CREATIVITY AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL MODE FOR INTRODUCING MUSIC T0 NON-MUSIC MAJORS AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL I Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY CLIFFORD IRVIN PFEIL 1972 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII . pg ,1 '5‘ l -- -\ wiffigm. :1 JAN 161539. ML? 2'13 Q7005 ABSTRACT CREATIVITY AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL MODE FOR INTRODUCING MUSIC TO NON-MUSIC MAJORS AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL BY Clifford I. Pfeil College-level introductory courses in the fine arts usually emphasize appreciation of finished art products, and do not engage the student in creative activity. Music appreciation courses, for example, usually limit the students' ways of eXperiencing music to those associated with listening. The exercise and celebration of creative potential is widely considered necessary to human fulfillment. Music is among the available means of celebration. This disserta- tion describes and documents an approach to music that emphasizes creative involvement in the manipulation of the medium. A review of ideas and eXperiments concerned with the description, identification, measurement, and develOpment of creativity leads to the formula underlying this approach: (1) encourage Openness to eXpression by emphasizing doing, and by allowirg independence of judgement, (2) encourage Openness to eXperience by focusing on present eXperiences Clifford I. Pfeil rather than on abstractions stored against the future, by countering fixed habits of eXperiencing, and by encouraging self-trust. The approach is described in detail, documented with selections of student work and reSponse, and evaluated by means of a test devised specifically to measure creative thinking in the medium of sound. The evaluation is based on a comparison of the scores of students in a creativity workshop in music with those of students in a traditional music appreciation class. In Spite of the criteria and methodology problems that plague all such tests, and in spite of unmanageable variables peculiar to this particular testing situation, the results indicate that students in the creativity-centered class are more sensitive to musical problems, are able to produce more elaborations on musical ideas, and are able to produce more original ideas concerning music than students in the music appreciation class. It is not claimed that the approach described increases creative ability. The aim of the approach is only to give opportunity for the exercise of creative potential in the medium of sound. This it undoubtedly does, and the results of the test show that students who experience this approach are more diSposed to View music as a medium in which creative potential may be celebrated. CREATIVITY AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL MODE FOR INTRODUCING MUSIC TO NON-MUSIC MAJORS AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL By Clifford Irvin Pfeil A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1972 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my wife for her editorial assistance and many cups of tea, and Dr. Paul Harder for his time, help, encouragement and interest. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I: lNCPRODUCTIOI‘I O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 1 CHAPTER II: CREATIVITY: HISTORICAL VIEWS, AND RECENT RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 CHAPTER III: EDUCATION FOR CREATIVITY . . . . . . . . 32 The Creative Student in School . . . . . . . . . 32 The Creative Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Encouraging Creativity in the Classroom . . . . . #0 CHAPTER IV: TWO APPROACHES TO TEACHING MUSIC TO NON- MUSlC NLAJORS C C C O O O O O C O C O 47 General Music at San Diego . . . . . . . . . . . 47 The Manhattenville Music Curriculum . . . . . . . 55 The Two Courses Compared . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 O O O O O O O\ 0\ CHAPTER V: EXERCISES IN CREATIVITY . Rationale Behind the Exercises . . . . . . . . . 66 Making the familiar strange . . . . . . . . ”66 The extensional orientation . . . . . . . . 69 Spontaneity, intuition . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Interaction, and self-awareness . . . . . . 73 Examples of Creativity Exercises . . . . . . . . 74 Found or discovered music . . . . . . . . . 74 Found theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 The trust walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Three awareness exercises . . . . . . . . . 78 The solitary picnic . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 The stone game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 The Value of Creativity Exercises . . . . . . . . 83 CHAPTER VI: TECHNIQUES IN MUSIC CREATIVITY FOR NON— IVIUSIC IVIAJ ORS o o o o o o o o o a o o o o 90 Games - Improvisations - Situations . . . . . . . 9O Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Dealing With Musical Elements . . . . . . . . . . 106 Word settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Experimenting with timbre, articulation, and dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 EXperimenting with texture and pitch . . . . 117 Experimenting with time and design . . . . . 119 iii Page Widening the Sc0pe: Tape Recorders, Found Instruments, and Intermedia . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Tape recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Found and made instruments . . . . . . . . . . 128 Intermedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Compositions for Orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 CHAPTER VII: EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 The Criteria Problem: Products and Persons . . . . 141 The Methodology Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Guilford: Mental Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Torrence: Complex Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Measurement of Creative Thinking in Sound . . . . . 156 Results of the Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSIONS--SUGGESTIONS . . . . . . . . I85 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Harmony and the field of pla . . . . . . . . 190 A new focus for the creativity workshOp . . . 191 L132? OF REbfiERENCES O O O O O O O O O O O C O C C O O O O 196 iv II III IV VI VII VIII IX XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII ILLUSTRATIONS Figures Gregorian Chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beginning of Metastasis, by Xanakis . . . Remember 3 Day, by the Pink Floyd . . . . "A Gust of Wind at Ejiri," after a print by HOkusai O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O "Ryogoku Bridge," after a print by Hokusai Felt Board "Score" with Motives . . . . . . Felt Board "Score" with Retrograde Figures Felt Board "Score for a Dramatic Composition . Word Setting 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o Syllable Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . "Trimefl Word Setting: by Sue Hirsch . . . "Non-Word" Setting by the Class . . . . . Experimentations with texture and pitch . An Exercise in Unitary Time Measurement, by Sue HirSCh O O O O O O O O O O O C O 0 Three Part Piece in 3 time, by Viki Davis Piece for Dimestore Instruments, by Bryan Thompson 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 An Improvisational Study in Contrasts and Repetition, by Bernard Hommel . . . . . . Piece for Orchestra, by Sue Hirsch . V 134. 110, 135. Page 100 101 102 104 105 106 107 107 111 113 115 116 120 122 124 125 126 136 XIX XX XXI II III IV VI VII VIII IX XI Piece for Orchestra, by Dianne Herbert . . 137, Guilford's Theoretical Model for the Complete Structure of the Intellect . . . . . . . . The Incomplete Figures Test Sample Figures and Sample Reaponses . . . Tables Subject X's Total Score . . . . . . . . . Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared for Each Task and Bach Factor . . . . . . Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared by {l‘aSk O 0 O C 0 I O O O O O O O O O O 0 Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared by Creativity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 1 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores 0 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 2 Compared with Average Appreciation Class scores 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 3 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores 0 O O 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0 Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 4 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores 0 C O C O C O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 5 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 6 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 7 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 138 152 154 169 173 17A 17A 177 177 I78 179 179 180 XII XIII XIV Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 8 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 180 Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 9 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 A Comparison of the Average Scores of the Two Classes for each Factor . . . . . . . . . 181 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Appreciation courses involving historical studies and guided listening are the common means toward the ex- tension of musical knowledge and the deve10pment of musical sensibility. The emphasis of these courses is usually on the enjoyment of finished art products. In contrast, the approach described in this dissertation engages the student in improvisation, eXperimentation, composition, and perform- ance. Its emphasis is on creative activity. The basis for this difference is not simply the adage that we learn more by doing. More directly, we d9 more by doing. Presumably the student's knowledge will be extended by a creative approach, but this is not the aim. Presumably his aesthetic sensibility will be further deveIOped by this approach, but this also is not precisely the aim. The aim is for non-music majors to engage in creative activity in the sound medium. The assumption supporting this aim is that creative activity is necessary to human fulfillment. The difference is critical. The assumption of the traditional music appreciation course is that the ability to understand and appreciate "good" music is somehow en- riching, and is part of being cultured and knowledgeable, and that this appreciation and understanding can be heightened through deveIOpment of listening skills and acquisition of historical and technical information. The deve10pment of listening skills usually takes the form of acquiring a vocabulary of musical elements and musical events. The vocabulary is used to draw attention to elements and events as the music is being heard: the student is led through the music by a running commentary using the newly acquired vocabulary. His listening pro- gress is often tested by his ability to supply a similar detailed commentary to given excerpts or pieces of music. His progress in the historical aSpect is often measured by his ability to aurally recognize style characteristics as clues to the time in which the piece was written. Several texts in current use that employ this approach are quite good. Th; Ag; 9: Listening1 was developed from the introductory humanities course offered at the University of Chicago. Its worth is due to its sometimes successful attempt to engage the student in real aural discovery. The listening is often guided by broad questions rather than by direct statements. To an extent the answers to these broad Questions are allowed to be ”real” answers rather that ”right" answers. Where this is the case, students are not asked, for example, to give the right name for a heard event. Instead they are asked to draw comparisons between significant aSpects of similar and different selections on the basis of their own perceptions and insights. Even when this book is most successful, however, it is limited, as are all music appreciation books, to the ways of_experiencing associated with listening. And most appreciation texts are even further limited to the author's ways of listening, usually to the ways of listening assigned by traditional pedagogy. The task of teaching a subject (e.g. music appreciation) is often reduced to an effort to make the student perceive elements and events the way authorities perceive them. These then are the shortcomings of most appreciation courses: (1) they limit the student's ways of eXperiencing to those associated with listening: (2) they program his listening. The effect is to encourage passivity by dis- couraging thought (Questioning) and activity (doing). Remember the assumption: creative activity is necessary to human fulfillment. By removing the student from the action and by prescribing his experience the traditional appreciation course deprives the student of a golden Oppor- tunity for creative activity. Suppose a physical education department taught tennis inside a classroom as a spectacle to be appreciated (Tennis Appreciation 0&9). Students would learn the names of the various grips and strokes, the rules of the game, and the lives of the great players of the past. Some time might be spent considering the Persian origins as well as the numerous varieties of the game. Students would watch movies of tennis matches and write them up, with close u attention given to the styles of play. Perhaps attendance at a minimum of three live matches might be required. This may be fairly heavy-handed, but the point should be clearer: it is not necessary that everyone appreciate good music any more than it is necessary that everyone appreciate good tennis. But it does seem necessary that everyone make use of (that is to say: celebrate) his muscles, balance, skill, and judgement, and his creative capacity. Tennis and music are among the available means of celebration. Frank Barron is a research psychologist at the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research, University of Cali- fornia. Berkeley. 8 Guggenheim fellow, who has worked with the support of grants from the Ford Foundation, the Richard- son Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation, and the U. S. Office of Education, this latter for basic research in esthetic educa- tion. Dr. Barron cites three distinct traits that mark the highly creative person: (1) Creative individuals seem to be able to discern accurately more complexity in whatever it is they attend to . . . they are attracted to complexity, and find it more challenging, so that indeed there is more complexity for them to discern. (2) A second trait of creative peOple is perceptual openness, or resistance to premature closure . . . whenever a per- son uses his mind for any purpose, he performs either an act of erception (he becomes aware of something or an act of judgement (he comes to a conclusion, often an evaluative conclusion) . . . If one of these attitudes is strong in a person, the other is correspondingly weak . . . the perceptual attitude facilitates Spontaneity and flexibility . . . the more creative individuals are more perceptually oriented and the less creative are more judgementally oriented. (3) The third characteristic of creative persons is reliance upon intuition, hunches, and ineXplicable feelings. They trust the nonrational processes of their own minds. The late Abraham Maslow was a professor of psychology at Brandeis University and President of the American Psy- chological Association. Dr. Maslow was devoted to the study of unusually happy and successful pe0ple, or "self-actualizing" peOple, as he called them. His description of the traits characteristic of these people includes the following: (1) Self-actualizing peOple are relatively unfrightened by the unknown, the mys- terious, the puzzling, and often are positively attracted by it: i.e. selectively pick it out to puzzle over, meditate on, and be absorbed with. (2) [Self actualizing people do not7 organize, dichotomize, or rubricize prematurely. (3) Self actualizing peOple'§7 creativeness EE§7 spontaneous, effortless, innocent, easy.. I The correSpondence between these two lists is important to see. Barron says that a creative person is attracted to complexity; Maslow says that self-actualized peOple are attracted to the puzzling. Barron says that creative people "resist premature closure": Maslow says self-actualizing pe0ple "do not rubricize prematurely.” Barron says creative people "trust the non-rational processes of their own minds": Maslow says self-actualizing people's creativity is “Spontaneous, effortless, innocent, easy." This suggests that what we call 6 "creativity" and what we call "fulfillment” are related. Maslow goes a step beyond this suggestion: "My feeling is that the concept of Creativeness and the concept of the healthy, self-actualizing, fully human person seem to be coming closer and closer together, and may perhaps turn out to be the same thing . . . education through art may be especially important, not so much for turning out artists or art products, as for turning out better people.“4 It seems that the assumption concerning creativity and human fulfillment is reasonable. The Question that confronts us now is: what is a creative approach like-- Specifically a creative approach to music for the non-music major? Detailed answers will be saved for later chapters. Following is a summary of these answers: 1. The approach should emphasize openness to eXperience. It should encourage a willingness to keep open to possibilities, to resist premature resolution of con- flict and tension, to hold Off on the desire to summarize, judge, and rubricize, to relinquish pre- conceptions and inapprOpriate perceptions. It should celebrate present experiences rather than present abstractions stored against the eXperiences of the future. It should encourage the kind of trust that makes possible deep personal involvement: self trust, or Openness to various modes of thought (logic, metaphor, intuition, dreams, daydreams, whim, mystical 7 eXperience, chance), and trust in eXperience generally, or openness to encounter. The approach should develOp willingness to eXpress. It should emphasize doing rather than listening, reading, or studying, since creativity is primarily an activity of expression rather than of impression. The approach should be concerned with process more than with product, and the students should be well aware of this concern. The emphasis should be on activity: products should be valued as conseQuences, and not the only consequences of an action, for a creative act has consequences all during its course that may outweigh a resulting product in significance. The evaluation of processes and products should be largely in the hands of students, so that they engage also in this aSpect of the creative act. Emphasis on process, and absence of teacher dominated evaluations are two means toward providing the freedom and safety that encourage a willingness to express. Notes to Chapter I 1. Howard Brofsky and Jeanne Shapiro Bamburger, The Art 91 Listening: Developing Musical Perception (New York: Harper and Row, 19697: 2. Frank Barron, "The Dream of Art and Poetry," Psychology Today, 1963, 2(7). 23. 3. Abraham Maslow, ”Creativity in Self-Actualizing People," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), R3. A. Abraham Maslow, “The Creative Attitude," in Explorations 13 Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Ruzik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), A3. CHAPTER II CREATIVITY: HISTORICAL VIEWS, AND RECENT RESEARCH The theory that creative behavior is a basic necessity of life is not new. Dr. Maslow's term "self- actualization" echoes a term used in 1906 by William Stern. According to Stern two fundamental trends Operate in all living things: self-maintenance, and self-eXpansion. The trend to self-eXpansion reaches its highest manifestation in creative activity.1 Darwin's theory of evolution may be at the root Of this view. Evolution is creative, for it results in new Species. Life is creative for it begets new life. More than that, life begets new patterns and new meanings. The biologist Edmund Sinnott believes that life is creative because it organizes itself, regulates itself, and fashions novelties.2 That it does so in order to maintain and restore equilibrium, and to realize its potential, is Dr. Maslow's view. Accordingly: "The mainSpring of creativity appears to be the same tendency which we discover so deeply as the curative force in psychotherapy-~mgg'g tendency £9 actualize himself, 3g become his potentialities."3 Other views of creativity and the origin of ideas have enjoyed wide acceptance. Theories linking inspiration, possession and madness have long been popular. The Greek 10 words for insanity and inSpiration are manike and mantike. In his dialogue Ion Plato suggests that inSpiration is caused by a divine intercession into the mind of man, over- coming that mind and rendering it witless: God takes away the minds of [Ebetg7 and uses them as his ministers, just as he does soothsayers . . . in order that we who hear them may know that it is not they who utter these words of great price when they are out of their wits, but that it is God himseif who Speaks and addresses us through them. According to Plato the poet is not the master of his creations, for "there is no invention in him until he has been inSpired and is out of his senses, and the mind is no longer in him."5 Pitirim Sorokin provides a contemporary eXposition Of this view, asserting that at the instant of inspiration a "super sensory-supernatural power" possesses the artist. The suddenness of inspiration gives support to theories linking creativity with some kind of possession. "One hears, one does not search; one receives, one does not ask who gives; like lightening an idea flashes out, appearing as something necessary . . . I never had a choice."7 Other theorists reject the idea of possession, and point to a natural rather than a supernatural origin of ideas. A theory of associationism, which enjoyed wide favor in the nineteenth century, still has considerable influence. Thinking, according to this theory, is the associating of ideas. Creative thinking involves the 11 apprOpriate combining of ideas to solve a new problem. InSpiration, then, does not come from outside, but from previous eXperiences, combined or associated according to laws of Similarity, contrast, contiguity, and cause and effect. The roots of associationism can be traced to Aristotle: "When . . . we recollect, we awaken certain antecedent pro- cesses and continue this until we call up . . . the desired [Tmagg7. . . . we hunt through a series in thought, beginning with an Object presently before us, or with something else, or with something that is Similar, or Opposite, or contigu- ous."8 Aristotle is echoed by the nineteenth-century philosopher David Hume: " . . . ideas may be separated by the imagination, and may be united again in what form it pleases . . . The Qualities from which [Such associations arisg7, and by which the mind is . . . conveyed from one idea to another, are three, gig. resemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cause and effect."9 Recently Arthur Koestler has provided a new twist to the theory of associationism. Routine thinking, says Koestler, is confined to a limited circle of commonly associated facts, ideas, and ways of thinking--to a Single plane of thought. Creative thinking involves the inter— section of different planes of thought. This intersection is new and is made possible by the ability to transcend such thought habits as association through Similarity and contiguity, Operating on one plane.10 12 Freudian and neo-Freudian psychoanalysis has provided still another view on the origin of creative thought. Ac- cording to Freud, creativity does not originate in madness or possession, or in trains of associations, but rather in the store-house of repressed impulses: the unconscious. The creative artist is able to channel these repressed impulses, and the energy fcnnented by the repression, into a creative product. [Thg7 incapacity in the sexual instinct to yield full satisfaction as soon as it submits to the first demands of culture becomes the source, however, of the grandest cultural achievements, which are brought to birth by ever greater sublima- tion of the components of sexual instinct. Madness, now in the form of neurosis, is not a com- panion of creative vision, but an alternative to it, for repressed, unsublimated drives lead to neurotic behavior. Neo-Freucfians believe that creativity is the product of the preconscious rather than the unconscious mind. The preconscious mind is continuously active: while we Sleep, and while we are awake. Its activity consists of the sub- liminal processing of data, of ordering, rearranging, sum- marizing, and coding information. Both conscious and unconscious activity can interfere with the usefulness of the preconscious. Preconscious processes are assailed from both Sides. From one Side they are nagged and prodded into rigid and distorted symbols by unconscious drives which are oriented away from reality and which consist of rigid compromise formations, lacking in fluid inventiveness. From the other side they are driven by literal conscious pur- pose, checked and corrected by conscious 13 retrOSpective critique. The uniqueness of creativity, i.e. its capacity to find and put together something new, depends on the extent to which preconscious functions can Operate freely between these two ubiquitous, concurrent and Oppressive prison wardens.12 The creative person is one who is more Open to the activity of his preconscious mind. In partial reaction to the Freudian view that we create in order to relieve the tensions of suppressed drives, a new theory maintains that creativity itself is a drive, an innate need to manipulate and master the environ- ment, and to realize self-potential. Thus, we come back to the view with which this chapter began: the source of creativity is man's tendency to become his potentialities. Since neurosis blocks creative behavior, creativity is the Sign of a healthy person, or of one becoming healthy. Herbert Gutman, a genetic psychologist, has suggested an elaboration of this view: Human creativity is the highest manifestation of the fundamental qualities of life: self-duplication, self-transformation, self-extension-— Qualities first manifested in the self-duplicative activity of the DNA molecule. The various products of creation thus appear as externalization of certain aSpects of man's self: tools and machines of his body machinery, instruments of his sense organs and nervous system, art of his perceptual images, . . . language of his conceptualizations, social structures of his functional organization as a whole, physical as well as behavioral . . . Creativity . . . is dependent upon a system of communication within the organism from the level of the DNA molecule on up to the conscious mind.13 11+ Only within approximately the last one hundred years have efforts been made to eXplore creativity eXperimentally. In 1883 Francis Galton suggested that the measurement of 1” In 1890 Alfred Binet, intellectual abilities was possible. an admirer of Galton, began to deve10p tests with this pur- pose in mind. Subsequent develOpment of such tests culminated in Lewis Terman's Stanford-Binet test (1916), which intro- duced the familiar term: ”I.Q.“ (intelligence quotient). Other tests were developed to measure various aSpects of creative potential. Comparison of these tests with intelligence tests failed to show much correlation. As early as 1916 L. M. Chassell noted this diSparity.l5 EXperi- ments analyzing the lack of correlation between l.Q. and creativity measures have continued to the present day, with the conclusion that "intelligence . . . embraces several components, some of which, at least, do not correlate very much with others."16 Studies of the creative process have been based on reports of discoveries of recognized creative geniuses. One of the results of this kind of investigation has been the postulation of four sequential steps in the creative process: preparation, incubation, illumination, and elaboration.l7 In 1935 Catharine Patrick began a series of experi- ments attempting to verify these four steps. The results showed each of the four steps relevant, but not accurate sequentially. In practice, the mind jumps around freely between the four types of activity.18 15 Before 1950 these three types of studies--the measure- ment of aspects of the intellect, the comparison of different measures, and the analysis of the creative process-~made up the bulk of the eXperiments Specifically concerned with creativity. "The subject was almost entirely ignored by psychologists. Psychometric psychologists ruled creative potential out of intelligence, and behaviorism adOpted a general viewpoint from which creativity could not be seen."19 Since 1950, however, interest and eXperimental activity con- cerning creativity has rapidly expanded. In the main, this activity has focused on the following aSpects: discovering characteristics of the creative process and of creative people, discovering aids and blocks to the deveIOpment of creativity, analyzing the effect of our educational systems on creative potential, devising means of identifying creative -potential-—of predicting creative performance, comparing various measures of intellectual activity, and eXploring the relation between creativity and changing states of conscious- ness. Many of these eXperiments are reviewed in the following chapters. Following is a sampling of the more recent eXperi- ments in each of the above mentioned categories. 16 Characteristics of Creative People and of the Creative Process Cashdan, Sheldon, and Welsh, George S. "Personality Correlates of Creative Potential in Talented High School Students." Journal 2; Personality, 1966, 34(3). 445-55. Personality tests given to talented high school students, who were divided into high and low creative groups, had the following’results: "The High Creative adolescent emerged as an independent, nonconforming in- dividual who seeks change in his environment and whose interpersonal relations are Open and active. The Low Creative adolescent, particularly the male, emerged as a somewhat compulsive individual with a strong desire to achieve. Low scores on scales reflecting self-assertion and independency suggest, however, that he may be eXperi- encing external pressure to do well." Neither sex dif- ferences, nor vocational interestdifferences,mmme reflected in the scores of creative adolescents. Kurtzman, Kenneth A. "A Study of School Attitudes, Peer Acceptance, and Personality of Creative Adolescents." Exceptional Children, 1967, 34(3), 157-62. Three groups of adolescents with differing creative abilities were compared to determine if they differed in certain other respects also. It was found that the more creative students tended to be more intelligent, adventur- ous, extroverted, self-confident, and had a less favorable 1? attitude toward school. The more creative males received better acceptance from their peers than did the more crea- tive females. White, Kinnard. "Anxiety, Extraversion-Introversion, and Divergent Thinking Ability.” Journal g: Creative Behavior, 1968, 2(2), 119-27. Divergent (exploratory) thinking rather than conver- gent thinking (thinking directed toward finding one "right" answer) is considered characteristic of creative thought. Results of this study of 200 male freshmen indicate that subjects with low versus high anxiety levels perform signi- ficantly better on divergent thinking tasks. It is suggested that divergent thinkers may not be as shy and anxious as is commonly thought. Parloff, M.; Datta, L.; Kleman, M.; and Handlon, J. "Person- ality Characteristics which Differentiate Creative Male Adolescents and Adults.” Journal 9; Personality, 1968, 36(4), 528-52. Creative adolescents and adults were given a large number of tests. An analysis Of the results showed that the personalities of the adults were characterized by assertive self-assurance and autonomy, while those of the adolescents were characterized by self-discipline and cir- cumspection. 18 Uhes, Michael J., and Shaver, James P. "Dogmatism and Divergent-Convergent Abilities." Journal 9; Psychology, 1970, 75(1). 3-11- In a comparison of low and high dogmatic high school students it was confirmed that low dogmatic subjects scored better on flexibility and originality. High dogmatic sub- jects performed convergent Operations better than they per- formed divergent Operations. Low dogmatic subjects performed both Operations edually well, and better than high dogmatic subjects. Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Getzels, J. W. "Discovery-oriented Behavior and the Originality of Creative Products: A Study with Artists.” Journal 9: Personality and Social Psychology, 1971, 19(1), 47-52. In an eXperiment designed to examine the "problem- formulation“ stage of creative activity, thirty-one art students were Observed while carrying out an assignment to produce a still—life drawing. Observations of "discovery— oriented” behavior were recorded for each subject. The finished drawings were independently evaluated for (a) over- all value, (b) originality, and (c) craftsmanship. A positive relationship was found between discovery—oriented behavior at the problem-formulation stage and the originality, but not the craftsmanship of the product. Results affirm the usefulness of the concept of a problem—formulation stage of the creative process. 19 Aids and Blocks to Creativity Schulman, David. "Openness of Perception as a Condition for Creativity.” Exceptional Childreny 1966, 33(2), 89-94. Eighty-nine fourth grade children were given a crea- tivity test (Drawing Completion), and two perception tests (Changing Figures, measuring ability to see change in a succession of tests, and Finding of Enclosed Areas, measuring ability to find closed Spaces in complex forms.) Significant correlations were found between the creativity and perception tests, indicating a relationship, and a pos- sible need for perceptual experiences in school. Andrews, Frank M. "Creative Ability, the Laboratory Environ- ment, and Scientific Performance." IEEE Transactions Q3 figgineering Management, 1967, 14(2), 76-83. Studies revealed that no simple relationship was found between the creative ability of a group of scientists and engineers and their performance. Whether or not creative ability was realized in performance was determined by the conditions of the laboratory environment. Environments which proved to be good climates for creativity are described. Flanagan, Marie L., and Gallup, Howard F. "Creativity Training." Psychological Reports, 1967, 21(3), 934- Creative thinking is assumed to involve a sorting through of response hierarchies. Two matched groups of subjects were given a Remote Associates Test (RAT)- One 20 of the groups had previously been given the Test of Original and Creative Thinking which requires that high associates be rejected for lower ones and engages the subjects in a sorting activity. This group scored signi- ficantly higher on the RAT than the matched control group. Levy, Leon H. "Originality as Role-Defined Behavior." Journal 9; Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 9(1), 72-8. Sixty-five students were involved in an eXperiment described as being concerned with the ability to play a role. The students were given various types of motivations toward original behavior in the form of supplying uncommon word associations: verbal reinforcement, models to follow, instructions, and a combination of reinforcement and instruc- tions. In all cases the group scored better than a control group. This result, together with evidence of transfer of training, supported the proposition that originality is more a form of role-defined behavior rather than Operant behavior, and that originality training changes a person's sense of apprOpriate reSponse, but does not increase the associative strength of original responses. Maier, Norman R.; Thurber, James A.; and Julius, Mara. "Studies in Creativity: III. Effect of Overlearning on Recall and Usage of Information." Psychological Reports, 1968, 23(2), 363-8. 21 Forty-two subjects wrote a story after four repe- titions of a list of twelve pairs of words. They wrote a second story after twelve repetitions. There was no significant difference in the use of word pairs in the two stories. There was a difference, however, in learning of the pairs as revealed by a memory test. It was concluded that the concepts of associative bonds, reinforcement, and overlearning derived from learning theory, while applicable to situations involving recall, are not so easily applicable to problem-solving situations. Raina, M. K. "A Study into the Effect of Competition on Creativity." Gifted Child Quarterly, 1968, 12(4), 217-20. Forty secondary Indian school students were divided into two equal groups, matched for age, class, I.Q., and creativity. Each group was given the Torrance Test of Product Improvement, and Unusual Uses test. In one group money rewards for the highest scores were promised. This group made significantly higher scores. Creativity test results may be improved through competition, or the pos- sibility of an extensive reward. Berkowitz, William R, and Avril, George J. "Short-term Sensory Enrichment and Artistic Creativity." Perceptual and M239; Skills, 1969, 28(1), 275-9. Two groups of ten undergraduates molded clay sculptures, each group under different conditions. One group worked in a O . . . o . 'Sensorlly enriched env1ronment,"the other in a control 22 environment following a ten minute period of sensory deprivation. The resulting sculptures were rated for creativity by six judges. Also, each subject rated his own sculpture. No environmental effects upon self— or judge-rated creativity were found. Short term environ- mental effects on creativity may be difficult to produce. Domino, George. "Maternal Personality Correlates of Son's Creativity." Journal 9; Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1909. 33(2), 150-3. Test scores of thirty-three mothers of creative high school males, when compared with the scores of a control group, revealed that the mothers of the creative students were more self-assured, had more initiative, had a greater preference for change, for lack of structure, and valued tolerance and independence more highly. They were also less sociable, less conscientious, less dependable, less inhibited, and less obliging. Creativity and Our Education System Bednar, Richard L., and Parker, Clyde A. "The Creative DeveIOpment and Growth Of Exceptional College Students." Journal 9: Educational Research, 1965, 59(3), 133-6. Eighty-nine first, second, and third year honors students and a matched non-honors; group were compared on four factors of creativity. Creativity did not seem to be associated with the honors program, and showed no signifi- cant change during the first three years of college. 23 Bentley, Joseph C. "Creativity and Academic Achievement." Journal 9f Educational Research, 1966, 59(6), 269—72. Through a group of tests administered to seventy-five graduate students in education, an exploration was made of the relation between creative abilities and academic achieve- ment. Creative test scores correlated significantly with divergent thinking and evaluative abilities, but did not correlate at all with cognitive and memory scores. Since most academic examinations favor cognitive and memory abilities, it was concluded that the highly creative stu- dent is often penalized academically. Janssen, Calvin. "Comparative Creativity Scores of Lower Socioeconomic Dropouts and Non—dropouts." Psychology i3 the Schools, 1968, 5(2), 183-4. Three of Guilford's Tests (Plots Titles, Alternate Uses, and ldeational Fluency) were given to forty-three drOpout and 198 non-dropout students. Significantly higher creativity scores were achieved by the drOpouts on each test. Bisenman, Russell. "Creativity, a Cross—Sectional and Longitudinal Study." DeveIOpmental Psychology, 1970, 3(3, Pt. I), 320-325. Two hundred twenty-six student nurses from two schools were given two creativity measures, one measuring originality as unusualness, the other the Personal Opinion §g£ygy. The studies were both "cross—sectional" (comparing 2L. freshmen, juniors, and seniors) and longitudinal (com- paring the same students twice, once as freshmen, once as seniors). The results indicated a significant decrease in originality as class standing increased. Identification and Prediction of Creativity Dauw, Dean C. "Life Experiences of Original Thinkers and Good Elaborators." Exceptional Children, 1966, 32(7), 433-440. Torrence‘s 1962 Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking were given to 319 highly creative adolescents to identify good elaborators and original thinkers. The subjects also completed a life experience inventory to find biographical information associated with these creative abilities. The results supported previous attempts to identify creative persons through biographical information. Holland, John L. "The Prediction of Academic and Non- academic Accomplishment." Proceedings pf the 1966 Invita- tional Conference pp Testing Problems, 1967, 44-51. High School accomplishment records and brief college activity scales were used in an attempt to predict creative performance. Criteria scales were designed for a wide variety of areas including the arts, science, social service, business, leadership, etc. Results indicated that academic achievement seems to bear little or no relationship to creative performance. 25 Torrance, E. P. "Originality of Imagery in Identifying Creative Talent in Music." Gifted Child Quarterly, 1969, 13(1). 3-8. The Cunningham-Torrance Sounds and Images Test was given to I37 college music students majoring in either com— position or performance. The test evaluates internal imagery. Both groups scored higher than a comparison group of teachers, and the composition students scored significantly higher than the performance students. Torrance, 8. Paul. "Prediction of Adult Creative Achievement Among High School Seniors.” Gifted Child Quarterly, I969, 13(4), 223—9. Sixty-nine high school seniors were given the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, the Iowa Tests of Educational Achievement, and a questionnaire asking for the nomination Of creative peers. Seven years later a Creative Achieve- ment Checklist was completed on forty-six of the subjects. Correlations between predictors and creative achievement showed that the best predictors were the Flexibility and Originality sections of the Torrance Tests. Torrance‘s Fluency and Elaboration sections, the Iowa scores, and Peer Questionnaires followed in that order. 26 Comparison of Various Measures Herr, Edwin L.; Moore, Gilbert D.; Hansen, James C.; and Castell, Charles. "Creativity, Intelligence, and Values: A Study of Relationships." Exceptional Children, 1965, 32(2), 114-15. High school students, teacher—rated as academically talented, were given a number of tests, with Special at- tention given to the relationship between measures Of creative ability and other measures. Results indicated that intelligence and creativity are not highly related, and that teacher ratings are not adeQuate criteria of success or performance. Eisenman, Russell, and Robinson, Nancy. "Complexity- simplicity, Creativity, Intelligence, and Other Correlates.“ Journal 9f Psychology, 1967, 67(2), 331—4. Preference for complexity has been considered a trait of creative peOple. In an investigation of this assumption seventy-five high school students were given tests, the results of which showed that (l) a paper—and-pencil person- ality measure of creativity was significantly related to preference for complex polygons, (2) neither the creativity scores nor the polygon complexity-simplicity test correlated with the Stanford-Binet I.Q. 27 Schnitzer, Leah P., and Stewart, Robert A. "Originality and Personality Variables in High School Art Students." Psychology, 1969, 0(1). 36-9- Fifty high school art students were given originality and personality tests, and were asked to give self-estimates of their own originality. Significant relationships were found between many of the personality measures, indicating that these measures may deal with different aSpects of the same trait, for those who scored high on one also scored high on the others. There were, however, no significant relationships found between originality and personality variables, or between originality and self-estimates of originality. Karlins, Marvin: Schuerhoff, Charles; and Kaplan, Martin. "Some Factors Related to Architectural Creativity in Graduating Architecture Students." Journal 9: General Psychology, 1969, 81(2), 203-215. Architecture students were rated for creative ability by two of their professors. These ratings did not correlate with SAT, or intelligence tests, with class ranks or grades. The ratings did correlate, however, with the students' per- formances on a test involving Space perceptions, and their performances on independent design projects. Creativity and States of Consciousness Krippner, Stanley. ”Hypnosis and Creativity." Gifted Child Quarterly, 1965. 9(3). 149-55. 28 Change in states of consciousness may foster creativity, because the creative act is basically pre-verbal and uncon- scious in origin. This position is given support by studies involving hypnotism, cognitive activity without awareness, and LSD usage. Additional research is recommended. Krippner, Stanley. ”The Psychedelic State, the HypnOtic Trance, and the Creative Act." Journal 9: Humanistlg Egyphology, 1968, 8(1), 49-67. Research concerning the effect of hypnosis and hal- lucinatory drugs lead to the theory that they may enhance creativity. It is suggested that creative activity which is basically preverbal and preconscious in origin, is fostered by drugs or hypnotic states that transcend in- hibitory conditioning. Krippner, Stanley, and Hughes, William. "Genius at Work." Psychology Today, 1970, 4(1), 40-43. In dream states language restrictions and the bands of social restraints are not present. As a result dreaming and creative thought are in some ways related. Dreams which aided scientific discovery and artistic inSpiration are cited. Green, Elmer E.; Green, Alyce M.; and Walters, E. Dale. "Voluntary Control of Internal States: Psychological and Physiological." gpurnal gi TranSpersonal Psychology, 1970, 9(1), 1.26. 29 Methods for gaining voluntary control of psychological and phySIOIOgical states are reviewed. Using these methods about sixty subjects were able to voluntarily effect such physiological changes as relaxation of muscle tension, con- trol of temperature of the hand, increase of alpha rhythm. Psychological changes effected included feelings of tran- quility, hypnagogic and dream-like images. The ability to produce hypnagogic-like imagery is an ability characteristic of many unusually creative peOple. Notes to Chapter II 1. William Stern, Person und Sache pg. 1;: Die Menschliche Persoenlichkeit. (Leipzig: Barth, 1918), 34. Quoted in Herbert Gutman, "The Biological Roots of Creativity," EXplorg- tions i3 Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 4. 2. Edmond Sinnott, "Creative lma ination, Man's UniQue Distinction," The Graduate Journal University of Texas, Spring, 1962), 194-210. Quoted in George F. Kneller, Egg Art and Science 9; Creativity (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), 23. 3. Carl R. Rogers, "Toward a Theory of Creativity." in Creativity_and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), 72. 4. Plato, 1gp, trans. W. R. M. Lamb (London: Heineman, 1925), 423. Quoted in The Art and Science 9: Creativity, George F. Kneller (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1962), 19. 5. Plato, "Ion," in The Dialogues pf Plato, trans. Jowett (New York: Random House, 1937), I, 289. 6. Pitikim A. Sorokin, "General Theory of Creativity," in Creativity and Psychological Health, ed. M. F. Andrews (Syracuse, N. Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1961). 5. 7. Nietzsche, Quoted in Jerome Stolnitz, Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art Criticism (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 196077 95. 8. Aristotle, "De Anima," in Aristotle'g Psychology: A Treatise pp the Principle pf Life, trans. W. A. Hammond (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1902), 203. Quoted in Jean Mandler and George Mandler, Thinking: From Association 32 Gestalt (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), ll. 9. David Hume, A Treatise 9: Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1888). 7. Quoted in Jean Mandler and George Mandler, ibid. 10. Arthur Koestler, The Act pf Creation (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964). ll. Sigmund Freud, 93 Creativity and the Unconscious, Edé Benjamin Nelson (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1958), 30 31 12. Lawrence S. Kubie, Neurotic Distortion pf the Creative Process (New York: Noonday Press, a subsidiary of Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1961), 45. Quoted in George F. Kneller, The Art and Science pf Creativity (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1967), 34. l3. Herbert Gutman, "The Biological Roots of Creativity." in Explorations lg Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 20, 30. 14. Francis Galton, Enquiries into Human Faculty and Its DeveIOpment (New York: Macmillan, 1883). 49-55- QUOPGd in Graham Wallas, Tflg Ag; 9f Thought (London: Butler and Tanner, 1926), 262. 15. L. M. Chassell, "Tests for Originality," Journal 9f Educational Psyphology, 1916, 7, 317-329. 16. J. P. Guilford, "Creativity Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow,“ gournal 9; Creative Behavior, 1967, 1(1): 3-14- 17. Graham Wallas, The Art 9: Thought (London: Butler ”an” and Tanner, 1928). 79-107. 18. Catharine Patrick, What lg Creative Thinking? (New York: PhiIOSOphical Library, 1955), Eff. 19. Guilford, "Creativity," Journal 9; Creative Behavior, 5, ()0 CHAPTER III EDUCATION FOR CREATIVITY The Creative Student in School Few would deny that creative ability is a valuable gift, and many teachers sincerely affirm this fact. Yet, by their actions, teachers sometimes reveal a dislike for the creative personality, and discourage creative activity. E. Paul Torrance directed a study concerning the attitudes of a thousand teachers regarding sixty-two personality characteristics.1 A panel of ten judges, all eXperts in the field of personality theory, and serious students of the creative personality, ranked these sixty-two charac— teristics on a scale from essential to harmful in the making of a productive creative personality. The eXperts' ratings were compared with those of the teacher's. The teachers wished their students to be, among other things, courteous, punctual, obedient, popular and well-liked by their peers, and willing to accept judgements of authorities. All of these characteristics were ranked quite low in importance by the eXperts, and some of these characteristics were even considered a liability to the deve10pment of a creative per- sonality. The teachers were much less enthusiastic about courage of conviction, and independence of judgement. Yet these qualities are highly characteristic of the creative 32 33 person. The creative person is ”less studious, being more interested in his own ideas than in work pg; g2 . . . he often thinks unconventionally and breaks rules . . . he is often slapdash, being interested in ideas rather than presentation . . . he is more independent and self-absorbed . . . and hence less friendly and communicative."2 It is clear that the personality characteristics valued in students by teachers are not always those typical of creative students. According to a study by Getzels and Jackson, Qualities a creative student values in himself may be at variance with those that hg believes his teachers value in him.3 In this study, for example, both highly creative students and high I. Q. students ranked humor ninth out of thirteen qualities they believed teachers valued. When ranking the same qualities in order of their own preferences, the high I. Q. students ranked humor ninth again, but the highly creative students ranked it third. High marks, high I. Q., and goal—directedness were ranked lower by the highly creative students than by the high I. Q. students. Creative students have an orientation at variance with the goal-directed, high grade-directed orienta- tion of schools. J. P. Guilford has made a useful distinction between two kinds of thought: convergent thinking and divergent thinking.“ Convergent thinking is the sort that leads toward the one right, or most conventional answer to a question or 34 problem. Divergent thinking is the sort that leads toward a variety of ideas, solutions, or approaches. Convergent thinking implies the existence of a single answer. Divergent thinking is called into play where eXploration rather than specific answer-finding is in order. According to Guilford most creative thought falls in the category of divergent thinking.5 Teachers, however, have concentrated heavily on convergent thinking. Independence of thought and a talent for eXploratory thought are lost on a true-false, or multiple choice test. Even most "essay tests" are oriented toward convergent thinking, with the stipulation that the right answers be stated in complete sentences. In summary, creative students often have personalities at variance with the teacher's ideal, often are out of sym- pathy with the goal-directed, grade-directed orientation of schools, and often enjoy a different way of thinking than that emphasized by schools. The Creative Personality The studies above were limited to aSpects of the per— sonalities of highly creative people. It is of course not true that there are just two kinds of peOple: highly creative and uncreative. If creative ability were considered solely the PFOperty of men of genius there would not be so much concern for its recognition and deveIOpment. But creativity is now taken to be "a valued potentiality of all men."6 Nearly 35 everyone has some degree of creative potential, but few fully realize this potential: too many forces conSpire to prevent this realization. Some of the roadblocks set up by the schools have been mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. Other roadblocks are contributed by parents, peers, ill health, and social conditions and conventions. The capacity for fantasy, for example, seems to be a natural childhood capacity. Imagination is its chief component. But fantasizing is often less well received beyond childhood. Family, peers, and society all tend to discourage it, and to encourage a more constantly sober and serious outlook. The resulting repression of fantasizing is detrimental to the imagination, and to the ability of the mind to transcend habits of thought. Before recommendations can be made for the protection and development of creative abilities, a more thorough understanding of the creative personality is necessary. George F. Kneller describes the creative personality, or the qualities that seem to produce creativity, by listing 7 a set of traits. Intelligence is the first trait. Creative peOple are generally above average in intelligence, but not necessarily unusually intelligent. Studies have shown that 1.0. tests are not very useful as indicators of creative ability.8 The second trait is awareness, or openness to eXperi- ence. Creativity involves a continual sense of newness in things, so that they may be re-defined, and recombined into 36 new configurations. Habits of perception foreclose on eXperience and make a new look at things difficult. The creative person is fluent and flexible. He will, for example, produce more ideas on a given subject, and make use of a greater variety of approaches to a prob— lem. His fluency may or may not be verbal, depending on the medium in which his creativity lies. The creative person has original ideas, and has a penchant for elaborating on them. Originality is a dif- ficult trait to define. For testing purposes it is most frequently thought of as the ability to produce unusual, remote, and clever reSponses. The foregoing traits are discussed at length in Chapter VII as they are measured in testing situations. Kneller goes on to include the following additional traits in his list: Skepticism in creative peOple seems to be concen- trated on old ideas rather than new, though it is the other way around for less creative people.9 Skepticism is not always listed as a separate trait, for it is strongly related to, or an outgrowth of the traits of awareness and originality. The remaining traits on Kneller's list are for the most part self-explanatory: the creative individual is per- sistent, intellectually playful (given to toying with ideas to see where they lead), highly appreciative of humor, self- confident, and a nonconformist. 37 Attempts by others to describe the creative per- sonality result in similar lists of traits. Calvin W. Taylor, for example, suggests there is evidence that creative persons are more independent in judgement, more open to the irrational in themselves, more self-accepting, more adventurous, and more 10 emotionally sensitive. Carl B. Rogers lists Openness to experience, an internal locus of evaluation, and the ability 11 John W. Haefele's list to toy with elements and concepts. includes confidence, perceiving of aspects of a situation not usually commented upon by others, frankness, flexibility, independence of judgement, particularly under pressure, and Openness to new experiences.12 Additional lists by Frank Barron and Abraham Maslow were quoted in Chapter I. What is one to make of all these lists, and how is one to use them in the formulation of an educational approach that encourages creativity? The items on all the lists, taken together, overlap and duplicate and relate to one another to a considerable extent. One trait that finds its way onto a number of lists is openness to eXperience. This seems to be more basic than many of the other traits. Without much pushing and shoving, several of the other traits may be absorbed into this one. This is especially true if the open- ness is directed to both outer ggg inner experience. If the openness is further understood to allow two-way traffic-- Openness to eXpress as well as to eXperience——the remaining traits are all absorbed. The creative person has an Openness or,willingness to eXperience and to eXpress. All the other 38 traits listed call attention to the Specific ways a creative person eXperiences, or eXpresses, to conditions that make openness possible, or to the results of such openness. With these relationships in mind a new order of traits may be arranged, to serve both as a description of the creative personality, and as a description of charac- teristics to be encouraged by teachers. "Openness" is the key-word of this new order, and ”Experience“ and "EXpression" are the two interdependent sub headings. Openness to experience is dependent on certain atti- tudes and conditions: (1) a willingness to remain Open to possibilities by avoiding fixed positions, by not burning bridges behind oneself, by resisting premature resolution of conflict and tension, by delaying the time for judgement or summarization, and by avoiding preconceptions; (2) a willingness to trust both inner and outer eXperiences. Trust _ of one's own judgements, and one's own identity, makes deep personal involvement and commitment possible. With such trust one is ready for open encounter rather than defensive confrontation with contrary and otherwise threatening eXperi- ences. Trust of one's inner eXperiences helps make intuition Operative. Intuition and inspiration are gifts of precon— scious activity. These gifts are lost to us if we are not Open to them. Openness to intuition may be the most important characteristic of the creative mind. 39 We now look upon the brain not as a device to do work but as a communications machine to transmit information. At the core of this pro- cess is a continuous stream of subliminal, i. e., 'preconscious,’ activity which goes on both during sleep and when we are awake. . . . Analo- gous to a computer, it processes 'bits' of in- formation by scanning, ordering, selecting and rejecting, arranging in sequences, by juxta- positions and separations on the basis of chronology: by condensations on the basis of similarity, dissimilarity and contrasts, prox- imity and distances and finally summating and coding. This process is fed by an incessant bombardment of signals from the outer world . . . which is, like the processing itself . . . primarily subliminal. We consciously sample this stream of preconscious activity. . . . This process of conscious symbolic sampling . . . is not thinking. Rather its function is to relate the samples of the preconscious stream to reality, to test them, to ruminate about them, and to com- municate them to others . . . learning, thinking, and creating are all preconscious, while this process of sampling, ruminating, testing, and communicating is conscious. The important problem of education and of creativity is how to rotect the freedom of pre- conscious processes. Openness or willingness to eXpress is dependent upon much the same attitudes and conditions: (I) a willingness to keep Open to possibilities by avoiding ridgedly fixed goals, by attending to process as well as to product, by considering creative activity as an eXploration lasting a lifetime rather than as a project focused on an individual product. EXpressing no less than eXperiencing is a divergent as well as a convergent activity. (2) A willingness to trust inner gag outer eXperiences. Trust in one's own independent judgement is a bulwark against the fear of criticism. It allows for Open encounter with the medium rather than a 40 defensive confrontation with inner doubts and the criticisms of others. In the way things work, eXperience is absorbed into expression, and eXpression into eXperience, and the Openness that allows one to eXperience is the openness that allows one to eXpress. Encouraging Creativity in the Classroom During the last fifteen or twenty years a number of organizations have devoted attention to creativity in educa- tion. Most of these research organizations are based at universities. The Creative Education Foundation was established by Alex Osborn (at the University of Buffalo), but is currently under the direction of Sidney J. Parnes. The foundation publishes a textbook, a workbook, a teaching manual, and reference books all concerned with creativity in education. It publishes a Journal 9f Creative Behavior, research reports, and article reprints. It rents and sells films, slides, and records. Each summer the foundation sponsors a "Creative Problem Solving Institute." The main focus of the Creative Education Foundation has been on group dynamics, brain- storming, and techniQues of problem solving. The Bureau of Educational Research (University of Minnesota) under the direction of E. Paul Torrance has been concerned with creativity at all levels of education, and 41 with the problems of measurement of creativity. The well- known Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking are being con- tinually developed and revised to measure creative thinking abilities from kindergarten through graduate school. Studies supported by the bureau have concerned such areas as: con- ditions fostering creative growth, effects and methods of rewarding creative behavior, and the development of creative behavior as influenced by schools, peers, cultures, etc. The Institute of Personality Assessment and Research (University of California, Berkeley) has contributed to the subject of creativity in education largely through the writings of Frank Barron, M. V. Covington, and Donald W. Mackinnon. Many of the writings of these men have been concerned with the recognition and development of creative abilities.lu Other influential work has been carried on by Ross Mooney at Ohio State University, J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson at the University of Chicago, Harold Anderson and Elizabeth Drews at Michigan State University, and Calvin W. Taylor at the Univer- sity of Utah. This list is not intended to be exhaustive. The many researchers, as we have seen, are in general agree- ment in their attempts to describe the creative personality. As might be eXpected, their recommendations for promoting creativity in the classroom also duplicate and compliment one another. One common recommendation concerns the encouragement of divergent thinking, or Openness to elaboration and discovery. 42 Richard S. Crutchfield, in a discussion of programmed instructional materials suggests the use of a “creative feedback,” whereby the student is shown answers to given Questions, unusual and diverse answers, that serve to set the tone for the student's approach to answering.15 E. Paul Torrance cautions against forcing upon the student a set pattern or approach to creative OXploration and eXpression; the production of divergent ideas is dependent on the avail- ability of divergent paths of eXploration.16 It is a mistake for teachers to program a student's learning in such a way that he "progresses step by step toward their definitions, toward their goals, toward their eXpected achievements."l7 This approach is inimical to Openness to experience and expression. A second recommendation Springs from the first one: encourage the student to test his own ideas and evaluate the results himself. Encourage him to trust his independent judgements. In order to test ideas, students must be free 18 The student who is en- to realize and manipulate them. couraged to manipulate and evaluate his own ideas learns to exercize independence of judgement, and independence of judgement, as Frank Barron has demonstrated, is a companion to originality.19 If these first two recommendations are followed, a third is made easier: encourage sensitivity to the environ- ment. When a student is not permitted to manipulate, evaluate 43 and explore, when instead he is "perceived as an empty vessel to be filled . . . , there is a real danger that he will lose touch with his own awareness and response to life."20 Several exercises concerned with such sensitivity (or Openness to eXperience) are described in Chapter V. John W. Haefele describes another kind of exercise directed at Openness or sensitivity to inner experience.21 According to Haefele, eidetic ability-~the ability to recall perceptions vividly-— is very common in childhood. Although eidetic ability is usually lost by adulthood, it can be brought back under hyp- nosis. Haefele hypothesizes that eidetic ability is made possible by an Openness to the preconscious, and that retained eidetic ability may mean better rapport with the preconscious. He recommends that exercises in perceptual recall be daily experiences for eidetics, in order to strengthen and retain the ability. This study is speculative, but it reflects the concern for openness to inner as well as outer eXperiences. It was from recommendations such as these that the formula at the end of Chapter 1 was written. To summarize what at this stage of our researches strikes me most forcibly about the creative persons whom we have assessed, it is their openness to ex- perience, and the fact that they, more than most, are . . . seeking to tolerate and to bind in- creasingly large quantities of tension, as they strive for a creative Sglution to ever more dif- ficult problems . . . And to summarize the formula at the end of Chapter I: a creative approach to education should deve10p (l) Openness to experience through willingness to keep open to possibilities, 44 resistance to premature resolution of conflict and tension, self-trust, and (2) Openness to eXpression through emphasis on doing, on manipulation of the medium, and on independence of judgement. Notes to Chapter III 1. E. Paul Torrance, Rewarding Creative Behavior (hnglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965). 222-234. 2. George F. Hneller, The Art and Spience 9f Creativity (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1965), 70. 3. Jacob W. Getzels and Philip W. Jackson, Creativity and lntelliggpgg: Exploratiggg with Gifted Students (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962), 33-37. Quoted in George F. Kneller, Art and Sciengg 9: Creativity, 69. 4. J. P. Guilford, "Creativity, its Measurement and Develop- ment," in A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 160. 5. Ibid., 161. 6. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik, eds., EXQlorations 13 Creativity (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 217. 7. Kneller, Art and Science 9: Creativity, 62—68. 8. E. Paul Torrance, "EXplorations in Creative Thinking in the Early School Years," in Scientific Creativity, ed. Calvin W. Taylor andFrank Barron—(New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), 182-3. 9. Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers (New York: Macmillan 00-: 1959): 518’19- 10. Calvin W. Taylor, "Tentative Description of the Creative Individual," in A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 182. 1]. Carl B. Rogers, "Toward a Theory of Creativity." ibid., 67-8. 12. John W. Haefele, Qgggtiyity and Innovation (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962), 135. 13. Lawrence S. Kubie, "Blocks to Creativity,” in Explora- tions lg Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 36-7. Originally published in International Science and Technology, June, 1965, 69-78. 45 46 14. See, for example: M. V. Covington, "Promoting Creative Thinking in the Classroom," in Research and Development Toward the Improvement pf Education, ed. H. J. Klausmeier and G. l. O'Hearn (Madison, Wisconsin: Dembar Educational Research Services, 1969), 22-30; D. W. MacKinnon, Instructional Media and Creativity, ed. C. W. Taylor (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966), 179-2163 Frank Barron, Creative Person and Creative Process (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1969). 15. Richard S. Crutchfield, "Instructing the Individual in Creative Thinking," Explorations lg Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), I99. 16. E. Paul Torrance, "Creative Thinking Through School Experiences," 5 Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1962). 37- 17. Clark Monstakas, ”Creativity and Conformity in Education," Explorations lg Qgeativit , ed. Ross~L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 174. 18. E. Paul Torrance, "Education and Creativity," in Creativity, Progress and Potential, ed. Calvin W. Taylor (New York: McCraw—Hill, 1964), 93. 19. Frank Barron, "The DiSposition Towards Originality,” Journal 9; Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1955, 51, 478-485. 20. Moustakas, Creativity and Conformity, 176. 21. Haefele, Creativity and Innovation, 237-8. 22. David W. MacKinnon, "The Highly Effective Individual," in Explorgtions 13 Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 68. CHAPTER 1V TWO CREATIVE APPROACHES TO TEACHING MUSIC TO NON-MUSIC MAJORS The precxuiing chapters have considered the value of a general music course with creativity as the instructional mode. They have surveyed recent research into creativity, and into its application in education. This chapter examines two Specific attempts at creative general music courses for the non-music major. General Music at San Diego The music faculty at San Diego is peOpled by creative and eXperimentalist composers, including the microtonalist and instrument inventor Harry Partch, electronic composer Kenneth Gaburo, and intermedia composers Pauline Oliveros and Roger Reynolds. Here there is a distinct lack of what might be called a commitment to tradition, and it is not surprising that a thoroughly innovative general music course for non- music majors, was developed by this faculty.1 At San Diego the environment of eXperiment and creativity is considered necessary to the success of the general music course. Such a course could not be success- fully grafted orrto a traditionalist department, nor could such a course be used as "an educational gimmick for im- parting the usual materials."2 Accordingly, the course 47 48 ,engages the student in eXperimental music making, and leaves the imparting of understanding of traditional materials to "spin-off.“ San Diego's general music course is not concerned with history, or handed-down culture. It is directed toward engagement of the student in thinking and sensing in the medium of sound. The experimentalist nature of the course leads naturally to the use of a great deal of electronic equip- ment and specially designed instruments-~both making per- formance skills relatively unnecessary. Graphic scoring techniques make it possible to avoid the complications of traditional notation. "The freedom to mold symbols to ideas lends a new dimension to musicality and imagination."3 The course is built around available facilities, available time, and the inventiveness of faculty and students. That is to say there is no syllabus or model. The course is improvised--in the best sense of that word: it flows along in a general framework according to the impulses of imagination and concurrent insight. The course description that follows is not, therefore, a plan rigorously followed at San Diego, but a record of things done, that may or may not find their way into the course when it is taught in succeeding years. General music is taught in two one—hour demonstrations per week, and one two-hour laboratory period. During the demonstrations ideas and assignments are suggested through sound-games, demonstrations and discussions. The demonstra- tions may concern technical matters, such as skills in tape 49 Splicing, or musical matters, such as demonstration through performance of provocative sound ideas. The sound games are much the same as those used in the Creativity WorkshOp at Oakland University (see Chapter VI). In a sound game devised by Pauline Oliveros the class is divided into small vocal ensembles, each with a leader. Each group reSponds to material printed in a broadside (whiSpering, Shouting, repeating, acting, being Silent, etc.). The result is taped, and the playback is criticized. Leading questions are posed: "What could be done to make a piece that contrasts with this?" Through perform- ance, listening, and criticism, students discover ideas and designs to use in their laboratory eXperiences. There are three types of music laboratories, involving (1) improvisation, (2) performance, and (3) working with tape. The Improvisation Lab is a free Situation, a Situation Open to eXperimentation, and not burdened with some Specific musical content. Limitations are not absent from the improvi- sation labs. They are present in the form of restrictions on the number of participants, instruments, and sound resources, or the general amount of sound and movement. In short, pre- compositional limitations are imposed to provide frameworks within which the student can work, and to avoid an overload of possibilities. In addition, certain attitudes are requested of students and faculty. Students are obliged to "bring to the labs some vital curiosity about how music functions . . .to 50 engage seriously in a pursuit of purpose. . . . "4 The faculty is to understand that the improvisation labs are for experimentation's sake, and that the products are not meant to be formed art objects, that the ability of the student to act in the sound-making environment is dependent on his ability to remain free of the need of outside approval or assurance. The improvisations are taped and played back, so that the variance between the immediately felt improvised event and the same event reflectively perceived can be noticed, and so that the whole improvisation can be summarized, analyzed, and criticized. The taped improvisations are later edited into a source tape, out of which each student, through editing and Splicing, composes a new composition. Students themselves set the "behavioral rules" that draw the boundaries for each improvisation. They eXplore thoroughly the sound resources of the instruments being used, devise general directions or scores for improvisations (symbols to be freely interpreted). and then perform. The Performance Labs demand more precise control through the use of graphic notation. The notation is to be eXplicit enough to make it clear that the student has fashioned his materials with involvement and purpose, and is not relying on accident, or the improvisational abilities of others. In Performance Labs the students may be asked to com- pose pieces eXploiting some musical element (pitch, time, 51 dynamics, etc.) as a central feature. (Improvisational eXperimentation with these elements precedes composition.) Cr he may be asked to score a piece for environmental sounds, then realize the score with one of the nine Sony 800 portable tape recorders owned by the department. Whatever the assign- ment, its central feature, the feature that distinguishes it from those of the improvisation labs, is the necessity of an eXplicit score, of pre-arranged, pre-composed pieces. After each project the faculty selects two or three compositions from each lab section to be performed for the class. The class criticizes the pieces, and the composers defend them, and in the process critical listening and musical understanding are developed. The Tape Lab makes use of a variety of good equipment. San Diego has Six such labs, each containing the following equipment and capabilities: Equipment: Splicing blocks, tape grease pencils, blades, etc. 2 Viking 807 playback decks, 2 and % track (stereo and mono) Shure preamps (for Viking decks) Shure solo—phone headphone amps stereo headphones Dynaco Beocord 2000 stereo tape recorder, l, 3, 7 ips, with sync features, sound on/with Sound, built in amplifiers for hones or Speakers plus built in 3 input mixers (each channel) l—‘NNN Capabilities: add-on and add-to superpositions of sounds: via mikes and mixers; Splicing decks for assembling tapes: Splicings may be diagonal or lateral (stereo separation) dynamic regulations 52 Speed changes, fixed or variable Speed controls leader tape for separations and silences timbre and pitch transitions, distortions multiple track and tape IOOp distribution (All lab equipment may be used separately for editing. or Viking decks may play 2 source tapes for recording through Beocord mixers for final tape: mike input on Beocord also may be mixed with tape input.) Tape Lab assignments take many forms, all designed to give the students carefully defined problems in tape com- position. Considerable work is done with "source tapes": pre-recorded material from which the student selects sounds for his own compositions. One source tape is made from recorded improvisations from the improvisation lab. Another is made in a trip to the zoo. A third is a pre—recorded tape on sale in the bookstore, containing Such sounds as waterfalls, jet warm-up, surf and fog horns, and walking through snow. The following excerpts from an assignment will sample the activities of the tape lab: . . . Memorize the sounds on the source tape, and keep rough notes about your preferences. Little tabs may be placed between the layers of tape tem- porarily, to help you locate sounds quickly . . . find a beginning . . . find a sound to connect with this beginning. Splice it on . . . It may be helpful to start thinking about how you wish to end the composition after you have composed about a minute of the music. Find the ending and memorize it. Now you need only to find the sounds which will get you from your Opening to your ending . . . Some peOple prefer to make a grand plan. . . . No matter what extra methods are used-~and you may invent—-the piece must have many Splices. The final tape must pgyg typ channels pf §pppg, either the stereo sources as given, or material which you have recorded or added. Np channel mgy pg continuously empty. . . . 53 Further development of the course is in the direction of more proscriptive and eXplicit experience with time and pitch. The approach is through the invention of ”systems" and "structures and processes.“ Each student is required to build a system from the ground up: to create his own pitch, tuning, notation, and performing system. The preparatory class lectures introduce many systems Operating in music. This introduction takes three forms: I. The examination of an instrument, for example, the piano, as illustrative of a particular tuning system, a diatonic-chromatic pitch system, a timbral, articulative, and string system, an 88 key perform- ance system, an element in keyboard or orchestral system, an idiomatic notation (staff) system, all these systems plus any modification or Cagian pre- paration the imagination wishes to invent. 2. Compositions created for the class by partici- pating faculty using the students lab instruments and inventing the performance, notation, and pitch resource systems needed for their realization. 3. Student exposure to the performances of com- positions in which varied systems were present: ylg. diatonic, dodecaphonic, oriental, Open, and individualized systems such as those of Harry Partch and others who have had the need and imagination to create their own unique resources. Structure and process is introduced along with systems. Structure, as presented at San Diego, has nothing to do with analytic—historic pursuits. Structure is most usefully de— fined as "an articulative time frame . . . arising out of a "7 consciously imposed order, a gift of the mind . . . "Pro- cess" is the term used to refer to all those parameters still 5L: open to spontaneity, that are used to fill out the struc- tures. A sample assignment in structure follows: PROJECT ASSIGNMENT IN STRUCTURE 1. Determine what are the several most critical parameters or variables that influence or characterize a composed piece of music. Using your selected parameters as tOpics, consider in what ways these parameters can be varied or structured. ll. Construct a verbal or symbolic schematic or blueprint for a composition of undetermined length. The composition will arbitrarily include three parts in rela— tion to each other as in ABA‘. Within that three part ABA' structure, subdivide the parts into one. two, or three sec- tions by contrast or progressive development. Divide your paper into three sections horizontally to represent the ABA' structure. Divide the paper vertically according to the number of parameters that you wish to control (indicate what goes on). The minimum number of controlled parameters Should be three. Use brief verbal descriptions or letters or other symbols (provide a key to your symbolic representa— tion) to Show what is going on. 111. Realize your blueprint in score.8 At the end of the course students are assigned a final summary composition project. The student is to create the pitch and notation system, to state his struc- tural objectives, and to realize them in free invention, in either an instrumental - performance Situation, or through tape composition. There is much to be said for this course. At every point the student is actively engaged with the medium. His engagement is made a commitment by the fact that evaluation and judgement are largely in his own hands. At the same time the necessity for deferring judgement in eXploratory and improvisational situations is recognized. 55 The absolute commitment to eXperimental music-- relegating the learning of any traditional modes to "Spin- off“--is based on the belief that genuine creative involve- ment with the medium means involvement with the present time. Past ages can be studied, defined, and reproduced, but only the present is malleable, only the present can be defined by hammer and tongs. The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Have you ever considered that every Significant musician throughout history has searched for new musical expressive possibilities? None has been content to merely duplicate the systems and idiomatic practices of his pre— decessors. That music is sound-~not symbols, diagrams, formulae, idiomatic practices, or skills? That the purpose of education is to Open minds and to provide the substance and enthusiasm for continued personal discovery and growth? That the strongest bond between the musical arg and the student is a sensitivity to contemporary life? With these rhetorical questions, the Manhattanville Music Curriculum Program (MMCP) eXpresses a commitment to creativity, and to contemporary music-making. The Manhattanville project was Sponsored from 1965- 1970 by the Arts and Humanities Program of the United States Office of Education. Its concern was the develOpment of a creative approach to music based on principles apropos for all students gt all levels pf learning. MMCP has developed an elaborate rationale for their approach. Its first concern is with a catch-word: "relevance." Why is it that so many students express an intense disinterest in school music programs while participating avidly in extra- curricular musical activity? The answer, says MMCP, is relevance. 56 School music programs are irrelevant because they deny the student creative experiences. Within the structure of the music program the student has no Opportunity to use music for his own expressive needs. He is refused, also, the role of evaluator or critic, because standards are fixed, and taught authoritatively. He is usually denied eXperience in a living art because this too often violates limited concepts of historical doctrines and idiomatic systems upon which educational methods are based. The subject matter is irrelevant, because it appears "completed" and foreign to the realities of life and society as he knows them to be.10 MMCP'S answer to this problem is relevance. Artistic relevance demands that the educational approach be consistent with the nature of the art. “The universal characteristics of music, according to MMCP, are (l) eXpressivity: music as an agent for the projection and clarification of thought, (2) continuance: music as a non- static, Open-ended medium, and (3) creativity: music as a field for experimentation and eXploration. A course must reflect these characteristics to meet the criterion of artistic relevance. The first characteristic (expressivity) demands that the course give the student opportunity to think in the medium. His thinking must move beyond that of Simple response. He must have opportunity to experience music as creator, conductor, performer, listener, and critic. Otherwise he is limited to the role of Spectator. 57 The second characteristic (music as a non—static, Open—ended medium) demands that the student's eXperience be based on the broadest principles of eXpreSSiveness and form, rather than on particular practices and systems. lest the medium be falsely represented. Too concentrated a focus on a particular kind of music in an introductory course would tend to limit the student's perSpective and definition of music. Too much concentration on the system and syntax of one musical culture, with its notational and performance techniques, would define musical boundaries so narrowly, and so dominate the class time, that music would become frozen, unevolving, and therefore insensitive to the students' Sense of now. The third universal characteristic of music (crea- tivity) demands that the course be based on student discovery and student judgements. It demands that the classroom not be teacher-dominated. The student must be free to "eXplore for himself the nature of elements of music and become involved as a creative musician in a personal search for musical meaning."11 In following out the idea that the course must be con- SSistent with the nature of the art, MMCP examines the essentials (Df a musician's behavior, and considers these essentials to be idie behavioral objectives of the course. These behaviors and t’ehavioral objectives fall into four categories. The first, coErnitive behaviors, concerns the concepts to be understood, 58 through their use in musical activities such as performance, composition, and evaluation. In the second category are attitudinal objectives. For MMCP openness and receptivity to newness, and a sense of music as being somehow in tune with reality, of being a source of insight into life, are the central attitudes to be develOped. Skill objectives are of importance to MMCP only as they enhance or illuminate the other behavioral objectives. The development of per- formance, or notational skills in isolation from the other objectives is considered irrelevant. Finally, beyond cogni- tion, attitudes and skills are the aesthetic objectives. These objectives cannot be taught. They can be encouraged, however, by engaging students in activities that demand and allow analytical, evaluative, and creative thinking, in a setting freed of evaluation by the teacher. In summary, MMCP purports to attain relevancy by making its educational approach consistent with the nature of music, and by making its behavioral objectives consistent with the behavior of musicians. MMCP attempts to realize these objectives and this approach through carefully designed yet flexible music laboratory eXperienceS, where the nature of music is ex— iplored through musician-like behaviors. The content of ‘these music labs is organized by what is called a "Spiral Charriculum." This spiral curriculum is not in the form of a Illan to be systematically followed. It is in the form of a 59 resource that describes a flexible sequence of activities, or "strategies," to use the language of MMCP. The spiral is made of cycles repeated in time. Each cycle deals with all of the elements of music. Each succes- sive cycle adds new factors to each element to be dealt with. For example, one of the elements found in each cycle is pitch. In cycle one indefinite pitch is used in the laboratory stra- tegies. In cycle two the strategies make use of definite pitch with random selection. Cycle three concerns the use of three selected pitches, and cycle four concerns pentatonic groupings. To describe one element as it is develOped through several cycles is misleading, however, for the emphasis is never on a single element, but rather on the interaction of pi; the elements within each cycle, and between cycles. The Spiral curriculum is a way of organizing knowledge with an emphasis on the unity and interaction of musical factors. The "strategies“ transform the abstractions of the Spiral curriculum into plans for action. They are in the form of compositional problems or improvisational Situations for the laboratory ensembles to eXplore, perform, conduct, listen to, and evaluate. Each strategy introduces one new musical idea in a musical setting where the other musical factors involved are known. Strategies may require the student to relate pieces of information to form a concept related to a new problem. They may require the student to transfer an already known concept to a new situation. Always they require creative imagination. 60 Strategies involving composing are sometimes team efforts, sometimes individual efforts. Group compositions predominate because of time limitations, and because of the greater opportunities for sharing information and ideas. Strategies involving improvisation are considered to be musical actions requiring immediate musical judgements. Performances are given of all composed or improvised pieces. These performances are taped, and subject to critical evalua- tion. The instructor directs the evaluative sessions into three types of thinking: analytical, “What happened?"; judicial, "Was this factor successful?": and creative, "How would you change this?". MMCP lists seven conditions that should be met in the designing of strategies. A strategy must be: 1. honest in terms of the art. The musical concept must be real and consistent with musical practice regardless of the level of sophistication of the concept use. “Rules which are meant to be broken" have no educational validity and often arouse feelings of distrust and irrelevancy. 2. in terms of the students' understanding. They must be compatible with the students' frame of reference. 3. thorough. They must include involvement in the total musical process, not simply a narrow area of it. a. self motivating. The eXperience itself must be the reason for the student to participate. 5. flexible. All students must have a lati- tude of interpretation if the strategy is to have personal meaning. It must allow students to work at their own pace, in their own way, at their own level. 61 6. designed to open minds. It must not restrict perSpectives but rather broaden them. It must be an eXperience which brings a fresh view. 7. so constructed that it assures success. hvery student must have the Opportunity for achievement and must know for him- self when he has achieved. In each cycle, pitch, rhythm, form, dynamics, and timbre are considered. in one vycle, for example, definite pitches in random selection are used along with rhythms (sounds and rests) concurrent with pulse. Crescendo and diminuendo, and contrast are the dynamic and timbral elements. The formal element is simply repetition. Students acquire ideas about the possibilities inherent in these parameters through listening and discussion. (Among the suggested 13 records are Contrasts by Dick Raaijmakers, and Contrasts for Violin, Clarinet, and Piano, by Bela Bartok.lu) During .1. w the course of the strategies for this cycle students learn that if the pitch of a sound can be reproduced by another sound source, it is called a definite pitch, that any definite pitch can be sounded before, or after, or simul- taneously with any other definite pitch, or with sounds of indefinite pitch. They learn that rhythm may be organized by a regularly recurring pulse, with the duration of sounds and silences beginning with one pulse and ending with the next. They discover the possibilities and effects of dif- ferent sequences of sounds and silences. They experiment with contrasts of timbre in simultaneous or sequential arrangement, and similarly with contrasts in dynamics. They 62 attempt to create a sense of climax or anticlimax, increasing excitement or approaching calm through the use of different rates and degrees of crescendos and diminuendos. They play these contrasts off against the stabilizing and unifying force of repetition. The skills required for this cycle are many. The student must aurally recognize or identify highness and lowness in pitch, contrasts in timbre, gradual volume changes, recurring passages, and pulse as it continues through rests. The required dexterous skills include the ability in performance to produce notes and rests related to pulse, to repeat simple musical ideas, to control an instrument or voice in gradual changes of dynamics. in conducting, the required dexterous skills include the ability to cue in performers, indicate dynamics, and possibly tempo and mood changes. The translative skills necessary to this cycle include the ability to prepare scores which indicate the activities of separate parts, accurately use quarter notes and rests, crescendo and diminuendo signs, and repeat signs. Finally, a number of terms must be understood for the sake of easy communication: score, repeat sign, cue, etc. A sample strategy shows how these musical elements and skills might be put into action: divide the class into vocal ensembles of four or five students. Each ensemble chooses a conductor, and plans a thirty to forty second piece 63 using three sounds made with the voice, lips, breath, or tongue. These will be heard singly, or in combination, articulated by silences, and regulated by a recurring pulse. Tape all performances for playback and analysis. In the general discussions that follow make sure the following questions are included: Was the pulse evident throughout the composition? How effective was the use of silence? Were repetitions immediate, or after contrasts? What might have been done to improve this composition? Several such strategies may be used with each cycle, each with its own emphasis, and each leading toward another strategy and another cycle. The Two Courses Compared Both of these approaches to music emphasize attitudes and activities favorable to the exercise of creativity. Both encourage the student to manipulate the medium, and to exercise his own critical abilities on the result. Both courses provide laboratory situations that give direction to the student's experiments with the medium. In recognition of the theory that the logic of the student's direction of inQUiry is valid pedagogically, both courses avoid a rigid precast syllabus. In this respect, however, MMCP has worked out an elaborate plan of objectives and means that serve as a flexible resource for the instructor. General Music at San Diego is in effect an improvised course, new each time it is offered, its order 64 and content reflecting the inventiveness of the current students and faculty. Both approaches, in emphasizing doing, are concerned with new music and with broad prin- ciples rather than with the idiomatic practices of certain times and styles. Both offer the rationale that new music is not a completed thing-~it is changing, not set, and is therefore a suitable vehicle for the creative imagination. In order to deal with new music, while avoiding the dif- ficulties of performance on sophisticated instruments, General Music at San Diego makes use of electronic equip- ment, new instruments and other sound sources. In order to deal with the problems of notation it introduces students to graphic score technigues. MMCP also suggests the use of electronic and special laboratory instruments, and of graph notation. But MMCP also allows the rudiments of traditional notation to find their way into the strategies, and encourages the development of some traditional instrumental skills. The similarities between the two approaches can be attributed to the commitment of both to creativity as the instructional mode. To a considerable extent, the differences are attributable to the varied sc0pe of each. General music is a particular course at a particular institution. The MMCP curriculum is a flexible guide adaptable to a variety of situa— tions and age levels. Both provide examples of the application in the classroom of principles of creative development in the medium of sound. Notes to Chapter IV 1. The material for this section was derived from conversa- tions with Roger Reynolds, and from A Repogt pg g3 hxperimgntal Genergl Music Program (San Diego, Department of Music, Univer- sity of California, 1969). 2. 5 Report 93 gg Experimental General Music Proggam (San Diego, Department of Music, University of California, 1969). i. 3. Ibid., ii. 4. Ibid., 8. 5. Ibid., 28—29. 6. Ibid., 43. 7. Ibid., 43. 8. Ibid., as. 9.. .Mflgf §yg£flg§i§, (Elnora, New York: Media Press, n.d.). iii, iv. 10. Ibid., X. 1.].- lbldo, Li. 12. Ibid., 36. 13. Dick Raaijmakers, Contrasts (Epic Records LG 375% n.d.). lb. Bela Bartok, Qgptrasts fpg Violin, Clarinet, and Piang (Bartok Records 9lo,n.d.). 65 CHAPTER V bXbRCleS 1N CRhATlVITY Experience and eXpression are at the heart of the exercises to be described in this chapter. Insofar as the exercises emphasize doing, and concentrate on process more than on product, they deal with conditions favorable to expression. Because the exercises celebrate present eXper— iences rather than abstractions stored against the future, they deal with conditions favorable to eXperiencing. The exercises are not intended to function like muscle—building exercises, as when a faculty is strengthened through a regimen of use. lnstead they are intended to encourage certain ways of thought. These ways run through the writings of those con- cerned with creativity, and illuminate the rationale behind many peculiarities of the exercises. Rationale Behind the bxercises Making the familiar strange. A Len master who had come to the time to choose a successor, called two of his students to his side. Handing them each a fan he asked, "What's this?" The first pupil, by way of an answer, Opened the fan and fanned himself. The second folded his fan and with it scratched his back. Then, Opening it again, he placed on it a slice of cake and offered it to the master. The second student became the do 67 successor. The first suffered from what Ernest Hilgard 1 This can be defined as would call "functional fixation." the inability to use or see a thing in a novel way, in a way different from that defined by its familiar use. In an often Quoted experiment concerning functional fixation, a subject is shown into a nearly empty room.2 Two strings hang from the ceiling at some distance from one another. In a corner of the room is a table with a pair of pliers on it. The subject is told to tie the two free ends of the strings together. This he succeeds in doing only by rede- fining the pliers as a pendulum, attaching it to one string, and swinging it until it is in reach of the other string. According to Hilgard we can get set in a plausible course of action, and no longer innovate. Hilgard states it this way: " . . . the pre-utilization of a tool or object in its normal use restricts its availability for novel uses by the subject who has just used it in the regular way."3 A similar phenomenon is noted by Abraham Maslow in Religions, Values, and Peak EXperiences. Familiarization, he says, dulls cognition. He writes of a freshening of eXperience in which "the miraculous suchness of things" breaks into consciousness. Routine perceptive habits are broken with a consequent loosening of "functional fixation." Most of us, it seems, are basically conservative. A familiar object or outlook can be comprehended: we attempt to comprehend the strange by making it familiar. One commonplace 68 example can be seen in the West where travelers from the flat lands have labeled volcanic rock formations after their familiar comic—strip characters. This formation is Donald Duck, that one SnOOpy, and so the free forms become familiar. What is lost is the coolness of the rock, the smooth and grainy surfaces, the masses, shapes, and potential energies. For creative purposes, it is often best to retain the strange in the strange, and even to make the familiar strange. Making the familiar strange is a central operational mechanism for problem-solving used by those involved in synectics. The word "synectics" means the joining of dif- ferent and apparently irrelevant elements. The synectic approach to problem—solving is in part to remove the problem from its familiar context in order to see it from a different standpoint. In Synectics, William Gordon writes that the pursuit of strangeness is not for strangeness's sake-~it is rather "the attempt to achieve a new look at the same old world, peOple, ideas, feelings, and things."5 Gordon makes use of analogy in the attempt. He views a mechanical problem, for instance, through an analogous biological phenomenon (direct analogy). Or he gets a new view by metaphorically becoming a part of the problem, by identifying, for example, with a steam molecule in a steam engine (personal analogy). He views a familiar problem in terms of another phenomenon, or he views it as if something strange were the case. 69 Many of the exercises can be better understood as exercises in making the familiar strange, in adOpting a new point of view. This is eSpecially the case with those exercises that force discovery through the use of other senses (as when a painting is "listened to"), and those that force discovery through fantasy (as when an area in the student union is attended and watched as though a ballet were in progress). The extensional orientation. These self-important words refer to another way of being that is frequently referred to in the writings of those concerned with creativity. Carl Rogers uses the term "Extensionality," and describes it as a "lack of rigidity, and permeability of boundaries in concepts, beliefs, perceptions, and hypotheses . . . a tolerance for ambiguity . . . the ability to receive much conflicting information without forcing closure upon the situation."6 The last part of the description points back to the first chapter, where resistance to premature closure, and avoidance of premature rubricizing were listed reSpectively as attributes of creative and of self-actualizing people. The first part (permeability of boundaries) is a new element, and deserves further examination. In Egg £23 9; Creation Arthur Koestler develOps the idea that routine thinking is confined to a limited circle of commonly associated facts, ideas, and ways of thinking. 70 It is confined, in Koestler's words, to a single plane, or matrix. "Thinking which remains confined to a single matrix has obvious limitations. It is the exercise of a more or less flexible skill, which can perform tasks only Of a kind already encountered in past experience; it is not capable of original, creative achievement.”7 Creative thinking, on the other hand, acts on more than one plane. Working and associating within the confines of a single matrix is not likely to release original and creative energy; associating between different matric¢as is much more productive, but demands the easy ”permeability of boundaries" that Carl Rogers writes about. It is at the point of collision between different planes of thought that creativity, energy (and humor, as Koestler demonstrates), may be released. The analogies of the synectics groups do more than make the familiar strange: they bring together facts, ideas, and ways of thinking that are usually isolated and relegated to separate matrices. There is often some resistance by sober and rational peOple to the kind of mental play that may link diSparate matrices. This mental play is too much like making puns and non sequiturs. If coherent thinking is level-headed, creative thinking may be multi—level-headed, and apparently incoherent. Creative people "trust the nonrational processes of their own minds."8 In other words, they do not foreclose on the mental wanderings that slide across the boundaries of coherent habits of thought. 71 Habits are the indiSpensable core of stability and ordered behaviour; they also have a tendency to become mechanical and to reduce man to the status of a conditioned automaton. The creative act, by connecting previously unrelated dimensions of eXperience, enables him to attain to a higher level of mental evolution. It is an act of libera- tion-~the defeat of habit by originality.9 The apparent whimsy of some of the exercises can be understood as attempts to make boundaries vague and permeable. Spontaneity, intuition. Intuition is an evasive sub— ject, yet it, in some guise, is usually referred to in writings on creativity. Often it is viewed as a function of the unconscious, another evasive subject. Sometimes it is documented by reports of certain common eXperiences of artists, scientists, and inventors. They become exhausted attempting on the conscious level to solve some problem. Then, in an unguarded, relaxed, and detached moment--at some moment of stillness and conscious inactivity-~the solution sails in effortlessly and full-blown, as if from outside the self. John Tettemer, a former monk who underwent a thorough mental re-orientation, describes this eXperience as follows: I allow my mind total freedom to Open . . . this Opening of the mind does not entail an effort to solve the riddle of existence, but rather to let it find its foothold in my soul, to the end that I might the more fully realize it. It is a process similar to the stage of contemplation in prayer, where the faculties of intellect, sense, and imagination are quieted, and one contemplates, without mental movemgnt or flexing, the object under consideration. 0 72 Harold Rugg amasses an impressive array of similar quotations in Imagination.ll "Bertrand Russell tells of 'the fruitless effort' he eXpended in trying to push his creative mathematics to completion by sheer force of will, before he discovered the necessity of 'waiting for it to 12 Jacques find its own subconscious develOpment.'" Hadamard, French mathematician, wrote that "On being very abruptly awakened by an external noise, a solution long searched for appeared to me at once without the slightest instant of reflection on my part . . . and in a quite dif- ferent direction from any of those which I previously tried to follow."13 A. E. Housman adds the following eXperience to the list: Having drunk a pint of beer at luncheon . . . I would go out for a walk of two or three hours. As I went along, thinking of nothing in particular, only looking at things around me, and following the progress of the seasons, there would flow into my mind, with sudden and unaccountable emotion, some- times a line or two of verse, sometimes a whole stanza at once, accompanied, not preceeded, by a vague notion of Ehe poem they were destined to form a part of.1 Some of the richest sources concerning insight and intuition are the literatures of Zen and of Taosim. According to an ancient Zenrin poem: You cannot get it by taking thought: You cannot seak it by not taking thought.15 Actively thinking and actively not thinking are barren. How then, can you get it? 73 Sitting, quietly, doing nothing, . 16 Spring comes, and the grass grows by itself. Watts defines a Taoist word "Tg" as "the unthinkable in— genuity and creative power of man's Spontaneous and natural functioning-~a power which is blocked when one tries to master it in terms of formal methods and techniques."17 Archery is one of the vehicles of den aimed at such spontaneity, a spontaneity beyond intentionally not taking thought. The Zen archer learns to release the arrow un— intentionally, without mind or choice, to let the arrow "shoot itself." What the Zen archer masters is nOt archery (supposedly there is a master of Zen archery who has never once hit the target). but rather striving. Once striving is let go of: spontaneity: receptivity: Some of the following exercises may be understood as simple exercises in mental and physical relaxation, in medi- tation, and in a "state of diSpersed attention"16 with an eye toward encouraging a receptive mental attitude. Interaction, and self-awareness. To a considerable extent the exercises involve close interaction between the members of the class. Many writers are concerned with per- sonal interaction, and stress it as central to their concept of creativity. Rollo May writes that " . . . you can never localiZe creativity as a subjective phenomenon; you can never 19 StUdy it in terms Simply of what goes on within the person."‘ In the same volume Harold Anderson suggests that instead of 74 asking "What are the characteristics of a creative person?" a more revealing question might be: "What is the nature of creative interacting between the person and his environment?" He discusses creative interacting between persons in such terms as “interweaving of differences," and “interrelating of spontaneities."20 ASpects of the following exercises are concerned with the making of an "ensemble," to use a musi— cian's term, and with the Quality of the interactions be- tween the students. The exercises were not all designed to deal with such Specific concerns. Some are Simply awareness and sensitivity exercises. Examples of Creativity Exercises Found 9; discovered music. Choose a place at which to pass fifteen minutes listening to all the sounds that surround you. Do not list or categorize the sounds. Relate them. If one sound follows another, note the unity or variety resulting from the seQuence. If one sound sounds together with another, note the new sound resulting from the incidence. In short, listen as if you are listening to music. Then write a brief "review" of the experience that conveys a sense of the music involved. This exercise suggests something that is outside the frames of thought of most people. It suggests that everyday sounds are music. The exercise also asks something that is outside most everyone's eXperience. It asks that a habitual reSponse be set aside (I hear a car coming--I'll wait to cross 75 the street until it passes) and a foreign one substituted (I hear a car coming-~a whirring drone growing louder, and overwhelming other sounds). Two student responses to this exercise are quoted below, the first unsuccessful, the second quite successful as an attempt to hear everyday sounds as music: "Fifteen Minutes on the East Side of Vandenburg hall" The wind has a rushing sound in your ears, and you hear it in the trees and bushes. A girl puts a letter in the box and the door makes a clang. I hear laughter of fellow members of our workshop as they look for a place to listen. I hear (just barely) music from a record player or radio . . . This statement is little more than an enumeration of sounds heard. Compare itvdifiithe more successful attempt that follows: "The Vandenburg Parking Lot“ Through the steady whirring of car tires blurts the nervous sputtering of motorcycles. In the quiet when the motorcycles pass, the tick of my watch grows large. Its even pulse is broken by the erratic chatter of starlings, and by their sudden fluttering take to flight . . . A jet plane converses with a grumbling earth mover, and dis- tantly, a crow calls above the conversation . . . There is of course a difference of writing ability between the two excerpts, but beyond this is the evident sense of relationship and continuity of sounds that dis- tinguishes the second from the first. Found theatre. This exercise is similar to the one above, but much more difficult. Again, one views a familiar situation from a vantage point afforded by a different frame of reference. Set imaginary boundaries around a space in a 76 lounge, in a classroom, or in a cafeteria. Consider this Space to be a stage, and from a discreet vantage point view what happens on the stage as you would view a dance or a play. Maintain enough detachment to make possible the writing of an insightful critical review or commentary on what you have seen. Following are excerpts from a review written in response to this exercise: "'From the Academy' - A Tragedy in One Act" When confronted with a potentially hostile audience, one is tempted to use all powers of tactical appeasement to lessen the impact of their criticisms. Such is the Situation R- S- (played by himself) is faced with in "From the Academy." The performance given by S- of an a ing but still active social critic is played with [the consummate artistry of one who had actually lived his character . . . The drama climaxes when a member of the audience (the stage audience, cast as students in a mid-western univer- sity) stands to introduce himself as a person who has suffered under the acid pen of Mr. S-. In the face of this and other hostile confrontations R— S- weakens, and abandons his former strong position of anti-college immorality, and feigns a moderate ap- proval. It is a sobering Sight to see a man of many years seek refuge in safe stock-statements when he knows that what he wants to say . . . is of greatly different vintage. . . . The trustwalk.21 This exercise is most effective for unaquainted participants in a new class. it forces percep- tion without use of the eyes, and encourages trust in intui- tive judgement. The class is seated in a circle on the floor. You are a member of the circle. Look at the others in the circle. Do not avoid meeting eyes, but also do not engage in staring matches. Discreetly imitate another's eXpression or 77 posture if you wish, to see what it feels like. Maintain absolute silence, but keep your eyes and ears attentive. After about fifteen minutes turn your attention to finding one member of the class you feel you might trust. Still maintaining silence sit next to that trusted person. If, before you move, someone sits next to you, do not move, for you have been chosen as trusted. Thus, the members of the class pair off, each pair made up of one chosen as trusted (who acts as the leader in what is called a trust walk), and one who made the choice (the follower). The follower closes his eyes, and is led by the leader on a twenty minute eXploration. Both maintain absolute silence. As the leader you are given two important tasks: (I) to use all the care, understanding, and means of communication you can (save talking), to encourage trust in your partner; (2) to share with your partner as much of your environment as you can. Have him touch flowers, and tree bark; have him listen to water, have him roll in the grass, and smell a leaf. Have him feel a rock under water. Run with him. Under your eye let him eXplore ”alone." AS the follower you are charged with being intent and alert, with attempting to deny fear in an effort to keep Open to what is being felt, heard, and smelled. You must, in short, try to trust your own senses, as well as your partner's good sense. After twenty minutes, change roles. 78 When the trust walk is over, talk about your eXperi— ences together. An eventual discussion with the whole class concerning the nature of trust (What single word best des— cribes your kind of trust?) and communication will serve to communalize the individual eXperiences, and some of the inter- personal adventures that may have occurred. Three awareness exercises. The object of some exercises is simply to engage the senses and imagination in activities that require acute awareness and/or imagination. Following are a few examples of these "awareness exercises": 1. Everyone stands with closed eyes in a room darkened so that light sources will not offer clues to direction. All are directed to silently walk about in the room using ~ all their senses but sight in an intensive effort to gygig touching anyone or anything. Sometimes the finger- tips may be used as sensors, with the hands extending a few inches from your body. At other times, walking backwards, the small of the back and the back Of the neck might be depended upon “to sense the presence of others. The forehead, and the ears may also be used. It is necessary that everyone keeps moving, however slowly, and that attempts be made to cross the room, wall to wall, without a collision. Prepare for this exercise by giving one another foot baths with salt, to sensitize both the feet and the hands. Moisten the hands with water, and pour into them a teaSpoon of 79 table salt. Vigorously massage one another's feet-— eSpecially the soles. After about ten minutes brush away the salt and lightly smooth an equal mixture of olive oil and vinegar over hands and feet. Then do the exercise in bare feet. Everyone sits on the floor in a circle. Each keeps his eyes closed and maintains silence. Each one is given an object to feel with his hands, face, back of neck: and bottoms of feet. These objects should have a wide variety of textures, temperatures, and consistencies: perhaps a rock with a hollow that fits the chin, a con— tainer filled with soapflakes, a dried fungus, a pan of wet oatmeal, the jaw-bone of a cow, a handful of moss, a balloon half—filled with warm water, a frozen fish. Pass these objects slowly around the circle, and when each has had a chance to handle all of the Objects, place the objects in the center of the circle. Every- one now Opens his eyes, renounces his vow of silence, and tries to relate what he touched to what he now sees. Everyone lies on the floor in a comfortable position, closes his eyes, and maintains silence. While a pre- viously prepared tape of atmospheric and visceral music (perhaps a mixture of “serious“ electronic and electronic rock) is played each person takes an imaginary journey inside himself, with the understanding that he will later write of his journey. 80 This is a new eXperience for many, and there are occasionally surprises such as those in the following excerpts taken from the log-books of several internal journeys: Swallowed up like a sardine and scarfed down. Maybe with time my eyes will grow accustomed. If I feel the need to use light I'll drOp up to my eyes. All is being churned and broken apart broken down to basics. There seems to be a brilliance here that takes the place of light. I can see in a way I never have before . . . Wow it's dark in here dark in here ark in here k in here in here Oh no Canyons of my mind no of my mind no my mind no my mind no my mind no Must be as long as infinity as long as infinity long as infinity long as infinity I've got to get out quick get out quick get out quick out quick . . . cold feet hair stomach-—Heart pounding against the floor Dust coming down my throat. My hands are full of bones . . . The buttocks have centers and there are lines-—dottec lines between them and from them to a point on the backbone. From the inside, there is no belly button . . . I seem to be zipping back and forth. I can feel the sound in my neck and the back of my head, like a bumble bee in a plastic bag . . . Small trees of light somewhere to find—~free and dancing. being chased away. Troubled then, they all broke loose and it was funny. 81 All of a sudden: floating no boundaries. I'm in an airplane going through a forest . . . The solitary picnic. When quite hungry go on a picnic alone, taking with you a light meal of food and drink chosen with Special interest in contrasting textures, smells, tastes, temperatures, and colors. Eat in a pleasant Spot, on a pleasant day, Slowly, making a symphony of tastes and textures for yourself by careful choice of mouthful after mouthful. Or, as an alternative, take on your picnic only one orange. Take the orange in the palm of your hand. See its shape, its color, its tOp and bottom . . . smell the orange. Close your eyes and move the orange in the palms of your hands . . . roll it all over your face . . . Sensitively break the skin and begin to peel the orange. See the juice come out of the skin. Hear the sounds . . . take time . . . As slowly as you can, break the orange in half and watch it separate. Slowly break off one section . . . close your eyes and eat that sectgpn and the rest of the orange one section at a time. When finished, take a walk alone, then write your ‘thoughts in your journal. The stone game. This exercise demands attentiveness to r‘elations and rhythms in Space, and contains some surprises fVDr the participants. Any number can play, but only in groups (31‘ three or four. Each group gathers a number of stones (five 01? seven seems to work best) of varied sizes, textures, and Srlapms. These are tossed randomly onto the floor. Each group 8its around its cluster of stones studying and discussing ‘tklem from many viewpoints. Does the arrangement appear natural 82 or contrived? Random or geometric? Static or dynamic? If the stone cluster was on a wooden circle, where would you place your finger under that circle to effect a balance? If the rocks were magnetic how would the lines of force appear as revealed by iron filings? Is there a direction of motion implied by the arrangement? Is there a relation between this direction and the center? If these rocks were a heavenly constellation, and you were a comet sailing in from this or that direction, how would your pathway be altered? If you were a snail wandering through these rocks what path would you take? After fifteen or twenty minutes are Spent on these pre- liminaries, the players take turns attempting to improve the arrangement, or to alter it significantly by moving one or several stones. Attempts should be made to effect the ggggtggt change with the smallest motion. Thus, every move should be made with foresight as to the results. One exception is the acceptable but last-ditch move of tossing one stone into the air. The game may be converted into larger dimensions by the instructor, who views the participants as they were viewing the stones. He moves the players from place to place with an eye to the configuration that they make in the room. As these players become aware of the new dimensions the game has taken they are invited to initiate their own movements, stOpping long enough between changes of position to orientate themselves to 83 the rest of the players. Finally, all withdraw to the walls of the room to view the several stone games as though they are part of one large game. The Value of Creativity Exercises Research concerning the development of creativity leads to the suspicion that the gap between one's innate creative talent, and one's meagre creative output can be narrowed by exercises in creativity. In a project conducted by the AC 23 Spark Plug Division of General Motors, several employees were given a ten-week creativity training program. The course centered on approaches to problem—solving. Over a period of a year the contributions to the suggestions box made by the trained group were compared to those made by the rest of the employees. It was found that those who had taken the course submitted more suggestions, had a greater number of suggestions accepted, and received more money in awards for accepted Sug— gestions. The Creative Education Foundation (University of buf- falo) has been engaged in studies concerning the deliberate development of creative problem-solving ability for many years. Alex Osborn's Applied Imaginationzu supplied the principles and procedures for the creativity course given at the University of Buffalo. The book suggests exercises in such approaches to creativity as deferment—of—judgement and group brainstorming (see page 90), and such tasks as idea 84 production, and idea association. The exercises involve for the most part rather mundane tasks: "Men's canes have gone out of style. What would you do to try to re-pOpularize them?" However, according to Parnes,25 the course has been successful. Research concerning the effects of the course has indicated that (1) creative imagination can be developed, (2) creative problem-solving courses can improve the produc— tion of good ideas according to uniqueness and usefulness criteria, and (3) such courses also produce gains in per- sonality traits. In Chapter V11 the results of the entire course in creativity in music are evaluated. No such evaluation is available for the creativity exercises alone. Yet there is reason for their inclusion. 1f "making the familiar strange" is a technique in circumventing functional fixation, it would seem that exer- cises that demand a strange look at familiar things, situa- tions, and processes, would be of value. And if the ability to cross thought boundaries with ease is_an ability charac— teristic of creative people, exercises that demandgthe per— ception of one matrix through the thought-modes of another would seem useful. "Found music,‘ and "found theatre” are such exercises. If the ability to occasionally cease from striving, to cultivate a relaxed, receptive mood, to consciously leave one's work alone, is useful to the exercise of creativity, 85 then exercises that encourage such receptivity are also of value. "The Solitary Picnic” is such an exercise. The cultivation of the Japanese Tea Ceremony would, incidentally, be another. If interaction between personalities in ”the inter— weaving of differences," and the "interrelating of spon~ taneities" is useful to the develOpment of creativity, than "The Trustwalk" serves a valuable purpose. And if mental awareness and sensitivity to surroundings, are part of the creative personality, then there is a place for awareness exercises such as "Walking Withdrawn," and place for exercises in imaginative perception, such as ”The Stone Game." As a part of the usual university class situation, where :infrequent, brief, and unintensive application would be the Icule, the effect of these exercises would probably be negli— éiible. Yet, there is one source of evaluation that encourages ‘their use. Each student was reguested to keep a journal, Isecording his eXperiences, dreams, and thoughts during the 'tinm he participated in the music creativity course. The journal served as a catalyst to reflection and an orderer of thought. As such, it was considered private. The instructor only saw journals which were voluntarily revealed to him. The element that found its way into most of the journals seen, was surprise: surprise about the creativity exercises. To be sure there was surprise that a college student would be asked to be so foolish as to wander around with eyes closed 86 and salty feet. Often, however, there was surprise at a change of viewpoint or of attitude. The following state- ments are paraphrased from memory. Went on a ”solitary picnic," with a goatskin of "Dago Red," sharp cheddar, and raisins. Found a wild apple tree on a hill above the Wilson estate,--wart apples. Ate the whole picnic like it would go on forever—-like it was my last. Everything fell away from me. Stayed for hours. When I came back the whole University looked foreign. Decided I was looking at it, instead of being looked at by it. The many things we've done (though at the time I thought they were crazy) have helped me become much more aware of sight, hearing, and eSpecially my sense of touch. When I'm at the workshop 1 find that I'm more open and relaxed with the other kids. I try to carry some of the openness out- side of class. Further insight into the way the creativity exercises were being understood was obtained through another assignment. EStudents were asked to draw up a set of Questions, the answers ‘to which would give insight into the usefulness of the class. {Phis is the Evaluation Questionnaire that resulted: New College Creativity Workshop: Evaluation Questionnaire Consider the following questions occasionally, and if you wish, share your answers. 1. Is anything to be gained by anyone by your evaluating the class? 2. So far, what is your purpose in this class? What is this class to your purpose? 3. So far, do you feel different in the class than out? Do you carry out some of the class with you? 87 4. Have your class eXperiences as yet altered in some way your sense of sense? Your sense of self? 5. Some other question? Uraw on your class experiences to answer these: 6. Are we closer to something when we don't see it? 7. if you could double the sensitivity of one of your senses, which would it be--and why? 6. Use one adjective to describe your kind of trust. 9. Consider these concepts in relation to one another: exercise, eXperience, creativity. 10. Consider these concepts in relation to one another: trust, process, evaluation, product. ll. Some other Question? iFhe questionnaire reveals a deep involvement in the class sand in its creative purposes. Notes to Chapter V l. hrnest R. Hilgard, "Creativity and Problem-Solving," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1959). I62. 2. N.R.F. Maier, "Reasoning in Humans," Part I. On Direction. Journal Lf Comparative Physiological Psycholom 1930. 10, 115-143. 3. Ibid., 168. 4. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1963), 78. 5. William Gordon. §Xnectics (New York: Harper and Row, 1961.)! 350 6. Carl Rogers, "Toward a Theory of Creativity,“ in A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner' s and Sons, 1962), 68. 7. Arthur Koestler, The Act _1 Q__a ation (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964). 4h- 8. Frank Barron, "The Dream of Art and Poetry," Psychology EQQQI: 1963: 2(7): 23. 9. Koestler, Act g: Creation, 96. 10. J. Tettemer, I Was g Monk (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1951). 23. ll. Harold Rugg, Imagination (New York: Harper and Row, 1963). 12. Ibid., 80 13. Jacques Hadamard, Psychology Lf Invention in the Mathematical Field (Princeton, N. J. Princeton University Press, 19397.8 8. Quoted ir Rugs: ibid., 9. 14. A. E. Housman, The Name and Nature Lf Poetry, The Leslie Stephen Lecture delivered at Cambridge, May 9, 1933 (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933), #8. Quoted in Rugg, ibid., 5. 88 89 15. Alan Watts, The Way _§ Zen (New York: Pantheon Books, 1957). 135. 16. Ibid., 133. 17. Ibid., 230 18. A phrase used by Beardsley Rumi, quoted in Alex Osborn, Applied Imagination (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963). 320- 19. Rollo May, "The Nature of Creativity," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), 65. 20. Harold H. Anderson, "Creativity in PerSpective," in Creativity and Its Cultivation, ed. Harold Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), 239. 21. Bernard Gunther, Sense Relaxation (New York: The lacmillan Co., 1968), 162. 22. Ibid., 95. 23. A. L. Simberg and T. E. Shannon, "The Effect of AC Creativity Training on the AC Suggestion Program," AC Spark Plug Division of General Motors Corporation," mimeographed report, March 27, 1959. Summarized in S. J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding, A Source Book for Creative Thinking (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 361. 24. Alex Osborn, Applied Imagigation (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963). 225. Sidney J. Parnes, "Can Creativity be Increased?" in 13 Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes :and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, CHAPTER VI TECHNIQUES IN MUSIC CREATIVITY FOR NON—MUSIC MAJORS Games - Improvisations - Situations One method used by groups to produce ideas, and to find solutions to problems is known as "brainstorming." There are two principle tenets: l. The superiority of a group over an individual increases as the range of possible responses increases. 2. The number of quality reSponses increases when all judgemental processes are post- poned.2 When describing the first tenet Parnes likens the addition to the addition of a member with his resources to a group, of a new piece of crystal to a kaleidoscope. Each results in a tremendous increase in possibilities.) The second tenet refers to a procedure for freeing the flow of new .ideas, a procedure used in synectics groups, and described try Alex Osborn in Applied Imagination. Briefly, the pro- cxsdure is to encourage ideas by being entirely uncritical, to be unconcerned with practicality. tCJ reject nothing, Judgement is or any other judicial matters. COrnmon sense , it is, however, deferred, in order to keep “Cyt. eliminated: liieuas from being suppressed, and participants from being lhhibited. 91 This "no holds-barred" attitude is necessary for the beginning stages of a class in creativity in music. The beginning is the logical time for eXploratory and problem- solving improvisations and musical games. These improvisa- tions and games serve to acquaint students with instruments, sounds, and ideas in sound, and provide Opportunities to solve problems in sound freely. The initial improvisations may be suggested by the instructor, but the discussions that follow each improvisa- tion should immediately engage the students in the devising of their own improvisational situations and conditions. All improvisations are initially directed toward some purpose. 'That purpose may be very general ("find out what you can aibout these instruments," or even "make interesting music tcagether"). or very specific ("improvise a piece based on tide contrast of flowing with jagged lines"). A changing Vtariety of sound sources will feed new sound possibilities irfito initial and succeeding improvisations, and prevent tusgging down into sound cliches. Following is an example of how an improvisatory situa- tLion may be used as a creative learning experience. This is ifI‘om taped sessions of the Arts Workshop at Oakland Univer— s3i‘ty, Rochester, Michigan. The sessions were very early in ‘t11e semester. Situation: the class members sit in a circle sur- I:‘Cminding a tape recorder. Each person decides on one body 92 or voice sound as his property. The piece is performed by the class members making their sounds in rotation once around the circle. Purpose: to make an interesting collage of sounds. The piece was taped and played back, and the question posed: how can this be made more interesting? The students, who had become acquainted with the principle of deferred judgement suggested many problems and solutions. Problems were listed first, then each problem was considered in turn for solutions. An example of how two of the problems were met follows. Problem: the sounds came obediently and with dull :regmlarity as each awaited his turn. Solutions: 1. Make it a free-for-all. 2. Keep the rotation but let peOple make their sounds before the previous sound has ended. 3. Let the sounds travel in both directions at once-~at different Speeds. u. Choose to hurry or delay your sound as you choose. 5. Let someone stand in the middle and direct the sounds by pointing with a moving finger around the circle, slow and fast. The solutions were discussed and tested. The free- 4fCIr-all was a cacophonous confusion which several preferred It<> the original. One contended that it was a better situa- 131unds as they choose. In retrospect this turned out to be true most successful answer to the problem. It introduced vatrying densities through overlapping, and silences, through deelayed entries, and gave rise to the opportunity for a brief diAscussion of silence and density in music. The suggestion that the sounds be made to move in con- ‘trwary directions at different speeds around the circle proved CCNfifusing at the point where the directions met. After a ‘3CN1ple of unsuccessful attempts the instructor suggested that the sounds rotate in only one direction, starting with tide; same person, but that a fast rotation be followed by a STLCNN one, both beginning at the same time. This worked well. and introduced the concepts of repetition, canon, and men- suration canon into the game and the ensuing discussion. The class was in the mood to reject the solution of the conductor, having tasted the freedom of the other solu- tions. They felt the result sounded controlled and unSpon- 'taneous, but agreed to test conducted improvisations (improvised by the conductor) in future situations. Problem: The original improvisation had a jumble of urirelated sounds. Nothing led to the next sound. Solutions: One student noted that the problem was amneliorated somewhat by solutions 2 and h to the first puéoblem (let the sounds overlap, or be separated by silence). leiking his cue from this comment, the instructor suggested tnuat perhaps there were at least two approaches to the solu- tiwon of unrelatedness: one involving a consideration of thich sounds fit together (homogeneous ones, heterogeneous (flies). the other involving a consideration of how sounds "may be fitted together (juxtaposed, overlapped). The solu- tions the students suggested followeci strictly along these tlwo approaches, a fact that warned the instructor that he was talking too much: 1. Make all the sounds voice sounds. 2. Make all the sounds voice sounds of unchanging pitches, one to a customer. 3. Alternate voice and body sounds, like: Ahhhh clap: (pause) ummm click: ooooh. . . . 95 4. Use all long drawn-out sounds and overlap them all. 8. Let each one make up his sound to fit with the previous one, instead of determining it in advance of the performance. Again the solutions were tried, and again with varied results. There were hints in the discussions that a few students had enlarged the problem from a simple consideration of continuity (sound following sound) to a consideration of gesture (sounds relating as parts of a larger shape or motion). Not wishing to encumber the games and improvisations so soon with such higher level organizing forces, the instructor did not pursue these hints. Instead, he asked the students to design their own sound games for performance by the class. It was made clear that each piece was to be an experiment or action, the outcome of which is not entirely known. This was in keeping with the need to allow imagination free reign. un- hampered by premature judgements. In order to stimulate imagination it was suggested that the students reflect on ‘the three words used so far to refer to the sound pieces: énames, improvisations, situations. They were further advised Tnaat collaboration, and borrowing of ideas, were not to be lOoked on as cheating, but rather as taking advantage of the irnaginative resources of the group. And to get collaboration 01?f to a good start a brainstorming session was held to find diflvergent answers to the following questions, posed by the 1nS‘tructor: 96 1. To what uses can a leader or director be put in these games/improvisations/situations? 2. What possibilities emerge with the division of the group into several smaller sections or ensembles? 3. How can Special arrangement or movements of the performers contribute to the pieces? Following are three of the students more unusual reSponses, which were performed, recorded, played back, greatly enjoyed, but not formally discussed: Sound Situation by John Ogden The group sits in a semi-circle with a yide mouth. One person is chosen to set the rhythm. [By ”rhythm” he meant "beat.:7 He claps once, he is then joined by the first person on his left who claps with him on the next beat, the third person joins on the third beat and so on around the circle. As the fourth or fifth beat is reached the same thing is started on the other side of the semi-circle. As soon as the clapping meets, the first person repeats the word "baoule" with distinction. The same method is fol- lowed, with each person repeating the word and ceasing to clap. After the word is half way around the circle a new word is introduced to the person who started "baoule." The new word is "oolab." "Oolab" follows “baoule” around the semi-circle. As soon as "oolab" reaches the end of the semi- circle the word ”Kuala Lampur" is introduced at one edge and "Ulan Batar" at the other. As a new word reaches a person he picks it up and stops re- peating the old word. The two words should then switch sides. This is, of course, only theoretical as of yet. The piece then builds to a crescendo. Sound Game by Bob Lieberman The class is lined up in two opposing teams, like chessmen. Each person is given a role to play: White Queen, black pawn, etc. I will call the moves like SQuare dance calling: "White Rook to the right three steps.” As they move each chess piece calls out according to the directions below. The game ends with the killing of a king. 97 Pawns - In a diminutive voice, the pawns repeat their name over and over. When attacked the pawns reSponded with a quiet "oh well." When attacking or being attacked the pawns resume their repeating of the word "pawn." Rooks - When moving, the rook speaks his name, in a deep sonorous voice, "roooooook," when being attacked the rook utters a deep death moan, along the lines of "ooooook." when attacking the rook screams, "victory, rook, victory, rook.“ After his death, the rook no longer participates in the game, unlike the pawns. Knights - The knight, when moving, repeats the refrain "horse and rider." When attacked the knight gives a death whinny, something akin to "ooy vaaaaaay." When attacking the knight repeats "Saint George.” BishOps — When the Bishop moves he repeats "Domini" over. When he attacks he says, ”Onward Christian soldiers." When he is attacked he says, "Forgive them for they know not what they do." Queen - When the Queen moves she goes "The King is impotent." When attacked she whimpers and offers her body, and when she attacks she cries "Off with their head." King - When the King moves he says ”I'm the King." When he attacks he says "Take that.“ When he is attacked and escapes he says "All 0p- position is futile." When he is killed, all the remaining pieces on the board start a great yell of either joy or sorrow depending upon what side they were on. This bit of theatre took quite a lot of rehearsal, but Gaventually attained enough coherency to be humorous and (iramatic. Sound Improvisation by Lilly Baer Divide class into four groups, each with a leader of its own. Have each leader secretely give a sound to his choir (hum, tongue click, or whatever). Have each leader direct his own 98 choir to improvise with the others: direct his choir in and out, high and low, loud and soft. This was highly successful as music, and as a situa— tion, and had to be repeated for those who wanted a turn at being a leader. The class enjoyed the surprise at hearing what sounds each choir made as they entered one after another, and the interplay and battles that took place between choirs. The following two improvisations were submitted by the instructor: Name Saying Improvisation Class members lie on their backs like Spokes on a wheel, with heads at the hub, where the tape recorder.micr0phone is located. Each intones his own name, varying pitch, voice quality, duration and expression (as though he is calling himself, as though he is angry with himself, or disgusted, etc.). Gradually each one includes the names of others in the group in his name singing. Humming Improvisation Class members lie on their backs as in the pre- vious improvisation. When an individual wishes he raises his arms vertically over his body, then slowly lets them sink back down to his sides, uttering a single pitch or non-vocalized sound for the duration of one breath. He takes care to run out of breath, and reach the floor with his arms at the same time. He picks a new pitch each time, and tries to choose pitches that sound interesting with the pitches already being sung by others. These initial improvisations help students eXperiment if! an.0pen and uncritical climate. They are better able to I"113 their imaginations Kc work identifying and solving musical PrOblems, and manipulating musical materials. In the process 99 they brush up against an assortment of musical terms, and compositional considerations such as texture, density, con- tinuity, improvisation, repetition, and canon. Notation A more thorough approach to musical elements should follow. However, more tools are needed in the student's hands to make this approach possible. The most important of these tools is notation, a tool that forces the student to think more Specifically about the content of his pieces, at the same time that it gives him greater control over the results. The intricacies of traditional notation, and the confines of its matrix are not called for here. Instead, various forms of graph notation, together with some aSpects of traditional notation serve the purposes well. ”Free” improvisations are 923 to be discouraged hereafter: if the student can realize his intentions in verbally described games, all is well. But it is likely that he will wish to take advantage of the control offered by notation, and even find it necessary to do so. The approach to notation should be inventive from the start. The student is not being asked simply to learn a set Ifiotational formula. He is to invent means to convey his Thusical ideas. Naturally, certain widely understood con— ‘ientions of notation will be introduced by the instructor, knapefully in a way that will not stifle the student's thought. 100 The first assignment in notation supplies the music, to which the student supplies the notation. Each student is given large sheets of paper, a sable brush, and india ink. An assortment of wide felt marking pens may serve as well. Recordings of diverse kinds of music are played, and *while each is being played the student is asked to make a ”graph-picture” of how that music sounds. If the word '"graph" is used alone the scores are likely to all look .1ike bedside fever charts. If the word "picture” is used salone they are likely to be stormy (or calm) seascapes. (the combination "graph-picture" seems to work best. Three sstudent graph-pictures will illustrate the exercise. Figure I shows a student's graph of a Gregorian Chant. UDhe student eXplained that the lines represented the up-and— clown motion of the melody, and the squares represented the .Ifrequent pauses. The concentric arcs radiating from the ITiiddle of the picture represented the resonant, echoing Figure I Gregorian Chant S ound. 101 Figure II shows a student's graph of the beginning of Metastasis, by Xanakis.5 The student eXplained that both the music and his graph get wider and Wider, then break into tiny filaments. / b v Figure II Beginning of Metastasig, by Xanakis In figure III, a graph-picture of the beginning of Remember a Day,6 the underlying beat is represented by the fence along the bottom. Electric guitar glissandos become rocket trails above the fence, and the opening words of the song are written across the sky. 102 M /W/ 3/! Figure III Remember 3 Day, by The Pink Floyd After each record excerpt the students are shown the original notation, which is briefly eXplained. Then, all the graph-pictures are shuffled together, and handed back ‘to the students for sorting. Students attempt to place all [chant scores together in one pile, all Xanakis scores to— .sether in another, and so on. It is understood that one (does not participate in the sorting of his own scores. In 'this way students gain eXperience in the visual representa- ‘tion of sound. Another assignment in notation concerns a sense of Ciesign and drama as related to timing. To begin with, ‘Iarious prints by Hokusai are each revealed slowly from Ileft to right as a piece of black construction paper is 103 slowly removed. It is as though the picture is being revealed in time, as music is. The Hokusai prints are used because their linear and horizontal composition works well in this exercise. The problem is to find the right tempo--the right speed at which to remove the paper. Too fast may not give the eye time to see all that is happening. Too slow may result in impatience, and a loss of interest. At the same time the students are asked to listen to the picture, and discuss what they hear. In Hokusai's ”A Gust of Wind at Ejiri," from Th; 1g Xiggg 9: £31; (1823-29) (Figure IV), students heard echoed sounds between the foreground figures, repeated sounds (imitation) in the trees, papers and hats, broad underlying harmonies or drones in the raised pathways, and increasing tensions, climax, and cadence in the outline of Fuji. "In Ryogoku Bridge," also from Thg 1Q Xiggs (Figure V), the many echoed arcs-—right side up, and in mirror inversion, augmentation and diminution--were heard as weaving a contra- puntal web about the repeated cymbal crashes of the circle hats, parasols, and heads. For the second step in this exercise students make scores by cutting shapes from scraps of colored felt, and armanging these scraps on a white felt rectangle. The Jresults are “listened to" in the same way used with the I‘Iokusai prints. At first the scores tend to be pictorial, 13ut after some eXperience and experimentation linear and 101+ flamsxom an pcflsg m pmpmm =.aaahm am can; no pmso < >H magmas I «Hi e.) 3357/33.. .5 {3| 22.x), 105 Iii: » : ish3€\\nn¥fiwmx\w\\gko( \ .1, V.» - l _ l i _ _. a . a J - - _ . . :-...%. \ 5.7—: _.|.\__J .NtmwNn‘Nx l . a it §\\\\§x§§t¥\\ §\\t\ 106 temporab qualities predominate. Motives become features, as evidenced in the repeated and varied arcs of the score shown in Figure VI. In Figure VII, the motive (a small grey shape) appears twice in original form, and twice retrograded. The score in Figure VIII is for a dramatic composition using three ideas: lines, shapes, and dots. It has a planned and convincing cadence. Dealing with Musical Elements These are proto-scores, imaginary scores, or rather, scores for imaginary music. They deal with abstractions: time, relationship, texture, design, pitch, all without concrete sound. In the next step the music becomes real; Figure VI Felt Board "Score" with Motives Figure VII Felt Board "Score" with Retrograde Figures Figure VIII Felt Board “Score" for a Dramatic Composition 108 the scores are written for performance. All the abstrac- tions must now be dealt with in live sounds. Each session the students are given exercises and assignments dealing with compositional problems. How can time be controlled? How can pitch be dealt with (given the limited background, the limited time, and the limited playing abilities of the group)? How can timbre, texture, articulation, dynamics, and Space be utilized? How can the course of musical events be organized? These are not separable problems, and should not each be treated in isolation. Each, however, gets its chance in the series of exercises that follow. Examples used by the instructor, and student compositions will occasionally accom- pany the written descriptions. Word Settings. Words are fine catalysts for composition. Their meanings are often evocative of sound atmospheres. Their accents are rhythmically suggestive, and their inflections have melodic and phrasal implications. Broken into phonemes, they offer a Spectrum of forty-six sounds to be juxtaposed, over— layed, and otherwise manipulated for musical purposes. They may be used to control tempo. For those unused to dealing with the ephemeral and intangible medium of sound, words may serve as compasses, anchors, and sails (though to the accom- plished composer they occasionally seem more like barnacles). An awareness of the affective power of words may be encouraged through the asking and divergent answering of such questions as "What is the slowest word you know? The greenest? 109 The loudest? The coldest? The sleepyest?" Certain records 7 such as Extended Voices, and Henri Pousseur‘s Trois Visages . 8 . gg Liege may serve as idea sources for the use of words. Robert Ashley's She Was a Visitor9 may even be performed by the class. But the most useful preparation is probably for the class to fashion word pieces together. The first example fashioned in this manner is a setting of a poem by Emperor_Wu-Ti, in a trasnlation by Arthur haley.10 First the class characterized the poem as "quiet, silent, whispering, Spare, ghostly." It was noted that the sibilant ”s" sounded through the poem. On this basis a Spare instru- mentation was chosen: a choir to echo the "s" sound, a sus- pended cymbal to do the same, Chinese temple blocks for their hollowness, and a piano, played inside. (These were among the instruments with which the class had already become familiar.) It was decided that the accompaniment should be spare, so as not to drown the still poem in sound. In this setting the instruments are for the most part cued to the reading of the poem, so that the reader sets the tempo (Figure IX). To contrast with this setting, the problem of setting a few words in fragmentation was posed. The object no longer was to find sounds to enhance words. It was to use words as compositional materials. For the words the instructor sug- gested the name of an acquaintance: Masaru Kawasaki. One student, who had seen the technique in concert, suggested 110 mcflepom who; xH msswflm Jags?» 330‘ Y2. 33* 5\\.»\ \SE 3% M 3) fig; . D1 a x u E. ASSESS. *0 fixtozafl {\ka (AV\. um 35.3 33$ ~ 33% 333 Ha. _ _ .flu 6 Q :6? fliers ufi: “3.1% at»? #52 3.6% misses. 23.. (Q M k sees ¢539 him k l a m _ A 0v x (\L (\x (.v («H {\v r! anti».— JZ+C mm visor 412* J SCL. uS/I. vii. v ()3. \ 9:»? .v meg?“ ‘Nuuw M 2c? 9* ”fixer?” Exm 333% w his wheeze m I): 33; .5 as: V}; 23L .s .x w a J“ a _. .. .x a a ._ _x E. .| ”(ski I: WE.~FLV~S~Kfls{§b U smash d ~x .6 a. . “Fig? LmVSoQ (W lwwata¥ QSA.Q LK mm Sum (fl, 983:1.0 00*. Hi 00* - fit. ‘ u 0* .. 5Q. 30* 5.1.9.. .03». Ni Cox J uh. so?» - 3+ “Sm skint. 22* 11 l aux. 33.x. .1.st 115 Aumscflesoov Hx muswflm is. :3: .2 a: c 4&3“; :5. 1 (>53? A +1: a .- - .. . m a q .5 x... «as .Q A as is w a 11 ) u Léao 4.42 153 “is. . on 302 M SE: 4 $3. $5 a. 3.33 as)? s3 is? is? m ...... W l. «X x E 44.: 4 «4%. it u Mux 33.x Netti, 15* «W» \o {48% c? x 4‘33 (X? 5353.. «£an Fifi. (”a ZI\< $.ng m m K~f events. Consciousness (it is happening) plus memory (it 5.8 happening again) evokes the design element "repetition of sevents without change," and "repetition of events with <2hange" (it is happening again only differently). Conscious- rmess plus memory (it is becoming) evokes the design element “events accruing to a greater event in time." Time is the field on which design occurs in music. It is therefore necessary that the students have a number of ways of controlling the musical events temporally, by nota- tion or otherwise. Most of these ways are not hard to present. Clock time may be used, perhaps with ten second inter- vals marked through the score, and marked off by a conductor. Phenomenal time may be used, with full scores for each member of the ensemble, so that each can judge his own entries and tempos in reference to the unfolding events played by the others in the ensemble, events he both hears, and sees. A conductor can use his sense of time passing to con- trol the rate of events happening and thus make use of psy- chological time. (This kind of control would be possible for an improvisation such as the one involving pitch and texture described on pages 118 and 119.) Dealing with unitary time, with note values and meter, is more difficult to present, although the following exercise has been very successful: EXplain the meaning of whole, half, Quarter, eighth, dotted note, and rest values within the con- text of u/u and 3/h meter. Hand out a sheet duplicating your 122 eXplanation. Spend some time teaching the conducting patterns for u/u and 3/u meters, and engage the students in a brief practice session in saying notated rhythms while directing themselves. Then compose on the Spot a piece that will serve as an example for their next assignment. This is a piece for voice and syllables, to be notated, then performed and simultaneously directed by the composer. Figure XIV is a student response. (Dynamic markings and triplets had been introduced as a part of the assignment.) UOiCE: 4.). DJI'JgJJ 0| f1); 4 clan garb. te. (PA-ac Ti L‘fsk t‘isk L‘ad‘a-‘l’ac +1 ‘wnr,._———-==::;. *hP ‘—————"“ § 3 3 3 ! 4111,03?) .U.mgg‘);§|ph l, Rdh+¢§ Rd‘d‘ot +3 +k+q («+1‘1‘0g boom \1lSk 5' p 9c P Figure XIV An Exercise in Unitary Time Measurement, by Sue Hirsch In Figure XV a student makes use of the assignment in a piece for small percussion ensemble, and in Figure XVI, 123 for an ensemble of mixed instruments. In the initial games, improvisations, and situations, students had already con- sidered some problems of continuity (What goes together? In what ways can things go together?), and a few were beginning to think of the problem of "becoming“ (How can things be put together to form a greater whole?). The exercises that fol- low concern these greater wholes: ”Gestures," they might be called: sequences of sound events that make a sound idea. These formats are used for improvised gestures using five instruments and thirty seconds each: 1. Brief, quick flurries of sounds occurring at first infrequently, but with ever increasing frequency. 2. Slowly unfolding figures more and more fre- quently intermingled with brief, Quick ones. 3. Frequent quick figures more and more fre- quently dominated by slowly unfolding ones. b. Frequent, even overlapping, slowly unfolding figures gradually occurring with less and less frequency. Students are invited to devise formats of their own, and to compose and improvise, according to these formats. The four formats above concern changing temporal relation- ships. Students may also devise formats involving changing pitch relationships, or dynamic, or instrumental relation- ships. In any case, the motivation for the gestures is a gradual change of relationship. In another exercise students discuss the qualities they associate with the idea of beginning, of "middling," 121+ ’Em le g ##17-*'[' . X , .Sus ckJ '“F' ; ‘ "*9 ¥ qu 4 -S+i(-K MA?» JV .’ ox. " ' 29mm \ u- . x' J .. n H), 3 V”? ’ < F J (Improviu. PEA, '{TMVO’ Av‘mvm‘cs __ 5L. - ' X . x .- Q‘Q/E‘f’loég’ ADL‘ xr1—~xm - ~ J .,I1.- “1 -m l3 k a" TB. 4 " f‘ g x) J -- U\ C A A ‘ J J.C. // - (I 0./—-\. 4’ Ms: ”W0 | 1 2D Lx "' " Q x x x x- 3 0 W ’ “P f‘ 6:; Figure XV Three Part Piece in 2 time, by Viki Davis 125 J} . -_ H,m.i l _i “if VOI'te- ‘lhvoqu ! -——— Card ‘“ . av‘OOtharMmfblyhv‘OOOMW ._ V. .7 Loose , Twwcfl 0 a 0‘ ‘ oa-x Guitar STH‘N] __ KaLflan '1'" a g ‘1 LI (___), J E g J . “”1““ - 3 -- ( .‘l r J SuspmdeJ T T “I“ —: ~ — -———— ___..-“ : .. . («ML ii ‘ l ..—-.*- $\:d€ 3*?C)< O“ 940‘9 0)} CS‘W\‘4‘\.L T - ofv [O ___.,-__ 5 , ‘3 «_w_x-_9_..9.9, m3“ ._ M. -- 7' é We Q 0?? . *- ' 4MP.“ u'flmr ,___:‘, }. UJ ; 1 ? L.“ I] L) _-_,~.-.___ _ _____ 1: ‘ F . w Figure XVI Piece for Uimestore Instruments, by Bryan Thompson (nxcerpt) 126 and of ending. In one model which was devised, a beginning is quiet, Sparse, and tentative: a middle is less Sparse, explorative, brave, and an ending is confident and full- blown. In another model a beginning is brilliant, like a burst of sunlight: a middle is turbulent, striving: an end is rich, relaxed, broad, and peaceful. A third model recalls the familiar A B A. The beginning is quiet and restful, the middle is stormy, and the end is same as the beginning. Uhese models were consequently available to the students as formats for composition or improvisation. The design elements of contrast, and of repetition have played some part in the preceding exercises. One student composition, for an ensemble brought together for the use of the class, combined these two elements in a highly successful improvisation. A flutist, clarinetist, trumpeter, and trom- bone player are each given the same directions: play only these two contrasting ideas, the first much more than the second. m <3 :[dea.]: 6’ ‘ffi 40 ___ __i (whole and half- Sfe/os arr/.7) fl .—-—-—--"";= ' [ i=1 O ' o O V Wm? ' . Figure XVII An Improv1sational Study in Contrasts and Repetition. by Bernard Hommel Idea-11 0' ‘ . 127 It should be clear from the preceding that design exercises are meant to give the student ways to Operate in time, not to present specific formal structures. With regard to time, the exercises dealt with change (commonly thought of Spacially as motion) and with shape, which is the imprint of change on a span of time. Widening the Sc0pe: Tape Recorders, Found Instruments, and Intermedia Tape recorders. The various ways to manipulate sound with the use of a tape recorder, even with the simplest machines, are well known. The use of tape in a class on creativity makes available new sound sources, and new means of handling and controlling material. These include direct recording and playback of sounds one cannot assemble ”live," Splicing of compositions from ”source tapes,” the use of sound-on-sound, continuous tape 100ps, and reverberation. These and other techniques are described in the November 1968 Music Educators Journal.11 Limited equipment and limited lab time frequently preclude the use of several of these techniques. Following are two examples of the use of the tape recorder under such limited conditions. This first example is an assignment. Collect from the drawers of your desk and from your room objects with which you can make interesting sounds. Since you will be recording these sounds, and can if necessary, record very close to the microphone, the sounds can be quite minute. 126 Spend time improvising with the "instruments” and testing mike placement. When you have an idea of what sounds you have to work with, invent, score, perform, and record a piece of music. After listening to the playback, revise as needed. The second example is a description of a poem setting for tape recorder by Bill Allen, Keith Phelps, and Bob Lieberman. This student project dealt with time. A poem was divided into measures. Each measure had the same number of syllables, but a different length in time. The syllables had to be Spoken at different Speeds to fill the measures. Various instruments were used to accompany the poem: several rattles, wastebasket, napkin holder, and the sound of blowing across the microphone. The piece was recorded twice: front to back and back to front. This involved the use of a four track recorder, recording two tracks one way, then turning the tape over and recording two tracks the other way. The effect was almost symmetrical and very successful. Found and made instruments. The finding and building of instruments opens up a new dimension in creativity in music. It involves the ear and eye in recognition of sound producing materials, and the mind in basic acoustical prin- ciples. Students should be encouraged to bring found instru- ments to class for demonstration at any time. Or if the found instrument is not portable, to bring a tape recording, 129 or to bring the class to the found instrument. This will encourage an awareness to the sounds of the environment, and help orient the mind to sound receptivity. The found instruments that students discover come from many varied sources. Instruments from nature that have been brought to the attention of the class include: tossing pebbles on an iced-over pond, where an air chamber has formed beneath the ice; blowing across the edge of a grass blade; the snapping of the cones in Scotch Pines in the Spring; tossing different sized stones into a deep pool. Instruments from junk yards include a great variety of per- cussion instruments from old car parts; instruments from the student's immediate environment include napkin holders (twanging the Springs inside), waste paper can drums, and whistling thermostats. Made instruments of the string variety may or may not raise Questions of the mathematics of tension, thickness, and length, depending on the SOphistication of the instru- ment in question. One acoustical phenomenon that the string instrument builder Should be aware of, is that of resonance. A string is a poor sender of sound, and provision must be made to carry its vibrations to some larger surface (a sound board, or a loud Speaker system) that will serve as a good radiator of sound. The student should also be encouraged to consider different means of string excitation, and different means of changing string length and tension. 130 The maker of a wind instrument should have a basic acquaintance with the overtone series, and the effect of open and closed pipes on that series. Hie should consider the two methods of causing the air column to vibrate: l. by blowing against a sharp edge (as in a WhiStle) o 2. with the use of a reed (as in a harmonica, or trumpet, the lips being the reeds in this case). Making a pitch scale by means of valves or slides raises too many engineering problems for the purposes of the class. The use of holes, or of many different length pipes (as in Pan's pipes) is not out of the question, however. Percussion instruments are the easiest to make. Tuned drums have been made from lengths of plastic sewer pipe with metal heads, and "xylophones" have been made from blocks of wood. Some of the most interesting instruments are somewhat outside the usual molds: wind chimes made of suspended flat stones attached to metal vanes; assortments of bottles, cans, metal fragments and wooden baffles fastened along the insides of a tall wooden box, played by drOpping marbles into the tcp of the box: metal mixing bowls with a quarter-inch of water in the bottom, played by striking the bowl with a mallet, then tilting it as it rings. Intermedia. A further extension of creative thinking in sound is made possible by the collision of music with another medium. One may, for example, paint on 16 mm. white 131 leader tape with magic markers. Fasten the tape into a con- tinuous loop and run it through a projector. Play various records, or improvise diverse music while watching the pron jection, and note how the sounds affect the perception of rhythms in the film. If a dance class is available, invent scenerios such as those described on page 123. Have the dance class and music class realize these scenerios separately, then put the realize- tions together. Compositions for Orchestra Starts out with a soft pitter patter--like rain drops--continuous throughout the piece. After a while of just quick sounds, it is joined by a rolling of drums--background sound--alternating for a few seconds from one sound to the next. —-Silent pause--a loud roar of the wind--keys dragging across piano tuning pins-~high pitched whistling sound-~noise like clatter of steel-- wind goes on-orolling of drums-~voice of the wind with sudden loud clatter. Silence. Pitter patter of rain--end with rolling of drums. This is a word description of a piece for orchestra, proposed by Sue Hirsch, a student who had neither read music nor studied an instrument before taking the creativity class. lt is her first step in writing a composition for the Univer- sity orchestra. (The orchestra will later read the pieces in a recording session.) Students are asked simply to "des- cribe a composition for orchestra that you would write if you could.“ No discussion of the orchestra precedes the assignment, and no reference to Specific instruments is 132 required. All of the descriptions are read and discussed in class with reference to their design (the manner in which materials are related formally, through repetition, with or without change, through contrast, and so on), and with some consideration of how the descriptions could be realized with orchestral resources. After a brief lecture on orchestral resources. and after visits to orchestra rehearsals, the students rewrite their descriptions, this time with more reference to orches- tral instruments. Starts with a pitter patter: temple blocks, cow bells, and string pizz., with distant thunder in the tympani. String players add wind sound with their voices. Flute player plays windy scales. Keys drag across piano tuning pins, cymbal crash--wind goes on--rolling of drums—- french horn or oboe comes in--like voice of wind playing long drawn-out sounds. Other wind and brass instruments join in, but gradually fade away. Ends as it began with light pitter patter and rolling of tympani. The next step is a rough score. Students have by this time had eXperience in scoring for smaller ensembles, have eXperimented with different ways to control time and pitch, and have written pieces eXploring timbre, texture, articula- tion and design, so very little additional information is needed. Some time is given to each student individually to help with whatever Special problems may arise. Some scores involve Specific pitches, and the composer will need informa— tion on tranSposition. Graph scores may be too vague, and need clarification. All scores will need checking for 133 accuracy. When a score is satisfactorifily completed each student makes parts on ditto masters, a part for each section of the orchestra. Sue Hirsch chose to notate her score in 3 time, and to indicate pitch only vaguely, in terms of melodic shape (Figure XVIII). Her "pitter-patter“ sound is well orches- trated: sixteenth, eighth, triplet, and quarter note patterns on the Chinese temple blocks sound with less frequent clanks on the cow bell, and a random patter of plucked strings. When several voices are sounding together the rhythmic counter- point, and the resulting cumulative rhythms move well and maintain interest. The score shown in Figure XIX utilizes unitary time measurement and traditional pitch notation. A continuous trill underlies this score as a drone, while the winds sound a jaunty figure punctuated by an accompaniment of augmented fourths. This project can be one of the strongest and most satisfying experiences for the student. ,It can, on the other hand, be quite frustrating and disappointing. Which of these it turns out to be depends entirely on the clarity of the student‘s concept of his own piece, and the validity of his attempt to realize that concept in score. If he is not clear in what he wants the piece to sound like, and makes his score in a fog, the orchestral reading is bound to be an unhappy eXperience. Since it is unlikely that an orchestra will Spend 1)“ Combs“; “1.3m >...u .mpemmgoso new so sgflsg messes 1 1- A.... A \~ 1 . 1 1 1.: e2v:.s\ {In‘AExaar 21.2.3.4 6: 1-. 1 .- 22.21.122.1r2; - 2.2 2 :2 1 1 1 ~wx mpzmflm 1:11.11. 1 1 _ e e I..\ 1.1.2. I+l|l¢ '22 I'll! 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"p_—4_-Hh- G ex aAr’//A J /\ L, This final task was devised as an originality measuring test, with originality defined as cleverness of response. Scoring is not on the basis of the number of responses judged clever. Instead, the reSponse as a whole is judged on a scale from O to 10. This more difficult measuring approach was made necessary by a peculiarity of the reSponses: some subjects produced many somewhat cleter reaponses, other subjects produced one or two extremely unusual and clever responses. It seemed unwise to score the former higher than the latter merely on the basis of Quantity. Three judges were used. The final score is an average of the 3 scores, rounded out to the nearest whole figure. 168 Following is the response of Subject X to this task: All the symbols might refer to strange (to us) instruments used in the piece. The lines con- necting dots might have been played like a dct to dot with directions indicating both pitch and dynamics: C >~5 If I lit/’A A equals low pitch, quiet dynamics. B equals higher pitch, louder dynamics. C equals same low pitch as A, but with very loud dynamics, etc. The triangles could be for stress or when an instrument was to be played. The dotted lines could indicate a type of sound like articulation or pitches on an instrument. They could indicate a dynamic change. They could divide the piece into sections. The grid might indicate this is the conductor's score. The dot connected lines could mean runs and the WVMNW»trills. Maybe it is played from right to left and (:> is the sign of the end. The judges agreed that all responses that repeated the details of traditional notation were to be considereo commonplace. Clever responses that involved single details vvere to be considered less clever than clever reaponses that Eiffected the conception of the whole composition. Several <>f Subject X's responses were intriguing to the judges. The figure made of dots connected by lines (upper left) doubles 1M1ck:on itself, and therefore is impossible to read on the grixd as progressing in time left to right, or in any direc- lfixln. Subject X's explanation of this figure makes the "dcnabling back" natural and necessary. The subsequent COWmQNt 169 that "the grid might indicate this is the conductor's score" is an unexpected Speculation, and one that enlarge; on the conception of the grid related before. Other responses were unusual by comparison with those of other subjects (the triangles as stress, the large dotted circle as the sign of the end). This subject's score for V was 7. The total score for originality (unusualness) was halved for each student ;n order to make graphic diSplay more convenient. Table 1 Subject X's Total Score :‘3'3 3' N? gmox‘t‘t’.‘ 5x‘ 1? r s ::~es:>‘>§e -.B' 3‘ 3§‘3”£"2~5-53‘¢ '1“. tfitfrgg:.¢\3s‘5 f‘vgécso~3\~z§;¢ h-£ E' x N-Q;s.q}Q‘Q”u Q». 6 Y ‘DuK:I 8: :3 '3 II l4 7 1‘? 111' I0 7 11 4 ‘1' 7 jfiiaJS 33 I 7 ‘4' l0 '7 ‘7 lb '1 Results of the Test This test was given to the nine people taking the Oakland University creativity workshop in music, and to eighty—six peOple taking Oakland University's traditional Music Appreciation course. In both cases it was given at the end of the course. A brief questionnaire accompanying the test obtained information on the age and musical back- ground of the students. 170 There was a difference of average student age between the two classes: 18.6 for the creativity workshop; 22.9 for the appreciation class. In order to determine whether this difference affected the scores the following comparison was made: The median age for the appreciation class was found to lie between ages 20 and 21. The average score of students above the median was 36.3, the average below the median was 38.1. The difference of 1.8 in favor of the younger students was not considered significant. There was also a difference in musical background between the students of the two classes. A rather crude experience index was obtained from each student by adding the number of years he had studied an instrument to the number of years he had taken music courses or participated in ensembles. The average eXperience index for the crea- tivity workshop was 6.h, compared with a 5.1 index for the appreciation class, a difference of 1.3 years. In order to determine whether this difference affected the scores another comparison was made. The median eXperience index for the appreciation class was found to be between 3 and a years. The average score of those students falling below the median was 38.0. For those above the median it was 36.4, a dif- ference of 1.6 points in favor of the less eXperienced stu- dents. This also was not considered significant; thus, difference in experience was eliminated as a factor. 171 In Table II the average scores of the two classes are compared for each of the 5 tasks on the test, and for each of the creativity factors involved. In Figures V1 and Vll these same comparisons are made clearer through the use of graphs. On task one (improving a composition) the members of the creativity workshop outscored the members of the appreeie. tion class by an average of 9.5 points. Members of the ore - tivity workshop identified on the average more than twice as many problems, made more than three times as many elaborations, and scored more than three times higher on unusualness of response. On task two (naming ways to vary a melody) the members of the creativity workshop outscored the members of the ap- preciation class by an average of 15.3 points. There was little difference between the average number of reSponses (ideational fluency) given by the two classes, and no dif~ ference at all as far as spontaneous flexibility was con- cerned. The closeness of these two scores can be explained by the fact that the music appreciation class had been drilled in the common melodic manipulations (change of rhythm, change of mode, etc.), and merely repeated what they had memorized. The members of the creativity work- shop, without this preparation, slightly bettered the members of the appreciation class in fluency, and outdis- tanced them by an average of 11.3 points on originality of 172 Table 11 Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared for Each Task and Each Factor Creativity Workshop Average Scores: TOTALS PER l 11 111 IV V FACTOR Sensitivity to Problems 7 7 Elaboration 2.6 5.7 8.3 ldeational Fluency 14 14 Associational Fluency 7 7 Spontaneous Flexibility 7 7 Adaptive Flexibility 4 4 Ori inality %unusualness) 5.3 16.4 21.7 Ori.inality %cleverness) 6 6 Average TOTALS PER TASK 14.9 37.4 11 5.7 6 75.0 Total Score 173 Table 11 - Continued Music Appreciation Class Average Scores: TOTALS PER 1 11 III IV V FACTOR Sensitivity to Problems 3 3 Elaboration 0.8 2.3 3.1 ldeational Fluency 10 10 Associational Fluency 4 4 Spontaneous Flexibility 7 7 Adaptive Flexibility 2 2 Originality (unusualness) 1.6 5.1 6.7 Originality cleverness) 2 2 Average TOTALS PER TASK 5.4 22.1 6 2.3 2 37.8 Total Score 174 Table 111 Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared by Task 111 AU- ,2; } 1v 7‘: Ar I v z : N4 - - - - - — Music Appreciation class Creativity Workshop Table IV Average Scores of the Two Classes Compared by Creativity Factor 5 lo 15 20 Sensitivity to Problems :g Elaboration ék‘- ldeational Fluency ~-i:*:::>. Associational Fluency {Xv’I’ Spontaneous Flexibility flh: -~ Adaptive Flexibility 5g:;; \\ ““-~ Originality (unusualness) [:32 :::::::== Originality (cleverness) ef/ =4””‘ —4 - - - — — - Music Appreciation class — Average score: 37.8 Creativity Workshop - Average score: 75. 175 reSponse. In a typical reSponse, a member of the creativity faster, and so on"), and so dismissed the rest of the com— monplace manipulations. What followed was a list of very unusual responses, such as “let everyday occurrences intrude upon it," and even "try to eXplain it to someone." This latter manipulation would result in a variation of the idea of the melody, as it was communicated from one mind to ahflfihcfu . How does one explain the Spectacularly high score won by the creativity workshOp for originality-as-unusualness (tasks I and II)? Unusualness of reaponse is the creativity factor most easy to develop. The members of the workshOp has learned to value unusual responses. No mention of unusualness is made on the test, yet the workshop members, through their classroom experiences, had become predisposed to seek unusual answers. The creativity workshop's average score for task 111 was nearly double that of the appreciation class. The dif- ficulty of this task (comparing walking with music, and walking with riding-—musically Speaking) resulted in low scores for both classes. However, not one of the members of the creativity workshop had a score lower than the average score of the appreciation class on this task. Task IV (conceiving a sound object from a visual stimulus) and task V (Speculating about the interpretation of a pretended ancient score) each yielded scores for single 176 factors. The highest possible score for task IV was 18. The judges graded conservatively on this elaboration task, award‘nx no grade higher than 10. Two of the nine creativity workshop members received the score of 10. The highest score awarded a member of the appreciation class was 6. Only two of the eighty-six members of the appreciation class received this score. The reSponses to task V were rated on a scale of cleverness from 1 to 10. Each of the members of the crea- tivity workshop scored higher than the appreciation class average. Only two of the eighty-six appreciation class members, as compared to five of the nine creativity work- shop members, scored 7 or better. The scores of both classes considered together ranged from 15 to 107.5, with a median grade of 40. The t0p seven scores, ranging from 70 to 107.5, were all made by members of the creativity workshop. The lowest creativity workskcr SCOT? was 56.5. the fourteenth highest score out of ninety- L. five scores in all. Ninety-four percent 9: thg memb r gppreciation gl§§§ scored below thg lowest scoring mem;;: 2.1: thg creativity wprkshop. The following graphs (Tables V through XIII) com- pare the scores of each of the members of the creativity Workshop with the average score of the appreciation class. The graphs are calibrated so that the scores of the apprecia— tion class form a straight vertical line (marked "A"). Scores 177 4‘- to the right of line "A" are higher by an increment of 1,, rmmbers pa~line. Scores to the left are lower. Table V Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 1 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems A. _ Elaboration ‘K\\\3K\\\ ldeational Fluency \gp A . - /)P/rt Associational Fluency ; Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility V NR Originality (unusualness) 7“*”“- // Originality (cleverness) Total Score: 107.5 Rank: lst of 95 Table VI Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 2 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems n Elaboration ldeational Fluency Associational Fluency g Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility . . . N\\ Originality (unusualness) :Ea-dF———4* / Originality (cleverness) ——o—=#’”'flrfl—'d Total Score: 87.5 Rank: 2nd of 95 178 Table X11 Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 3 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores Sensitivity to Problems Elaboration ldeational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Associational Fluency A/;/ -4.-- JL.-- ._. .1)... At”- ». -m. Ada tive Flexibilit V\ P y V\\‘~ Originality (unusualness) \\\\~;>9 / ( Originality (cleverness) Total Score: 81 Rank: 3rd of 95 Table XIII Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 4 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems Elaboration ldeational Fluency Associational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility Originality (unusualness) Originality (cleverness) Afr” Total Score: 75.5 Rank: 4th of 95 179 Table IX Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 5 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems f Elaboration ldeational Fluency Associational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility —V\\ Originality (unusualness) Originality (cleverness) V Total Score: 73.5 Rank: 5th of 95 Table X Scores of Creativity Workshop Member 6 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems n Elaboration ldeational Fluency K\\ Associational Fluency in Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility Originality (unusualness) Originality (cleverness) Total Score: 72 Rank: 6th of 95 180 1 Table XI Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 7 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A_ Sensitivity to Problems L4k\7 _-q Elaboration ldeational Fluency Associational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility Originality (unusualness) Originality (cleverness) Total Score: 70 Rank: 7th Of 95 Table XII Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 8 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores 1; Sensitivity to Problems Elaboration < V/,/’ ldeational Fluency' q: Associational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility Originality (unusualness) ::::zr Originality (cleverness) 7 Total Score: 59.5 Rank: 11th of 95 181 Table XIII Scores of Creativity WorkshOp Member 9 Compared with Average Appreciation Class Scores A Sensitivity to Problems Elaboration ldeational Fluency V Associational Fluency ——~— ,_ — Spontaneous Flexibility j I Adaptive Flexibility 1 Originality (unusualness) ::::jf Originality (cleverness) .941” Total Score: 56.5 Rank: 14th of 95 Table XIV A Comparison of the Average Scores of the Two Classes for Each Factor A Sensitivity to Problems _.J Elaboration ldeational Fluency Associational Fluency Spontaneous Flexibility Adaptive Flexibility Originality (unusualness) Originality (cleverness) Notes to Chapter VII f‘ 1. George F. Kneller, The Art and Science Q; creativity (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965). 15-l6. 2. L. M. Terman, "Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousanc Gifted Children," Genetic Studies Q; Genius, 1 (Stanford, Cal., Stanford U. Press, 1925). Quoted in R. J. Shapiro, Creative Research Scientists, National Institute for Person.~ Research (1968), 29. 3. L. M. Terman and Melita H. Oden, "Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children," Genetic Studies 23 Genius, IV (Stanford, Ca1., Stanford U. Press, 1947). Quoted in R. J. Shapiro, ibid., 29. 4. E. Paul Torrance, ”EXplorations in Creative Thinking in the Early School Years," in Scientific Creativity, ed. by C. W. Taylor and Frank Barron (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1963), 182-3. 5. J. H. McPherson, "A Proposal for Establishing Ultimate Criteria for Measuring Creative Output," in Scientific Crea- tiVit . ed. C. W. Ta lor and Frank Barron (New York: John Wiley Inc., 1963), 2 -29. 6. H. E. Brogden and T. B. Sprecher, "Criteria of Crea— tivity," Creativity, Progress and Potential, ed. C. W. Taylor (New York: McGraw-Hill, 196A), 163. 7. B. Ghiselin, "Ultimate Criteria for Two Levels of Creativity," in Scientific Creativity, ed, C. W. Taylor anj Frank Barron (New York: John Wiley Inc., 1963), 30-43. 8. Ibid., 30. 9. W. D. Buel, "The Validity of Behavioral Rating Scale Items for the Assessment of Individual Creativity,” Journal 2; Applied Psychology, 1960, 44, 407-412. Quoted in R. J. Shapiro, Creative Research Scientists, National Institute for Personnel Researchw(1968), 42-43. 10. C. W. Taylor, W. R. Smith, and B. Ghiselin, "The Crea— tive and Other Contributions of One Sample of Research Scientists," in Scientific Creativity (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), 56-58. 182 183 11. Ray Hyman, "Creativity and the Prepared Mind" (Research Monograph Number One, Washington, D. C.: The National Art Education Association, 1965), 16. 12. Ibid., 19. 13. Karl Dunker, "On Problem Solving," Psychological Monographs, LVlII. No. 270 (1945). Quoted in Richard Youtz, "Psychological Foundations of Applied Imagination," in A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962)= ZOO-201. 14. E. Paul Torrance, "Education and Creativity,’ in Creativity: Progress and Potential, ed. C. W. Taylor (New York: McGraw—Hill, Inc., 1964), 88. 15. Hyman, "Creativity and the Prepared Mind," Research Monograph Number One, 22. 16. J. P. Guilford, "Creativity, Its Measurement and Development," A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. Parnes and Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 154- 168. 17. J. P. Guilford, et al., "A Factor-analytic Study of Creative Thinking, II, Administration of Tests and Analysis of Results," Reports from the Psychological Laboratory fig. 8 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1952), l9. 18. J. P. Guilford, The Nature 9; Human Intelligence (New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1967). 19. R. J. Goldman, "The Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking.” in EXplorations 13 Creativity, ed. Ross L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 267. 20. The Minnesota Tests 9; Creative Thinking, Abbreviated Form 11;, Bureau of Educational Research, University of Min- nesota, 1962. Reproduced in full in Lester C. Duenk, A Stggy gi the Concurrent Validity g; the Minnesota Tests for Creativg Thinking, Abbreviated Form VII (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1966), 208. 21. Frank Barron, ”The Psychology of Imagination," in A Source Book 9: Creative Thinking, ed. S. J. Parnes and H. F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 227. 22. E. P. Torrance, "Role of Evaluation in Creative Thinking," Report Qfl Project N2. 225, Bureau of Educational Research, University of Minnesota, 1964. Quoted in R. J. Goldman, "The 184 Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking," Explorations lg Crag- yiylyy, ed. R. L. Mooney and Taher A. Razik (New York: Harper and Row, 1967). 275- 23. C. Burt, Critical Notice, "Creativity and Intelligence," by J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson. British Journal g; ETRQH- tional Psychology, 1962, 32, 292-298. Quoted in R. J. Goldman, ibid., 269. 24. Arthur Koestler, The Act pi Creation (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964), 659. CHAPTER V111 CONCLUSIONS--SUGGESTIONS Conclusions The exercise of creative potential is necessary to human fulfillment. This proposition, first considered in Chapter 1, served to justify the need for an educational approach that emphasizes creativity as an instructional mode. Research concerning the nature of the creative per- sonality, the environment in which creativity flourishes, and the means by which creative activity may be encouraged (discussed in the first four chapters) led to a concise formulation of what a creative approach to education should accomplish: the develOpment of (1) Openness to experience, through willingness to keep Open to possibilities, resistance to premature resolution of conflict and tension, self—trust, and (2) openness to eXpression, through emphasis on doing, a manipulation of the medium involved, and an independence of judgement. Oakland University's creativity workshop in music, described in Chapters V and VI, was designed with this formula— tion in mind. Evidently the course was successful in stimu- lating creative activity. Students who had taken the creativity workshop in music significantly outscored students who had taken 185 186 Oakland University's music appreciation course on a test designed Specifically to measure creativity in the medium of sound. Chapter VII detailed the nature of this test, and the results of its application. There was a Spectacular difference between the scores of the creativity workshop students and the students of the appreciation class. Yet, perhaps this difference was to be eXpected. The creativity workshOp was committed to thinking in terms of the medium, free-play of the imagination, and to self-trust in creative and evaluative activities (as opposed to the acceptance of prescribed values). It might be said that the workshop was designed for the test, and the test for the workShOp. Undoubtedly the results would have been entirely different had the test stressed historical informa- tion and formal knowledge. The difference between the scores of the two groups apparently reflects the differences between» the commitments and objectives of the two classes. The test results give conclusive evidence that there was a difference between the students of each class that affected their behavior as they took the test. Conclusions beyond this general one must be tinged with varying degrees of Speculation. One cannot assume, for example, that the members of the creativity workshOp are now more creative on the average than the members of the apprecia- tion class. It would be much safer to suggest that the mem- bers of the creativity workshop have learned to exercise or 187 imitate the kinds of thought and action that we associate with creativity. They are not necessarily more creative peOple: they may be more likely to reSpond after the manner of creative people. They have learned to value and enjoy this kind of reSponse, and have had direct experience in sound, the medium of response. The stated aim of the work- Shop was not to increase creativity, but rather to give opportunity for the exercise of creativity in the medium of sound. If the test results can be said to Show that the creative approach has become a more actively-used approach, then the creativity class can be called a success. In order to go beyond these Speculations we would need a whole new testing situation. Many variables were unmanageable under the present circumstances. The creativity workshop was, for example, made up of students who had chosen to pursue an education through one of Oakland University's "inner colleges," rather than through the usual channels. They were, from the start, an atypical sample of the student population. To some extent the differences between the scores of the two classes are attributable to this prior difference between the students. Would this problem have been by-passed by giving before-and-after tests to the two classes, so that a compari- son could be made on the basis of improvement in score, rather than simply on the basis of the raw scores? The answer is no, for the prior difference between the students would remain to 188 1 affect the improvement in scores—-as well as the difference in scores. In addition, before-and-after testing would do nothing to alleviate another problem caused by the "inner college" situation. Students in this inner college experi- ence an entirely different approach to education, quite apart from their workshOp experiences. Any difference be- tween their before-and-after scores would reflect their whole inner college experience, not just their workshop experience. Any comparison between the two classes, re- garding improvement in scores, would reflect a difference between the inner college program and the general college program, not simply a difference between the two classes. The only way out Of this dilemma would be to divide the general college class into two groups, matched as nearly as possible as to a number of influential variables. One group would be given the creativity workshOp eXperience, the other would be given the music appreciation eXperience. So far there has been no Opportunity to do this at Oakland University. Because of the great difference in scores between the two classes, and in Spite of the presently unmanageable variables, it seems reasonable to assume that the music crea- tivity workshop had a significant effect on the attitudes and behavior of the students involved. The activities of the workshop encouraged an imaginative attitude, and gave con- tinuous Opportunity for the exercise Of the imagination, both within and without the medium of sound. The workShOp encouraged 189 self-trust by relying on student evaluations; it encouraged Openness to experience by thwarting habits Of thought, by imposing no completed systems or set values, and by emphasizing the immediacy of eXperience through active participation, through doing. It seems reasonable to assume that the students pro- duced more sound-ideas, more unusual and clever sound-ideas, and more elaborations on sound-ideas, as a consequence of having participated in the creativity workshop. Suggestions A composer was out in his garden one evening, inSpecting tomatoes, and musing on the idea that gardening was a relief from composing, and that he gardened to escape from it. For a moment he wondered if he composed to escape from gardening. Then, unSXpectedly, he experienced a feeling of harmony, and his mind shaped the feeling into this formulation: "1 garden in order to learn how to compose, and I compose in order to learn how to garden.“ The harmony stayed with him, but the formulation changed, and became simply "I garden, I compose." What was the source of this harmony? It seemed to result from a unity of processes, involving both the creative process, and what might be called the field of play. Harmony and the creative process. Catherine Patrick describes the creative process as one involving a seQuence of preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification, and gives some eXperimental evidence to support her description. 190 For Lawrence Halprin the creative process involves resources (what you have to work with), scores (which describe the process leading to performance), ”valuaction” (combined action and evaluation), and performance, all interacting in no Special order.2 Others suggest that creative processes are too inter- mingled and complex to be so labeled and ordered.3 Whatever the creative process is, it Operates in gardening and in com- posing, and our gardener-composer discovered it for himself. He has a garden score in his files, and he has been audience to and party to performances in his garden all summer. His compositions show the marks of the pruning knife and the summer draught. He periodically tosses bits of sound-ideas onto his compost pile. Harmony and the field 9f play. The field of play underlies and unites just as the creative process does. It is made up of dimensions (time--Space) manifested in motion (gesture, energy and effort, contrast, in short, all the dynamics Of change). Time and Space, and the dynamics of change operate in the garden, in the composition, and in the gardener-composer himself. The gardener's score graphs times for planting (with a glance at the weather and the phases of the moon). allocates Space (with notes as to the size and needs Of the plants and Of his family), and puts his faith in meteorological events that influence his pumpkin's future. The composer's music score is also designed to Shape time and space through change, and to eXplore the dynamics of change. The composer may consult the I Ching instead of the Farmer's 191 Almanac. His Space may exist as a metaphore instead Of as a concrete dimension. And his changes may be more (or less) controlled than those in the garden. The differences are real, and they may be of great import, but beneath the dif- ferences the same processes unite the two media. And to feel this unity is to sense a gentle harmony. l A pg! fgggg for the creativity workshgp. Gardening ’: and composing are not the only two media so related. Lawrence Halprin relates a Hopi petroglyph, a map for a Sports car rally, a diagram of an Apollo moon shot, and a Paul Klee ren- dition of a score by J. S. Bach, on the basis of the creative processes involved.“ Obviously, creative process and the dynamics of change unite all of the media in which we compose. It is possible that these unities and processes rather than a particular medium, should be the focus Of a creativity centered course. Imagine, for example, that the students devise or find a score that can be interpreted in terms of changes in time and space. In small performing ensembles they work out realizations of the score. One group works it out in terms of sound. Another interprets it as a score for an environment, and realizes it with a labyrinth of cardboard boxes. A third group works out the score as a waterfall made Of rocks on a hillside, with a hose at the top supplying the water. Steep narrow falls, rapids, pools, and changes in direction express the dynamic changes. Or perhaps a dynamic change is given-~not a score, but a verbally presented idea, 192 such as ”two ideas contrast, are played Off against each other but are unified by a common quality.” The students make scores for different media that embody this idea. Per- haps one group scores the idea for male dancers with strong deliberate, but brief motions, contrasting with female dancers, with sustained, strong motions, the unifying quality being strength. Perhaps another group scores the idea for land— scape design, contrasting long vistas with intimate court- yards, unifying the contrasts by constant use of the curved line or surface. A third group may score the idea as a one act play, contrasting two personalities, with a common thread of greed. The activities could engage students in many different media. It could involve them as individuals or as groups or as crowds, in a single medium, or in mixed media, in situa— tions scored for absolute control, or for performer initiative, or for chance. It could involve them in projects Of small SOOpe, such as a design in macrame, or in projects of large SCOpe, such as Buckminster Fuller's “World Game."5 How would such a course be organized? Most logically it would be organized around the various phases of the creative process. There should be times for formulation and orientation toward an idea, times for gathering resources and materials, times for reflection and incubation, times for "valuaction," and times for performance. 193 Ideally, these phases should be simultaneously available, so that the student could use the time in accordance with his current needs. Practically, the course would probably move from one phase to another in a pattern determined by the instructor's understanding of the current needs of the class as a whole. Whenever possible two or more phases would be made concurrently available. During phases of formulation and orientation, ideas would be presented to the students--or by the students-- verbally, as descriptions of processes or strategies, or symbolically, as scores. During a resources phase students would eXperience pertinent films, books, and performances. They would eXplore media, collect materials, tools, instru- ments, or props. During periods Of incubation they would do creativity exercises such as those described in Chapter V. They would study Tei Chi, or go to a circus, or just be left alone. During phases Of "valuaction" they would work out reformulizations Of the idea, brainstorm it, symbolize it in a score, manipulate it in a medium, and evaluate concurrently, or defer evaluation, as the situation warranted. During phases Of performance they would engage in a realization Of the idea in the terms Of some medium. As the class moved through these phases of creative activity again and again, it would eXperience a kaleidOSCOpic variety in the sequence and use of phases. Not every idea would need every phase. Ideas, for example, could end as scores, and never be performed—-a building never built. 194 Changes involving degrees of control over performance could eliminate the need for incubation or "valuaction," or the need for scores. A performance could supply the idea, from which a score could be made, to be realized again in another performance and another medium. The assumption behind this kind Of course would be the same as the assumption that was made in the first chapter: it is necessary that everyone make use of (celebrate) his own creative capacity, for creative activity is necessary to human fulfillment. The aim of this kind of course would be the same as the aim of the Creativity Workshop in Music at Oakland University: to give Opportunity for creative activity. The difference that places this suggested course apart is its focus on creative processes, and its consistent affirmation Of the unity and interrelatedness Of things. The comprehensive nature Of this unity is revealed in the Open use Of the word ”medium." In their projects the students learn to apply the word with equanimity to such diverse things as music, dance, the environment, social relations, architecture, and ritual. And while they apply the common word, they experience the common processes. In summary, the course would wed creative activity with a comprehensivist vieWpoint, a winning combination for individual fulfillment. Notes to Chapter VIII 1. Catherine Patrick, What is Creative Thinking? (New n York: Philosophical Librar ry, 1955), D ff. 2. Lawrence Halprin, The RSVP Cycles (New York: George Brazilles, Inc., 1969), 2. 3. G. Cough Harrison, "Imagination - Undeveloped Resource," in A Source Book for Creative Thinking, ed. S. J. Parnes and H. F. Harding YNew York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), 218. u. Lawrence Halprin, The RSVP Cycles, ibid., 5, 12, 43, uu-u5. 5. R. Buckminster Fuller, "The World Game," in Ekistics, 1969, 28(167), 286- 291. 195 Ll ST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Anderson, Harold. Creativity and Its Cultivation. New York: Harper and Row, 1959. Anderson, Harold H. "Creativity in Perspective,” in Creativity and Its Cultivation. Edited by Harold H. Anderson. New York: Harper and Row, 1959, 236-267. Andrews, Frank M. 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