerman. 2. Electric services are good in Kerman. 3. Water service is good in Kerman. Application of three different methods proved that, in general, there are differences among three groups, however, the elite have a tendency to be closer to the public and the local needs and share with the public in areas of local concern while the broadcasters differ, on many issues, with both the elite and the public. It 121 appears that the broadcasters do not share the same perspective with the elite and the public at large. The above mentioned findings proved several established points: 1. The broadcasters, in general, are not thoroughly aware of the community needs and the desires for programming. 2. Where there are some similarities of views between the broadcasters and the elite, it seems purely related to their common level of education and similar exposure to other environments. 3. There is a lack of harmony on the development of infrastructures, i.e., while water, electricity and air transport are appropriately available, hygiene, medical centers, city transportation and above all, education, is lagging far beyond the desired level of expectation. 4. It is quite possible that more would be gained by conducting research to identify needs and then trying to find their order of priority and importance to the public and the elite. In this study, the authors supplied the needs and program categories. 5. The questionnaire should be designed so not more than 30 issues are presented. The present questionnaire proved to be too long and far beyond the patience of the respondents. 122 When this study was conducted the aim was to demonstate to the broadcasters that they are not in harmony with their environment and do not share the same cultural and social values. This point has been demonstrated far beyond expectations. It is agreed that there should be a linkage between the broadcasters and the audiences they serve. Broadcaster decision-making should be fundamentally influenced by inputs it receives from the environment in which it operates. The assessment of the community needs provided, if well designed and adequately adjusted and implemented, to be able to close the loop of "one-way" communication. This has been the main concern of this study. Through the application of the assessment of the community needs, three distinct categories of problems were identified. Community needs which can be easily addressed by local programming on both radio and television are as follows: - Programs on hygiene - Programs on family affairs like the generation gap, - Programs on preventative medicine, and - Programs on simple repairs. Programs of this nature appear to be highly 123 desirable, and, of course,, it could be easily produced by local stations. The needs which are possible to be addressed purely by bringing them to the attention of the directors of the local agencies via panel discussions; for example, when unemployment, pollution, public transport or any other municipality issues are under consideration, that take more than public knowledge for solutions, the local broadcasters can at least invite the local municipal director (or mayor) to a television or radio "tele-talk" and hear public sentiment on the issues. The community needs which are beyond the capacity of the local agencies and offices; several methods can be applied as follows: The local broadcasters can produce and broadcast programs related to the subject such as inadequate road connections between the City of Kerman and the rest of the country, migration of the local people to more attractive cities, or because of their dispproval of the services given by the governmental agencies. The local broadcasters can convey the messages of the community needs to the national programming policy board for consideration. Thus, it appears that the assessment of the community needs, in general, is more than just gathering data and applying statistical analysis. It provides a 124 broadcasting institution with an opportunity to address "societal" issues. It can help define the role and the mission of mass media as a social institution in a developing society. It also provides a means for bridging the gap between the broadcasters and the community in which they serve. Furthermore, the findings, through the assessment, can be used as a basis of establishing a dialogue between the people and the polity. In a developing society in which mass media play an important role in the process of development, and the broadcasting system is publicly owned, a principal objective is to improve the circumstances of the least advantaged. In the City of Kerman this dilemma was clearly demonstated through the responses received from various groups to the study questionnaire. In this city the author was faced with a full range of people-- intellectuals, educated affluent, and uneducated poor. Local broadcasters must recognize these same groups and address their needs accordingly. They must break through their own isolation and mix with the members of their community at any cost in order to familiarize themselves with their audience. The aim should not be to satisfy their own intellectual desires, but to serve the entire community. 125 It important to note that the major impact and value of this study goes far beyond its statistical analysis. This exploratory research is aimed at opening a new avenue in the area of broadcast communication policy, although it is premature at this stage to make any predictions as to the impact of such research. Nevertheless, the attempt proved to be a positive step in linking the community leaders, the public, and broadcasters. There is no doubt that through this study a number of community needs were identified which might be useful to broadcasters, particularly since they were not needs identified by the broadcasters themselves. Therefore, one can postulate that the findings of this study may prove to be helpful not only to broadcasters, but also to other responsible private or public agencies. The discrepancies between the broadcaster's conception of community needs and that of the public and community leaders proved to be wide enough; this should serve as an indiator that the link between these groups is not adequate, and it may become imperative for broadcasters to completely reevaluate their public affairs programming policies. The outcome of this study could be presented to all the regional managers of NIRT in Iran through a seminar so that similar attempt could 126 be made in other parts of the country. The author maintains that this study should not be a "one-shot" affair, but rather it must be continued and in each new attempt improved, modified, and adapted to the extent that both its method and approach are tailored to the Iranian context. It is also important that a method be developed for rapid and economical translation of community needs into program production and transmission in such a way that the response period would be minimized. In a more futuristic context, one may envisage the creation of a center linked to the household. This center, through application of two-way communication systems with either fiber optics or a cable system, would receive input from the community and respond accordingly, thus rendering a multi-purpose community service. In this context, the extent of services that a local station could provide is extensive. Such a communication technology, while it is a quantum leap ahead of present modes, offers a boundless capability to serve any community that is able and willing to exploit it. The first and most imporant step in employing communication technology to serve community needs and demands would be to find the best way of identifying 127 those needs and wants. This study hopefully povided an effective framework for determining those community needs and desires, the ultimate fulfillment of which should be the aim of any form of public service and policy. CHAPTER VI FINAL REMARKS AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS The assessment of community needs was conducted in the City of Kerman late September 1978 (from September to November). At this time Iran had a turbulent year ahead and was proceeding toward a national uprising which later was called a revolution. Conducting social research in an Iranian milieu under normal conditions had always been a difficult task because of many cultural and political reasons. In these circumstances, certain obstacles as well as opportunities were omnipresent. During the period in which this study took place, people at large were more open and candid in expressing their opinions in contrast to the normal circumstances whereby people tend to be reserved and preoccupied with their daily affairs and seldom would contemplate a long list of issues and community needs. People at large were more expressive than political 128 129 elites and religious leaders. This remains to be one of the astonishing experiences of this research. At the time of this study many participants indicated to the researcher that there are many disparities between what they are exposed to through media and their living and political conditions. They have also expressed their dismay with certain aspects of national development and modernization. While they enjoyed having their infrastructural needs such as electricity, water systems, two channel color television, and several national radio stations, ulta modern airline services and airports, etc; they were not content and were expecting more, especially in the area of political participation and decision making. Through informal discussion, political elites and religious leaders maintained that inadequate development planning and improper allocation of resources were the main reasons for social maladies and disturbances. Their objections were not to modernization but to the methods and means of achieving it. In general, based on personal interviews with local leaders and people the following recommendations, beyond the immediate scope of this study will be offered. 130 General Recommendations Although findings based on empirical studies provide guidelines for program policies, the researcher would like to take this opportunity to offer general policies and strategies that must be taken into consideration by any broadcasting systems in a rapidly developing nation. These recommendations are as follows: Cultural Consciousness to traditional values and behavior patterns should preoccupy makers of cultural policy. The problem is not as controversial as it sounds, it only suggests that silent majorities adhere to traditional culture and demand to be taken seriously. This problem, if not considered, will become increasingly difficult with the rise of demand for representation and diverse tastes and patterns of life. Transformation from taditional culture to a modern one requires bridges between the past, present and future in such a way that appropriate social forms and values could be adopted in order to reduce problems of identity, anomie, etc. resulting from modernization. A limited number of elites who are out of touch with the mainstream and mass in general should not be 131 responsible for designing development policy out of total ignorance and inadequate information. Rather, opportunities should be available for national representation of various sectors in the process of cultural and economical development so that no plan, in abstract, could be designed and implemented. In view of what has been stated as far as culture is concerned, radio and television should focus on the following missions: 1. To give dignity to the human being. 2. To give pride in culture of nations. 3. To communicate traditional values, and to popularize in the best sense of term, traditional arts and patterns of culture. 4. To give insight into other cultures. 5. To help adaptation to new social and psychological situations. 6. To help diffusion of innovation. 7. To give voice to divergent sectors of population without prejudice for or against varying styles and tastes. 8. To encourage participation via access, and incorporation of non-specialists and non- elite in the broadcasting process. 9. To entertain and to provide escape from difficulties of radical transition to modernization. 10. To increase cultural awareness and to indicate cultural constraints and capabilities for national development.* *These items have been identified in a meeting held by a group of representatives from various sectors. 132 Political The low level of political awareness, political indifference, and alientation on the part of the public, on the one hand, and a history of traditional authoritarianism with a desire to dominate and control on the part of the elite, on the other, has to be taken into consideration in formulating political roles, missions and functions of the radio and television in Iran. Most members of the local elite had expressed their concern for an incorruity that exists between the structure of political systems which is predominantly modern and political functions which demonstrate a strong traditional orientation. The areas where radio and television can play an effective role and can influence in altering traditional political orientations are as follows: 1. Through a consistant and continuous political education, in the direction of desired goals, new politial values and standards may be introduced and gradually included in the masses, which in the long run, will have a resocializing effect on the traditional patterns of behavior. 2. Through a concerted action it is possible to erode and break old political and related psychological commitments thus inspiring political mobilizations. 3. Through access to radio and television by different social groups, bringing their grievances, views and suggestion on the matter of policy to the attention of those in 133 authority, legitimate political institutions will emerge and loyalty to the system would be gained. 4. Through an effective approach, radio and television, as a political infrastructure, can bring together diverse political and social groups with the government in power in order to secure confidence and support for the systems as a whole. Tolerance toward constructive criticism, open diversion, and exchange of views on political issues aired by radio and television enhances the political system. When grievances, views and suggestions of a different social and political group are brought to the attention of the people in power the gap between rulers and ruled will be narrowed. 5. Through selection of suitable policies for dissemination of information, national integration will be enhanced and the gap between subculture will be narrowed. Governance 9; the Radio and Television Institution Credibility of the broadcasting institution rests on its independence from government and other economic or political sources of power within the system in which it operates. Therefore, autonomy of the broadcasting system is an important factor in fulfilling the above mentioned objectives. Autonomy could be obtained through: 1. Protected financing (mixed sources, minimum guarantee fixed formula, long term commitment). 2. Structure of organization. 3. Selection of a Board of Directors. 4. Tenure for key positions within the system. General 134 Programming Guidelines 1. Recognizing that social and economic development are dependent on the development of people, emphasis must be placed on learning, motivation and creation of effective communication addressing people's needs and satisfying their immediate wants. Creating linkage between people and government for providing adequate support for development plans. Encouraging government agencies, departments and other authorities to use radio and television for mobilizing support for development and aquainting people with their roles and missions. It is particularly important to indicate to the government that people's participation in government requires extensive communication between government and people. This necessitates an open system of government. Programming should present audiences with role models for new ways of life. Programming should activate the human potential of the country and its cultural development. In a pluralistic society like Iran, it is important to present on the air the activities and interests of various social groups. This is important in order to enhance their self- system and to reflect an honest image of the society. Mechanism for such participation include advising committees, local origination, and feedback programming in which local activities are used for program material and then members of the group are invited to express their reactions. Programming should help credibiity by providing opportunities for diverse groups to discuss the real daily problems that people face and offer views and suggestions as to their solutions to the problem. Credibility, in general, is aided by the broadcasters having a posture that is 135 recognized as independent from government pressures and presenting alternate views on controversial issues, airing the problems that people really feel and providing a channel between people and government. ‘ At the end one can conclude that "examining alternative arguments and on the basis of simple common sense, it seems that public television can be justified only on the basis of serving an audience."* Final Note: (December 24, 1979) Now that I am writing these final pages of this study Iran as well as NIRT has gone through a drastic change of expectations and aspiration, with a new set of values. As a result of revolution, the entire previous life style is being challenged by a new wave of cultural shock. What is going to happen next perhaps Omar Khayyam can best answer. According to him: There was a Door to which I found no key, There was a Veil past which I might not see: Some little talk a while of Me and Thee There seem'd - and then no none of Thee and Me. Omar Khayyam *Statement by Lloyd Morrisett, In the 1973 Annual Report of the Markle Foundation in The Future 9; Public Broadcasting edited by Douglass Carter, Michael J. Nyham (New York). APPENDIX A A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF NIRT 136 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF NIRT* Since its establishment in 1966, NIRT has grown in size and extend of activities by leaps and bounds. It employs nearly 7,000 people, of whom over 2,000 are stationed in Tehran. Its radio broadcasting facilities include over 64 radio transmitters (active and reserve) in 31 cities, with a total power output of 5,510 Kw. The present general population coverage of radio broadcasting approaches about 90 pecent, with 100 percent coverage in the urban centers. The Fifth Development Plan (1972077) includes projections for a 100 percent coverage of the population by the First Radio Program and 50 percent coverage by the Second Program. There are now eight FM transmitters broadcasting original musical programs and relaying the First and Second Progams of the Voice of Iran; 125 additional FM transmitters are to be installed; 130 MV radio transmitters are still in the planning stage. There are about 8 million radio sets in the country. * *Majir Tehranian, "The Future Role of Broadcasting in Iran," NIRT Publication, 1975, TEHRAN-IRAN. 137 NIRT has now a total of 44 regional television production and transmission centers with 153 transmitters, a total power of over 144 Kw, covering over 88 cities and towns and about 60 percent of the country's total population, about 85 percent urban and 40 percent rural. Television transmission already included occasional broadcasting of some world events via staellite. The Fifth Plan included projection for a 70 percent coverage by the Second Program, committed to more exclusively cultural programming. There are already about 1.7 million sets in the country. Plans for the future included the introduction of color television, in educational programs by October 1975 and in all programs of one channel by 1978. The Asian Olympic Games of 1974 were broadcast in color, but the introduction of a full color program has been delayed until 1978 in accordance with the domestic manufacturers' projected ability to fulfill the anticipated demand for color TV sets. The purchase of a satellite for use in educational as well as general broadcasting is under negotiation. So is the organization of a foreign-language television channel for foreign residents in Iran, whose numbers have increased considerably ' in recent years. Radio broadcasting in major foreign languages as well as local dialects has been, however, a regular feature of broadcasting in Iran almost from the beginning. 138 An educational television station, established in October 1973 and run by the Ministry of Education until 1974, covers about 75 percent of the school-attending population at the itnermediate level. The station transmits more than 2,480 hours yearly of educational programs in such subjects as Persian history and literature, foreign languages for primary and secondary schools, sciences, and programs for new literature. In addition to its broadcasting activities, NIRT has engaged in an increasing number of acitivites which may be considered as auxiliary and infrastructural in nature. These activities include a two-year undergraduate training program in communication arts established in 1975, a Center for the Perservation and Propagation of Traditional Iranian Music, a Children's Music Workshop, a Theatre Workshop, the City Theatre of Tehran, the Shiraz Festival of Arts, the ABU-Shiraz Young Film-makers Festival, NIRT Chamber Orchestra, some 80 rural television clubs and a growing publishing house responsible for the weekly periodical, Tamasha, as well as books in fields of general interest. Research and development activities in such fields as public opinion surveys, electronics technology and socio-cultural studies are also rapidly expanding. NIRT's budget for 1975-76 (Persian year 1354) is estimated at about $112,300,000 (730 million tomans) of 139 which about $86,360,000 (580 million tomans) is from general government budgetary allocations and about $25,460,000 (170 million tomans) from NIRT's earnings from commercial activities. An additional $119,800,000 (800 million tomans) is earmarked for research, development and network expansion. APPENDIX B MASTER PROBLEM LIST (MPL) 140 MASTER PROBLEM LIST (MPL)* City size, zoning, districting (over—pOpulated or under—populated) Community decay or renovation (beautification), peOple leaving for large cities, rural people coming in Consumer issues, availability of goods, shopping, price control mechanisms adequate (protection, edu- cation, quality of goods, services) Crime 4a. Adult crime, thefts, fraud, corruption 4b. Juvenile crime 4c. Law enforcement (court leniency, police brutality, size of police force) Ecological issues 5a. Pollution 5b. Energy crises, effects, solutions, scarcitivs Government (local agencies, officials, credibility, leadership) Housing Inflation Legal and civil rights (awareness of them, access to legal aid or protection) *From An Ascertainment Handbook for public Broad- casting Facilities, 1975. 141 10. Leisure activities (indoor and outdoor, recreation, parks) ' ll. Mass media (availability, quality, content) 12. Medical care (hospitals, doctors) 13. Morality issues (pornography, abortion) 14. Schools, formal educational institutions 15. Substance abuse (drugs, alcohol) 16. Transporation problems lba. Public transportation (buses, mass tranist, railroads) 16b. Traffic problems (cars, roads, parking, drivers, bicycles) l7. Unemployment, job training 18. Welfare Other Possibilities Agriculture (farms, farm products). APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY NEEDS IN IRAN 142 Note: The following questionnaire was used for the survey study in Iran. It was translated into the Persian lan- guage and tested for its simplicity, accuracy and corre- lation to the original English version. This question- naire was designed for all three groups surveyed: the broadcaster, public-at-large and the community leaders. Astrisk next to each question in the questionaire indica- tes that question is Iomehow related to the list of the questions available in Master Problem List of Apoebdix B. 143 Questionnaire for Communitereaders Phone amber: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. Interviewer : .................. Completed first second third (INCLUDE DATE AND TIME) approach approach approach No response, explain reason: not available .......... on leave .......... refused .......... Leadership category: governmental ...... political ...... religious ...... educational ...... professional ...... business ...... -- THIS QUESTIONNAIRE MUST BE SELF ADMINISTERED -- PRIOR TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE, INDICATE TO THE RESPONDENT THAT HIS NAME WILL REMAIN ANONYMOUS. 144 Section I: General Questions Please circle the number on the right which most closely 'corresponds to your opinion: Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 l 1. Too many people are moving from Kerman 5 4 3 2 to the larger cities. I 2. Kerman is too crowded. 5 4 3 2 I 3. The goods you want in Kerman can be 5 4 3 2 easily found. ' 4. It is possible to find people to do 5 4 3 2 the work you need done. I 5. The number of thefts has risen in 5 4 3 2 Kerman. ' 6. There is a juvenile delinquency prob- 5 4 3 2 lem in Kerman. I 7. The courts in Kerman are too lenient 5 4 3 2 with criminals. '1 8. There is an airpollution problem in 5 4 3 2 Kerman. I 9. There is a water pollution problem in S 4 3 2 ' Kerman. 10. Water service is good in Kerman. 5 4 3 2 11. Electric service is good in Kerman. 5 4 3 2 ‘12. The municipal government does a good 5 4 3 2 job. '13. There is adequate housing in Kerman. 5 4 3 2 '14. People moving into your community can 5 4 3 2 find housing easily. Pb. Modern conveniences for the home are S 4 3 2 available in Kerman. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 145 I know the steps in the judicial pro- cess. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. Going to a hospital is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a doctor is a problem is: Kerman. Seeing a dentist is a problem in Kerman. There is a drug problem in Kerman. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. Young people from Kerman can get into colleges elsewhere. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. It is easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. Too many farmers are moving to your city. Enough farm produce is available locally. Kerman is becoming too industrialized. I0 146 35. Life is becoming too complex. 5 36. You are prepared for the changes 5 taking place in Kerman. 37 There are too many private cars in 5 Kerman. ASK QUESTION 38 ONLY IF THEY HAVE A CAR. IF THEY DON'T HAVE A CAR,GO TO QUESTION 39. 38. You have trouble finding mechanics 5 to service and repair your car. 39. Kerman is well-connected to the rest 5 of the country for travel purposes. 40. There are adequate facilities [hotels 5 and restaurants] for visitors to your city. Section II: Prggramming Questions I havea.list of possible topics for programs to be broad- casted by radio or television in your community. in these topics varies from person to person. Please indi- cate whether you are very interested, interested, or not interested. very interested interested not interested 3 2 l 1. Programs on housing (buying, renting, building]. 3 2. Programs on owner-tenant relationships. 3. Programs on Problems of living in apartment buildings. 4. Programs on hygiene and cleanliness. 5. Programs on how toleffectivelylutilize your spare time. 6. Programs on inexpensive home beautification. 3 3 Interest N 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21 22. 23. 24. 25 26. 147 Programs on simple home repair. Programs on growing house plants. Programs on home gardening. Programs on closing gaps between children and parents. Programs on home and family budgeting. Programs on getting good dental care. Programs on preventive medicine. Programs on simple home medical care. Programs on simple automobile repair and service.. Programs on planning a balanced and nutri- tious diet. Programs on cooking. Programs on how to use local service agencies. Programs on how the judicial system works. Pragrams on financial investment. Programs on how to find a job. Programs introducing books, book reviews and libraries. Programs introducing Iran and life styles in different regions of the country. Programs on regional Iranian dress and home sewing. Programs presenting modern equipment such a6 calculators, computrs. air-conditioners. pumps, etc. ' ‘— ‘ Programs on the responsibilities involved in certain occupations such as police, nursing and other people-related social-service occupations. uwuu NNNN 27. 28. 29. 30. 148 Introduction to Iranian music. 3 2 Introduction to Western music. 3 2 Introduction of Persian literature. 3 2 Introduction to living conditions in other deve- 3 2 loping countries. SECTION III: OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: From the standpoint of your special interest and know- ledge about this community, what is the most signifi- cant problem or issue that needs community attention? Please be as specific as you can in defining the pro- lem area. Why has this became an important problem or issue to i the community? What action would you suggest to begin dealing with this problem or issue? 149 What other problem in this community do you think needs attention? Problem 2: Why has this become an important problem or issue? What action would you suggest to begin dealing with this problem or issue? 150 Section Iv: General Information‘ 1. Age (1) 18-25 (2) 25-34 (3) 35-44 (4) 45-54 (5) SS and over 2. Sex (1) Male (2) Female I 3. Occupation (1) Public sector (2) Private sector (3) Educational (4) Professional (5) Independent (6) Retired 4. Level of education (1) High school diploma (2) Some college education (3) Bachelor's degree (4) Master‘s degree (5) Ph.D. (6) Traditional education 5. Field of study (1) Economics or social sciences (2) Life sciences or medicine (3) Science or engineering (4) Humanities or arts 6. In which country (countries) have you studied? 7. Marital status . (l) married (2) single (3) divorced (4) separated (S) widowed 8. how many people live in your home? (1) adults teenagers other children 9. Family income (1) below average (2) average (3) above average (4) not willing to discuss *This section is replicated from NIRT's Prospective Planning Project (National Elites Study, Tehran, 151 Radio 1. Do you own a radio set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 ' (2) IF NO GO TO TELEVISION SECTION 2. How much time do you listen to the radio in each of the following periods. (1) morning (2) afternoon (3) early evening (4) late evenIng 3. Which station do you listen to most? (1) first program (2) second program (3) international program (4) non-Iranian station 4. In general, what is your evaluation of Iran's radio programs? (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (5) very poor 5. How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing radio programs to listen to? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining orientation on public affairs (3) increasing knowledge Television 1. Do you own a television set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 (2) IF NO TERMINATE INTERVIEW AND THANK RESPONDENT 2. How long do you watch television in each of the follow- ing periods? (1) morning (2) afternoon (3) early evening (4) late evening 3. How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing television programs? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining information (3) increasing knowledge 4. If you don't watch television, why? (1) don't have time (2) don't like the programs (3) television is habit-forming (4) it is a sin to watch television (5) other (specify) 5° In general, what is your evaluation of Iran' - - programs? 8 telev131on (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (5) very poor. 152 Qpestionnaire for Public at Lagge Inteniewer: OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Date and time of contact: ................................. Address and Location of Interview: ........................ PRIOR TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE INTERVIEW INDICATE TO THE RESPONDENT THAT HIS NAME WILL REMAIN ANONYMOUS. ...... Questions were read for respondent. First Approach: ...... responded ...... not home ...... refused 'IF NOT HOME APPROACH AT A LATER TIME, IF RESPONDED OR REFUSED, TERMINATE ( Second Approach: ...... responded ...... not home ...... refused IF NOT HOME APPROACH AT A LATER TIME, IF RESPONDED OR REFUSED, TERMINATE Third Approach: ...... Responded .) ...... not home ...... refused IF NO RESPONSE, TERMINATE. 153 Section I: General Questions Please circle the number on the right which corresponds to your opinion: Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Agree 5 4 3 2 1. Too many people are moving from Kerman to the larger cities. 2. Kerman is too crowded. 3. The goods you want in Kerman can be easily found. 4. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. 5. The number of thefts has risen in Kerman. 6. There is a juvenile delinquency prob- lem in Kerman. 7. The courts in Kerman are too lenient with criminals. 8. There is an air pollution problem in Kerman. 9. There is a water pollution problem in Kerman. 10. Water service is good in Kerman. 11. Electricity service is good in Kerman. 12. The municipal government does a good job. 13. There is adequate housing in Kerman. 14. People moving into your community can find housing easily. 15. Modern conveniences for the home are available in Kerman. most closely Strongly Disagree 1 5 4 3 2 S 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 S 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 S 4 3 2 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 154 I know the steps in the judicial pro- case. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. Going to a hospital is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a dentist is a problem in Kerman. There is a drug problem in Kerman. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. Young people from Kerman can get into colleges elsewhere. There is enough public transportation ' in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. It is easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. Too many farmers are moving to your city._ Enough farm produce is available locally. Kerman is becoming too industrialized. pan"... . 155 35. Life is becoming too complex. 5 4 3 2 1 36. You are prepared for the changes 5 4 3 2 1 taking place in Kerman. 37. There are too many private cars in S 4 3 2 l Kerman. ASK QUESTION 38 ONLY IF THEY HAVE A CAR. IF THEY DON'T HAVE A CAR GO TO QUESTION 39. 38. You have trouble finding mechanics 5 4 3 2 l to service and repair your car. 39. Kerman is well-connected to the rest 5 4 3 2 l of the country for travel purposes. 40. There are adequate facilities [hotels 5 4 3 2 l and restaurants] for visitors to your city. Section II: Programming Qgestions I have a list of possible topics for programs to be broad- casted by radio or television in your community. Interest in.these topics varies from person to person. Please indi- cate whether you are very interested, interested, or not interested. very interested interested not interested 3 2 l 1. Programs on housing (buying, renting, building]. 3 2 2. Programs on owner-tenant relationships. 3 2 3. Programs on problems of living in apartment 3 2 buildings. 4. Programs on hygiene and cleanliness. 3 2 5. Programs on how to effectively utilize your 3 2 spare time . 6. Programs on inexpensive home beautification. 3 2 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 156 Programs on simple home repair. Programs on growing house plants. Programs on home gardening. Programs on closing gaps between children and parents. Programs on home and family budgeting. Programs on getting good dental care. Programs on preventing medicine. Programs on simple home medical care. Programs on simple automobile repair and services. Programs on planning a balanced and nutri- tious diet. Programs on cooking. Programs on how to use local service agencies. Programs on how the judicial system works. Programs on financial investment. Programs on how to find a job. Programs introducing books, book reviews and libraries. Programs introducing Iran and life styles in different regions of the country. Programs on regional Iranian dress and home sewing. Programs presenting modern equipment such as calculators, computors, air-condioners, pumps etc. Programs on the responsibilities involved in certain occupations such as police, nursing and other people-related social-service occupations. uwwu NNN NNNN P en ti H 157 27. Introduction to Iranian music. 3 2 1 28. Introduction to Western music. 3 2 l 29. Introduction of Persian literature. 3 2 l 30. Introduction to living conditions in other deve- 3 2 l lOping countries. SECTION III: OPEN-ENDED;QUESTIONS: 1. From the standpoint of your special interest and know- ledge about this community, what is the most signifi- cant problem or issue that needs community attention? Please be as specific as you can in defining the pro- blem area. 2. Why has this become an important problem or issue to the community? 3. What action would you suggest to begin dealing with this problem or issue? 158 Section Iv: Genral Information‘ 1. Age (1) 18-25 (2) 25-34 (3) 35-44 (4) 45-54 (5) SS and over 2. Sex (1) Male (2) Female 3. Occupation (1) Public sector (2) Private sector (3) Educational (4) Professional (5) Independent (6) Retired 4. Level of education (1) High school diploma (2) Some college education (3) Bachelor's degree (4) Master's degree (5) Ph.D. (6) Traditional education I 5. Field of study (1) Economics or social sciences (2) Life sciences or medicine (3) Science or engineering (4) Humanities or arts. 6. In which country (countries) have you studied? 7. Marital status (I) married (2) single (3) divorced (4) separated (5) widowed 8. How many peOple live in your home? (1) adults teenagers other children 9. Family income (1) below average (2) average (3) above average (4) not willing to discuss *This section is replicated from NIRT's Prospective Planning Project (National Elites Study, Tehran, 1975). 159 . Radio 1. Do you'own a radio set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 (2) IF NO GO TO TELEVISION SECTION How much time do you listen to the radio in each of the following periods. (1) morning (2) afternoon (3) early evening (4) late evenIng Which station do you listen to most? (1) first program (2) second program (3) international program (4) non-Iranian station In general, what is your evaluation of Iran's radio programs? (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (5) var poor How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing radio programs to listen to? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining public affairs orientation (3) increasing knowledge Television 1. Do you own a television set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 (2) IF NO TERMINATE INTERVIEW AND THANK RESPONDENT How long do you watch television in each of the follow- ing periods? (1) morning (2) afternoon ____ (3) early evening. (4) 'late evenIng How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing television programs? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining information (3) increasing knowledge 4. If you don't watch television, why? (1) don't have time (2) don't like the programs (3) television is habit-forming (4) it is a sin to watch television (5) other (specify) 5. In general, what is your evaluation of Iran's television programs? (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (5) very poor 160 Qpestionnaire for Braodcast Personnel Personnel Categories: engineering .......... production .......... news 00.0.00... general administration .......... Interviewer: Date and time Of interVieW: 0..OOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOO IN RESPONDING TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS PLEASE INDICATE YOUR PERCEPTION OF COMMUNITY NEEDS RATHER THAN YOUR PER- SONAL PREFERENCES. IN GENERAL WHAT DO YOU THINK THE PEOPLE IN THIS COMMUNITY WOULD REFLECT AS THEIR NEEDS AND EXPEC‘ TATIONS. PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR POSITION. 161 Section I: General Questions Please circle the number on the right which most closely corresponds to your opinion: Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 5 4 3 2 l 1. Too many people are moving from Kerman 5 4 3 2 to the larger cities. 2. Kerman is too crowded. 5 4 3 2 3. The goods you want in Kerman can be 5 4 3 2 easily found. 4. It is possible to find people to do 5 4 3 2 the work you need done. 5. The number of thefts has risen in 5 4 3 2 Kerman. 6. There is a juvenile deliquency prob- 5 4 3 2 lem in Kerman. 7. The courts in Kerman are too lenient 5 4 3 2 with criminals. 8. There is an air pollution problem in 5 4 3 2 Kerman. 9. There is a waterpollution problem in 5 4 3 2 Kerman. 10. water service is good in Kerman. 5 4 3 2 11. Electricity service is good in Kerman. S 4 3 2 12. The municipal government does a good 5 4 3 2 job. 13. There is adequate housing in Kerman. 5 4 3 2 14. People moving into your community can 5 4 3 21 find housing easily. 15. Modern conveniences for the home are 5 4 3 2 available in Kerman. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 162 I know the steps in the judicial pro- cess. There are enough things to do for recreation in Kerman. You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. Going to a hospital is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Kerman. Seeing a dentist is a problem in Kerman. There is a drug problem in Kerman. There is a youth revolution problem in Kerman. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. Young people from Kerman can get into colleges elsewhere. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. Unemployment is high in Kerman. It is easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. Too many farmers are moving to your city. Enough farm produce is available locally. Kerman is becoming too industrialized. 163 35. Life is becoming too complex. 5 4 3 36. You are prepared for the changes 5 4 3 taking place in Kerman. 37. There are too many private cars in S 4 3 Kerman. ASK QUESTION 38 ONLY IF THEY HAVE A CAR. IF THEY DON'T HAVE A CAR GO TO QUESTION 39. 38. You have trouble finding mechanics 5 4 3 to service and repair your car. 39. Kerman is well-connected to the rest 5 4 3 of the country for travel purposes. 40. There are adequate facilities (hotels 5 4 3 and restaurants] for visitors to your city. Section II: I have a list of possible topics for programs to be broad- casted by radio or television in your community. in these topics varies from person to person. cate whether you are very interested, interested, or not interested. Programming Questions very interested interested not interested 3 1. Programs 2. Programs 3. Programs 4. Programs 5. Programs on on on on on spare time. 6. Programs on 2 1 housing (buying, reintin, building]. owner-tenant relationships. problems of kiving in apartment hygiene and cleanliness. how to effectively utilize your inexpensive home beautification. Interest Please indi- 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 164 Programs on simple home repair. Programs on growing house plants. Programs on home gardening. Programs on closing gaps between children and parents. Programs on home and family budgeting. Programs on getting good dental care. Programs on preventive medicine. Programs on simple home medical care. Programs on simple automobile repair and services. Programs on planning a balanced and nutri- tious diet. Programs on cooking. Programs on how to use local service agencies. Programs on how the judicial system works. Programs on financial investment. Programs on how to find a job. - Programs introducing books, book reviews and libaries. Programs introducing Iran and life styles in different regions of the country. Programs on regional Iranian dress and home sewing. Programs presenting modern equipment such as calculators, computors, air-condioners, pumps etc. Programs on the responsibilities involved in certain occupations such as police, nursing (and other people-related social-service occupations. Introduction to Iranian music. Introduction to Western music. Introduction of Persian literature. Introduction to living conditions in other deve- loping countries. MN 165 SECTION III: open-sunso:gpssrrous: 1. From the standpoint of your special interest and know- ledge about this community, what is the most signifi- cant problem or issue that needs community attention? Please be as specific as you can in defining the problem area. - 2. Why has this become an important problem or issue to the community? 3. What action would you suggest to begin dealing with this problem or issue? 4. What other problem in this community do you think needs attention? Problem 2: 5. Why has this become an important problem or issue? 166 6. What action would you suggest to begin dealing with this problem or issue? Section IV: General Information* 1. Age (1) 18-25 (2) 25-34 (3) 35-44 (4) 45-54 (5) 55 and over 2. Sex (1) Male (2) Female 3. Occupation (1) Public sector (2) Private sector (3) Educational (4) Professional (5) Independent (6) Retired 4. Level of education ‘ (1) High school diploma (2) Some college education (3) Bachelor's degree (4) Master's degree (5) Ph.D. (6) Traditional education 5. Field of study (1) Economics or social sciences (2) Life sciences or medicine (3) Science or engineering (4) Humanities or arts 6. In which country [countries] have you studied? 7. Marital status (1) married (2) single (3) divorced (4) separated (5) widowed 8. How many people live in your home? (1) adults teenagers other children - _ 9. Family income (1) below average (2) average (3) above average (4) not willing to discuss *This section is replicated from NIRT's Prospective Planning Project [National Elites Study, Tehran, 1975]. Rs 167 die 1. Do you own a radio set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 (2) IF NO GO TO TELEVISION SECTION 2. How much time do you listen to radio in each of the following periods. (1) morning (2) afternoon (3) early evening (4) late evenIng 3. Which station do you listen to most? (1) first program (2) second program (3) international program (4) non-Iranian station 4. In general, what is your evaluation of Iran's radio programs? (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (4) very poor 5. How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing radio programs to listen to? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining public affair orientation (3) increasing knowledge Television 1. Do you own a television set? (1) IF YES GO TO QUESTION NUMBER 2 (2) IF NO TERMINATE INTERVIEW AND THANK RESPONDENT 2. How long do you watch television in each of the follow- ing periods? ' (l) morning (2) afternoon (3) early evening (4) late evenIng 3. How important are each of the following areas to you in choosing television programs? (1) entertainment (2) obtaining information (3) increasing knowledge. 4. If you don't watch television, why? (1) dont't have time (2) don't like the programs (3) television is habit-forming (4) it is a sin to watch television (5) other [specify] 5. In general, what is your evaluation of Iran's television programs? (1) very good (2) good (3) average (4) poor (5) very poor. APPENDIX D LETTER OF INTRODUCTION .168 Dear Sir or Madam I would like to ask you to be kind enough to give our team an opportunity to visit you at your office in order to complete a survey study aimed at identifying commu- nity needs in the city of Kerman. The purpose of this survey is to explore your community's assessment of its needs and see to what extent the fin- dings of this research could be helpful in providing in- puts to the broadcasters in your city for addressing to these needs. 1 would like to assure you that your name will-remain anonymous. With sincere appreciation for your c00peration. Sincerely, Project Director of Survey Research APPENDIX E 2 COMPUTER CALCULATIONS FOR X (CHI-SQUARE) 169 1. Too many people are moving from Kerman to the larger cities. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree .Elite 41.0 59.0 15 24 Public 30.3 69.2 48 111 Chi~3quare: -9330158 Corrected (Yates): .6434723 1. Kerman is too crowded. Percentages Frequencies ' Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 74.4 25.6 29 10 Public 81.2 18.8 129 30 Chi-Square: .8912201 Corrected (Yates): .5205907 3. [he good. ,uu want in Kerman can be easily found. ruruentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 23.1 76.9 9 30 Public 42.1 57.9 66 93 Chi-Square: 4.52199 Corrected (Yates): 3.772577 at 4. It is possible to find people to do the work you need done. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 12.3 87.2 4 35 Publi« 26.4 73.6 41 119 Ghi*5quarcz 4.300328 Corrected (Yates): 3.462 5. Inc number of thefts has risen in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 5c.4 43.6 21 is Public “7-9 32.1 107 52 Chi«Squaro< 2.473721 Corrected (Yates): 1.925175 c. There is a iuvenile delinquency problem in Kerman. Per.untages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 23.2 71.8 10 29 Publir 51-4 68.6 49 110 Chi-Square" .anilasv Corrected (Yates): .1918857 7. Ihe courts in Kerman are too lenient with criminals. Percentages Frequencies ~ Agree Disagree Agree Disagree [lite 41.0 59.0 15 24 public 55.5 66.7 52 107 Chi~SQUaru; .463h538 Corrected (Y8t95)3 -2421569 8. lhcrw in an air pollution problem in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree " Elifr' 50.4 45.6- 21 19 Public b/.3 42.7 91 68 AChi~5quare~ -14e1927 Corrected (Yates): 4.084441r‘02 “M. \\ 17C) 9. There is a water pollution problem in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree \ // . V, Elite 55.4 43.6 21 18 ?Ubiic 44.0 56.0 69 9O Chi—Square: 1.379391 Corrected (Yates): .9901064 10. water service is good in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree ,Elite 82.0 18.0 31 a .PUblic 64.2 35.8 102 57 ’Chi-Squarez 3.340408 Corrected (Yates): 2.681129 11. Electric service is good in Kerman. - Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree “Elite 69.2 30.8 26 13 Public 74.9 25.1 119 40 Chi-Square: 1.068011 Corrected (Yates): .6916398 L2. The municipal government does a good job. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 -Public 27.7 72.3 44 115 Chi-Square: 2.505427 Corrected (Yates): 1.896701 \3. There is adequate housing in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 12.8 87.2 4 35 Public 18.8 81.2 29 130 -Chi-Square= 1.436865 Corrected (Yates): .9195936 14. People moving into your community can find housing easily. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 5.2 94.8 2 37 Public 15.1 84.9 24 135 Chi-Square: 2.726959 Corrected (Yates): 1.923253 )5. Modern conveniences for the home are available in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 56.5 43.5 22 17 Public 49.2 50.8 79 91 Chi-Square: .6//4965 Corrected (Yates): .415254 16. I know the steps in the justice process. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 0.0 100.0 0 39 Public 17.7 ‘2.3 28 131 %' ~Chi—5quare= 7.999112 Corrected (Yates): 6.614469 171. 17'. There are enough things to do tor’recfoatlon in Refilihc Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 7.? 92.3 3 36 Public 30.2 69.8 48 111 Chi-Square: 8.28828 Corrected (Yates): 7.153622 )6 '18. You can easily find a good medical doctor when you need one. Percentages Frequencies - Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 35.9 64.1 14 25 Public 51.6 48.4 82 77 .Chi-Square= 3.080808 Corrected (Yates): 2.485195 19. You can easily find a good dentist when you need one. , Percentages Frequencies ; Agree Disagree Agree Disagree 'Elite 33.3 66.7 12 27 - Public 51.6 48.4 82 77 * ,Chi-Squarez 5.435277 Corrected (Yates): 4.633037 ’20. Going to a hospital is a problem in Korean. Percentages Frequencies : Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 69.2 30.8 26 13 Public 67.3 32.7 107 52 Chi-Square: 5.617819E-O3 Corrected (Yates)= 1.329661E-02 5* 21. Seeing a doctor is a problem in Korean. Percentages Frequencies ', Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 82.0 18.0 31 8 Public 87.4 12.6 138 21 .Chi-Square= 1.33695 Corrected (Yates): .8164419 -22. Seeing a dentist is a problem is Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 64.1 35.9 24 15 aPublic 61.0 39.0 96 63 Chi-Square: 1.768449E-O2 COFFOCtOd (Y8t08)= 2.4868825'03 23 There is a drug problem in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree .rElite 79.5 20.5 31 8 ;Public 80.5 19.5 127 32 Chi-Square: 2.9101076-03 Corrected (Yates): 2.841901E-02 24. There is a youth revolution problem in Korean. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 69. 3 30. 7 27 12 Public 56.0 44. O 70 Chi-Square: 2. 268168 Corrected (Yates): 1. 754722 .172 _.25. The family structure is weakening in Kerman. _-_ Percentages Frequencies Ag! EB ”1539' 88 M3! at: 1119097138 - - Elite 38.5 61.5 15 24 Public 28.9 71.1 45 114 Chi-Square: 1.530574 Corrected (Yates): 1.087332 26. Too many local traditions are being forgotten in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 59.0 41.0 23 16 Public 71.7 28.3 114 45 Chi-Square: 2.378522 Corrected (Yates): 1.819078 27. The children of Kerman are getting a good education. Percentages Frequencies . Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 33.3 66.7 12 27 -Public 52.9 47.1 84 75 Chi-Square: o.102451 Corrected (Yates): 5.251161 ax 28. Young people from Kerman can get into colleges. Percentages Frequencies - Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 12.9 87.1 '5 34 Public 26.5 73.5 42 117 Chi-Square: 3.197303 Corrected (Yates): 2.490431 29. There is enough public transportation in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 _ Public 31.4 oa.o 49 110 Chi~Square= 3.718165 Corrected (Yates): 2.98868 30. Unemployment is high in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 74.4 25.6 29 10 Public 72.4 27.6 115 44 Chi—Square: .0651911 Corrected (Yates): 2.993469E'03 31. it in easy for people to find jobs in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 15.4 34.6 6 33 Publi.‘ 18.3 81.7 29 130 Chi‘UQUateé .1753454 Corrected (Yates): 3.4051568-02 32. Too many farmers are moving to your city. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 87.1 12.9 33 6 Public 68.6 31.4 109 50 Chi~$quare= 3.933325 Corrected (Yates): 3.230814 '4! .173 33. Enough farm produce is available locally. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree . Llite 23.1 76.9 9 30 . _,. < o -4. - ~ - -a’ --0~C—--“——>«QW-Qe- - - ..- r Public 58.0 61.0 bu 99 Chi-Square: 2. 964097 Corrected (Yates): 2. 353611 34. Kerman is becoming too industrialized. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree .Elite 35.9 64.1 14 25 Public 61.0 39.0 96 63 3hi-Square: 7.601016 Corrected (Yates): 6.641909 7* 35. Life is becoming too complex. Percentages Frequencies ' Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 79. 4 20. 6 30 9 Public 86.9 13.1 13821 Chi—Square: 2 .37288 Corrected (Yates): 1. 667277 36. You are prepared for the changes taken place in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 28.2 71.8 10 29 Public 30.2 69.8 48 111 Chi-Square: .3127128 Corrected (Yates): .131689 37. There are too many private cars in Kerman. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 69.2 30.8 26 13 Public 91.8 8.2 145 14 Chi-Square: 15.99934 Corrected (Yates): 13.98437 ‘#' 38. You have trouble finding mechanics to service and repair your car. Percentages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 71.8 28.2 23 11 Public 61.0 39.0 96 63 Chi~Squarez 1.744282 Corrected (Yates): 1.290579 39. Kerman is well connected to the rest of the country for travel purposes. Perrfintages Frequencies Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 28.2 71.8 10 29 Public 60.4 39.6 96 63 1? Chi-equare= 15.19152 Corrected (Yates): 13.82717 40. lhere are adequate facilities for visitors to your city. Percentages Frequencies Agrvw Disagree Agree Disagree Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 Public 35.9 64.1 57 102 ‘7 Chi‘SQuare2 6.045731 Corrected (Yates): 5.139264 174 1- Housing Percentages Frequencies Very N a NN Very N & NN Elite 17.9 82.1 6 33 Public 39.6 60.4 62 97 3f Chi-Square: 7.741647 Corrected (Yates): 6.730023 2. Owner-tenant relationship - Percentages Frequencies Very N & NN Very N a NN Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 Public 730.5 63.5 58 101 'Chi-Square: 6.369923 Corrected (Yates)= 5.44216 ‘( a. “3. Problems of living in apartment building Percentages Frequencies Very N & NN Very N a NN Elite 0.0 100.0 0 39 Public 3.1 96.9 4 155 Chi-Square: 1.001362 Corrected (Yates): .1336877 4. Hygiene and cleanliness Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N a NN .Elite 48.7 51.3 18 21 Public 43.4 56.6 69 90 Chi-Square: 9.6683745—02 Corrected (Yates): 1.71406lE-02 '1, 5. How effectively to utilize your time at home Percentages Frequencies . Very N 6 NH Very N 6 NN Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 'Public 28.3 71.7 44 115 Chi-Square: 2.505427 Corrected (Yates): 1.896701 6. Inexpensive home beautification Percentages Frequencies Very N & NN Very N & NN Elite 20.5 ‘ 79.5 7 32 Public 21.4 78.6 34 125 Chi-Square: .2250501 Corrected (Yates): 6.446585E-02 - 1. simple home repair . Percentages Frequencies Very N a NN Very N 6 NN Flite 43.6 56.4 17 22 Public 25.8 74.2 41 118 Chissquare: 4.792759 Corrected (Yates): 3.971728 2L 8. Growing house plants Percentages Frequencies Very N & NN Very N & NN Elite 10.3 89.7 4 35 Public 20.1 79.9 31 128 ChisSquare; 1.837626 Corrected (Yates): 1.25749 2175 9. Home gardening Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 10.3 89.7 4 35 Public 15.1 84.9 24 135 . Chi-Square: .6037248 Corrected (Yates): .2710121 10. Closing gaps between children and parents Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN ,Elite 43.6 56.4 17 22 Public 32.7 67.3 51 108 Chi-Square: 1.841398 Corrected (Yates)= 1.36616 :11. Home and family budgeting Percentages Frequencies .. Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 30.8 69.2 12 27 Public 32.1 67.9 51 108 Chi-Square: 2.463197E-02 Corrected (Yates): 1.216394E-03 12. Getting good dental care ' Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 48.7 51.3 18 21 Public 45.3 54.7 72 87 'Chi-Squarez .0095791 Corrected (Yates): 6.652153E-03 13. Preventative medicine Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 51.3 48.7 20 19 .'Public 52.8 47.2 83 76 .Chi-Square= 1.060211E-02 Corrected (Yates): 5.75627lE-03 14. Simple home medical care Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN ' Elite 59.0 41.0 23 16 Public 59.7 40.3 94 65 Chi-Square: 2.729088E-04 Corrected (Yates): 2.729089E-02 15. Simple automobile repair and service Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN ' Very N 6 NN 'Elite 17.9 82.1 6 33 Public 14.5 85.5 23 136 Chi-Square: 2.116745E-02 Corrected (Yates): 1.149258E~02 16. Planning a balanced and nutrition diet Percentages Frequencies . Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NH Elite 30.8 69.2 12 27 Public 26.4 73.6 41 118 chisSquare: .3967131 Corrected (Yates): .1832307 1576 17. 600106» ercentages Prequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 10.3 39.7 4 35 Public 15.7 84.3 24 135 Chi-Square: .6037248 Corrected (Yates): .2710121 18. How to use local service agencies Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 10.3 89.7 4 35 Public 21.4 78.6 34 125 Chi-Square: 2.500334 Corrected (Yates): 1.834319 19. How the justice system works Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 33.3 66.7 12 27 Public 28.3 71.7 44 115 ' Chi-Square: .1480231 Corrected (Yates): 3.4729D6E"02 '20. Financial investing Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 15.4 84.6 6 33 Public 6.3 93.7 10 149 Chi-Square: 3.48795 Corrected (Yates): 2.370926 21. How to find a job Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NH Very N 6 NN Elite . 23.1 76.9 9 30 Public 29.6 70.4 47 112 Chi~Square= .6489021 Corrected (Yates): .3686484 22. Introducing books Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 53.8 46.2 20 19 Public 42.1 57.9 66 93 chi-Square: 1.217397 Corrected (Yates): .8521242 23. introducing Iran and life styles in different regions Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 20.5 79.5 7 32 Public 19.5 80.5 31 128 Cni~5quare: 4.839967E-02 Corrected (Yates): 4.72653E~05 24. National custom and home serving Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 10.3 89.7 4 35 Public 19.5 80.5 31 128 Chi-Jquare: 1.837626 Corrected (Yates): 1.25749 177 ”3. Introduction to eodern equipnent ‘-\ Percentages Frequencies -——. — . .. .Verv ..-AN. 6.1mm--VeLY._W«2 -1 - 1 ' .- .Elite 5.1 94.9 1 38 ~Public 6.3 93.7 10 149 }Chi-Square: .8283105 Corrected (Yates): .2704687 i I {26. Responsibilities of certain professions Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN ..Elite 33.3 66.7 12 27 Public 41.5 58.5 65 94 :Chi-Square= 1.347294 Corrected (Yates)= .9554219 '27. Introduction to Iranian music Percentages Frequencies . Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 23.1 76.9 9 30 Public 17.0 83.0 27 132 Chi-Square: .7822932 Corrected (Yates): .4261813 28. Introduction to western music Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 5.1 94.9 1 38 Public 0.6 99.4 0 159 ’ Cni"8quare= 4.097618 Corrected (Yates): .5834985 ‘9‘ 29. Introduction to Persian literature Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 MN Very N 6 NN Elite 41.0 59.0 15 24 Public 33.3 66.7 52 107 Chi-Jquarez .4636538 Corrected (Yates): .2421569 '30. Introduction to living conditions in other developing countries Percentages Frequencies Very N 6 NN Very N 6 NN Elite 12.8 87.2 4 35 Public 13.2 81.8 28 131 Chi-Square: 1.249899 Corrected (Yates): .7660936 APPENDIX F TABLES REPRESENTING STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 178 R . - I e 1 ‘ C ‘ 5103i .3! tr)“ I‘m" ‘V. ‘h 3 ". i ‘-' 6 ~ 7' ) ’ICF—c"; M5 5' 5““ ’ '- . —- o o" . f 0 . ‘ . g ; 2,1". 1;; .Z xi C; 1:” A; [55 a; “I .. t ‘3 st/lf. 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