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dissertation entitled

A FIELD STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RUNNING AND SELF CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

presented by

Jeffrey S. Sonnega

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LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A FIELD STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RUNNING AND SELF CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

BY

Jeffrey S. Sonnega

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology

and Special Education

1995

ABSTRACT

A FIELD STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RUNNING AND SELF CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

BY

Jeffrey S. Sonnega

This experiment examined the relationship between running
and self concept development among elementary school students.
For 10 weeks, subjects engaged in an after school running
program 3 afternoons per week. The purpose of the study was
to investigate whether participation in aerobic activity
(running) would lead to increases in self concept and physical
fitness. Experimental subjects volunteered to participate in
the Running Club and underwent pre and post testing with the
Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQI) and the Progressive
Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). A comparison

(control) group was developed and participated in the regular

physical education curriculum but did not run after school.
They completed the same psychological and physical fitness
measures as experimental subjects under a pretest posttest
quasi-experimental design.

Experimental subjects did not significantly improve their
aerobic capacity as a result of the intervention. Both
experimental and control subjects increased in their self
concept of physical appearance, but no significant increases
were noted in the self concept of physical ability, peer self
concept and total self concept. Racial and gender differences
were observed on the PACER while special education students
scored lower than regular education students on most dependent
measures. Interaction effects were noted between the self
concept of physical ability with gender and race. There was
a trend among control subjects that a lack of participation
in an exercise program lead to increases in the self concept
of physical appearance and peer relations. A significant
number of students dropped out of the experimental group and
were analyzed separately. Implication of the findings and

suggestions for further research are discussed.

DEDICATION

The following treatise is dedicated to my family whom

without their support this accomplishment would never have

been completed.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express my heartfelt thanks to the
faculty and staff at Michigan State University for their
support, encouragement, and guidance over the course of my
graduate career» In particular, I express my gratitude to Dr.
Don Mamachek, who was my dissertation advisor, a supportive
educator, and most importantly, a consistent role model. Many
people have assisted me along the way including the other
members of my committee: Drs. Hapkiewicz, Bianchi, and
Baumgardner.

I also wish to acknowledge the Lansing Public School
System and the students and staff at Bingham Elementary School
who participated in the study. Laska Lewis, faculty advisor
for the Running Club, was instrumental in this endeavor. I
am grateful to Dr. Herbert Marsh for his authorization to use
the Self Description Questionnaire I and its accompanying
scoring materials. Several others have assisted along the way
but they are too many to mention here individually at the risk
of omitting someone. However, I thank all of you and

appreciate your support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List Of Tables... .......... ........ ...... ............. Viii
List Of FigureSooooooooooooo000000.00.co ....... ......... ix

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION................ ...... ........... 1
Statement of the Problem. ...... .................... 1
Need for the Study................................. 2
Purpose of the Study............................... 3

CHAPTER II: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................. 5
A Review of Exercise/Self Concept Research......... 6
Non-Aerobic Studies................................ 7
Aerobic Studies.................................... 9
Summary of Exercise/Self Concept Research.......... 13

CHAPTER III: METHOD AND PROCEDURES...................... 14
Procedure.......................................... 14
Subjects........................................... 17
The Independent Variable........................... 18
Measurement and Instrumentation.................... 19
The Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance
Test (PACER)....................................... 20
The Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQI)........ 22
Hypotheses......................................... 25

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. ...... .................. 27
Sample Characteristics............................. 27
Reliability of the SDQI............................ 30
General Statistical Design......................... 32
Results of Hypothesis Testing...................... 34
Supplementary Analysis............................. 47
Pacer Performance.................................. 47
Physical Ability................................... 52
Total Self Concept........... .............. ........ 60

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS... ............... . 62
Summary of Research Findings....................... 62
Relationship to Other Studies ..................... 65
Difficulties with the Study ....................... 67
The Dropout Problem................................ 68
Limitations and Assumptions of the Study........... 69
Suggestions for Future Research.................... 72
Summary and Conclusions............................ 75

vi

Appendices
A.
B.
C.
D.

E.

Consent Forms.................................
Introductory Letter and Program Rules.........
Demographic Data Sheet........................
Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular

Endurance Run (PACER).........................
Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQI).......

Bibliography............................................

vii

78
81
83

84
85

89

T123456

LIST OF TABLES

Table
1. Gender of Subjects.... ..... . .......... ............. 27
2. Race of Subjects................................... 28
3. Age of Subjects.................................... 29
4. Educational Programming of Subjects................ 30
5. Reliability Analysis of the SDQI................... 31
6. A Comparison of PACER Scores

from Pretest to Posttest........................... 36
7. A Comparison of Physical Ability Scores

from Pretest to Posttest........................... 39
8. A Comparison of Physical Ability Scores

from Pretest to Posttest... ........................ 41
9. A Comparison of Peer Self Concept Scores
from Pretest to Posttest . . . . O . . O O O . O O O . O . . O ..... O O . 44

10. A Comparison of Total Self Concept Scores

from Pretest to Posttest........................... 46
11. PACER Scores by Educational Programming............ 49
12. PACER Scores by Race............................... 51
13. Self Concept of Physical Ability by Gender......... 53
14. Self Concept of Physical Ability by

Educational Programming............................ 56
15. Self Concept of Physical Ability by Race........... 58
16. Total Self Concept by Educational Programming. ..... 61

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Flow Chart of Experimental Design..................

Figure

1.

2. Marsh/Shavelson

3. A Comparison of
from Pretest to

4. Self Concept of

5. Self Concept of

6. Self Concept of

Hierarchical Model of Self Concept.
PACER Scores

Posttest...........................
Physical Appearance by Group.......
Physical Ability by Gender.........
Physical Ability by Race...........

ix

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

There is a lack of scientific research regarding the
relationship between aerobic activity and self concept
development in children. Despite a documented link between
exercise and mental well-being among adults, interventions
with, children have lead. to equivocal results. Earlier
research posited that self esteem is a global component, but
more recent research has shown this psychological construct
to be hierarchical and multifaceted. By examining more
specific aspects of the self’ concept, interventions are
thought to have more of an impact. The physical fitness of
today's youth is declining and low self esteem has been
implicated as a factor in many of our social ills and
delinquent behaviors. Many programs have been designed to
increase self esteem in school children, but they typically
are not scientifically evaluated and.do not include an aerobic

component.

 

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Of all the psychological variables that determine
emotional adjustment, self concept is probably' the 'most
critical. What we think about ourselves is probably the
central concept in our conscious lives (McGuire & Padawer-
Singer, 1976). Hamachek (1992) defines self concept as "that
particular cluster of ideas and attitudes we have about
ourself at any given moment" (p. 26) while self esteem is "the
evaluative or affective dimension-of self concept" (p. 31).

Self concept has been associated with overall academic
achievement (Felker, 1974: Shavelson, Hubnery & Stanton,
1976), reading achievement (Wattenberg & Clifford, 1964),
classroom participation and the possession of social skills
(Coopersmith, 1967), and participation in extracurricular
activities and the attainment of leadership status (Rosenberg,
1965). The development of a positive self concept is posited
as a desirable goal in personality and child development, in
clinical treatments, and in education.

One method of developing the foundation for a healthy
self concept is through aerobic exercise. Exercise among
adults has many benefits, both physiologically (e.g., Harper,
1979) and psychologically (e.g., Greist, Klein, Eischens,
Faris, Gurman, & Morgan, 1979: Sachs & Buffone, 1984).
Walking and jogging programs among adults have lead to
significant improvements in self esteem, self respect, and

body image (Carmack & Martens, 1979; Hawkins, 1981).

3
WM!

Several researchers, (Brown, 1982: Cooper, Purdy,
Friedman, Bohannon, Harris, & Arends, 1975: Duncan, Boyce,
Itami, & Puffenbarger, 1983) have found appropriate physical
activity to be a foundation for long term physical and
emotional well-being into adulthood. Young children most
often cite physical characteristics and appearance when asked
to describe themselves (Rosenberg, 1979: Sonstroem & Morgan,
1989) and most of the current self concept models contain a
physical appearance and/or physical ability factor.

Although adults have benefitted from the physical fitness
movement, children are not being reached by this current trend
(Corbin, 1986; Hinkle & Tuckman, 1987: Jenkins & Staub, 1985).
Notwithstanding, studies have shown aerobic conditioning can
improve cardiorespiratory functioning in children (Cooper et
a1., 1975; Duncan et a1. 1983: Hinkle, 1987: Siegel &
Hanfredi, 1984; Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986). Psychological
effects have not been as thoroughly tested, but increases in
Self concept have been found among subjects initially lower
in this trait (Hilyer & Mitchell, 1979: McGowan, Jarman, &
Pedersen, 1974).

Running has been researched the most thoroughly and
aE>plied the most often as a psychological intervention
(Hinkle, 1988). Even though it is one of the most difficult
fOrms of aerobic exercise, it is among the best at promoting

Psychological health (Glasser, 1976: Harper, 1979). Children

4
and adolescents find running to be the most readily accessible
aerobic exercise in terms of skill development, costs, and
availability (Hinkle, in press).

In general, few studies have been done with elementary
school children (Brown, 1982: Lopez & Pruett, 1982: Lund &
I<egeles, 1982: Hinkle, 1993) and even fewer have examined the
relationship between self concept development and physical
activity (Keller, 1982). Most studies have been conducted
saith special needs populations and contained numerous
methodological flaws (Folkins & Sime, 1981: Hinkle, 1993:
Labbe & Welsh, 1993).

The purpose of this study is to extend our knowledge by
examining the relationship between running and self concept
development among 8 to 11 year olds who have volunteered to
participate in an after school running program supervised by

an elementary school teacher.

CHAPTER II

A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In their comprehensive literature review of physical
fitness training and mental health, Folkins and Sime (1981)
determined that self concept was the variable with the
"highest payoff" in exercise-personality research. They
concluded that physical fitness training promotes improved
mood, self concept, and work behavior. Ismail and Trachtman
( 1973) described this phenomenon succinctly when stating,
“physical activity can change the state of one's mind" (p.
82). A consensus statement from the National Institute of
Mental Health (1984) concluded that exercise could have
beneficial emotional effects across all ages and sexes.

After reviewing the literature on exercise and self
esteem, Sonstroem ( 1984) called for more sensitive
instrumentation that differentiated global from specific
aSpects of self concept. In a current review of the
literature, Welsh and Labbe (in press), called for better
description of the independent variable and monitoring of
1heart rates to ensure that participants were obtaining an
aerlrobic benefit. Although viewed as a prime component of self

Concept, minor emphasis has been given to the role of physical

6
activity in self concept enhancement.

In 1985 and again in 1987, the National Children and
Youth Fitness Studies (NCYFS) were commissioned to objectively
assess the fitness level of youth. In a summary of findings,
Ross and Gilbert (1985) and Ross and Pate (1987) concluded
that children had more body fat compared to their cohort
twenty years ago and that increased body fat was associated
with hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease (Corbin, 1986:
Leon, 1983; 5. Ross Gilbert, 1985). Symptoms of cardiovascular
disease are already evident in children as young as eight
years old (Jenkins & Staub, 1985). This substantiates the
U. S. Government’s (U. S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 1980) and Leon’s (1983) claim that children are not
physically fit. Americans have created a culture for their
children in which people would rather spectate than

participate (Wynder, Hertzberg, & Parker, 1981).

A Reyieg e: ExereieelSelf Coneep; Reeearcn

To be included in the following literature review, a
study must examine the relationship between physical activity
(i.e., running) and self concept development. This review
will be limited to studies with elementary or junior high
SChool students and will focus on the regular education
Population. Because of the lack of research in this area,
studies that contain methodological shortcomings and are pre-

exPerimental in design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) will be

7
included. Few studies have used running as an independent
variable so studies that used physical skills training with
a negligible aerobic impact will also be reviewed.

The following review will begin with non-aerobic studies
then proceed with aerobic interventions. Each will be
reviewed chronologically. To be classified as aerobic,
subjects should achieve an elevation in heart rate to
approximately 70 - 80% of maximum capacity and sustain this
level for-20 minutes (Cooper, 1978). It is recommended
subjects exercise at this level a minimum of three times per
week for a duration of 15-20 weeks (American College of Sports
Medicine, 1988). The following non-aerobic studies did not
include running as the dependent variable and incorporated
primitive research designs.
flog-Aerobie Stegies

Bruya (1977) taught selected basketball fundamentals
(dribble, chest pass, lay up, etc.) to fourth graders but did
not find increases in self concept. His study consisted of
eight one half hour treatments spread evenly over four weeks
that took place within the regularly scheduled physical
education class. Bruya's study was quasi-experimental in
design incorporating pretest-posttest measures nested within
classrooms. It was very short duration and minimal intensity
and did not include a measure of cardiovascular functioning.

Mauser and Reynolds (1977) did not find an increase in

self concept following an eight week program of physical

8

activity and body coordination. Their study incorporated a
small sample size of a special needs population, those with
perceptual-motor deficits and accompanying difficulties in
social interaction, but the authors neglected to describe the
riature of the intervention. It is doubtful these elementary
school subjects accrued any aerobic benefit, which may be the
(:ausal mechanism for self concept enhancement.

Another study of the effects of motor development on self
(zoncept was conducted by Martinek, Cheffers, and Zaichkowsky
( 1978). They observed changes in self concept after weekly
participation in a physical activity program, although
(:orrelations between self concept and motor development were
insignificant. Their study included heavy representation from
a minority group and incorporated a true experimental design
with a large sample size. Interestingly, they observed a
decline in self concept over the ten weeks for children in
grades three, four, and five, a finding also noted by Tuckman
and Hinkle (1986). No measure of aerobic fitness was ever
establ ished .

Smith (1982) also did not find a definitive improvement
in self concept following an eight week program of physical
education among third grade children. Subjects were matched
on demographic variables then randomly assigned to one of two
treatment conditions or to a free play control group. The
Physical fitness interventions were, games and relays or

mo"ement skills training but no cardiovascular measures were

9
included. Smith noted that teachers' evaluations,
expectations, and behavior affected children's self concepts,
a finding also observed by Smart and Smart (1977).
ud'e

One of the first aerobic studies was conducted with
teenagers by Collingwood and Willett (1971). Their sample
included five obese, male adolescents who underwent a short
but intensive three week, thirty hour fitness program. In
addition to specific physiological improvements, subjects
displayed significant increases in self concept, self
acceptance, and body attitudes, and decreases in real versus
ideal/self discrepancy. Increases were particularly
pronounced in subjects initially lower in self esteem, a
finding replicated by Hilyer and Mitchell (1979) among college
students and by McGowan, Jarman, and Pedersen (1974) with
seventh graders. A ceiling effect on assessment instruments
may have been partially responsible for this finding although
children initially lower in self concept stand the most to
gain from an intervention designed to increase this construct.
A regression to the mean effect may have also been operating.

In general, studies conducted with special needs children
have typically shown improvement in general self concept
whereas studies with normal children have shown changes in
specific areas of self concept (Hinkle, 1987: Tuckman &
Hinkle, 1986). This finding highlights difficulties inherent

in defining and measuring the multifaceted nature of the self

10
concept.

Collingwood and Willett (1971) did not include a control
group with random assignment to treatment conditions making
their study pre-experimental in design. Subjects also
received a total of three hours of group counseling which
hinders generalization beyond their study.

McGowan, Jarman, & Pedersen (1974) used an experimental
design to study the relationship between a competitive
cardiovascular fitness program and self concept development.
Subjects were seventh grade boys who were low in self esteem
and peer approval. At the end of 18 weeks, they found
increases in self esteem for the experimental group but did
not find differences in peer approval. Unfortunately, their
study contained multiple incentives for participation and
exPerimenter manipulation of success to be suspect of
experimental reactivity and bias. Additionally, only within
group dependent t-tests were reported with no test of
comparative changes between experimental and control groups.

Percy, Dziuban, & Martin (1981) observed increases in
self esteem among fifth and sixth grade public school students
Elftel: participation in a seven week distance running program.
The extent of aerobic fitness was never established and
subjects were only required to run one mile three times a week
and allowed to rest if unable to complete the one mile run.
Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment or control

conditions, but the researchers did not describe the nature

ll

of the control condition. Their sample size was rather small
(n=15), and subjects were not advised to limit running outside
of the treatment setting. According to the authors, many of

the children ran to school or on weekends.
In a study investigating both physiological and
psychological effects of running among fourth, fifth, and
sixth graders, Tuckman and Hinkle (1986) did not find
significant increases in self concept after a 12 week running
program. Unlike most of the earlier studies, they assessed
aerobic impact and concluded exercise participants had better
times on the 800 m run, lower pulse rates, and better
performance on a test of creativity than did regular physical
education (control) subjects. They noted self concept tended
to be less positive with increases in grade level: a finding
reported by Martinek, Cheffers, and Zaichkowsky (1978).
Laudably, their study incorporated a true experimental design
with random assignment to treatment or control conditions

within a school setting.

In a recent controlled study, Labbe and Welsh (1993)
found higher running self efficacy scores among participants
after an eight week aerobic training program. No changes in
general self efficacy were observed, but the finding of more
focal changes in self efficacy, i.e. , related to physical self

concept, has been a consistent finding in the adult literature
(Kaplan, Atkins, & Reinsch, 1984: Sonstroem, 1984).

Subjects were 124 children enrolled in fourth or fifth

12

grade that were randomly assigned to an aerobic treatment or

to a regular physical education control condition. Labbe and

Welsh (1993) included measures of physical fitness (body fat,

and 800 m run time) and established

resting pulse rate ,
a six month follow up showed

aerobic improvement. However,
most of the differences between the groups had disappeared

except that the running group had a higher internal health

locus of control.
In a current study of 85 eighth grade students, Hinkle,

Tuckman, and Sampson (1993) found significant increases for

physical fitness and creativity measures, but psychological

changes were minimal and nonsignificant. An eight week follow

up found no differences between experimental and control

groups. This study included random assignment to a treatment

or control condition and included a five day per week

structured aerobic running program for eight weeks. While not

encouraged to do so, control participants may have also

engaged in aerobic exercise. As these researchers noted,

middle school children may need to run more than one mile per

day to obtain physiological and psychological changes. The

Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1981) may not

have been sensitive to psychological changes in ”normal"

students.

13
Semmary of ExerciselSelf Cencept Research

Of the ten studies reviewed investigating the
relationship between aerobic activity and self concept in this
age group, five noted positive changes in self concept
(Collingwood & Willett, 1971: Labbe & Welsh, 1993: Martinek,
Cheffers, & Zaichkowsky, 1978: McGowan, Jarman, & Pedersen,
1974; and Percy, Dziuban, & Martin, 1981) while five showed
no or insignificant improvement (Bruya, 1977: Hinkle, Tuckman,
& Sampson, 1993: Mauser & Reynolds, 1977: Smith, 1982: and
Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986). Many of the early studies attempted
to show a correlation between self concept development and
physical skills training and lacked aerobic intensity (e.g.,
Bruya, 1977) or failed to adequately measure, or even
describe, cardiovascular performance (e.g., Martinek,
Cheffers, & Zaichkowsky, 1978: Mauser'& Reynolds, 1977). IMost
studies were typically less than eight weeks duration and
lacked an equivalent control group. 'The three most recent and
methodologically robust studies (Hinkle, Tuckman, & Sampson,
1993; Labbe & welsh, 1993: Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986) did not
show improvement in global self concept after documented
physical fitness effects. At present, no firm conclusions can
be drawn regarding the relationship between aerobic activity
and self concept enhancement among elementary school students

(Welsh & Labbe, 1994).

CHAPTER I I I

METHOD AND PROCEDURES

Brccedite

The present study was quasi-experimental (Campbell &
Stanley, 1963) incorporating a pre-post test design with
repeated.measure on dependent variables. A general schematic

of the study can be located in Figure 1.

14

 

 

Experimental
Group
(Volunteer for
Running Club)

 

 

Instruments:

 

 

1)SDQ|
2) PACER
3) Demographics

 

 

 

 

10 Weeks of
after School
Running

 

 

Instruments:

 

 

1)SDQ|
2) PACER
3) Interview

15

 

PRETEST

 

 

 

 

 

INTERVENTION

 

 

 

 

 

 

POST-TEST

 

 

 

Figure 1

 

 

Control
Group

 

Instruments:

 

 

 

1)SDQ|
2) PACER
3) Demographics

 

 

 

 

10 Weeks of
Regular Physical
Education

 

Instruments:

 

 

1) soon
2) PACER

 

Flow Chart of Experimental Design

 

 

 

 

16

Due to self selection into the program, a comparison

group was the most appropriate because subjects could not be
completely randomized into treatment and control conditions.

All subjects who expressed interest in the Running Club were
allowed to participate. Parental consent was obtained prior
to participation in the study and subjects were briefed at the
All data were held strictly

conclusion of the intervention.
An

confidential and will only be reported in the aggregate.

program rules, and consent forms are

introductory letter,
A demographic data sheet

located in Appendices A and B.

(Appendix C) was compiled from school files and included:
gender, grade, race, teacher, and

name, date of birth,

educational programming.
It was anticipated that some students would not be able
to complete the study due to medical or behavioral

complications. When injuries or behavioral problems occurred,

the student was referred to the school nurse or principal for
further evaluation. Program flexibility was stressed due to
children having varying fitness and motivational levels and

its contribution to increased compliance and

because of
1987).

adherence to a running program (Doan & Scherman,

Following Hinkle and Tuckman (1987), emphasis was on a

commitment to fitness and self improvement rather than on
competition and winning.
Implementation of the running regimen included a walking,

jogging, running progression suggested by Berg (1976) with

17
children gradually increasing the time they spend running
without stopping. Youngsters were to spend 20 minutes engaged
in continuous aerobic activity and work their way up to 45
minutes as their physical condition improved.

No attempt was made to enhance or restrict the physical
activity of children outside the experimental or control
conditions. This approach was consistent with that of Siegel
and Manfredi (1984) and Tuckman and Hinkle (1986). This was
necessary because of the impractibility of controlling
children's activity outside of the school day.

This experiment coincided with the school calendar and
commenced with pretesting in April of 1994 and concluded with
post testing the last week of school in June, 1994. Thus, it
lasted approximately 10 weeks. Previous studies indicated
that the minimum time required for cardiovascular changes to
occur is eight to ten weeks (Simons, McGowan, Epstein, &
Kupfer, 1985). At both assessment periods, students were
given paper and pencil measures of self concept. before

completing fitness testing.

SEQjSQSS
Subjects were third, fourth, and fifth grade students
from an elementary school in Lansing, Michigan, and ranged
in age from 7 to 11 years. The school is located in the
downtown district and includes a large minority population.

Experimental subjects were chosen by their desire to

 

18
participate in the Running Club, while control subjects were
selected from the remaining students in the appropriate

grades. Dropouts were defined as those subjects originally

included in the experimental group who no longer ran after

school with the Running Club.
To account for the influence of self selection into the

Running Club, an equivalent control group was formed. These

subjects participated in gym class three times a week

supervised by their regular grade teacher or by the physical

education instructor. They engaged in typical physical

education activities that normally do not promote intense

cardiovascular benefits (Ross & Gilbert, 1985). Control

subjects completed the psychological inventory and physical

fitness assessments concurrently with experimental subjects.

The Independegt Variable

The intervention was implemented by an elementary school

teacher, this researcher, and parent volunteers and consisted

of ten weeks of after school running. The club met from

approximately 3:05 - 3:45 pm on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and

Thursdays along a measured course located on the playground

of an urban elementary school. Five laps around the school

was equivalent to one mile. This distance was measured using

a pedometer according to standards developed by the American

Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

(1.980).

19

Students ran a minimum of twenty minutes after school
three times a week for a total of ten weeks. Twenty minutes
of continuous aerobic activity three to four times per week
is the minimum exercise necessary to produce a cardiovascular
benefit (American College of Sports Medicine, 1988: Cooper,
1978; Martin & Dubbert, 1987). Students were encouraged to
run as many laps as possible in 45 minutes and to maintain
target heart rates. A target heart rate was defined as 60%-
90% of an individual's maximum heart rate, which is
approximately 160 beats per minute for children in this age
range. Standards for children’s programs are essentially the
same as adults (Bar-Or, 1983: Simmons-Morton, O'Hara, Simmons-
Morton, & Parcel, 1987) but no exact guidelines have been
published (American College of Sports Medicine, 1988: Welsh
& Labbe, in press). Subjects were trained to check their
radial pulse rates by counting the number of beats in six
seconds and multiplying by ten.

To reduce injury, students were required to participate
in stretching and cool down activities and allowed to drink
fluids as necessary. They were encouraged to compete against
themselves, chart their progress, and gradually increase their

mileage and speed.

Measurement and Inetremengatien

Measurement was conducted on a pre-post test basis with

psychological testing separated from the playground to control

20
for possible experimental reactivity. As suggested by Labbe
and Welsh (1993), this study attempted to examine physical
fitness and psychological variables concurrently to show
whether physical fitness changes are necessary to produce
psychological changes.

Self concept data was obtained on an individual basis
while the PACER, a measure of aerobic capacity, was
administered to groups of up to six children. The children
that were not running observed other students and assisted
with record keeping. The SDQI was read to the children to
control for the effect of reading ability. An attempt was
made to have dropouts complete the same measures, including

post tests, as other participants. While dropping out was
discouraged, enough children chose this option and formed a
separate group that was analyzed separately. The PACER and

the SDQI are located in Appendixes D and E, respectively.

1‘ _'7 9°! T 've -‘ 00.0 Ca 0.- .scu ;_ E d -ol ‘ R111 _'._ __i
The 20 Meeer ShggtTe Test (20 MST) or the Pregreesive

v sc r E ur n Ru AC R was developed by

Leger and Lambert (1982) to simulate a graded exercise test
performed on a treadmill. The PACER is a valid, fun,
alternative to the customary distance run test for measuring
aerobic capacity in children. It can be conducted on a
playground gym and requires children to run shuttles or laps
between parallel lines placed 20 m apart. The test consisted

of one minute stages of continuous incremental pace running

21
set to music and tones on a prerecorded tape. After practice
trials were held prior to actual testing, children were
allowed 9 seconds to run/walk the 20 m distance during the
first minute. Each minute thereafter, the pace increased by
approximately one-half second per level. Subjects lined up
and ran back in time with auditory signals from the tape. The
experimenter also gave a hand signal for those subjects that
had difficulty hearing the beep. When a subject stopped or
failed to reach the end line before the beep on three
shuttles, the last shuttle (lap) was recorded and the test
concluded for that child. Each time a person could not keep
up with the beep, the subject was given a warning and
encouraged to pick up the pace (Institute for Aerobics
Research, 1987).

The PACER has adequate psychometric properties with test-
retest reliabilities ranging from .87 for females and .91 for
males (Liu, Plowman, 8: Looney, 1992). Leger, Mercier,
Gadoury, and Lambert (1988) found a reliability coefficient
of .89 among 6-16 year olds of both sexes while Dinschel
(1994) found a comparable reliability among fourth and fifth
graders. Correlations with maximum volume oxygen uptake (V02

max) achieved on a treadmill ranged from .51 to .90 for both
heterogeneous and homogeneous groups of subjects (Liu et al. ,
1992; Boreham, Paliczka, & Nichols, 1990). While these
relationships are only moderate, correlations between V02 max

achieved on a treadmill and endurance runs of 600 yards, 1600

22

m, 9 minutes, and 12 minutes ranged from .61 to .94 spanning

the entire age range of subjects (Safrit, 1990). Cureton (in

press) concluded validity coefficients and standard errors of
estimate are similar to those for the one mile run/walk,

indicating that the PACER has moderate concurrent validity as

a field test of V02 max.
The PACER has several advantages over traditional
endurance runs: (1) it can be conducted indoors within a small

space such as a gym, (2) problems inherent in long distance

runs such as pacing and motivation are largely eliminated, and

(3) it discriminates well between fit and less fit subjects.

The Self Qeseniptien Questionnaire T (5991)
The SeTf Descnintion Questionneine I (SDQI) (Marsh,

Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984) is a 76 item measure based on

the revision of the original Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton

(1976) hierarchical model of self concept. This revised model

(Marsh & Shavelson, 1985) can be located in Figure 2.

23

doses—:2. .3 BEBE ASS: :om_o>_:_m ecu :32). E9“. ._
.3... E :32? .25.: 33: .3 E :om_o>5_w 22:35 2: to .5639. :om_o>n__m\__m5_2 2:
so was: 2: ms 328 :2: _ 9:222:30 :occtumoeiom 2: 2 82.9.3. :5: motor:
Euuzooéom to :ocwfizmwto Essences. 2.10 :ocmsamoEE .625 :EchEo :< .N .3..—

 

 

 

 

.oozom «9:32.53. 3.23253: 8:232? >52
53:09.3"... .aoocou._.om Eoocoo.._om
8:29.33 5.1.0: w QEopmcacoz
e. 950E 0.35932

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

<

 

.aoocooeem
.Socmu

 

 

24

The SDQI is a recently developed multidimensional self
concept measure and is appropriate for children ages 6 to 11.
Children responded to items along a 5 point scale ranging from
mostly false (1) to mostly true (5). The questionnaire taped
seven specific factors and four global areas from the
Shavelson et al. (1976) model that have been supported through
confirmatory and multitrait-multimethod factor analyses
(Marsh, Smith, & Barnes, 1982). A General-Self scale, derived
from the Rosenberg (1965, 1979) Self Esteem Scale is also
included. Specific scores are reported for physical
abilities, physical appearance, relationships with peers,
relationship with parents, reading, mathematics, and general
school subjects. Global scores are aggregates of these
specific factors and include a total nonacademic self concept,
a total academic self concept, a total self concept, and a
general self concept that correlates with all factors in the

model.
Research has shown that negatively worded items tend to
reduce reliability at the younger ages and are not included
in the scoring (Wylie, 1989) but serve as a deterrent to a
positive response set (Marsh, 1990). Coefficient alphas for
the seven individual scale scores varied from .80 to .92
(median =. 86) . Alphas for the Total Nonacademic, Total
Academic, and Total Self scores were .91, .92, and .94
respectively (Marsh, 1990) . Internal consistency without the

negatively worded items ranges from .80 to .90 across the

25
various subscales but are somewhat lower for second and third
graders (Wylie, 1989).

Factor analysis of the first seven subscales reveal that
each define their own factor with negligible cross loadings
(Marsh, Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984). However, support for
a general self concept at the apex of the hierarchy is less
conclusive (Wylie, 1989). Stability and systematic changes
in self concept were examined in two studies (Marsh, Smith,
Barnes, & Butler, 1983). In both studies, the reliability of
the difference scores had means of .74 for the individual
scales and .87 for total scales. Construct validity of the
SDQI has been established through multitrait-multimethod
analysis with the Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory, the Sears

Self-Concept Inventory and Harter's Perceived Competence Scale

for Children (Marsh & Smith, 1982).

0 ese

This study examined the following research hypotheses:

1. As a result of the after school running program, subjects
will derive cardiovascular benefits as indicated by
increased post test performance on the Progressive

Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER).

26
Aerobic activity (running) will lead to significant
increases in children's self concept in the specific
areas of physical ability and physical appearance as

assessed by the Self-Description Questionnaire I (SDQI) .

Children will improve their peer self concept as a result
of the social +interaction and group format of the after
school running program. These changes will be noted by

increased scores on the peer self concept component of

the SDQI .

Improvement in the global aspect of self concept, namely
total self concept on the SDQI, will significantly
increase as a result of participation in the after school

running program.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Sample Characteristics
A total of 70 subjects participated in this study. An

examination of Table 1 reveals the large number of dropouts,
originally from the experimental group, who failed to complete
the ten week study. The control group was also limited in
number as most children who were interested in the study chose
to be in the experimental group.
Slightly more males than females were included among the
experimental and dropout groups, however males were under—

represented in the control group.

 

 

Table 1
Sende; ef Subjects
Experimental Control Dropout
Male (34) 16 (55%) 3 (21%) 15 (56%)
Female (36) 13 (45%) 11 (79%) 12 (44%)
Total (70) 29 14 27

 

27

28
More nonwhites than whites participated in the
experimental group while whites were the majority among the
control and dropout groups. This demographic breakdown by

race can be found in Table 2.

 

 

Table 2
e Su ' cts
Experimental Control Dropout
White (38) 12 (41%) 10 (71%) 16 (59%)
Nonwhite (32) 17 (59%) 4 (29%) 11 (41%)
Total (70) 29 14 27

 

Because of the small number of subjects in the second and
sixth grades, 7 and 12 year olds were collapsed into the
adjacent age categories. The majority of subjects were 9 and
10 year olds; mean age of the subjects was 9.6 years. The
cells of the control group were unevenly distributed across
all age categories with some cells having as few as 2

subjects. Eleven and twelve year olds displayed a tendency
to drop out more frequently than other age categories. The

breakdown by age can be seen in Table 3.

29

Table 3
Age Qf Sgbjects

 

 

Experimental Control Dropout
7-8 (10) 5 (17%) 2 (14%) 3 (11%)
9 (23) 9 (31%) 5 (36%) 9 (33%)
10 (19) 9 (31%) 5 (36%) 5 (19%)
11-12 (18) 6 (21%) 2 (14%) 10 (37%)
Total 29 14 27

 

Students who were receiving Chapter 1 services for
reading or bilingual education were included in the special
education category because they were too few in number to form
their own group. Moreover, this group was not completely
independent as some children were receiving Chapter 1 services
or bilingual education and special education services

concurrently. Overall, there were a large number of students
from special education who participated in the study:
approximately 39% of the sample. These subjects had no
obvious physical handicaps and were approximately equally
divided among experimental, control , and dropout groups.
Similar to other demographic categories, the fewest number of
subjects were in the control group with only five subjects
from special education and nine from regular education

represented. This distribution can be seen in Table 4.

30

Table 4

Egncetiona; Pnognamming of Sunjects

 

 

Experimental Control Dropout
Regular Ed (43) 18 (62%) 9 (64%) 16 (59%)
Special Ed (27) 11 (38%) 5 (36%) 11 (41%)
Total 29 14 27

 

Reliabiliny of the SQQI

An analysis of the reliability of the eleven factors of
the SDQI showed each factor to have adequate internal
reliability. Sixty-eight out of the original 70 subjects
completed the protocol at pretesting while 64 completed the
SDQI upon posttesting. Two students moved out of the school
district and were subsequently dropped from the study.
Coefficient alphas ranged from .77 to .94 at pretesting and

from .61 to .94 at posttesting. The reliability of the total
scale was in the .905 at both times of assessment, indicating
strong internal consistency. These results are consistent
with those reported in the SDQI manual (Marsh, 1990) and with
a review published by Wylie (1989). A complete summary of

reliability coefficients (internal consistency) for the SDQI

factors is located in Table 5.

31

Table 5

Reliability Analysis of the SDQI

 

 

Sca e Pretest (N=68) Posttest (N=64)
1.) Physical Ability .78 .61
2.) Physical Appearance .89 .91
3.) Peer Relationships .87 .76
4.) Parental Relationship .83 .79
5.) Reading .86 .85
6.) Mathematics .91 .93
7.) School .84 .85
8.) General .79 .82
9.) Nonacademic .92 .89
10.) Academic .92 .92
.94 .94

11.) Total

 

32
General statistical design

SPSS was used to analyze the data on the University
computer system. Due to the lack of randomization to
treatment conditions, statistical control was necessary to
equate pretest differences between groups. The small number
of cases indicated a repeated measure, multivariate analysis
of variance (MANOVA) rather than an analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) .

A multivariate repeated measure analysis with all
demographic variables added simultaneously could not be
conducted due to the creation of empty cells. Similarly, in
order for the ANCOVA to be effective, the covariates must be
linearly related to the dependent variable and unaffected by
manipulation of the experimental variable. If pretest scores
were used as covariates, this assumption would not be met.
During the preliminary analysis, covariates were significant

in all cases.

A repeated measure MANOVA was used to examine the effect
0f the treatment on changes in the SDQI while controlling for
the effects of four salient demographic variables: gender,
age, educational programming, and race. While all eleven
factors of the SDQI were included in the analysis, the main
f0(3118 was on the PACER and the hypothesized self concept
variables. After computing descriptive statistics for

d“"""91'.'aphic variables and checking for outliers or possible

“ding errors, cross tabs and chi-squares were used to check

33

the distribution of the sample. These results were
nonsignificant, which lead to collapsing certain categories
such as educational programming (regular education, special
education, Chapter 1, and bilingual education) into one
dichotomous variable; regular education and special education.
This created larger sample sizes within cells and more
statistical power.

In all, three analyses were conducted on the data. In
the preliminary analysis, simple, one factor ANOVA’s were
calculated for the PACER and SDQI factors based solely on
group membership. Pre and post test scores were examined
without a repeated measure and were likely ‘ influenced by
gender and other demographic variables.

In the second analysis, gender and racial differences
were examined on the PACER and SDQI factors independent of
group membership. Again, this test was run using a simple
ANOVA without a repeated measure and was necessary to
determine if demographic variables were confounded within
group membership. Main effects for race and gender were
noted.

In the final and most robust analysis, group effects were
anailyzed using a repeated measure multivariate analysis of
V"alliance with four demographic variables added individually

to the model. By including the demographic variables, their
interaction with the outcome variable could be determined.

These variables were not added simultaneously because of the

34

small number of subjects in the study and the low frequencies
within cells this would.have created. 'This design was similar
to a covariate analysis even though the demographic variables
were not technically covariates because they lacked
independence with dependent measures.

Results of physical activity (PACER scores) will be
presented first followed by an analysis of the self concept
factors according to experimental hypotheses. The alpha for

statistical tests was set at p < .05.

Results of hyponhesie testing
Research hypothesis # 1:

As a result of the after school running program, subjects will
derive cardiovascular benefits as indicated by increased
posttest performance on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular

Endurance Run (PACER) [not supported].

Significant differences for overall means were found
between the three groups on the PACER. As expected, those
subjects who self-selected into the Running Club achieved a
higher mean than control subjects but only slightly higher
than experimentals who eventually dropped out of the study,
‘E(2,64) ==4.54, p < .05. A comparison of means for the three
groups and the corresponding ANOVA can be found in Table 6 and
Figure 3. An examination of Table 6 reveals that PACER

performance did not increase significantly over pretest levels

35
as hypothesized F(1,64) = 1.84, p > .05, nor was there any
interaction between group membership and PACER performance
£(2,64) = .60, p > .05.

Ironically, subjects in the control group showed the
greatest amount of improvement and increased by three laps
while experimental subjects increased by less than two laps.
Large standard deviations were noted for both the experimental
and dropout subjects. .Although.noicurrent.norms are available
for the PACER, the grand mean for this research sample was

21.9 laps at pretesting and 23.4 laps at posttesting.

36

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6
A Qonparisen of PAQER Sceres from Eretesr to Pestrest
Pretest Posttest
Gronp M SD M SD R
Experimental 24.8 12.2 26.7 13.0 27
Control 13.1 6.0 16.1 8.8 14
Dropouts 23.9 12.9 23.8 15.0 26
Analysis of Variance
Source Qf E
Between subjects
Within Cells 64 (262.83)
Group 2 4.54*
Within subjects
Within Cells 64 (42.91)
PACER 1 1.84
Group x PACER 2 .60
* p_< .05.

Sore. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

37

27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12

 

.
O

0 Experimental

A Control
O Dropout

PACER

llllllllllllllrl

 

 

Pre Post
Time

Figure 3
A Comparison of PACER Scores from Pretest to Posttest

38
Research hypothesis # 2:
Aerobic activity (running) will lead to significant increases
in children's self concept in the specific areas of physical
ability and physical appearance as assessed by the Self-

Description Questionnaire I (SDQI) [not supported].

There were no significant differences between groups on
the their self concept of physical ability E(2,61) = .06,

p > .05. Results and the associated ANOVA can be found in
Table 7.

As was the case with the Pacer, no significant
differences were found for the children's self concept of
physical ability between pre and post testing £(1,61) = 1.14,
n > .05. There was no interaction between group status and
self concept of physical ability 132,61) = .60, p > .05.
Students.gained.an average of less than one point.on the items

that comprised this scale.

39

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 7
A Qenperieon of Phyei cal AbiTity Seores from Pretest to
05 est
Pretest Posttest
9:929 M SD M SD R
Experimental 33.9 5.0 33.7 5.4 26
Control 32.7 7.1 33.7 4.4 14
Dropouts 33.1 5.8 34.0 4.7 24
Analysis of Variance
Souree GI E
Between subjects
Within Cells 61 (47.60)
Group 2 .06
Within subjects
Within Cells 61 (8.66)
Phys Abil 1 1.14
Grp X Phys Abil 2 .60

 

Nere, Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

40

No significant differences were found for the three
groups on the physical appearance scale of the SDQI F(2,61)
= 2.27, p > .05. At posttesting there was a significant
change in physical appearance for the three groups F(1,61) =
4.18, p_< .05, but this improvement applied to control as well
as experimental subjects. A comparison of pre and post test
means can be found in Table 8 and in Figure 4.

There was no interaction between group membership and
physical appearance E(2,61) = 1.23, p > .05. Controls
actually gained more than experimentals while dropouts

decreased slightly in their ratings.

41

Table 8

A Cemparieen of Ehysical Appearance Scores from Pretest to

OS e

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest
9:222 M SD M SD n
Experimental 30.6 9.3 32.6 7.8 26
Control 29.5 6.5 32.9 6.2 14
Dropouts 27.4 8.4 27.3 9.0 24
Analysis of Variance
Sonrce GI E
Between subjects
Within Cells 61 (111.11)
Group 2 2.27
Within subjects
Within Cells 61 (24.12)
.Appearance 1 4.18*
Grp X Appr 2 1.23
tp < .05.
more2 values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square

errors .

35

33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25

Physical Appearance

 

42

 

 

C
7 0 Experimental
_ A Control
7 O Dropout
__ 0 £
)_
I I
Pre Post
Time
Figure 4

Self Concept of Physical Appearance by Group

43

Research Hypothesis # 3:

Children will improve their peer self concept as a result of
the social interaction and group format of the after school
running program. These changes will be noted by increased

scores on the peer self concept of the SDQI [not supported].

There were no overall differences between means for the
three groups on the peer self concept scale E(2,60) = .16,
p > .05. Complete results can be located in Table 9. As a
result of the intervention, groups increased about one point
(experimental group) to a little over two points (control
group) at posttesting, but not enough to produce a significant
main effect £(1,60) = 3.72, p > .05. Interactions were not
observed between peer self concept and group status E(2,60)
= .27, p > .05. The experimental group showed the least

amount of improvement on this variable.

44

Table 9

A Conparisen of Peer Self Qoncept Scores from Pretest to
Eosrtest

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest
92229 M SD M SD n
Experimental 30.5 8.0 31.2 6.4 26
Control 29.9 7.9 32.1 4.9 14
Dropouts 29.1 7.8 30.8 5.7 23

 

Analysis of Variance

 

on e d: E

 

Between subjects
Within Cells 60 (76.67)

Group 2 .16

 

Within subjects

Within Cells 60 (19.70)
Peer 1 3.72
Grp X Peer 2 .27

 

m Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

45

Research hypothesis # 4:

Improvement in the global aspect of self concept, namely total
self concept on the SDQI, will significantly increase as a
result of participation in the after school running program

[not supported].

The groups did not differ on their overall means for
total self concept E(2,60) = .54, p > .05. There were no
significant increases §(1,60) = 1.81, p > .05, or interactions
£(2,60) = .08, p > .05 as a result of the intervention. The
maximum gain by any group was only one point. Means and the

ANOVA for this factor can be seen in Table 10.

46

Table 10

A Cenpari son ef Toral Self Cencept Scores from Pretest to
Eeettesr

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest
QIQBR M SD M SD E
Experimental 31.6 5.0 32.2 4.4 26
Control 31.7 4.5 32.7 4.5 14
Dropouts 30.6 4.9 31.2 4.6 23

 

Analysis of Variance

 

Source GE E

 

Between subjects
Within Cells 60 (36.49)

Group 2 .54

 

Within subjects

Within Cells 60 (7.82)
Total 1 1.81
Grp X Total 2 .08

 

NQ‘LQL Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

47

None of the self concept variables showed significant
improvement as a result of the after school running program
except physical appearance. For this factor, however, there
was no interaction between group membership and self concept

and even the control group increased on this measure.

u leme a s's

A number of unexpected findings occurred that were not
included in the original hypotheses. These findings often
involved treatment by subject interactions or were related to
demographic differences between subjects. In any event, they
provide opportunities for future research and will be
discussed briefly. Significant findings related to PACER
performance will be reported first followed by an analysis of
self concept factors. ANOVA tables are not included unless
significant results, specific to the intervention, were found.
Sample sizes are enclosed in parentheses.
Pac e rmance

When Pacer scores were examined with the demographic
variables, (gender, age, educational programming, and race)
added individually to the model, some interesting results were
obtained.

Special education status had a significant relationship
with aerobic capacity. Students in special education had

lower aerobic scores than did regular education students

48
regardless of treatment condition T(1,48) = 7.11, p 5 .01.
Means and the corresponding ANOVA can be located in Table 11.

Although the sample size was small (n=10), it is
interesting to speculate why differences occurred between
regular education and special education students. One would
not expect special education status to have a significant
bearing for better or worse on a measure of physical
endurance. This difference between regular and special
education students may relate more to effort expended and the
drive to push oneself that may be more intensely felt among
regular education students.

Despite overall mean differences between regular and
special education students, there was no interaction between
group status and PACER scores at posttesting. Exercise did
not increase aerobic capacity for special ed students beyond
what it did for students from regular education. (Actual
Performances showed small increases for regular education
Students and negligible gains or slight decreases for special

education students) .

Table 11

49

PACER Scores by Educational Programming

 

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest
group M SD M SD
Experimental
regular ed (17) 26.3 11.6 28.8 12.7
special ed (6) 21.8 15.2 21.3 16.5
Control
regular ed (9) 15.4 5.7 18.6 8.1
special ed (2) 7.0 4.2 5.0 1.4
Dropouts
regular ed (16) 23.5 11.5 24.8 15.0
special ed (4) 9.3 3.6 10.3 4.3

 

Analysis of Variance

 

Souree

 

Within.Cells
Group
Spec Ed

Grrllt Spec Ed

Q: E
Between subjects
48 (240.55)
2 3.98*
1 7.11**
2 .56

 

#9 < .05.
** 52‘<.01.

m Values enclosed in

errors .

parentheses represent mean

square

50

There was also a significant difference between ethnic
groups on overall PACER performance as nonwhites outscored
whites, except among control subjects, E(1,61) = 4.02, p <
.05. Specific results and the ANOVA can be seen in Table 12.
There were no interactions between race and treatment or

between group status and treatment for this variable.

51

 

 

 

 

 

Table 12
PAC R cores ace

Pretest Posttest
9:922 M 92 M 99
Experimental
whites (12) 20.1 11.1 20.1 12.4
nonwhites (15) 28.4 12.2 32.0 11.3
Control
whites (10) 13.7 6.3 16.6 8.8
nonwhites (4) 11.8 5.7 15.0 9.8
Dropouts
whites (15) 19.8 13.0 20.0 14.7
nonwhites (11) 29.5 11.0 29.0 14.5

 

Analysis of Variance

 

Sonree

2: E

 

Between subjects

 

Within Cells 61 (235.18)
Group 2 4.52*
Race 1 4.02*
Grp X Race 2 1.32
*p < .05.

2.9.1.22... Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square

errors .

52

'c ili

On the physical ability scale of the SDQI, males reported
higher scores than did females during both points of
assessment. This difference held regardless of group status
and was observable among control subjects as well. Means for
males and females on physical ability and the corresponding
statistical analysis can be found in Table 13.

There was also a significant interaction between group
membership, gender, and physical ability S(2,58) = 4.34, p <
.05. For males in the experimental and control groups, there
were negligible increases in physical ability at posttesting.
For dropouts, there was a decrease of slightly more than one
point in their ratings of physical appearance.

For females, the effects were much different. Female
dropouts gained a significant amount (3.2 points) while
females in the control group showed an increase of a little
over one point. Surprisingly, female experimental subjects
lost about a point and one half at posttesting. Thus for
female subjects, there appeared to be a slight advantage in
not participating in the aerobic activity. The effects of

this interaction can be seen graphically in Figure 5.

53

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 13
Se f f h 'ca ' 't Ge er
Pretest Posttest

9:222 E 99 M 92
Experimental
males (15) 34.6 4.9 35.3 3.9
females (11) 32.9 5.2 31.5 6.5
Control
males (3) 34.7 5.8 35.0 3.6
females (11) 32.1 7.5 33.3 4.6
Dropouts
males (12) 36.4 3.6 35.2 3.9
females (12) 29.7 5.7 32.9 4.5

Analysis of Variance
992:99 22 E

Within subjects

Within Cells 58 (7.81)
Phys Abil 1 .59
Grp X Phys Abil 2 .73
Sex X Phys Abil 1 .79
Grp X Sex X P. Abil 2 4.34*
*p < .05.

Nets. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

4O
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30

Physical Ability

4O
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30

Physical Ability

 

54

Males

 

 

 

 

 

: F 0 Experimental
_ 67.2% A Control
" O Dropout
b l I
Pre Post
Time
Females
; 0 Experimental
_ A Control
' O Dropout
- l 1
Pre Post
Time
Figure 5

Self Concept of Physical Ability by Gender

55

Special education subjects also scored lower than did
regular education students on perceptions of physical ability
E(1,45) = 4.98, p < .05, a difference that was most pronounced
among special ed students who did not continue the study. A
comparison with regular education children can be seen in
Table 14. They may already have doubts about their ability
in the classroom and, given their history of academic failure,
they may well have carried these doubts on to the playground
as well. The self assessment of special ed students appears
to be congruent with their actual Pacer performance.
Dropouts, regardless of group, also scored lower than
experimental or control subjects, but this difference did not
reach significance.

There was a lack of an interaction between educational
status and treatment on the self concept of physical ability,
nor was there an increase in physical ability across all
subjects. Previous research (Hilyer' & Mitchell, 1979;
McGowan, Jarman, & Pedersen, 1974), has shown running and
other forms of aerobic activity to have a greater impact on
the self concept of special education students, a finding that

‘was not observed in the present study.

56

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 14
S C n e o ' a Ab' it Educationa ro mm'n
Pretest Posttest

Group M SD 2 92

Experimental

regular ed (16) 34.8 4.7 34.2 5.6

special ed (6) 34.0 4.7 34.3 5.7

Control

regular ed (9) 35.2 3.3 34.9 4.1

special ed (2) 30.5 13.4 34.4 6.5

Dropouts

regular ed (16) 33.1 4.2 34.7 3.2

special ed (2) 23.0 9.9 27.5 2.1
Analysis of Variance

u ce 2:. E

g Between subjects

Within Cells 45 (38.09)

Group 2 3.09

Spec Ed 1 4.98*

Grp x Spec Ed 2 2.32

 

IXr
L2 < .05.
3% Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square

erI‘Ors .

57

Ethnic differences were also observed for the self
concept of physical ability in conjunction with group status
E(2,58) = 4.63, p < .05. Means for this factor and the
analysis of variance can be found in Table 15. Among white
students, those in the experimental and control groups showed
no difference between pre and post testing in their rating of
physical ability. White dropouts, however, showed a large
increase after dropping out of the study.

No significant difference was observed among nonwhite
experimental subjects while nonwhite dropouts decreased
slightly in their self rating. However, nonwhite control
subjects gained a significant amount (over four points) from
pre to post testing. This was the biggest gain for any
subgroup in the entire study. The effects of this interaction

can be seen graphically in Figure 6.

58

 

 

 

 

 

Table 15
e o ce f P s'cal bi it b Race
Pretest Posttest
932222 E. 912 M .52
Experimental
white (11) 32.2 4.9 32.4 5.5
nonwhite (15) 35.1 4.8 34.6 5.2
Control -
white (10) 34.5 5.5 34.1 4.3
nonwhite (4) 28.3 9.5 32.8 5.0
Dropouts
white (13) 30.7 4.8 33.4 4.0
35.8 5.2 34.7 4.7

nonwhite (1 l)

 

Analysis of Variance

 

 

 

 

 

m (if E

Within subjects
Within Cells 58 (7.78)
PhYs Abil 1 2.71
Grp x Phys Abil 2 1.26
Rates x Phys Abil 1 .03
Grp x Race x P. Abil 2 4.63*
9<\.05.

Me; Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
err01‘s.

38
37
36
35

33
32
31
30
29
28

Physical Ability

59
Experiment Group

E a 0 White
‘ A Nonwhite

 

lIlIlllllll

 

38
37
36

33

31
30
29

Physical Ability

l 1
Pre Post
Time

Dropout Group

A—
~A 0 White

A Nonwhite

Illllllllll

 

28

38
37
36
35

33
32
31
30
29
28

Physical Ability

l 1
Pre Post
Time

Control Group

0 0 White
A Nonwhite

‘3

lllrrllljll

 

Self

Pre Post
Time

Figure 6
Concept of Physical Ability by Race

60

Tota self conce t

Compared to regular education students, special education
students had lower total self concept scores, especially those
among the dropout group. However, due to the small sample
size any' conclusions based. upon this data are tenuous.
Overall means and the statistical analysis can be seen in
Table 16.

There were no interactions between this factor and group
status nor did total self concept change as a result of the

running program.

61

Table 16

Teta; Selr Cencept by Educational Programming

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pretest Posttest

9:929 2 99 M 99
Experimental
regular ed (16) 33.1 4.5 32.8 4.5
special ed (6) 30.1 6.7 32.8 4.1
Control
regular ed (9) 32.6 4.3 33.7 4.0
special ed (2) 29.6 5.0 33.7 6.6
Dropout
regular ed (16) 31.0 4.3 32.0 3.5
special ed (2) 21.5 2.2 22.7 7.7

Analysis of Variance
Source 9; E

Between subjects

Within Cells 45 (33.16)
Group 2 4.90*
Spec Ed 1 6.66*
Grp X Spec Ed 2 2.60
TIIii< .05.

my Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

S sea

The four experimental hypotheses were not supported by
the data in this experiment. They will now be reviewed in
greater detail starting with physical fitness measures.
Children showed no increase their aerobic capacity as a result
of participation in the Running Club. Succinctly stated, the
effect of the independent variable (running) was insufficient
to produce a significant change in aerobic capacity. Although
the exact reasons for this are unknown, it is suspected that
experimental subjects were unwilling or unable to train at an
aerobic level for twenty minutes three afternoons per week.

As expected, there were a priori differences between
experimental and control subjects on the PACER, likely due to
a self selection factor, but not between experimental subjects
and those who later dropped out of the study. It is
intriguing why the control group showed the greatest amount
of improvement on the PACER (3.0 shuttles vs. 1.9 for
experimentals) . One hypothesis is that the controls may have
been more motivated than experimental subjects who had been

running for the previous ten weeks and for whom the novelty

62

63
may have worn thin. They may have also been exercising during
their extracurricular activities as Percy, Dziuban, and Martin
(1981) suspected in their study.

Subjects did not show a significant increase in self
concept of physical ability after participating in this study
as there were no significant differences among groups at both
points of assessment. This may have occurred because children
did not have a tangible goal to master and giving them
specific feedback about their running was difficult.

For the self concept of physical appearance, however, an
interesting event occurred. Although there were no overall
differences among the. three groups on this factor, both
experimental and control subjects improved significantly in
comparison to ‘their' pretest levels. 'The control group
actually showed the greatest raw score improvement on self
concept of physical appearance and improved the most on the
:PACER. as well. By participating in the Running Club,
experimental subjects may have become more aware of their
physical appearance and may have become sensitized to the fact
they were not in their ideal condition. They may also have
discovered that their appearance>was not what thewaould have
liked it to be. There was an interesting trend that showed
‘that; lack. of participation in a formal running' program
actually improved the self concept of subjects in the control
group, but recall they still received a small, aerobic benefit

outside of the intervention.

64

The children showed the most enthusiasm when they raced
each other around the school or ran with members of the
research team. Subjects were encouraged to develop
friendships and to run in small groups. Although it appeared
subjects were interested in the social aspects of the Running
Club, they did not improve their self concept of peer
relations as a result of running after school for ten weeks.
A similar finding was noted by McGowan, Jarman, and Pedersen
(1974) in their study with seventh grade boys low in self
esteem and peer approval.

Control subjects and dropouts actually outgained.Running
Club participants on the self concept of peer relations,
although this difference did not reach significance. This
finding could be due to the fact that running is actually a
solitary activity, thus making it more difficult for
experimental subjects toldevelop their peer relations skills.
Additionally, requiring children to be in close proximity to
one another and requiring them to follow group norms produced
occasion conflict and fighting among experimental subjects.

Improvement in total self concept was not observed nor
were there differences among experimentals, controls, and
dropouts on this factor. This finding was not unexpected and
lends support to the revised Marsh and Shavelson (1985) self
concept model that is both multifaceted and hierarchical. It
also suggests that changes in global aspects of self concept,

as assessed in this study, do not often reach significant

65
levels. Research with adults, for example, has shown that
exercise is likely to improve self concept only when self
concept has been separated into its more specific components
(Kaplan, Atkins, & Reinsch, 1984; Sonstroem, 1984).

Other than physical appearance, no other self concept
factor showed improvement. In sum, the treatment had minimal
impact on both aerobic capacity and most self concept factors.
Most of the significant findings were interactions among
demographic measures, not main effects for treatment
conditions, or were a priori differences. Without changes in
aerobic capacity, corresponding increases in self concept
factors seem less likely to occur. Regardless, a few studies
have shown significant changes in self concept without
improved.levels of fitness (Heaps, 1978: Leonardson, 1977) and
the control group in this study did show a trend toward an
increase in self concept. It may be the perception of
physical fitness that is the key ingredient in self
concept/exercise research rather than actual measured changes.
Other research has shown that even with increases in physical
fitness (Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986: Hinkle, Tuckman, & Sampson,
1993: Labbe & Welsh, 1993), changes in self concept were only

specific to running self efficacy.

Reierionenip to aner Studies
Results of this study support the five extant studies

‘that. showed little) or insignificant. improvement. in self

66
concept as a result of an aerobic intervention. Unlike
research conducted in the late 1970's, (e.g., Bruya, 1977:
Martinek, Cheffers, & Zaichkowsky, 1978: Mauser & Reynolds,
1978), a high degree of aerobic intensity was sought and a
valid attempt was made to measure it.

Results of this research appear to support Hinkle's
(1993) contention that running does not have an effect on the
psychological functioning of "normal" children. Additionally,
the relatively large number of special education students did
not show significant improvement in self concept, either.

It may well be that a short term running program would
have minimal impact on self concept regardless of the
population. Those studies that did show improvement in self
concept exhibited only time limited effects that generally
lasted less than six months after the study (Labbe & Welsh,
1993). Studies may also show decreases in self concept. For
example, Martinek, Cheffers, and Zaichkowsky (1978) observed
a decline in self concept over the ten weeks of their study
for children in grades, three, four, and five, a finding also
noted by Tuckman and Hinkle (1986). Although declines were
not evident in this study, the number of children from these
same grades who may have experienced.this developmental trend
may help explain why increases in self concept were not

obse rved .

67

Diffiiculties wirn the Study

There are many suspected reasons why increases in aerobic
fitneSS‘were not found among participants in the Running Club.
One possibility may be that ten weeks may not have been long
enough to produce a change in aerobic capacity with young
children. Previous research (Simons, McGowan, Epstein, &
Kupfer, 1985) has shown that eight to ten‘weeks is the minimum
duration necessary, although it is important to note that
these studies were conducted with older children.

Another possibility may be related to the fact that some
sessions had to be cancelled because of bad weather.
Additionally, a large portion of students did not train all
three nights each week because of other after-school
commitments. The research team was faced with the dilemma of
allowing some students to attend "part time" or dropping them
from the Running Club and left to find their own physical
activity. We chose to include these students unless they were
habitually absent, were behavioral problems, or dropped out
on their own accord. Because flexibility is necessary to
increase exercise compliance (Doan & Scherman, 1987) , a strong
effort was made to minimize the number of dropouts by being
as accommodating as possible. Another step we took was to put
a minimal emphasis on winning and competition, which typically
adds to the drop out rate.

Another practical concern for the research team was the

68

issue of adequately supervising the number of participants
during all phases of the study. For example, because this was
a field study conducted on school property without a track,
it was difficult to monitor students' activity when they were
in "blind spots" behind the school.

Running for the children was probably difficult, and not
a "fun" activity. Research has shown adherence to exercise
programs among adults is quite limited beyond a couple of
months (Dishman, 1988). Why should we expect children to be
more disciplined? For many of our subjects, it was their
first time running, and they may have underestimated how
difficult an activity it was going to be. The large number
who dropped out may have needed more reinforcement than
nightly snacks or the opportunity of running in two or three
weekend races and receiving a t-shirt. Most experimental
subjects enjoyed the races and the excitement but found it
difficult to run the entire 3.1 miles (5 km).

e u o e

The large number of dropouts in the study'was unexpected.
It certainly was not anticipated that the number of dropouts
would exceed the size of the control group and almost equal
the size of the experimental group. This occurred even though
subjects volunteered to participate in the Running Club and
the program was well received and previously established at
the elementary school. It is difficult to determine exactly

why so many students drOpped out of the study, but their large

69
numbers attest to the difficulty retaining elementary-age
children in a formal running program. It may also reflect
their unrealistic expectations about running as a fun and easy
sport. Running by itself is natural for most children, but
commitment to a formal running program has to be developed.
For any future research.with children in this.7 - 11 age group
to be successful, it will be necessary to keep the number of
dropouts to a minimum. Not surprisingly, those who dropped
out. had the lowest rating of self concept of physical

appearance .

Linitatione end Assunpriens ef the Study
This study assumed that children gave their best effort

on the PACER and.had adequate experience running'itn Practice
trials helped to prepare subjects toldo the timed.running, but
it is doubtful whether children pushed themselves to obtain
maximal results. Some appeared to drop out long before they
were truly winded. It was also important which group of
children were running together because subjects appeared to
perform at the level of their competition. As a control
:measure, the trials were segregated by gender whenever
possible.

On the SDQI, it was assumed children were truthful in
their reflections and did not give socially desirable
responses or purposefully try to make themselves or the

‘researchers look good or bad. Anonymity, internal controls,

70

and an understanding of the purposes of testing should have
reduced social desirability bias. The SDQI may not have been
sensitive enough to detect changes in self concept, but it is
one of the most multifaceted and researched self concept
scales available. A ceiling effect or restriction of range
may have occurred, which would limit gains upon posttesting,
although the data generally does not support this. Obtaining
valid results is a difficulty inherent in any self report
measure particularly when one examines self concept.

Most children in this sample tended to be positively
biased when reporting their self concept, and informal
observations confirmed this. For example, the number of laps
students reported each night was often physically impossible
given the time they were on the playground. As one staff
member described it, these children have to live in a fantasy
world just to survive. Focusing on all the negatives many of
these children confront on a daily basis: poverty, broken
homes, drugs, crime, and other maladies, are just some of the
challenges that face urban youth.

Several assumptions were made with respect to the data.
Using a MANOVA to analyze the results, it was assumed the
population from which the .data was drawn was normally
distributed and the error terms were identically and
independently distributed. A pooled standard deviation was
used for the three groups, which assumed homogeneity of

variance.

71

An explanation why changes in self concept were not
evident in this study may be related to the possibility that
the self concepts of 8 to 11 year olds are not as
differentiated as the Marsh/Shavelson (1985) model proposes.
Elementary age children may not be able to see themselves as
good in one area and not quite so good in another. At this
age, their thinking is more concrete and less differentiated
(Piaget, 1952) and there may not yet be fine distinctions in
their more global sense of self.

Based on our experience, even if the study would have
been lengthened beyond ten weeks, it is doubtful whether the
students would have had the motivation and determination to
train at an aerobic level. Running is difficult, and many of
the students held misperceptions regarding how much fun it
would be. During most sessions, the subjects did not appear
to push themselves and took a break after running only two or
three laps around the school. Once children ran a few laps,
it was even harder to get them to continue running: many of
them walked. This occurred even though we taught children how
‘to take their pulse and emphasized the need to train in a
therapeutic range. A chart published by the American Heart
.Association showing age and training zones was posted in the
gymnasium to emphasize this point.

The bottom line is that it is very difficult to do field
research of this nature with elementary youngsters. No matter

which kind of research paradigm is used, our experiences

72
suggest that more adults are needed to supervise children this

age to keep them on task.

Suggeetiene for Future Research

To advance research in this area, stronger experimental
designs are needed. with larger sample sizes and. random
assignment to treatment conditions. As with any research
endeavor, strong efforts need to be made to keep dropouts to
a minimum. In addition, studies on exercise and psychological
variables should be extended beyond ten weeks. conducting
field research within a school setting is usually difficult
because student and administrative cooperation is not always
axiomatic. Future researchers should address these potential
obstacles and may want to assess children for longer time
periods in order to examine longitudinal and developmental
effects of exercise.

Research should also focus on students with special
education placements as they produced some of the lowest self
concept scores in this study. Conversely, it would have been
.illuminating to take a group of elite runners and analyze the
impact such an intervention would have upon them. All
ennbjects did not respond to the treatment in the same manner,
.and.there were some excellent runners among this group. Some
of them received trophies at local road races. The next study
in this genre should find a way to motivate children to run,

verify that a training effect has been achieved, and then

73
measure psychological factors in addition to self concept.
Two examples that quickly come to mind are depression and
anxiety.

It would also be helpful to provide more frequent,
tangible reinforcement such as food or juice and have enough
staff to accurately monitor the training activities of the
participants. We made an informal attempt to record progress
by having children report their own laps, but there was no way
of knowing for sure whether their reports were accurate.

There are several changes in methodology that would
improve field studies and help shed more light on the
relationship between aerobic activity and self concept
development in children. As mentioned previously, one way to
increase fitness would be to extend the study beyond ten
weeks. The best time to conduct a similar study would be in
the fall when the weather is more favorable to outdoor
activities. Because the weather is too unpredictable for
consistent outdoor activities, having facilities for indoor
running would be desirable, something that was not available
for the research reported here.

As an alternative to extending the length of running
programs, an option would be to lengthen the program to a full
hour each night instead of 45 minutes. Much of the club time
was taken up waiting for subjects to arrive in the gym from
class or other after school activities, taking roll, and doing

stretching exercises. Announcements and a cool down period

74
at the end of the workout, although essential, cut into the
exercise period. In all, children were on the playground for
about half an hour each night with about twenty minutes
devoted to actual running.

However, because of the age of the children, a longer
nightly session may exceed their interest level and actually
decrease their motivation and enjoyment for running. It may
also have the untoward effect of producing more behavior
problems, more dropouts, and possibly more injuries.

Regardless of how the study was extended, the children
would still have to train at a sufficient intensity to achieve
an aerobic benefit. This level is approximately 70-85% of
maximum heart rate and.has tolbe performed for at least twenty
minutes, three to four times per week (American College of
Sports Medicine, 1978: Cooper, 1978: Martin & Dubbert, 1987).
The researchers in this study found that this objective was
very difficult to obtain.

A positive feature of research of this nature is that it
'was a field study conducted in a typical urban, elementary
school setting under natural conditions. This factor promotes
external validity and encourages replication under different
conditions. A playground is something most schools possess
and instruments like the PACER and the SDQI are inexpensively
and easily administered. These items may lack the
sophistication of a treadmill, heart monitoring, or body

«composition testing, but they are generally accurate in their

75
results. Children need little equipment to run beside a good
pair of track shoes, shorts, and a t-shirt. Although this
study did not find an immediate increase in self concept as
a result of children's participation in a running program,
replications of this kind of research, with modifications, are
well within the domain of investigators seeking to extend our

knowledge in this area.

Snnnary and Coneiueiene

After undergoing ten weeks of an after school running
program, experimental subjects comprised of children 7 to 11
year olds did not increase their level of aerobic capacity
beyond pretest levels. There were significant differences on
PACER performance between experimental and control subjects,
but these differences existed at baseline and were likely
attributable to a self selection factor.

Likewise, changes were not observed in the self concept
factors of physical ability and peer relations. However,
physical appearance ratings did increase as a result of the
intervention, although the control group also showed
improvement on this factor. According to the Marsh and
Shavelson (1985) hierarchical model of self concept, factors
:most sensitive to the intervention and lower in the hierarchy
(i.e., physical ability, physical appearance) should be the
more amenable to change. Conversely, self concept factors

:more superior in the hierarchy such as total self concept or

76
nonacademic/academic self concept would less likely be altered
as a result of a specific intervention. This belief was
supported as total self concept did not show any increase
among subjects.

Regular education students scored higher than special
education students on the PACER at both pre and post testing,
but there was no interaction between educational programming
and treatment condition for this variable. Special education
students also rated themselves significantly lower on physical
ability, a finding that was congruent with their actual PACER
performance. Nonwhite subjects produced higher scores on the
PACER, but this difference was also observed at pretesting.
Minorities also rated themselves higher on the self concept
of physical ability.

Two interactions occurred in the analysis for the self
concept of physical ability and physical appearance. These
were related to treatment condition, gender, and race. For
physical ability, female dropouts gained a significant amount
over pretest levels while male dropouts lost ground upon
posttesting. For physical appearance, nonwhite control
subjects showed a significant increase in their ratings while
white control subjects were unchanged in their ratings from
pretest to posttest. For some subgroups, lack of
participation in the program appeared to have beneficial
effects. This may have occurred because their self concepts

remained unchallenged because they had nothing to compare

77
themselves with and did not receive any feedback.

One could hypothesize that young children are quite
impressionable and that interventions at this age would likely
be effective. This may be true in some sorts, but
modifications in self concept take time and are not always
linear. Changes may be based more on highly salient events
during one's formative years such as repeated school failure,
early childhood trauma, parenting practices, and chronic
medical conditions rather than on small, short term
interventions. It could be that children have to run
consistently for at least three or more months before an
increase in self concept.becomes apparent, an idea that awaits
further exploration.

The Running Club was only one small study in an area
where few studies exist. Many more are needed before we can
.know with great certainty how and whether aerobic activity

affects children's self concepts.

APPENDIX A

CONSENT FORMS

78
Dear Parent: 4/15/94

I am a graduate student at Michigan State University and
will be conducting a study at Bingham Elementary School. ‘This
year in conjunction with the Running Club, I will be
collecting data regarding self concept and physical fitness.
As you may know, your child will be running three nights a
week (Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays) from 3:00 to 3:50
pm. The length of the program is ten weeks.

As part of my study, your child will complete a self
concept inventory and a test of aerobic capacity both before
and after participation in the Running Club. Testing and
physical fitness assessment should take between two to three
hours in addition to the after school program.

Your son or daughter's participation is strictly
voluntary and he/she may drop out of the study or elect not
to participate in certain procedures at any time without
penalty. Your child may participate in the Running Club
without taking part in this study. The results of this
research will be held in strict confidence with only this
researcher knowledgeable of individual responses. It may be
necessary for me to have access to school files in order to
obtain basic demographic information such as phone numbers and
date of births. When results are presented, it will be in
such a way that individual students cannot be identified.
Upon request, results will be made available to you and your
child.

It is anticipated participants will become more
physically fit and feel better about themselves as a result
of this study, however I cannot guarantee this will happen.
If you have any questions or concerns about this study, I can
be reached at 332-4158 or through.the office at Bingham School
at 325-6770. You indicate your voluntary agreement for your
child's participation by completing and returning this form.

Signed Date

 

Child's Name

 

Thank you for your cooperation with this study.
Sincerely,

Laska Lewis
Running Club Supervisor

Jeffrey S. Sonnega
Michigan State University graduate student

79
Dear Parent: 4/15/94

I am a graduate student at Michigan State University and
will be conducting a study at Bingham Elementary School. Your
son or daughter has been selected to participate in a control
group to children in Laska Lewis’s after school Running Club.
I amlasking'your assistance in allowing your child to complete
a paper and pencil measure of self concept and to participate
in a field test of physical fitness. Your child will be
measured twice with.these instruments: once in.April and.again
in June. Total testing time to complete these instruments is
approximately one to two hours. Data form studies like this
have potential benefit for all children by providing educators
with a better understanding on the relationship between
aerobic capacity and self concept development.

Your son or daughter's participation is strictly
voluntary and he/she may drop out of the study or elect not
to participate in certain procedures at any time without
penalty. Your child may participate in the Running Club
without taking part in this study. The results of this
research will be held in strict confidence with only this
researcher knowledgeable of individual responses. It may be
necessary for me to have access to school files in order to
obtain basic demographic information such as phone numbers and
date of births. When results are presented, it will be in
such a way that individual students cannot be identified.
Upon request, results will be made available to you and your
child.

If you have any questions or concerns about this study,
I can be reached at 332-4158 or through the office at Bingham
School at 325-6770. You indicate your voluntary agreement for
your child's participation by completing and returning this
form.

Signed Date

 

Child’s Name

 

Thank you for your cooperation with this study.
Sincerely,

Laska Lewis
Running Club Supervisor

Jeffrey S. Sonnega
Michigan State University graduate student

APPENDIX B

INTRODUCTORY LETTER AND PROGRAM RULES

21919
9911991».

DISTRICT
Committed to Quality

 

PERMISSION FOR PANICIPATION IN m
BINGHAM SCHWL RUNNING CLUB

I give my permission for my child
to participate in this year‘s Bingham School Running Club.

 

I understand they will meet each Tuesday, Wednesday and ~
Thursday after school from 3:00-3:50 In. I understand it is
my responsibility to provide safe transfer name, either by
walking, riding, etc. . . .

Signed Date
Phone

 

I would be willing to help during the year.

 

RETURN SIM BY TUESDAY, APRIL 51 1994.

80

Bingham Elementary School
121 Bingham Street
Lansing, Michigan 48912

A” taunt nhmrtunltu Diets-Jr!

 

LANSING
m March 1994

DISTRICT
Committed to Quality

 

HINGE”! scsoor. RUNNING CLUB

Dear Parents,

Your child has shown sane interest in participation in
our Bingham School Running Club this year. As you may or
may not be aware, several years ago the club was started,
with approximately 60 students from grades 3-5. We were
running 3 days per week either before breakfast or before
lunch. When we needed more time for running, we moved the
program to after school hours (3:00-3:50p).

During the 3 month period, a number of students ran in
several area races and thoroughly enjoyed and benefitted frm
the experience. The 'icing on the calte'L came in June,
however, when we had 30 students run in the Michigan Run,
held in downtown Lansing.

Running is a difficult sport that takes much
commitment, determination, and courage. Your child will
most definitely benefit from involvement because it will
strengthen these character building areas, and she/he will
become physically fit and healthier at the same time.

This year‘s club will begin running April 6. We will
run 3 days per week, after school from 3:00- 3:50. The days
will be Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays.

There is little cost involved in participation in this
club. When we chose area races to participate in, there will
be a reduced entry fee. You may chose to have your child
run if it' s convenient both monetarily 8 timewise. We have
many generous sponsors in the business calamity so please
don' t be intimidated by a cost factor.

81

Bingham Elementary School
121 Bingham Street
Lansing, Michigan 48912

A9: 5.3.2.21 Damn-runny Dish-{rt

 

M
SCHOOL

DISTRICT
Committed to Quality

If you would like your child to participate in this
club, please read and discuss this information and the Rules
and Guidelines with your child. Return the gig
permission slip no later than Tuesday, April 5. Your child
cannot participate without your written permission.

You will also find attached, another permission slip
for Wis participation in a research project, from
148an g club. This should be a neat experience to
see if, in fact involvement increases. self-esteem and
physical fitness. Please sign for permission and call if you
have any questions. (325-6770) Thank you.

S erely

Laska Lewis
Running Club Supervisor

 

RULES AND GUIDELINES
FOR BINGHM RUNNING CLUB

1. Either running or tennis type shoes mustbe worn while
running.

2. All absences must have a written excuse from parents or
caregivers.

3. After 2 unexcused absences, the student will be.
dismissed from the club.

4 . Student' s must continue to behave appropriately in
their classrooms and keep their school work up to their
teacher ‘ s satisfaction. If these. two classroan‘
standards are not kept up, student will be dismissed
from the club!

NOTE: If it's raining, we will cancel W's Club unless '
it is just sprinkling and warm. Please be advised of this so
that your child can be sure of what to do on rain days.

 

 

82

Bingham Elementary School
121 Bingham Street
Lansing, Michigan 48912

APPENDIX C

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

Student’s Name

83

 

Address

 

(street)

phone #

 

date of birth

 

age
grade
sex

ethnicity ( Asian,
White, (optional)

Black,

Other)

Hispanic,

APPENDIX D

PROGRESSIVE AEROBIC CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE RUN (PACER)

84

—“

2. Run to Other and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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l 3
x .
x x
x I
X
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x 39m x
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3. Sup 4. Rim to other and
j,‘ x
X X
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X X
1.0.! >x x
000000 000005“
5. loop I. “And so on...
x T—
®
x X
X E X
2: 1‘
000000 000000 XX

x-Mwn
00W

 

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APPENDIX E

Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQI)

85
SELF oescmmow oussnoumuss

"‘9’. ........

- G
Nam Boy .......... Girl .......... Year

Age Sdaool Teach"

 

 

Thisisechsncetolookatyounelf. hhmamTheumnofifinmandmwillhm
diflmamfiemdutyourmfiowhwyoufulshoutyouneltPLEASEDONOTTALK
ABOUTYOUR ANSWERSWITl-l ANYONE ELSE. We willkeepyouraruworspriveumdnotmm
toenyone.

Whenyouareresdytobegin,p|euereldudnmwiddecldeyourm.(Youmayreadquietlyto
younelfaslrudeloud.) Thereerefivepoaiblemsforesdtstation--"True","l=else",md
throeminbenmen Theromfhreboxesnexttoeachantenoe,oneforeadiofmemm
mmwfitunetdwmpofdieboxa. Clmoeeyourm mammdptnaticklilinthe
boxunderdtemyouchoou. DONOTnyyourmroutloudortalkaboutitwithanyoneela.

Beforeyoustantherearethne www.mwmmMWMom-a
mmtoshowyouhowmdoit.lndwdlirdoneyoumehooeeyourownmendmtinyour
owntickIJ).

so“.
nus:
MY FALSE, MY.
FALSE FALSE “v TRUE "I'RUE
11m
TR“

EXAMPLES

1. ”tsunami...“ 1 [:1 IZJIZIEZIIil'

(Bob put a tick in the box under the «our "TRUE". This mean that he really Iikestoreadoomic
books. If Bob did not like to read comic books very meta. he would have mud “FALSE" or
”MOST LY FALSE".)

2. ..,.....,.......,.....y 2 EEIIZ’JIZIlflz

(Bob mud "SOMETIMES FALSE, SOMETIMES TRUE" because he is not very neat, but he is
notvery may either.)

3. Itummtv. 3 DEEDS:

(Forthis mm youhavemchoocdtetwwerdmisbatforyou. Firstyoumundecideifthe
m is “TRUE" or "FALSE" or m in betwi’m. If you really like to watch TN. 1 lot
you would arswer‘TRUE" by burning a tick in the lastbox. lfyou Matching T.V. you would
M'TALsybyouttingaddt hdmefmboxlfyourmrisminbemmenyou
wouldchooeeomoftheodwrd'meboxes.)

 

 

 

Ifyoummmdtmgemmyoumwvoummmdwfickmdmamwuckin
mboxondnmwlirw.Forallmembeerdmyourtidtisontheunelimathem
youareamrering. Youshould haveommmdonlyomamwerforesdim.oonothmom
anyofdtem

lfyouhweenyquenionsputup yourhandflumoverthepsgeend begin. Onoeyouhavemrted. PLEASE
DONOTTALK.

©nw.uuuut.o.m.
11.de
.181

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

23.

24.

25.

26.

. lamgoodlooking

86

 

I'm good at all SHOOL SUBJECTS ....................

Ianrunfast

 

I get good marks in READING .....................

My parents understand me

 

I hate MATHEMATICS

 

Ihave Iotsoffriends

 

I like the way I look

 

I enjoy doing work in all SCI-IDOL SUBJECTS ....

I like to run and play hard

 

I like READING

 

My parents are usually unhappy or disappointed
with what I do

 

Work in MATHEMATICS is easy for me ..............

I make friends easily

 

lhavea pleasant looking {ace

 

lgetgoodmarks in all SCHOOLSUBJECTS~ ......

Ihatesportsandgarnes

 

I'm good at READING

 

I like my parents

 

I look forward to MATHEMATICS .....................

Mostkidshavemorefriendsthanldo ............. ..

I am a nice looking person

 

I hate all SCHOOL SJBJECTS .............................

I enjoy sportsand games

 

I am interested in READING

 

My parents like me

 

my

“-

"“3

MY PM.

PALS! PALS! aoau- TRUE TIUE
TILE

'EZIEZIC'ZHZIEII'
2EIZ'IHZIIIZICZ'II’
3E3DEICID3
4E:JC3L':JE3[:4
S’CZICIICIEICZIS
GEJEZ'JEZICIICZIG
7DCIHZIDCZI7
all-JCJCIEIEJB
9IZHZHIIIC3E9
”DEEDS“?
"DECIDED"

121213513312
niZHZIEJCIIEIn
“mascara“
ISL—.IE'ZIIZZIIZIDIS
massacre
WCZICZIEZZIIZIEZIW
wEiEICJCJCJw
wEZICIEIIZIZIw
mEZIIZIIZIEJIZIzo
m:n::1u:1c:n:1m
nECJEIEIEJn
mCZIIZICIICZIEZIn
«Emmi-Jan
aEIIZIEHZJCst
mIZIZIEIJIZIEDm

51.

52.

. Other kids want me to be their friend ............

. I am m in all SCHOOL SIBJECTS .............

87

I get good marks in MATHEMATICS ..................

I get along with other kids easily .......................

Idolotsofimportmtthings

 

I am ugly

 

. I learn thing quickly in all SCHOOL SUBJECTS .

lhavegoodrnusclas

 

I am dumb at READING

 

Ill have children of my own I want to bring them
up like my parents raised me

 

I am interested in MATHEMATICS .....................

I am easy to like

 

Overall lam nogood

 

Other kids think I am good looking ....................

I am interested in all $I'DOL SUNECTS .........

Iamgoodatsports

 

. I enjoy doing work in READING ........................

Myparantsandlspendalotoftimetogether ......

I learn thine! quickly in MATHEMATICS ..........

In general I like being dummy I am .... ..............

lhavaagoodlookingbody

 

I can run a long way without stopping -...............

. Work in READING iseasyforme ...................

. My params are easy to talk to ....

I like MATHEMATICS

 

I have more friends than most Other kids

scan-
has:
an?“ FALSE. my
ears: SAGE “5. nos TRUE

”IIIEZIIEIIZI E2327

uEZICIHZHZIEm
anJCIlCZlCICle
aoIZJEZIIZICIIEIIm
NEEDED”
”CHEESE!”
MISSED”

“DECIDED“
”DECIDED”
”EDDIE-III!“
”DEL—JEEP”
”DECIDED-”'8
”DEEDS”
“CHINESE”
“DEEMED“
“DEEDS“?
“DEE—JED“

«:1 [:1 [:1 :1 Eu

45l:l:ll—___ll:ll:."l45
“DEL-IDES“

47:: :1 I: I: :1»

«DDDDEM
«EJCZIEZIIZIIZ49
massage»
mClCICICICJa
szIIlEIEICIEIlsz

74.

75.

. Ilookforwardto READING

. I'm good at MATHEMATICS

. Ican'tdoanythingriwt

88

. Overalllhavealottobaproudof..._..................

I'mbatterlookingthanmostcfmyfrlands.........

I look forward to all SCHOOL SUBJECTS .....

lamagoodathleta

 

 

I get along well with my parents ...........................

 

Iampopularwithkidsofmyownapmm...“

 

Ihavenicalaaturaslikenoaa.wldeyes,mdhair..
WorkinaIISCHOOLSlBJEC'I’Sise-yforme...

I'm good at throwing a ball

 

I hate READING

 

Mypar'antsand I havealotoffmtoythar..........

an.
M
”LY RAISE. MY
m I“ “- TRUE 1“

aCJEJIEEIIZIsa
«Dramas-u
ssCZIlZIIZIIZIEss
seCJEJEJEICIss'
sleZlEZIIZlDIZIsv
«Damascus»
aEDEDE-‘fl
mammals»

“IZIEIIEZEIIL—J“
anagram»
massacres
“DECIDED“
”DECIDED“
mammals“

. Icandothingsaswellasmostotharpeople ....... 67B S D a E67

.....y..............mmm... ....... 5:] [:1 [3 [:1 :33.

Most other kids like me

 

Other people think I am a good person .................

. I like all ”WI. SUBJECTS ........ .............

Alotofthingsaboutmaaregooda ................

. I lean things quickly in READING ......................

I'm as good as most other people ..........................

I am dumb at MATHEMATICS ............................

«DECIDE!»
massacre
nEICICJIZDn
mammals»
nmmammn
nEICICJCJCI.
anagram.

76. Whenldosornething,ldoitwell.. .................... 76D D E D E76

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