. 10 m- Magmnfia ...J A . .x .. . > HP; v. .1? but 834.391.“ 2 . I . .1152 Iv 3.... «@339 .a 1 11;}! I . £1.11. if t can. . I: , .a...al§..¢ IQII :Yv - 9 . v\.!.§~.7-‘..$‘ 25:31.35. 5!. . r, 7! :5“)! {lid .su .33.. .,,1v)’vt~ I .x 4,; Liz; sv~»2.~.». I u. ...... .. . 3 .J..5u.\..z. ..; . .Laa . . . I,‘ g'fl' 3.!” ERS SITY LIBRARIES M Illllllll||ll‘.|‘i".'.i|l|I‘ll lllllll 3 3 1293 013890 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A STUDY OF THE CHANGES IN OJIBNA, TLINGET, AND HOPI BASKETRY AS RELATING TO ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, SOCIETAL, AND HISTORICAL CHANGES IN THE RESPECTIVE SOCIETIES presented by Elizabeth McDonald has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Anthropology, Art, and History degree in ////// %% («Mk rMajor professor Date November 1994 MSU i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 ’ .LIERARY M‘Chigan State University PLACE ll RETURN BOX to remove thie checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE \- . ' ut'eg' MSU le An Afflnndive Action/Equal Opportunity Institution Wane-c1 A STUDY OF THE CHANGES IN OJIBWA. TLINGET, AND HOPI BASKETRY AS RELATING TO ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, SOCIETAL, AND HISTORICAL CHANGES IN THE RESPECTIVE SOCIETIES By Elizabeth McDonald A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Arts and Letters Department of AnthropologY. Department of Art, Department of History 1 994 Dissertation Chair: Dr. James Victoria ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE CHANGES IN OJIBWA, TLINGET, AND HOPI BASKETRY AS RELATING TO ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, SOCIETAL, AND HISTORICAL CHANGES IN THE RESPECTIVE SOCIETIES By Elizabeth McDonald Afield study was conducted of basket collections at the Field Museum Of Natural History, the Heard Museum, the Jesse Besser Museum, and the Arizona State Museum to ascertain whether the basketry of the Ojibwa, Tlinget, and Hopi changed over the years. If it did, how was that related to political, historical, economic, and societal changes through the years? The pertinent literature in history, anthropology. and art showed that no studies had been conducted in this area. Most of the basket literature is of a descriptive and methodological nature. An interdisciplinary approach has not been taken in relation to the basketry Of the three societies. The study showed that there is a correlation between the changes in the societies and the Changes in the baskets over the years. Further studies Of an interdisciplinary nature with more museum basket collections are recommended. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ln appreciation for all of the guidance, help, and encouragement given to me by my committee: Dr. James Victoria, Art Education; Dr. David Bailey, History; and Dr. Charles Cleland, Anthropology. Thank you! TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................... viii DEFINITION OF TERMS ....................................... i Basketry Terms ......................................... 1 Basket Construction Terms ................................ 2 Basket Materials ........................................ 3 INTRODUCTION ............................................. 6 PURPOSES OF THE STUDY .................................... 8 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................. 9 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................... 10 PROCEDURE ............................................... 12 LIMITATIONS ............................................... 14 REVIEWOFLITERATURE................ ..................... 16 CHANGES IN BASKETRY ..................................... 29 Changes in Ojibwa Basketry .............................. 30 Changes in Tlinget Basketry .............................. 47 Changes in Hopi Basketry ................................ 71 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND THE EFFECT OF HISTORY ON BASKETRY ................................................ 103 Chippewa/Ojibwa ...................................... 103 Tlinget .............................................. 112 Hopi ................................................ 119 BASKETRY ................................................ 131 Periods Of Change in Basketry ........................... 131 Ojibwa/Chippewa Basketry .............................. 140 Ojibwa Baskets ....................................... 146 Tlinget Basketry ....................................... 161 Tlinget Baskets ....................................... 178 Hopi Basketry ......................................... 195 Hopi Baskets ......................................... 209 ROLE OF THE BASKET WEAVER/ARTIST ....................... 229 Ojibwa Basket Makers ................... _ ............... 235 Tlinget Basket Makers .................................. 236 Hopi Basket Makers .................................... 239 CONCLUSION ............................................. 243 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 249 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 251 Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF TABLES Page Number of Resources on Baskets That Were Found, by Date .............................................. 26 Sizes of the Baskets’ Warp and Weft ........................ 30 Sizes of Basket Warp and Weft Through the Years ............. 33 Comparison of Decorative Elements on Baskets Through the Years ............................................. 33 Comparison of Basket Features of Lidded Sweet Grass and Ash Baskets Through the Years ........ ' ................ 34 Sizes of Warp and Weft of the Baskets ...................... 37 Comparison Of Basket Features Through the Years ............ 38 Number of Decorative Bands on Baskets .................... 50 Number of Colors in the Decorative Bands ................... 54 Colors Used in the Decorative Bands on Baskets .............. 55 Number Of Decorative Bands Used on Baskets ................ 57 Number Of Decorative Colors Used on Baskets ............... 60 Number of Baskets Using Various Colors .................... 62 Number Of Decorative Bands on Baskets .................... 65 Number of Colors Used on a Basket ........................ 66 Colors Used in the Pattern and Decorative Bands ............. 67 vi 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Number of Colors Used in the Decorative Designs ............. 71 Number of Baskets Using a Specific Color in the Decorative Design ...................................... 73 Number of Colors Used in the Decorative Designs ............. 74 Number Of Baskets Using a Specific Color in the Decorative Design ...................................... 75 Number of Colors Used on Coil Plaques ..................... 81 Number of Baskets Using a Specific Color in the Decorative Design ...................... ‘ ................ 82 Number of Colors Used in the Decorative Designs ............. 83 Number of Baskets Using a Specific Color in the Decorative Designs ..................................... 84 Number of Baskets Using a Specific Color—Coil and Wicker Plaques Combined ................................ 89 Number Of Colors Used in Decorative Designs-Coil and \Mcker Plaques Combined ................................ 90 Number of Baskets Using a Specific Color in the Decorative Designs—Coil and Wicker Baskets Combined ........ 93 Number Of Colors Used on Baskets--Coil and Wicker Baskets Combined ...................................... 94 vii '1 'h (.n pl. Figure 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 6a. 6b. 9a. 9b. LIST OF FIGURES Page Globe-Shaped Basket With Lid Made Of Plaited Black Ash Splints ............................................ 31 1880 Plaited Basket With Sweet Grass Braid Decorative Trim at Base and on Lid .................................. 35 Oval-Shaped Covered Basket Made From Plaited Black Ash Splints and Sweet Grass ............................. 36 Detail of Twisted Sweet Grass Usedias Weft and as Decorative Trim ........................................ 36 Plaited Splint Basket With Carved Bow Handles ............... 39 Utility or "Market" Basket Made From Plaited Black Ash Splints ............................................ 39 Examples of Tourist Items ................................ 41 A Yarn or String Holder, Hinged and Clasped in the Center, Made for Tourists ................................ 42 ”Flower Basket" Made From Black Ash Splints and Twisted Sweet Grass .................................... 42 A ”Porky Pine" Basket Woven in 1978 by Edith Bondie for Show in the Traveling Exhibit "Contemporary Native American Art.” .................................... 43 Detail of Edith Bondie’s "Porky Pine" Basket .................. 44 Ojibwa Lidded Baskets Show the "Curl" Decoration ............ 45 Two Examples of Base Warps ............................. 45 viii 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20a. 20b. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Ojibwa Letter Holders or ”Comb Holders," Another Example of Baskets Made for Tourists or the Commercial Market Rather Than for the Ojibwa Home .......................... 46 Berry Basket-A Basket Used to Gather Berries ............... 48 Twined Basket ......................... ‘ ................ 49 Women’s Work Basket With a Rattle Top .................... 52 Deep Tub ............................................. 53 Berry Tub ............................................. 58 Detail of Natural Light and Dark Cedar Bark, Showing the Checker Pattern, Plait Weave .......................... 59 Household Basket Exemplifying Diagonal Plaiting, Made From Inner Cedar Bark .................................. 61 A Two-Strand Twined Basket Made From Spruce Root and Maidenhair Fern for the Design ............................ 64 Lidded Basket ......................................... 68 An Example Showing Open and Closed Weave by the Yakutat Tlingets .............................................. 70 A Small Basket Made for the Tourist Trade ................... 70 A Very Tightly Woven Wicker Bowl ......................... 72 An Example of Wicker Work Showing Thin, Tight Weave Of the 19303 and After ................................... 79 Detail of Coil Plaque With Beading Added to the Coils as Decoration .......................................... 87 Examples Of 1900 Kachina Designs ........................ 96 Examples of 1911 and 1925 Kachina Designs ................ 97 Examples of1968, 1969, and 1970 Kachina Designs ........... 98 27a. 27b. 28a. 28b. 293. 29b. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 403. 40b. 41. A Wicker Plaque Having a "Whirlwind" Design ............... 100 A ”Whirlwind” Design Using Five Colors .................... 100 Hopi Coil Plaques with Varying Thicknesses Of Coils .......... 101 Hopi Coil Baskets With Varying Thicknesses of Coils .......... 101 An Example of a Ribbed Basket Made for Tourists ............ 148 An Ojibwa Globe-Shaped Basket With Lid, Made From Black Ash Splint; Natural Dyes Used for Weft Color ........... 148 A Large Hamper or Storage Basket With Lid and Handle, Made From Black Ash Splints and Plaited Into a Sturdy But Light-Weight Basket ................................ 149 PlaitinguHerringbone Pattern ............................ 151 A Utility or "Market" Basket Plaited With Black Ash Splints ............................... ~ ............... 152 A Round Utility Basket With a Carved Wooden Handle ......... 153 An Example Of a Swing Handle, Black Ash Splints ............ 154 Oblong, Slotted Ceremonial Basket With Plaited Splints ........ 156 A Round, Covered Plaited Basket Made With Black Ash Splints .............................................. 157 PlaitinguNatural Fibers Form the Pattern ................... 180 Tlinget “Wallet" Made of Natural Cedar Bark ................. 182 Twining With Two Wefts ................................. 184 Open Weave ......................................... 185 Small, Double Basket Used to Holt Shot, Face Salve, or Fish Hooks ......................................... 185 A Water-Tight Drinking Cup Used by the Shaman ............. 186 42. 43a. 43b. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52a. 52b. 53. 54a. 54b. 55a. 55b. A Twine Woven Berry Basket ............................ 187 Cross Twine Weavequen Work ......................... 189 Open Twining-Spaces Are Left Between the Weft ............ 189 An Open, Cross Twined Basket Used to Collect Seaweed or Shellfish ........................................... 190 A Twined Spoon Basket With Two Open Diagonal Twined Areas ............................................... 191 Lidded Basket ........................................ 193 Coiling-Yucca Strips Wrap a Bundle Foundation ............. 211 An Example of a Hopi Burden Basket ...................... 214 Wicker-Colored Weft Forms the Pattern ................... 215 Hopi Piki Tray ......................................... 218 A Hopi Basket Plaited on the Diagonal, Made of Yucca With a Coiled Finished Rim .............................. 220 Hopi Plaited Sifter With Bleached and Unbleached Yucca Strips in a Diamond Pattern ........................ 222 HOpi Oblong Sifter Made From Dyed and Natural Yucca Strips ............................................... 222 Detail of Plaiting Weave on Trays and Sifters ................ 223 Butterfly Design in Wicker .......... . .................... 225 Butterfly Design in Wicker ............................... 225 Child’s Basket ........................................ 238 First Weaving—A Child’s Attempt at Basket Weaving .......... 238 xi DEFINITION OF TERMS Wm Band-A horizontal area in which designs are placed. Basket-A textile container or vessel. Basketry—The art or process of making a basket; a collection of finished products. Beading—A piece or strip of material run in and out through the spaces or among the stitches in a basket. Designs-Figures. shapes, or geometric decoration on the baskets. EmbLQidfity—Ornamentation added after the basket is finished. WuWrapping twined strands with colored material while basket is being woven; used in Tlinget basketry. fiber-«A flexible material from which baskets are made. Eomu-A strip or band added to bottom of basket to raise it up from the surface. tlfltiflgmnfinDesign in which chevron patterns are in parallel series. Elm—The top edge of a basket. Sewing-Joining parts together with fibers; coiled baskets are sewn, not woven . Sakai-A basket decoration consisting of whorls. 2 Splint—A long strip of material, usually wood. SymeI—The culturally accepted name given to the design on a basket; in some cases, the design has a cultural meaning. Weft—Also called woof; the filling-in of the basket frame. mam-Plain or twined weft is wrapped with decorative materials. WW CheckemQLk—Warp and weft having the same width and thickness; a form of plaiting. Coil—Bundles of pliable materials known as rods are sewn together with stitches that go over and under the rods. The start of the basket is a spiral. W: Single rod Three rods stacked Two rods Bundle of split elements flattened Bundle of split elements round Two rods and bundles Five rods stacked Rod surrounded with bundles Elaiting--Warp and weft are the same size for over, under, over weave. Patterns are made by varying the number of warps the weft goes over; these include checkervvork, herringbone, and twill. 3 Mining—Two weft strands are twisted over one another; then one strand passes in back of the warp and one strand passes in front of the warp. WigkemorknFlexible weft woven through an inflexible warp. B I I I I I . ' GI . [Dal B_|a_ck_ash—-Strips peeled from log after soaking. Bimbbatls—Used in decoration or as weft; strips of the bark were peeled from the branches. Monk-Usually used as carved handles. Wes—The grass was braided Or twisted and then used as the weft or as decoration. flhiteblmth soft wood; splints were pliable and used as weft. Willow-The young branches or “ships" were often used as the warp in twined baskets. Elm-Splints used as the warp. Ilinget WM—The Split stems were used as the white material in overlay patterns when other grasses were not available; only used for coarse work. WWW-Jhe split stems were used as overlay for white patterns. 4 Bmmegrassiflmmussjtchensisl-Split stems were used as white overlay in patterns. Cedar—Bark was stripped from the tree and used for plaited baskets after soaking and becoming pliant. WWW—Strips were split from rootstock and used as overlay on cedar root baskets; rich, very dark purple. MaidenhaiLtemJAdiantumpedatumI-Stems were split and used as ornamentation; a shiny black strip. WWW-Strips were split from internodes of grass and used as overlays; either white or dyed. WWW-1m root was boiled and split for coarse burden baskets. Samuel—Generally used in twined baskets; very thin strips were used as the weft. H001 Wow-Used in the bundles for coiled baskets. WEED-Stems were used as rods; leaves were used as bundles in coiled baskets. Babbitbusbtflbmsotbammgravelolensl—Twigs were used to form the weft in wicker baskets. 5 mama—The peeled branches were used as warp; for a weft and sewing materials. the branch was split, and the bark, pith, and brittle tissue were removed. The remaining pliable strip was used. nguman—Used in wickerware baskets. WWW—Used as is or split for warp. Yucca-After the bark was removed from the back of the leaf, it was used as sewing material for coiled baskets; larger leaves were used for plaited baskets. INTRODUCTION There are many books and studies about Native American baskets and basketry. The majority of them are concerned with describing the appearance and techniques of making baskets. Very few deal with the changes in baskets over the years. This study centers on Changes in Tlinget, Chippewa/Ojibwa, and Hopi baskets as related to the history and anthropology of the societies. Although this is not an in-depth historical study or an extensive anthropological study, it does look at the relationship between events and Changes in the cultures as indicated by basketry Changes. Basket elements examined are the methods or techniques, materials, decoration, and weavers. The cultural indicators examined are economics, politics, labor division, belief system, and social organization. A field survey was made of the collections of four museums: the Heard Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, the Arizona State Museum, and the Jesse Besser Museum. After ascertaining the dates of a collection, the baskets were studied in Chronological order to observe physical differences. Photographs were taken to record the baskets that are included in the study. Readings of the archival and collection data were made to gain information concerning materials, design significance, origins, and date of collection or 7 manufacture when available. From this compiled information, assumptions were made concerning the changes in the baskets over time. A second study was made of historic information centering on the dates of collection or manufacture of the baskets. Readings of anthropological studies and papers dealing with the changes in the societies due to these historic events were also made. From information gleaned from the readings and the field study, an assumption was made that the basketry of the Tlinget, Chippewa/Ojibwa, and Hopi did Change. These Changes were due to economic, political, and social alterations within those societies, as well as environmental changes surrounding the societies. PURPOSES OF THE STUDY The purposes ofthe study were (a) to ascertain whether Hopi, Tlinget, and Ojibwa baskets changed over the years; (b) to discover what historical events affected basket making, (0) to relate economic, social, and behavioral changes in the societies to their basket making; (d) to discover the relationship between the environment and basket making; (e) to determine the role of the basket maker and how that Changed; and (f) to examine the function of baskets in those societies over the years. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY A survey of pertinent literature showed that few studies have been conducted that ascertained whether baskets of the Hopi, Tlinget, and Chippewa/ Ojibwa changed due to contact with Europeans and Anglo-Americans over the years. Very little has been done in looking at baskets of those societies in a chronological sequence. Conversely, there is a wealth of information of a descriptive nature concerning baskets, as well as a great deal of literature concerning how to make baskets. Minimum information can be found dealing with the function of baskets within the societies. Little is known about basket makers as artisans. It is hard to find information on basket weavers in these societies, and it is generally impossible to locate information about specific basket makers. This is because many Native American cultures shun notoriety, as well as the fact that early anthropologists, historians, and collectors did not record information of this nature in their studies. Museum exhibits of basketry offer scant information concerning the history of baskets or a chronological progression of basket making or usage. The exhibits generally contain only an identification of the baskets, with little or no information concerning materials, technique, date of manufacture, or function of the basket. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM To ascertain whether Hopi, Ojibwa, and Tlinget baskets are a static or a Changing art form, the writer posed the following questions/issues to be examined: 1. Have baskets physically changed? a. Have the techniques in making baskets changed? b. Did the appearance Change through changes in size of materials used to weave baskets? c. Did the decoration on the baskets Change? (1. Did the materials remain the same in making and decorating the baskets? 2. If there was a change in the baskets, what are the causes? a. What is the relationship between the making of baskets and historical events? b. What is the relationship between the environment and availability of materials? c. What influences were exerted on basket making by European and Anglo-American contact? d. What influence have economic Shifts in Hopi, Tlinget, and Chippewa/Ojibwa societies had on basket making? 10 11 e. What is the relationship between behavioral and social changes and basket making? 3. How does the role of the basket maker affect making baskets? a. What roles do the basket makers assume? b. Do those roles change over time? PROCEDURE The first step in researching the question of how baskets change over the years was to investigate existing literature on Indian basketry, as well as historical and anthropological data. The readings on basketry were made to learn about construction methods, materials used, design significance, and use of the baskets within the Native American cultures. Histories of the Hopi, Chippewa/Ojibwa, and Tlinget were read to understand the events that Changed their lives and resulting lifestyles. To understand political, social, economic, and behavioral organization and institutions, readings in anthropology were done. A field study of basket collections was conducted at four museums: the Heard Museum, the Arizona State Museum at the University of Arizona, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Jesse Besser Museum. An investigation of the actual baskets, as well as archival and collection information, was included in the research. Photographs of the baskets were made for further study. The first step in the basket investigation was to collect the data on the targeted groups of baskets, the Tlinget, the Chippewa/Ojibwa, and the Hopi. The next step was to ascertain the dates of the baskets. Many of the baskets had no manufacture dates, so the collection dates were used to best determine the time period in which the baskets were manufactured. Information about the materials, 12 13 construction methods, color, designs or ornamentation, and use were recorded, as were any other comments given on the records and data files. The third step was to select specific baskets to observe. This was based on motif and construction methods. After gathering the baskets into one area, they were displayed chronologically within each specific category. The baskets were examined, and comparisons were made of the construction, designs or ornamentation, colors, materials, and motifs. Results of the comparisons were recorded, both similarities and differences. After a chronological look, individual baskets were studied and photographed. After examining the data from the observations, assumptions were made as to the changes in the baskets over time. These assumptions were examined in reference to the historical events and the Changes within the societies to determine whether there were any correlations. Conclusions were then made as to the relationship between the changes in the baskets and the changes in the cultures investigated. LIMITATIONS This study was limited to baskets made by the Chippewa/Ojibwa, Hopi, and Tlinget Indians, as viewed in the collections of the Heard Museum in Phoenix, Arizona; the Arizona State Museum at the University of Arizona, Tucson; the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois; and the Jesse Besser Museum in Alpena, Michigan. Only baskets that had collection or manufacture dates were included. Other baskets made by people of these societies in the collections were looked. at for material and construction information of a general nature, but they were not included in the actual statistics and were not considered in resolving the research questions. The study was limited not only by dated baskets, but also by the styles or types of baskets. Basket styles and motifs that were found over a long period of years were studied. For the Chippewa/Ojibwa, study baskets that were of a global shape, of rectangular style, had a mixture of sweet grass and strips, and lidded baskets were examined. Plaques of both coil and wicker weave having the motifs of an eagle, flowers, kachinas, butterflies, and geometric designs made by the Hopi, as well as Hopi coiled and wicker containers and plaited traysl Sifters, were included. Cylinder, lidded, and unlidded baskets of both open weave and Closed weave made by the Tlinget were investigated. All other styles and types were excluded. 14 15 This study does not include extensive information concerning the manufacture of baskets. Technology is included as a reference and element of possible changes in basketry. ln-depth descriptions of methods and technology, as well as materials, are not included. Descriptive information is given only when it is related to the issues under investigation. An investigation of historical events and changes both within the three cultures and in the surrounding geographical areas relating to the dates of the baskets was made. Political, social, and economic changes within the societies were examined. Political events and rulings by the United States relating to the three societies were reviewed. Social attitudes toward the Native Americans also were studied. This investigation was intended to study only the historical significance of the treatment of the Native Americans by the French, British, Russians, and Americans as it relates to the dates of the baskets and to any changes in the basketry. It is not an in—depth historical or anthropological study of any events, changes, attitudes, or resultant problems not related to basket manufacture or use. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Many books have been written about Native American basketry, and numerous studies pertaining to the subject have been conducted. The majority of these have dealt with the construction or manufacture of baskets and the materials used. Very few have discussed the uses made of the baskets, the artists who made the baskets, or the changes in basketry over time. Almost no works have presented baskets as an indicator of Change within the society. The most common types of books dealing with baskets are the "coffee table" books, those that have many beautiful pictures of baskets but very little information and text. The second common source is a basketry Chapter or section that is included in books about Native American art or in books about Native American lifestyles. Although the subject has been studied, it is not one that has warranted a great deal of attention. Only in recent years has an interest in basketry been revived and writings have begun to appear, especially about the baskets of the Southwest, discussing many aspects of the subject. Two of the most in—depth studies in Native American basketry have been done by Otis Tufton Mason. These studies, conducted in 1902 and 1904, are the most extensive and inclusive ones to date. The first study, AbofigmaLAmeflcaandianflaslgetry, was written as part of an annual report of the Smithsonian Institution and is of a very 16 17 high quality. The first part of the report discusses the types of basketry, methods of construction, and materials from which the baskets are made. The illustrations of basket construction and various weaves are excellent line drawings. The 46 color plates of the Smithsonian's collection were originally printed from stone engravings, a costly method of printing; these lend authenticity and importance to the work. Great care has been taken to show a variety of baskets from each of the cultures discussed. Mason was thorough in his research about harvesting and preparing materials and the actual construction or methods of making the baskets. In his reporting of the ornamentation and the symbolism of the designs, Mason laid the foundation for later studies in this area. He made extensive use of information from Boas’s studies of the Northwest Indians to gain an understanding of their symbolistic vocabulary, as well as works by Lieutenant Emmons and Dr. J. B. White, who undertook collection and study trips to the Northwest for the government. For information on the Southwest baskets, he referred to studies made by Dr. J. Walters Fewkes for Hopi interpretations. Throughout this report, Mason gleaned information from a variety of sources and presented it in a condensed, informative way. He related the symbols to the mythology and belief systems of the cultures, and gave background information on why the symbols may have been used. He was careful to keep reminding the reader that only the artists could identify the true meaning of the designs, and that he was giving only an interpretation. In his definition of a symbol, he made 18 this comment: "Care must be exercised in the use of this word. Only the maker of the design knows the symbol or meaning" (p. 196). The majority of the study was devoted to uses of the baskets and ethnic varieties of basketry. Mason discussed the uses of baskets in defense and war, dress and ornaments, fine arts and culture, preparing and serving food, gleaning and milling, in mortuary customs, as a receptacle, in religion, in social and economic life, and in relation to the potter’s art. In doing so, he looked at the everyday life ofthe Native Americans and showed the relationship between their basketry and how they lived. He saw the baskets as being important on different levels. One level was a functional one, with a multitude of uses in almost every aspect Of the society. A second level was one of cultivating intelligence: “Certainly they [baskets] have done as much as any other industry to develop the intellectual life of savage women, both a knowledge of resources of nature and a taste for aesthetic products" (p. 335). A third level was one of status: "The wealth of a family was counted in the number and beauty of its baskets and the highest virtue of woman was her ability to produce them" (p. 335). Using these levels of importance, Mason went on to describe in depth the many uses of the baskets within the six geographic areas of his study. Although these three examples show more about Victorian attitudes about Indians and women than they actually do about baskets, that was the genre of anthropology at that time. From the uses of the baskets, Mason then targeted the six areas, Eastern North America, Alaska and the North Pacific, the Fraser-Columbia region, the 19 California-Oregon region, the Interior Basin region, and Middle and South America, to make a closer examination of basketry. Throughout this section of the text are illustrations and photographs depicting basket makers, styles and weaves of baskets, specific designs and symbols, plant identification, and baskets in use. Also scattered throughout the text are bibliographies, lists of collections, and references for further study. Although this is an excellent study of baskets and their functions, it is typical of the research and prejudice of the day. It is in an easy narrative format, with few or no statistics and tables included. Mason did an excellent job of placing the baskets in the societies and gave the reader a sound base for understanding the importance of basketry in Native American cultures before the introduction of European goods. Yet the study conveys the prejudices of the era. Mason’s references to "Aboriginal American" in the title, to “savage women" (p. 335) and “savage tribes," and other similar references are scattered throughout his writings. Although this could be considered a drawback to the work, it does not detract enough to make the research invalid. To date, there has not been a study as comprehensive and rich in information about the function of baskets as this one. The second book by Mason, WW. includes a great deal of information contained in the Smithsonian report. This book was originally published in two volumes by Doubleday in 1904; it was reprinted as one volume by Dover in 1988. No color prints of baskets are included; few illustrations or line 2O drawings are given of the construction methods. Black-and-white photographs of collections from the Smithsonian and private collections are incorporated. More information is given about the ethnic varieties of baskets. In this volume as in the first, Mason made extensive use of material gathered by other researchers and conveyed it in an integrated manner that is easily understood within his research. The easy narrative inclusion of the other researchers’ materials makes the text interesting as well as informative without causing the reader to labor at reading scholarly works. Mason was not hesitant about giving credit to others’ works and inserting them into his writings. In both books, Mason - gave an excellent format for later researchers to follow. The format is systematic, methodical, and logical to follow in reporting on basketry. In the 19803, several quality books about basketry were printed. The books all have high-quality photographs of the baskets, with text that includes some history and functional information. The baskets of the Southwest have been well documented by two renowned basket scholars, Clara Lee Tanner and Andrew Hunter Whiteford, in their books WW (1983) and WWW (1988). respectively. In Whiteford’s (1988) book, one finds a short but comprehensive history of basket making in the Southwest. He not only discusses techniques and designs but also focuses on the people and their involvement with baskets. He is able to describe how baskets met people’s particular needs at different times. 21 "Historical and gathering peoples such as the Paiutes . . . used baskets for transporting loads on their backs, cooking, parching seeds" (p. 6). He talked of the needs of earlier people and recognized that today, "Many Hopi baskets are used in ceremonies, but most of them are made for sale" (p. 12). Unlike other books on basketry, Whiteford looked at the current status of basket making in the Southwest as an art form and speculated on the future of the art and artisans. Although this study was not as in—depth or extensive as the ones by Mason, it does take a specific look at each tribe’s history in terms of basket making and how the methods or techniques evolved through the years. The study is written in much the same format as the Mason ones. a readable narrative with excellent illustrations and photographs scattered throughout the text. Clara Lee Tanner’s work, W W, is the result of 20 years of studying basketry in the Southwest. This work centers more on the designs, symbolism, and techniques than Whiteford’s and less on the histories and evolution of the baskets. Tanner also touched on the aesthetics of the art. "The aesthetics vary from tribe to tribe . . . within the cultural history. . . . Sometimes the whim of the moment may become a fashion. . . . Spatial and temporal considerations also influence the aesthetics. . . . Aesthetics are also dependent on the immediate environment" (pp. 2-3). Her comprehensive section on design analysis is similar to the design analysis of pottery studies by Margaret Harin Friedrich. The analysis includes design elements such as variations of the line, dot, rectangle, circle, diamond step, and 22 fret, while explaining the characteristics of designs, rectilinear and curvilinear, overall design, random design, and banded designs. This is in addition to discussing the designs themselves and their meaning, as well as the methods ortechniques of making the design elements. From thisthorough discussion she highlighted individual cultures within the Southwest and gave a brief history and look at their baskets. Basket function is mentioned, but not as a main component of the study. The emphasis is more on the finished basket and differentiating the types of basks, such as a plaque, deep container, bowl, and so forth. As with other contemporary basket books, the illustrations and photographs are of the highest quality and are well placed in relation to text information. Both Tanner’s and Whiteford’s books provide excellent overviews of Southwest basketry and give a solid introduction into that area of baskets. In addition to these two books are two museum publications, Imdiflonsjn .1 ”or— 01:11.00 {I 3.. ‘ '21.. 1‘ o- W oer (Mauldin, 1984) and WW (Breunig, 1982). The first publication was written by Barbara Mauldin in connection with an exhibition and catalog of contemporary baskets for the Museum of New Mexico. A very brief description of materials and methods is used as an introduction to the main text of interviews with contemporary basket makers in the Southwest. The page format includes a photograph of the weaver, a brief quotation about their weaving, and a photograph with data of one of their baskets. This is not an 23 extensive study, but it is one of very few that has recorded information about actual basket makers. For future research it is invaluable. The second museum publication, WW Southwest (Breunig, 1982), published by the Museum of Northern Arizona, is a collection of essays by four basket researchers. The essays touch on function and symbolism of Hopi basketry, the hundred years of work by the Havasupai, Apache basketry, and wicker, plaiting. and coiling techniques. As in the above books, these two museum publications have superior photographs and readable texts. A small paperback book published by the Jesse Besser Museum gives information on the Chippewa baskets. Black-and-white photographs of medium quality have text next to them, giving information about size, materials, construction methods, and origin. A very brief introduction about basket making is included, as is a general description of construction methods. The booklet was published in connection with an exhibit of the museum’s basket collection. A recent book published in 1990. WWW. edited by Frank W. Porter, is a collection of essays concerning basketry. Several essays deal with change, aesthetics, and style. The essays are concise and shed new thinking in terms of writing about baskets. They are not the lengthy, descriptive tomes usually found in basket books. but relate more to the people who made the baskets and the events surrounding the basket makers. It is an exciting, refreshing collection of readings concerning baskets. 24 Basket information is also included in many books on the arts of the Southwest. The Bureau of Indian Affairs published many pamphlets on Native Americans. One titled W5 by Ruth Underhill (1979) includes a section on Hopi basketry. Even though the section is only six pages long, it has a great deal of information about the materials used for dye colors and methods of making the baskets. It does not delve into function or history of baskets. A very small reference to basketry is made in a slick publication aimed at tourists: W by Mark Bahti. An essay by Jerold L. Collings (1987), "Basketry From Foundations Past," is included in the beautifully published MW. The essay is focused more on the ancient forms of baskets and basket makers rather than on contemporary work. It gives a good account Ofthe history of basket making and relates the baskets to the lifestyle of the makers. It does not touch on how baskets were made or the methods or techniques, other than naming them. Another book published in the 19803 is 10913138385913 by Sarah Peabody Tumbaugh and William A. Turnbaugh. The aim of this book is to serve as a guide to the diversity of Native North American basketry. The authors documented the rich traditions of many tribes, even the lesser-known basket makers, and systematically organized the many regional. cultural, and tribal basketry styles. Information is presented in a holistic manner that not only includes methods of construction but also integrates the manufacture with ecological and anthropological data. The illustrations and Charts are well 25 organized and give an organization to the abundance of material that is unique to basket books. As a reference for Native North American baskets, this is an excellent book. One of the "coffee table" variety of books on baskets is Indiarlflaslsejsm W by Allan Lobb (1990). The photographs of the baskets are excellent and very artistically composed, but the text is not scholarly. The information is of a basic nature and does not go into depth about the historic, construction, or materials aspects of basketry. Brief mention is made of the function of individual baskets that have been photographed, and a brief explanation is given of the groups who produced the baskets. This is a nice book to own, but as an academic reference it is rather light. Many articles, essays, and studies that have been made concerning baskets can be found in museum publications, magazines about Native Americans, collectors’ magazines, anthropological studies, and arts magazines and pamphlets. Most of these deal with construction methods or historical information about basketry; very few deal with the changes in baskets over time or relate baskets to the changes in ilfestyles of the Native Americans. The ‘ articles found in current anthropological studies are generally of a statistical nature, charts of data about design, construction methods, and materials. Information found in earlier studies is more narrative and explanatory rather than statistically based. Many of the earlier resources were written by museum curators/collectors. 26 A survey was made of basket resources. Of the 227 examples found, the majority were papers or essays rather than books. Table 1 indicates the years and number of resources published in those time spans. One can Chart the interest in Native American societies by the number of references published. Table 1 is only a sampling of references and is not all inclusive. Table 1: Number of resources on baskets that were found, by date. II 1806 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 ll ll 1 4 4 15 10 6 33 15 9 18 65 22 ll Readings that were made in history basically covered events and had a political slant to them. Very few delved into the actual life of the Native Americans, but rather centered on the policies generated toward Native Americans or simply recorded events. The essays gathered in the Hendbeolgoj NonbAmericamlndians are brief accounts of history in terms of dates, events, and policy. They do not tell much about the lifestyle of the Native American except as background information for what happened on specific dates. For a quick summary or introduction to the societies, these essays are very good. But they do not contain much substance concerning cause and effect. Two books that discuss the treatment of Native Americans, We Ameficaandian by Janet McDonnell (1991) and We Imenflethfienm by Olson and Wilson (1984), both deal with the history of 27 Native Americans but have a strong political nature to them. Most of the examples and references are policy based-how and what policies were foisted on the Native Americans by the government. Neither one deals with the events from a humanistic point of view; they are just dry accounts of what happened. Although written in 1991 and 1984, respectively, they do not relate to the Indian as a human being, but only as the receiver of policy. The actual people get lost in the reciting of incidents. Older writings of history were often the results of journals kept while on expedition. These dwell more on the people than current histories, but they still gloss over what it was really like to live as a Native American. Ibellinget Indians by Krause (1956) and W by Warren (1984) are good examples of this. Both discuss what they encountered when they visited or lived with the societies. But in recording what they saw, it was the events that interested them. They told about going fishing or hunting, but they did not relate how the Tlingets or the Ojibwa fished or hunted or what they used. Warren tells that the Ojibwa grew crops, yet does not tell what they used to till the soil, to hold the seeds, or to harvest the crops. Discussions about the material culture or material history do not enter into the writings. Material history is given little space in most of the readings, and the arts and crafts receive even less. Perhaps a paragraph or two or a scant Chapter will simply name the arts or products, but there is no discussion of them. Most mentions of implements or craft items are 28 made in passing while discussing the division of labor or the industry and economics of the societies, rather than a discussion unto themselves. The same can be said of anthropological writings. The emphasis is on the activity rather than on the results or product of that activity. Very seldom is the function of the product related to behavior. Earlier writings were of a narrative and descriptive nature, relating how the Native Americans lived. Very little writing deals with the material culture. In the work WW AmeJbiNQllhfimQfihfla (Dunning, 1959), a great deal of information is given about how the economy and division of labor changed throughout the years, but very little is provided about the implements and materials needed to generate the economy. The same is true of IlingetJndianmAlaska (Kamenskii, 1906). a work that deals with the lifestyle of the Tlingets, written by Russian Orthodox missionaries. To gain insight into the material culture and have an understanding of basketry within Native American societies—its function, waxing and waning of production, and physical changes in baskets’ attributes—one has to glean information from art books, histories, anthropologies, and technical works. No one source of information exists at this time. CHANGES IN BASKETRY Over a period of time, changes took place in Hopi, Tlinget, and Ojibwa basketry. Many of these Changes came about due to economic and social Changes in the cultures, as well as ecological changes in their areas. If one accepts the argument that material culture is an indicator of social and economic behaviors, then the changes in those two factors influenced the material cultures of these three Native American societies. Because baskets are directly related to the environment, the materials to make baskets coming from available vegetation, then any Change in that environment that reduces or changes the vegetation would directly affect the materials from which baskets are made. The study of basket change can be approached in two ways. One can studythe cultures in terms of social and economic behaviors, outside influences, and environmental conditions, and then look at the baskets to note the Change. The research approach also can be taken. One can study the baskets, not the changes, and then relate those Changes to the events and social and economic behaviors. as well as environmental studies. In either approach one can see the correlations between the basket changes and the changes within the societies that made the baskets. Conclusions can be drawn about those relationships, and a better understanding not only of the baskets but also of the cultures can 29 30 result. The writer notes appearance and changes in the basketry of the three Native American societies in the following text. CI . cal B I l [I E II 1 W5 A comparison of three global lidded baskets dated 1895, 1900, and 1910 indicated that all three had added splints to the rim for support. They all had braids of sweet grass at the rim, overlashing the rim to hold it in place. All three had curls on the lid for decoration (Figure 1). There is not much difference in these baskets; all are very similar (see Table 2). Table 2: Sizes (in inches) of the baskets’ warp and weft (Ojibwa global lidded baskets with ash warp splints, Jesse Besser Museum). Year Body Warp 3:333]: Additions Lid Warp Lid Weft 1880 1/2 1 0 1/8 1/16 1895 1/2-1/8 T 3/4 886 1/2-1/16 T BSG 1900 1/2-1/4 S 1/8 BSG 1/2-1/8 T 1/8 + B86 1920 1/2 1/16 BSG 1/2 1-1/2+BSG 1920 1/2 1/16 BSG 1/2-1/16 T 1-1/2+BSG N = 5 0 = NO’ additions T = trimmed S = split 886 = braided sweet grass Nate: Table 2 indicates the size of the body and lid warp and weft plus the addition of braided sweet grass as part of the weft. The body warp stays the same size through the years, but the weft gets smaller through the years. The Oldest basket has a body weft of 1", whereas the 1920 basket has a body weft of 1/16". In contrast to this, the lid wefts get larger in later baskets. The 1880 basket lid has a weft of 1/16", and the 1920 lid has a weft of 1-1/2". 31 Figure 1. Globe-shaped basket with lid made of plaited black ash splints. Both the lid and basket have large decorative curls. Ca. 1895 (Jesse Besser Museum). 32 Five cylindrical shaped, lidded baskets with curl trim decoration on the lids were compared. The baskets date 1910, 1910, 1915, 1920, and 1970. All have a decorative loop handle on the lid and curls on the lid for decoration. All have two rows of large splint decoration on the body, with one row of curled splint in a single curl decoration. All of the decoration is in the middle of the body on each basket except 1970; the decoration is more toward the top of the basket. All but one of the 1910 baskets are dyed a color or have colored splints added; 1910- small warp is dyed green; 1915-all warp is dyed; 1920-all but the sweet grass braid is dyed green; 1970—warp is dyed orange. Baskets 1910 and 1970 have side loop handles. The 1915 and 1970 baskets have a centered decorative curlicue trim on the lid. The 1920 basket has added lid decoration of braided sweet grass alternating with ash splint weft; it also has a hinged lid. The larger 1910 basket has only four rows Of lid weft; all others are wefted the entire lid. There are no major differences in style of the baskets, only in the size of the materials. The materials of the weft and warp become thinner and narrower in later baskets (see Tables 3 and 4). LiddedeweerCrassandAarLBasIsers The five baskets compared date 1880, 1895, 1900, 1920, and 1920. The sides of all of the lids fit down over the top rims of the baskets. All have a stabilizing strip on the body rim, with an overlash stitch to hold it in place. The 1880 and 1920 baskets have an ash strip on the lid rim with an overlash stitch; 33 Table 3: Sizes (in inches) of basket warp and weft through the years (Ojibwa Cylindrical lidded baskets, Jesse Besser Museum). Year Base Warp Weft Lid Warp 1910 1 1/8 5/8 NS 1910 3/4 1/8 1/2-1/4 S 1915 3/4 1/8 3/8 NS 1920 3/4 1/8 3/4-1/8 T 1970 3/4 1/8 3/8 S N = 5 NS = not split S = split T = trimmed Nete: According to Table 3, one of the baskets collected in 1910 has a larger base warp and lid warp than the rest in this series. It has a base warp of 1" and a lid warp of 5/8", compared to the other baskets with a base warp of 3/4" and various smaller lid warps. Table 4: Comparison of decorative elements on baskets through the years (Ojibwa cylindrical lidded baskets, Jesse Besser Museum). Year Loop Handle Lid Curls Curl Decoration Side Loop Dyed Dyed on Lid Decoration on Body Handles Splints Warp 1910 ‘ X X X X 0 x 1910 X X X 0 X X 1915 X X X 0 X X 1920 O ' O O O x x 1970 X X X X X X N = 5 X = yes 0 = no Nete: Five baskets have loop handles on the lid. Five baskets have curls as decoration on the lid. Five baskets have curl decorations on the body or sides of the basket. Two baskets have loop handles on the sides. Four baskets have dyed splints. Five baskets have dyed warp. 34 the rest have bundles of sweet grass and a strip of ash at the rim, fastened with an overlash stitch (see Table 5). The 1880 basket has braided sweet grass decorative trim on the lid and side of the basket toward the lower portion (Figure 2). It has no lid handle. The 1895 basket and both of the 1920 baskets have a braided sweet grass lid handle with double loops at the ends (Figures 3a and 3b). The 1900 basket has a crocheted lid handle backed with cloth. The 1895 and 1900 baskets have green warps. Both of the 1902 baskets have multicol- ored warps, and the 1880 basket is all natural, with no added color. All have natural colored sweet grass braid. All are very similar in tight braid weave, and there is not much differences in shapes or manufacture. The main difference is in the row patterns of braid alternating with the ash splint weft. Table 5: Comparison of basket features of lidded sweet grass and ash baskets through the years (Ojibwa baskets with fitted lids, Jesse Besser Museum). Year Fitted Lids Rim Stabilizing l Sweet Grass Lid Natural DYGd Ash Splint Added to RIm Handle Sweet Grass Warp 1880 X X o O X 0 1895 X X X X X X 1900 X X X X X X 1920 X x O X X X 1920 X X x X X X N = 5 X = yes 0 = no Nete: Five baskets have fitted lids that fit over the sides. Five baskets have a stabilizing ash splint fastened on the inside Of the rim. Three baskets have a bundle Of sweet grass added between the rim and the splint. Four baskets have a braided lid handle. Five baskets have natural colored sweet grass trim. Four baskets have a dyed warp. 35 Figure 2: 1880 plaited basket with sweet grass braid decorative trim at base and on lid. Sweet grass braid is also used as weft (Jesse Besser Museum). 36 Figure 3a: Oval-shaped covered basket made from plaited black ash splints and sweet grass. A sweet grass handle is attached to the lid with double loops. The warp is multicolored dyed splints, and the weft dyed splints are interspersed with twisted sweet grass. The double rim is overlashed with a very narrow dyed splint. Ca. 1920 (Jesse Besser Museum). Figure 3b: Detail of twisted sweet grass used as weft and as decorative trim. In this case the sweet grass is a handle for the lid of a basket. a 1- .n\w ,arw .a.» a!“ 37 II I I INT! 8 l I W Seven baskets were compared: 1875, 1875, 1885, 1885, 1890, 1900, and 1915. All are very similar in shape and manufacture, with square bases and slightly rounded rectangular tops. The baskets are very sturdy and have a plaited weave. All have an inside and an outside stabilizing splint at the rim with an overlash stitch to hold it in place (see Table 6). Table 6: Sizes (in inches) of warp and weft of the baskets (Ojibwa market] utility rectangle baskets with carved handles, Jesse Besser Museum). 003:3?” Height Body Warp Body Weft pZEZelxthfets Base Weave 1875 9 1 1/4 7 H II 1875 8 1 1/4 6 P I II 1885 5-1/4 3/4 1/4 6 P Il 1885 4-3/4 3/4 1/4 6 P 1890 5-1/4 1/2 1/4 5 H 1900 4-3/4 1/2 1/2-1/8 T 5 H 1.915 = 5-1/4 3/4 1/4 6 P N = 7 T = trimmed H = herringbone weave P = plaited weave Ngte: According to Table 6, the Older baskets have larger warps and more wefts per inch than the newer baskets. The basket collected in 1875 is 9" tall and has a 1" warp and seven wefts per 2", whereas one of the 1900 baskets is only 4-3/4" high with five wefts per 2". The baskets are smaller in the later years. WU A1 ”I ”luv v" if, h pi rhl 38 The 1890 basket has a bundle of sweet grass between the two rim splints; the others are plain (Figure 4a). All have carved wooden handles notched on the inside below the rim to hold them in place. The 1875 and 1915 handles are shaped with a dip in the center; the others are smooth across the top. The differences in the baskets are the width of the warp and weft. The older baskets have larger warp and weft (see Table 7). Table 7: Comparison of basket features through the years (Ojibwa market/ utility rectangle baskets, Jesse Besser Museum). Year Inside, Outside Rim Sweet Grass Carved Dip in Carved Wooden Support Splint Added to Rim Handle Handles 1875 X 0 O X 1875 X 0 X X 1885 X 0 O X 1885 X 0 O X 1890 X 0 O X 1900 X X 0 X 1915 X 0 X X n = 7 X = yes 0 = no ~ Nete: Seven baskets have support splints at the rim. One basket has added sweet grass bundle between the rim splints. Two baskets have dips carved into the tops of the wooden handles. Seven baskets have carved wooden handles. 39 Figure 4a: Plaited splint basket with carved bow handles. It has a heavy, double splint rim for strength. The base is of a checker weave. Ca. 1885 (Jesse Besser Museum). Figure 4b: Utility or "market" basket made from plaited black ash splints. The rim has carved, wooden double splints held in place by overlashing. Ca. 1890 (Jesse Besser Museum). ¢.§.' . 1‘ ‘glw .4“. C. luv:- (n) I Reel R-n u VI»- 40 Other observations include the shapes of the baskets. Those made for utilitarian use have little or no shape Changes. The baskets made for the tourist industry came in a variety of unusual shapes to entice the purchaser or to meet the demands of tourists. Needle cases, vases, yarn holders, and coasters are a few that were made strictly for commercial purposes (Figures 5 and 6). Some of the lidded boxes made for trade or sale were lined with satin rather than being left plain on the inside. Baskets made in the past 20 years have primarily been for exhibit or demonstration. These baskets are of high artistic merit in their construction and utility of materials. The innovative use of traditional decorative elements such as the curl results in 3 basket made more for show than for utility. When compared to the baskets of earlier times, they are much more delicate. Summary Although there are no major changes in the utilitarian shapes or the methods of manufacture, the baskets of later years have weft and warp of a smaller size. This can be seen when early baskets are compared with baskets made in the 19703 and 19803. Decorative curls on the 1978 basket range from 5/8" to 1/8" (Figures 7 and8), whereas the curls on the earlier ones are as large as 1". The decorative curls on lidded baskets also become smaller in later years. A basket in the 1910 collection has decorative curls twice as large as those on a basket of 1985 (Figure 93). 41 Figure 5: Examples of tourist items. These unusual shapes were made for tourists. Yarn holders, coasters, and flower baskets were not part of traditional Ojibwa basketry. Left: A hot-dish coaster, made from coiled sweet grass (Jesse Besser Museum). Right: Needle case made in 1910 for tourists; has a flannel liner to hold the needles. Red dyed weft is used to make decorative bands and to overlash the rim. The wicker technique is used (Jesse Besser Museum). 42 Figure 63: A yarn or string holder, hinged and clasped in the center, made for tourists. It is made from black ash splints with aniline dyed decorative weft. It has sweet grass braided trim and weft. C3. 1900 (Jesse Besser Museum). Figure 6b: "Flower basket" made from black ash splints and twisted sweet grass. It was made for tourists rather than for Ojibwa home use. C3. 1920 (Jesse Besser Museum). Figure 7: 43 A "porky pine“ basket woven in 1978 by Edith Bondie for show in the traveling exhibit "Contemporary Native American Art." It is made from black ash splints. A smaller version is in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution. It is an example of baskets made as an art form rather than utility (Jesse Besser Museum). 44 Figure 8: Detail of Edith Bondie’s "porky pine" basket. The curls measure 1/8" at the base of the smallest curl and 5/8" at the base of the largest curl (Jesse Besser Museum). 45 Figure 93: Ojibwa lidded baskets show the "curl" decoration. The curls on the 1910 (right) basket are twice as large as the curls on the 1985 (left) basket (Jesse Besser Museum). «A? \ \ '< \\T‘\ \ ‘ \\ I . I"... Ill.‘, 3 I. Figure 9b: Two examples of base warps. Both baskets are globe shaped. The basket on the left is dated 1900 and does not have the warp split at the base edge. The basket on the right, made in 1988, has the base warp split as it turns up for the sides. The 1900 warp is 1", and the 1988 warp is 3/4" split to 3/8" (Jesse Besser Museum). 46 Figure 10: Ojibwa letter holders or "comb holders," another example of baskets made fortourists orthe commercial market rather than for the Ojibwa home. The 1989 basket on the left has smaller weft and decorative curls than the 1905 basket on the right. Both baskets are made from split black ash. The 1989 basket also includes the use of sweet grass (Jesse Besser Museum). 47 A 1988 lidded basket has 1/8" weft woven four weft per inch, whereas an 1875 basket has 1/ " weft and is woven three weft per inch. Also, the weft was usually left unsplit on earlier baskets, whereas on later ones it was split to make smaller weft (Figure 9b). Older baskets usually have one or two colors, whereas a 1989 basket uses five colors in the "sunrise" pattern. Baskets made for a commercial market were made in 3 variety of shapes that would appeal to tourists. Even in the baskets made for the commercial market, one can notice larger weft, warp, and decorative curls on earlier baskets compared to later ones, as in this comparison of comb holders (Figure 10). Many of these were lined or stuffed and had additional decoration. Although the baskets were made using the traditional teChniques, the results were very modern. Cbangesjnlfingeifiaslseim ArizonafitateMuseum Although 73 Tlinget baskets are listed in the collection, only 16 were identified by date, and these were collection dates. Manufacture dates were not given. One can assume that if a basket was ‘collected in 1890, it had to be manufactured before that date. Using the collection data as 3 guide, the following observations abOut Changes in the baskets were made. Before 1922, the designs are confined to small sections of the basket, one or two bands toward the top (Figure 11). After 1922, there is more overall banding, and the designs take up most of the basket (see Table 8 and Figure 12). Figure 11: 48 .. ,‘ .. 'i'J’II’h . _ ‘- 1 I ’ 1 . , ‘ ;. “iii. Berry basket—a basket used to gather berries. It is twined and decorated with false embroidery in the patterns Of "laberat" and "flying." Leather loops are attached to the inside rim for adding a cord or handle. The decorative bands are confined to the small section near the top of the basket. Col. 18903 (Arizona State Museum). Figure 12: 49 Twined basket. The five bands ofdesign include the "salmon head berry" pattern in a vertical line in the top and bottom bands. The second and fourth band pattern is called “crossings," and the middle band is "cross and tattoo." False embroidery is made of various grasses. Collected in 1930, it is an example of expanded banding that covers a larger area of the basket (Arizona State Museum). 50 Table 8: Number of decorative bands on baskets (T linget collection, Arizona State Museum). Collection Date and Number of Baskets No. of Bands 18003 18903 19003 19203 19303 All-over design 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 2 0 4 0 0 1 0 1 N = 16 (Although there were 16 dated baskets, some were not available to view or had an indication of banding on the information cards.) Note: Table 8 indicates the number of baskets using a specific number of decorative bands. For example, in the 19203 collection, two baskets have two bands and two baskets have three decorative bands, whereas no baskets have an all-over design, one band, or four bands. As with other collections, one can notice the increase in banding decoration in later years. Of the two baskets collected in the 18003, one had no band decoration and one had only two bands near the top of the basket. Of the three 1890 collection dated baskets, one had no bands and one had three bands, again in the upper portion of the body. Of the two baskets collected in the 19003, one had an all-over design and one had four bands spread out over the body. Two Ofthe four baskets collected in the 19203 had two bands of very large patterns, and the other two baskets had three bands. One of the baskets collected in the 19303 had an all-over design, and one had four bands spread 51 evenly over the body (Figure 13). Although 16 baskets were collection dated, not all were available to view, had photographs available, or had information conceming banding written on the index cards. Before 1922, the designs are simple and may be repeated in one or two colors (Figure 14). After 1922, the designs are more involved, with two or more combined patterns, or if one design is used it is repeated multiple times. In regard to the use of colors, the baskets collected in the 18003 had fewer colors used on them. Only brown, yellow, and red were used on one of the baskets, and red only on the other one. The three baskets collected in the 18903 used red, yellow, black, and green on them, whereas those from the 19003 incorporated purple, pink, and green into the designs, in addition to the yellow. The baskets collected in the 19203 were more colorful; three had black, blue, yellow, brown, and red designs. One basket from the 19303 used orange. Again, information concerning color was often not available, nor were all of the baskets available for viewing (see Tables 9 and 10). Before 1900, the weave is thicker; larger warp and weft are used. Also, the false embroidery is a thicker or wider strip: After 1900, smaller strips are used for the embroidery; a tighter basket weave is used, and the false embroidery is tighter. Figure 13: 52 iii - ., llllllll . .1), Women's work basket with a rattle top. The small knob on the top of the lid contains small stones or seeds that rattle when the lid is lifted. The basket was used to store household items and small tools the women used in their work. The design on the lid is the "fern fond" pattern. The patterned bands on the body cover the entire side Of the basket rather than a portion. The basket is dated 1936 (Arizona State Museum). 53 Figure 14: Deep tub. The large, deep basket with side fiber cord handles was generally used to transport goods or to hold the surplus while gathering food. The only decoration is three thin stripes below the rim. Col. 1910 (Arizona State Museum). 54 Before 1900, no natural designs of a zigzag or flying design pattern were woven into the basket. After 1900, woven designs appear frequently; five out of the eight baskets include woven decoration. These summaries were made from direct observation of available baskets. Although not a complete, in-depth observation of all 75 baskets, it does give one an overview of changes. Table 9: Number of colors in the decorative bands (Tlinget collection, Arizona State Museum). No. of Collection Year and Number of Baskets Colors 18003 18903 19003 1920s 19303 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 1 2 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 __4_ 0 0 1 0 0 N = 15 (some baskets have no dyed fibers added to their design and were not included in this Chart). Nete: Table 9 indicates the number of colors included in the decorative bands on baskets. For example, in the 19203 collection, one basket has one color, two baskets have two colors, and one basket has three colors as part of the design. 55 Table 10: Colors used in the decorative bands on baskets (Tlinget collection, Arizona State Museum). rt Colors Collection Year and Number of Baskets 18008 18908 19003 1920s 19303 Red 1 2 0 1 0 . Orange 0 0 0 0 1 Brown 1 0 0 2 0 Yellow 2 1 1 2 0 Blue 0 0 0 2 0 Black 0 1 0 1 0 Purple“ 0 0 2 0 0 Pink 0 0 1 0 0 Green 0 1 2 0 0 N = 15 (some baskets used more than one color in the band patterns). Nate: Table 10 indicates how many baskets made use of a specific color in the band decoration. For example, of the baskets in the 18003 collection, one basket includes red, one basket includes brown, and two baskets make use of yellow, whereas no baskets use orange, blue, black, purple, pink, or green. aPurple could be a faded black. No indication was given on index cards concerning exposure of dye to light and aging. E'IIII [III III! The majority of the baskets at the Field Museum are dated according to their collection or acquisition dates. For the 30 baskets observed at the Field Museum of Natural History, the following conclusions were drawn. 56 The baskets collected in 1894 have two, three, and four bands of design placed near the top of the basket; one basket has seven bands, and one basket has no design bands. Of the baskets collected in 1902, two have no banding or designs, three have an all-over design, and three have one decorative band. Of the baskets with a collection date of 1903, one has no bands or design, one has an all-over design woven into it, two have one decorative band, and two have two bands. Of the three baskets from 1919, one has no bands, one basket has two bands, and one has three bands. One basket from the 1921 collection has two bands of design. One basket collected in 1945 has four bands, but the bands are spread over the entire surface of the basket. The same is true of the basket recorded in 1958; its three bands are spread over the surface of the basket rather than being clustered near the top of the basket (see Table 11). In the collection of 1894 baskets, nine colors are used in different combinations in the various patterns; five have black and three purple. (It should be noted that the purple could be a faded black as no information was given as to the origin of the dye or the effects of light fading the color.) Seven baskets have red, and brown is used three times, whereas green and orange are used twice. Tan is in one pattern. Eight baskets use yellow as part of the design. Three baskets have no colors; the patterns are done with natural weave or no designs are added to the baskets (see Table 12 and Figures 15 and 16). 57 Table 11: Number of decorative bands used on baskets (Tlinget collection, Field Museum of Natural History). No. of Bands Collection Date and Number of Baskets 1894 1902 1903 1919 1921 1945 1958 0' 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 All-over design 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 ll 1 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 2 1 1 0 0 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total baskets 11 8 6 2 1 1 1 N=30 Nate: Table 11 shows the number of baskets using 3 specific number of decorative bands within a given collection series. For instance, in the 1894 collection, one basket has no banding, four baskets have two decorative bands, and four baskets have three bands, whereas one basket has four bands and one basket has seven bands. “Does not include lid bands. No added design elements, just weave pattern. Figure 15: 58 i {h u. t -, 3" .;J I. l¢:.’.‘" ‘f; r.‘ 5::S 9&5!” :éi’sr“ «4 I’ffiu‘b' of)... if“ 1 Berry tub. Cedar bark, plaited, is the weave Ofthe berry tub. Dark brown cedar bark weft alternating with natural cedar bark weft make the decorative bands. The checked effect is achieved by equal size warp and weft strips (Field Museum of Natural History). 59 Figure 16: Detail of natural light and dark cedar bark, showing the checker pattern, plait weave (Field Museum of Natural History). 60 Table 12: Number of decorative colors used on baskets (Tlinget Collection, Field Museum of Natural History). No. of Colors Collection Date and Number of Baskets 1894 1902 1903 1919 1921 1945 1958 0/natural 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 3 7 0 1 0 0 0 1 It 4 2 3 1 1 0 1 0 IL Total baskets 11 8 6 3 1 1 1 N=30 Note: Of the baskets with the collection date of 1894, one uses natural-colored fibers for the decorative pattern, one has two colors in the decorative pattern, seven use three colors, and two have four colors in the decoration. In the 1902 series, one basket makes use of natural colors, two have one color added, two have two colors in the design, and three have four colors added. One basket collected in 1903 makes use of natural fibers in the pattern, two have a one-color design, and one each has two, three, and four colors worked into their patterns. Of the three baskets collected in 1919, one uses only natural-colored fibers, one uses only one color, and one uses four colors. Whereas one basket collected in 1921 has a two—color decoration, a basket of 1945 has a four-color design, and one basket collected in 1950 has a three-color pattern. In looking at the eight baskets with the collection date of 1902, one notes that three baskets have no colors added and are of natural materials (Figure 17). Four baskets have green as part of the decorative band patterns, whereas red, yellow, and brown are each incorporated into designs on three baskets. Black is used two times, as is purple (see note on purple above). In the 1903 collection series of six baskets, only one has no additional color and only one includes Figure 17: 61 Household basket exemplifying diagonal plaiting. made from inner cedar bark. A twisted cord is sewn along the rim to form a handle. The warp and weft are folded over at the rim and tucked under the last row to finish the basket. This type of basket was used to hold small articles in the household. The pattern is made by using the natural light and dark bark. Col. 1902 (Field Museum of Natural History). 62 black in the designs. Two baskets have red, purple, and green in the patterns, and four baskets show yellow in the design. Of the two baskets collected in 1919, both use red and one uses green and purple. The 1921 basket uses purple or black and yellow. The basket collected in 1945 uses orange, yellow, green, and black. The basket recorded in 1958 uses only yellow, red, and green in the design pattern (see Table 13). Table 13: Number of baskets using various colors (Tlinget collection, Field Museum of Natural History). Colors Year of Collection and Number of Baskets Using 3 Color 1894 1902 1903 1919 1921 1945 1958 Natural 2 3 1 O 0 0 0 Black 5 2 1 0 1 1 0 Red 7 3 2 2 0 0 1 Yellow 8 3 4 0 1 1 1 Purple8 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 Brown 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 Tan 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Green 2 4 2 1 0 1 1 Orange 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 Total baskets 11 8 6 2 1 1 1 N = 30 (some baskets use more than one color). Nete: Table 13 shows how many baskets have a specific color used in the decorative bands or in an all-over woven pattern. “Purple could be faded black; no information was given about fading dyes. 63 Baskets made before 1900 have added strands of twining at the base for strength, or an extra row of twining at the top edge for stability. Some of the baskets after the 19003 have splints of wood wired inside of the bottom for strength, whereas others have wire at the rim over which the warp is folded and fastened. Still others have a woven fabric attached to the inside rim for firmness. W The Tlinget collection at the Heard Museum has only 17 baskets identified by date of acquisition or collection, 36 baskets identified post-1880, and 38 baskets with no dates at all. Eighteen baskets were used to make the following analysis. Three baskets collected between 1890 and 1900 have three bands of decoration each, one baskets having the bands between three Open-work sections. Of the five baskets dated post-1880, one basket has one band, in the middle of the basket; three baskets have two bands—two have bands near the top, and one has bands between open work; and one basket has three bands. Four baskets were dated early 1900, of which one has one band of decoration, one has two bands of decoration, and two have three bandsnagain, two with the bands near the top of theubasket (Figure 18) and one with the bands between open work. The one basket acquired in the 19303 has two bands in the middle. Of the four baskets labeled as having been acquired in the 19403, two have two bands and the other two have three bands. The bands on these baskets are Figure 18: 64 x-O _, wr'vr'll: *‘ _ . . _. m& in ma- . ' .u-uouv<~\rnluuo'r‘uu , ’ Atwo-strand twined basket made from spruce root and maidenhair fern for the design. The principal horizontal band design is "blanket border,“ and the middle band is upright and inverted "salmon berry." This basket is typical of the ones made by the Yakutat division of Tlingets in the early part of the 19003. Col. early 1900 (Heard Museum). 65 spread out or placed in the middle of the baskets. Finally, the basket dated 1960 has five bands evenly spaced from top to bottom (see Table 14). Table 14: Number of decorative bands on baskets (Tlinget collection, Heard Museum). NO. of Collection Year and Number of Baskets 33"“ Post-1880 1880-1900 Early 1900s 1930s 1940-19503 1960 1 1 0 1 0 0 o 2 3 0 1 1 2 0 3 1 3 2 0 3 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 ° 0 0 f 0 o 1 Total 5 3 4 1 5 . 1 baskets N = 19 Nate: Table 14 shows the number Of decorative bands found on baskets. Baskets with a collection date before 1900 used fewer colors in the pattern than those with collection dates after the 19003. :Pre-1900, one basket has one color, and one basket has two colors. Of the baskets collected from 1900 to 1940, two baskets use two colors, two display three colors, and two show four colors in the designs, usually as an overlay stitch in false embroidery. After 1940, the collected basket samples show one basket with one color, one basket with two colors, two baskets with three colors, two baskets with four colors, and $8 ) 66 two with five colors in the patterns. There was an increase in the number of colors used to decorate the baskets over the years (see Tables 15 and 16). The baskets before 1920 have a larger, coarser weft than the later baskets. In the baskets after the 19203, overlay or false embroidery is tightly or Closely added so that it looks like 3 part Of the basket rather than lying on top. In the earlier baskets, one can observe the decoration lying on top of the weave. Table 15: Number of colors used on a basket (Tlinget collection, Heard Museum). N o. of Colors Collection Date and Number of Baskets Pre-1900 1900-1940 1940-1960 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 3 0 2 2 4 0 2 2 5 0 0 2 N = 19 (some baskets did not have any colors as part of their patterns but were a natural color only; they were not included in this table). Note: As indicated in Table 15, more colors were‘used in decorative bands in the years after 1900 than before 1900. 67 Table 16: Colors used in the pattern and decorative bands (T linget collection, Heard Museum). Collection Date and Number of Baskets COWS Pre-19003 1900-19303 1940-19603 Red 3 4 2 Black 1 1 0 Yellow 0 3 2 Purple 0 1 2 Orange 0 0 2 Green 0 1 0 Pink 0 1 1 Brown/blue 0 4 3 Natural 3 2 1 N = 19 Note: Many of the descriptions did not include a color indication, and the black and white photographs did not lend themselves to identifying colors. The above information was determined from descriptions and observation of baskets available to be handled and observed in storage. The patterns of the decoration are more simplistic in the earlier baskets and more complicated and involved in the later ones. Whereas the earlier baskets may have two or three bands, the bands usually have only one design repeated throughout the band or have two bands of the same design. Later baskets have many designs repeated within the same band and a complicated alternation of band patterns (Figure 19). One basket made after 1900 includes the word ”Alaska" woven into one side. A similar basket with "Alaska" woven into it was also in the Arizona State Museum collection. Figure 19: 68 Lidded basket. The lidded basket is larger than most and is an excellent example of an Older-type basket. It was used for trinkets and small household goods. Two strands of spruce root are twined, and xerophyllum is used for the false embroidery. The principal band is a "shaman hat" pattern, with "salmon head berry" the principal lid band. The lid knob has the "fern fond" design, and the "fish flesh" pattern is found in both the top rim and the bottom band. This is an example of repeat patterns in banding. Post- 1880 (Heard Museum). 69 Summary Baskets before the 19203 have a more simplistic look than later baskets. They have fewer designs within a band and fewer bands on the basket. The bands are clustered near the tops of the baskets. The exception to this is the decorative bands that alternate with open work (Figure 20). One or two colors are used to enhance the patterns. Baskets made afterthe 19203 have more decorative aspects. The bands are spread out to include most of the surface, rather than being clustered near the top. A complicated pattern of designs is alternated within one band. Many times the bands are repeated in an alternative fashion, with bands one and three being the same while bands two and four are the same, or all three bands may be different. More colors are incorporated into the design patterns in the later baskets, with as many as four or five colors being used in one band pattern. In addition to colored false embroidery, a natural color decoration is woven into the later baskets. Bands of these natural decorations are often at the top and bottom in bands, with the colored, false-embroidered patterned bands in between. These zigzags or flying patterns are not seen on the earlier baskets. Early baskets garner their strength from the weave and additional twined strands at the bases of the baskets. Later ones have added wooden splints at the bottom and wire at the top edge, over which the warp is folded and secured. 70 .zuC'w 1,” "II: j]..It”‘IIII"I”ti\ it' fil‘l IIIHIII'II'N'MHJ :ujintl ilIIIIIl‘IIUI Will ' ll Figure 203: An example showing open and closed weave by the Yakutat Tlingets. It was made for the tourist market and has no practical use in the Tlinget society. The "waste basket" shape was popular with tourists. Post-19003 (Heard Museum). .Mnuu (1 nail“. r ‘ \ .. re”... NP: Figure 20b: A small basket (2-1/4" diameter and 2-1/2" height) made for the tourist trade. The design is a variation of the "shaman's hat" pattern and is made from spruce root and dyed maiden hair grass overlay. Post-1880 (Heard Museum). 71 Later baskets are also made with fewer strands of twining; older ones may have three twined strands, whereas later ones have only two. changesimtlooLBasketm Arizonaflatemyseum W. The 1900, 1920. and 1985 baskets are all very plain, with large, centered designs. The designs are simple. in one or two colors. The weave is rugged and coarse. Wicker baskets made in the 1930s and 1940s have involved multicolor designs. The designs are of an all-over nature rather than just being centered (see Figure 21). The weave is much finer and tighter than is that of the earlier work (see Tables 17 and 18). Table 17: Number of colors used in the decorative designs (Hopi wicker baskets, Arizona State Museum). No. of Colors Collection Year and Number of Baskets 1900-19103 19303 19403 1 0 0 0 2 0 ‘0 0 3 0 O O 4 2 1 1 5 0 0 1 N = 5 Note: According to Table 17, two baskets collected in 1900 to the 19103 have four colors in the design, whereas one basket from the 19305 collection also has a four-color design. Of the baskets collected in the 1940s, one has four colors and one has five colors. 72 Figure 21: A very tightly woven wicker bowl. Five colors were used in the band decoration. The bands are spread evenly over the basket. Ca. 1940 (Arizona State Museum). 73 Table 18: Number of baskets using a specific color in the decorative design (Hopi wicker baskets, Arizona State Museum). Colors Collection Year and Number of Baskets 1900-1910s 19303 1940s Red 0 0 1 Yellow 2 0 2 Black 1 1 1 Blue 1 1 1 Creme 2 1 1 White 0 O 1 Green 2 1 2 N = 5 (more than one color was used on some baskets). Note: According to Table 18, there is a wide use of color throughout the years. Yet the baskets collected in the 1940s do have more color usage; one basket has red, two baskets have yellow and two have green, one has black, one has blue, one hasorange, and one has white as part of the decorative designs. M5. The 1898 and 1930s baskets have very large, fat coils, loose weave, and fat yucca strips. These baskets have very lush attributes. The designs are simple, in one or three colors, and are repeated around the center or middle of the basket in a simple band. The 19403 and 1950s baskets are multicolor, with involved designs. The coils are thinner, and the yucca strips are also narrower than those of earlier baskets. The weave is much tighter, with a “rigid, sparse“ appearance (see Tables 19 and 20). 74 Table 19: Number of colors used in the decorative designs (Hopi coiled bowls/baskets, Arizona State Museum). No. of Collection Year and Number of Baskets C°'°rs 1890s 1900-1910s 1920-1930s 1940-19703 1 o o o o 2 1 2 2 1 3 1 3 1 1 4 o 1 o 1 5 0 1 o o N = 15 Note: Given the information in Table 19, baskets collected during the 1900-1910 period have more colors used in the decorative designs than do baskets collected in other years. Two of the baskets have two colors in the design, three have three colors, one has four colors, and one has five colors as part of the decoration. The baskets collected in the 1890s have the fewest colors used; one basket has two colors, and one has three colors. Elafiedbasketsandjrays. The 19408 baskets and trays are made from unbleached and bleached fibers that form the design. The base is large, with a small wicker edge. The weave is very loose, and the designs are simple. The 1960s plaited trays and bowls are made with both natural and dyed fibers; the designs are smaller and of a tighter weave, so the design is repeated. The edges have wider borders of wicker. 75 Table 20: Number of baskets using a specific color in the decorative design (Hopi coil bowls/baskets, Arizona State Museum). Collection Year and Number of Baskets COW 18903 1900-1 91 Os 1920-19303 1940-19703 Red 2 5 0 1 Yellow 0 4 2 2 Black 2 4 3 2 Blue 0 1 0 1 Green 1 4 0 0 Brown 0 3 2 2 White 0 0 0 1 Tan 0 1 0 0 N = 15 (some baskets have more than one color in the decorative design). Note: A wider range of colors is used in the decorative patterns of the coiled baskets collected during the 19003 than before that time. In the 18903 collection, only two baskets have red, two baskets have black, and one basket has green in the designs. Of the baskets collected in the 1900-1910s period, five have red, four have yellow, four have black, one has blue, four have green, three have brown, and one has tan as part of the design. 3 'l I . I | . 1880 to 1898: 1. Emir-one flower, one kachina, and one butterfly with dissecting line. The colors used are black and dark brown. No decorative bord ers are woven at the edge of the plaques. The coils are fat; wide yucca strips are used, and the weave is loose. 76 2. MED-one kachina, two whirlwinds, and two geometric designs. The colors used are red, black, white, and green. The 1880 whirlwind plaque is very plain, whereas the 1898 designs are more involved, with multicolor. The wicker wefts are wide and the warp bundles large. 1900 to 1919: 1. Wnfive kachinas, five stars, one flower, and two unidentified designs. Thirteen use brown, five yellow, and eight black (or dark purple). There are no decorative borders on the edges of the plaques. The kachina plaques vary in design: three have checkered bodies, and two have solid bodies; two have feet, and two have deer above the headdress; all five have fingers. The star plaques all have."open" centers and stepped points; the points are not a solid color. Four plaques have three "parts" or bands of points that include natural areas. The flower plaque has an open center area, and the petals are simple black edges. The two unidentified designs are symmetrical, with large, simple designs. All ofthe coils are fat and the yucca strips wide. The plaques have a lush, flat look to the weave. The colors are muted and blend with each other. 2. EQuLlelsgre-one kachina, one whirlwind, and two band designs. Two of the plaques use red. four use black, and one uses white. Two of the plaques have a border design of solid color at the edge. The kachina face is simple, with one color used to band the body. The whirlwind is in two colors, with a red center and a checked red and white band around the edge. 77 19203: 1. Email—Mo kachinas and one plain with no design. Black and red are used on the kachina figures. There is no rim border. The kachinas are very simple, solid bodies with fingers and feet detailing and plain headdresses. Both have rain clouds with rain at the side of the headdresses. The yucca strips are wide, but the weave is tighter than that of the earlier plaques. The plain plaque has very fat coils and a loose weave. 2. Watwo eagles, one kachina, two butterflies, one whirlwind, and one unidentified geometric design. Four use yellow, seven use black, two use white, and one uses red. The kachina has a large face and a small headdress. The plaque has a bordered edge. The eagles on both plaques have the feet outside the tail feathers. Both are facing left and have an eye detail. Both have feathered wings and white checks on the breast. One has a solid tail, and one has a checked tail. Both eagle plaques have bordered edges of black/yellow or black/white pattern. The butterfly is plain, with a single color forthe wings. The border is black alternating with natural color at the edge of the plaque. The whirlwind has two solid-colored "arms" around a colored center. The rim is bordered in black. All of the wicker plaques have large weft and what looks like a bundle warp causing large ridges in the plaque. 78 19305: 1. (lagoon-geometric design in brown. The design has not been identified, but four sections radiate from an open center in three steps. The coils are not as fat as those of previous work. 2. Mickey-a whirlwind or lightning design. The "arms" are in a checkerboard design of black and white on an orange background. The center is plain and open. The rim is bordered in black and white. The wicker weave is very tight, and the design is bold (see Figure 22). 19403: 1. Ihmeggiluthree flowers, or two flower and one star (identity was confused because one was identified as both a star and a flower by two different people). Two use yellow, one uses red, two use white, three use black, one uses brown, and one uses orange. One plaque has a solid center, and two have open centers. One has the edge bordered in black, whereas two are plain rimmed. The petals of the flowers are bordered in black. The yucca strips are slender, and the weave is tight. The coils are smaller than in previous years. 2. SEEM-4W0 whirlwind, one eagle, one butterfly, and two band designs. Six use black, one uses purple, four use white, three use blue, and two use yellow. All have rim bands. The eagle faces to the left, with a large eye detail. Its feet are on the outside of the solid tail. The wings are stepped or feathered. A small white checker pattern is on the breast, and white is used with black as a border. The figure is centered and large. The whirlwind plaque has 79 ‘ . . .4 ,r' I i "L ant-N“ ; .. ' “um __ .>- . .\\\u\5unud.u WWW". , 8'4» WW" I .. MW ”40’“ ‘3 ’t MM" z ' . a or“, . .‘r-Ji‘i, "11 Am -.-" {-3 e. ’52- fi, If,“ * éi’ :2; H»? y , In. ' ”1. /{l/ - ’j .t', .r ," ' l ' 3" 54.4.9 , ’m,”%; r“; d" 1.16:. .7‘411422 "741/14,; .7 fl Figure 22: An example of wicker work showing thin, tight weave of the 19305 and after. This is a checkerboard whirlwind design (Arizona State Museum). 80 one “arm“ that is a solid color in the center, with black and white checked edges. The rim is black and white checked. The check pattern is also used on the b utterfly plaque. It is used to decorate the rim ofthe plaque and the edges of the b utterfly’s wings and body. Green, orange, and yellow are used in alternating strips, with a solid green strip for the wing decoration. The butterfly rests on a co I ored background. On the whirlwind plaque, the three "arms" are black and White checked surrounding an open center. This design is repeated on the border. The banded plaques have checkered bands that alternate with solid CO I cars to form a multicolor design. 19505 to 19705: 1. Watwo spirals or whirlwind, one banded, and one u r1 3 clentified design. Two of the plaques use red, four use black, three use ye ' I ow, one uses green, three use blue, and three include white. One of the W h i rlwind or lightning designs has four black and white checkered "arms," center ca rcle, and border on the rim. It also has two red and blue spirals. The second Wh i rlwind design has a solid center with two "arms" bordered in black. The rim ‘3 (decorated in a yellow and black checkered border. The banded design co htains six bands that are solid colors alternating with checked bands. The rim ‘3 bordered in a check pattern. A red center with black and white checked border begins the unidentified design. Yellow and black complete the design, and a border of black and yellow check finishes the rim. All of these plaques have a Very involved design with more than one element; all are multicolored. The 81 weave is very tight and ridged. done with very narrow weft splints. The over-all appearance is well controlled, sparse, and technically perfect (see Tables 21 th rough 24). I a ble 21: Number of colors used on coil plaques (Hopi coil plaques, Arizona State Museum). No. of Collection Year and Number of Baskets \ “'03 1880-18905 1900-19105 19205 19305 \ 1 1 1 o o _\ 2 2 7 o o \ 3 o 7 1 3 \ 4 0 1 o 1 I 5 o o 1 o N=25 m: Table 21 indicates that more colors were used on baskets during later :3 ers. For example, in the period from 1880 through the 18905, one basket has t? I y one color and two baskets have a two-color design, whereas in the 19305, ree baskets have three colors and one has four colors in the decorative design. 82 Table 22: Number of baskets using a specific color in the decorative design (Hopi coil plaques, Arizona State Museum). ”0 Colors Collection Year and Number of Baskets , 1800-18905 1900-19105 19205 19305 Red 0 5 1 3 Black 2 7 3 3 Blue 2 1 0 0 Green 0 1 0 .\ Yellow 0 g 2 3 \ Brown 1 13 3 2 \ Tan 0 2 0 0 White 0 o 1 0 N = 25 (more than one color is used on many baskets). Ema: Table 22 indicates how many baskets in a collection period use a specific ac I or in the decorative design. Looking at the 1800-18905 period, two have black n n Cl blue in the designs, and one basket has brown in the decoration, whereas t 0 baskets use red, green, yellow, tan, or white in the design. The rest of the a ble is read in the same manner. 83 Table 23: Number of colors used in the decorative designs (Hopi wicker plaques, Arizona State Museum). Collection Year and Number of Baskets 1800-18905 1900-19105 19205 19305 19405 1950-19705 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 4 N=24 M: Table 23 gives an indication of the number of colors that are incorporated ' n to the decorative designs on the wicker plaques. Looking at the table, one can fine a that no baskets in the 1800-18905 collection have three colors, one basket 1 t he 1900-19105 collection has three colors, and three baskets collected in the Q 205 have three colors in the decorative design. Continuing across the table, '3 h Q can see that no baskets in the 19305 collection have three colors, yet four fra Skets collected in the 19405 have three colors, and again no baskets collected '- Q n 1950 through the 19705 make use of three colors. The rest of the chart t‘__$‘.ads in a similar manner. It can also be seen that baskets have more colors in .1 a decorative design in later years than in earlier years. Baskets in the 1950- “9 705 period have four and five colors, whereas those of the 1900-19105 period aVe one, two, and three colors. Table 24: Color Red Black Blue Brown Tan Yellow Green White 84 Number of baskets using a specific color in the decorative designs (Hopi wicker plaques, Arizona State Museum). Collection Year and Number of Baskets 1800-18905 19000-19105 19205 1930-19405 1950-19705 1 3 3 0 0 2 4 5 1 2 2 N = 25 (some plaques have more than one color in the designs). W The collection at the Heard Museum includes 215 baskets that are dated and 165 that are undated. The dated baskets have dates of collection or a Qquisition listed; very few have a manufacturing date. These numbers exclude th e Fred Harvey MiniatureCollection. Only those with photographs and catalog cards available are included in the following observations. 19005: Four wicker and six coil plaques were examined. The wicker plaques have whirlwind and band designs. The coil plaques have kachina and 85 deer, spiral, bands, radiating design, and kachinas. Five plaques use red, ten use black, three use yellow, five use green, and one uses orange. The coils have foundation bundles of shredded yucca and hilaria grass. The coils are rather large, and the yucca strips are wide and moderately tight. The wicker we rps are sumac, and the weft are rabbitbush. The wicker weft bundles are fat, 9 enerating ridges over which the weft is woven. The rims are overlashed with yu oca strips. 1910-19205: Eleven wicker and 12 coil plaques were examined. The Wicker plaques have bands, eagles, stepped bands, pentagon, checkerboard, a I“: d kachinas. The coil plaques have four-point stepped "star," deer, kachinas, ch eckerboards, crow mother, kachina headdresses. deer and shalako, figures, 8 h elakos designs. Nine plaques use red, 10 black, 11 yellow, 6 green, 2 orange, 4 White, 11 brown, and 2 purple. The coiled plaque with the crow mother design i 3 Clone in plant dyes, resulting in various shades of brown. Others incorporate a I“ iline dyes, as well as natural plant and mineral dyes. The coil bundles are sh wedded yucca and hilaria grass, with yucca strips binding the coils. The coils are fat and loose, and they are soft to the touéh. The wicker warp is sumac Migs, and the weft is rabbitbush. Most of the wicker warp are bundles, some with two, three, and four rods. 1930-19405: Eight wicker and 12 coil were examined. The wicker plaques have kachinas, bands, butterflies, and eagles. The coil plaques have flowers, four-point stepped star, a maiden and clouds, and geometric designs. 86 Six plaques use red, 14 black, 9 yellow, 3 orange, 3 white, 3 brown, 1 tan, and 7 maroon. The coiled plaques are made from bundles of galleta grass and sh redded yucca and hilaria grass sown with yucca strips. The wickerware i5 su mac and rabbitbush. More colors are being used in the decorative patterns, and the designs are beginning to become more involved. The coils are beginning to get smaller and stiffer, with tighter sewing. The wicker bundles are 9 etting smaller; thus, the plaques are starting to have a flatter look; the ridges are n of so prominent. The weave is also getting tighter. 1950-19605: Thirty-nine wicker and 49 coil plaques were examined. The v"i<=l'>>1//x/11'. \ ‘ I. '4 '1 2”. A. {fi)>’ ’ ,. W‘s} 1‘ 13‘." ’ '1 I _. ’31)’ 31% .1-1 I ’ - A N . .-'- 1 r I. Figure 53: Detail of plaiting weave on trays and sifters. 224 assurance that the design "is" a deer or a rain cloud, and so on. One can say that the design "looks like" a deer or a rain cloud. The designs are [not symbols in themselves but are symbolic of ideas and figures or can be simply a pattern. On coiled work, the kachina mask and figure appear frequently, the favorite being the crow mother. The figure is centered; many times the body is very small, with the head or "mask" radiating out to the rim of the plaque. In some, deer or other animals are spaced around the head gear. The body of the figure either has arms, hands with fingers, and short legs with small feet, or the body is simply a checkerboard triangle that sweeps to the lower edge of the plaque. The mask shapes are simplistic, with hair whorls or very elaborate geometric designs. The figure is usually placed on a natural background. The exception to this is a 1982 Hopi showpiece that has a kachina placed on a mottled green background (Tanner, 1983, p. 53). Kachinas are worked on both plaques and globular forms, but the most elaborate are those found on the plaques. Beading (overstitching) can be found on the masks as part ofthe mask design. Birds or eagles are another recurring motif. These are usually black, with yellow or gold beaks and feet. With their wings spread away from their bodies, they fill the entire plaque. The detailing on these is excellent; even the eye is in place, represented usually by one small strip of yellow yucca. Butterflies are another shape that has been used repeatedly (Figure 54). The wings can be simply indicated by solid colors, with a different band surrounding them, or they 225 Butterfly design in wicker. The warp is made of sumac twigs, and Figure 54a: the weft is rabbitbrush. 1921 (Arizona State Museum). Figure 54b: Butterfly design in wicker. The ribs are made from sumac or willow twigs, and the weft is various strips of rabbitbrush. 1969 (Heard Museum). The examples of the butterfly design in Figures 54a and 54b indicate that the pattern did not change through the years. The two designs are similar in the treatment of the wings, body, and antennae. Only the rim treatment in the later plaque is more intricate. 226 can be an elaborate geometric design. Again, attention to detailing is evident in the small, thin antennae that protrude from the main body. Both of these can be found on coiled and wicker plaques. Flowers, squash blossoms, and corn are commonly used plant motifs. The flowers can be very plain, with petals outlined in black, or they are very involved, with checkerboard designs on the petals. Whole ears of corn with kernels depicted are often used in combination with other motifs. These designs are used on plaques and bowl-shaped baskets of both coiled and wicker techniques. In addition, one can identify clouds, rain clouds, lightning, hills, and rainbows on the baskets. These are usually represented in a geometric zig-zag or stepped triangle pattern owing to the constraints of the weaving techniques. On both coiled and wicker work, geometric designs and whorls of multicolors are used. The wedding baskets often have a geometric design made of connected rectangles that signify the continuance of life. The Navajo wedding pattern has been used a great deal in plaques in recent years. The Hopi "borrowed" the design and added their own embellishments of stepped triangles around the design. Many of the designs are surrounded by a band of color at the rim of the baskets, whereas others have a plain rim. NaturaLDves Both plants and minerals are used to color weaving materials. The process of preparing the materials for dying, making the dyes, and the actual coloring of the materials is long and involved. When aniline dyes were available 227 from traders, many weavers began to use them because they were less time consuming and easier. They offered a variety of colors but were not of the quality of natural dyes. In recent years, many Hopi weavers have returned to . natural dyes because the colors are more in keeping with traditional basketry. The materials and colors they make are as follows: Vegetable colors: These are made by boiling roots or plants, bark, or flowers; sometimes natural alum is used to intensify the colors. To set colors, some are held in the smoke of burning wood--black for dark colors and white for light colors. Black Dark blue Light blue Purple Pink Red Red-brown Yellow Orange- yellow Navy bean, sunflower seed smoked over black wool, pifion pitch, sumac The above used in a weaker solution Larkspur or indigo Purple corn, amaranth Amaranth, cockscomb (varying intensities of the cockscomb dye give carmine and lavender) Alder bark, sumac berries, cockscomb flower A grass (The/esperma graci/e). boiled, strained, a native alum added The yellow composite flowers, many of which are known as rabbitbrush; the most common are Chrysothamnus gra yea/ens, Ch. b/ye/o viz; H0 ward/'1; pinifo/ius. Saffron (Carthamus tmctorius) flowers, Navajo tea, greenthread (The/esperma) 228 Green Blue dye and yellow mixed; sometimes the bark of rabbitbrush Mineral colors: Clay or rock is ground on small flat stones. It is then mixed with oil that has been obtained by chewing squash seeds. Black Ochre, soot, coal Green Copper carbonate Red, brown Iron ochres White Kaolin Yucca leaves are used natural for a light green color. The leaves are buried in wet sand for a darker green color and bleached in the sun for a white color (Underhill, 1944/1979; Whiteford, 1988). ROLE OF THE BASKET WEAVER/ARTIST Because the weaver is an important factor in the economics and the production of baskets, one should look at the roles weavers assume within their society. This is a study of how the weaver functions within the society. Is the artist or craftsperson held in reverence, or is the artist considered a manual laborer? Is the artist’s production a respected occupation, or is it simply a part of daily living, with basket making only one phase of daily tasks? Are weavers respected for their talents and recognized as such, or are they considered common? One must also look to the artistic society to see how weavers are viewed within their own group of peers. Are basket makers as highly thought of as mask makers or wood carvers? In a "user" arts society, are the artists considered differently from those in an "audience" arts society? The former integrates the artists into the society, whereas the latter segregates artists into groups or out of the mainstream of society. In his essay"Basketry: From Foundations Past," Collings (1987) indicated that: The traditional basket weaver was a true folk artist. She created works that were always an inextricable part of the social, economic, and ceremonial activities of her society. She worked within a limited range of shapes and designs that had been collectively established by her society. 229 230 Yet within these culturally imposed limitations, a high degree of individual achievement and seemingly endless variations were possible. (p. 25) The weaver is not only producing a utilitarian product, but is also producing an object that depicts many aspects of the culture. In addition to being a manufacturer, the artist also acts as an interpreter of the society. The baskets represent the needs, beliefs, and surroundings of the society. The weavers help clarify these aspects of their culture through the production of baskets. Even though individual artists bring their own skills and interpretations to their work, there is a commonality of their organization that is represented in the shapes and designs found acceptable to their particular culture. Langer (1953) wrote that the "artistic conception is not a transitional phase of mental evolution but a final symbolic form making revelations of truth about actual life" (p. 81). Baskets are thetruth about an agrarian and gathering society; they are the implements of that society. Baskets are part of the ritual and belief systems and are made from local materials, so in their final form, the finished product, the artists or craftsperson has been able to clarify aspects of the culture. In sympathy with the notion that arts are interceptors of their society, Sieber (1987) in W asserted that "the arts are symptomatic of cultural values. . . . The arts at any time or place, in reflecting cultural values, evolve what might be called the 'visual image’ that culture has of itself" (p. 205). If one considers that "the basic role of the artist is the same in any culture-«to arouse an emotional response in his audience," as did 231 Dockstader (1961, p. 17), then one can consider that the basket makers are indeed artists rather than just craftspersons. They are able to elicit a response within their own society and have the ability to communicate successfully with their own people by recognizing and using tradition. The artist makes choices as to what materials, colors, decoration, and designs to use. In doing so, the weaver is communicating what is important within the society. If it were not acceptable to depict a specific image or design as part of the decoration, the artist would not use it. Conversely, if specific images were popular, the artist would probably incorporate them in his or her work. Thusly, society’s aesthetic values are established or recognized and displayed in the basketry of that society. In a culture that has set and traditionally basic forms that have evolved, and forms that are true to simple feelings and therefore comprehended by those in the society, the artist, weaver, adopts those current ideas and applies what they have learned. (Langer, 1953, p. 53) Thus, the basic forms of designs on plaques and baskets have evolved from accepted traditional symbols, shapes, and images. Although the images technically do change on the baskets, the images are still chosen for their traditional aspect. When a society is thrown into chaos or upheaval, the artists "lean entirely on the standardized or . . . the art becomes a haven of refuge, a guarantee of meaning in the familiar mode" (Langer, 1953, p. 54). The pe0ple who used baskets and ceremonial basketry on a daily basis were aware of the form’s import; they were educated in the semblance of the design, so the decorative aspects of basketry expressed their "feelings and ideas of being." 232 The societies accepted the symbols that spoke to them and recorded or transmitted their ideas and feelings. Thus, the repetition of certain designs such as the salmon-head berries on Tlinget baskets or the kachina figures on Hopi baskets, yet each has the characteristic of the weaver, the individual stamp ofthe creator, even if it was established only in the tension of the weave, the choice of colors, or the physical attributes of the weaver’s manipulation of the material. The fact that many designs are "traditional" does not detract from the creative ability of the artists, but rather challenges the artists to make use of tradition in a unique, personal way. Note that in Figure 7 the traditional curls are uniquely incorporated by the individual weaver. The actual visualization ofthose figures and the visual presentation fall to the role of the artist, for the weavers are actually making visual symbols or designs that represent ideas and their environment. Langer (1953) said that "the true power of the image lies in the fact that it is an abstraction, a symbol, the bearer of an idea" (p. 47). This can be related to the Hopi images of the kachina, corn, or animals found on many plaques and baskets. It is the idea of the gods, the animals, or corn. Langer thought it is more than just an arrangement of colors and forms that arise from the process. It is something created, not just "gathered and set in a new order" (p. 48), but detached from the actual setting and conjuring up an idea. She likened it to Jung’s "Semblance," a reflected illusion, a dream rather than a concrete imitation. Thus, the dream or illusion of the kachina’s powers manifests itself in 233 the images of gods—the colors and shape are arranged to give the illusion or image of the god. As the people’s perception or illusion of the power changes, so would the illustration or concrete image found on the baskets. Langer emphasized this notion by stating, "They are symbols for the articulation of feeling" (p. 52); they articulate the society’s feelings about the harvest or about their relationships with animals or about the rites and customs of their lives. It is through artists’lweavers’ work that these collective and individual feelings are "told." Tanner (1983) summed up this concept as follows: Culture is the great director of aesthetics, but progress in any craft art depends on the ability of creative individuals to develop the artistic potentials that exist within that framework. . . . Style is the product of environment, cultural heritage . . . and individual creativity . . . all combined and channelled into an artistic expression that is the essence of tribal feeling. (p. 2) By choosing specific materials for their craft, the artists are selectively indicating what resources are in their region. Through these selection processes, the artists become visual historians of their culture. If one accepts the claim that "basketry is the most expressive vehicle of a tribe’s individuality, the embodiment of its mythology, folklore, tradition, poetry, art and spiritual aspirations" (Lobb, 1990, p. 7), then one can understand how the artist’s primary role can be considered as an interpreter or communicator forthe society through his or her art. The artist’s role is more extensive than simply producing utility items. The artist also interprets the traditions of the skills and techniques needed to produce the objects. 234 Along with being a facilitator of manufacturing traditions, the artist assumes the role of educator. The artist educates the society in the traditional symbol system by continence on the art pieces. The artist is also a teacher of the methods used in producing the art objects. The traditional way of making the objects is preserved and taught by the artists within their society. Not only is the artist a historian of manufacturing skills, but a conduit as well. The weaver is conscious of the past and its relationship with the present. Through the artist, the past is saluted and revered, the present in enlivened with skills and technology, and the future is being seeded for creative progress while honoring the past. Another role of the artist is one of being an innovator. Not only has the artist been innovative in using the materials at hand, but also he or she has had to adopt other materials when the traditional ones were depleted. When European and American tools and equipment were introduced, the artists willingly set aside their bone and stone ones and made great strides in using the imported ones to improve their art. They were able to adjust the styles and designs of the baskets to meet the demands of an Anglo-American clientele and collectors. Many weavers switched to aniline dyes to accommodate the demand for brighter and more varied colors in basket decoration. Others changed their methods of manufacture, at some detriment to quality, to meet the increased demand fortheir products. Others managed to reconstruct their time to include basket weaving along with wage earning to augment their incomes. Even before the introduction of European goods, basket weavers were experimenting with 235 natural dyes, materials, and designs to increase their understanding of and competence with technology and new skills. By studying the artists of the societies, one can determine some of the division of labor. Were the artists women who trained young girls in the art of weaving? Were the baskets they made for household and food-preparation use, or did they make ceremonial ones as well? Were men basket weavers who taught young boys the craft? Was there a mix of roles in the preparation of basket materials and in the usage of the baskets? These are all indicators of how a society organized their labor. By understanding who made the baskets, one can then understand a portion of the labor management within that society. QiwaaBasketMakeLs Historically, the Ojibwa basket makers were women of the family. They were responsible for all food preparation, gathering, agriculture, and household equipment. They held no special position in the family as basket makers because weaving baskets was part of the daily tasks needed to survive. They were part of the whole economic group. As with other basket weavers, they were also horticulturists and plant specialists because they knew what plants to pick and where to find the materials. They were also chemists in their knowledge of how to make dyes for coloring the decorative splints. Weavers in contemporary times were manufacturers of commercial items. When the baskets were made for sale in gift shops and tourist places, the 236 weavers became money earners. They added to the family income through producing their art. They were also a link with the "outside" world. They traded and sold their work with non-Native Americans. The role of teacher was another role of the basket maker, for she taught young girls and daughters in the family the skill of weaving, along with other household tasks. "Mother and daughter were close companions. The daughter learned to do many things by watching and helping her mother" (Levi, 1956, p. 132) Today, the weaver is a teacher to many. By giving demonstrations at folk festivals, exhibits, and showings of Indian art, she not only explains and shows the art of weaving, but she also teaches about a past way of life. Recently, a group of Ojibwa weavers toured the Soviet Union demonstrating their art as part of an international cultural exchange. Other Ojibwa weavers participated in the Smithsonian Folk Festival in Washington, DC, as well as other pioneer and folk festivals around Michigan (Jesse Besser Museum notes). Contemporary basket makers are teaching workshops and classes to interested Native Americans and non-Native Americans as part of the resurgence of interest in Indian art. The weavers share their skills and ideas with other weavers. Several have received funds to document their skills for preservation programs of traditional arts IlingetflaskfiMakers As noted earlier, the basket weavers were and are women. The women of each household unit were responsible for weaving all of the baskets used in 237 everyday tasks and for ceremony, as well as gifts. They were not singled out as artisans but accepted as a working part of the whole unit. Although the weavers were not independently recognized for their weaving, their baskets were important in the continuing function of the unit. Without their basket skills, many of the food-quest tasks and rituals would not have been as easily completed. Needing to know which trees and plants would work best for different types of baskets and which plants and minerals produced which colors, the weavers were also horticulturists. Their skill at locating and identifying the vegetation was of prime importance to the basket industry. They were also chemists, in that they had to know what would work in dying materials for the overlay decorations. The weavers were also teachers and role models. Young girls learned to weave from the basket makers within their household unit (Figure 55). Today, the weavers are teachers of tradition as well as basket making. Through their knowledge of gathering and preparing materials for weaving, land and plant information is passed on to new generations. The designs on the baskets are taught and related to the past symbols of Tlinget life. The basket makers indirectly taught early collectors and explorers about the work cycle, attributes of plants, industry of Tlingets, and their material culture through their efforts of weaving baskets. Notes made by Newcomb and Emmons on baskets, their uses, materials and techniques, for the Field Museum and Figure 55a: Figure 55b: 238 -:A.:.:{‘ 4331:”04 « - ....’ . Child's basket. Young girls learned to weave as part of their training for the feminine role in the Tlinget society. This basket is an early attempt at learning how to weave. It is ornamented with dyed straw. Col. 1902 (Field Museum of Natural History). First weaving—a child’s attempt at basket weaving. It is twined spruce roots with dyed straw false embroidery. The weave is uneven and the false embroidery loose. Ca. 1902 (Field Museum of Natural History). 239 other institutions relate important information about the lifestyle and industry of the Tlingets (Field Museum notes). The basket makers could also be considered public relations personnel for the Tlingets. They were the first ones tourists and other newcomers to the area met as the boats discharged their passengers. The weavers would congregate on the docks in groups to sell their baskets to the travelers. The sharp trading and bartering over prices gave a positive and significant image of the Tlingets as being astute in business. Although this image did not act as the major industries, with the help of the United States government, rolled over the land, the first image was favorable (Wyatt, 1989). Bopiflasketflakem Both women and men make baskets in the Hopi society. The women make ones used for food storage, household management, and domestic service. Women have traditionally been the main weavers of commercial baskets, beginning with the trading of baskets between Native American societies and then with the first missionaries, tourists and researchers, current collectors, and specialty shops. Men have traditionally woven baskets used in religious practices by both men and women. Large agricultural and burden baskets were made by men. As with other Native American basket makers, the Hopi artists had a variety of roles within the society. They were manufacturers, innovators, historians, translators or interpreters, a link to the past, facilitators of the belief 240 systems, educators, traders, and skilled artisans or craftspersons. Some of these roles were more obvious than others; some were deliberately chosen, whereas others were a result of the function of basketry within their society. Although the function and utility of the baskets have changed overtime, the roles are the same. Perhaps the roles have shifted in importance or in their extensiveness, but to a degree the roles have remained consistent. The most obvious role is that of being a manufacturer. The weaving of baskets was an extension of daily tasks to facilitate the domestic and ceremonial organization. While groups would go out to gather basket materials and prepare them for weaving, the actual task of weaving was an individual process. Many artisans might have gathered for the camaraderie of weaving, but individuals were responsible for making baskets for their own family/clan unit. Within the society, the basket makers were part of the overall social and economic group. They were not separate from others, nor was their art separate from daily living. It was an integrated art and skill. The basket makers were very innovative in their work. When many of the natural resources were depleted, they were able to make use of other materials to gain the same high quality of work. With the introduction of large knives, pruning shears, and awls, bone tools were retired. Many mineral and vegetable dyes were discarded for the faster, brighter aniline dyes at the turn of the century, but recently there has been a return to natural dyes. Weavers also adapted the unusual Anglo-American shapes for their commercial baskets to appease the 241 traders’ and purchasers’ demands. They made the large "wastebasket” shapes to satisfy the market demand, in addition to shapes that were indicative of their culture (Tanner, 1983). As historians of the society, Hopi basket makers used designs that were symbolic of their environment (deer, corn, birds, butterflies, flowers, clouds) and of their religion (kachina masks and figures, rain clouds, lightning, and the colors of the four corners). They have gathered the history of their basket skills through their knowledge of weaving. The items they make are a part of their lifestyle; thus, they are recording how they live through producing baskets. As one aspect of Hopi material culture, baskets can be considered a historic record of industry and lifestyles. The makers of these baskets are forming a record of their lives, the same as a story teller or a dancer. Along with the historian role is one of being a link or bridge to the past and future. The artists have learned basket-weaving skills from their older relatives. These same skills are then taught to younger members of Hopi society, who are the future. Thus, the weaver connects the past to the future through his or her skills and knowledge of making baskets. "Older women, the teachers who themselves learned from the preceding generation, exert a powerful influence for the maintenance of tradition and against strange or different designs and techniques” (Whiteford, 1988, p. 184). The weavers are also a bridge to other cultures. Their skills are transformed into a vehicle that passes from one culture to another, from one Native American society to another, as well as from the 242 Hopi society to non-Native American cultures. Through the baskets, a connection is made between the cultures. The basket maker facilitates this connection. By teaching weaving skills, the basket makerthen becomes an educator. The artist educates others not only in how to make baskets, but also in the aesthetics and quality of acceptable Hopi basketry. The weavers teach what is acceptable through their selections of decoration and technique. They praise excellent work and withhold praise when baskets do not meet their standards. . . . The old ways are retained principally because Indians like them. . . . Adherence to tradition provides a sense of continuity. . . . Those who work only within the bounds of their own tribal aesthetics do so not out of ignorance of other ways but because it is the most satisfying and productive thing for them. (Whiteford, 1988, p. 184) The baskets made for use in ritual are products that represent and are related to the Hopi belief system. The basket makers produce these items; thus, the artists can be considered to be facilitators of beliefs. They also help interpret many of the ideas connected with the ceremonies. One example is the basket makers of the Rain Cloud clan, who make baskets forthe Lalakonti Dance, which represents the mythical ancestral mother. These baskets help relate the Hopi mythology; thus, the basket makers are instrumental in helping propagate the beliefs of their culture. CONCLUSION Over the period that begins with the contact of Europeans and Anglo- Americans to the present, Tlinget, Hopi, and Ojibwa basketry has changed. It has not remained a static art form. Rather, the technology of producing baskets, the physical appearance of the baskets, and the function of the baskets all have changed. Many of these changes can be observed. In all three groups of baskets, one notes the use of natural dyes in early periods. Then, as aniline dyes became available, an increase in color usage is noted. Then a return to natural dyes in later years coincided with the revival of folk and natural handicrafts. Baskets from all three groups indicate a change from wooden and bone tools to the use of metal tools and equipment. The knife is used for cutting smaller splints, and metal awIs are used for closer coiling stitches. By looking at baskets in chronological order, one can determine the change in appearance. All three groups of baskets show a tighter, more precise handling of the materials. The coils and wicker work of the Hopi get smaller and tighter in later years. The twining and plaiting materials of the Tlinget baskets are thinner and narrower in baskets of recent manufacture. The Ojibwa baskets have very refined materials and handling of warp, weft, and decorative curls. Decoration on the baskets in all three groups becomes more involved. 243 244 The function of the basket shifts from a utilitarian item that is important to the daily home economy, to an item for commerce and an art form. Baskets are no longer needed to harvest the crops, haul water, or store items. Selling baskets becomes a means of adding income in a wage-earner society when baskets are made for tourists and collectors. The ceremonial use has decreased, whereas an increase in making baskets as an art form has been noted in recent years. Other functions such as being indicators of the division of labor and social behavior have remained the same. In recent years, the basket has functioned as a link with the past and an indicator of the society’s heritage, both past and present. By studying the baskets and relating their changes to the shifts in the societies, one gains a better understanding of the process of changes in the societies. The baskets, being part of a material culture, evolve and change with and within the culture. They do not remain a static item. Baskets as an art form slowly change in shape and design as the aesthetics of the societies change. As the demand for the baskets shifts from within the culture to the "outside" commercial market, the art form changes to meet those aesthetics. Basket shapes reflect experimentation and innovation through the years. When baskets are studied as an integral part of the Hopi, Ojibwa, and Tlinget cultures, one can understand how this art form indeed changed and why it changed. Even though all three cultures had contact with Europeans and 245 Anglo-Americans at different periods, the overall effect was the same, the influence was the same, and changes were similar. Indeed, one can see basket changes in relation to those changes in the three societies, but an additional level of awareness must be considered. Why did these societal changes affect basket production? The answer is not a simple one of cause and effect, but deals with the very notion or definition of craft. Baskets are a craft that, of late, have taken on many aspects of an art form. But inherently they are considered a craft, and the weavers are considered craftspersons or artisans. Craft can be defined by four components or references to preindustrial roots: (a) products are made substantially by hand, (b) they are functional, (c) they are natural-media-specific, and (d) they are founded in cultural traditions. Its past can be considered a reference from which craft can clarify its distinction from fine art or machine-made and mass-produced items. When products are made by hand, they have a quality that is not seen in machine-produced items. William Morris was well aware of this and wanted to bring attention to this fact. Thus, the Arts and Crafts Movement ofthe late 18005 was begun as a reaction to the machine-produced items of the Industrial Age. Pieces that are made by hand have an individual or unique quality about them. ' The public can relate to the fact that this piece has been manipulated by another human being; the maker has actually touched these materials and has put his or her own "sweat" into the effort. The finished product is a link between two 246 people. It is a "gift" from one human to another. A receiver can appreciate the effort, ingenuity, and skills of the maker; the product has a humanistic quality about it that appeals to pe0ple. The weaver has taken his or her own time to create this piece of work with his or her hands; thus, a period of individual history has been recorded and is on display through the product. It matters not whether the basket took one day or six days to weave; it still defines that time of physical manipulation of material, the time of mental involvement in decision making, the emotional involvement in the process, and aesthetic involvement in the selection of decoration, materials, and method. When the artisan is put into the context of his or her society, at any given moment, the weaver’s decisions and involvement are affected by what is happening in that society at that time. The hand-made product reflects that time and the weaver’s responses to that time. One needs to look at the changes in the roles or status of those hands that made the piece, the craftsperson, to note and understand the changes in the finished work. The artisan is not only a conceiver of ideas, pattern, manipulation of materials and need, but also the executor. He or she can be considered the outward manifestation or symbol of the creative purpose, the unbroken link in the traditions that encompass both the producer and the consumer within the social fabric, not only within the individual society, but as a bridge to other societies when the objects become items of trade or for sale. 247 The historic functional aspect of craft is important in that the function is what integrates the product into the society. Being a utilitarian item, crafts are made for specific purposes, to fill a specific need. They are made following a prescribed method, with prescribed materials that have been found to “work" for that particular society. Because ornamentation is a commonly understood cultural language, a social code, there is a continuum of meaning. The basic fact that aesthetics and function are integrated and that decoration and ornamentation are not separate from utility is a major characteristic of craft. There is little danger of stagnation when the craftsmanship is based on tradition. Each product is, to some degree, free from imitative intention because it is linked to the stream of life rather than being a product of a detached or isolated aesthetic or creation. The craftsperson is in touch with the changes within the society. Over time, as the society changes, the functions of the product change to meet the needs of that society. Materials may vary according to availability or ease in gaining them. Styles and decoration may change in relation to the functions of the work. Yet there is a basic tradition, and craft can be considered a rudder. It is one of the physical symbols of continence within a society, a seamless continuity. True, there are eras when a craft may not be made in as great quantities, but the making was never totally eliminated. To look at the waxing and waning of a craft and at the changing functions of a craft is to look at the history, social order, economics, and belief system of the society in which 248 the craft was made. An in-depth study of craft cannot be made by separating the craft from the societal context in which the product was produced. RECOMMENDATIONS To further understand the history, anthropology, and material culture of Native Americans, an interdisciplinary approach should be applied. Small entries into this methodology are being made, and the connections between the material culture, historical events, and cultural changes are tentatively being drawn. By increasing the number and depth of studies, using museum collections as a basis for study, and widening the approach, a more holistic view of Native Americans can be gleaned. Art studies in anthropology should be more than a recording of statistics and descriptions of the materials. They should include the use of the art, the artists’ role(s), and historical significance of the piece. Museums should make an effort to include more information concerning artists, manufacture dates and locale, materials, and methods in their cataloging. Nothing can be done about past neglect in this area, but the practice of recording only descriptions continues today. This should be changed to a more complete inventory of the contemporary collections. Also, contemporary collecting should be increased, not decreased, as funds are limited. It is as important to record current societies as past ones. This is extremely important to see a continuum in peoples. 249 250 Last, more studies should be made concerning the changes in basketry, not only in the three cultures examined in this paper, but also in other Native American societies. BIBLIOGRAPHY lull. gill]! i311. ii .Il ill. Ii 11]. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, Laura Graves. "Wicker, Plaiting and Coil." W W, Vol. 53, no. 4. 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