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FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped beIow. q,3 E98 I"? 9345; 7k PATTERNS OF NEGATIVE EMOTIONS: EETECTScmlm~wm mo mommmooum wmsfioccmmc use mcam00_eoum finesse .coflmfiamcowumomc 838.39“ coflmmmtddom coflugouam cannons: SUE—Mom coflomwm cowuBeumnsm dogged met/30mm: pogo—mama 5032.386 9032sz mmaafiigwuoowmc :03.me 53 common 3 ~3de cofiumuucmocou reasoned Suspense 232 cofiumwcmgsomc scammohmmm ommlcofimmmummm Hmcofimgoo cofiommoum acute—fl 8332395 3:8 Deanna. no 8888a. 98323 03 unmomuucHlm>amemmm 1.5323350 coflmnfiaoflmm maniac H833 haemoaome .828 the, Sanguofl H35 32.88235 53668 83203 3338.30 9830ch m>fi3cmoo cowumucgmmfim snowmen a nfiahmmm sauce—Mommas: :oflwumefla mwmcmgm 0>H98H0m counmuo>mu define befiuamcmm uncommon 02928 838235 Eminence. £2638 coaumesneofle 88: 8380.8 oflumswc mmmmgm Omxm m0 reggae H canon. these factors affect the appraisal of the stressful situation, selection of coping responses, and their effectiveness. The model of coping proposed by Billings and Moos separates coping responses into three domains: (1) Appraisal-focused Coping (a) logical Analysis -- includes attenpts to understand the problem, using past experiences, and assess possible consequences of coping responses; ( 2) Problem-focused Coping (a) Information Seeking - includes attempts to gain more information, seeking help fran persons in authority or fran one '5 social network, and prayer; (b) Problem Solving - taking action, and compromise and negotiation; (3) Emotion-focused Coping (a) Affective Regulation - direct efforts to control reactions to stress-related affect by suppression, looking at the positive side of the situation, and tolerance of anbiguity through not acting inpulsively; (b) Emotional Discharge - Indirect methods of tension reduction , behavioral expressions of unpleasant auction, i.e., ”acting out.” (Moos & Billings, 1984). In Table 2, abridged from Moos and Billings (1982) the three donains of coping processes are illustrated by examples from studies focusing on family and work strains, family separations, alcoholism, and cancer. Ego processes from Haan's tripartite model are also included, illustrating the ability, in the author's view, of measuring these processes in behavioral terms, as well as the actual coping behavior they generate . Both the Lazarus and Folknan and the Billings and Moos rating scales, which measure specific coping behaviors (as opposed to measuring coping styles) have been developed somewhat differently. 'Ihe Lazarus group (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Folkman, 1984) after developing a careful 1y-worked out cognitive theory of stress and coping, relies primarily on eupirical methods ( e.g., exploratory factor analysis) to validate their measurement instrument. In contrast, Billings and Moos (Billings & Moos, 1984; Moos & Billings, 1982) have attempted to construct their coping scale using their conprehensive but less-careful 1y worked out model and have chosen to rely more on rational than statistical methods to group these into coping categories. In spite of these differences , both models share some ccumon theoretical assunptions and their conceptualization of coping has a degree of overlap. Both identify the role of external factors , such as type of life event or personality, in the choice of coping strategies. In addition, both recognize categories of emotion-oriented and problem-oriented strategies as major components of the coping process. 10 .wmmhm 8km 330.» >52 .qun . .62 finfioum .m .3 8mm .3 3088 H8220 8 303885. ”mamfim no 8088: 8E acmemomammfio 5338 no consumaoe sofimmmgdmcm 83.538 ”8 p.52 88:88 H838 mmmcm>auomflwou o2 8880 83283 mfiuommma BMDUOMIGOfiHQRm mocmccodmccw 8288.8 B8u35 58m 2883 830m 883 83388.8 9: Knows. H388 932 mmmflume 5 33882 §>H88H8E EB 88 BBQEHE 8mm 888.839585 89688308 scammmummu omm GOHumhflmOCOU mammamcm HMmeQH 3:882 H85 Egflofia 3838 H888 com:oomn~mmwmnmmd 88: 8:882 mfimbm 88: a 32mm 938 .«6 88m munfiafla m.:mmm mmmmmuomm UZHmOO mo.mZOHmzmzHQ m0 mmumxdxm_owaumnmm N manna ll Negative Affective Experience and Coping Negative emotional reactions to stressful events have been associated‘with.depression. Hammen and Cbchran (1981) and Gong-Guy and Hamen (1980) studied reactions to stressful events in college students under stress and those seeking psychotherapy. Along with attribution, they also measured what they called "nonattribution cognitions', which appear to reflect affective reactions to stressful events. For all stressful events, depressed students rated stressful events as more upsetting and more uncertain. This finding was corroborated by Nelson (1985) found that college students who reported greater upset also reported higher general levels of depression. ' Although levels of upset are related to levels of depression in college students under stress, the relationship of negative affect to coping strategies may be more complex. In a review of literature examining reactions to victimization,‘Wbrtman (1983) raises two issues related to distress. First, distress may result from an accurate appraisal of a prdblem. This recognition.can pave the way for the shift of the focus of coping from short-term protection.of self-esteem to long-term goal attainment. She illustrates this with the following example. A woman who: most people would agree was disagreeable, judgmental, and somewhat cold toward others found that men rarely asked her out more than once ... she explained it by noting that "Interpersonal relationships are very complicated..." This attribution protected her from feeling distressed.whenever a date never called her again. But a more accurate attribution may have forced some behavioral re-evaluation 12 and change, and resulted in greater satisfaction and well-being in the long run. ’ (Wortnan, 1983, p. 205). She also notes that the experiencing of distress may also be related to the affective maturity of the individual. ". ..some victim may experience intense distress when a crisis occurs because they are especially sensitive, compassionate, and caring. A man may fail to show distress when his wife dies not because he is coping well, but because he is a superficial person who is incapable of forming close attachments to others” (1983, p. 215) . Low self-concept as well as stress may be a great notivator for change. mlated to Wortman's views are psychoanalytic theories of growth and change and Silvan Tomkins' affect theory. An example of the psychoanalytic point of view is illustrated by the work of Zetzel (1970) , who has written extensively about the role of sadness and depression in psychological growth. Since loss, disappointment and separation are inevitable, the ability to accept these experiences are vital to optimal coping and enotional growth. Therefore, depression, like anxiety, is a fundamental part of psychic life. In Zetzel's nodel, all loss and disappointment experiences are painful and distressing, and the acceptance of the entirety of the experience prouotes enotional growth and optinal problem solving ability. Brotional disorganization is not always a sign of ultimate lack of coping ability, but may represent a regression occuring prior to reintegration at a higher level. What distinguishes the development of normal from pathological depression is the level of individual development. If development has proceeded to the point the person has 13 some ability to relinquish an omnipotent self-image and accept the limitations of reality, (i.e., achievement of internalization of predominately positive object representations) then even a tenporary disorganized external adaptation may signify long-term growth and optimal conflict resolution. As a result of experiencing and working through the event and the affects associated with it an individual develops an increased ability to tolerate depression and distress and find new solutions to conflicts. The reversability of enotional disorganization mediated by intact basic ego functions permits the experience of affect as well as eventual strengthening of ego functions and coping skills. As opposed to appraisal theories , which propose the presence of emotion only after cognitive appraisal, Tonkins (1963) states that affects are prinary and are induced by changes in internal or external states of arousal. Distress is one of these primary affects, occuringinthepresenceofanoxiouschangeinthelevel ofan internal or external stimilus. It is a negative affect, less toxic or pressing than anxiety or fear/ terror, but psychological 1y unpleasant. 'lhis enables distress to be an affect negative enough to motivate humans to solve problems associated with it, but at not too great a psychological costutnlsenablinghulranstotakethetineto generate thoughtful solutions to problems. First manifest by the distress cry in the infant, this affect is essential to the infant's ability to camunicate both the onset and termination of suffering. Because suffering is universal, all human beings experience distress -- from ills of the body, frustration of interpersonal relationships, and tie ”recalcitrance of nature to human striving 14 and achievement" (Tbmkins, 1963, p. 223). It can function as control fer sexual excitement or curiosity, or as a reaction to anger. The nonpunitive socialization of distress, enabled by the parents' ability to tolerate their children's distress, enables the child to tolerate his/her own. This enables the felt sources of distress to increase with.age and grow“wider”with.development. These sources are partly dependent on what a person is excited about and what he/she enjoys and is therefore related to the intimacy with others and the world. The objects of distress widen to include spouse and children, other people, and commutnen¢.to ideals. This capacity for distress is the promoter of remedial strategies which.can attack the source of distress. For these reasons, these individuals are prone to experience both.heightened enjoyment and distress, affected by challenges, separations, and deprivations of their expanded and rich emotional connections. The capacity to feel distress over a wide variety of persons and situations can be a hallmark of emotional maturity. The punitive socialization of distress in the child often binds distress to other, more toxic affects. The child.whose distress is responded tO‘with.punishment may find himself in a multiple affect bind, where the experience of distress is met with more distress; the angry or aggressive reaction to this is met with distress, and so on; the end result being the minimization of all emotional reactions. Distress may be bound to fear, producing a generalized pessimism about relationships and achievement as well as increased vulnerability to the threat of separation. Punitive socialization.of distress also paradoxically increases the drive to seek out sad situations, such as 15 movies, and so forth, where it is permissible to cry. Therefore, it is not negative affect per se that produces maladaptive behavior , but negative affect ME negative affect - coubinations of types of negative emotions which produce neurotic behavior. Although some studies have shown small degrees of denial to be conducive to successful coping (Folkman, 1984) and absence of depression (Alloy & Abramson, 1979) , other studies have denonstrated the ability to experience enotion and associate it to conflict can be related to successful coping. The Grant Study (Vaillant, 1977) , begun in 1937, had as its aim to study nomal development in those selected for "psychological soundness." The subjects, male college sophorrores fran a large coupetitive liberal arts college, were fol lowed for over thirty-five years, and were assessed in a variety of domains, using interview, physical examination, psychological testing, home observation, and questionnaires returned every two years. Although these men were selected for their psychological health, all experienced crises derranding re-evaluation of life goals and flexibility in the face of adversity. A large variety of verbal material was rated for use of ego defense mechanisms over a long period. No significant findings were revealed - first, nore nature defense mechanisms became uore used with age, and even in the least well-adapted, less-effective innature and neurotic defenses became less prominent, thus indicating the effect of time (and possibly coping with life experience) on adaptive effectiveness. In addition, nature defense mechanisms - altruism, humr, suppression, anticipation, and sublimation - were significantly associated with successful adaptation in social, 16 marital, and work arenas. These defenses, also noted by Norma Haan (1977) as being associated with coping rather than defending, function, in Vaillant's mrds, to ”integrate conscience, reality, interpersonal relations, and instinct," (Vaillant, 1977, p. 85) , that is, they permit both the inpulse and affect associated with it to be cornnected and consciously experienmd with the least degree of distortion while allowing attenuated gratification of the impulse. This is in contrast to neurotic defenses, which seek to alter private feelings or expression, or innature defenses, which seek to renove distress caused by interpersonal conflict. Vaillant's theoretical nodel is in the traditional psychoanalytic node, which maintains there is a constant conprcmise between drives and reality, in contrast to Haan, who proposes that independent ego energy renoved from drive is also present. However, the strength of Vaillant's work, in which he views the development of his subjects not only in terms of ego defenses but with the perspective of life-span developmental psychology as proposed by Erikson (1963) , is that defensive styles can change and develop in adulthood. This process of the formtion of personality structure undergoes crucial changes in late adolescence; in terms of the development of the ego structure needed to face the tasks of adult life. Iate adolescence is marked by the stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion. In this stage, the adolescent is faced by the task of consolidation of the lessons and skills of childhood with the euotional and social tasks of an adult. He states: 17 The integration now taking place in the form of ego identity is, as pointed out, rrore than the sum of the childhood identifications. It is the accrued experience of the ego's ability to integrate all identifications with the vicissitudes of the libido, with the aptitudes developed out of endowment, and with the opportunities afforded in social roles. (Erikson, 1963, p. 261) Pitfalls of this stage include the development of role confusion, which nay result in disorganization and even psychosis (although Erikson naintains because adolescence is a turbulent stage in life, disorganization is more cannon and intervention nore successful) . In addition, relationships with peers and adults are marked by lability of affects and nobility of identifications , as identity is reorganized and established. The adolescent is preoccupied with the norality of himself and of others, making this stage of life the first in which self-reflection is utilized. Offer and Offer (1969) , after reviewing the results of their longitudinal study of middle-class adolescent boys from junior high school through college, dispute Erikson's contention that adolescence is necessarily a turbulent or extremely disorganized time, although they recognize some adolecents achieve stable adulthood identity through intense conflict. However, their intensive study of Rorschach protocols conpleted at age sixteen and twenty-one and clinical assessment of the style of the testing session reveal the subject's increasing ability to express idea and affect in an integrated manner. For example, in the interview situation, testers noted that the 18 subjects' humor was more subtle and used less defensively; in their responses, they were freer, more creative and confident. Examination of the Rorschach protocols themselves revealed that subjects developed a greater internal orientation and internal couplexity. In tears of specific functions, they were more able to bond affective and cognitive spheres of behavior, with l§§§_ability of intellectual aspects to reign or inhibit emotional aspects; however, unprocessed emotional responses lessened. In addition, depressive responses increased, reflecting, according to the authors, the expected confrontation with.the real world upon graduation. Thus, as predicted by .Erikson and to a certain extent by Tomkins, maturation in late adolescence according to Offer and Offer's work is marked by an increasing internal orientation, maturation of ego functions, and an increasing ability to see the world around then more clearly and tolerate the affect that is generatedfby these perceptions. There is other empirical evidence that.exposure to stressful events themselves can also promote adaptation rather than dysfunction, and that this experience is accompanied by a difference in the experience of affect associated with it. Chiriboga (1982) followed longitudinally a cohort of subjects facing life transitions - highrschool graduation, marriage, children leaving home, and retirement for a period of eleven years. He fbund an asymmetrical relationship between negative and positive events and development. For all groups, negative events often predicted positive events, while positive events predicted further positive events only. Subjects who experienced negative events who also reported preoccupation with these negative events, also showed improvements in adjustment in all spheres 19 of life examined (work, hone, family, non-family, financial, habits) except in the marital relationships (Chiriboga & Dean, 1978) . The authors interpreted these findings as evidence that exposure to negative events may serve, in neny cases, as an impetus to further growth. Nelson (1985) examined, in college students, the relationship of reactions and reporting of negative life events to treasures of anxiety and nental health, discovering the occurrence of negative life events to be related to levels of anxiety and positive nental health, once the affective reactions to specific events has been partial led out. He cited two possible origins of this finding, noting that the presence of anxiety rather than defense against it may result in a reporting bias - but a bias in the direction of nore accurate reporting. In any case, the experience of negative events seems to have the effect of affective sharpening and possibly, in scne cases, a positive effect on nental health. Nelson also found subjects who scored low on indices of psychological wel l-being, as well as psychological distress, associated with distortion in reporting negative life stress. This distortion seened to indicate a denial pattern. The low levels of psychological well-being illustrate these subjects may cope with the distress of stress by denial of feelings associated with the stressor, with deleterious effects on psychological well-being. Another aspect of Nelson's work relevant for this study is his finding that specific reactions to very stressful events are the most robust predictor of functioning. He states : 20 ...it is not sadness, fear, or anger that was primarily related to nental health. Instead, it is inner-directed hostility, shyness or erbarrassnent, and shame that were most related to loss of wel l-being and enotional-behavioral control...enotional reactions directed toward the external event (e.g., sadness) are not as important as the enotional responses ccncerened with one's own participation in the event (Nelson, 1985, p. 63-4). He then goes on to note that this effect may be especially relevant for his sample of college students, given the prominence of identity issues, with their emphasis on self-esteem and self-reflection. The generalizability arnd theoretical support for these formulations as they relate to depression are addressed in the following section. 21 bbod States arnd Depression Classical psychoanalytic theory and modifications to that theory have postulated a theoretical relationship between states of sadness arnd clinical depression as well as distinctions between them. While theorists differ on the exact nethod of internalization of aggression and its eventual resolution, Freud's description of nelancholic depression remains a prototype for the psychoanalytic nodel of depressive reactions . In depression, as differentiated from grief, a great decrease in self-esteem occurs, due to tl'e presence of unresolved aggression toward who/what is lost. The depressed person perceives their aggression as too dangerous or guilt-producing to experience and draws it into the ego. However, s/he continues to hate this object, which now exists within the person's ego. The aggression is, therefore, directed against the self. Attempts to neasure depression have always included measures of aggression, but these have differed in valence, and studies have found the presence of both inner- and outer-directed aggression in patients with depressive disorder. Levitt, Lubin, and Brooks (1983), in a review of instrunents designed to neasure depression, found al 1 of them measure some form of aggression. For example, all studies neasure self-devaluation, a form of aggression against the self and six neasure irritability and anger. E‘npirical research specifically addressing aggression in depression has revealed both the intensity and direction of aggression varies anong diagnostic groups. However, while levels of external ly-directed aggression (extrapunitiveness) differed among 22 diagnostic groups and categories, lessening levels of internal ly-directed aggression have been associated with clinical improvenent of depression. Mayo (1967) found both intropunitiveness and extrapunitiveness decreased in depressed patients with successful treatnent; Philip (1971) , studying a sample of depressed women, found no changes in extrapunitiveness but only a lessening of intropunitiveness with clinical improvement. Blackburn (1974) reports level of extrapunitiveness varied with diagnosis, with unipolar depressed patients reporting more than bipolar depressed; however, intropnmitiveness was not significantly different, and abated with clinical improvement. A psychodynamic study of aggression in depression was conducted by Kendall (1970) . Be denonstrated in a cross-cultural study of depression that cultures with few opportunities for expression of aggression show higher levels of depression. Cochrane (1975) used a detailed analysis of projective test material to delineate subjects' handling of aggression, and attempted to assess the ability of three psychodynamic theories of depression to explain obtained patterns of aggression. Among the three theories tested, classical psychoanalytic, Kleinian, and Kendall's, the latter provided the best fit for his data. Patterns of aggression in depressive feelings have also been studied in normal subjects. Izard (1972) , using his Differential Emotions Scale, studied college and high-school students' enotional reactions to depressive experiences. In both samples, after distress (a negative emotion manifested nostly as sadness) depression was most connonly associated with hostility directed inward, fear, fatigue, 23 guilt, and outwardly-directed hostility. In a sanple of ten- ard eleven-year-old children with depression as neasured by the Children's Depression Inventory, depression was nost significantly correlated with inner-directed hostility (Blunberg & Izard, 1985) . Edith Jacobson (1971) presented, within Freud's drive theory and ego psychology, a psychology of nood states in normals, in grief, and depression. She, like Freud, believed depression to be the result of unconscious conflicts concerning aggressive and ambivalent wishes toward the lost object. Her psychology of affects also differentiate between normal and pathological noods. Mood states occur when there is an excess of tension that cannot be dissipated by other drive discharge methods ard involve the attachment of libido to objects. They serve a primitive economic function - the ego can discharge affects on a great number ard variety of objects. In a nood state, certain nenories are held onto more strongly, and others are de-emphasized or denied. The nood pernnits discharge of drive energies; reality-testing also permits the gradual lessening of this nood in favor of more sublinnated drive discharges (connonly known as secondary process). In effect, what nood states seen to do is allow the gradual integration of experience and expansion of sublimations. Inpaired ego functioning affects the person's ability to gradually dissipate a nood state through decreased reality testing ard inability to develop new sublimations. Severe nood states block the availability of environmental feedback, which is one of the primary factors in the termination of a nood state. 24 In sunnary, both Freud ard Jacobson distinguish normal sadness from depression. Freud ennphasizes the role of unresolved aggression toward what is lost, while Jacobson builds on this assumption, and expands it to include the role of normal nood states and ego functioning in psychic life. 25 Research in Stress and Coping in Depression Both the Lazarus and Billings groups have examined the relationship between coping strategies ard depression in connunity samples, comprising the only studies that attempt to relate these phencnena. Their findings are briefly reviewed below. Coyne, Aldwin and Lazarus (1981) examined a comnunity sample of 100 subjects over a period of one year in order to assess the relationship between depression and coping strategies . The Hopkins Synptom Checklist was used as a neasure of depression, and was administered at the second ard tenth months of the study. Those with elevated scores on the HSCL at both administrations were classified as depressed. Coping strategies were assessed nonthly by the Ways of Coping Checklist, which lists 68 various coping behaviors (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980) . Factor analysis of this scale revealed seven coherent scales: problem-focused, wishful thinking, help-seeking avoidance (mixed coping) growth, minimization of threat, enotional support, and self-blane. ‘ Depressed and nondepressed subjects appraised situations differently: the depressed subjects appraised situations as needing nore information, and surprisingly, as requiring less acceptance. Depressed persons used, as coping behaviors, more wishful thinking, seeking of enotional support, and help-seeldng/avoidance. The two groups differed with regard to coping in situations appraised as possible to change - depressed persons did more wishful thinking, help-seeking/avoidance, and nore seeking of enotional support. In situations requiring a person to hold back, depressed 26 persons did nore wishful thinking, and help-seeking/avoidance. Differences in situations requiring acceptance or nore infornation were not significant. In their analysis, Coyne et a1. point out that the perceived ineptness of depressed persons in taking action is more of a matter of feeling uncertain rather then helplessness. They also postulate that depressed persons' less frequent use of "rust accept" reflects their refusal to accept circunstances that nnust be witldrawn from -- instead, they seek more information. This concept is consistent with classical psychoanalytic notions of a depressed person as sonecne who is anbivalent about loss. Depressed persons also perceive people in their environment as less helpful - depression nay interfere with the ability to use social resources. Billings and his colleagues (Billings, Cronkite, & Moos, 1983; Billings & Moos, 1984) studied 424 depressed persons seeking treatnent at various inpatient ard outpatient facilities. Subjects had a diagnosis of either major (65.3%) or minor (34.7%) depressive disorder, according to Research Diagnostic (RDC) criteria. A sample of matched nordepressed controls was also obtained . Depression severity at tine of interview was assessed using the sum of ratings fron items the RDC interview which inclu®d depressed nood, edogenous depressive symptoms, and other features. Correlations revealed a significant negative relationship between use of problem solving and depression level, ard a positive relationship between the use of enotional discharge ard depression. Sone correlations reflect sex differences; information-seeking is only significantly correlated with depression in nen, although both 27 depressed nen and wonen use nore information seeking. The authors note that the highest multiple correlation was between depression severity and overall coping responses, possibly irdicating a unique association between coping and depression. 28 gypotheses In the nost general sense, these hypotheses constitute a test of Tomkins' (1963) theory and Wortman's (1983) supposition that the ability to feel and bear distressful feelings and cope with them in an effective fashion is a mark of nature functioning. In response to the experience of distress and associated negative enotions generated by stressful events, an individual generates a series of coping responses. This study will attempt to show that the experience of these enotions constitute a necessary precursor to the initiation of coping strategies. The nature of the coping responses selected will be associated with the quality of reported psychological functioning and change pronoted by experience with the stressful event. As stated in the literature review, coping responses can be seen as ego functions. Vaillant (1977) has placed these in a hierarchy and I-han (1977) has categorized them as coping or defending functions. Both these theorists, especially Haan and to a lesser extent, Vaillant, make the assertion that some defenses are nore efficient than others; for Haan coping responses nore so than defeding responses (See Table 1) and for Vail lant, nature defenses nore than neurotic or inmature ones. Although both differ to sone extent on the theoretical justification for their assertions (Haan hypothesizing ego funnction separate from drive, and Vail lant taking a nore traditional psychoanalytic view) , they both rate more highly ego defenses which 29 enploy less distortion of self or others and pronote adaptive behavior. This study also shares these assumptions. Three scales fran the Indices of Daily Coping (mos, Cronkite, Billings, & Finnnney, 1985), Affective Regulation, Problem Solving, and Brotional Discharge, will be used to neasure coping responses to affective conponents of stressful events. In Table 2, Moos and Billings (1982) conpare their indices of coping furnctionns to Haan's (1977) coping and defending categories. A similar comparison nay also be made between these coping responses and Vaillant's (1977) hierarchy of ego defenses. Affective Regulation and Problem Solving as patternns of coping strategies resenble Vaillant 's mature defenses of sublimation, suppression and anticipation and Haan's suppression, sublimation, and tolerance of anbiguity. Enotional Discharge responses can be seen, in Vail lant's system, as representing displacenent and acting out, and in Haan's system as representing displacenent. An additional assumption that has been made and tested throughout this sandy is that inner-directed negative affect exerts nore toxic effects than outer-directed negative affect on the ability of the individual to effect efficient coping responses. This can be explained in two ways. As reviewed elsewhere in this proposal, classical psychoanalytic theorists associate inner-directed negative affect specifically with depression, postulating the existence of sadrness without depression. These inner—directed negative affects, in response to stressful events, were shown to be nost strongly associated with psychological distress by Nelson (1985) . However, some psychoanalytic theorists, mainly of the object relations school .30 (c.f. Zetzel, 1970) hypothesize that all sadness experiences contain guilt, Shane, and inner-directed hostility; it is only the degree to which these affects dominate tie experience which affects the quality of the depression. Negative affect subscales fronn the Differential Enotions Scale-IV (DES-IV) (Blunberg & Izard, 1985) will be used to measure both dinensions of negative affect. Inner-directed negative affect is represented on the DES-IV by the subscales Inner-Directed Hostility, Guilt, and Shane; negative affect not directed toward the self but toward the environment or situation, constitutes the other portion of total negative affect and is measured by the subscales Fear, Anger, and Distress. la. low levels of both inner- and onter—directed negative affect in reaction to stressful events will be associated with low levels of psychological well-being, as well as low levels of psychological distress. 1b. Iow levels of total negative affect will be associated with lower levels of positive change as a result of coping with the stressful event. These hypotheses attempt to expand Nelson's (1985) finding that individuals who distort in reporting negative life events also report low levels of both psychological well-being and distress by linking the low distress/well-being pattern to low enotiornal reactivity to the stressful event. Nelson felt this pattern to be indicative of a denial response, which also caused deleterious effects on feelings of well-being. Additionally, if the experience of enotional reactions indicates the ability to experience a wider rannge of affect, then 31 levels of well-being in individuals who experience negative affect should be higher, given adequate coping responses are nede. Consequently, so also the capacity to experience personal change should be associated with the ability to experience these emotions. These hypotheses will be tested using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. Hypothesis la will be tested by examination of correlations of levels of inner- and outer-directed negative affect with levels of both psychological distress and well-being. Hypothesis 1b will be tested by examination of the correlation coefficient between total negative affect and positive change. Psychological distress and wel l-being will be neasured by the Psychological Distress and Psychological Well-Being subscales of the Mental Health Inventory (MI-II) . Total negtive affect will be neasured by sunning the subscale scores Guilt, Shane, Inner-Directed Hostility, Distress, Anger, and Fear fron the Differential Enotions Scale-IV (DES-IV) . 2a. High proportions of effective coping responses , in interaction with high levels of innerhdirected negative affect, will be associated with greater reported psychological well-being, particularly higher quality of interpersonal relationships. This pattern of affect and coping responses will be associated with lower levels of psychological distress but higher levels of anxiety. 2b. low proportions of effective coping responses, in interaction with high levels of inner-directed negative affect will be associated with lesser reported psychological well-being, particularly poorer quality of interpersonal relationships. 'nnis pattern will also be positively associated with level of psychological distress and loss of behavioral and enotional control. 32 These hypotheses will seek to slow that the quality of coping responses directly interacts with tie experience of inner-directed negative affect to produce varying effects on psychological well-being. When levels of inner-directed negative enotions are high, and acconpanied by efficient coping responses , the interaction of the experience of affect and the ability to cope effectively produces increased levels of psychological well-being; when tlnese high levels of inner-directed affect are accompanied by less-efficient coping responses, psychological distress is higher. In particular, loss of behavioral and enotional control is hypotlnesized to be specific to inner-directed negative affect. These hypotheses, then, attempt to refine tl'e finding of major stress and coping researchers (Coyne, Aldwin, 8: Lazarus, 1981; Billings & Moos, 1984) that depression is associated with indirect, less effective forms of coping responses. By slowing that this finding only pertains under certain conditions, it will demonstrate that the presence of inner-directed negative affect is necessary but not sufficient to produce high levels of psychological distress. Elevated anxiety levels in persons undergoing stress have been seen in persons who distort less in He reporting of negative events. Annxiety is also associated with higher levels of well-being (Nelson, 1985) . As with hypothesis 1, this hypothesis seeks to test the assertion that this effect exteds to reported enotions. These hypotheses will be tested using hierarchical nultiple regression. At the first step inner-directed negative affect, measured using the total score of the subscales Inner-Directed Hostility, Shane and Guilt of the Differential Emotions Scale-IV (DES-IV) will be 33 entered. At the second step, coping responses measured by using a Coping Efficiency Score comprised of a ratio of half the total responses from the subscales Problem-Solving and Affective Regulation from the Indices of Daily Coping (IDC) over the score from the Emotional Discharge subscale of the same instrument will be added. The final team to be added will be an interaction term comprised of both these variables. Four separate equations will be used, with.each variable regressed on the following: psychological distress, measured by the Psychological Distress subscale of the MHI; psychological well-being, as measured by the Psychological Well-Being subscale of the MHI; quality of interpersonal relationships, measured by the Personal Ties subscale of the MRI; and anxiety, measured by the Anxiety subscale of the MHI. The crucial variable in each equation is the interaction term. Cbnfirmation of the hypothesis will be assumed if the interaction term (coping efficiency and negative affect) significantly increases psychological well-being and decreases psychological distress. 2c. Higher levels of coping efficiency*will be associated with higher levels of perceived personal change and higher levels of perceived competence. This hypothesis will be tested using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, with coping efficiency measured as noted above in Zarb, and change reported will be measured using two questions assessing subjective change and competence constructed for this study (see Methodology section). 3a. High proportions of effective coping responses, in 34 interaction with high levels of outer-directed negative affect, will be associated with greater reported psychological well-being. 3b. Lon proportions of effective coping responses , in interaction with high levels of outer-directed negative affect, will be associated with lesser reported psychological well-being, particularly poorer quality of interpersonal relationships. This copinng pattern will also be positively associated with the level of psychological distress. These two hypotheses are parallel to 2a and 2b, and share sone of the sane assumptions, with the exception that otter—directed affect is hypothesized to be less deleterious on psychological functioning, especial ly in terms of behavioral adaptation as neasured by loss of behavioral and enotional control . In addition, exannination of specific classes of coping strategies may furtlner illuminate differences between the relationships between inner- ard outer-directed negative affect and selection of coping responses. These hypotlneses will be tested using the sane hierarchical nultiple-regression strategy outlined for hypotheses 2a-b. Instead of inner-directed negative affect , outer-directed negative affect wil 1 be neasured (total score of the submales Distress, Anger, and Fear of the DES-IV) . Two separate equations will be used, with outer-directed negative affect, Coping Efficiency, and an interaction term comprised of both variables regressed upon Psychological Distress and Well-Being subscales, respectively. As with Hypotheses 2a-b, the hypotheses will be assuned to be confirned if the interaction term to tl'e regression equation adds significantly positively to the prediction of psychological well-being and negatively the prediction of psychological distress. 35 The following four hypotheses test the assumption that it is inner-directed negative affect has more deleteriois effects, in general, on the quality of coping responses: 4a. High levels of Problem-Solving coping will more strongly be associated with lower levels of innerhdirected negative affect than alter-directed negative affect. 4b. High levels of Affective Regulation will nore strongly be associated with lower levels of outer-directed negative affect than inner-directed negative affect . These hypotheses will be neasured using the Pearson product-nonent correlation: first, total score of the subscale Problem-Solving fronn the IDC with total inner-directed negative affect fron the DES-IV and with total outer-directed negative affect fronn the IES-IV; second, total score of the subscale Affective Regulation fron the IDC with total inner-directed negative affect and outer-directed negative affect. Each pair of correlations will be conpared using the Fisher 2 statistic . 5a. level of quality of enotional ties will be more strongly associated with onter-directed negative affect and coping efficiency than with inner-directed negative affect and coping efficiency. 5b. level of loss of behavioral and enotional control will be nore strongly associated with inner-directed negative affect and coping efficiency than with outer-directed negative affect and coping efficiency. These hypotheses will be neasured using the sanne miltiple regression strategy as in hypothesis 2, with the variables and interaction term regressed onto the Buotional Ties and loss of 36 Enotional and Behavioral Control subscales of the MHI. Each pair of nultiple correlations will be conpared using the Fisher 2 statistic. 37 Metlrndology m The sample consisted of 104 university undergraduates. The 73 fennales had a nean age of 21.7 years. Sixteen percent were freshnen, 37.5% sophomores, 31.25% juniors, and 16% seniors. The 31 nnales had a nean age of 21.8 years. Twenty percent were freshnen, 36.6% sophomores, 13.3% juniors, and 30% seniors. They were recruited both throigh a large undergraduate psychology class and throngh the psychology subject pool associated with an introductory psychology course. Administration of Measures Each subject was given a packet identified by number. Each packet contained fonr scales: tlne Differential Enotions Scale-IV, The Indices of Coping Behavior, Personal Change, and the Mental Health Inventory. They were colpleted in that order. Before conpleting the research scales, subjects first conpleted a cover sheet which included general instructions and an inforned consent form. The second page included identifying information such as sex, age, and class. Each subject was asked to nanne a stressful eventwhichhasoccuredintl'epasttwomonths priortothenonth precedingthecurrentdateardtowriteasentenceortwoabontthe circunstances of the event. They then connpleted the DES-IV, which assesses enotionnal reactions experienced in the first day after the 38 event; then, they completed tlne Indices of Coping Scale, indicating behaviors used in copirng with the naned stressor; and then, rated degree of personal change and confidence concerning the stressor. Then subjects completed the Mental Health Inventory, which assesses functioning over the past month. These corpleted forms (nninus the informed consent sheet which was handed in separately) were then replaced in the envelope by the subject, sealed, and handed to the experimenter or an assistant. At that point each received a short written statenent which explained the purpose of tl'e study, and inforned subjects of how they can ask further questions or share concerns about the study. (Appendix A contains copies of the naterials given to subjects.) lbasures Enotions . To neasure enotional reactions , the Differential motions Scale-IV (DES-IV) (Blunberg and Izard, 1985, in press) was used. The DES-IV is a 49-item, self-report neasure of the following enotions: interest, enjoynent, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contenpt, fear, Shane, shyness, guilt, and inner-directed hostility. Respondents rate how often over a one-day period (innediately following the stressor) they have experienced feelings expressed in items over a scale fronn 0 (rarely or never) to 5 (very often). It can also be administered as a state neasure. The first version of this scale, the DES, was originally developed to test differential enotions theory (Izard, 1971) , which stated that there are fundanental enotions, each with distinct physiological, expressive, and subjective patterns, which humans possess as part of tlneir evolutionary heritage. These auction 39 expressions have been cross-cultural 1y studied and validated (Izard, 1971) . The DES-IV is identical to an earlier version of the DES (DES-III) with the exception of the addition of two subscales hypothesized to target patterns of emotions specific to depression (Izard, 1972) . The DES-III has been shown to possess reliability and validity in adolescents and college students, and equivalency with the parent DES and DES-II (Izard, Dougherty, Bloxom, & Kotsch, 1974; Kotsch, Gerbing, & Schwartz, 1982). Oonplex emotions such as anxiety and depression are hypothesized to be patterns of emotions. The DES has been used to delineate patterns specific to complex emotions (Izard, 1972) . In a sample of col lege students, the fol lowing pattern of fundamental enotions were used by subjects to describe depression experiences (listed by order of frequency): distress (later re-named sadness), hostility directed inward (or inner-directed hostility) (carbination of anger/ disgust/content) , fear, fatigue, guilt, hostility directed outward (carbination of anger/disgust/oontempt) , surprise, shyness, and joy (Izard, 1972) . Further factor analyses have refined these emotion concepts, resulting in the present emotion list (see p. 42) . This pattern was significantly different than other patterns elicited by other emotion situations. The DES-IV, which will be .used in this study, has been shown to correlate significantly with the Children's Depression Inventory in a sanple of older children (Blumberg and Izard, 1985, in press) and with the Depression subscale of the Mental Health Inventory (Nelson, 1985). 40 Coping behavior. Coping behaviors were assessed by the Indices of Coping Responses, a portion of the Health and Daily Living Form (Moos, Cronkite, Billings, & Finney, 1985). This scale is a revision of an earlier measure (Billings 8 mos, 1981) . Subjects name a recent stressful event and then rate frequency on a scale fran 1 (no) to 4 (yes, fairly often) of the use of 32 coping behaviors. There are five categories of coping responses grouped nmder three main areas : appraisal-focused (logical analysis), problem-focused (information seeking and problem-solving) , and auction-focused (affective regulation and emotional discharge) . These areas were developed both theoretically and by the use of enpirical and confirmatory factor analyses (Moos & Billings, 1982) . The five subscales will be used for this study. 'nnis scale has been used in assessing coping responses among alcoholic families and depressed outpatients and controls in a large connmmity sample (Billings & Moos, 1981, 1984).. These studies have shown differences in copinng behavior anong these groups, and reflects other researchers' findings (Billinngs & Moos, 1984). Personal Chang. Two questions designned to assess subjective feelings of personnel growth and increased coupetenoe in dealing with related stressors were asked. Personality fnmctioninq. The Mental Health Inventory (MRI) ,a 38-item measure of synptoue of psychological distress and well-being, was used to assess personality functioning (Veit & Ware, 1983) . This scale, developed using a diverse stratified sample of non-patient oonmmity residents fran four major population centers reflecting a cross-section of the general population (N=5,089) was designed to not 41 onnly measure psychological distress (symptomatology) but indices of well-being also, postulating psychological health as more than tle absence of symptoms. The Psychological Well-Being scale contains items targeting tie quality of personal relationships, work and optimism about tleir personal situation. The Psychological Distress variable contains items targeting dysphoric and anxious feelings, social isolation, and pessimism. Respondents are asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 6 itens describing various feeling states over the past nronth. Each item has its own scale anchors which refer to dimensions of frequency, quality, or intensity. A methodological conncern of tie use of this scale in this study is tle validity of tie psychological well-being construct as a measure of psychological health as defined by a psychodynamic model of personality. Although tiere is widespread agreement as to what constitutes generalized psychological dysfunnction, tie components of healthy funnctionning have been less well-defined. Freud considered psychological realth as tle ability "to love and work;" other psychoanalytic theorists (as cited in an extensive review of tie goals of psychoanalytic psychotl'erapy) define a psychological 1y mature person as one with t‘re following qualities, among otters: the ability to make and enjoy stable relationships with otters; to love affectionately and/or romantically and accept love from otters; the ability to relax; attenuation of wisres for omnipotence; tle capacity for enjoynnent and pleasure in work and play; and ability to be curious and enthusiastic about aspects of one's life (McGlashan 5. Miller, 1982) . 42 The Psychological Well—Being scale of tie MI-II surveys functioning in three sfineres relevant to tl'ese qualities: quality of close relationships, affect, and interset/excitement in work and daily life. Itene on relationnships reflect satisfaction with relationships , feeling loved and wanted, and their fullness and completeness. Affective items track the freedom from anxiety and depression, such as feeling happy, satisfied, and pleased, feeling calm and peaceful, and relaxed and free of tension. Items focusing on work and daily life indicate optimism and interest/ investment, for example, geeral 1y enjoyed things; daily life interesting; and future hopeful, promising. Altl'eugh tne MHI was constructed fran a pmhiadic epidemiology descriptive model, items addressing psychological well-being describe sone aspects of tealthy functioning noted by psychodynnamic treorists as descriptive of mature personality. Although tl'e range of funnctioning is not as broad as that cited by tiese tl'eorists, it is considered a sufficient estinate for this study. This scale was validated using empirical and confirmatory factor-analytic structure (total N=5,089) . One, two, and five-factor solutions have been geerated for tiese data, all explaining signnificant portions of tie variance. For this study, tie two-factor solution will be used: Psychological Distress, which encoapasses tie subscales of Depression, Annxiety, and Loss of Behavioral/ Emotional Control; and Psychological Wel l-Being, which is comprised of subscales of General Positive Affect and Emotional Ties. These factors are unipolar and correlated (oblique analyses made the best fit for data). This scale shows high internal consistency and reliability over a one-syear period; cross-validation studies showed similarity of factor 43 structure in tl'e four diverse community populations studied (Veit & Ware, 1983) . 44 Results In addition to addressing tl'e formal study hypotheses, this section contains further annalyses which will aid in interpretation of the study data. Table 3 presents neans and standard deviations for scale scores and provides additional data from other studies using tie Mental Health Inventory and tie Indices of Daily Coping scales for conparison. Table 4 contains intercorrelations of tie study variables, and Table 5 contains individual correlations between specific affects and coping mechanisms. Although no hypotteses addressed gender differences, trese have been noted in otter studies; tierefore, tie mean score for each study variable for each gender was connpared by t-test. These results are contained in Table 6. No connparison reached significance. 45 vh.H av.m mH.¢N w¢.wm mm.m mm.NN mm.ha Ha.¢m mh.Hm Hm.mm mmcmnu 60>Hwoumm deuce uomwm< Hmuoa uowume m>Hummwz nanomuwcnumpso uommm< m>Hummmz nouoouaaruoccH >Hnmma Enhances 9E8 8d «Tm Rd mad «9283 383% 86 8d . Ed 8d 8323 938m? 85 93 Rd mes gsdimfiod 9&8 ~33 do 30:5 .... 3.8 and; 3.: a}: sham 3939.5 a: 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 2.2 mfimmuzms mmd SK dd 8.... 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Dan... 03”.: acme: m>wummmz gumuecnumua 03.. cow. 03.. 0mm... 3m... poem: m>3mmmz emuoofionuwcfi “93:00 Hgofiuofim 3mg $0.4qu mmg gwmIsz managed, 280328 38 Hmoflmososuamm Hgasen 3032065 =2:qu mmmwg ZOHmmmemm Ema; 2H am: 85% ”29.2 EOHBEOQNBZH v manna. 4'7 Table 5 INDIVIDUAL100RRELATIONS BETWEEN OUTERPDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECTS, COPING MECHANISMS, OOPING EFFICIENCY, AND REPORTED CHANGE (N=104) Emotional Problem Affective Coping variable Discharge Solving Regulation Efficiency Anger .39a -.05 -.09 .40c Fear .20b -.02 .04 .12 Sadness ‘ .17b .07 -.18b .05 Total Reported Change -.02 .46a .22a .21b a p<.01 b p<.05 48 Table 6 GENDER DIFFERENCES Am VARIABLES FM THE PRESENT STUDY (N.B.: Scale scores from 0) Variable Males (N=31) Females (N=73) Mean S.D. Mean S.D. p Mental Health Inventory Anxiety 16.13 7.50 16.90 8.50 .46 Depression 7.10 3.63 7.30 3.68 .97 Loss of Behavioral/ Emotional Control 10.77 6.66 13.66 8.23 .20 Emotional Ties 5.65 3.31 5.18 2.82 .27 Well-Being 36.74 11.98 33.30 12.63 .77 Distress 37.90 14.88 42.44 18.93 .14 Indices of Daily'Cbping Problem—Solving 7.00 3.22 8.04 3.34 .84 Affective Regulation 6.81 2.83 7.21 3.14 .55 Emotional Discharge 4.94 3.14 5.24 2.91 .60 Coping Efficiency 35.68 28.12 41.71 33.25 .31 DESPIV Inner-Directed Negative Affect 33.84 15.60 34.23 18.05 .38 Outer-Directed Negative Affect 21.35 7.46 22.77 8.68 .36 Total Perceived Change 9.26 1.65 9.48 1.78 .66 49 Hypothesis 1a. Low levels of both inner- and outer-directed negative affect in reaction to stressful events will be associated with low levels of psych- ological well-being, as well as low levels of psychological distress. As illustrated by Table 7, this hypotl'esis was partially confirmed. mile low levels of negative affect are significantly associated with low levels of psychological distress, the hypothesized relationship between negative affect and psychological wel l-being was not demonstrated. Instead, a negative relationship between these variables was found. Hypotlesis 1b. Low levels of total negative affect will be associated with lower levels of positive change as a result of coping with the stressful event. This hypotl'esis was not confirmed. Total negative affect and positive change are not significantly related, as illustrated by Table 8. 50 Table 7 RELATION-HP BETWEEN AFFECT AND DISTRESS AND WELL-BERG (N=104) Correlated Variables r ta p 1. Inner-Directed Negative Affect and Well-Being -.34 -3.68 (.01 2 . Outer-Directed Negative Affect and Well-Being -.35 -3.75 <.Ol 3 . Inner-Directed Negative Affect and Distress .44 4.96 <.Ol 4 . Outer-Directed Negative Affect and Well-Being .41 4.49 (.01 aStudent's t statistic, df=102. Table 8 RELATICNSHIP 135mm TOTAL NEEATIVE AFFECT AND POSITIVE CHAMSE (N=104) Correlated Variable r ta p Total Negative Affect and Positive Change -.02 -.24 .41, ms. aStudent's t statistic, df=102 51 Hypothesis 2a. High proportions.of effective coping responses in interaction with.high levels of inner-directed negative affect will be associated with.greater reported psychological wellebeing, particularly higher quality of interpersonal relationships. This pattern of affect and coping responses will be associated with lower levels of psychological distress but higher levels of anxiety. Hypothesis 2b. Low proportions of effective coping responses in.interaction with.high levels of inner-directed negative affect will be associated with.lesser reported psychological well-being, particularly poorer quality of interpersonal relationships. This coping pattern will also be associated with level of psychological distress and loss of behavioral and emotional control. Tables 9 to 11 display the results of analysis of hypotheses 2a and b. These were partially confirmed. The interaction of coping efficiency and level of inner-directed negative affect as measured by hierarchical multiple regression analysis, is significantly associated with increased levels of psychological well-being (B=1.04, p<.01) and quality of emotional ties (B=1.00, p<.01); as well as decreased levels of psychological distress (B=-.80, p<.01) and loss of behavioral and emotional control (B=-.95, p<.01). This interaction was not .associated with.anxiety at a statistically significant level (B=-.50, p=.08), although the latter approached significance. 52 These interaction terms function as net suppressors in the regression equations. Zero—order correlations of the interaction term with the dependent.variables ranged from .O3(Emotional Ties) to .23 (Distress). Even though the interactions were significant, unless the the interactions themselves are in the predicted form, the hypotheses are not confirmed. Table 11 contains slope values of the regression equations at three levels of coping efficiency. Low coping efficiency is associated with a higher correlation between negative affect and psychological well-being and distress. Moderate to high levels of coping efficiency are associated with little change in functioning with increasing levels of inner-directed negative affect. This relationship is reflected by a decreasing slope at.higher levels of coping efficiency. comparison of the regression of inner-directed negative affect, coping efficiency, and their interaction upon anxiety and distress reveals no statisically significant difference between them (z=-1.69, n.s.). This does not support the hypothesis that this coping pattern (high levels of negative affect and high coping efficiency) is more associated with anxiety as opposed to distress. 53 Table 9 MUUTIPLE REGRESSION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL.WEIIFBEING, NIGEL TIES, AND PSYCHOILISICAL DISTRESS ON INNERPDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT, OOPING EFFICIENCY AND THEIR.INTERACTION (N=104) variable Standardized Beta t p Psychological well-Being InnerbDirected Coping Efficiency -.79 -3.06 <.01 Interaction 1.04 3.51 <.01 Multiple R=.47 F=9.23, p<.01 Emotional Ties Inner-Directed Negative Affect -.66 -4.18 (.01 Coping Efficiency -.88 -3.05 (.01 Interaction 1.00 3.22 (.01 Multiple R=.38 F=6.00, p<.01 Psychological Distress Inner-Directed Negative Affect .77 5.14 <.01 Coping Efficiency .74 2.95 (.01 Interaction -.80 -2.76 <.01 Miltiple R=.51 VF=11.67, p<.01 54 Table 10 MULTIPLE REGRESSION OF LOSS OF BEHAVIORAL/EMOTIONAL CONTROL ON'INNERPDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT, OOPING EFFICIENCY AND THEIR.INTERACTION (N3104) variable Standardized Beta t p Loss of Behavioral and Emotional Control Inner-Directed Negative Affect .86 5.86 (.01 Coping Efficiency' .80 3.28 (.01 Interaction -.95 -3.38 (.01 Multiple R=.54 F=13.65, p<.01 Anxiety Inner-Directed Negative Affect .59 3.82 (.01 Coping Efficiency .60 2.32 (.05 mteraCtiOD -049 -1067 008' nos. Mu1tiple R=.47 F=9.26, p<.01 55 Table 11 SLOPE OF REERESSIQI EDUATIOIB ERIN TABLE 10 BY LEVELS OF €0le EFFICIENCY (N=104) Iewel of Coping variable Efficiency Slope Mean -.19 +1SD -.12 Emotional Ties -lSD -.09 man -0 03 +1SD .03 Distress -ISD .75 Mean .42 +ISD .10 Loss Behavioral/ Emotional Control -ISD .31 man -0 01 +130 -0 33 56 Table 12 COMPARISON'OF MUDTIPLE R.EOR.ANXIETY AND DISTRESS ON INNER-DIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT, OOPING EFFICIENCY, AND THEIR.INTERACTION (N=104) variable r z p Anxiety .47 -1.69 n.s. Distress .51 Hypothesis 2c. Higher levels of coping efficiency will be associated with higher levels of perceived per- sonal change and perceived competence. This hypothesis is confirmed, as illustrated by Table 13.There is a statistically significant positive association between coping efficiency and levels of perceived change. 57 Table 13 RELATION-HP BETWEEN COPII‘B EFFICIENCY AND PERCEIVED CHAPEE (N=104) variable r t p Coping Efficiency and Perceived Changea .21 2.14 .Olb a The original hypothesis called for separate analyses for each measure, but means were non-significantly different by trtest (t=.4834, df=102, n.s.) and therefore combined. b One-tailed test 58 Hypothesis 3a. High proportions of effective coping responses in interaction with.high levels of outer-directed negative affect, will be associated with greater reported psychological well-being. Hypothesis 3b. Low proportions of effective coping responses in interaction with.high levels of outer-directed negative affect will be associated with.lesser reported psychological well-being. This coping pattern will also be positively associated with the level of psychological distress. As illustrated in Table 14, both.sections of this hypothesis are confirmed. The multiple regression analyses for these variables follow the same pattern in Hypotheses 2a and b. The interaction of Coping efficiency and outer-directed negative affect is positively associated with psychological well-being (B=.99, p<.01) and negatively associated with psychological distress (B=-.82, p<.01). As before, these interactions function as suppressor variables. Additionally, these interactions are in the predicted direction. Table 15 illustrates the pattern of slopes for these regression equations. 59 Table 14 MULTIPIE REGRESSION OF PSYCHGHBICAL WELD-BERKS AND PSYCHGHXEJCAL DISTRESS (N OUTER-DIRECTED NEEATIVE AFFECT, CDPINS EFFICIH‘CY AND THEIR INTERACTION (N=104) Variable Standardized Beta t p Psychological Well-Being (liter-Directed Coping Efficiency -.74 -2.40 .01 Interaction .99 2.80 (.01 mltiple R=.44 F=7.93, p<.01 Psyphological Distress Outer-Directed Negative Affect .70 4.48 (.01 Coping Efficiency .76 2.49 (.05 Interaction -.83 -2.38 <.05 Miltiple R=.46 F=9.07, p<.b1 60 Table 15 SLOPE OF REGRESSION EQUATIONS FROM TABEE 14 BY LEVELS OF COPING EFFICIENCY (N=104) level of Coping Variable Efficiency Slope Well-Being +1SD -1 . 02 Mean .70 +lSD .38 Distress -18D 1 . 39 Mean .75 +1SD . l 2 Hypothesis 4a. High levels of Problem-Solving coping will more strongly be associated with lower levels of inner- directed negative affect than outer-directed negative affect. ‘ Hypothesis 4b. High levels of Affective Regulation will more strongly be associated with lower levels of outer-directed negative affect than inner- directed negative affect. These hypotheses were not confirmed. Neither Problem-Solving coping nor Affective Regulation were more strongly associated with inner—directed than outerhdirected negative affect . The figures are given in Table 16. 61 Table 16 RELATIONSHIP AMONG AFFECTIVE REGULATION’AND PROBLEM-SOEVING COPING AND INNER? AND OUTERHDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT (N=104) Variables ra z Affective Regulation and Inner-Directed Negative Affect -.10 071' nos. Affective Regulation and Outer-Directed Negative Affect -.00 Problem-Solving and Inner-Directed Negative Affect -.07 -007, nos. Problem-Solving and Outer-Directed Negative Affect - . 06 aAll correlations not significant 62 Hypothesis 5a. level of quality of enotional ties will be more strongly associated with outer-directed negative affect and coping efficiency than with inner- directed negative affect and coping efficiency. Hypothesis 5b. level of loss of control over behavior and enotions will be more strongly associated with inner—directed negative affect and coping efficiency than with outer-directed negative affect and coping efficiency. Hypothesis 5a was rejected and 5b was confirmed. The regression of level of quality of emotional ties was not more strongly related to outer-directed negative affect. These figures are given in Table 17. However, as Table 18 illustrates, the level of loss of behavioral and emotional control is significantly positively associated with inner-directed negative affect, coping efficiency, and their interaction than with outer-directed negative affect , coping efficiency, and their interaction. 63 Table 17 CDMTARISON’OF REGRESSION'OF EMOTIONAL TIES ON INNER? AND OUTERHDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT, CDPINS EFFICIENCY, AND THEIR INTERACTION (N=104) variable R z p Inner-Directed Negative Affect .38 .00 n.s. Outer-Directed Nagative Affect .38 Table 18 COMPARISON OF REGRESSION'OF LOSS OF BEHAVIORAL/EMOTIONAL CONTROLION'INNERP VS. OUTERPDIRECTED NEGATIVE AFFECT, OOPING EFFICIENCY, AND THEIR.INTERACTION (Né104) variable R. z p Inner—Directed Negative Affect .54 3.14 <.01 Outer-Directed Negative Affect .46 64 Discussion Before discussing the findings of this study, there are several aspects of the data that merit attention. As noted in Table 1, Nelson's (1985) sample of college students scored markedly higher on the subscales Anxiety, Depression, Loss of Behavioral/Emotional Control and Distress of the MHI than this current sample of col lege students. Additionally, both Nelson's sample and the present study sample scored couparably on the Well-Being subscale and markedly lower than the Veit and Ware (1983) normative sanple. Sample selection may account for these differences. Nelson's sanple consisted of students who experienced at least three moderately stressful events in the six months previous to the study, and reported either a high (21 or over) or low (six or under) stressful events for the prior 18 months. As both the study sample and the Veit and Ware sample were not selected for level of stress, it may be reasonable to assume that Nelson's subjects are rrore likely to score higher on measures of emotional distress. The second set of discrepancies, between the student samples and the general population sample, tray also represent sampling differences. The MHI was designed to measure positive mental health and symptouatology as two overlapping measures of functioning. It may be that Nelson's subjects were more affected by stress in a negative fashion but maintained some level of positive nental health shared by college students in the same 65 age group. It may be reasonable to speculate (in the absence of age-stratified norm for the MHI) that the general population sample may simply report higher mean levels of this variable. Of note is also the higher incidence of use of Enotional Discharge coping in the present study sample as opposed to the comnunity residents in the Billings and Moos (1983) study. Again, the age of the sample may account for the difference. Billings and Moos' sample were coumunity residents with an average age of 39.5 while the average age of the subjects in the current study was 21.7. As noted by several authors cited in the literature review (e.g., Offer & Offer, 1969) , younger subjects have a tendency to use less mature forms of coping, and this may account for this reported difference. As illustrated by Table 6, no significant differences related to gender were found, although there were trends toward women reporting significantly more Distress and loss of Behavioral and Emotional Control. Billings and Moos (1983, 1984) found small but significant gender differences in amount and style of coping among both depressed persons and comunity controls. General Sunnary of Findings The major hypotl'eses of this study were confirmed: the interaction of high levels of negative affect and nature coping dysfunction and higher levels of positive nental health. Inner—directed negative affective reactions were associated with stronger effects on psychological dysfunction, but not well-being; both inner- and outer-directed negative affect, however, produced the same pattern of effects. This relationship was not a direct one; the hypothesis that 66 levels of negative affect would be significantly associated with levels of positive mental health was not confirmed. This study, as many others, fournd negative affective reactions to stressful events significantly associated with lower levels of well-being. These findings suggest that negative emotional reactions, in conjunction with a preponderance of more mature coping strategies , exert a bidirectional effect on psychological functioning. This is consistent with Chiriboga's (1982) finding in his longitudinal study of adult adaptation that negative events predict both negative and positive events. It is also consistent with Offer and Offer's (1969) finding that maturation in early adulthood is marked by an increased ability to integrate cognitive and affective spheres of behavior, increased ability for emotional expression, and tolerance of depressive affect. Thus there is an implication that psychologically more mature people report the experience of newtive affect more often because they have an increased tolerance for it. Although the experience of negative affect adversely affects psychological functioning, efficient coping mechanisms may place an upper (and lower) bound on the effect of negative affect on psychological functioning. The only exception to this pattern was the prediction of anxiety. The effect of the interaction only approached significance, suggesting that anxiety functions somewhat differently in the stress and coping process . Anxiety may accompany the selection of proportiornately more efficient coping mechanisms, as it was the only variable to be significantly correlated with coping efficiency. Nelson (1985) found anxiety to be associated with affective sharpening and increased remembering of stressful events, consistent with the often-reported 67 effect that moderate amounts of anxiety are associated with increased levels of arousal. Altl'ough the interaction of coping efficiency and reported negative affective reactions to stressful events were significantly related to reported levels of emotional ties, the contribution of this interaction to its prediction was somewhat smaller than for the others. The implications of this are unclear, but a possible explanation concerns the nature of what this scale measures. This scale measures an entity which is related to emotional functioning, but because it is not an emotion in itself, the relationship may be less strong. No direct evidence was found that denial of affective reactions to stress decreases psychological wel l-being. This appears to contrast with the findings of Nelson (1985) who found low levels of both psy- chological well-being and psychological distress associated with more A distortion (mostly underreporting) in the recall of stressful events over a period of time. For this study, it was hypothesized that this effect would extend to remembering of emotional reactions as well. men though the original hypothesis was not confirmed, the finding that the interaction increases psychological well-being implies that low levels of negative affect produce a increase in psychological wel l-being. Affect and Coping The results of this study imply that the influence of affect on selection of mature coping mechanisms may be an indirect one. Contrary to prediction, reported total negative affect was not significantly related to coping efficiency or individual mature coping mechanisms. Additional ly, the hypothesized positive association between reported negative affect and total perceived change through experience with the 68 stressor was not confirmed. Examination of individual correlations, however, revealed significant relationships between emotional discharge and outer-directed emotions , and between coping efficiency and anger and total perceived change. It would appear that selection of mature coping mechanisms in normal populations is more related to specifics of the event and desired outcomes as opposed to a direct reaction to the affect generated by the stressful event. The finding that type of coping is related to type of event has been reported elsewhere (c.f. Coyne, Aldwin, & Lazarus, 1981) In this study, both problem-solving and affective regulation were more strongly related to perceived change than coping efficiency. less adaptive coping mechanisms, however, may be more directly related to negative affect. The nature of the positive relationship between coping efficiency and outer-directed negative affect is less obvious, but a possible explanation may be that level of coping efficiency may also reflect the amount of stress generated by an event. Other investigators (Billings & Moos, 1984) suggest that total numbers of coping responses, both mature and less nature, are positively correlated with level of stress. In Vaillant's study of adult men, even the healthith still used about equal numbers of "neurotic" and ”mature" defense mechanisms. The finding that only outer—directed emotion was predictive of emotional discharge responses raises questions about the usefulness of the theoretical division of negative affect into outer- and inner—directed when examining the relationship between affect and coping. The original division of affects into categories was prompted by both traditional psychoanalytic theory, which identifies 69 self-focused negative affect, reflecting a loss of self—esteem, as the major affect of depression, as well as Nelson's (1985) finding that high levels of inner-directed negative affect were most related to psychological distress. The latter was also confirmed by this study. However, emotional discharge, which was found to be significantly associated with depression in a clinical sample (Billings & Moos, 1983, 1984) was associated in the present study with an outer-directed negative affect. This suggests that outer-directed negative affect may be a part of affective disorder as well. Both sets of results, however, imply that inner—directed negative affective reactions predict psychological dysfunction and coping responses associated with it; they predict positive reactions far less well. Negative Affective Reactions and Affect Theory A possible explanation for the mechanism by which the level of rnegative affective reactions aids adjustment is provided by affect theory (Tomkins, 1963) . This theory holds that affect is the primary motivator for behavior. An individual in distress, is uncomfortable and motivated to generate solutions to the distressful situation, but not so disabled as to make affect reduction the immediate task. If the individual has a history in which displays of distress were punished, distress may also become bound to more intense negative emotions , such as fear or anger, and may require more immediate attention. To the extent to which the distress is tolerable (and not excessively contaminated by more toxic negative affects) problems can be solved in accordance with reality demands. Thus, efficient coping mechanisms 70 may be motivated by the presence of negative affect, but the needs of the situation dictate the specific mechanisms. Comrison with the Billings and Moos Studies Both the Billings and Moos studies (1983, 1984) and the present study found depression to be associated with emotional discharge coping. In contrast to this study, however, the Billings and Moos studies found that nondepressed community controls used more logical analysis, problem solving, and affective regulation. In their depressed sample, use of problem-solving was negatively correlated with level of depression. For men, information—seeking was positively correlated with depression. Affective regulation was negatively related to depression, but only for women. There are several factors that may account for these discrepant findings. First, the sample used was a clinically depressed sample. These individuals constitute a more homogeneous group in which characteristic coping strategies may be more similar than in either the study sample or community residents. Second, gender differences may account for the lack of significant findings. The Billings and Moos smdies found gender differences in their depressed sample among levels of information-seeking coping and enotional discharge. (Gender differences were not analyzed in the community control sample.) The present sample may have been too small to detect any existing gender differences. Thethirdfactormayhavebeentl'edisparityinagebetweenthe Billings and Moos community control sample and the study sample. The former used more problem-solving and less enotional discharge than the latter. As noted previously, enotional and defensive functioning in 71 adolescents and young adults have been found to be less mature. Coping repetoires may differ between age groups not only in magnitude but in _h<_>w_ they are used. An older sample of people may be more systenatic in their use of adaptive coping strategies . Implications for Ego Function Models of Stress and Coping In the general sense, the study findings are additional evidence for both Haan's and Vail lant's findings that mature coping functions (mature ego defenses) are associated with better adjustment. In this study, predominant use of these defenses, in combination with experience of negative affect generated by the stressor, were associated with increased well-being, decreased distress, and greater levels of perceived change as a result of interacting with the stressor. The finding that mature coping functions were not associated with level of negative affect is more in line with Haan's theory that mature ego functions are not compromise functions between drives and reality, assuming that affective reactions have some parallel with drive denands. However, another finding of this study was that coping efficiency was significantly correlated with level of anxiety, which would indicate the presence of intrapsychic conflict . If mature coping functions were largely removed from intrapsychic conflict, as Haan postulates, anxiety would be unrelated to coping efficiency. Although such a supposition would be clearly speculative, the results of this study appear to more support Vail lant' s notion of ego defenses in coping rather than Haan’s. 72 Psychoanalytic Theories of Mood State and Change Paper and pencil inventories are not appropriate for the formal study of psychoanalytic concepts. They do not capture the subtlety and complexity of human personality available through projective tests or in the consulting room; hence the following comments are purely speculative. However, certain psychoanalytic concepts guided the development of some of the ideas for this study, and the study results seem consonant with them. The first is Jacobson's (1971) theory of affect and mood states. Affects arise out of conflict between and within psychic structures; mood states occur whenever ego defenses have been temporarily outstripped. In normal persons, ego functioning should be flexible enough to permit.a change in mood to take place (permitting some awareness of conflict) but strong enough to penmit the gradual resolution of the mood by re-establishing psychic equilibrium. In that sense ego defenses provide both.a basement and a ceiling for the experience of affect. They allow for the gradual integration of new experience. 7 V The second theory that.guided some of the basic premises of this study is object relations theory. In this model, the experiencing of depression is basically a Eggglt_of psychological development. Psychic trauma produces two kinds of depressive reactions. In individuals for whom self-esteem is not dependent upon the absence of anxiety, depression is a temporary, reversible and eventually integrated phenomenon. In those for whom self-esteem is dependent upon an anxietybfree state and a omnipotent self-image, depression is unbearable. Trauma produces a search for external solutions, which blocks self-examination and acceptance of the limits imposed by 73 reality. Thus, the capacity to bear depression is linked with.empathy and capacity for self-reflection on one's own behavior and motives, and maintenance of self in the face of these realizations (Zetzel, 1970). The bidirectional effect of negative affect seems to be a reflection of these phenomena. Negative affective reactions may produce temporary regressions in functioning, but.with.even minimally adequate coping skills, stressful events become opportunities for growth. It appears, then, that negative affective reactions are not always cause for concern but appear to be a necessary part of the process of coping with stress. Further Research Several areas for further research are suggested by this study. A sample of sufficient size to study men.and women separately would be desirable. Although gender differences found in related cited studies were rather small, they were consistent, and it is reasonable to speculate these differences would show up in the experience of affect in the coping process. In this vein, given the disparity between coping styles of the college-age-sample and the Billings and Moos (mummunity sample, studies which.stratify these variables by both age and gender should be conducted. Their study should address individual affective reactions, including positive affective reactions to the stressor, such as interest, and their effect on subsequent functioning. Studying the effect of anxiety on coping may further define anxiety's relation to coping efficacy, as it appears to be directly associated ‘with selection of mature coping strategies. Coping efficiency may be better addressed by including all Billings and Moos' coping strategies in a single ratio. 74 APPENDIXA WWII-INVENTORY B6. B7 Responndent # MHI T1eseren¢qnestiaeareabouthmymfeeharohwthingshavebeenwithyw mstlymmmggpmsrmvm. Poreadnqnestionpleasecircleanflnisformendplaoeonyourenswersteet begimingwithmnberBSfleEAMtnatcanesCIOSESrtotnewayymare feeling. Begin with number 85 on the answer sheet. 85. How happy, satisfied, or pleased have you been with your personal life last month? 1 - actrelely happy, could not have been more satisfied or pleased 2 -- very happy most of the time 3 -- Generally satisfied, pleased 4 -- Sometimes fairly satisfied, sometimes fairly unhappy 5 - Generally dissatisfied, unhappy 6 -- Very dissatisfied, unhappy most of the time 86. Honmunofthetimehaveyoufelt lonelyduringthepastmonth? --Allofthetime --Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime --Someofthetime - A little of the time --Noneofthetime mU'IbUNH 87. Howoftendidyoubecarenervousorjunpywmenfacedwithencitenentor mnecpected situations durinng the past month? - Always - Very often - Fairly often -- Sometimes -- Almost nnever - Never manhunt-o 88. Dar 1 E trepastmonth,howmuchofthetimehaveyoufeltthatthefuture hopefulandpromising? -Allofthetime --Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Someofthetime - A little of the time -Noneofthetime monotony- g 75 MILPageZ Respondent# 89. Howoftendoyoueattoomudn? 1 -Always 2 --Very often 3 -Fairlyoften 4 --Sametimes 5 --Almost never 6 -Never 90. muzhofthetime,duringthepastmonth,hasyourdailylifebeenfull thingsthatwareinterestingtoyou? a? 91. Howmudnofthetime,durmgthepastmonth, didyoufeelrelaxedandfree of mm-hZND-i 3 fig 5 92. mringthepastmonth,mmdnoftletimehavengeerallyenjoyedtne thingsyoudo? l --Allofthetime 2 -Mostofthetime 3 -Agoodbitofthetime --Someofthetime - A little of the time --Noneofthetime O‘U‘lb 93. Duringuepastmonth,haveyanhadanyreasontowonderifyouwerelosing yourminnd, or losing controloverthewayyouact, talk, think, feel, orofyourmemory? 1 -No, nnotat all 2 --Maybealittle 3 -Yes,butnotenon.nghtobeconcernedorworriedaboutit 4 --Yes,andlhavebeenalittleconcerned 5 -Yes,andIamquiteconcerned 6—Yes,ardlamverymuchconcerredaboutit 76 KILPageB Respondentt ’ 94. In general, would you say your morals have been above reproach? l - Yes, definitely 2 - Yes, probably 3 - I don't know 4 - Probably not 5 - Definitely not 95. Did you feel depressed during the past month? 1-Yes,tothepointthatldidnotcareaboutanything for days at a time 2 - Yes, very depressed almost every day 3 - Yes, quite depressed several times 4 - Yes, a little depressed now annd then 5 - No, never felt depressed at all 96. Duringtlepastmonth,howmudnofthetimehaveymfelt lovedandwanted? -Allofthetime -Mostofthetime --Agoodbitofthetime -—-Someofthetime - A little of the time -Noneofthetime O‘U‘IbUNH 97. ammunofthetime,duringthepastmonth,haveyoubeena* verynervousperson? -Allofthetime --Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Someofthetime -- A little of the time --Noneofthetime CiU‘ubUNH 98. finenyougotupinthemorning,thispastmonth’,abouthowoftendidyou expecttohaveaninterestingday? -- Always - Very often - Fairly often -- Sane-times -- Almost nnever - Never maneuver- 77 mil,Page4 Respondentt 99. MnoftmmflerebemtimesmywrlfieWenymfeltym actedlikeacoward? -Veryoften -Fairlyoften “Sometimes -Almostnever -Never WIBUNH 100. Duringthepastmonth, I'nvmudnofthetimehaveyoufelttense or "high-strung"? -Allofthetime -Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Someofthetime - A little of the time -Nonneofthetime O’nUlabUNH 101. Durinngthepastmonth, haveyoubeeninfirmcontrol ofyourbehavior, thoughts, enotions, feelinngs? -Yes,verydefinitely -Yes,forthemostpart -Yes, Iguessso --No,nottoowell -No,andlamsomewhatdisturbed --No,andIamverydisturbed O‘U‘ubUNH 102.mringtlepastmmth,lowoftendidyanhandsshakewmenywtriedto dosomething? l - Always 2 - Very often 3 - Fairly often 4 -- Sometimes 5 -- Almost never 6 - Never 103. Duringthepastmonth,howoftendidyoufeel thatyouhadrothing tolookforwardto? l -- Always 2 - Very often 3 - Fairly often 4 - Sometimes 5 -- Almost never 6 - Never 78 KILPageS Respondent# 104.9hnldyousaythatyougiveeverypemytodnarity? 2 -- Yes, for the most part 3 - Yes, I try 4 - No 105.Howmx:hofthetime, duringthepastmonth,haveyoufelt calmandpeaceful? --Allofthetime --Mostofthetime --Agoodbitofthetime -Someoftheti.me -Alittleofthetime -Noneofthetime O‘U‘bUNH 106. Howmuchofthetime, duringthepastmonth, haveyoufelt enotionally stable? ’ —Allofthetime -Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Someofthetime -- A little of the time —Noreofthetime anunwaH 107. Howmuchofthetime, duringthepast month, haveyou felt downhearted and blue? l-Allofthetime 2 -Mostofthetime 3 -Agoodbitofthetime 4 -Someofthetime S - A little of the time 6 “Noneofthetime 108. How often have you felt like crying, during the past month? - Always -- Very often - Fairly often -- Sometimes - Almost never -- Never mU'l-hWNH 79 MHLPageG Respondentii 109. In choosing your friends, how important to you are things like their race, their religion, or their political beliefs? - Always very important - Almost always important -- Usually important - Not too important - Hardly ever important - Not important at all GUI-thH 110. Durirgttepastmonnth,howoftendidyoufeel thatotherswouldbe betteroffifyouweredead? - Always -- Very often - Fairly often -- Sometimes -- Almost never - Never GUI-DUMP 111. Howmudnofthetine, durirgthepastmonth, wereyouableto relax without difficulty? l—Allofthetime Z—Mostofthetime 3 -Agoodbitofthetime 4—Someofthetime 5 -- A little of the time 6 -Noneofthetime 112. Duringtlepastmonth, tummuclnofthetimedidyoufeel thatyour love relationships, loving annd being loved, were full and complete? -Allofthetime --Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Someofthetime - A little of the time -Nonneofthetime GMwaH 113. Howoften, during the past month, didyou feel that nothing turned outforyouthewayyouwanteditto? - Always - Very often -- Fairly often - Sometimes -- Almost never -- Never manhunt- 80 114.1«lowmufinhaveyoubeenbotneredbynervousness, oryour'nerves", thispastmonth? l -E:ntrenelyso,totlepointwlerelcouldnot takecareofthings 2 -Verymuchbothered 3 -Botneredquiteabitbynerves 4 -Botneredsome,enoughtonotice 5 - Bothered just a little by nerves 6 —Notbotheredatallbythis 115.Durirgtlepastmonth,hodmenofuetimereslivingbeenawonderful adventureforyou? l—Allofthetime 2 --Mostoftl'etime 3 -Agoodbitoftletime --Someofthetime S—Alittleofthetime 6 --Noneoftretime ab 116. If it ismore convenient foryoutodoso, hcwoftenwillyou you tell a lie? 1 — Very often tell a lie 2 -- Fairly often 3 - Sometimes tell a lie 4 - Almost never 5 - Never tell a lie 117.Howoften,duringtlepastmonth,haveyoufeltsodominthe dunpsthatnothingcouldcl'eeryouup? - Always - Very often - Fairly often -- Sanetimes - Almost never -- Never OWDUNH 118. Duringthepastmonth,didyoueverthinkabouttakingyourownlife? -- Yes, very often -- Yes, fairly often a couple of times -- Yes, at one time U‘bUNH I K 8 Q 81 MHI,Page8 Respondentfi 119. Duringtl'epastmonth, roamudnofthetimehaveyoufelt restless, fidgety, or impatient? I i a. g i 120. I-lowoftenhaveyoudoneanythingofa sexual nature that society doesnotapproveof? - Very often - Fairly often - Sometimes -- Almost never -- Never U‘awaH E 121. ingtnepast month, haveyoubeenannxiousorworried? 1 -- Yes, ectrenely so, to the point of being sick or almost sick 2 -- Yes, very much so 3 - Yes, quite a bit 4 -- Yes, some enough to hotter me 5 - Yes, a little bit 6 -- No, not at all 122.Dur' trepastmonth,ruvmlx:hofthetimewereyouahappyperson? --Allofthetime --Mostoftl‘etime -Agoodbitoftl'etime -Someofthetime --Alittleofthetime -Noneof.tl'etime GMDUNH 5 123. How often during tre past month did you find yourself having difficulty trying to calm down? - Always - Very often — Fairly often - Sometimes — Almost never - Never O‘UIIBUNH 82 H11,Page9 Respondentii 124. Duringtnepastmonth,hownnx:hoftnetimehaveyoubeenin verylowspirits? -Alloftletime —Mostoftl'etime --Agoodbitofthetime -Sameoftletime -Alittleoftletime -Noneofttetime maneuver-w 125. Duringtlepastmonnth,tnvmu:hoftnetimehaveywbeenmoody orbroodedaboutthings? --Allofthetime --Mostofthetime ~Agoodbitoftletime -Someoftl'etime -Alittleoftletime -Noneofthetime O‘UIOUNH 126.Howmu:hoftletime, duringtrepastmmth,haveyoufelt cheerful, light-hearted? -Allofthetime -—Mostofthetime -Agoodbitofthetime -Saneoftretime -Alittleofthetime -Noneofthetime QU'IwaNH 127. During tte past month, how often did you get rattled, upset, or flustered? --Always -Veryoften -Fairlyoften --Scmetimes ~Almostnever —Never mU‘bUNH 128.Areyourtablemannersatlunejustasgoodastteyarewhenyou areinvitedouttodinnner? -- Yes, just as good - Yes, with rare exceptions -- Yes, usually just as good - No, usually worse at home - No, quite a bit worse at home -- No very bad at home OWDUNH 83 MHI, Page 10 Respondent # 129. Howoften, duringtlepast month, haveyoubeenwakingup feeling fresh and rested? l “Alloftnetime Z—Mostofthetime 3 “Agoodbitofthetime 4 ~Sonneoftl'etime 5 — A little of He time 6 -Noneofthetime 130. Duringtrepastmonth,haveyoubeenmnderorfeltyouweremnder anystrain, stress, orpressure? l—Yes,almostmorethannlcouldstandorbear 2 -Yes,quiteabitofpressure 3 -Yes, some,morethanusual 4 —-Yes,some,butaboutnormal S -- Yes, a little bit 6 -No,notatall 84 was ‘10 SIGVIFICAN’T EVENTS STUDY Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study! Belm,trereisafonmirdicatingyourconsenttoparticipateintlestndy. Pleaseread,signn,anddatethisform,andhanditinwtenaskedtodoso, separatefrcmyourpacket. After you complete tle informed connsent form, please complete tl'e following forms in tne order in which they are placed. Before you begin, place your respondent number (listed in the upper right-hand corner of your envelOpe) in tlespaceontleanswersteetsnamed"$tndentNmber'. Pleasebesuretomark tleanswersonbothtlecanputeranswersheetaswellasontheformitself. Do not go to tie next fornm unntil you have completed the one before it. Wen you are finished, please place the forms and the answer sleet back in the envelope andhandittooneoftheenperimenters,wnpwillthenhandymasreetfurtler explaining the purpose of the study, and where you may ask questionns or seek further information about this study. If you have any questions now, please raiseyourhandand sonneonnewill connetoyourdesktoanswaryourqnestion. Again, thank you for your participation! WW I freely connsent to participate in tle study entitled: Reactions _t£ Stressful Events. I understand that I will be asked to canplete several questiennaires about my reactions to a specific event which I will describe, and my feelings at present. I understand trese questionnaires have been adninisteredtootlerswithoutadverseeffects. Iunderstandthatl may discontinue my participation in this study without penalty at any time. I understand that my answers are completely confidential and that I will remain anonymous, and are identified by code number only. Within these restrictions, I understand that the results of this study will be made available to me if I so wish. After I complete and return the questionnaires, I will receive a sheet explaining tl'e nature and purpose of this study. I understand if I have any questions I may contact M. Janice (Antfreund (355-9564) or Norman Signature Date 85 Respondent # Inorder thatyouranswersmaybebettercomparedwiththoseofotl'ers, please complete the fol lowing identification information. Do not place your name anywhere on these forms (except for your signature on the informed connsent form). Sex Age Class Grade Point Average As you already know, college can be difficult sometimes, and things happen which cause stress in your life. Please take a minute and recall a stressful eventtlnathappenedtoyouinthe _tw_lgmonthsprior_tglastmonth. Itcanbeof any nature, involving school, parents, or relationships. when you have remembered an event, please write dam a sentence or two about what the situation was. ‘ Please circle how long ago (in weeks) this event happened: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 86 Respondent? DES-IV Takeaminutenowtothinkabouthowyonfeltrightafteryoubecameawareoftne stressful situation you just mentioned. In the first day or so after tne stressful event, please indicate how often you would: Rarely Hardly Very or Never Ever Sometimes Often Often 1. Feel regret, sorry about something you did 1 2 3 4 5 2. Feel skeepish, like you do not want to be seen 1 2 3 4 5 3. Feel glad about something 1 2 3 4 5 4. Feel like something stinks, puts a bad taste in your mouth 1 2 3 4 5 5. Feel you can't stand yourself 1 2 3 4 5 6. Feel enbarrassed when anybody sees yon make a mistake I 2 3 4 5 7. Feel unhappy, blue, downtearted 1 2 3 4 5 8. Feel surprised, like when something ' suddenly happens yon had no idea would happen 1 2 3 4 5 9. Feel like yon are blushing 1 2 3 4 5 10. Feel like somebody is a low-life, not worth tle time of day 1 2 3 4 5 11. Feel likeyouarenotworthanything 1 2 3 4 5 12.Feelshy,likeyo.nwanttohide 1 2 3 4 5 13. Feel like what you're doing or watching is interesting 1 2 3 4 5 14. Feel scared, uneasy, like something might harm you 1 2 3 4 5 15. Feel mad at somebody 1 2 3 4 5 16. Feel mad at yourself 1 2 3 4 S 87 [ES-IV, Page 2 Respondent # __ In tne first day or so after the stressful event, how often did you: Rarely Hardly Very or Never Ever Sometimes Often Often 17. Feel ashamed because you do not lanow what to do 1 2 3 4 5 18. Feel happy 1 2 3 4 s 19. Feel like somebody is a "good-for-nothing" l 2 3 4 5 20. Feel you are a "good-for-nothing" 1 2 3 4 5 21. Feel like someone made yon look like a fool I 2 3 4 5 22. Feel so interested in what yon're doing that you're caught up in it 1 2 3 4 5 23. Feel amazed, like you can't believe what's happened, it was so unusual l 2 3 4 5 24. Feel fearful, like you're in danger, very tense 1 2 3 4 5 25. Feel like you are dumb I 2 3 4 5 26. Feel like screaming at somebody or or banging on seething 1 2 3 4 5 27. Feel sad and gloomy, almost like crying 1 2 3 4 5 28. Feel like you did something wrong 1 2 3 4 5 29. Feel bashful, enbarrassed 1 2 3 4 5 30. Feel disgusted, like something is sickening 1 2 3 4 S 31. Feel joyful, like everything is going your way, everything is rosy 1 2 3 4 5 32. Feel like people laugh at you 1 2 3 4 5 33. Feel like things are so rotten they could make you sick 1 2 3 4 5 88 Ins-IV, Page 3 Respondent # In tne first day or so after the stressful event, how often did yon: Rarely Hardly Very or Never Ever Sometimes Often Often 34. Feel sick about yonrself 1 2 3 4 5 35. Feel worried about the way you look 1 2 3 4 5 36. Feel like you are better than somebody 1 2 3 4 5 37.Feelyo.narenogood,anobody 1 2 3 4 5 38. Feel like you ought to be blamed for something 1 2 3 4 5 39. Feel like whatever you do will will nnot be very good 1 2 3 4 5 40. Feel tle way yon do wten seething unexpected happens 1 2 3 4 5 41. Feel alert, curious, kind of excited about something 1 2 3 4 5 42. Feel angry, irritated, annoyed with somebody 1 2 3 4 5 43. Feel angry and annoyed with yourself 1 2 3 4 5 44. Feel like yon cannot say what you wanttosayaswellasotners 1 2 3 4 5 45. Feel discouraged, like you can't make it, nothing's going right 1 2 3 4 S 46. Feel ashamed, like you want to disappear 1 2 3 4 5 47. Feel afraid 1 2 3 4 5 48. Feel like people always look . at you when annything goes wrong 1 2 3 4 5 49. Feel lonely l 2 3 4 S 89 III: Respondent # You have just described your enotional reactionns in tne first day or so fol lowing tle stressful event. when they are confronted with a stressful situation. floften, in general, you did the following in response to this event: Besuretostartmarkingyonranswersreetatitemnunberso. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. S7. S8. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. Tried to find ont more about the situation Talked with spouse or other relative about the problem Talked with fried abont tl'e problem Talked with professional person (e.g., doctor, lawyer, clergy) Prayed for guidannce and] or strength Prepared for tne worst Didn't worry abont it. Figured everything would probably work ont Tookitontonotherpeoplewhenl felt angryor depressed Tried to see the positive side of the situation Gotbusywithotlerthingstokeepmymind offtl'eproblem Made a plan of action and followed it Considered several alternatives for handling the problem Drew on my past experiences: I was in a similar situation before Kept my feelings to myself Tookthingsadayatatime, onestepatatime 90 E2 1 once or twice 2 Yes, sonne- times Below is a list of things people sometimes do Please indicate what and Yes , fairly often ImyPagez 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. Tried to step back from the situation and be more objective Wentoverthesituationinmymind totrytounderstandit Tried not to act too hastily or follow my first hunch Told myself things that helped me feel better Got may from things for a mile Iknewwl'nathadtobedoneanfltried hardertomekethingswork Avoided being with people in general Madeapronmisetomyselfthatthings wouldbedifferentnexttime Refusedtobelievethatithappened Acoepteditznothingoouldbedone Ietmyfeelingsoutsanelww Sought help fronm persons or groups with similar experiences Bargained or compromised to get something positive from the situation Tried to reduce teneion by: 78. drinking more 79. eating more 80. smoking more 81. exercising more 82. taking more tranquilizing drugs 91 IE .... HHHH onoeor twice N NNNN N NM Respondentt‘ Yes, times U “WWW Yes, fairly often b chub Respondent! CCE Goingthrmghastressfuleventsanetimesdnangesthewayonefeelsabout enoonmteringthesameevenntintnefuture. Beginmerkingyouranswersheetatquestion83. 83. 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