.__..,._... n.__._.v.._.__..._....._.rv____« . 7‘“ 71m. .7 , . . . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ F‘J‘d'k'fi I d i A STUDY oF THE EFFECT OF VOLUNTEER 7, ASSISTANTS FOR TEACHERS IN READING . IN GRADE FOUR IN A MIDDLE SIzE ' "f; ~‘;.I_*:?;j_j‘i MIDDLE sDCIO- EDDMDMIc AREA SCHOOL ;, 5* ; _' "Thesis; for :the Degree of Ph. D. ’ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DAwM ELLIDIT DAVIS ‘ ' 1971f L: \‘r 2’ :3 Y PJEIETTE‘IIgan State University IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIT‘III t 31293 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VOLUNTEER ASSISTANTS FOR TEACHERS IN READING IN GRADE FOUR IN A MIDDLE-SIZE- MIDDLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AREA SCHOOL presented by DAWN ELLIOTT DAVIS has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education 34 Major professor Date February 24, 1971 0-7639 I I A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VOLUNTEER ASSISTANTS FOR TEACHERS IN READING IN GRADE FOUR IN A MIDDLE-SIZE - MIDDLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AREA SCHOOL BY Dawn Elliott Davis A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1971 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VOLUNTEER ASSISTANTS FOR TEACHERS IN READING IN GRADE FOUR IN A MIDDLE-SIZE - MIDDLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AREA SCHOOL BY Elm-II Vii , DawnIElliott Davis It was the purpose of this dissertation to compare the effect of using volunteer assistants for teachers in the area of reading in grade four in a middle-size - middle socio-economic area school with a group of students having no assistance. This study described a project comprising two heterogeneous classes of forty-six students in.one elemen- tary school. An experimental group of students and a control group of students in both fourth grade classes were studied. The grade selected was deemed to be typical of the school population with one exception--a larger number of boys than girls. The regular Lippencott reading program at Stringham Elementary School, Waterford, Michigan, was divided into eleven sections: Word Meaning, Paragraph Meaning, Spelling, Phonics, Syllabication, Word Study Skills, Usage, —T—t Dawn Elliott Davis Punctuation, Capitalization, Dictionary Meaning, and Sentence Sense. This corresponded to the areas which were to be pre- and post-tested on the Stanford Achievement Test. Every day, several volunteers worked for one hour with those students in the treatment group in one area of reading, e.g., spelling. They would define, drill, test, review, and complete paper work assigned by the teacher. Often, the treatment group, of their own choosing, asked to take their work home for review. Class periods were limited to two 30 minute sessions every day. There was no ability grouping. There was a great deal of individual help when needed and one volunteer worked with groups of three to five students at other times. The relative effectiveness of the treatment and control groups was determined by students' performance on the Stanford Achievement Tests which were administered at the beginning and the end of the school semester. Comparisons were made on the students' performance on the reading sub tests. The statistical analysis of this thesis included the tests given the students which were treated by using the analysis of variance, the analysis of covariance and PACER (see Agenda II). The F ratio showed that there was no significant difference between experimental and control groups of students after pre-testing. Dawn Elliott Davis Conclusions It would appear as a result of the study that volunteer workers can contribute significantly to the improvement in reading of children. Volunteers will significantly increase scores in the areas on WOrd. Meaning, Paragraph Meaning, and Spelling. These areas of reading were easier for them to explain and they felt more comfortable handling them. It would further appear that this can be accomplished in one hour per day in a heterogeneous group in which there is no ability grouping. In the treatment group the high I.Q. defined as above 100 students gained 65 points on the total score and the low I.Q. students gained 63 points. A test for interaction between treatment and I.Q. showed no signifi- cance. This indicates that the treatment was better than no treatment for both high I.Q. and low I.Q. students. Finally, females reached a higher level of reading achievement than did the males in both treatment and control groups. The importance of the role that the teacher and volunteer workers can play in education is even greater When they merge into a cohesive and effective team. The interaction among peOple of different competencies attempting to measure changes in reading achievement in fourth grade pupils can bring about important learning. It is important that everything that can be learned about Dawn Elliott Davis how teachers and volunteer workers can effect changes upon the difficult process of educating pupils be studied. ‘ "IMF. .:;-n..r. - . .- - .. .. .. u . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express appreciation to Dr. Troy L. Stearns, Chairman of her Guidance Committee, for his advice and encouragement in the planning and execu- tion of this study. Special gratitude is also due the members of her Guidance Committee: Dr. James McKee, Dr. George Myers, and Dr. Robert Schmatz. Appreciation is due Dr. Virginia Svagr, Dr. Richard Watson, Dr. Loyal Joos, the Stringham Faculty, volunteer mothers, and the students who participated in this study. Appreciation to John Switzer for assistance in the treatment of the data. To Joe, Debi and Mark for their constant encourage- ment and patience. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . . . Methodology . . . . . . . . . . Basic Questions . . . . . . . . . Program Objectives . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . Structure of the Thesis . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . A Review of Early Literature . . . . III. IV. Recent Related Findings . . . . . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . The Research Problem . . . . . . . Selection of Population . . . . . . Selection of Volunteers . . . . . . Description of the Research . . . . . Basic Data . . . . . . . Method of Administration of Instruments . PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . Other Data . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Discussion of Findings . . . . . . Implications of the Study . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . . . iii Page ii Page BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 .APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 iv Table 1. LI ST OF TABLES Page Means of the treatment and control groups on the pre-test and differences in means and significance level of differences on the analysis of variance . . . . . . . . 53 Means of treatment and control groups on post- test and differences between means and " ' significant levels of the differences from analysis of covariance . . . . . . . 54 Simple correlations of I.Q. with standard achievement test gain scores (post-test minus pre-test) for both treatment and control groups combined . . . . . . . 56 Means of males and females on port-test scores and differences in means and significant levels of the differences from analysis of covariance . . . . . . . 58 The means of teacher one's students and teacher two's students on post-test scores and differences in means and significance levels of the differences from analysis to covariance. . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Significant levels of interactions of treat- ment, teacher and sex obtained from the analysis of co-variance . . . . . . . 62 PACER (TM) system analysis . . . . . . . 63 PACER (TM) system analysis . . . . . . . 64 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The enlarged and more complex role of teachers, an :increase in school enrollment and continued failure of nnillage prOposals have caused educators at all levels to aseek ways of solving the current educational dilemma. IProblems of school districts can be expected to increase Jrather than be alleviated. Within this general framework of educational prob- lLems is one problem only too familiar to most classroom tzeachers. As each year progresses there seem to be more czhildren in the classrooms with some type of learning Clisability. The terms used to describe these children Eire many. They are sometimes referred to as slow learners, Eperceptually handicapped, minimally brain damaged, hyper- lcinetic, etc. Although special classrooms have been set Eiside to deal with some of these children, many children 1:hroughout the schools still require an individualized zapproach in methods and materials tailored to meet their ineeds. Effectively meeting the needs of the individual child becomes the primary problem of all teachers desiring personal and professional satisfaction. . IIAI’IIIL . During the fall of 1967, the staff at Stringham Elementary School in the Waterford School District recog- nized that a large number of students were not reading at grade level. In order to combat this problem, in-service workshOps were held with the staff to identify below grade level students and to examine avenues that would insure success in reading. After reviewing the designs of other programs, the volunteer teacher-aide program was described, and examined. The teachers decided to develop a teacher—aide program with in-service training for themselves and the aides to determine whether such a program would help the below grade level reader in a middle-size - middle socio-economic area school. The study was designed to compare the effect of using volunteer assistants for teachers in the area of reading in grade four in a middle-size middle socio-economic area school with a group of students having no assistants. This study described a project comprising two heterogeneous classes of forty—six students. The curriculum area most basic to academic success is that of reading, according to Russell and Feal in "Research on Teaching Reading" in the Handbook of Research 1David H. Russell and Henry R. Fea, "Research on Teaching Reading," Handbook of Research on Teaching (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963), p. 865. on Teaching by N. L. Gage. It is in this area, too, that the individual differences of children become most apparent. The significance and importance of this research, is to present the framework for a program utilizing volunteer aides for help in the elementary reading program. The concern of the professionally qualified teacher is that non-certified personnel hired to assist teachers in the classroom may somehow usurp the professional pre- rogatives of these same teachers. For this reason, many pilot programs, to date, have described this assistant as a clerical helper, per se; one who assists with attendance .records, milk count, supervision of the lunch room, halls, pdaygrounds, etc. Such help does relieve the teacher of nnundane tasks. The difficulty is that many of these tasks aare to be performed during relatively narrow and specific 1:imes of the school day. Need for the Study Many persons from various segments of the popula- tion have expressed dissatisfaction with the economic and social fabric of society and hold the school chiefly reSponsible. These people contend that the school has given inadequate response to the shifting vocational SGene and demands of advanced technology. Change, they Say, is evident in all facets of evolving life except the Organization, personnel and processes in the American school. The school's realtionship to the community, its design and structure, its staff and its population are not keeping pace with the expectations of the new community. Finally, they hold that the human equation in the class- room--the teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil interaction--has, with rare exceptions, remained fixed and immutable. Many of the above charges are not new. None can be dismissed without consideration. Many educators them- selves believe that one causative factor in the prevailing rigidity in school systems is that persons who have been successful in traditional patterns of teaching behavior are the standard setters, the evaluators of new staff, and ‘the decision makers in school. Another obstacle to educa- 'tional change is the overemphasis by school systems, by Iprofessional associations and by many educational aresearchers upon role differentiation--that process thereby professionals are set apart with particular :reference to status and role prerogatives. Such a process “usually involves rigid definition of functions universally applied, regardless of particular needs and available resources in a given situation at a given time. Several convergent forces have had catalytic impact on the static and self-perpetuating structure of the educational enterprise: The gap between expanded needs for school services and the availability of professional personnel to meet these needs reached critical preportions in the late sixties; New dimensions in educational concepts and technology required a more complex role for teachers; Heightened awareness of the special learning needs of young children, and a developing insight into the communication blocks that often exist between middle-class professionals and disadvantaged children called for closer linkage of school and community; The plight of the under- educated person, unable to compete in an increas— ingly automated society pointed to the need for a new entry level to careers of human service with Opportunity for upward mobility on the job; Finally, and most importantly, new resources became available to school systems through OEO, MDTA, Title I of ESEA, the Nelson-Scheuer Amendment to the Poverty Act, and the Javits-Kennedy Act for Impacted Areas, all of which provided Federal funds for the employment of low-income persons who lacked the traditional certification for education. Studies involving reading research are numerous aand attack many facets of the total reading problem ssituation. There are a large number of studies using §>araprofessionals as volunteer workers in the classrooms c>f the inner city or with disadvantaged children. There- :Eore, it would seem that some attempt might be made to .inaugurate a reading program using volunteer workers in a typical middle-class classroom situation that would incorporate the implications of such studies. It is the purpose of this study to attempt to deSign a teacher-aide program in grade four to compare the using of volunteer assistants for teachers in the area of —.—.¥ 2Garda W. Bowman and Gordon J. Klopf, New Careers and Roles in the American School (New York: Bank Street COIIege of Education, 1968f, p. 6. reading in a middle-size middle socio-economic area school with a group of students having no assistants. As a result of the exploration of this study it is hOped this information will be of some help in setting up future study guidelines and useful information will be secured in the following areas: (1) provide more individual attention by concerned adults, more mobility in the class- room, and more Opportunity for innovation; (2) render the teacher's role more productive in terms of pupil outcome; (3) increase the sc0pe and effectiveness of other pro- fessionals; (4) provide meaningful work for the volunteer ‘worker which would contribute to his own deve10pment and 'to the needs of society; (5) give the volunteer workers 'the opportunity to study child development; (6) provide emcademically talented students with reading assistance (:ompatible with their abilities. Methodology This study was designed as an effort to find answers to many questions considered important by the Principal and faculty of an elementary school with 300 students. The primary effort was directed toward the evaluation of the progress of fourth grade children, who received extensive help from volunteer workers over a Period of six months. A matched group of pupils in the Same school and same grade receiving regular classroom instruction was surveyed to provide a comparison. Data was collected from forty-six pupils enrolled in two classrooms in an elementary school in Waterford, Michigan. Two teachers of similar training participated in the study. One was female, one male. Thirty volunteer workers with varied educational backgrounds were selected to participate in this research. In the control classroom situation, reading was taught in the routine manner prescribed by the curriculum of the school system in which the Lippencott Text and workbooks structured the reading program. The experimental or treatment groups were taught the same material, but taught in diverse ways depending on the individual needs of the pupils in the treatment groups as diagnosed by the teacher. They had more freedom of movement, more small groupings, more independent activities than would be feasible for the one teacher often operating under diffi- cult teaching conditions. Basic Questions The basic questions pertinent to the study were as follows: 1. Is it possible for children who receive extra help in reading improvement by volunteer workers over a six month period to have higher reading scores than children who have not received extra help? Will the total scores of the Stanford Achieve- ment test be higher for the treatment group? In which areas of reading are the volunteers most effective in aiding? Will this special treatment have a greater effect on the students with a higher I.Q. than on students with a lower I.Q.? Will females in both the treatment and control groups reach a higher level of reading achieve- ment than the males? Program Objective This program for utilizing volunteer teacher's aides for help in the elementary reading program was intended to broaden the view of those who are contem- ;plating the use of auxiliary personnel in their schools. The success of any program is dependent upon thoughtful planning, careful selection of personnel involved and evaluation procedures whereby adaptations of any pilot program can be made. Through a pilot study it was hOped to demonstrate: l. 2. How to do the most with very little money. The positive effects of the use of many dif- ferent types of peOple to assist teachers. Among the volunteers who will assist teachers will be: A. Consultants 1) Director Intermediate School District Reading Clinic Ph.D. 2) Clinicians--Masters B. Reading Interns--Masters C. Michigan State University Student Teachers D. Oakland Community College Students E. High School Teacher-Aides and Older Teacher-Aides F. Mothers (variety re: qualifications) G. Volunteer Librarians (mothers) H. Lay Personnel for Noon Hour To Oakland Community College the need for pre- service teaching program for volunteers for elementary schools (workshOp). To the Waterford School System and Oakland County Intermediate District results which will indicate continued direction for both districts in the use of volunteers of various types to assist classroom teachers. The deveIOpment of an education professions hierarchy with provision for upward mobility. A. High School and college students will become teachers. B. Parents will become more and more useful as volunteers as they acquire higher levels of skills. Some may take college work to go into the profession. 10 6. The Stringham Community School can package the teaching materials developed for the pre- service video training--tape-slide sequences- manual for workshops. Definition of Terms Terms used are defined in appropriate places in the body of the thesis. However, in order to make clear ythe initial presentation, certain terms are defined here. These terms are: reading, volunteer workers, auxiliary personnel, paraprofessional, teacher-aide and routine classroom procedure. Reading refers to the program used in the school to deve10p the part of the curriculum usually referred to as "reading" or Language Arts. The connotations given to reading in the experimental program are defined in Chapter III. Volunteer workers is used interchangeably with .Apxiliary Personnel, Teacher-Aides and Paraprofessionals, and is used to denote employees, who, though lacking the traditional requirements for the education profession, perform functions as defined by webster's New WOrld Dictionary, i.e., they "help, assist, and give aid and support" to the learning-teaching process. Paraprofessionals also covers various areas of activity such as library services, noon hour supervisors, ll assistance in the classroom and home-school relations, in which assistance is needed. Routine classroom procedure was the term applied to the process of reading instruction carried on in the control classroom situations. In this study it was referred to as "the way reading was usually taught." This involves a presentation involving: (1) regular assignments to be read in the text; (2) following the sequence of the text; (3) requiring the students to com- plete most of the questions and answers in the text and workbook; (4) direct correlation with other classes; (5) "extra" help for slow learners; (6) additional time other than in class to complete assignments; (7) drill on "grammar"; and, (8) homework when necessary. Occasionally supplementary readers and S.R.A. materials are used. Limitations of the Study Specifically the study was not concerned with: l. The evaluation of the existing routing class- room presentation. 2. The evaluation of textbooks. 3. The evaluation of the curriculum. 4. The number of children in the study. 5. The limited socio-economic racial variability. The study was specifically concerned with ascer- taining if it was possible to upgrade the reading 12 achievement of only randomly selected fourth grade children ‘flith the assistance of volunteer workers working one hour (every school day for six months. Structure of the Thesis Chapter I contains a review of some of the deveIOp- Inents in the teaching of reading and of some forces in :society that have given rise to the need for the study. ZBasic assumptions and terms have been described. Chapter .II will be concerned with a review of the previous litera- ‘ture that is pertinent to the use of volunteer workers, .literature pertaining to learning theory that is particu- Llarly applicable to the study, and a review of current iliterature regarding present practices of the use of Violunteer workers in the elementary school. Chapter III vvill deal with the research problem, methods of investi- gration used in the study and a description of the research. Cfllapter IV will present an analysis of data and statisti- cxal findings. Chapter V presents a summary, conclusions, arui recommendations for further study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Studies that relate to the emerging concept of auxiliary personnel in education as an aid to teachers are becoming numerous and have resulted in a new body of literature. Some projects have been reviewed by others. Selected portions of these reviews have been abstracted. These will reflect information and concerns pertinent to the present study. School teachers today would probably balk at many (of the non-instructional duties expected of their prede- <:essors in the one-room school of several generations ago. (Zonversely, yesterday's one-room school teacher might J:esign on the spot if he were suddenly introduced to a Inodern elementary school classroom. To take the place of the snow-shoveling, the hauling (of water, and the hewing of wood which used to be a part of 'teaching, there are now many other duties. Ordering films, setting up a projector, making transparencies, or setting up a resource libraryIall take valuable time. The corners of the teacher's day are nibbled away by milk money col- lections, attendance reports, clean-up chores, and other 13 14 details. Preparation for teaching takes much time, too. The teacher of today does not plan one lesson for all the children in his class; he is expected to individualize instruction to suit the needs of each of his pupils and hopes to spend time with each child each day. Today‘s teacher, far from being responsible for only the 3 R's, teaches in a rapidly changing world. In addition to keeping up with his students' knowledge of moon probes and atomic energy, the teacher has many meetings to attend and at the same time is expected to keep up with new ideas in his field through graduate courses and in-service work. All of these things may be considered a part of the teacher's job, but some are more directly related to teaching than others are. Every moment a teacher spends on the non-instructional phases of his position reduces the amount of time he has to spend on the real purpose for which he is hired—-teaching. Increasingly in recent years, the suggestion has been made that the teacher should be free to carry on the instructional part of his job and that someone else should handle as many of the non—professional duties as possible. Staff members-—known as teacher aides, paraprofessionals, or auxiliary personnel-—have appeared in the schools. 15 Since teacher aide is the most frequently used term, this term will be used in this study.3 The training and utilization of relatively unskilled low—income workers in the public service is not a new phenomenon. In the United States an organized program based on this concept was first developed under the Works Projects Administration and the National Youth Administra- tion more than thirty years ago. Particular emphasis was placed on this concept in the NYA, when unemployed out-of- school youth, as well as potential drop-outs, were trained and placed as nonprofessionals in the human services. Terminated in 1943, the NYA appeared to have no concrete programmatic follow—up for the continued utilization of auxiliary personnel, but the idea had been implanted in this country and its application was progressively strengthened during the 1940's in the fields of corrections and health.4 Short, concentrated courses of training in the services enabled men to assist professionals in many areas of work, e.g., corpsmen. A Review of Early Literature Selected readings from the early literature show the first post—depression report of teacher-aide 3Mary D. Shipp, "Teacher Aides: A Survey," The National Elementary Principal, XLVI, No. 4 (May, 1967), 30-33. 4Gordon K10pf, Garda W. Bowman and Adena Joy, A Learning Team: Teacher and Auxiliary (Washington, D.C.: Bank Street College of Education, April, 1969). l6 utilization appeared in 1942. So-called “helpers" were hired then because qualified teachers were not available, nor were the funds with which to pay them. Greenshields5 describes the employment of teacher-helpers as an emergency measure, one which should only be followed when professionals are not available. Yet, in retrospect, the concluding paragraph of the report would seem to indicate that the utilization of non-professionals produces posi- tive effects in its own right and therefore should not be thought of solely as a "stop gap" procedure. The report states: In our experience the teacher helper soon becomes a very valuable assistant to the regular home room teacher. The helper becomes quite expert at checking seatwork, supervising the children during their work and study periods, assisting the teacher in many types of project work, . . . taking charge of some drill work and handling small groups in sight reading. We have found that one teacher can do a thorough job with as many as forty pupils if she has the 6 assistance of a teacher helper for one-half day. Greenshileds also notes that all helpers employed were only high school graduates, and none had had any college training. There are no reports of a follow—up to this program. It does stand as a beginning, and a begin- ning with promise. The modern teacher-aide movement appears to have begun in 1952, in Bay City, Michigan, with a Ford 5M. J. Greenshileds, "Big Timers' Teacher-Helper Plan," The American School Board Journal, CIV (1942), 20. 6Ibid., p. 20. '17 Foundation sponsored project entitled, "A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies." The employment of teacher-aides was only a part of the project. This program was devised to cope with the teacher shortage and to increase teacher effectiveness by freeing teachers from disproportionate nonprofessional functions. In the May 11, 1956 issue of U.S. News and WOrld Report it was stated that in the Bay City program, before aides were hired, an investigation was made to determine if they were needed. This was done through a job analysis and time study of teachers' classroom routines. The local branch of a chemical company showed the educators how studies of workers' routines are made in factories. Two men sat in many classrooms, day after day, using Stop watches to time every move the teachers made. The check showed that nonteaching duties consumed from 21 to 69 per cent of the teachers' time. This con- firmed the thinking of the program's sponsors--that better use should be made of teachers' talents. For three years, aides were placed in the most crowded classrooms—-if the teachers wanted them. They were in classes where there were from 40 to 55 pupils, from kindergarten to the eighth grade. The results show that a typical teacher could spend: 89 per cent less time correcting papers; 83 per cent less time monitoring written lessons; 76 per cent 18 less time taking the roll; 61 per cent less time moving groups of pupils around; 36 per cent less time disciplining pupils; 25 per cent less time preparing reports. Thus, a typical teacher now had: 105 per cent more time to prepare lessons; 57 per cent more time to hear recitations; 41 per cent more time to supervise activities such as art; 27 per cent more time to help pupils at their desks; 20 per cent more time to make lesson assignments. The Bay City program stands today as the most reported on program regarding teacher-aides.. Bay City's work with teacher-aides has served as a prototype, but it does not directly parallel the current movement since most of the aides employed had some college training. An appraisal of the work at Bay City appeared in the Journal of Teacher Education, sponsored by the Journal, Central Michigan College and the Director of the project.7 Six educational specialists including a classroom teacher visited the classrooms involved for two days and submitted separate reports. In summarizing their findings, there was a general agreement that aides should not be considered replacements for teachers, and they did not justify an extra large class size. The Fund for the Advancement of Education (The Ford outlet which sponsored the program), is 7Journal of Teacher Education, "A Symposium: The Bay City, Michigan, EXperiment--A Cooperative Study for the Better Utilization of Teacher Competencies," Journal of Teacher Education, VII (1956), 100—152. l9 accused of allowing subjective impressions to circulate as absolute fact, while on the other hand there are reports of parents, teachers and pupils being enthusiastic about the aides. The Journal concludes: We believe-~the Bay City Experiment will prove its worth. We believe that it may have real value as an emergency plan to help relieve over—crowding until we get the needed teachers and classrooms. It will make valuable contributions to teaching. That these contributions may not be as gigantic or as radical or even in the areas its proponents are not claiming, is not too important. It is important that its sponsors lay on the line real proof of what it can do and what it cannot do. We hope to see more, not less, experimenting with it by local school districts. Several months earlier in the Journal of Teacher Education, Douglas Scates9 expressed great concern lest teachers become administrators removed from the pupils. He argued that "Teaching is a personal matter, and so is learning . . . let us not take the best teachers away from the children. There is no other spot in the world where they can be equally as important." Such a program would not only fail to alleviate the teacher shortage, but would compound it by removing the best teachers from the pupils. Wirthlo stated a similar argument. 81bid., p. 151. 9Douglas Scates, "The Prior Meaning of Increases in Teaching Staff," Journal of Teacher Education, VII (1956); 82-88- loA. Wirth, "A New Hierarchy for the Teaching Pro— fession," Changing Education, I (1967), 3—5. 20 Five years later, the final report of the project, published by Central Michigan University, Department of Special Studies (1960), cited these conclusions: A. Teachers with aides spent more time on instruc- tional activities. B. It was sometimes impossible to distinguish clearly between teaching and non-teaching duties. C. There was no noticeable change in teaching methods. D. There was little objective evidence bearing on the quality of instruction in classrooms with teacher-aides as opposed to those without. E. Teacher—aides facilitated better deployment of teachers and experimentation with staffing. F. Teacher—aide practices had little effect on over—all costs of instruction. G. Many teacher—aides were potential recruits for teaching. The report recommended consideration for teacher—aides when conditions make normal class size impossible.ll While observers of the Bay City plan were concerned about the removal of the master teacher from his students as well as increasing class size as a result of the aide's presence, some saw the innovation as a means of helping teachers increase their effectiveness. Still others felt there were ways to update the teaching profession and to increase the effective scope of the professionally competent person by relieving him of tasks that did not require professional wisdom or skill. llRichard Wynn and Richard DeRemer, "Staff Utiliza- tion Development and Evaluation: Subprofessional and Para— professional Personnel," Review of Educational Literature, XXXI (October, 1961), 394—395. 21 The thinking on teacher-aides at this point, depended upon one's perspective. John Deason reviewed fifty-six of the fifty-nine articles on teacher-aides appearing in the literature between 1942 and 1957. He noted: It is perhaps significant that, almost without exception, authors who are involved in some way with a teacher-aide project are favorably impressed, while by and large, those who are critical are not connected with any experiment in this field.12 Deason summarized the points made by those who are critical: (a) Justifying larger classes by using teacher- aides constitutes a threat to the welfare of children. ' (b) Not all teachers, even good ones can work with aides. (c) Measuring results accurately is difficult. (d) There is a danger of a return to rote learning and the possibility of a departure from facilitating broad learnings. (e) Dividing the experiences of students into curricular activities and non-curricular activities seems questionable.13 Defendents of the program made these points: (a) . . . a temporary measure in time of crises. (b) Possibility of the plan as a teacher recruitment device. (0) Enrichment of the curriculum through the efforts of outside talent. (d) Creation of a wholesome atmosphere which encourages wholesome personality develOpment. 12John Deason, "What They Say About Teacher-Aides," School Executive (December, 1957)- 13Ibid., p. 59. 22 (e) Greater involvement of lay citizens in worthwhile activities. (f) Slightly higher achievement on the part of students in classes with aides. Recent literature in this field discloses a slow change in attitudes toward the use of teacher aides. There are far more studies with positive findings. Some of the studies or reports are descriptive. Other reports are presentations of empirical analytical findings. Trump15 was the first to report a significant purposeful restructuring of the teacher function into six distinct categories: professional teacher, para-professional assistant, clerk, general aide, community consultant and staff specialist (Trump's para-professional assistant would probably be a college student). This was provision for non-professional employment at different levels, although movement from one level to another wasn't considered. The plan is far removed from present proposals, but it appears as one of the first attempts to meaningfully integrate the nonprofessional into the overall school design. In 1962, Clement16 proposed a similar approach. He envisioned a team approach which would utilize the services of all l4Ibid., p. 60. 15J. Lloyd Trump, "A Look Ahead in Secondary Education," National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XLII (1958), 5-15. 16Stanley L. Clement, "More Time for Teaching," National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin: XLV (1962), 54-59. 23 personnel. By emphasizing specialization and using the experiences unique to each individual, the author felt the student would receive the most valuable contribution each participant could give. This approach continues in the current movement. In Nation's Schools, Cutlerl7 reported the results of a nationwide survey which found that most educators were highly enthusiastic about using teacher-aides (including a finding reported by educators that children are more respectful towards all adults after having an aide in their classroom). A report on the results of a teacher-aide project in Snyder, Texas, was noted by Nesbit and Johnson. They said: Teachers are able to do a higher level of teaching by being relieved of such clerical tasks as mimeo- graphing . . . . In addition to teaching better, the teachers are enabled to grow more in professional skill through enriching the content of their courses, trying out new techniques made possible by better planning, and by concentrating their entire energy on pro- fessional duties.18 The utilization of aides in a program in Berkeley, California, reported the following implications: 1. To initiate a program for the utilization of aides is a difficult and delicate operation, which calls for a restructuring of preservice education for l7Marilyn H. Cutler, "Teacher Aides Are Worth the Effort," Nation's Schools, LXXII (April, 1964), 67-69, 116, 118. 18P. Johnson, and W. O. Nesbit, “Some Conclusions Drawn From the Snyder, Texas, Project," National Associa- tion of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XLIV (1960), 63-75. 24 teachers in which they learn to share with aides their responsibilities to children in the class- room; and new training approaches and techniques for the preparation of auxiliary personnel. 2. Since the perceptions and abilities Of aides and Of teachers are major determinants in the success of any program of aide utilization, great care must be exercised in the selection process. 3. Some type Of individual observation and evaluation with opportunity for feedback and discussion Of specific cases holds great promise for improve- ment Of utilization Of auxiliary personnel. 4. Continuous, intensive in-service education for all school personnel is essential, with the leadership for such education residing in persons not directly responsible for the school program. 5. Released time for planning by teachers and auxiliaries should be included in the school schedule each day.19 Through a comprehensive PACE program tO utilize all available inter-community resources, educators, in Riverside, California, gave minority group children the Opportunity tO interact with educators, scientists, artists, athletes, public employees, and various civic and cultural representatives. The program sought to promote the active involvement Of senior citizens by enlisting their talents, interests, and vital enthusiasms to help educate and enrich the experiences Of disadvantaged students. Officials stated that the project helped to establish a dynamic inter-relationship between the young and the very Old in the community, with the aim Of stimulating value judgments, increased levels Of 19Karl Openshaw, Adrena Joy, Jerome Gilvert, "AbstraCt Of Auxiliary Utilization Program in Berkeley, California," A Learning Team: Teacher and Auxiliary 25 aspirations, and higher goals. Interaction was fostered through concerts, demonstrations, lectures, or informal gatherings, using a variety Of stimulation aids such as films, slides, or recordings. Other activities included group participation in visual art, drama, and dance pro- grams, or instruction in sewing, in the culinary arts, and in wood-working.20 Nearly eight hundred of New York's school districts were surveyed by Santor21 to determine the status Of teacher-aide programs and he found 51 per cent of the districts using a total Of 2,389 aides and reporting "exceedingly favorable results"; Saylor22 and Singer23 separately called for experimentation in the utilization of teacher-aides with Saylor taking the attitude that: The organizational pattern Of the school will not develOp outstanding teachers, it can only enable outstanding teachers tO work most effectively with students in a learning situation.24 20Richard R. Goulet, "Cultivating a New Crop Of Human Resources with ESEA Title III," The National Elementary Principal, XLVI, NO. 6 (May, 1967). 21Eugene Samter, "The Teacher Aide--An Aid in Teaching?" New York State Education, LI (1963), 21. 22Glenn Saylor, "What Changes in School Organiza- tion Will Produce Better Learning Opportunities for Individual Students?" National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XLVI (1962), 102-109. 23Ira J. Singer, "Survey Of Staff Utilization Practices in Six States," National Association Of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, XLVI (1962), 6. 24Saylor, Op. cit., p. 109. 26 As the foregoing indicates, aides seem tO have become an acceptable part Of the educational setting. Anderson summed up this shift in attitudes: Only a decade ago, when pilot projects in the use Of teacher-aides and other non-professional assistants first began to appear in the literature, the pre- dominant reaction Of the profession was negative, even hostile. In 1964, it is rare to find discus- sions of utilization Of school personnel in which non-professionals are not considered a welcome addition. However, despite what appeared to be a widespread endorsement of supplementing and reinforcing the professional staff, there is not yet much evidence that school systems are committing substantial sums tO this purpose.25 . 26 Chief Of the Dissemination for the Bureau Goulet, Of Elementary and Secondary Education, U.S. Office Of Education researched the Logan City, Utah, Title III com- munication skills project. Educators in Logan City were interested in the student in the middle academic range who was neither high nor low on the scholastic ladder and who was quite Often ignored. The "C" student who got by but never distinguished himself Often was left in the educational limbo, these educators felt, because he belongs to neither of the extremes which attract attention. Senior students in a teacher education program at nearby Utah State University were recruited as special tutors tO work with underachieving students in an effort 25E. W. Anderson, "Organizational Characteristics Of Education--Staff Utilization and DevelOpment," Review of Educational Research, XXXIV (1964), 455-466. 26Goulet, Op. cit., p. 52. 27 to improve their reading and writing skills. As students learned to express themselves verbally about what they read, they gained the ability to develop ideas for written expression. Tutors helped them eXpand ideas through dis- cussion. They then showed them how to organize their ideas and put them into good prose. Tutors were required tO have a good understanding Of children and some knowledge Of child psychology. They themselves have to be competent in reading and writing skills and be able to evaluate another's writing. They also had to have the ability tO stimulate and involve their students. School Officials believed that the close relation- ship between student and tutor stimulated students to achieve in other areas, while the strong guidance Of the tutors would enable them to advance substantially in com- munication skills. Gilbert27 in his summary as Director Of Auxiliary Utilization in Berkeley, California, stated that to effectively educate the children the school must ally itself with all persons who substantially influence the education of these children. Desired changes in children's behavior may be most successfully achieved when the school assumes the reSponsibility for marshalling all persons who 27Jerome D. Gilbert, "Report Of Director," New Careers and Roles in the American School (Bank Street College Publication, 1969), 107-109. 28 mainly affect that behavior at each age level, such as parents, other adults, Older children, and peers. An improvement in reading ability among upper grade children has been Observed by aides and teachers. All teachers expressed the belief that the aides were a tremendous asset in promoting a good climate in the classroom and a higher level of learning for the children. Davis,28 in an experiment in the Fennville, Michigan, school system endeavored to measure effective- ness of a teacher with and without aides, using the teacher- aide as the independent variable in an experimental-control design, and test scores as dependent variables. He found that the more able students (identified by scores on the California Tests Of Mental Maturity), benefited the most from having teacher-aides in their classrooms. They achieved higher test scores, more sign-ups for the next course, fewer days absent and higher marks than did the matched control group. The less able students appeared to benefit most in control group situation (the class without the teacher—aide). Davis stated that the difference in gains may be due to the ability to adapt oneself to a new situation. 28Donald A. Davis, "The Fennville Teacher Aide ExPeriment," Journal Of Teacher Education, XIII (June, 1962), 189-190. 29 By watching and recording almost every activity of teachers without aides and those with aides, Stafford29 found: (a) Teachers with aides spend more time on professional activities; (b) Teachers with aides spend less time on nonprofessional activities; (c) Teachers with aides spend less time with individual pupils than do teachers without aides. Stafford added that the combined individual atten- tion given the child by the teacher and.the aide exceeded the attention given the child by the teacher in an unaided room. A study which attempted to reinforce the idea that individuals other than certified teachers can con- tribute tO the teaching learning process was reported in Time Magazine in October, 1966: When one below-average student tries to teach another, both improve far more than they would under normal schooling conditions. SO at least has been the experience Of Manhattan's Antipoverty Mobilization for Youth Program, which three years ago set up a "homework helpers" project that paired high school students as after-hours reading tutors with academically backward grade-school children, most of them Negroes and Puerto Ricans from the city's depressed Lower East Side . . . . As it turned out, the high school students did even more learning than the children they were hired to teach. According to a study conducted by Columbia University, a sampling Of the 2,000 tutored youngsters advanced an average Of six months in reading ability during one five-month period; their untutored classmates improved by only three 29Curt Stafford, "Teacher Time Utilization With Teacher Aides," Journal Of Educational Research, LVI (1962), 82. 30 and one-half months. But 100 tutors who were tested-- many Of them below eighth-grade standards in reading skills--picked up an average Of three and one-half years in reading ability. Faced with the responsi- bility Of helping younger children, teen-agers with a previous record Of hostile indifference to school- ing were transformed into alert, highly motivated students.30 A study which depicted the value Of a non-, professional teacher (not merely an aide) was conducted and evaluated by Greenleigh Association, in OOOperation with the Office Of Economic Opportunity, the Office Of Education and the Welfare Administration and reported by Greenberg.31 He stated that the project was designed to test the efficiency Of four reading systems on functionally illiterate adults (those whose reading level was below 5th grade). The adults were taught with these systems by either: (a) A college graduate (b) A certified teacher. (c) A high school graduate. The results indicate that high school graduates were able to attain certain unique results. On the basis Of Iowa test scores alone, teachers who had nO more than a high school education were more effective. Therefore, in planning for adult basic education, persons who are high school graduates should be considered an important 30Time Magazine, October 21, 1966. 31Barry Greenberg, "Review Of Literature Relating to the Use of Non-Professionals," New Careers Development Center, New York University (1967), 1-16. 31 resource and should be recruited. The fact that the majority of high school graduates, unlike the college graduates and certified teachers, were Negro and the majority Of students were also Negro may have con- tributed to the better success in terms Of gain scores of the high school graduate. The report further states: They (the high school graduates) showed a capacity to learn, had an interest in the academic and social advancement Of the undereducated adult, showed ability to relate to adults and indicated an interest in continuing in the field of adult education.32 Recent Related Findings A PACE project in Arlington, Massachusetts, was intended to improve the learning situation for boys in grades K-2 by providing male teacher aides with whom the boys could identify. The program was based on the theory that the boys need to be around men not only at home but in a learning context as well. Boys with learning problems are Often those from fatherless homes or where fathers give little time to the children. Educators in Arlington felt that a man in the classroom who valued learning could show boys that school activities could be masculine and might provide a new image Of learning for them. The attention Of a male tutor might replace the visits to the school guidance counselor for costly remedial work. The eXperiment involved six schools in Arlington and 600 public school pupils in kindergarten and first and 321bid., p. 10. 32 second grades. Aides were recruited from the graduate schools in the Boston area and from members Of the Arlington community. The teacher aides did not need to be trained or experienced in teaching, but emphasis was placed on using men who were imaginative and creative and who enjoyed learning and working with children. Aides worked in the classroom for about two hours a day, assisting in the teaching Of the basic skills. In addition, each aide conducted tutorial sessions with small groups Of boys who had already repeated a grade or who had trouble learning. These sessions were informal, and the 33 activities were determined by the boys' needs. The project was so successful that the number Of aides have doubled. Wolman and Shelley34 reported on the use of volunteers as "Teacher—Moms" for severely disturbed youngsters. Following a successful experiment in Elmont, Long Island, on the educational habilitation Of schizo- phrenic children, the National Institute of Mental Health sought to discover whether the Elmont experience with these children could be duplicated in other types of communities. The first year's experience has already indicated success. The volunteers came away exhilarated by the Opportunity to 33Ibid., p. 50. 34Thelma G. Wolman and Florence D. Shelley, "Volunteers in the Public School," National Elementary Principal (May, 1967), 34-37. 33 work effectively, gratified by Obvious progress accomplished and eager to participate the following year. Another successful demonstration of the effective- ness Of the volunteer has been shown in pre-kindergarten programs in New Rochelle, New York,35 and other parts of the country. In 1967, the New York City Board Of Education trained parents and others in "Spanish.Harlem" to work in classrooms to strengthen communication between home and school and to foster a greater mutual understanding, as well as to provide more individual attention for pupils. The project was unique in that it Offered members Of the low income area who had at least an eighth grade education an Opportunity to attain professional status as teachers. Candidates chosen for the project had to demon- strate a willingness to advance in reSponsibility and education as well as an ability to work well with children. They began by performing simple tasks to assist the teacher who herself was studying to gain a greater understanding Of Puerto Rican and Negro cultures. The assistant received training in teaching skills from New York Univer— sity professors. She also had frequent conferences with cooperating teachers. The assistant was salaried, a factor which Often enabled her to remain in the program. An assistant with the ability and desire to progress did 351bid., p. 37. 34 advance, through study and eXperience, to the positions of teacher associate, teacher, and supervising teacher. The program also had important advantages for the school. Relieved Of many nonteaching duties, the teacher could devote herself more fully to the students. Pupils received greater attention in the classroom and benefited from having a member of their own neighborhood in a posi- tion of authority at the school. Puerto Rican and Negro children had persons from their cultures to emulate, while white children overcame prejudicial attitudes by seeing a Negro or Puerto Rican as a leader.36 The Lincoln Parish School Board, Ruston, Louisiana, with assistance from the Gulf South Research Institute Staff, conducted a ten week pilot student-teacher aide program in which seventy-two college education majors worked as teacher aides in eight high schools and elemen- tary schools for approximately ten hours a week. An orientation program was conducted to instruct them con- cerning duties and responsibilities, and seminars were held to help coordinate the program. An evaluation program involved analysis Of aides' and teachers' use Of time in terms Of specific instructional and non-instructional duties, analysis of teacher aid questionnaires, and summary Of teachers' and administrators' comments at the termination 36Goulet, op. cit., p. 52. 35 of the program. Conclusions were that college education majors were well qualified to fill teacher-aide positions; that they gained valuable on-the-job experience as such; and that the working relationship between colleges Of education and local school systems served to strengthen 37 the educational curriculum on the college level. Bank Street College Of Education in New York City, studied, for the Office Of Economic Opportunity, fifteen programs for the nonprofessional, from Maine to California. A variety Of research techniques were used, including a pre-post administration Of a role perception instrument, process Observations and interviews with key people. Some of the significant gains attributed to nonprofessional programs were: 1. For the pupil, by providing more individual attention—by concerned adults, more mobility in the classroom, and more Opportunity for innovation; For the teacher, by rendering his role more pro- dfictive In terms of pupil outcome, and more manageable in terms of teaching conditions; For the other professionals, by increasing the scope and effectiveness of their activities; For the auxiliary, by providing meaningful employment which contributes to his own development and to the needs of society. For the school administrator, by providing some solution--not necessarily the solution--to his dilemma Of increasing needEEfOr school services, coupled with shortage of professionals to meet these needs; 37Educational Resources Information Center, B§§earch in Education, V, NO. 3 (March), 93. 36 6. 'For family life, by giving auxiliaries, many Of Whom are or may someday be parents, the Oppor- tunity to learn child development principles in a real situation. 7. For the community at large, by providing a means through which unemployed and educationally dis- advantaged persons may enter the mainstream Of productivity.38 In addition to these considerations, there were other specific benefits which could be derived from the utilization Of indigenous personnel as auxiliaries in schools serving disadvantaged neighborhoods. The auxiliary who has lived in disadvantaged environ- ments Often speaks to the disadvantaged child in a way that is neither strange nor threatening. This cultural bridge is an asset even if there were no need to provide jobs for the poor. The low-income auxiliary, having overcome some Of the difficulties and frustrations the child now faces, may motivate the child to further effort. His very presence in a role Of some status in the school says to the child: "It can be done; it is worth trying to do; you, tOO can succeed here." The auxiliary from the child's own neighborhood may be able to interpret to the middle-class pro- fessional some aspects of the behavior of a child who is nonreSponding in school. The auxiliary may, in turn, interpret the goals of the school and the 3 learning-teaching process to both parent and child. 9 The Bank Street studies also found that the presence Of the nonprofessional can effectuate changes in a child's self-concept as well as changes in his attitude toward school. Also, they found no correlation between previous educational experiences and the nonprofessionals' success on the job. 38 . Bowman and Klopf, Op. Cit., pp. 9-10. 39 Ibid., p. 210. 37 I The overall recommendations of all the Bank Street studies were based on five premises that increased evidence in research and demonstration programs support. 1. That the involvement Of persons with a wide range of skills, training, experience, background and potential may provide a better learning environ- ment than the assignment Of all educational tasks in a classroom to one person who, alone, must attempt to meet the individual needs Of many pupils. 2. That participation in the learning-teaching process Of persons from the neighborhood served by the school, particularly parents, may increase home-school-child interaction. 3. That broad community involvement in planning educational programs may contribute materially to the social relevance Of such planning--i.e., relevance to the needs, interests and real concerns Of the school population. 4. That the Opportunity Of career development for auxiliaries may serve to motivate them in two distinct but interrelated ways: in terms of their personal growth and ability to COpe with life situations, and in terms of their increased competence on the job. 5. That the establishment Of a new career line for auxiliaries may foster career development for the total educational enterprise, with new leadership roles at various occupational levels and increased motivation for professional growth throughout the system.40 To gather data on the use of teacher aides in large Sohool systems, the Educational Research Service, in New Jersey, in 1966, surveyed 251 school systems with enroll— ments Of over 12,000 pupils with regard to their practices in the use Of teacher aides. From this selected group Of SChool systems, 217 were identified as using aides during the 1965-66 school year. Of the 217 school systems upon ‘— 4°Ibid., pp. 215-217. 38 which the Educational Research Service survey is based, 15 use aides only in their secondary schools, 64 use them only in elementary schools, and the rest have teacher- aides at both levels. A total of 44,351 aides, both paid and volunteer, were reported working in these 217 systems; of this number approximately 30,000 were utilized at the elementary level. Exact figures are not available, since some aides assist teachers at more than one level. A third of the aides in the elementary schools worked with the pre-primary and kindergarten age group, many in Head Start programs; about a quarter Of them assisted teachers in the primary grades, and the remaining 40 per cent worked with the upper elementary grades. There was little dif- ference between the percentage of paid and volunteer aides at each level. The number Of aides employed in the systems covered by the ERS survey ranged upward from one or two aides per system into the thousands. The largest number Of aides reported by any one system was in New York City where 9,150 paid aides and 1,850 volunteer aides worked in the schools. All but 3,525 Of these aides were on duty in the elementary schools. Educational Research SErvice estimates that during 1965-66, aides gave about 400,000 hours of assistance to elementary teachers each week in the systems covered by the survey. 39 Respondents to the ERS questionnaire were asked to indicate any changes that they anticipated in their teacher-aide programs during the next two years. The over- whelming majority Of those venturing to comment on this question indicated that, if at all possible, there would be more aides in their systems. The teacher aide is becoming a recognized person on the elementary school scene, and the time has come for the teaching profession and school administrators to realize the potential Of aides and to establish provisions for their employment, training, and utilization.41 The studies and Observations presented in this review Of literature are placing new demands, new approaches and new potentials on American education today. As persons with a wide range of skills, training, experience, and potential are asked to engage in the educational enterprise together, new modes Of interaction are essential. The focus is upon the role of the school as an enabling factor in the learning of children and youth. This focus requires that the adults, too, must perceive themselves as learners. With an Openness Of learning by teacher, auxiliary and pupil alike, each may contribute in his own way to an evolving process, which goes far beyond skill-training and information-giving. The latter provide necessary tools for learning but the ultimate Objective is to help each individual develop the inner strength to cope with life situa- tions as they are, and the imagination and courage to move toward a new human condition.42 41Shipp, Op. cit., p. 33. 421bid., p. 218. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The Research Problem This study is designed to study the effect Of volunteer assistants for teachers in reading in grade four in a middle-size - middle socio-economic area school. It is designed to investigate the need for volunteer persons with a wide range of backgrounds, competencies and experiences engaging in the educational enterprise for improving reading ability Of students under the direc- tion of a professional teacher. Both auxiliaries and teachers were asked to create a learning environment which is relevant to the present cataclysmic times, and which permits the child to fulfill his total self. This study is part Of a continuing evaluation planned for the program over a five year period. The year, 1969-70, was the third year Of the program, and this was the first study designed to investigate its results. The research for this study was conducted with the COOperation of the Oakland County Board of Education Reading Clinic under the direction Of Dr. Virginia Svagr, the Systematic Studies Department under the direction Of Dr. L. W} Joos and Dr. Richard Watson, and the Department Of 40 41 Systematic Studies at Michigan State University under the direction Of Mr. John Switzer. The following hypotheses are to be tested with this data: Hypothesis I: Children who receive extra help in reading improvement by volunteer workers over a six month period will have higher reading scores than will children who have not received extra help. A. Total scores on the Stanford Achievement will be higher for the treatment group or for those that receive help. B. Volunteers will increase scores on the Word Meaning, Paragraph Meaning and Spelling, Capitaliza- tion, Dictionary Skills on the Stanford Achievement Test. C. Volunteers will not produce scores on the Phonics, Syllabication, Word Study, Punctuation, Sentence Sense of Language sections Of the Stanford Achievement Test higher than the scores Of students in the regular classes. Hypothesis II: Volunteers will have a greater effect on the students with higher I.Q. than students with lower I.Q. Hypothesis III: Females in both treatment and control groups will reach a higher level of reading achievement than the males. Selection of Population Prior to this study all pupils in this school were included in an experimental program using volunteer workers. The number was diminished only by those pupils who had left the school. A total Of three hundred pupils comprised 42 the first sample. They included grades one through six with volunteers for every grade level. The initial experi- ment began during the 1966-67 school year. This particular study focuses on two fourth grade classes set up specifically for this research in September, 1969, through February, 1970. This study includes: 1. Pupils enrolled in two classrooms in an elementary school in Waterford, Michigan. The forty-six students make up the sample under study. 2. Two teachers Of similar training were involved in this study and were willing tO participate. They were white, middle—class, tenured teachers working on graduate degrees, and are near thirty years Of age. One is female, one male. 3. Thirty volunteer workers: A. Three student teachers from Michigan State University B. Five student volunteers from Oakland Community College C. Three students (seniors) from Waterford Township High School D. Nineteen mothers within the school community. The educational background of the mothers ranged from those with a high school diploma, three mothers with a B.A. degree and one with an M.A. degree. The age range Of the volunteers was from seventeen to fifty-five. The 43 economic range was from wealthy to below average in family income. Selection Of Volunteers As soon as the Oakland County Reading Clinicians had determined the need, goals were set up for the prOgram by the teaching staff Of the school. Training, demonstra- tions and Observations of the staff were begun and recom- mendations on planning, supervising and evaluating an aide were initiated. The selection of teacher aides from the community was done by the principal. Selection criteria were determined by the Objectives and needs of the program in reading. It was assumed first that the applicant would be literate, but no academic requirements were listed. Second, health requirements would be met (TB exam). Third, applicants should be willing to abide by the rules and regulations Of the school. Fourth, and most important and difficult to predict, is that amorphous quality--i.e., they should possess the per- sonal characteristics which are essential for wholesome and constructive relationships with children. The instruments administered to the students and the time schedule for their administration were as follows: The Stanford Achievement Test Form X was administered during September of 1969. Only the reading sub-tests were given. 44 The Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test, Advanced Level, Form J, was administered in October. The Stanford Achievement Test, Form W, was admin- istered during January and February Of 1970. Again, only the reading sub-tests were used. The two Stanford Achievement Tests that were administered to the pupils are designed to measure: 1. Word Meaning Because of the central importance Of word knowledge as an indispensable basis for acquisition Of reading skill and Of almost all kinds of information, word meaning has been judged deserving of measurement. The Word Meaning Test consists Of 38 multiple- chOice items. In addition to items measuring knowledge Of synonyms, Of simple definitions, and of ready associations, there are included items designed to measure higher-level com- prehension Of the concepts represented by words, and fullness Of understanding of terms. Paragraph Meaning This test providés a functional measure Of the pupil's ability to comprehend connected discourse involving levels Of comprehension varying from extremely simple recognition to the making of inferences from what is stated in several related sentences. Spelling Achievement in spelling is measured primarily by this test. Word Study Skills This test is in two parts--Part A: Phonics and Part B: Syllabication. Phonics measures the ability to use phonic patterns in word recognition while syllabication measures the ability tO see word structure. Language The Language Test consists Of exercises in Usage, Punctuation, Capitalization, Dictionary Skills, and Sentence Sense. The Usage part Of 45 the test samples correct verb usage, the use Of pronouns and adjectives, choice Of words, double negatives, and substandard corruptions. Punctuation measures the use Of periods, commas, colons, question marks and quotation marks. Capitalization samples prOper names, months, days, and so forth. Dictionary Skills measure study skills in language and Sentence Sense probes the student's ability to recognize correct and faulty sentences in written English. The Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test measures intelligence. Description Of the Research Basic Data Each pupil was given an individual number. The following data for each pupil was recorded: 1. Grade 2. Sex 3. Treatment or Non-Treatment 4. Teacher number 5. Scores on Pre- and Post-Stanford Achievement Test 6. I.Q. score on the Otis Lennon Mental Ability Test Method Of Administration of Instruments Great care was taken to explain the examples given on the standardized test and to have the students under- :rtand what the researcher was seeking. At least two adults were present at the testing sessions and in some instances more than two. Questions were encouraged before the test and an effort was made to create as comfortable an atmo- Sphere as possible at all testing sessions. The rapport between the researcher and the teachers was very good. 46 The school was visited at least once a week by the Reading Clinicians from Oakland County. Training for teachers and aides was conducted on the average Of every two weeks (see Appendix A). Generally, separate training programs were conducted. Since the volunteers came to the endeavor with widely differing competencies, the focus in their training design was structured to meet their individual needs. Training teachers were first provided by the Oakland County Reading Clinic as well as seminars conducted by specialists, e.g. school psychologist, director Of elementary education and the school principal. Teaching demonstrations were given as well as suggestions for both teachers and aides. Essential to the task Of training the adults tO work and learn together was that the trainers know more about learning, itself, particularly the needs Of the adult as a learner. Raw scores were taken from both the Pre and Post tests on the Stanford Achievement in the areas Of Word Meaning, Paragraph Meaning, Spelling, Word Study Skills (Phonics, Syllabication), Language (Usage, Punctuation, Capitalization, Dictionary Skills and Sentence Sense). The results were Obtained through the Michigan State University Data Processing Department. The information was also processed at Oakland Schools and evaluated in a newly developed and marketed 47 computer-based system--Pacer--which provides analytic and prescriptive processing of testing data in a manner which is designed to facilitate the evaluation or assessment Of school programs at the classroom level. The system involves specially written tests used with Optically- scanned answer sheets. By use of the Pacer system, it is possible to prescribe improvements or changes in school programs.43 The methodology can be applied to comparisons between programs, to measurement and description Of individual, class, or district curricular progress as well as to the assessment of experimental treatments. The methodology of the system is adaptable to clinical evalua- tion, developmental program evaluation, or special program evaluation. Its methodology is designed for use in dynamic mode as a means Of assessment Of quality and quantity concurrently with the events Of education. While the PACER (Trademark) system of program evaluation could be used with any test, it departs radi- cally from the norming strategy of standardized tests. The system does not require control groups or matched pairs, though it can be used with either. In the PACER (TM) system Of program evaluation there are no assumptions Of normality Of distribution, and no usage is made Of parametric 43Loyal W. Joos, "A Methodology for Program Evalua- tion in School System PACER (TM)," Oakland Schools, Pontiac, Michigan, 1969. 48 statistics such as standard deviation or coefficients of correlation.44 i In this system, instead of measuring pupil achieve- ment against items, item-achievement is measured against pupils. Programs of education are measurable in terms of numbers or percentage Of pupils who achieve each test item (see Appendix II). 44Ibid., p. 2. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The achievement Of the students in this study was evaluated on the basis Of the testing program administered and previously described. It was felt that this would Offer some indication as to whether or not the children in the experimental treatment group progressed more rapidly than in the regular school program. As pointed out, all students were, at the inception Of the study, given the Stanford Achievement Test Form W. They were likewise tested at the conclusion of the study. The standard achievement tests were used to measure the relative gain in achievement Of students after the treat- ment as Opposed tO routine teaching methods (control group). Analysis Of the Data The "before-after" comparison was made by the use of analysis Of variance and analysis Of co-variance as well as the new Oakland County item analysis called PACER. :Lindquist, Taves, and others have demonstrated the superiority Of the analysis Of variance model over most