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thesis entitled

SPODOSOL DEVELOPMENT AS AFFECTED BY GEOMORPHIC ASPECT,
BARAGA COUNTY, MICHIGAN

presented by

Robert Vincent Hunckler

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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SPODOSOL DEVELOPMENT
AS AFFECTED BY GEOMORPHIC ASPECT,
BARAGA COUNTY, MICHIGAN
By

Robert Vincent Hunckler

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Geography

1996

ABSTRACT
SPODOSOL DEVELOPMENT
AS AFFECTED BY GEOMORPHIC ASPECT,
BARAGA COUNTY, MICHIGAN
By

Robert Vincent Hunckler

The influence of geomorphic aspect on Spodosol development was studied in
Baraga County, Michigan as a means of explaining within-landform variability. Soils with
spodic morphology, located on steep Slopes (45 to 73%) of contrasting aspect (N-NE vs.
S-SW), were examined on a dissected outwash plain. Variation in slope gradient (45 to
73%) was not a determining factor in the differential soil development found here.

Soils are better developed (i.e., more podzolized) on north-to-northeast—facing
slopes than on south-to-southwest slopes. Several soil characteristics indicative of strong
podzolization had significantly higher values on north-to-northeast slopes, including solum
thickness, POD Index and extractable Fe and Al in the B horizon. Soils were cooler on
north-to—northeast slopes. In April, November (1995) and January (1996), snow depths
were greater on north-to-northeast slopes.

Of the 10 pedons on north-to-northeast slopes, nine classified as Spodosols (Entic
or Typic Haplorthods); the other was an Entisol. Of the 10 pedons on south-to-southwest
slopes, seven classified as Entisols (Udipsamments or Udorthents); the remaining three

were Spodosols.

For Kicker and Buzz and Andrea

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Randy Schaetzl,
for all of his efforts and interest in this research; for his assistance with the initial fieldwork
of collecting the samples (especially on the hot, south-facing slopes); for his assistance
with the January soil temperature readings (let us never speak of it again); for his prompt
suggestions on the thesis text; and for his overall patience with me on my long,
tenure-track position as a Masters student.

I would like to thank Dr. Delbert Mokma (of the Crop and Soil Science
Department) who also served on my thesis committee and provided many insights on
methodology, conceptualization and podzolization. Also, a special thanks to Dr. Mokma
for the use of the Soil Classification Laboratory where much of this thesis was written and
all soil analysis was performed.

I would like to thank the staff at the Ford Forestry Center (Michigan
Technological University) in Alberta, Michigan for providing laboratory and dormitory
space during the fieldwork and also for providing the use of their Ford Bronco when the
gales of November came early.

I would like to thank Dr. Daniel Brown for serving as the alternate reader of this
thesis (over the Christmas holidays) on such short notice. I would like to thank Dr. David
Lusch and Dr. Julie Winkler for their interest in my thesis and for their input on technical
and statistical background information.

I would like to thank the Geography Department for providing computer

iv

laboratory facilities and also for granting me a $400 Graduate Office Fellowship to help
out with the costs of this research. I would like to thank the Geography office Staff for
their invaluable and friendly assistance over the last four years. A special thanks to
Mr. Michael Lipsey for his omnipresent technical support with the Geography Department
computer hardware and software (sorry about the viruses).

A special congratulations to the Wisconsinan Glacier for producing such incredible
landscape sculptures. And a special thanks to the Holy Spirit for the knowledge and
understanding of such geologic events. A very special thanks to Mom and Dad and my

wife, Andrea, for just about everything else involving my graduate degree.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................... -. ............................. xi
INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................. 6
Soil Development ............................................... 6
Vegetation .................................................... 8

Soil and Air Temperature ........................................ 10
STUDY AREA ..................................................... 12
Location ..................... , ............................... 12
Geomorphology ............................................... 12
General Land Office Survey ...................................... 14

Soils and Vegetation ........................................... 15
Particle Size Analysis ............................................ 18
METHODS ........................................................ 24
Field Methods ................................................ 24
Laboratory Methods ........................................... 28
Statistical Methods ............................................. 28
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................ 30
Effects of Slope Gradient on Soil Development ....................... 30
Effects of Slope Aspect on Soil Development ......................... 34

Soil Temperature ........................................ 34

Horizon Depths and Thicknesses ............................ 45

E Horizon Depths and Thicknesses ..................... 45

B Horizon Depths and Thicknesses ..................... 47

Solum Thickness ........................................ 50

POD Index ............................................. 54

Soil Color .............................................. 54

Uppermost E Horizon ............................... 54

Uppermost B Horizon ............................... 57

Soil Reaction ........................................... 59

SoilzKCl Reaction ................................... 59

Soil H20 Reaction ................................... 62

Acid Ammonium Oxalate Extraction Data ..................... 65

Uppermost E Horizon ............................... 65

Uppermost B Horizon ............................... 73

2nd Uppermost B Horizon ........................... 75

Optical Density of the Oxalate Extract (ODOE) ................. 76

E Horizon ODOE .................................. 76

B Horizon ODOE ................................... 81

B Horizon ODOE + E Horizon ODOE ................... 82

Sodium Pyrophosphate Extraction Data ....................... 84

Uppermost E Horizon ............................... 84

Uppermost B Horizon ............................... 91

2nd Uppermost B Horizon ........................... 94

Ammonium Oxalate - Na Pyrophosphate ..................... 94

Uppermost E Horizon ............................... 95

Uppermost B Horizon ............................... 95

2nd Uppermost B Horizon ............................ 99

Snowpack Thickness ...................................... 99

Soil Classification ........................................ 103

Podzolization in the Study Area ............................. 105

Summary and Conclusions ................................. 110

Suggestions for Further Research ............................ 112

APPENDDI A ..................................................... 114
APPENDD( B ...................................................... 134
APPENDIX C ...................................................... 144
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 154

Table 1.

Table 2.

Table 3.

Table 4.

Table 5.

Table 6.

Table 7.

Table 8.

Table 9.

Table 10.

Table 11.

Table 12.

Table 13.

Table 14.

Table 15.

Table 16.

Table 17.

Table 18.

LIST OF TABLES
Typical tree species found on opposing Slope aspects
(in order of estimated dominance) documented in this study ............ 18

Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for
differences in particle Size separates, per horizon (unweighted) .......... 20

Solum-weighted particle size data for sampled pedons ................ 22

Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for
differences in weighted particle Size separates, per solum .............. 23

Results of regression analyses on
slope gradient vs. individual soil characteristics ...................... 31

Mean soil temperature data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ............. 38

Mean horizon and solum thickness data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) . . . 46

Mean soil color and POD Index data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ..... 55
Mean pH (KCl) data and statistics (Wilcoxon 1949) ................. 60
Mean pH (H20) data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ................. 63
Mean Feo and A10 data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ............... 68
Acid ammonium oxalate extraction data .......................... 69
Data on optical density of oxalate extracts ........................ 77
Mean ODOE data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ................... 80
Mean Fep and A1,, data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ............... 87
Na pyrophosphate extraction data ............................... 88
Mean Feo - Fep data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ................. 96
Mean Alo - Alp data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ................. 97

Table 19.

Table 20.

Table 21.

Table 22.

Table 23.

Table 24.

Table 25.

Table 26.

Table 27.

Table 28.

Table 29.

Table 30.

Table 31.

Table 32.

Table 33.

Table 34.

Table 35.

Table 36.

Table 37.

Table 38.

Table 39.

Mean snowpack depth data and statistics (W ilcoxon 1949) ............ 102
Soil classification and the presence or

absence of Albic and Spodic horizons ........................... 104
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S1 ................... 134
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N1 ................... 134
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S2 ................... 135
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N2 ................... 135
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S3 ................... 136
Morphological characteristics and pH of siteN3 ................... 136
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S4 ................... 137
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N4 ................... 137
Morphological characteristics and pH of site SS ................... 138
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N5 ................... 138
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S6 ................... 139
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N6 ................... 139
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S7 ................... 140
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N7 ................... 140
Morphological characteristics and pH of site 88 ................... 141
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N8 ................... 141
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S9 ................... 142
Morphological characteristics and pH of site N9 ................... 142
Morphological characteristics and pH of site S 10 ................... 143

Table 40.

Table 41.

Table 42.

Table 43.

Table 44.

Table 45.

Table 46.

Table 47.

Table 48.

Table 49.

Table 50.

Morphological characteristics and pH of site N 10 ................... 143
Particle size analysis for sites 81 and N1 .......................... 144
Particle size analysis for sites S2 and N2 .......................... 145
Particle Size analysis for sites S3 and N3 .......................... 146
Particle Size analysis for sites S4 and N4 .......................... 147
Particle size analysis for sites SS and N5 .......................... 148
Particle size analysis for sites S6 and N6 .......................... 149
Particle size analysis for sites S7 and N7 .......................... 150
Particle size analysis for Sites S8 and N8 .......................... 151
Particle size analysis for sites S9 and N9 .......................... 152
Particle Size analysis for Sites 810 and N10 ........................ 153

Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.

Figure 25.

Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.

Figure 32.

Figure 33.

Figure 34.

Mean pH (H20) by mean horizon depth on opposing aspects ........ 64
Mean Fe0 depth plot for opposing aspects ....................... 66
Mean Al0 depth plot for opposing aspects ....................... 67
Feo of the uppermost E horizon on opposing aspects ............... 71
A10 of the uppermost B horizon on opposing aspects ............... 72
Feo of the uppermost B horizon on opposing aspects ............... 74
Mean ODOE depth plot for opposing aspects .................... 79
Calculated ODOE:

uppermost B horizon / uppermost E horizon on opposing aspects ..... 83
Mean Fep depth plot for opposing aspects ...................... 85
Mean Alp depth plot for opposing aspects ....................... 86
FeP of the uppermost E horizon on Opposing aspects .............. 90
Fe? of the uppermost B horizon on opposing aspects .............. 92
AlP of the uppermost B horizon on opposing aspects .............. 93
A10 - AlP of the uppermost E horizon on opposing aspects .......... 98

Variable depths of snowpack on

opposing aspects (April 26, 1995) ............................. 100
Snowpack depth data

on opposing aspects (November 5, 1995) ....................... 101
Podzolization feedback flow chart ............................. 109

INTRODUCTION

Like all soils, Spodosols exist in various stages of development at different
locations, even on the same landform. The study of these spatial differences in soil
development is the essence of soil geography. Soil geographers often attempt to examine
the causes for spatial variation in soil development by utilizing one of several theoretical
models. One such examination can be accomplished by investigating individual soil-
forming factors of the functional-factorial model of soil development (Jenny 1941). In this
model, diffemeces in the five soil-forming factors (climate, organisms, relief, parent
material and time) are thought to account for most of the Spatial variation in soil
development. The current research utilizes Jenny's model and attempts to examine
differences in soil development that may have formed due to spatial variations of climate
(microclimate).

Surface slope and aspect are critical factors affecting Spodosol development on
landforms, due (ultimately) to variable solar radiation input at the ground and vegetational
(grass or forest canopy) surfaces. Spatial patterns of Spodosol development that correlate
closely with surface slope and aspect would be useful to understanding the geography of
Spodosols and the relationships to the landscapes in which they exist. Such spatial
patterns would aid in the classification of soils and the suggested land use of an area, and
thus perhaps, increase land productivity.

In hilly terrain, the incidence angle of the sun varies from one location to another
due to differences in local topography and the subsequent partial shading of the landscape.

Equatorial regions of the world (i.e., less than 20° N and S latitude) are

2

virtually unaffected by this Shading phenomenon because solar radiation is received from
angles both north and south of (and always very close to) celestial zenith during the entire
year. Polar regions (i.e., greater than 70° N and S latitude) are also essentially unaffected
by this phenomenon due to the fact that solar radiation is received from many directions
throughout the summer daylight periods, and during the winter months is either not
received at all or is at a very low level of intensity due to the low inclination of the sun.
Thus, a hilly landscape in a polar region receives small, but nonetheless equal, amounts of
solar radiation on all surfaces over the year. However, a hilly area located between 30°
and 60° latitude may be dramatically affected by this shading phenomenon. It is in these
latitudes that the directional orientation of a hillslope (its aspect) becomes a major factor
in the amount of solar radiation received by that particular parcel of land, and hence, its
microclimate.

Researchers have found that north-tO-northeast-facing slopes differ from adjoining
south—to-southweSt-facing Slopes in several climate-related categories. Soil temperature
(Franzmeier et al. 1969, Macyk et al. 1978), atmospheric temperature (Cantlon 1953.
Whittaker et al. 1969), soil moisture (Finney et al. 1962, Carter & Ciolkosz 1991),
atmospheric moisture (Cantlon 1953, Finney et al. 1962) and wind velocity (Cantlon 1953,
Lieffers and Larkin-Lieffers 1987) have been shown to vary from one location to another
within a small geographic area, Often due to aspect. These microenvironmental differences
could play a vital role in the development of soils over time.

The purpose of this research was to determine if Spodosols (mapped as sandy and

sandy over loamy, mixed, frigid Entic Haplorthods (Berndt 1988)) within the study area

3

are more or less developed (i.e., greater translocation of mobile materials, thicker genetic
horizons, etc.) due to geomorphic aspect. To attain this information, pedons were
described and sampled on steep slopes (45 to 73%) of contrasting aspect (0° to 45°
azimuth vs. 180° to 225° azimuth). Morphological and chemical characteristics of paired
pedons were analyzed for differences and tested for statistical significance utilizing a
paired-comparison approach (W ilcoxon 1949).

Numerous studies of soil development as affected by geomorphic aspect have been
performed (see Literature Review, page 6). However, none of these studies has examined
Spodosols and the effect of geomorphic aspect on their development. Since the present
study is the first attempt at examining SpodoSol development with regard to geomorphic
aspect, complicating factors such as topographic position on the slope, parent material and
microrelief were held as close to constant as possible.

Results of this study can be used in forestry, soil mapping and land-use planning
applications in an attempt to better utilize the soil resources of the area. Foresters could
plan on better tree production in the area if appropriate tree species were planted on
different soil types, thus, taking advantage of the natural state of the soil. If soil types are
highly correlated with slope aspect, the process of soil identification for the forester
becomes a much simpler task.

The Podzolization Process

"Podzolization" or those processes leading to the development of Spodosols

occurs mostly in sandy to coarse loamy parent material of Pleistocene or Holocene age.

Podzolization is most commonly found to have taken place in cool humid climates

4

(McKeague, et al. 1983). The podzolization process involves the following steps, which
often take place simultaneously (Mokma and Buurman 1982):

1. Accumulation of organic matter on the ground surface.

After the deposition of the (mineral) parent material(s), organic matter
accumulates on the surface as a result of the litter from flora and the incorporation of its
decay products by fauna. Organic matter also accumulates below the ground surface due
to the decomposition of plant roots and the subsequent incorporation of its decay products
by fauna (Mokma and Buurman 1982).

2. Leaching and acidification of the parent material.

Before humus, Fe and Al can be translocated, most exchangeable bases (especially
calcium) must be removed from the upper horizons. Bases will form insoluble compounds
with the water-soluble organic materials (Mokma and Buurman 1982), thus preventing
any weathering/translocation of sesquioxides. In the present Study, pH’s of the C horizon,
as well as the absence of carbonate bedrock near and north of the study area indicate that
a relatively acid environment may have existed at the inception of these soils (see Soil
Reaction, p.59). Thus, perhaps only a short period of time had to pass before weathering
and translocation could take place.

3. Weathering of Fe and Al; decomposition of organic matter.

The decomposition of organic matter allows fulvic acids to chelate with Fe and Al
(also Ca and Mg) to form organo-metallic complexes. The chelation of fulvic acids with
Fe and Al then propogates the movement of these metals down through the soil (Petersen

1975).

5

4. Translocation and subsequent immobilization of organic matter, Fe
and Al (as organo-metallic complexes).

As the organo-metallic complexes migrate downward, they chelate (adsorb)
additional Fe and Al cations. Immobilization of these organo-metallic complexes can
occur when sufficient amounts of Fe and A1 are adsorbed to form large immobile organo-
metallic compounds. Immobilization can also occur through dessication or when a
horizon of different (usually higher) pH is encountered (Mokma and Buurman 1982).
Immobilized organo-metallic complexes can become cemented over time. However, in the

present study, very little cementation was observed.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Studies of aspect have, in general, been conducted to determine the effect of solar
intensity on the physical and biological characteristics of a given location. The
microclimates that result from differential solar input can change the physical response of
an area. Aspect studies have analyzed, among others, the spatial variations in: 1) soil
development; 2) vegetation; 3) air temperature; and 4) snow cover, all based upon slope
orientation and resulting microclimatic phenomena. The literature on these individual
topics will be covered in the following sections.
Soil Development

Studies that have analyzed soils with regard to slope orientation and microclimate
have not been limited to any geographical area; however, the Appalchian Mountains are
well represented. Franzrneier et a1 (1969) studied north- and south-facing slopes (36-
62%) in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. In silt loam parent materials over bedrock, they
found darker profiles located on north-facing slopes. They also found greater amounts of
organic matter in all horizons on north—facing slopes. Most of the profiles located on
south-facing slopes had argillic horizons while most on the north—facing slopes had only
cambic horizons. Finney et a1. (1962) studied northeast- and southwest-facing, dissected
slopes (40-60%) developed in residuum in southeastern Ohio. In silt loam to sandy loam
soils, they found thinner A1 horizons on southwest-facing slopes as well as more Strongly
developed A2 (E) and B horizons on the same slopes. They also found lower pH values in
the upper solum of soils found on southwest-facing sites. Hicks and Franks (1984)

studied northeast- and southwest-facing slopes in West Virginia. In this dissected

7

residuum, they found that the A horizons of northeast-facing slopes contained larger
amounts of manganese and potassium than did those on southwest-facing slopes. They
attributed this difference to more complete litter decomposition and, hence, more rapid
nutrient cycling on northeast-facing slopes. Losche et al. (1970) studied north- and south-
facing slopes (25-40%) in Virginia, as well as north- and south-facing slopes (50%) in
North Carolina. Although the soils in Virginia exhibited very little difference from north
to south slopes, the soils at the North Carolina Sites did exhibit inter-slope differences. In
North Carolina the soils located on south-facing slopes were redder, had a higher free iron
content, contained more clay in the B horizon, exhibited more evidence of clay illuviation,
had thicker sola and showed greater evidence of profile differentiation than did the soils
located on north-facing slopes. Cooper (1960) Studied north- and south—facing slopes of
31-60% in southeastern Michigan. On a sandy disintegration moraine, he found shallow,
intensely developed sola on south-facing slopes contrasted by deeper, less intensely
developed sola on north-facing slopes. Macyk et al. (1978) studied north- and south-
facing slopes of 15% just west of Edmonton, Alberta. On loamy till knobs, they found
that aspect and microclimate had a greater effect on soil morphology and related physical
properties (chroma, structure, etc.) than on the soil chemical properties (pH, CEC, Fe, Al,
etc.). Only minor differences in chemical characteristics were noted between soils on
north- and south-facing slopes. They also found that profiles with a wider flucuation in
water content (wet-dry cycles) over time appeared to be the most strongly developed
morphologically. Marron and Popenoe (1986) studied north- and south—facing slopes (15-

75%) in northwestern California. In gravelly loam residuum, they found that a greater

8

degree of soil development existed on north-facing slopes indicated by the redder B
horizons and greater clay accumulation in the B horizon of those Slopes. They also found
soil development to be inversely related to slope gradient due to more episodic and
destructive mass movements on the steeper slopes. Alexander (1995) studied north- and
south-facing slopes (14-82%) that were also in northwestern California. In residuum and
colluvium over bedrock he found a larger proportion of shallow soils on south-facin g
slopes. Stepanov (1967) studied north— and south-facing Slopes in the alpine region of
Western Tien-Shan (central Asia). In limestone residuum, he found thicker layers of
organic material and deeper carbonate leaching on north-facing slopes when compared to
that of opposing slopes. He also found lower soil temperatures (at 40cm) and higher
nitrogen content in the soils of north-facing slopes when compared to that of south-facing
Slopes.

The above studies ultimately mentioned microclimate and its associated
vegetational and/or erosional differences as the major factors contributing to markedly
different soil morphologies at their Study sites.

Vegetation

Cantlon (1953) studied north- and south-facing slopes (40-50%) in central New Jersey.
On opposing slopes he found the vegetation to be quite different. No species was found
to be completely exclusive to either slope, yet the magnitude of the differences tended to
increase toward the ground. In other words, the smallest inter-slope differences were
found in the main tree layer while the greatest differences were found in the understory of

ground plants. Lieffers and Larkin-Lieffers (1987) studied grassland communities in the

9

coulees of the Oldman River, Alberta. They found that aspect, in conjunction with slope
position, slope shape and slope gradient, indirectly affected the vegetational diversity of
the coulees through their impact on the soil moisture regime. Species that were adapted
to moist conditions or hot and dry sites were found in relatively close proximity. Cater
(1961) studied sugar maple distribution in northwestern New Brunswick-- the northern
limit of its range. He found that sugar maple extended further downslope on east- and
northeast-facing slopes than on west- and southwest-facing slopes. N o explanation was
put forth for this apparent anomaly. Hicks and Franks (1984) studied forests on
northeast- and southwest-facing slopes in north-central West Virginia. On ridges and
southwest-facing slopes, they found white oak, black oak, northern red oak and chestnut
oak. Valleys and northeast-facing slopes were generally dominated by yellow-poplar, with
red maple being a substantial component of all sites. Harrington and Neithercut (1985)
studied northeast- and southwest-facing slopes in northwestern Lower Michigan where
they found sugar maple to be the dominant species on both aspects. However, significant
differences were found in the distribution of secondary species. Beech, basswood, black
cherry, Slippery elm and hemlock were found more commonly on northeast-facing slopes
while white ash, ironwood and bigtooth aspen were more abundant on southwest-facing
slopes. Hutchins et al. (1976) studied northeast- and southwest-facing Slopes in
Kentucky. Vegetation of northeast-facing slopes was more diverse, sustaining such
species as yellow poplar, basswood and cucumber magnolia. Southwest-facing slopes
supported a less diverse plant community and less dense tree stands, with oak and hickory

species dominating.

10

Soil and Air Temperature

Gieger (1969) states that many factors contribute to microclimate, including latitude,
slope, aspect, wind, microtopography, macrotopography, precipitation, cloud cover,
diffuse sky radiation, radiation reflected from the ground, outgoing longwave radiation
and elevation. However, in most of the studies presented here, it seems that degree of
slope and aspect are put forth as the two main factors that create differences in soil and air
temperatures on opposing slopes.

Cantlon (1953) studied north- and south-facing slopes in New Jersey. He found soil
and air temperatures on opposing slopes to be quite different. During the summer, on
south-facing slopes, the air temperature profile was characterized by three different types:
1) under heavy shade, the air temperature was cooler near the ground when compared to
two m above ground, 2) under medium shade, the daytime temperature profile was
generally isothermal with no great difference in air temperature with height and, 3) in small
openings in the canopy, air temperature was much more variable with height, exhibiting
warmer daytime temperatures near the ground. On north-facing slopes, however, air
temperatures were cooler near the ground throughout much of the year, regardless of
canopy coverage. Cooper (1960) studied north- and south-facing slopes in southeastern
Michigan. He found warmer average soil temperatures on south-facing Slopes which he
identified as the main factor contributing to increased chemical weathering on these south-
facing slopes. He found that the soils on south-facing slopes were more intensely
weathered than those of north-facing slopes. Cooper (1960) also observed the greatest

difference in air temperature maxima (between north- and south-facing slopes) during the

ll

mid-summer. Differences in air temperature minima during the growing season were not
more than one degree C between opposing slopes. Macyk et al. (1978) studied north- and
south-facing slopes near Edmonton, Alberta. They found that soil temperatures decreased
with depth in summer, yet during the spring and fall, variations of the soil temperature
profile were observed. For example, in the spring, a cool layer was "sandwiched" between
warmer upper and lower soil layers. The temperature of the soil at 100 cm was warmer
than the temperature at 30 cm during most of May, September and October. Related to
this phenomenon, Russell (1961) stated that heat moves downward through the surface in
the summer and upward through the surface in the winter. In the spring, heat moves
downward from the surface and upward from belOw, thus creating a "sandwiched" cooler
layer within the soil. Franzmeier et al. (1969) studied soils on north- and south-facing
slopes in Kentucky and Tennessee. They found greater differences in soil temperature
between opposing slopes during the winter. They also found that sites located at lower
topographic positions on the slope had cooler soil temperatures than those above.
Although the overall air temperatures dropped dramatically in December and January, the
soil temperatures did not exhibit such a dramatic drop during the same two months due to
the insulating capacity of the snowpack. Solar radiation reached a maximum in June, yet
soil and air temperatures changed very little between June and August Hutchins et al.
(1976) studied northeast- and southwest-facing slopes in Kentucky. They found that
southwest Slopes received greater intensities of solar radiation and therefore had warmer
temperatures and greater evaporative demand. The results of this scenario were less dense

tree stands and less developed vegetation on the southwest-facing Slopes.

STUDY AREA
Location

The study area is located in northwestern Baraga County, Michigan at
approximately 46° 4S'N, 88° 30'W (U SPLS Township and Range: TSON, R34W)
(Figure l). The study area covers nearly 30 km2 (approximately 3 x 10 km, with the long
axis oriented northeast-southwest). This area was chosen based on the following
attributes: 1) abundant unplowed Spodosols; 2) deep, consistent sandy parent material that
remains nearly constant throughout the area; 3) suficiently steep slopes (45 to 73%
documented in this study); 4) virtually every possible slope aspect; and S) no indications of
shallow bedrock in the area (which could influence pedogenesis). The boundary of the
study area is delineated by a single soil mapping polygon (Rousseau-Ocqueoc fine sands,
dissected, 15 to 70% slopes) as was mapped in the Baraga County Soil Survey (Bemdt
1988).
Geomorphology

The Wisconsin Glacier retreated from Baraga County for the final time around
9900 years BP (Farrand and Drexler 1985). As the glacier retreated rapidly to the
northeast from the study area (F arrand and Drexler 1985) into what is now L'Anse Bay, an
outwash plain (F arrand and Bell 1982) of mostly sand, with some silt and some gravel
(Bemdt 1988), was deposited in the area. Today, this outwash plain (known as the
Baraga Plains), lies perched above and to the south of the study area, and covers
approximately 120 km”. The northern edge, or escarpment, of this outwash plain was

subsequently dissected as the glacier retreated. The study area lies within this

12

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

km

0 25

 

 

 

 

 

.o—.—. r— .____._..__.

 

 

Figure 1. Location of study area within Michigan and within Baraga County.

14

dissected escarpment.

This dissected escarpment has a pattern of dendritic ravines, each of which varies
from 15 to 500 m in width and 5 to 60 m in depth. Ridgetops range from 5 to 30 m in
width and ravine bottoms from 5 to 300 m in width. The ravines often exhibit very steep
sideslopes that range from 15 to 70% (Bemdt 1988). The decrease in elevation from the
Baraga Plains (average elevation = 400 m) to Lake Superior (elevation = 183 m) over the
relatively short distance of 9 to 10 km probably led to the rapid dissection that
characterizes the steep nature of the topographic features in this area. Elevations within
the study area vary from 225 to 375 m.

A drainage divide exists across the center of the study area. The southwest
portion of the study area is in the Clear Creek (and ultimately the Sturgeon River)
drainage basin. The northeast portion of the study area is in the Menge Creek drainage
basin. Half of the study sites were selected from each side of this divide. The entire study
area lies within the Lake Superior drainage basin.

General Land Office Survey

In the middle 1800's, the General Land Office, a federal agency, surveyed
unclaimed U.S. land in order to determine its potential resource productivity and overall
usefulness. Surveyors recorded the precise location and species of many thousands of
trees as they walked and plotted square-mile section lines. Brief descriptions were also
recorded regarding the general nature of the land. Baraga County was surveyed by the
General Land Office between the years of 1846-1854 (Barrett et al. 1995).

The study area proper was described in 1849-50 as broken and very hilly with

15

many ravines and high sharp ridges. The soil was described as sandy and "second-rate."
The forest was generally timbered with hemlock, yellow birch, sugar maple, red maple,
pine, cedar, balsam fir, tamarack, spruce and aspen. N O bedrock exposures were noted in
and around the study area, suggesting the presence of thick glacial deposits. No mention
was made of differential or alternating vegetative cover on slopes of opposing aspect as
was documented in the present study (see below).
Soils and Vegetation

The soils of the study area are mapped as a complex of Rousseau and Ocqueoc
fine sands, dissected, with Slopes of 15 to 70% (Berndt, 1988). Rousseau soils are
classified as sandy, mixed, frigid Entic Haplorthods, and Ocqueoc soils are classified as
sandy over loamy, mixed, frigid Entic Haplorthods (Soil Survey Staff 1994). These two
series are similar, except that Ocqueoc soils have a lithologic discontinuity and contain
silty material in a 2C horizon which seems to indicate intermittent ponding of water
subsequent and/or contemporaneous to the glacial retreat. Rousseau soils have fine sand
textures throughout, and lack a lithologic discontinuity (Bemdt, 1988). The Rousseau-
Ocqueoc association is composed of approximately 62% Rousseau soils, 20% Ocqueoc
soils and 18% soils of minor extent (Bemdt 1988). Eleven research sites contained
pedons that ultimately classified as either Rousseau or Ocqueoc fine sand. The-soil at one
other Site was clearly more developed (with a Bhs horizon) than the others, and was
identified as Liminga fine sand (sandy, mixed, frigid Typic Haplorthods). The Lirninga soil
series is not mapped in Baraga County due to its small areal extent. The remaining eight

sites contained pedons that ultimately classified as Udorthents and Udipsamments (see

l6

Classification section in the Results). Typical soil profiles are shown in Figure 2

Much of northern Michigan, including the study area, was logged in the late 1800's
and early 1900's (Whitney 1987, Williams 1989). The present vegetative cover of the
study area seems rather typical Of second- growth northern hardwood forests. Vegetation
observed at individual sites is listed in Appendix A. A summary of dominant vegetation at
each Site is listed in Table 1. Common tree species (in the study area) include aspen
(Populus spp.), white birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh), hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.)
Carr.), red maple (Acer rubrun L.), white pine (Pinus strobus L.), red pine (Pinus
resinosa Ait.) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill). All of the pedon sites in the
study area were forested at the time of sampling and during subsequent soil temperature
fieldwork. Understory vegetation ranged from only a few mosses at some sites to thick
covers of bracken fern and Wintergreen at other sites. In the summer of 1995, bracken
fern existed at only 6 of 10 north-to-northeast—facing sites, persisting in limited size
(height < 0.5 m) and number at each site. The remaining 4 sites on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes exhibited Sparse understory vegetation with intermittently dispersed mosses
and small wildflowers. Simultaneously, the bracken fern on 8 of 10 south-to-southwest-
facing sites were numerous and sometimes reached heights of 1.5 m. The remaining two
sites on south-to-southwest-facing slopes exhibited only small Wintergreen or else no

understory vegetation whatsoever.

l7

 

 

 

 

W W
O + A O + A
W 8.0 cm 7.4 cm ~W
E E

5YR 512. IS 171 an ~~I¥M~
881 or Bhs 5YR 4/6, fsl
5YR 314, Is 31.3 cm W—-
W 37.9 cm
852
7.5YR 416, Is
83
5YR 416’ fsl 50.0 cm #xrx—rw
W 59.0 cm BC
7.5YR 4/4. ls
BC 65.5 cm ”Ww
7.5Y R 4/6. ls
C
7.5YR 5/4, ls
C
7.5YR 4M, Is
N-NE-facing slope S—SW-facing slope

Figure 2. Typical soil profiles on opposing lepes.

18

Table 1. Typical tree species found on opposing Slope aspects (in order of
estimated dominance) documented in this study.

WWW Wanna
l. hemlock, T suga canadensis (L) Carr. 1. white birch, Betula papyrrfera Marsh.
2. white birch, Betula papynfera Marsh. 2. aspen, Populus spp.

3. red maple, Acer mbrum L. 3. red maple, Acer rubmm L.

4. aspen, Populus spp. 4. white pine, Pinus strobus L.

5. yellow birch, Betula alleghaniensis Britton. 5. hemlock, T saga canadensis (L.) Carr.
6. red oak, Quercus rubra L. 6. balsam fir, Abies balsamea (L) Mill.
7. sugar maple, Acersaccharum Marsh. 7. red pine, Pinus resinosa Ait.

8. sugar maple, Acer saccharum Marsh.

 

Particle Size Analysis

Particle size data for genetic horizons in the 20 sampled pedons are listed in
Appendix B. Coarse fragment content (> 2 mm) did not exceed 10% by volume for any
horizon and most had < 5% coarse fragments. Surface textures ranged from sand to fine
sandy loam and materials below lithologic discontinuities ranged from loamy coarse sand
to loam in texture. Typical pedons contained between 70 and 90% total sand with fine
sand and medium sand comprising most of that total. Lithologic discontinuities exist in

eight of the 20 pedons, however, only one of these discontinuities occurs within the solum

19
(site S3). Statistical analysis (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) on the percentage of individual size
fractions (vcs, cs, ms, fs, vfs, total sand, and silt+clay) on a horizon-basis for paired
pedons shows that significant differences do not exist in the amounts of these separates in
corresponding horizons on opposing slope aspects (Table 2).

Amounts of individual particle size fractions within each pedon were also then
weighted by solum thickness; these data are shown in Table 3. Solum-weighted
calculations included the E horizon(s) and the B horizons of each pedon. Horizons of this
type that occurred below a lithologic discontinuity were eliminated from the calculation
(this occurred only for site S3). The resulting horizon-weighted values were then summed
and divided by their cumulative thickness to arrive at solum-weighted particle size data
(Table 3). Statistical analyses (W ilcoxon, at or = 0.05) on the weighted percentages of
each size fraction (vcs, cs, ms, fs, vfs, total sand and silt+clay) Show that no significant
differences exist in the solum-weighted particle size data for paired pedons
on opposing slope aspects (Table 4). This confirms that the textures in the solum of

sampled pedons are uniform and probably of the same origin.

20

 

 

Table 2. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for differences
in particle size separates, per horizon (unweighted).
Mean
(standard deviation) Higher Significance
Horizon and m (Install)
particle size fraction N-NE- S-SW- p
facing slope facing slope
E horizon total sand 76.7 (7.1) 80.4 (6.3) S-SW 0.20
E horizon vcs 1.2 (1.2) 1.1 (1.0) N-NE 0.80
E horizon cs 5.8 (5.9) 4.9 (3.1) N-NE 0.96
B horizon ms 23.8 (8.3) 20.9 (5.2) N-NE 0.39
E horizon fs 36.7 (9.5) 34.9 (9.3) N-NE 0.45
B horizon vfs 12.8 (5.0) 15.0 (4.2) S-SW 0.45
Uppermost B horizon total sand 79.6 (9.9) 77.1 (6.2) N-NE 0.36
Uppermost B horizon vcs 1.9 (2.1) 1.7 (2.3) N-NE 0.86
Uppermost B horizon cs 6.0 (5.5) 5.0 (3.7) N-NE 0.88
Uppermost B horizon ms 22.8 (10.2) 20.9 (6.9) N-NE 0.65
Uppermost B horizon fs 35.3 (9.6) 33.98 (8.6) N-NE 0.80
Uppermost B horizon vfs 13.6 (6.1) 15.5 (5.5) S-SW 0.51
2nd uppermost B horizon tot. sand 76.7 (11.6) 81.7 (5.9) S-SW 0.52
2nd uppermost B horizon vcs 1.1 (0.9) 1.4 (1.0) S-SW 0.37
2nd uppermost B horizon cs 3.8 (3.3) 5.3 (3.0) S-SW 0.09
2nd uppermost B horizon ms 18.0 (9.6) 24.4 (10.2) S-SW 0.07
2nd uppermost B horizon fs 36.8 (9.5) 37.2 (5.3) S-SW 0.52
2nd uppermost B horizon vfs 16.0 (6.1) 13.4 (6.0) N-NE 0.09

Table 2. (cont’d.)

21

 

 

Mean
(standard deviation) Higher Significance
Horizon and salsa (lawstail)
particle size fraction N-NE- S-SW- p
facing slope facing slope

BC or 2BC horizon total sand 80.5 (12.7) 84.1 (6.3) S-SW 0.78
BC or 2BC horizon vcs 1.1 (1.1) 1.2 (0.7) S-SW 0.58
BC or 2BC horizon cs 4.1 (4.5) 5.4 (3.1) S-SW 0.26
BC or 2BC horizon ms 22.2 (10.9) 28.6 (12.4) S-SW 0.26
BC or 2BC horizon fs 39.1 (9.3) 37.7 (7.8) N-NE 0.09
BC or 2BC horizon vfs 14.0 (5.4) 11.2 (5.7) N-NE 0.26
C, 2C or 3C horizon total sand 80.9 (15.7) 82.8 (12.0) S-SW 0.26
C, 2C or 3C horizon vcs 0.4 (0.5) 1.5 (2.6) S-SW 0.33
C, 2C or 3C horizon cs 8.1 (15.1) 6.1 (8.9) N-NE 0.67
C, 2C or 3C horizon ms 24.9 (17.8) 26.7 (20.6) S-SW 0.48
C, 2C or 3C horizon fs 35.0 (17.9) 34.8 (12.7) N-NE 0.89
C, 2C or 3C horizon vfs 12.4 (9.2) 13.6 (12.9) S-SW 0.67

22

Table 3. Solum-weighted particle size data for sampled pedons.1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sand Silt + Clay VCS CS MS FS VFS

Radon 2.00.05 <0.05 2.01.0 1.00.5 0.5-0.25 0.25-0.1 01-0.05
mm
mm ------- WW --------

S] 64.4 34.9 0.3 1.9 13.9 28.5 19.7
S2 74.1 25.3 1.3 4.6 15.9 29.5 22.8
S3 69.4 29.8 1.6 6.6 19.1 24.0 18.1
S4 80.6 18.6 0.9 3.2 23.9 39.6 13.0
SS 81.9 16.6 0.6 3.1 21.8 42.0 14.5
S6 85.9 12.8 0.8 3.4 21.8 47.7 12.2
S7 77.8 21.2 0.7 2.4 14.4 41.5 18.8
SS 74.1 24.8 1.2 3.9 15.2 35.4 18.3
S9 83.5 8.8 0.9 _ 8.1 35.1 31.0 8.5
810 81.1 7.6 4.6 11.7 29.2 26.9 8.7
Mean 77.3 20.0 1.3 4.9 21.0 34.6 15.5
N1 70.1 29.1 2.6 11.4 28.2 19.2 8.7
N2 60.1 39.7 0.2 0.9 9.6 32.3 17.2
N3 89.2 4.6 3.6 13.0 35.2 31.1 6.4
N4 85.5 14.1 0.8 2.9 22.3 41.4 18.2
NS 89.3 9.3 2.4 7.2 29.2 40.0 10.5
N6 83.2 15.3 0.9 5.0 25.5 48.6 13.3
N7 85.0 13.9 0.7 1.7 19.0 48.7 15.0
N8 79.0 20.1 0.3 1.5 14.9 42.2 20.2
N9 71.0 27.3 1.0 4.3 24.0 30.9 10.9
N10 75.8 23.5 0.5 1.4 10.4 40.2 23.2
Mean 78.8 19.7 1.3 4.9 21.8 37.5 14.4

 

1

Includes the E horizon(s) and B horizons of each pedon. Horizons below a lithologic dis-

continuity were eliminated from the calculation (site 83 only). Corresponding percentages
on opposing slopes are not significantly different (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) in any pedon.

23

Table 4. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for differences
in weighted particle size separates, per solum.

 

 

Mean %
(standard deviation)

Particle size fraction Higher Significance

N-NE- S-SW- xalue (1210:1311)

facing slope facing slope p
TOTAL SAND 78.7 (10.3) 77.8 (6.8) N-NE 0.58
Very coarse sand 1.2 (1.0) 1.2 (0.9) (neither) 0.72
Coarse sand 4.6 (3.8) 4.8 (2.7) S-SW 0.96
Medium sand 21.6 (7.3) 21.5 (7.3) N-NE 0.80
Fine sand 37.0 (8.6) 35.0 (8.0) N-NE 0.17
Very fine sand 14.3 (4.7) 15.3 (4.9) S-SW 0.58
TOTAL SILT + CLAY 20.0 (10.8) 20.1 (7.9) S-SW 0.80

METHODS
Field Methods

The USDA Soil Survey of Baraga County (Bemdt 1988) was utilized to identify a
broad dissected escarpment at the northern edge of the outwash plain described previously
(Study Area section, page 12). The Rousseau-Ocqueoc soil complex mapped in the Soil
Survey defines the study area. A USGS topographic quadrangle (7.5 minute, Baraga
Plains) was used to locate potential sites with the proper geomorphic aspect and backslope
gradient. Numerous hillsides were then field-checked; hillsides were selected for study
based on the following criteria:

1) Each hillside exhibited an aspect between 0" and 45° azimuth
(north-to-northeast—facing slopes, 10 in all) or an opposite aspect
between 180° and 225° azimuth (south-to—southwest-facing slopes,
10 in all)‘. (Figure 3).

2) Each hillside had a backslope gradient _>_ 45%, with a length
> 25 m from top to bottom.

3) Slope curvature (horizontal) could not be eliminated entirely on
selected hillsides. However, in order to minimize its efi'ect,
backslopes exhibited < 20° in aspect curvature across a 20 m
horizontal distance.
Many hillsides within the study area exhibited characteristics and criteria suitable for this

study, as listed above. However, the 20 selected hillsides were purposely distributed

 

l Themgeofaspecmselecwdfmmisresemchwcomodatesthelmafimofdimnalgmmd
temperature maxima and minima in hilly areas (Geiger 1969). In general, much early morning solar
heat energy is used in the evaporation of atmospheric moisture that often precipitates at night (i.e.,
dew). Afternoon solar heat energy tends to dry the soil and vegetation since atmospheric moisture is
lowerthanithadbeenintbemoming. Therefore,thelocation ofdiurnal groundtemperatm'eminima
and maxima in hilly areas are displaced toward northeast- and southwest-facing slopes respectively
(Geiger 1969).

24

NORTH

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
|
l
I
|
I
I
0

 

 

/ 1”

I
l
l
l
l
l
l
I
l
l
I
l
I
I
l
l
|
I

SOUTH

Figure 3. Ranges of geomorphic aspect chosen for this study.

26

across a 10 km span of the dissected escarpment in order to obtain a more comprehensive
sample of the soils in this area.

One pedon from each hillside was chosen for further examination. It had to meet
the following criteria:

4) The pedon was located on a backslope no closer than 10 m to the
shoulder or footslope.

5) The pedon was at least 1 m away from any pits and mounds on the
ground surface in order to avoid the pedoturbative effects of treefall
(Schaetzl et al. 1990).

These sites were then sampled by hand auger and examined so as to meet the following

criteria:
6) Pedons exhibited no lithologic discontinuities within the solum as
detected in the field.1
7) Pedons contained less than 10% coarse fragments (> 2 mm

diameter) in each genetic horizon of the solum.
Once the above criteria were met, a pit was excavated at the site. The best developed soil
profile (i.e., greatest E to B color contrast, thickest horizons and deepest solum) exposed
in the soil pit and/or the one exhibiting the least evidence of pedoturbation was described
utilizing traditional Soil Survey techniques (Soil Survey Staff, 1994). The thickness, depth
and dominant color of each genetic horizon were recorded. Soil textures were

estimated in the field to be certain that parent materials remained nearly constant from

 

1 Laboratory particle size data later revealed that site 83 probably contains a lithologic

discontinuity within the solum.

27
site to site. Sufficient weight of sample (300-400 g) was taken from each genetic horizon
for laboratory analysis.

Each pedon site was paired with another site of nearly opposite aspect, yet with
similar slope, parent material and elevation. The paired sites were always within 1 km of
one another and often within 400 m of one another. The method of pairing the sampled
pedons was adopted for the purpose of paired-comparison statistics (Wilcoxon 1949) (see
Statistical Methods section, page 20).

The POD Index, a numerical index designed to assess the degree of Spodosol
development based on soil color and number of subhorizons (Schaetzl and Mokma 1988),
was calculated in the field at each excavated soil pit. The Wilcoxon test for paired
samples (W ilcoxon 1949) was then applied to the POD Index data to determine if a
significant difference existed in the amount of soil development between the 10 pairs of
sampled pedons. The statistical results of this field-based analysis showed the POD Index
values of the soils on north-to-northeast—facing slopes to be significantly different (a =
0.01) than the POD Index values of the soils on south-to-southwest-facing Slopes (see
Results, p.54). Therefore, the sample size was deemed sufficient (20 pedons in all) and
the process of collecting soil samples was ended.

The locations of the sampled pedons were recorded on a map and identified in the
field with flagging. Soil temperature readings were taken within 5 m of each sampled
pedon, at approximately two month intervals (May 17, July 25, September 17, November
5, 1995 and January 20, 1996), at a depth of 50 cm below the surface, using copper-

constantan thermocouples. The 50 cm depth was selected in an attempt to avoid diurnal

28

variations in soil temperature (Smith, et al. 1964).
laboratory Methods

Soil samples were air dried and coarse fragments (> 2 mm) removed by sieving.
The silt+clay percentage was determined by wet sieving after dispersing 20-25 g of soil in
10ml of Na hexametaphosphate (NazCO3+[NaPO3 ], ) solution (37.4 g in one liter distilled
H20). The remaining sand was oven dried and seived to obtain percentages of five sand
fractions (vcs = 2.0 to 1.0mm; cs = 1.0 to 0.5mm; ms = 0.5 to 0.25mm; fs = 0.25 to
0.1mm; vfs = 0.1 to 0.05mm). Extractions of Fe and Al were taken with Na
pyrophosphate (McKeague, 1978) and acid ammonium oxalate (McKeague, 1978). Fe
and Al contents of the extracts (Fep , Fe, , Al, , and Al, , respectively) were determined on
a DCP Spectrometer (McKeague, 1978). Optical density of the oxalate extract (ODOE) at
430 nm was determined on a Perkin-Elmer 320 spectrophotometer (Daly 1982). Reaction
was measured in both a 1:1 soil:water ratio and a 1:1 soilzKCl ratio using an Orion 720A
combination electrode pH/ISE meter.
Statistical Methods

The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test (Wilcoxon 1949) was utilized to
test for significant differences in soil development indicators between paired pedons on
north-to-northeast- and south-to-southwest-facing Slopes. Values of T were calculated
for the following variables: pH of all horizons, Fe,, A1,, Fe,, Alp, Fe,-Fe,, and Al,-Al, of all
E and B horizons, ODOE of the uppermost B horizon, ODOE of all B horizons, ODOE of
each B horizon + ODOE of the uppermost B horizon, total E horizon thickness, total B

horizon thickness, uppermost E horizon hue, value and chroma, uppermost B horizon hue,

29

value and chroma, depth to E horizon, depth to B horizon, solum thickness, soil
temperature (bi-monthly values), snowpack thickness and the POD index. The calculated
values of T were then compared against critical values of T in a two-tailed test for

significance at or = 0.05 (Siegal, 1956) utilizing SYSTAT 5.03 statistical software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Whitman:

Jenny (1941) suggested that slope gradient inversely affects soil development. He
stated that the greatest soil development most often occurs on level terrain while lesser
amounts of development occur on increasingly steeper terrain (with all other soil-forming
factors remaining constant). Numerous other studies have found similar trends (Carter
and Ciolkosz 1991, Losche et al. 1970, Lag 1951, Norton and Smith 1930). ’

Given the rather large range of slope angles in the present study (45 to 73%), it
was deemed necessary to determine what, if any, effect these slope gradient variations may
have had on pedogenesis, regardless of slope aspect. In order to Show that slope gradient
was not significantly related to soil development (neither inversely nor directly), regression
analyses were performed for each variable in the data as plotted against slope gradient
(variables defined previously in Methods section, page 28). Scatter plots were inspected
to insure that the linear regression equations were not being forced onto obviously curvi-

linear distributions. Coefficients (r values) for each regression are listed in Table 5. None
Of the coefficient values were significantly different from 0 (zero) at a = 0.05 and only two
Va[fables were Significant at a = 0.10. These two variables were chroma of the uppermost
E hOIizon (p = 0.058) and POD Index (p = 0.052) (Table 5).
Upon further investigation, the regression results for the POD Index (Figure 4)
seem to be unduly influenced (i.e., leveraged) by a single value (POD Index = 12 at site
N6) - If this high value is removed from the data, the r value changes from -0.44 to +0.07

and flue p value increases from 0.052 to 0.792 which indicates that the overall

30

Table 5. Results of regression analyses on slope gradient vs.

31

individual soil characteristics.

 

 

 

MW ° ° Correlation cmficient Significance
(r value) 03102131)
P
Uppermost E horizon chroma 0.43 0.058
POD Index -0.44 0.052
a = 0.10
pH (KCl), uppermost E horizon 0.33 0.15
Snowpack thickness, 11/5/95 034 0.17
Al, , uppermost B horizon -0.31 0.19
Fe, , uppermost E horizon 0.31 0.19
ODOE, uppermost E horizon 0.31. 0.19
pH (H20), uppermost B horizon 0.31 0.19
July soil temperature 0.29 0.21
Fe, , uppermost B horizon 0.28 0.24
ODOE, upper. B + upper. E horizon -0.27 0.24
B horizon thickness -0.27 0.25
Uppermost B horizon value 0.27 0.25
pH (H20), BC or 2BC horizon 0.27 0.25
A], , uppermost E horizon 0.25 0.29
Depth to top of the B horizon -0.24 0.31
Uppermost E horizon value 0.24 0.31
Al, , 2nd uppermost B horizon -0.22 0.35
Al, , uppermost B horizon 0.21 0.37
pH (KCl), C or 2C horizon -0.20 0.42
Uppermost B horizon hue -0. 19 0.42
pH (1120), C or 2C horizon 0.20 0.44
November soil temperature 0.18 0.47

Table 5. (cont’d.)

32

 

 

Sml' charactens' tic Cmelatign caeflicient Significance
(r value) (W)
P
Al, , 2nd uppermost B horizon —0.15 0.52
Uppermost B horizon chroma 0.15 0.52
ODOE, uppermost B horizon -0.15 0.53
Fe, , uppermost B horizon -0. 15 0.54
ODOE, 2nd upper. B + upper. E horizon -0. 13 0.58
September soil temperature 0.13 0.58
pH (1120), 2nd uppermost B horizon 0.11 0.66
Fe, , uppermost B horizon 0.11 0.66
Fe, , 2nd uppermost B horizon 0.11 0.67
ODOE, 2nd uppermost B horizon -0. 10 0.68
pH (KCl), 2nd uppermost B horizon 0.09 0.71
Fe, , 2nd uppermost B horizon -0.09 0.72
B horizon thickness 0.08 0.75
Uppermost B horizon hue 0.05 0.82
Solum thickness -0.03 0.90
pH (KCl), uppermost B horizon 0.02 0.92
Al, , uppermost B horizon 0.02 0.93
Depth to top of the B horizon -0.02 0.94
pH (HZO), uppermost B horizon 0.02 0.95
pH (KCl), BC or 2BC horizon -0.01 0.97
May soil temperature -0.004 0.99

33

 

 

 

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Slope gradient (%)

Figure 4. Slope gradient vs. POD Index regression scatter plot.

 

80

34

strength of this regression seems to rest on a single data point.

In general, the results of the regression analyses show that the variations in slope
gradient for steep slopes such as these (45 to 73%) probably had very little influence on
the differential pedogenesis observed in the area. It is likely that, had the range of slope
gradients extended from zero to 73%, many significant relationships may have been
revealed.

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Soil Temperature

Soil temperature can affect spodic development within a Spodosol. The cooler the
soil, the more Fe, Al and C can be translocated within the soil (Stanley and Ciolkosz
1981). Soil temperatures for individual sites are listed in Appendix A. Figures 5 to 7
show soil temperatures in May, July and September (1995) for paired pedons on opposing
aspects. Soil temperatures (at 50 cm) exhibited statistically significant differences
(W ilcoxon, at a = 0.01) between north-to-northeast-facing slopes and south-to-
southwest-facing slopes in May, July and September, 1995 (Table 6). At each of the three
sampling periods, all soils on the south-to-southwest-facing slopes exhibited significantly
warmer soil temperatures than the paired pedons on the north—to-northeast-facing slopes.
The greatest mean difference in soil temperature during these months was recorded in
May when south-to—southwest-facing slopes exhibited a mean soil temperature of 8.1
107° and the north-to-northeast—facing slopes exhibited a mean soil temperature of 4.9
:t:0.9° (a mean difference of 32°).

South-to-southwest-facing slopes receive more direct-beam solar radiation

 

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39

over the course of a year than do north-to-northeast—facing slopes (Figure 8) and the
incidence angle of the radiation on these south-to-southwest-facing slopes is nearly
vertical throughout the summer months (Figure 9); these are probably the two primary
reasons that significantly warmer temperatures were measured on south-to-southwest—
facing slopes during May, July and September (Geiger 1969). Soil temperature results
similar to those described above have been documented by Hutchins et al. (1976) in
eastern Kentucky, Franzmeier et al. (1969) in eastern Tennessee and Kentucky and Losche
et al. (1970) in North Carolina.

In contrast to the soil temperature results of May, July and September, soil
temperatures measured in November (1995) (Figure 10) and January (1996) on opposing
slopes were not significantly different (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05, Table 6). Interestingly, the
mean November soil temperature on north-to-northeast—facing slopes was 5.3 :0.7° which
was slightly warmer than the mean for south-to-southwest—facing slopes at 4.9 :L-O.6°.
November soil temperatures on south-to-southwest-facing slopes had decreased more
(down 7.4°) from September readings than had soil temperatures on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes (down 5.7°) during the same time interval (Figure 11). The decrease in soil
temperature on south-to-southwest-facing slopes contrasted to that of north-to-northeast-
facing slopes (from summer to fall, 1995) can be explained by the relatively rapid change
in solar radiation incidence angles during this time period. Unfortunately, January (1996)
soil temperature readings were not completed due to inaccessibility to the sites. Adequate
statistical analysis cannot be employed since the Wilcoxon method does not accomodate

populations smaller than 7 samples.

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LNorth-Faoing Slopes at Noon (average slope angle = 62.7%)

Figure 8. Incidence angle of solar radiation per Julian day on north- vs. south-facing
slopes.l

Calculated from Bonan (1989).

.4#w t-‘L.’

 

41

 

 

June 21st (Summer Solstice)

 

Early May and late July
Decanter 21st (\Mrler Solstice) ------------------------

 

 

 

North South

 

   

Figure 9. Incidence angle profile on average north- and south-facing slopes for
June let, December let, early may and late fall.

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Due to slope gradient in the study area, maximum incidence angle of solar
radiation (90°) on an average south-to-southwest-facing slope (62.6%) occurs twice a
year; once in early May and once in late July (Figures 9 and 10). On an average north-to-
northeast-facing slope (62.7%), maximum incidence angle of solar radiation occurs only
once on June let, and even then it is only at 388° (Figures 9 and 10). On south-to-
southwest—facing slopes, incidence angles > 80° exist (at noon) from early April to late
August. The duration of this relatively intense, direct-beam solar radiation (> 80°) on
south-to-southwest-facing slopes, in conjunction with relatively short summer nights,
probably lends to the sustained warm summer soil temperatures documented on these
slopes (at 50 cm).

On the day of the September soil temperature readings (September 17, 1995), the
incidence angle of solar radiation (at noon) on an average south-to-southwest—facing slope
angle was 73.4° and at that time of year, daylight still outlasts the night. However, on the
day of the November soil temperature readings (November 5, 1995), the incidence angle
of solar radiation on an average south-to-southwest—facing slope angle was 555° and
nighttime was now four hours longer than daytime. This is a relatively rapid decrease in
the incidence angle of solar radiation compared to the sustained high incidence angles of
summer. Once solar radiation input has diminished, the soils on both aspects cool
(especially now, when the cooling period of nighttime is longer than the warming period
of daytime). Based on laws of thermodynamics, the warmer soils of the south-to-
southwest-facing slopes cool more rapidly than those of north-to-northeast—facing slopes

since they had more heat to lose.

 

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45

There is another possible explanation for the rapid decrease in soil temperature on
south-to-southwest-facing slopes from September to November, 1995 when contrasted to
that of north-to-northeast—facing slopes. A higher moisture content in the north-to-
northeast—facing pedons may have influenced the results. Since water has a relatively high
thermal capacity and is therefore able to retain heat longer than other natural substances,
perhaps the north-to-northeast-facing slopes retained the summer heat more efficiently
than south-to-southwest—facing slopes due to greater soil moisture content. However, soil
moisture data were not precisely documented in this study.

Further fieldwork is planned in order to obtain soil temperature readings for
January and March (1996). This will provide a complete year of soil temperature data at
two—month intervals as well as more complete snowpack depth data (p.98).

Horizon Depths and Thicknesses
EHodmnDepthsandlhicknesses

Depths to the top of the E horizon, which actually reflect O + A horizon thicknesses,
were not found to be significantly different (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) for soils on opposing
slopes (Table 7, Figure 2). Mean depth to the top of the B horizon on south-to-southwest-
facing slopes was 7 .4 13.5cm, vs. 8.0 13.1cm on north-to-northeast—facing slopes. Although
the depth to the B horizon is not significantly different on opposing slopes, the mean values
show that the soils on south-to-southwest-facing slopes have shallower E horizons which are
a reflection of thinner O + A horizons. These relatively thin O + A horizons on south-to-
southwest-facing slopes probably exist due to the relatively dry conditions on these slopes

caused by warmer summer soil temperatures, thus, hastening the decomposition of organic

 

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47

materials. B horizon thicknesses on north-to-northeast-facing slopes were found to be
significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) than those on south-to-southwest—facing
slopes (T able 7, Figure 12). In eight out of the ten paired pedons in this study, the B
horizon was thicker on north-to-northeast-facing slopes vs. south-to-southwest—facing
slopes. Mean B horizon thickness on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 9.7 :4.0cm
whereas the mean E horizon thickness on north-to-northeast—facing slopes was 16.6
:6.1cm.

B horizon thickness is a partial measure of the amount of eluviation that has taken
place in the solum. Since B horizon thickness is greater on north-to-northeast—facing
slopes, one can assume that greater eluviation has occured on these slopes when compared
to that of south-to-southwest—facing slopes. Furthermore, since eluviation is a product of
low pH and infiltrating water, and assuming equal precipitation on corresponding pedon
sites, one can assume that the E horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes have
sustained more cumulative infiltration when compared to that of south—to-southwest-
facing slopes. This conclusion seems logical since greater evapo-transpiration probably
takes place on the warmer south—to-southwest-facing slopes (in the growing season), thus,
decreasing the amount of water available for infiltration.
WW

Depths to the top of the B horizon were found to be significantly greater
(W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) on north-to-northeast-facing slopes when compared to those of
south-to-southwest—facing slopes (Table 7, Figure 13). In eight out of the ten paired

pedons in this study, the depth to the top of the B horizon was greater on

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50

north-to-northeast-facing slopes vs. that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes. Mean depth
to the top of the B horizon on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 17.1 $5.2 cm
whereas mean depth to the top of the B horizon on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was
24.6 17.2 cm. Greater depths to the top of the B horizon on north-to-northeast-facing
slopes vs. south-to-southwest-facing slopes can be primarily attributed to the thicker E
horizons also found on the north-to-northeast—facing slopes. Increased eluviation on
north-to-northeast—facing slopes has caused the B horizon to be located deeper than in
soils of south-to-southwest-facing slopes.

B horizon thicknesses were not found to be significantly different (W ilcoxon, at a
= 0.05) on opposing slopes (Table 7, Figure 14). Mean B horizon thickness on south-to-
southwest-facing slopes was 30.6 :41 cm vs. 34.4 :10.0 cm on north-to-northeast—facing
slopes. Although the mean thickness was greater on north-to-northeast-facing slopes,
these values were not statistically significant since only six of the ten paired pedons had a
thicker B horizon on north—to-northeast-facing slopes.

Solum Thickness

Since B horizon thickness was found to be significantly different on opposing
slopes while the depth to the B horizon and thickness of the B horizon were not found to
be significantly different, any disparity in overall solum thickness on opposing slopes can
be primarily attributed to the relatively thick E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing
slopes. In light of these circumstances, it is interesting to note that seven out of the ten
paired pedons in this study exhibited a thicker solum on north-to-northeast—facing slopes

when compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 7, Figure 15, Figure

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53

2). Solum thickness was significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at or = 0.05) on north-to-
northeast—facing slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes.

N orth-to-northeast-facing slopes had a mean solum thickness of 59.0 $9.9 cm whereas
south-to-southwest-facing slopes had a mean solum thickness of 50.0 $10.5 cm.

Other studies that document thicker sola on north- and/or northeast-facing slopes
include Alexander (1995) in northern California, Marron and Popenoe (1986) in northwest
California, and Cooper (1960) in southeast Michigan. In these studies, the findings were
atuibuted to the presence of greater soil moisture and greater infiltration on north-facing
slopes (when compared to south-facing slopes), thus translocating more material to
greater depths, and forming thicker sola. Opposite findings, however, were documented
by Losche et a1. (1970) in North Carolina and Small (1972) in southwest Wisconsin where
thicker sola were located on south- rather than north-facing slopes. They attributed these
findings to higher soil temperatures that exist on south-facing slopes throughout the year,
thus promoting increased chemical activity and accelerating weathering and pedogenesis.

In the current study, the presence of thicker sola on north-to-northeast-facing
slopes can probably be attributed to the greater amounts of water available for leaching
and translocation of materials. Since the sun does not dry the soil nor, perhaps, induce as
much evapo-transpiration on the north—to-northeast—facing slopes when compared to that
of south-to-southwest-facing slopes, the demand for water is less and therefore, more
water is available to weather primary minerals, chelate and transport them and other
materials to lower positions within the profile. The significantly thicker E horizons found

in the soils of north-to-northeast-facing slopes (discussed earlier) provides plausible

54

evidence that, indeed, greater translocation of materials has taken place on north-to-
northeast—facing slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest—facing slopes.
POD Index

The POD Index, which is a numerical index that assesses the degree of Spodosol
deve10pment based on soil color and number of subhorizons (Schaetzl and Mokma 1988),
was found to be significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at or = 0.01) on north-to—northeast—facing
slopes, indicating greater soil development on these slopes (Table 8, Figure 16). Mean
POD index on north-to-northeast—facing slopes was 4.2 $3.4 whereas mean POD Index on
south-to-southwest—facing slopes was 1.1 $1.2.

POD Index data provide convincing evidence that greater podzolization has taken
place in the soils of north-to-northeast-facing slopes when contrasted to those of south-to-
southwest-facing slopes.

Soil Color
Ilppmnostfiflorimn

The hues, values and chromas of the uppermost E horizons‘ of soils on north-to-
northeast—facing slopes were not significantly different (Wilcoxon, at or = 0.05) from
corresponding soils on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 8, Figure 2). The mean
hue of uppermost E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 5.8 $1.2 compared
to 6.0 $1.3 on south-to-southwest—facing slopes. The mean value of uppermost E

horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 4.6 $0.5 compared to 4.8 $0.4 on

 

1 The "uppermost B horizon" refers to the E or E1 horizon in each profile. Likewise, the "uppermost B
horizon" refers to the B horizon closest to the surface (either a Bs or Bhs horizon).

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57

south-to-southwest-facing slopes. The mean chroma of uppermost E horizons on north—
to-northeast—facing slopes was 2.2 :0.4 compared to 2.4 10.5 on south-to-southwest-
facing slopes.

Since the ultimate existence of the E horizon is due to the depletion of humus and
metal oxides from the upper horizons, one should expect to find no significant difference
in B horizon color on opposing aspects. Once most of the humus and Fe oxides are
depleted from the upper horizons, the translucence of the sand grains imparts the primary
color to the soil horizon. The translucence of the sand appears as a grayish color (e. g.
5YR 5/2) which should be similar even on opposing aspects since it originated from the
same parent material.
llppmnnstlflonzon

The hues of the uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes were
found to be significantly redder (= lower hue; Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) than corresponding
soils on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 8). The mean hue of uppermost B
horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 4.5 :1.1 whereas the mean hue of
uppermost B horizons on south-to—southwest-facing slopes was 6.0 :l .3. The redder
hues for soils on north-to-northeast—facing slopes might be attributed to greater
concentrations of iron oxides in the uppermost B horizon. Similar color differences for B
horizons have been documented by Franzmeier et al. (1969) in eastern Kentucky and
Tennessee, and Marron and P0penoe (1986) in northwest California. They attributed this
occurrence to higher concentrations of translocated clay in the B horizon, due to greater

moisture content and greater throughflow on those slopes. Opposite findings, however,

58

have been documented by Losche et al. (1970) in North Carolina and Cooper (1960) in
southeastern Michigan. Cooper (1960) and Losche et a1. (1970) found redder hues on
south-facing slopes (when compared to north-facing slopes). Interestingly, they also
attributed this occurrence to higher concentrations of translocated clay in the B horizon on
those slopes. Cooper (1960) cites warmer soil temperatures as the main catalyst for this
phenomenon. Warmer soil temperatures may promote increased chemical activity on
south-facing slopes and therefore produce greater amounts of clay (due to increased
chemical weathering) in the B horizons of those soils.

Both color values and chromas of the uppermost B horizons on north-to—northeast-
facing slopes were found to be significantly less (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05 for chroma; at a =
0.01 for value) than corresponding soils on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 8,
Figure 2). The mean color value of uppermost B horizons on north-to—northeast-facing
slopes was 3.1 10.4 whereas the mean color value of uppermost B horizons on south-to-
southwest—facing slopes was 3.9 10.3. The mean chroma of uppermost B horizons on
north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 4.3 :1.0 whereas the mean chroma of uppermost B
horizons on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 5.6 5.0.8.

The darker and grayer colors (i.e., lower values and chromas) for soils on north-to-
northeast-facing slopes can be attributed to greater concentrations of humus in the
uppermost B horizon. No other aspect study specifically reported soil color values and
chromas. However, a few studies reported organic matter (or organic carbon) content for
the B horizon. Daniels et a1. (1987) reported greater amounts of organic matter in the B

horizon (and throughout the solum) on north-facing slopes when compared to that of

59

south-facing slopes. Franzmeier et al. (1969) also reported greater amounts of organic
matter in sola on north-facing slopes. Carter and Ciolkosz (1991) reported greater
organic carbon in the B horizon on steep (25 to 60%) northwest-facing slopes when
compared to steep (25 to 60%) southwest-facing slopes, but discovered the reverse for
less steep slopes (<20%). There they found less organic carbon on the northwest-facing
slope when compared to that of the southwest-facing slope, but they considered this an
anamoly.

Soil Reaction

S .101; C] E .

Table 9 shows the mean, standard deviation and level of significance for soilzKCl
reactions. Figure 17 plots mean horizon depth against mean KCl pH for opposing slope
aspects. E horizons were the most acid of all horizons regardless of aspect, however they
were more acid on north-to-northeast-facing slopes (see below). pH generally increased
with depth down to the BC horizon. Mean C horizon pH actually decreased somewhat
from the overlying BC horizon on both aspects; C horizon pH on opposing slopes are not
significantly different and, in fact, have equivalent means = 4.3 (Table 9).

Statistical analysis (W ilcoxon 1949) of soilzKCl reactions show significant differences
(or = 0.05) in only two horizons (Table 9). The uppermost E horizon exhibited
significantly higher (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.01) pH values on south-to-southwest—facing
slopes when compared to those of north-to-northeast-facing slopes, as did the uppermost
B horizon (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05, Table 9).

Uppermost E horizons on south-to-southwest—facing slopes exhibited a mean

60

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20.00 #
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pH (1:1 SoilzKCI)

Figure 17. Mean pH (KCl) by mean horizon depth on opposing aspects.

62

pH of 3.4 10.2 whereas north-to-northeast-facing slopes exhibited a mean pH of 3.2 10.1.
Uppermost B horizons on south-to-southwest—facing slopes exhibited a mean pH of 4.3
10.2 whereas north-to-northeast-facing slopes exhibited a mean pH of 4.2 :02.

Table 10 shows the mean, standard deviation and level of significance for soileZO
reactions. Figure 18 plots mean horizon depth against mean pH for opposing slope
aspects. E horizons were the most acid of all horizons regardless of aspect, however they
are somewhat less acid on north-to-northeast—facing slopes (Table 10). Values of pH
generally increase with depth down to the C horizon where values on opposing slopes are
not significantly different and, in fact, have equivalent means = 5.8 (Table 10).

Soil:H20 reactions were not found to be significantly different (W ilcoxon, at a>0.05)
on opposing slopes for any horizon pair (Table 10). The pHs of the BC or 2BC horizons
were the most different on opposing slopes (W ilcoxon, at p = 0.081) and had a higher
mean on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (5.8 vs. 5.6). The 2nd most different pH on
opposing slopes was in the uppermost B horizon (W ilcoxon, at p = 0.085, Table 10)
where a higher mean was found on north-to-northeast-facing slopes (4.7 vs. 4.5).

Soil development seems to have been strongly related to pH in the upper half of the
solum. Where pH values were lowest (B horizon), eluviation of materials was most
prevalent The comparatively higher pH values of the uppermost B horizon seem to have
prompted the immobilization of Fe and Al (among other materials), thus, creating the

greatest illuvial concentration of Fe and Al within the solum there. Similarly, the higher

 

63

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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0
I I T I I l I I I I I I
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pH (1:1 SoiI2H20)

Figure 18. Mean pH (H20) by mean horizon depth on Opposing aspects.

65

greater depth probably precluded any further mobilization of Fe and Al.
Acid Ammonium Oxalate Extraction Data

Ammonium oxalate extracts Fe and A] from both organic and inorganic amorphous
materials but does not extract crystalline oxides well (McKeague and Day 1966). In the
present study, relative depletion of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al (Fe0 and A10) has
occurred in the B horizon for all pedons when compared to the B horizons of the same
pedon. This is typical of sandy soils found throughout northern Michigan. Mean depth
plots (Figures 19 and 20) exhibit the relative concentration of Fe0 and A10 in the
uppermost B horizon within soils on both aspects. The translocation of Fe() and A10 as
affected by aspect are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Uppermostliflorimn

The E horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes contained significantly less
(Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) Feo than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 11,
Table 12, Figure 21). The mean weight of Feo in the B horizon on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes was 0.20 10.2 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight in the same horizon on
south-to-southeast-facing slopes was more than double that amount: 0.44 102 g/kg.

The E horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes contained significantly less
(W ilcoxon, at a = 0.01) A10 than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 11,
Table 12, Figure 22). The mean weight of A10 in the B horizon on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes was 0.15 30.1 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight in the same horizon on
south-to-southeast—facing slopes was 0.31 :I:0.1 g/kg.

The greater depletion of Feo and A10 in the uppermost B horizon on north-to-

66

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
0.00
T I I I I I I I
N—NE-Facing Slopes Q A
S—SW-FacingSlopes —--§ ---------- Om-
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E
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30.00 -
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40.00 _, 3‘2
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Feo (QIKQ)

Figure 19. Mean Feo depth plot for opposing aspects.

67

0.00 1 .00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0.00
I I V T I I I
T N-NE-Facing Slopes 0 O
1o_oo _ S-SW-Facing Slopes — - — O— --------- 6— - -~
E
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A 20.00
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5
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40.00 852
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No (QIKQ)

Figure 20. Mean Alo depth plot for opposing aspects.

68

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Table 12.

Samnlc_Ee__AL

69

Acid ammonium oxalate extraction data.

SamnIe_Ee__AL

 

 

 

 

 

----g/kg—-- ----g/kg---
S1 E 0.26 0.46 N1 E 0.44 0.33
81 B31 3.66 4.02 N1 B3] 4.45 8.70
81 B32 1.02 1.95 N1 B32 1.52 3.13
82 E 0.31 0.34 N2 E 0.14 0.12
S2 B31 3.37 3.52 N2 le 2.83 2.31
82 B32 1.61 1.77 N2 B32 0.91 1.13
S3 E 0.22 0.18 N3 E 0.53 0.15
S3 331 3.66 3.60 N3 B31 3.75 3.16
S3 B32 1.01 0.92 N3 B32 2.42 2.10
S4 E 0.51 0.33 N4 E 0.12 0.14
S4 B31 3.07 4.61 N4 B31 4.84 6.77
S4 332 1.15 1.67 N4 B32 1.21 2.30
SS E 0.36 0.25 NS E 0.17 0.14
SS le 1.84 1.30 N5 Bhs 5.93 4.16
SS B32 1.56 1.79 NS B31 2.54 2.94
NS 832 1.66 1.87

Tablc12. (cont’d.) 70

 

Sample _EL _AL Samnlc _EL _AL
----g/kg--- ----g/kg---
S6 E 0.13 0.18 N6 E1 0.05 0.09
S6 B31 2.48 2.74 N6 E2 0.09 0.13
86 Bs2 2.69 3.21 N6 Bhs 5.99 7.17

N6 B3 2.09 4.68

 

S7 E 0.42 0.37 N7 El 0.04 0.08
S7 B81 2.89 3.93 N7 E2 0.22 0.12
S7 B82 2.00 2.39 N7 B31 3.05 2.99

N7 B32 2.15 2.80

 

 

 

58 E 0.89 0.49 N8 E 0.08 0.09
S8 B31 3.79 3.34 N8 B31 3.38 2.15
88 B82 2.60 3.23 N8 B32 3.88 6.63
S9 E 0.68 0.35 N9 E 0.34 0.25
S9 B31 6.09 5.12 N9 B81 8.40 5.47
S9 B82 2.10 1.86 N9 B82 3.79 5.88
810 E 0.58 0.12 N10 E1 0.08 0.13
810 B3] 3.77 2.30 N10 E2 0.10 0.14
810 B82 2.63 2.32 N10 B8] 8.13 4.27

N10 B32 2.21 3.85

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73

northeast-facing slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest—facing slopes
suggests that greater leaching has occurred on the north-to-northeast-facing slopes.
Increased eluviation has decreased the amounts of Fe0 and A10 more in the B horizon on
north-to-northeast-facing slopes compared to that of south-to-southwest—facing slopes.
Greater infiltration of water (in part, due to the comparatively low evaporative demand)

on north-to-northeast-facing slopes is probably a major factor contributing to the greater

translocation of Fe0 and A10 on these slopes. However, soil moisture data were not
collected during the current study.

W

The uppermost B horizons on north—to-northeast-facing slopes contained significantly
1110“: (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) Fe0 than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table
1 1 9 Table 12, Figure 23). The mean weight of Fe0 in the uppermost B horizons on north-

tc)‘northeast-facing slopes was 5.08 :20 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight of Fe(, in the

Saline horizons on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 3.46 :1.1 g/kg. There was not

a Statistically significant difference (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) in the weight of A10 within the
llDpermost B horizons on opposing slopes. However, the mean weight of A10 in the
uDpermost B horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slope was greater than the mean
Weight of A10 in the same horizons on south-to-southwest-facing slopes. Mean weight of
No in the uppermost B horizons on north-to—northeast-facing slopes was 4.72 :2.2 g/kg
Soil whereas the mean weight of A10 in that of the south-to-southwest-facing slopes was

3.45 11.1 g/kg.

Since the E horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes contained significantly

74

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75

less Feo and A10 than that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes, it seems logical that these
materials have been eluviated from the B horizon and illuviated, mostly, in the uppermost
B horizon. It should also be noted that even though A1o weights were not significantly
different (a = 0.05) in the uppermost B horizons of opposing slopes, the mean weight of
A10 on north-to-northeast—facing slopes was nonetheless greater than that of the 2nd
uppermost B horizon in the same pedons, which indicates, in general, that the majority of
A10 illuviated into the B horizons of these soils was deposited in the uppermost B horizon.
William
There was not a statistically significant difference (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) in the
Weight of Fe0 within the 2nd uppermost B horizons on opposing slopes (Table 11).
However, the mean weight of Fe0 in the 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-
facing slope was still higher than the mean weight of Feo in similar horizons on south-to-
so‘~lt11west-facing slopes. Mean weight of Fe0 in the 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-
to‘Ilortheast-facing slopes was 2.27 $1.0 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight of Feo in that
Of comparable horizons on south-to-southwest—facing slopes was 1.84 $0.7 g/kg.

The 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes contained
Significantly more (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) A10 than those on south-to-southwest-facing
Slopes (Table 11). The mean weight of A10 in the 2nd uppermost B horizon on north-to-
Ilortheast-facing slopes was 3.54 11.7 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight of A10 in the

Same horizon on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 2.11 :0.7 g/kg.
Since A1o generally is translocated deeper in the solum than Feo (Mizota 1982) and

since more leaching seems to take place on north-to-northeast-facing slopes, it is

76
understandable that Alo amounts are significantly greater in the 2nd uppermost B horizon
on north-to-northeast-facing slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing
slopes. Mean A10 in the uppermost B horizon are still greater than the 2nd uppermost B
horizon regardless of slope, but a large portion of A10 in the uppermost B horizon
continues downward toward the 2nd uppermost B horizon (a larger portion than that of
F60 ), thus, forming a secondary concentration of A10 in that horizon.

Opa'cal Density of the Oxalate Extract (ODOE)
The optical density of the oxalate extract serves as a measure of podzolization based
on the amount of extracted fulvic acids from each horizon (Daly 1982). Fulvic acids
Chel ate Fe and Al cations and may render them mobile in the soil solution. These chelate
Complexes can then be eluviated from the upper horizons and deposited in the B horizon.
The Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1994) states that spodic materials normally
have an ODOE > 0.25 and this value is at least two times the value of an overlying eluvial
hoI‘izon. In the current study, the uppermost B horizons from eight pedons exhibit ODOE
values that qualify as spodic materials (Table 13). All of these sites occur on north-to-
r1Ql’theast-facing slopes, which seems to indicate that stronger podzolization has taken
place on these slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes. A
depth plot of mean ODOE is shown in Figure 24.
W
ODOE values for the uppermost E horizons on south-to-southwest-facing slopes

were significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at or = 0.05) than those of north-to-northeast—facing

slopes (Table 14). Mean ODOE for the uppermost E horizons on north-to-northeast-

Table 13.

Data on optical density of oxalate extracts.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

WM Sam]: ODOE mm
31 E 0.107 N1 E 0.027
31 B31 0.099 0.93 N1 B31 0.289 10.70
31 B82 0.130 1.22 N1 1332 0.034 1.26
32 E 0.020 N2 E 0.001
52 B31 0.029 1.45 N2 331 0.127 127.0
32 1332 0.013 0.65 N2 B32 0.047 47.0
83 E 0.170 N3 E 0.020
83 331 0.074 0.44 N3 B31 0.057 2.85
83 21332 0.017 0.10 N3 B32 0.050 2.50
34 E 0.023 N4 E 0.064
S4 Bs1 0.057 2.48 N4 B31 0.449 7.02
S4 B32 0.026 1.13 N4 B32 0.045 0.70
35 E 0.029 N5 E 0.021
SS B81 0.177 6.10 N5 Bhs 0.496 23.62
SS BS2 0.057 1.97 N5 B31 0.124 5.90
N5 13s2 0.038 1.81

Table 13. (cont’d.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

W369 Sunnis ODOE mm
N6 131 0.004
S6 E 0.016 N6 132 0.026
S6 B81 0.005 5.31 N6 Bhs 0.489 122.3
S6 B32 0.026 1.63 N6 B3 0.104 26.0
N7 E1 0.004
37 E 0.040 N7 132 0.015
S7 B3] 0.216 5.40 N7 1331 0.280 70.0
$7 B32 0.046 1.15 N7 BS2 0.065 16.25
S8 E 0.046 N8 E 0.001
S8 331 0.20 4.35 N8 B31 0.395 395.0
38 B82 0.043 0.94 N8 B32 0.154 154.0
39 E 0.12 N9 E 0.098
39 B31 0.217 1.81 N9 le 0.411 4.19
39 B82 0.164 1.37 N9 B32 0.269 2.74
\
N10 131 0.021
810 E 0.045 N10 152 0.021
S10 B31 0.175 3.89 N10 B31 0.448 21.33
810 1352 0.236 5.24 N10 1352 0.236 11.24

 

79

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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A North-tomrtheast-fadng slopes —6——0—
South-to-southwest-facing slopes -O"~ - - --O—
10 -
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20 —.
30 _ J
1
—1
40 -—1
.1
L
I
50
l ' l l I ' l
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Figure 24.

ODOE

Mean ODOE depth plot for opposing aspects.

80

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facing 310963 Was 0.03 10.0 whereas mean ODOE for the uppermost E horizons on south-
t0"SC"‘t‘1‘“’€=St~t‘acing slopes was 0.06 21.0. This is an indication that fulvic acids on north-
to‘“(”1119ast~facing slopes have been eluviated more completely from the E horizon than
on 80m'h‘t0~southwest-facing slopes. These data are corroborated by other data such as
Significantly thicker E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes (when compared to
that of Opposing slopes) and significantly less Fe0 , Fep , A10 and A11) in the E horizons 0f
north“lo-northeast-facing slopes (when compared to that of OPPOSing slopes) indicating

r
g eater overall eluviation of material (including fulvic acids) from the B horizon on north-

to‘nol‘theast—facing slopes.
W
The ODOE values for the uppermost B horizon of soils on north-to-northeast-facing
810Des were significantly greater (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.01) than for similar horizons on
SOUth-to-southwest-facing slopes (T able 14). The mean ODOE for uppermost B horizons
011 north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 0.34 20.2 whereas the mean ODOE for
llIJpermost B horizons on south-to-southwest—facing slopes was 0.13 20.1. If significantly
IIlore fulvic acids have been eluviated from the E horizons on north-to-northeast—facing
Slopes, it is logical that they would tend to concentrate in the uppermost B horizons of the
same slopes. The ODOE values for the 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes were greater, but not significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) than

those of the south-to-southwest-facing slopes (0.10 20.1 vs. 0.08 10.1, Table 14).

82
The ratio of B horizon ODOE + B horizon ODOE provides an index used to assess
Intensity of Spodic development (Daly 1982). Higher values of this ratio indicate greater
tr - . . . . . . . .
allSloan-1011 (eluvratron/rlluvratron) of fulvrc acrds and assocrated chelate complexes, thus,
mdlcafing stronger podzolization. Daly (1982) found that ratio values < 1.0 did not meet

8 .
p odlc herizon criteria in 591'] Iaxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975). Only two soils in the

current study had ratios values < 1.0 and they both occured on south-to-southwest-facing
slopes.
'The ODOE of the uppermost B horizon + ODOE of the uppermost B horizon was
Sigllificantly greater (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.01) on north-to-northeast-facing slopes when
conlpared to that of south-to—southwest-facing slopes (Table 14, Figure 25). The mean
Value of this ratio on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 78.4 1121.6 whereas the mean
Value for south-to-southwest-facing slopes was almost 25 times lower (3.2 22.1). The
0DOE of the 2nd uppermost B horizon -:- ODOE of the uppermost E horizon was also
Significantly greater (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) on north-to-northeast-facing slopes when
compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes (23.3 247.9 vs. 1.5 21.4, Table 14).
The results of the ODOE analyses provide convincing evidence that a greater amount
of podzolization, as exemplified by eluvial/illuvial ratios of ODOE, has taken place in the

soils of north-to-northeast-facing slopes when contrasted to those of south-to-southwest-

facing slopes.

83

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84

Sodium Pyrop hosphate Extraction Data

Fer and Np indicate the presence of organically-bound amorphous materials
(Aleksandrova 1960). In the present study, relative depletion of these materials has
occurred in the B horizon for all pedons when compared to the B horizons of the same

p edon (Figures 26 and 27). Translocation of Fep and Alp as affected by aspect are

di
SCuSSed in the following paragraphs.
The E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained significantly less
(Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) Fep than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 15,
Table 16, Figure 28). The mean weight of Fep in E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing

81613:38 was 0.07 20.0 g/kg soil whereas the mean weight in the same horizons on south-to-

Southeast-facing slopes was 0.15 10.1 g/kg.
The E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes also contained significantly less
(Wilcoxon, at a = 0.01) A1,, than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table 15).
The mean weight of A1,, in E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 0.08 10.0
g/kg soil whereas the mean weight in the same horizons on south-to-southeast-facing
slopes was 0.15 10.1 g/kg.

The greater depletion of Fep and Alp in the uppermost E horizons on north-to-
northeast-facing slopes suggests that more eluviation has occurred on the north-to-
northeast—facing slopes. Eluviation has diminished the amounts of Fep and A11, more in the
B horizon on north-to-northeast-facing slopes compared to that of south-to-southwest-

facing slopes. Relatively low pH values coincide with the depletion of Fep and Alp.

85

 

 

 

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Figure 26. Mean Fe,, depth plot for opposing aspects.

 

86

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 27. Mean Alp depth plot for opposing aspects.

 

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88

Table 16. Na pyrophosphate extraction data.

 

 

 

 

 

Sample _Ee. _AL Sample .131. _AL
----8/kg--- ----8/kg---

S] E 0.14 0.21 N1 E 0.16 0.14

81 B31 1.37 1.62 N1 B31 0.93 2.20

81 B32 0.42 0.78 N1 332 0.27 1.06

82 E 0.12 0.15 N2 E 0.07 0.07

82 B3] 0.41 0.87 N2 B31 2.64 2.39

S2 B82 0.22 0.59 N2 382 0.60 0.82
\

83 E 0.06 0.11 ' N3 E 0.09 0.10

S3 B81 0.56 1.36 N3 381 0.93 0.82

S3 B32 0.19 0.43 N3 B32 1.29 1.25
\

S4 E 0.17 0.12 N4 E 0.05 0.08

S4 Bs1 0.49 1.19 N4 B31 1.23 2.73

S4 B32 0.24 0.58 N4 B32 0.21 0.79

SS E 0.09 0.13 NS E 0.08 0.07

SS 331 1.25 1.07 NS Bhs 3.77 2.87

SS B82 0.87 1.02 NS le 1.27 1.74

NS B32 0.70 0.79

Table 16. (cont’d.)

 

 

 

 

 

Sample .132 _AL Sample .119. _AL
----g/kg--- ----g/kg---

S6 E 0.05 0.08 N6 E1 0.03 0.03

S6 B31 0.83 1.22 N6 E2 0.03 0.05

S6 B32 0.23 0.46 N6 Bhs 2.48 4.25

N6 B8 0.53 1.68

S7 E 0.23 0.29 N7 E1 0.02 0.03

S7 B81 1.67 2.45 N7 E2 0.11 0.09

S7 B32 0.89 1.30 N7 B81 2.28 2.39

N7 BS2 1.07 1.43

\

S8 E 0.32 0.18 N8 E 0.03 0.04

88 B31 1.04 1.43 N8 B31 3.25 2.28

S8 B32 0.53 1.03 N8 B32 1.67 2.50

\

S9 E 0.20 0.14 N9 E 0.09 0.13

S9 B81 0.97 1.52 N9 B81 3.95 2.93

S9 B82 0.29 0.57 N9 B32 1.13 1.86

\

810 E 0.10 0.08 N10 E1 0.05 0.06

S10 B31 1.96 1.60 N10 E2 0.05 0.06

810 B32 1.76 1.87 N10 B31 5.14 3.27

N10 B82 1.29 2.68

90

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91

Higher amounts of moisture (in part, due to comparatively lower evaporative demand) on
north-to—northeast—facing slopes would increase the infiltration of water and hence, also
lead to greater translocation of Fe,, and All, (among other materials).
Iin}:2.12m.051.B_110riz011
'I'he uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained significantly
more (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.01) Fe,, than did those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes
Table. 15, Figure 29). The mean amount of Fep in the uppermost B horizon on north-to-
noI‘tlleast-facing slopes was 2.46 21.5 g/kg soil whereas the mean Fep in the same horizon
on S()11th-to-southwest-facing slopes was less than half that (1.06 20.5 g/kg).
The uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained significantly
mgre (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) A11) than those on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (Table
1 5, Figure 30). The mean amount of AlP in the uppermost B horizon on north-to-

nGrizheast-facing slopes was 2.46 21.0 g/kg soil whereas the AIP in the same horizons on

S01.1th-to-southwest-facing slopes was 1.43 20.4 g/kg.

Since greater amounts of Fep and A11, were presumably eluviated from the E horizons
of north-to-northeast-facing slopes (when compared to that of opposing slopes), then it is
understandable that more FeP and All, would be illuviated on north-to-northeast~facing

Slopes most of which occurs in the uppermost B horizon. Concentrations of Fe and Al in

the upperrnost B horizons have been documented in several studies (Wang, et al. 1986,

31110“ g others).

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94
W

The 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained
significantly more (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) Fep than did those on south-to-southwest-
facing slopes (Table 15). The mean amount of FeP in the 2nd uppermost B horizons on
north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 1.14 20.7 g/kg whereas the mean weight of Fep in
the same horizons on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 0.56 20.5 g/kg.

The 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast—facing slopes also contained
significantly more (Wilcoxon, at a = 0.05) All, than those on south-to-southwest—facing
slopes (Table 15). The mean weight of AlP in the uppermost B horizons on north-to-
northeast-facing slopes was 1.74 10.6 g/kg soil compared to 0.86 20.5 g/kg on south-to-
southwest—facing slopes.

Ammonium Oxalate - Na Pyrophosphate
(Fe, - Fe, and Al, - Al, )

Since Feo and A10 signify the presence of both organic- and inorganically-bound
amorphous material and FeP and All, signify only organically-bound amorphous material,
the difference between these corresponding values provides the weight of inorganically-
bound amorphous Fe and Al (Feo - Fep and A10 - Alp respectively) (McKeague 1967,
McKeague and Day 1966). By analyzing this difference, an estimation of the imogolite
content of a soil can be obtained since imogolite is an amorphous inorganic compound.

This gives us a look into the process of podzolization taking place within a soil.

95

Ilppmnnstfiflmizon

The E horizons of south-to-southwest-facing slopes contained more, but not
significantly more (W ilcoxon, p = 0.057), Feo - Fep when compared to that of north-to-
northeast-facing slopes (Table 17). Mean Fe0 - Fep in the E horizons of north-to-
northeast-facing slopes was 0.1 10.1 g/kg soil whereas mean Fe0 - Fep on south-to-
southwest-facing slopes was 0.3 10.2 g/kg.

The E horizons of south-to-southwest-facing slopes contained significantly more Al0 -
A]? (W ilcoxon at a = 0.01) when compared to that of north-to-northeast—facing slopes
(Table 18, Figure 31). Mean Al0 - A]? in the B horizon of north-to-northeast—facing slopes
was 0.1 10.1 g/kg soil whereas mean A10 - Alp on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was
0.3 10.2 g/kg.
W

The uppermost B horizons did not exhibit any difference in Fe0 - FeP (W ilcoxon, at a
= 0.05) on opposing slopes (Table 17). Mean Fe0 - Fep in the uppermost B horizons of
north-to—northeast-facing slopes was 2.4 11.5 g/kg soil whereas the mean Feo - Fep on
south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 2.4 11.24 g/kg soil. Similarly, the uppermost B
horizons did not exhibit any significant difference in A]0 - A1p (W ilcoxon, at a = 0.05) on
opposing slopes (Table 18). Mean A10 - Al], in the uppermost B horizons of north-to-
northeast-facing slopes was 2.1 12.1 g/kg soil whereas the mean A1o - A]? on south-to-
southwest-facing slopes was 2.0 11.1 g/kg. This is an indication that similar amounts of

imogolite have formed within the uppermost B horizons on opposing slopes.

 

96

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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The 2nd uppermost B horizons did not exhibit any difference in Fe0 - Fep (W ilcoxon,
at 01 = 0.05) on opposing slopes (Table 17). Mean Fe0 - Fe,, in the 2nd uppermost B
horizons of north-to-northeast—facing slopes was 1.3 10.7 g/kg soil whereas the mean Fe0
- Fep on south-to-southwest—facing slopes was 1.3 10.6 g/kg.

The 2nd uppermost B horizons of north-to-northeast-facing slopes did contain
significantly more A1o - Alp (Wilcoxon at a = 0.05) when compared to that of south-to-
southwest-facing slopes (Table 18). Mean A1o - Alp in the 2nd uppermost B horizons of
north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 2.0 11.3 g/kg soil whereas mean A]() - Alp on south-
to-southwest—facing slopes was 1.3 10.7 g/kg.

S nowpack Thickness

Variable depths of snowpack were observed on opposing slopes on April 26 and
November 5, 1995. Photographic documentation of differential snowpack thicknesses on
opposing slopes on April 26, 1995 is shown in Figure 32. On November 4, 1995, up to 20
cm of snow had fallen in the early morning on portions of the study area. Lesser amounts
of snow had fallen in the northeast part of the study area. Sunny weather late in the
afternoon on the 4th and throughout the morning of the 5th produced differential
snowmelt on opposing slopes (Figure 33). Statistical analysis of snowpack depths
indicates significantly deeper (W ilcoxon, at 01 = 0.01) snowpacks on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes when compared to that of opposing slopes (Table 19). Average snowpack

depth on north-to-northeast-facing slopes was 14.4 15.8 cm whereas average snowpack

 

 

North South

Figure 32. Variable depths of snowpack on opposing aspects (April 26, 1995).

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103

depth on south-to-southwest-facing slopes was 9.4 27.9 cm.

Snowpacks can affect pedogenesis and podzolization in at least two ways:

1) thicker snow covers help to insulate the soil and can inhibit freezing of the soil
(Hart and Lull 1963,1sard and Schaetzl 1993, 1995). On unfrozen soil, percolation of
water is less impeded, thus, allowing pedogenic processes to occur uninterrupted. In the
current study, soils on north-to-northeast-facing slopes may, indeed, remain above
freezing throughout the year due to sufficient snow cover in winter. However, winter soil
temperature data are not yet available.

2) snow melts more gradually on north-to-northeast-facing slopes which may allow
meltwater to better infiltrate the soil. Snowmelt infiltration has been implicated as an
important vector in the podzolization process (Schaetzl and Isard 1990, 1991).
Comparatively rapid snowmelt may occur on south-to-southwest—facing $10pes, possibly
producing runoff which may erode the soil surface. Water running over the surface may
also mean that, in general, less water is available for infiltration and this would result in
less material moving through the solum on these slopes when compared to that of north-
to-northeast-facing slopes.

Soil Classification

Classification of the pedons in this study was performed according to the Keys to Soil
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1994). These data help to further demonstrate the
disproportional development of soils on opposing slopes within the study area (Table 20).
Based on color, morphology and/or chemical criteria (ODOE or Feo and A10), nine out of

ten pedons located on north-to-northeast—facing slopes classified as Spodosols (eight Entic

Table 20.

N 1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N8
N9
N10

81
82
83
S4
SS
S6
S7
S8
S9
S 10

104

Soil classification‘ and the presence or absence of Albic and Spodic horizons.

”1.1 . ,2
(Y/N)

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

51.1.?
(Y/N)

Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes

Entic Haplorthod
Typic Udorthent

Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod
Typic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod

Typic Udorthent
Entic Haplorthod
Typic Udorthent
Spodic Udipsamment
Typic Udorthent
Typic Udipsamment
Typic Udorthent
Typic Udorthent
Entic Haplorthod
Entic Haplorthod

 

1 According to Soil Survey Staff 1994.

105

Haplorthods; one Typic Haplorthod) and the remaining pedon (site N2) classified as Typic
Udorthent. Only three out of 10 pedons located on south-to-southwest—facing slopes
classified as Spodosols; all were Entic Haplorthods. The remaining seven pedons
classified as Entisols (five T ypic Udorthents; one Spodic Udipsamment; one Typic
Udipsamment). The greater number of Spodosols existing on north-to-northeast-facing
slopes when compared to that of south-to-southwest-facing slopes seems to imply (once

again) that greater Spodic development, in general, has taken place on north-to-northeast-

 

facing slopes. r
Podzolization in the Study Area

Since the soils of north-to-northeast-facing slopes appear to have undergone more
podzolization than those of south-to-southwest-facing slopes, it seems appropriate to
examine the factors most responsible for the mobilization of Fe and Al and the subsequent
immobilization of the resultant chelated organo-metallic complexes. Earlier (p.3), the
podzolization process was described in four steps. The following is a re-examination of
each step in this podzolization process with regard to the results of the current study:

1. Accumulation of organic matter on the ground surface.

The O horizons in the study area appear to have been disturbed in some areas
(perhaps by fire shortly after logging) since their areal coverage is often thin and
sometimes intermittent. Podzolization could not have taken place without an O horizon,
suggesting that the current status of this layer is not reminiscent of the past and, therefore,
must have been disturbed. In order to assess the quality of organic matter that existed

before logging, the vegetation must also be examined. However, it is difficult to know

106

exactly what types of vegetation persisted for the longest period of time on each of the
opposing slopes. Present-day vegetation gives clues to the past, but cannot be utilized
with much reliability. As has been stated, the General Land Office survey notes from the
19th century do not provide enough detail to determine vegetation patterns from slope to
slope. Therefore, assumptions about the organic matter (0 horizon) prior to logging must
be made using clues from the present.

Higher soil temperatures persist on south-to-southwest-facing slopes. Thus, it seems
probable that drying of the O horizon was able to take place more often (between warm
season precipitation events) on these slopes than on north-to-northeast-facing slopes.
With a higher frequency of wet-dry cycles and with greater soil temperatures, the organic
matter could decompose more rapidly than if it simply remained moist. Thus, the quality
of the organic matter and its ability to chelate with Fe and Al would be reduced on south-
to-southwest-facing slopes, therefore producing thinner sola with less Fe and Al present in
the B horizon when compared to that of north-to-northeast-facing slopes.

With fewer wet-dry cycles on north-to-northeast—facing slopes, the O horizon acts as
a moist sponge that protects the soil from fire. This "sponge" could inhibit (or even
prevent) the destruction of the O horizon by fire. Such destruction would, thus, be more
likely on south-to-southwest-facing slopes where its destruction would interrupt the
podzolization process due to a lack of available chelating organic material. Therefore, the
total amount of podzolization having taken place over time would be less on south-to-
southwest-facing 310pes. Soils in the present study indicate that less podzolization has

taken place on south-to-southwest—facing slopes, and thus are in agreement with the

 

107

assumptions listed above.

Fire has adversely affected soil development on the Baraga Plains (Schaetzl 1990).
The soils currently present on the Baraga Plains (the dissected edge of the Baraga Plains
delimits the study area) are even less deve10ped than soils found in the study area. This
seems counterintuitive since the Baraga Plains were deposited in the same glacial event as
that of the study area and the topography is also relatively flat compared to the steep
slopes of the study area. Jenny (1941) suggested that slope gradient inversely affects soil
development. In most cases this is true. However, on the Baraga Plains, fire has probably
retarded the podzolization process since the O horizon has been frequently burned, thus
limiting the chelation of humus with Fe and Al (Mokma and Vance 1989). Soils in the
study area probably have better protection against fire than those of the Baraga Plains due
to greater topographic relief. But even within the study area, soils on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes have probably had better protection against fire than those on opposing
slopes due to greater moisture contained in the O horizon of north-to-northeast—facing
slopes.

2. Leaching and acidification of the parent material.

The results of the present study do not seem to indicate any major differences in soil
reaction (either KCl or H20) between corresponding horizons on opposing slopes. The
pH of the C horizons are nearly identical on opposing slopes. However, solum depths and
corresponding horizon thicknesses may, in fact, be a result of variable depths of leaching
(see #4 below).

More acidic organic litter could accelerate chelation and translocation processes, thus

108

lowering pH at greater depth and allowing further podzolization to take place (Figure 34).
For instance, if hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.) had persisted more (in the past) on
north-to-northeast-facing slopes than on opposing slopes, its acidic leaf litter could have
accelerated the podzolization process.

Available water within the soil could also affect soil reaction over time (Figure 34).
Since south-to-southwest—facing slopes exhibited greater summer soil temperatures (at
50cm) than that of opposing slopes, more water is probably evaporated through the
surface of the soil or is transpired through the vegetation on south-to-southwest—facing
slopes. This means that less water is available for infiltration and hence, for leaching
(Figure 34). Therefore, the intensity of leaching that has occurred at depth on south-to-
southwest-facing slopes may be diminished when compared to that of opposing slopes.

3. Weathering of Fe and Al; decomposition of organic material.

Since water is a necessary component of chemical weathering, and since more water
(and organic material) probably has been available in the soil of north-to-northeast-facing
slopes, then it is likely that more Fe and A1 would have been weathered in the soils of
north-to-northeast-facing slopes. Thus, more of the basic ingredients of organo-metallic
complexes would have been provided.

Higher soil temperatures persist on south-to-southwest—facing slopes. Thus, it seems
probable that drying of the O horizon was able to take place more often (between warm
season precipitation events) on these slopes than on north-to-northeast-facing slopes.
With a higher frequency of wet-dry cycles and with greater soil temperatures, the organic

matter could decompose more rapidly than if it simply remained moist. Thus, the

109

 

( Solar radiation input )

 

A

(M...) ( .... ]

 

 

 

 

[ pH ) LPOdzolization )

 

4\
V

Indicates direction of influence

 

 

Figure 34. Podzolization feedback flow chart.

110

quality of the organic matter and its ability to chelate with Fe and Al would be reduced on
south-to-southwest-facing slopes, therefore producing thinner sola with less Fe and Al
present in the B horizon when compared to that of north-to-northeast-facing slopes.

4. Translocation and subsequent immobilization of organic matter, Fe
and Al (as organo-metallic complexes).

As organo-metallic complexes migrate downward, they may adsorb additional Fe and
A1. Organo-metallic chelates can be immobilized in one of three ways: adsorption of
sufficient Fe and Al, forming a large immobile organo-metallic compound; dessication of
the chelatecompound; and/or an encounter of the chelate compound with a horizon of
different (usually higher) pH (Mokma and Buurman 1982). There is no reason to think
that immobilization processes are different on opposing slopes. The saturation of chelate
complexes probably occurs in all soils sampled in this study. Therefore, reasons for
immobilization of the chelate compound within the study area probably involve either
available water for translocation (thus affecting dessication rates) and/or high pH (a
function of vegetation and available water for infiltration as dictated by solar radiation
input (Figure 34)).
Summammdflmclusinns
1. Soil temperatures at 50cm in May, July and September were significantly warmer on
south-to-southwest-facing slopes (or = 0.01), however, soil temperatures in
November were not significantly different on opposing slopes (or = 0.05).
2. Whereas depths to the top of the E horizons were not significantly different on
opposing slopes (or = 0.05), B horizon thicknesses were significantly greater on north-

to-northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.05).

3. Depths to the top of the B horizons were significantly greater on north-to-northeast-
facing slopes (or = 0.05), but B horizon thicknesses were not significantly different on

111

opposing slopes (at a = 0.05).

Solum thicknesses were significantly greater on north-to—northeast—facing slopes
(or = 0.05).

POD Indices were significantly greater on north-to-northeast-facing slopes
(or = 0.01).

Soil color:

Reaction:

The hues, values and chromas of the uppermost E horizons were not
significantly different on opposing slopes (or = 0.05).

Hues of the uppermost B horizons were significantly redder on north-to-
northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.05).

Both soil color values and chromas of the uppermost B horizons were
significantly less on north-to-northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.01).

SoilzKCl reactions (1:1) were significantly different in only two horizons;
the uppermost E horizons exhibited significantly greater acidity on north-
to-northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.01) as did the uppermost B horizons (a =
0.05).

Soil:H20 reactions (1:1) were not significantly different on opposing slopes
in any horizon (a = 0.05).

Optical density of the oxalate extract:

a.

The ODOE values for the uppermost E horizons were significantly greater
on south-to-southwest-facing slopes (or = 0.01).

The ODOE values for the uppermost B horizons were significantly greater
on north-to-northeast—facing slopes (or = 0.01). The ODOE values for the
2nd uppermost B horizons were not significantly different on opposing
slopes (or = 0.01).

The B horizon ODOE -:- B horizon ODOE ratio was significantly greater
for horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.01).

Snowpack thicknesses (November 5, 1995) were significantly greater on north-to-

112

northeast-facing slopes (or = 0.01).
10. Acid Ammonium Oxalate Extractions:

a. The uppermost E horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained
significantly less Fe0 (a = 0.05) and A10 (a = 0.01).

b. The uppermost B horizon on north-to-northeast-facing slopes contained
significantly more Feo (a = 0.05).

c. The 2nd uppermost B horizons on north-to-northeast-facing slopes
contained significantly more Alo (a = 0.05).

Within the study area, nearly uniform parent material, slope gradient and
macroclimate has ultimately led to the formation of vastly different soils. Soils on north-
to-northeast-facing SIOpes were more strongly developed (i.e., had greater podzolization)
than soils on south-to-southwest-facing slopes. Morphological characteristics such as soil
color, horizon thickness, solum thickness and POD Index suggest, unequivocally, that
maximal pedogenic activity has taken place on north-to-northeast-facing slopes when
compared to that of opposing slopes. Chemical characteristics such as Fe and Al data and
ODOE provide further evidence that soils on north-to-northeast-facing slopes are more
intensely developed than those of south-to-southwest-facing slopes.
WW

Supplementary investigative studies on the topic of Spodosol development as affected
by geomorphic aspect could be approached in the following ways:

1) Further sampling of the study area could be performed utilizing the same

site selection criteria outlined in this study, thus, simply enlarging the
sample size.

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

113

A similar study could be performed in an area outside of Michigan where
Spodosols exist on steep slopes.

Within the same study area, more extensive sampling of individual
hillslopes could be accomplished by systematically sampling transects from
the ridge crest to the valley floor in order to observe any topographic
influences on Spodosol development.

Detailed studies of microclirnatological data could be executed on these or
other steeply sloping sites where Spodosols exist.

A similar study of Spodosols could be performed on slopes that are less
steep.

I

The same study could easily be performed on various aspect ranges within
the same study area.

A more complete inventory of the vegetation in the study area could be
documented.

Statistical analyses could be altered so that samples in the current study
were paired differently or not at all.

Soil moisture data could be collected at or near sampled pedons.

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

Site name: 81 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, NE 1/4
Slope gradient = 52 %. Aspect = S 30 W
Slope length = 20 m. Erosion: Slight
Site position on slope = 60 % of distance from base.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Moderate treethrow.
Overstory vegetation at site:
white birch saute papyfifera Marsh.

white pine Pm: strobu: L.
balsam fir Able: balsam (1.) Mill.

red pine Pm: resinosaAit.
hemlock Turga canadenm (L)Cen'.

W (“C at 5001“)

May 17, 1995 = 8.1

July 25, 1995 = 15.6

September 17, 1995 = 13.3

November 5, 1995 = 4.3

January 20, 1996 = nd‘.

 

' Not determined.

114

115

Site name: N 1 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, NE 1/4
Slope gradient = 66 %. Aspect = N 15 E

Slope length = 45 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 50 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: No.

Overstory vegetation at site:
hemlock Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.
white birch Betula papynfera Marsh.
red maple Acer rubrum L.

SniLTemuemtum (°C at 50cm)

May 17, 1995 = 5.3

July 25, 1995 = 14.3

September 17, 1995 = 12.1

November 5, 1995 = 4.5

January 20, 1996 = nd.

116

Site name: 82 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, NE 1/4, SW 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 65 %. Aspect = S 40 W
Slope length = 100 m. Erosion: Moderate
Site position on slope = 30 % of distance from base: shoulder = 50 % of total slope.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some treethrow.
Notes: N o A horizon sample.
Overstory vegetation at site:

white birch Betula papyn'fera Marsh.

aspen Popular spp.
WhltC pine Pinus strobus L.

W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 7.9
July 25, 1995 = 15.7
September 17, 1995 = 13.6
November 5, 1995 = 6.1
January 20, 1996 = nd.

117

Site name: N2 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, NW 1/4, SE 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 64 %. Aspect = N 45 E
Slope length = 20 m. Erosion: No
Site position on slope = 50 % of distance from base.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: A few large-size treethrow.
Notes: BC has a few very thin lamellae (< 2mm each). No lamellae in 2C.
Overstory vegetation at site:
yellow birch Betula alleghaniensis Britton.
white birch Betula papynfera Marsh.
red maple Acer rubrum L.

hemlockl Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.
white pinez Pinus strobus L.

W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 5.9
July 25, 1995 = 14.5
September 17, 1995 = 12.8
November 5, 1995 = 5.9
January 20, 1996 = nd.

 

1' All specimens 5 2 m tall.
2’ Located on shoulder slope only.

118

Site name: S3 Location: T50N, R34W, sec. 14, SE 1/4, NE 1/4, SW 1/4
Slope gradient = 67 %. Aspect = S 13 W

Slope length = 110 m. Erosion: Slight

Site position on slope = 70 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: A few large-size treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:
aspen Populus spp.
white blI‘Ch Betula papyrifera Marsh.
red maple Acer rubrum L.
sprucel Picea spp.
SgiLIemnemnm (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 8.8
July 25, 1995 = 16.8
September 17, 1995 = 14.8
November 5, 1995 = 5.3
January 20, 1996 = 2.3

 

1' All specimens 5 2 m tall.

119

Site name: N3 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 14, SW 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4
Slope gradient = 66 %. Aspect = N 0 E

Slope length = 60 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 65 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Common treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:
I'Cd oak Quercus rubra L.
I'Cd maple Acer rubmm L.
white bifCh Betula papynfera Marsh.
3.8an Populus srp
W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 5.5
July 25, 1995 = 14.0
September 17, 1995 = 12.6
November 5, 1995 = 6.0
January 20, 1996 = 1.2

I. -_'I '.

 

120

Site name: S4 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, NE 1/4, SW 1/4, NE 1/4
Slope gradient = 63 %. Aspect = S 30 W

Slope length = 80 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 65 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Slight treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:

aspen Popular spp.
white birch Betula papynfera Marsh.

W (°C at 50cm)

May 17, 1995 = 7.9

July 25, 1995 = 16.2

September 17, 1995 = 14.3

November 5, 1995 = 4.9

January 20, 1996 = nd

121

Site name: N4 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 31, NE 1/4, SW 1/4, NE 1/4
Slope gradient = 65 %. Aspect = N 15 E

Slope length = 60 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 65 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Slight treethrow.

Notes: No lamellae. Site = cut over; open & sunny.

Overstory vegetation at site:

aspen Populus spp.
WhltC biI‘Ch Betula papynfera Marsh.

W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 5.9
July 25, 1995 = 14.8
September 17, 1995 = 12.7
November 5, 1995 = 4.4
January 20, 1996 = nd

122

Site name: SS Location: T50N, R34W, sec. 22, SW 1/4, SE 1/4, SW 1/4
Slope gradient = 61 %. Aspect = S 14 W
Slope length = 80 m. Erosion: Slight
Site position on slope = 50 % of distance from base.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some treethrow.
Notes: No A horizon sample.
Overstory vegetation at site:

aspen Popular spp.

white bil‘Ch Betuia papynfera Marsh.
whrte pine Pinus strobus L.

hemlockl Tsuga canadensis (1..) Carr
W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 8.4
July 25, 1995 = 16.7
September 17 , 1995 = nd
November 5, 1995 = 5.5
January 20, 1996 = 2.5

 

1’ All specimens 5 2 m tall.

123

Site name: N5 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 22, SW l/4, SE 1/4, SW 1/4
Slope gradient = 61 %. Aspect = N 14 E

Slope length = 80 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 50% of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Moderate treethrow.

Notes: BC has some Bsm material (20%). Profile described by R18 only.
Overstory vegetation at site:

hemlock Tsuga canadensrlr (1..) Carr.
yellow birch Betula alleghaniensis Britten.

W (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 3.4

July 25, 1995 13.1

September 17, 1995 = 11.8
November 5, 1995 = 4.5
January 20, 1996 = 1.4

124

Site name: S6 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 28, NW 1/4, SE 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 61 %. Aspect = S 17 W

Slope length = 60 m. Erosion: Slight

Site position on slope = 45 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some treethrow, but not evident near site.
Overstory vegetation at site:

white biI'Ch Betula papynfera Marsh.

aspen Popular spp.
white pine Pinus strobus L.
l'Cd maple Acer rubrum L.
red oak Quercus rubraL
SniLTempmtum (°C at 500m)
May 17,1995 = 8.1
July 25, 1995 = 15.4
September 17, 1995 = 14.3
November 5, 1995 = nd
January 20, 1996 = nd

125

Site name: N6 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 28, NW 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4
Slope gradient = 45 %. Aspect = N 8 E

Slope length = 85 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 30 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Common, medium-size treethrow.
Overstory vegetation at site:

hemlock Tsuga canadensir (L.) Carr.
Whlte biI'Ch Betula papyrrfera Marsh.

Whites (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 4.3

July 25, 1995 = 12.6

September 17, 1995 = 11.8
November 5, 1995 = nd

January 20, 1996 = nd

126

Site name: S7 Location: T50N, R34W, sec. 23, NW 1/4, NE 1/4, SW 1/4
Slope gradient = 66 %. Aspect = S 18 W
Slope length = 120 m. Erosion: Intermittent O horizon (see notes below).
Site position on slope = 30 % of distance from base: shoulder = 50% of slope.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Common treethrow.
Notes: Intermittent O horizon-- one third of surface is bare with A horizon exposed.
Overstory vegetation at site:

white birch Betula papynfera Marsh.

aspen Popular spp.

I'Cd maple Acer mbrum L.
balsam firl Abies balsamea (1..) Mill.

Snillemueratures (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 9.0
July 25, 1995 = 16.1
September 17, 1995 = 13.7
November 5, 1995 = 4.9
January 20, 1996 = 1.5

 

1‘ All specimens 5 5 m tall.

127

Site name: N7 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 23, NE 1/4, SW 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 67 %. Aspect = N 35 E
Slope length = 100 m. Erosion: No
Site position on slope: 60 % of distance from base.
Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some treethrow.
Overstory vegetation at site:
white birch Belula papyrifera Marsh.
red maple Acer rubrum L.

aspen Popular spp.
sugar maple Acer raccharum Marsh.

Snillempemmm (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 5.3
July 25, 1995 = 13.6
September 17, 1995 = 12.3
November 5, 1995 = 5.9
January 20, 1996 = 3.9

 

128

Site name: S8 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 22, SE 1/4, NW 1/4, SE 1/4
Slope gradient = 65 %. Aspect = S 30 W

Slope length = 80 m. Erosion: Slight

Site position on slope = 40 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Very little treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:

white bII'Ch Betula papyn'fera Marsh.

red maple Acer rubmm L.
aspen Populusspp.
SgiLTemneranmes (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 8.1
July 25, 1995 = 15.8
September 17, 1995 = 13.4
November 5, 1995 = 4.3
January 20, 1996 = nd

129

Site name: N8 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 23, SW 1/4, NW 1/4, SW 1/4
Slope gradient = 59 %. Aspect = N 31 E

Slope length = 70 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 45 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Slight treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:

hemlock Truga canadenrir (L.) Carr.
white biI‘Ch Betula papynfera Marsh.
red maple Acer rubrum L.

aspen Popular spp.

yellow blICh Belula alleghanienris Britton.

SoiLTemnetamm (°C at 506m)
May 17, 1995 = 5.2
July 25, 1995 = 13.8
September 17, 1995 = 12.1
November 5, 1995 = 5.5
January 20, 1996 = nd

130

Site name: S9 Location: T50N, R34W, sec. 22, SE 1/4, NW 1/4, NE 1/4
Slope gradient = 72 %. Aspect = S 27 W

Slope length = 80 m. Erosion: Slight

Site position on slope = 50 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some large-size treethrow along with common
medium-size treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:

aspen Popular spp.

red pine Pinur rerinora Ait

sugar maple Acer raccharum Marsh.
red oak Quercur rubra L
hemlock‘ Truga canadenrir (L.) Carr.

Whlte bil'CI'l2 Betula papynfera Marsh

SniLIempetaEUa (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 8.7
July 25, 1995 = 15.8
September 17, 1995 = 12.9
November 5, 1995 = 4.3
January 20, 1996 = 0.1

 

‘- All specimens 5 50 cm tall.
2‘ Located on shoulder and footslopes only.

131

Site name: N9 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 22, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 73 %. Aspect = N 28 E

Slope length = 90 m. Erosion: Little

Site position on slope = 40 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Some treethrow.

Overstory vegetation at site:

white bifCh Betula papynfera Marsh.
sugar maple Acer raccharum Marsh.

red oak Quercur rubra L.
aspen Popular spp.
red maple Acer rubrum L.
yellow birch Betula alleghauienrir Britton
IlCl'fllOCk1 Truga canadenrir (L.)~Carr.
W (°C at 500m)
May 17, 1995 = 4.6
July 25, 1995 = 13.6
September 17, 1995 = 12.2
November 5, 1995 = 5.4
January 20, 1996 = 1.7

 

1' All specimens 5 5 m tall.

132

Site name: 810 Location: TSON, R34W, sec.32, NW 1/4, NE 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 54 %. Aspect = S 30 W

Slope length = 55 m. Erosion: No

Site position on slope = 35 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Moderate treethrow.

Notes: Profile described by RVH only.

Overstory vegetation at site:

hemlock Truga canadenrir (1..) Carr.
red maple Acer rubrum L.
aspen Popular spp.
Soillemperamnes (°C at 50cm)
May 17, 1995 = 6.4
July 25, 1995 = 14.0
September 17, 1995 = 12.2
November 5, 1995 = 4.6
January 20, 1996 = nd

133

Site name: N10 Location: TSON, R34W, sec. 32, NW 1/4, NE 1/4, NW 1/4
Slope gradient = 61 %. Aspect = N 33 E

Slope length = 65 m. Erosion: Slight

Site position on slope = 40 % of distance from base.

Evidence for tree uprooting at site: Several large-size treethrow on upper slope.
Notes: Profile described by RVH only.

Overstory vegetation at site:

yellow bifCh Betula allegham'enrtr Britton.

hemlock Truga canadenrir (L.) Carr.
white birch Betula papynfera Marsh.
aspen Popular spp.

Snillemnemmm (°C at 50cm)

May 17, 1995 = 3.7

July 25, 1995 = 12.6

September 17, 1995 = 11.7

November 5, 1995 = 5.7

January 20, 1996 = nd

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

Table 21. Morphological characteristics and pH of site 81.

 

 

 

 

 

 

l Horizon I Depth (cm) Moist color pH) pigl Texture
Oe 0-4
B 4-13 5YR 5/2 4.3 3.2 fine sandy loam
le 13-28 7.5YR 4/6 5.4 4.5 fine sandy loam
BS2 28-47 7.5YR 4/4 5.6 4.3 ridl
C _ 47-82+ 7.5YR 4/4 5.7 4.5 sand

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 22. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N 1.

 

Depth
cm

I Horizon I

 

Moist color

(KCl)

pH Texture I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Oi
A 2-6 N 2/0
E 6-17 5YR 4/2 4.5 3.3 sandy loam
Bs1 17-31 5YR 3/4 5.7 4.5 sandy loam
B32 31-46 5YR 4/4 5.9 4.6 sandy loam l
2BC 46-81 7.5YR 4/6 6.0 4.7 sand
3C 81-97-l- 7.5YR 4/4 _5.9 4.5 sand

1 Not determined.

134

 

135

Table 23. Morphological characteristics and pH of site 82.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Depth (cm) Moist color pI-(I) pI(-:Il Texture
N 2/0 nd nd nd
5YR 5/3 4.9 3.5 fine sandy loam l-
7.5YR 4/4 nd 4.5 fine sandy loam
7.5YR 5/6 5.6 4.6 fine sandy loam
1 7.5YR 5/4 5.7 4.3 fine sandy loam

 

 

Table 24. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N2.

_¥

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m Depth (cm) Moist color pI-(l) p131 Texture
Oi 0-3
Oa 3-5 N 2/0
E 5-15 5YR 5/3 4.5 3.3 fine sandy loam
le 15-29 5YR 4/6 6.0 4.3 fine sandy loam
, Bs2 29-48 7.5YR 4/4 5.9 4.4 fine sandy loam
BC 48-70 7.5YR 4/3 5.9 4.2 fine sandy loam
[L2C 70-97+ 5YR 5/4 5.9 4.2 loamy coarse sand

 

136

Table 25. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S3.

 

Horizon Depth (cm) Moist color pH pH Texture I
0 c1

   
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

0-7
7-11 10YR 3/2 nd nd nd

11-23 7.5YR 5/2 4.7 3.4 fine sandy loam
23-39 5YR 4/6 5.2 4.3 fine sandy loam
39-53 7.5YR 4/6 5.3 4.3 sand

53-64 7.5YR 4/6 5.2 4.3 sand

64-76 2.5YR 4/6 5.4 4.2 sand

76-114+ 5YR 4/6 5.6 4.2 sand

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 26. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N3.

 

Depth (cm) Moist color pH pH Texture
0 c1

 

 

 

NM 4'
5YR 5/2 4.3 3.2 sand

5YR 3/4 5.4 4.3 sand II
5YR 4/6 5.9 4.6 loamy sand I
7.5YR 4/6 5.7 4.4 fine sandy loam
7 .SYR 4/4 5.6 4.3 loamy fine sand 1'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

137

Table 27. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S4.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Horizon Depth (cm) Moist color pI-(l) pICIl Texture
0-6
6- 12 N 2/0
12- 19 7.5YR 4/2 4.3 3.2 loamy fine sand
19-33 5YR 4/6 5.2 4.4 loamy sand
33-43 7.5YR 4/6 5.1 4.3 loamy sand
43—60 7.5YR 4/4 5.1 4.3 sand
60-102-1— 7.5YR 5/4 5.2 4.4 sand

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 28. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N4.

_7
—

Depth (cm) Moist color pH pH Texture
0 c1

 

 

4-29 5YR 5/2 4.4 3.3 loamy fine sand
29-44 2.5YR 3/6 5.3 4.3 loamy fine sand
44-59 5YR 4/6 5.5 4.5 sand
59-79 7.5YR 4/6 5.7 4.6 sand
79-102+ 7.5YR 4/4 5.8 4.5 sand

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

138

Table 29. Morphological characteristics and pH of site SS.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ll Horizon l Depth (cm) Moist color Texture
Oi
A 3-6 10YR 3/2 nd nd nd
E 6-23 5YR 5/3 4.2 3.2 loamy sand
le 23-40 7.5YR 4/6 5.5 4.2 loamy fine sand
B32 40-55 7.5YR 4/4 5.7 4.4 loamy sand
BC 55-79 10YR 5/6 6.0 4.5 loamy sand
C ‘ 79-101+ 5YR 4/4 6.1 4.5 fine sandy loam

 

 

 

 

Table 30. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N5.

Horizon Depth Moist color pH pH Texture
cm (11.0) (KC!)

4-8 N 2/0
8-15 5YR 5/2 4.3 3.1 loamy sand
15-21 5YR 3/3 & 2.5YR 3/6 4.6 3.7 sand
21-46 5YR 4/6 5.2 4.3 sand
46-70 7.5YR 4/6 5.3 4.4 sand
70—110+ 10YR 4/6 5.4 4.4 sand

 

 

 
 
  
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

139

Table 31. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

M -n pt
Oi 0-2

|[ Oa 2-7 N 2/0

Ii E 7-21 7.5YR 5/2 4.3 3.2 fine sand
le 21-37 7.5YR 4/6 5.1 4.3 loamy sand
B32 37-54 7.5YR 4/4 5.4 4.4 loamy sand
BC 54-67 7.5YR 5/4 5.6 4.4 loamy fine sand
C 67-102+ 7.5YR 5/4 6.0 4.3 loamy fine sand

 

 

 

 

 

Table 32. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Depth (cm) Moist color pI-l) p121l Texture
' 0-4
4-8
8-13 7.5YR 4/2 4.2 3.1 loamy sand
13-32 7.5YR 5/2 4.6 3.4 loamy sand
32-42 2.5YR 2.5/4 5.6 4.4 loamxsand
42-58 5YR 4/6 5.8 4.7 loamy sand II
. 58-88+ 7.5YR 4/6 5.7 4.6 sand I]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

140

Table 33. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S7.

   

1 Depth (cm)

 

Moist color

Texture l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0-9 10YR 2/2 nd nd nd
9-14 5YR 5/3 5.2 3.7 loamy fine sand
14-26 5YR 4/6 5.7 4.5 loamy fine sand
26-41 7.5YR 4/6 6.0 4.6 loamy fine sand
41-77 7.5YR 4/4 5.7 4.6 loamy fine sand
77-119+ 5YR 4/3 6.2 4.3 very fine
sandy loam
Table 34. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N7.
l Horizon | Depth (cm) Moist color pH) plélI Texture
Oi
Oa N 2/0
E1 7.5YR 5/2 4.7 3.3 loamy fine sand
E2 5YR 5/3 5.0 3.5 loamy fine sand
le 5YR 3/4 5.5 4.2 loamy fine sand
BS2 5YR 4/6 5.7 4.4 loamy fine sand
BC 7.5YR 4/6 5.9 4.4 fine sand
2C _15-104+ 5YR 5/3 5.3 3.4 loam

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

141

Table 35. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S8.

 

___ ______»_~____ 0 Cl

 

 

   
   
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O Intermittent

E 0—7 7.5YR 5/2 5.1 3.6 fine sandy loam

le 7-20 5YR 4/6 5.6 4.4 fine sandy loam
lgsZ 20-39 7.5YR 4/6 5.9 4.6 fine sandy loam

BC 39-58 7.5YR 5/4 5.6 4.2 loamy sand
_ 58—89+ _ 7.5YR 5/4 5.8 4.3 loam sand

 

Table 36. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N8.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Horizon Depth (cm) Moist color pH) pICIl Texture

Oi 0—12

Oa 12-15 N 2/0

E 15-36 7 .SYR 5/2 4.9 3.3 loamy sand

le 36—51 5YR 3/4 5.6 4.2 loamy fine sand
|| B52 51-73 5YR 4/6 5.8 4.5 fine sandy loam II
II BC 73-83 7.5YR 4/6 5.7 4.6 loamy fine sand %

CI 83-96 7.5YR 4/4 6.0 4.7 fine sand

C2 96-112+ 5YR 4/4 5.5 4.4 fine sandy loam ll

 

142

Table 37. Morphological characteristics and pH of site S9.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Horizon Depth (cm) Moist color pI-(l) pigl Texture

Oi 0-3

Oa 3-8 N 2/0

E 8-13 5YR 5/3 4.8 3.5 loamy sand

le 13-26 5YR 4/6 5.5 4.3 loamy sand h
B32 26-51 7.5YR 4/6 5.9 4.6 loamy sand I
BC 51-70 7 .5YR 4/4 6.0 4.5 loamy sand

2C 70-93+ 5YR 5/3 . . fine sand loam

 

 

Table 38. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N9.

*-

lHorizonl Depth (cm) Moist color pH pH Texture I
0 Cl

5YR 4/3 4.9 3.3 fine sandy loam
5YR 3/4 5.3 4.1 sandy loam
7.5YR 4/4 5.5 4.3 fine sandy loam
5YR 4/4 6.0 4.4 fine sandy loam
7.5YR 5/4 6.1 4.6 sand

 

 

     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

143

Table 39. Morphological characteristics and pH of site 810.

 

M Depth (cm) Moist color pH pH Texture
0 c1

 
 

 

N 2/0
9-18 5YR 4/2 5.2 3.6 loamy sand II
18-28 5YR 3/4 5.3 4.0 loamy sand
28-48 5YR 4/6 5 .4 4.1 loamy sand
48-75 7.5YR 4/4 5.3 4.1 sandy loam
75-85 7.5YR 4/4 5.7 4.3 sand
35-107+ 7.5YR 4/6 6.0 4.6 nd

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 40. Morphological characteristics and pH of site N 10.

 

 

 

 

 

5YR 4/2 4.2 3.0 fine sandy loam
5YR 5/3 4.6 3.3 fine sandy loam
5YR 3/4 5.4 4.0 fine sandy loam

 

7.5YR 4/6 5.7 4.4 fine sandy loam
7.5YR 4/4 5.9 4.4 fine sandy loam
7.5YR 4/4 5.6 4.4 fine sandy loam

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX C

 

 

APPENDIX C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 41. Particle size analysis for sites S1 and N 1.
SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE1
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05
1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05 rmn
mm mm mm mm m I
—— —— ————" — ———'—‘_ - —‘ - — ———_‘——— — ==
81
Oe
E 0.3 2.0 13.4 26.9 19.5 62.0 36.9 fsl
831 0.4 1.8 14.2 29.5 19.9 65.8 33.7 fsl
B32 12 NA
C 0.6 9.3 62.5 22.9 1.8 97.2 2.2 s
N]
Oi
A NA
E 2.0 12.3 27.7 20.3 9.6 71.9 26.2 $1
881 3.4 10.6 26.2 19.6 9.8 69.6 30.2 sl
B32 2.4 l 1.6 30.6 17.9 6.8 69.2 30.3 $1
2BC 2.8 15.1 44.2 23.4 5.7 91.1 7.8 s
3C 1.1 5.4 21.1 44.1 15.5 87.2 12.4 ' s
‘ Texture class abbreviations: s sand;
51 = sandy loam;
fs = fine sand;
fsl = fine sandy loam;
vfsl = very fine sandy loam;
ls = loamy sand;
lfs = loamy fine sand;
lcs = loamy coarse sand;
1 = loam.

Not determined

144

 

145

Table 42. Particle size analysis for sites 82 and N2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % IL sand % silt+clay [I TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to
. 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05
2_ fig- __________ mm
82 ?
Oi
A
E 1.0 5.4 19.1 26.4 21.1 73.0 26.3 fsl
le 1.4 4.7 15.3 28.1 24.9 74.3 25.6 fsl
BS2 1.7 3.6 13.0 35.5 21.4 75.1 23.5 fsl
C 1.0 3.5 12.0 31.4 27.0 I! 74.9 24.7 fsl
N2
Oi
Oa
E 0.1 1.3 18.9 43.8 11.0 75.1 24.5 fsl II
B3] 0.5 1.2 8.4 32.8 17.2 60.0 40.2 fsl
BS2 0.04 0.4 5.5 25.8 20.4 52.2 47.5 fsl
BC 0.1 0.4 9.7 27.5 15.6 IE32 46.1 fsl
2C 0.2 44.8 30.8 8.1 1.0 II 84.9 14.0 lcs

 

Table 43. Particle size analysis for sites S3 and N3.

146

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % f sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm
1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05
L _ _ rmn rmn mm mm _mr_n____________$l
ss
Oi
A NA
E 1.7 637 18.7 24.4 18.6 69.7 29.6 1| fsl
le 1.6 6.8 19.4 23.7 17.6 69.2 30.0 fsl
2Bs2 2.7 8.5 41.5 34.6 5.1 92.4 7.0 s
213C 2.3 10.8 51.3 29.4 2.4 96.1 3.7 s
2Bs' 6.2 17.4 51.2 19.5 1.2 95.4 3.2 s
2c 7.7 28.4 50.4 9.9 0.9 97.2 1.9 s
N3 ‘%
Oi
Oa
hr E 3.7 19.3 43.2 19.9 3.8 89.9 8.9 s
le 5.5 17.3 42.0 26.3 2.5 93.5 6.2 s
Bs2 1.1 4.0 22.1 43.9 12.6 83.6 NA ls
BC 0.3 1.7 12.1 42.0 19.1 75.2 23.8 fsl
Ii C 0 0.5 16.5 60.2 6.8 84.0 15.1 lfs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 44. Particle size analysis for sites S4 and N4.

147

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm
1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05

_ mm mm mm mm mm _1
S4

Oi

Oa

E 0.6 3.2 20.2 38.6 16.4 79.0 19.6 lfs

B8] 1.1 3.4 24.6 38.1 12.6 79.6 20.2 ls

Bs2 0.9 3.1 25.5 42.4 11.3 83.2 15.6 ls II

BC 0.5 2.8 33.3 47.5 6.8 90.8 9.1 s H

C 0 0.4 44.1 49.2 3.1 96.9 2.3 8 ll

‘1

N4

Oe

E 0.5 2.9 20.9 39.2 20.0 83.4 16.8 lfs

le 0.7 2.4 19.4 45.2 18.4 86.1 13.0 lfs

BS2 1.2 3.4 27.8 41.1 14.8 88.3 10.6 s

BC 1.6 3.7 26.0 45.8 12.3 89.3 9.5 s

C 0.1 2.3 53.3 31.6 3.5 90.8 8.1 s

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 45. Particle size analysis for sites S5 and N5.

 

 

148

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

==.
cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm
0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05
mm mm mm
Oi
A II
E 1.0 3.8 23.1 38.7 14.8
Bs1 0.3 2.3 19.9 45.1 14.9
BS2 0.4 3.2 22.7 42.1 13.7 1' 82.0 16.4 ll ls
II BC 0.4 2.9 22.3 43.7 13.6 82.8 15.8 ls
l C 0.4 1.5 17.6 43.0 4.7 67.2 32.1 fsl
1|
n. 1|
Oi
Oa
E 2.3 8.9 25.5 39.6 10.0 86.3 11.9 ls
Bhs 5.5 11.8 32.7 30.7 7.7 88.3 10.0 F s
Bs1 ' 2.8 5.7 22.3 42.2 14.6 87.5 11.4 s
B32 1 1.3 7.2 36.6 40.2 7.0 92.3 6.3 s
l BC 1.5 5.6 30.5 43.6 9.4 I 90.5 8.1 s

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

149

Table 46. Particle size analysis for sites S6 and N6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay % 1| TEXTURE
1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm
0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05
111111 111111 111.111
3.0 18.7 52.9 12.4 87.4 10.8 fs II
3.3 21.7 46.5 12.6 85.2 13.9 1s II
4.0 24.3 44.4 1 1.6 85.2 13.5 ls
3.1 19.2 42.9 14.4 80.0 18.8 H lfs
0.5 2.2 39.2 35.6 77.6 21.9 l lfs
Oa 7'
E1 0.4 4.0 26.8 39.5 1 1.9 82.7 15.4 ls
E2 0.4 4.0 27.9 37.9 12.8 83.0 15.4 ls
II: Bhs 1.1 6.0 24.8 36.2 13.5 81.6 17.0 ls
Bs 1.4 5.7 22.5 40.6 14.3 84.5 14.0 ls ll
'1 BC ‘ 3.1 7.5 29.5 42.3 8.8 91.2 7.1 s II

 

 

 

150

Table 47. Particle size analysis for sites S7 and N7.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_—F=F='__—#r-—r a
SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm
1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05
___ 1 _mm_ ____ mm _ mm m =1
s7 ' I
Oe
A NA
E 0.6 2.2 19.8 45.5 9.8 77.9 21.1 lfs II
881 0.9 2.3 14.3 41.4 19.1 78.0 21.2 lfs J
Bs2 0.6 2.4 12.7 40.3 21.6 77.6 21.2 lfs
BC 1.5 3.2 11.3 43.0 21.3 fir 80.3 18.5 lfs
2c 0.2 0.7 5.2 29.8 30.7 66.6 32.8 vfsl
M II
Oi
0a ll
E1 0.4 1.4 17.9 49.1 16.0 84.9 13.8 lfs II
E2 0.3 1.6 21.9 48.8 14.0 86.6 12.3 lfs JI
Bs1 0.6 1.6 20.6 49.7 13.8 86.3 12.5 lfs 1'
BS2 ‘ 1.0 1.8 17.5 47.8 15.7 83.8 15.4 lfs II
BC l 0.04 .9 25.2 52.0 12.1 90.2 9.0 fs
2c l 0 0.6 4.9 18.1 22.6 46.2 53.3 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 48. Particle size analysis for sites 88 and N8.

 

151

 

 

 

  
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-— —‘ ii
SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % sand % silt+clay %
1 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to < 0.05 m
I 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05
+__m‘n#_______ mm
ss 1
ll E 1.1 4.0 16.7 36.2 17.3
le 1.2 4.1 15.3 35.3 18.3
II 382 1.2 3.8 14.7 35.3 18.6
ll BC ' 1.2 4.3 25.6 38.3 12.4
C 0.4 2.5 25.7 46.5 10.4 85.6 12.6 ls
|| ll
N8 n
Oi
Oa II
II E 0.3 2.4 22.4 42.8 14.2 82.0 16.8 ls
II le 0.4 1.5 13.9 44.3 19.1 79.2 19.8 lfs
11 B82 0.2 0.7 8.4 40.1 26.6 76.0 23.4 fsl
ll BC 0.1 0.7 11.7 48.2 21.2 81.9 17.3 lfs "
II Cl 0.04 0.4 8.9 56.5 23.3 89.1 9.8 fs
II C2 0.04 0.1 3.3 39.1 26.6 69.1 30.3 “n+1 ll

 

Table 49. Particle size analysis for sites S9 and N9.

 

152

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

i- ======= ___- __
SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % ll sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm

1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05
111111 111111 111111 ___—___ mm
S9
or II
II ..
II E 0.4 6.4 30.2 31.5 11.0 79.4 19.1 ls .
B8] 0.8 6.9 32.7 30.1 9.1 79.5 NA ls II
II Bs2 1.0 9.0 37.3 31.5 7.7 Inss 11.4 ls
’L BC 0.9 7.9 38.8 28.1 8.7 84.4 13.8 ls II
II 2C 0.1 1.1 12.2 47.9 14.7 76.1 23.1 fsl
ll
lbw
Oi
Oa E
B 1.4 4.1 23.5 35.3 11.3 75.6 22.3 fsl I
881 1.2 5.7 28.6 27.9 11.1 1 74.5 23.9 $1
Bs2 0.6 3.7 21.6 28.2 10.4 i 64.4 34.3 fsl
“:BC 1.1 3.6 18.5 32.9 14.5 70.6 28.6 fsl
2C 1.4 8.2 48.2 30.5 5.9 94.2 4.3 '1 s

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

153

Table 50. Particle size analysis for sites S10 and N 10.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

___ -. 4
SAMPLE vcs % cs % ms % fs % vfs % F sand % silt+clay % TEXTURE
2.0 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 0.25 to 0.1 to 2.0 to < 0.05 mm

1.0 0.5 0.25 0.1 mm 0.05 0.05
111111 _ 111111 ___ 111111 111111
$10 I
a. II I
Oa
Ike 3.5 12.6 28.9 27.7 9.1 81.8 16.1 ls
B8] 8.0 14.3 31.7 22.0 6.5 82.6 15.3 ls
II Bs2 3.5 9.9 28.0 28.9 9.6 79.9 NA ls "
BC 2.2 8.4 27.0 29.0 10.2 76.8 21.9 81
ll 2C1 4.9 13.4 35.6 28.0 6.7 88.6 9.9 s
2C2 h NA
N10 II
Oi
Oa ll
B1 0.7 1.9 11.6 37.6 20.0 71.8 27.5 fsl
II E2 0.6 1.2 9.0 40.4 23.5 74.7 24.6 fsl
Bs1 1 0.6 1.8 11.6 40.4 22.9 77.3 22.0 fsl
Bs2 * 0.3 1.4 10.8 40.8 24.0 77.3 21.9 fsl
BC 0.3 1.8 14.3 33.3 21.8 71.5 27.9 fsl
II C ‘ 0.3 2.9 15.3 31.0 21.0 70.4 28.7 fsl

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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