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1/” WWW“

MANAGING POLICE AGENTS
By

DeVere D. Woods, Jr.

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
School of Criminal Justice
College of Social Science

1 997

ABSTRACT
MANAGING POLICING AGENTS
By

DeVere D. Woods, Jr.

This study examines management issues in police departments. Agency theory is
used to examine employee attitudes and to assess potential compliance or resistance to
policy initiatives. The study focuses on two areas: goal congruence between ofﬁcers and
their chief and ofﬁcers’ job satisfaction. Patrol ofﬁcers, detectives, and community
police ofﬁcers were examined to appraise management strategies.

Data were collected in two American police departments during the summer of
1997. Job assignments and demographic information were compared to scales of goal
congruity and job satisfaction using chi-square, t-tests and regression analysis. The entire
data set was analyzed; then each department was analyzed separately.

Goal congruency with the chief was found to be associated with job satisfaction.
This association holds for patrol ofﬁcers, but was less important for detectives and
community police ofﬁcers. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers had closer goal
congruence with their chief than did patrol ofﬁcers. Ofﬁcers’ level of education had
mixed associations with goal alignment and job satisfaction for each job assignment.
Ofﬁcers’ tenure and time in their current job assignment were found to be strongly
associated with goal congruency. It was concluded that police chiefs need to
reconceptualize management problems and tailor their management strategies to the

characteristics of their employees.

Copyrighted by
DEVERE D. WOODS, JR.
1997

To Julie, Matthew and Kathleen,
for their patience and support.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the many people who assisted me in completing this study. I
begin by acknowledging the efforts of Dr. Robert C. Trojanowicz. He convinced me to
come to the university and taught me about community policing. It was a pleasure
working with him, and I am grateful for the many opportunities he offered me. His
friendship, enthusiasm and vision are missed.

Few struggling graduate students are lucky enough to have a dissertation
chairperson like Dr. Bruce Benson. Whenever I felt the roof had fallen on me, Bruce
would Show me the advantages of fresh air and natural lighting. His exceptional sense of
humor and perpetual optimism guided me through an often bleak process. His assistance
went far beyond the requirements of his position.

I enjoyed working with all of my committee members. Dr. Dennis Payne was a
constant source of support and provided many hours of stimulating conversation. Denny
never talks down to his students, and he teaches lessons in life as well as the curriculum.
Dr. Carol Weissert was one of my ﬁrst committee members, and she continually
challenged me to explore new options. Dr. Charles Corley saved my committee from
ﬂoundering by stepping in to ﬁll an unexpected vacancy. His quietly conﬁdent demeanor
punctuates the importance of everything he says. I also thank Dr. David Carter for

helping to administrate matters.

This research could not have been completed without the unselﬁsh participation
of the ofﬁcers at the research sites. I thank them for their contributions. I extend my
appreciation to Chief Michael Snowden, Lt. Gregory Snider and Phyllis Taylor of the
Cincinnati Police Division for their assistance. I thank Chief Lorne Kramer, Planning
Director Thomas Paine and Ofﬁcer Brad Wilkinson from the Colorado Springs Police
Department. The task of collecting data became productive and enjoyable with their help.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the important assistance of three special
individuals. Diane Steiner somehow achieved the impossible by arranging meetings for
committee members who never seem to be in the same place at the same time. Her
willingness to assume extra work for my beneﬁt is greatly appreciated. Carole Maida
proofread draﬁ after draft of what seemed to be the endless process of writing this
document. Though I sometimes questioned her enthusiasm in marking up every page I
wrote, her assistance and support were invaluable. I would also like to thank Margaret
Bird for lending her expert editing skills to the preparation of the ﬁnal document. Thank

you all.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ x
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Overview of Study ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Background to Research ..................................................................... 2
1.2 Overview of Theory ............................................................................................ 4
1.3 Research Problem and Research Question ........................................................ 10
1.3.1 The Manager’s Problem ..................................................................... 1 1
1.4 Methodology .................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 Data Collection .................................................................................. 14
1 .4.2 Deﬁnition of Terms ............................................................................ 15
1.4.3 Delimitations of Scope and Key Assumptions .................................. 16
1.5 Justiﬁcation for the Research ........................................................................... 16
1.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 19
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21
2.2 Eras of American Policing ............................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Political Era ....................................................................................... 24
2.2.2 Reform Era. ....................................................................................... 25
2.2.3 Community Era ................................................................................. 30
2.2.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 32
2.3 Traditional Bureaucratic Model ....................................................................... 32
2.4 Principal-Agent Model ..................................................................................... 37
2.4.1 Asymmetric Information .................................................................... 41
2.4.2 Adverse Selection ............................................................................... 42
2.4.3 Hidden Information, Actions and Moral Hazard ............................... 43
2.4.4 Monitoring and Transaction Costs ..................................................... 44
2.4.5 Principal-Agent Model ...................................................................... 46

vii

2.4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 55

2.5 Importance of Shared Values ............................................................................ 55
2.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 59
3.2 Unit of Analysis ................................................................................................ 63
3.3 Sites and Sample ............................................................................................... 63
3.3.1 Cities .................................................................................................. 64
3.3.2 Police Departments ............................................................................ 65
3.3.3 Sampling Frame and Sample Size ..................................................... 66
3.4 Data Collection Instrument ............................................................................... 68
3.4.1 Pretest ................................................................................................. 69
3.4.2 Treatment of Data .............................................................................. 69
3.4.3 Data Collection and Administration of Instrument ............................ 71
3.4.4 Statistical Techniques ........................................................................ 73
3.5 Ethical Issues ................................................................... _ ................................. 7 6
3.6 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 80
4.2 Frequencies and Demographics ........................................................................ 80
4.3 Goal Alignment ................................................................................................ 86
4.4 Job Satisfaction and Commitment to the Organization .................................... 99
4.5 Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction .............................................................. 1 11
4.6 Summary ......................................................................................................... 1 13
4.7 Regression Models ......................................................................................... 116
4.8 Using Departments as Controls ...................................................................... 122
4.8.1 Department’s Demographic Data .................................................... 122
4.8.2 Cincinnati Data Analysis ................................................................. 129
4.8.3 Colorado Springs Data Analysis ...................................................... 132
4.9 Summary ......................................................................................................... 136
4.10 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 145
5.2 Conclusions About Hypotheses and Research Questions ............................... 146
5.2.1 Goal Alignment and Job Assignment .............................................. 147
5.2.2 Job Satisfaction and Job Assignment .............................................. 150
5.2.3 Other Research Questions ................................................................ 152

viii

5.3 Conclusions About the Research Problem ....................................................... 154

5.4 Implications for Theory ..................................................................................... 155
5.5 Implications for Police Practice ......................................................................... 1 59
5.6 Implications for Future Research ....................................................................... 165
APPENDD( A
Survey Instrument ............................................................................................................. 169
APPENDIX B
Assigned Values ............................................................................................................... 178
APPENDD( C
Supplementary Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 1 79
APPENDD( D
Correlation Tables ................................................................... . ........................................ 216
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 227

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 — Cincinnati Response .......................................................................................... 67
Table 2 — Colorado Springs Response ............................................................................... 67
Table 3 — Job Assignments ................................................................................................. 81
Table 4 - Job Assignment Acquisition .............................................................................. 82
Table 5 — Gender ............................................................................................................... 83
Table 6 — Race ................................................................................................................... 83
Table 7- Education.................................... ........................................................................ 84
Table 8 -— Job Tenure .......................................................................................................... 85
Table 9 —- Tenure in Current Assignment .......................................................................... 86
Table 10 - Difference in Goal Alignment .......................................................................... 87
Table 11 — Goal Alignment and Assignment .................................................................... 89
Table 12 — Goal Alignment and Job Acquisition ................................................................. 91
Table 13 — Goal Alignment and Gender ............................................................................. 92
Table 14 —— Goal Alignment and Race ................................................................................ 93
Table 15 — Goal Alignment and Education ........................................................................ 94
Table 16 - Goal Alignment and Job Tenure ..................................................................... 95
Table 17 — Goal Alignment and Tenure in Current Assignment ....................................... 97
Table 18 — Job Satisfaction and Commitment to the Organization .................................. 100

Table 19 — Job Satisfaction and Job Assignment ............................................................ 101

Table 20 — Job Satisfaction and Job Acquisition ............................................................ 102
Table 21 - Job Satisfaction and Gender .......................................................................... 103
Table 22 - Job Satisfaction and Race .............................................................................. 104
Table 23 — Job Satisfaction and Education ..................................................................... 106
Table 24 — Job Satisfaction and Job Tenure .................................................................... 107
Table 25 — Job Satisfaction and Tenure in Current Assignment ..................................... 109
Table 26 — Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction ............................................................ 1 12
Table 27 — Dummy Variables & Recoding ..................................................................... 117
Table 28 — Exploratory Goal Alignment Regression ...................................................... 118
Table 29 - Goal Alignment, Department, Detective & Current Assignment .................. 119
Table 30 - Exploratory Job Satisfaction Regression ....................................................... 120
Table 31 — Job Satisfaction, Department, Female and Job Tenure ................................. 120
Table 32 — Goal Alignment Model .................................................................................. 121
Table 33 — Job Assignment by Department .................................................................... 123
Table 34 — Job Acquisition by Department ..................................................................... 124
Table 35 — Gender by Department .................................................................................. 125
Table 36 —- Race by Department ...................................................................................... 126
Table 37 — Education by Department .............................................................................. 127
Table 38 — Job Tenure by Department ............................................................................ 128
Table 39 — Tenure in Current Job Assignment by Department ....................................... 129
Table 40 — Exploratory Job Satisfaction Model for Cincinnati ....................................... 131

xi

Table 41 — Job Satisfaction, Female Ofﬁcers and Tenure in Cincinnati ......................... 131
Table 42 - Exploratory Model for Goal Alignment in Colorado Springs ....................... 133
Table 43 — Goal Alignment, Detectives and Tenure in Assignment Colorado Springs. 1 34

Table 44 — Goal Alignment, Detectives, Tenure in Assignment

and Job Satisfaction in Colorado Springs ............................................................. 134
Table 45 — Goal Alignment in Colorado Springs ............................................................. 135
Table 46 — Exploratory Job Satisfaction Model for Colorado Springs ........................... 135
Table 47 — Job Satisfaction, Tenure and Tenure in

Assignment for Colorado Springs ........................................................................ 136
Table 48 — Job Satisfaction and Tenure in Colorado Springs .......................................... 136
Table 49 — Assigned Values .............................................................................................. 177
Table 50 — Goal Alignment and Assigned/Entry Level Ofﬁcers by Assignment .............. 180
Table 51 - White Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment ................................ 181

Table 52 — Bachelor/Postgraduate Degrees and Goal Alignment by Assignment .......... 182

Table 53 — Six to Ten Years Experience by Goal Alignment and Assignment ................. 183
Table 54 - Some College/Associate Degree by Job Satisfaction and Assignment ........... 185
Table 55 — New Job Assignments and Job Satisfaction by Job Assignment ..................... 186
Table 56 — Long-Term Job Assignment and Job Satisfaction by Assignment .................. 187
Table 57 - Patrol Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ................................. 189

Table 58 — Volunteers/Promoted Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ........ 190

Table 59 — Males Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ................................ 191
Table 60 — White Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ................................ 192
Table 61 — Minority Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ........................... 193

xii

Table 62 — Some College/Associate Degree and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction... 194
Table 63 - One to Five Years Tenure and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction ............... 195

Table 64 — Sixteen or More Years of Tenure and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction....196

Table 65 - New Assignments and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction .......................... 197
Table 66 — Patrol Data Model ........................................................................................... 198
Table 67 - Detective Data Model ..................................................................................... 198
Table 68 — Community Policing Data Model .................................................................... 199
Table 69— Goal Alignment and Race, Cincinnati Police Division .................................... 200
Table 70 —- Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction, Cincinnati Police Division ................. 201

Table 71 — Patrol Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction,
Cincinnati Police Division .................................................................................... 203

Table 72 - Goal Alignment and Job Assignments
Colorado Springs Police Department ..................................................................... 206

Table 73 — Goal Alignment and Tenure in Current Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department .................................................................... 208

Table 74 — White Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department .................................................................... 210

Table 75 — Bachelor/Postgraduate Degrees and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department .................................................................... 21 1

Table 76 - Long Tenured Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department .................................................................... 212

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - Traditional Model ............................................................................................. 34

Figure 2 - Principal-Agent View of the Bureaucratic Model ............................................ 48

xiv

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of Study

This study explores police management issues by examining ofﬁcers’ goals and
job satisfaction. Its purpose is to inform decision makers by identifying potential areas of
policy compliance and resistance in police organizations. Identifying potential problem
areas is important because it provides insight into how policy can best be designed and
implemented.

An economic approach to management is used to ﬁrrther our understanding of
behavior in police organizations. Economic approaches are potentially important tools for
police managers. They are convenient devices that help to conceptualize the management
task. Economic models help to deﬁne what policies and actions are possible and how
much compliance or resistance can be anticipated. While this study will only attempt to
identify potential areas of support of resistance to policy, this approach will help police
managers ﬁ'ame other important questions. What incentives or sanctions are needed?
What is the cost of enforcing a policy? What resources should be allocated to obtaining
feedback? If police managers better understand the complexities of the management task,

they can formulate more successful policies and more effectively implement them.

2

The implementation of community policing provides an opportunity to study
police management practices. Community policing has brought about a fundamental shift
in policing philosophy. When police chiefs implement new programs like community
policing, it is important to know what effect they will have on the organization. Police
chiefs need to devise management strategies and monitoring schemes to successfully
implement their new policies. Important and controversial programs, such as community
policing, provide an opportunity to study police management. The research will address
management issues and important implementation issues for community policing. A new
and innovative perspective of police management will be presented.

1.1.1 Background to Research

The police are re-examining how they deliver services. The introduction of
community policing has prompted the police and academic researchers to re-examine
policing philosophies. This reassessment of police management practices inspired this
study.

Advocates are claiming that community policing is the next evolutionary step in
American policing (McEwen, 1995; NIJ, 1995; Abshire, 1995; Peak, 1994; Rosenbaum,
1994; Norrnandeau, 1993; Barr, 1992; Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990; Mott, 1987).
Some scholars believe that community policing is incompatible with traditional
organizational structure (Abshire, 1995; Wilkinson & Rosenbaum, 1994; Wycoff &
Skogan, 1994; Eek & Rosenbaum, 1994; Peak, 1994; McElroy, Cosgrove & Sadd, 1993;
Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990). If this is true, police managers need to redesign their

management practices.

3

Community policing advocates recommend changing problematic structures and
procedures to give ofﬁcers more ﬂexibility to solve problems (McElroy, Cosgrove &
Sadd, 1993; Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990; Weisburd, McElroy & Hardyman, 1988).
Traditionalists fear that loosening structural constraints will return the police to the
corrupt practices of an earlier era (Redlinger, 1994; McElroy, Cosgrove & Sadd, 1993;
Mastrofski & Greene, 1993; Moore, 1992; Reicher & Roberg, 1990; Mastrofski, 1988;
Bayley, 1988; Klockars, 1988; Kelling, Wasserman & Williams, 1988). A police chief
must resolve these competing demands for ofﬁcer autonomy and organizational control.
When implementing new policy, the chief must contend with these opposing factions and
ﬁne-tune programs to ﬁt into the organization’s culture, The chief must loosen
constraints to bring about change, yet must maintain control of his or her subordinates
(Eck & Rosenbaum, 1994). Chiefs are guided by observation and feedback. Monitoring,
the process chiefs use to gather information, is limited by cost and effectiveness. This
study explores the problems associated with forming management strategies to control
employees’ behavior.

The narrow focus of this study is on areas of compliance and resistance in police
organizations. In that scope, the concern about loosening structural constraints to
accommodate community policing will be addressed. The ﬁndings also have
implications for the larger scope of policy implementation. Despite its popularity, case
studies of community policing show mixed results. Why do some programs succeed
while others fail? Part of the answer can be found in the policy implementation process.

A new policy must achieve a threshold of acceptance in the organization. Change

4

advocates must overcome competing factions and interests in the organization. The

model developed in this study will help us to better understand this process.

1.2 Overview of Theory

Police administration has grown out of the Reform Model as enunciated by O.W.
Wilson. Wilson (1963) inspired a control model for police administration. He based his
teachings on the bureaucratic school of organization. Classic bureaucratic theorists
believe that subordinates’ activity is best controlled through organizational structure
(Perrow, 1986; Dessler, 1980; Weber, 1958). The reform manager treated the
organization as a black box. Little interest was paid to the inner dynamics of managing
police organizations. Reforrners focused on the chief and the anticipated outcomes of
policy. Wilson designed structure and formalized procedures to guide police
administrators, which de-emphasized the examination of speciﬁc circumstances.

Community policing is inspired by other management theories. In part, successful
organizational management consists of supervisors persuading employees to comply with
policy. Rational theories of organization view this problem from several perspectives.
Human Relations theorists contend that motives and goals shape the cooperation and
compliance of subordinates (Barnard, 1962; McGregor, 195 7). Goals replace the
structural constraints relied on by the reform manager.

Others propose subordinates’ actions are limited by the parameters of the
information and alternatives at hand (Cohen, March, & Olsen, 1972; Simon, 1976). Each

of these perspectives, though, considers subordinates to be rational actors who are

5

inﬂuenced by incentives and sanctions. "Any organization must offer a continuous
stream of incentives to elicit the activities that it requires from its members or other
contributors . . . . " (Banﬁeld & Wilson, 1965: 27) Successful policy initiatives modify
behavior by integrating themselves into the organization’s reward and disciplinary
strategies. "A new criminal justice policy will have an impact at the street level (where
crimes occur) only if it effectively manages to regulate or change the conduct of the
individual policeman." (Yates, 1977: 4) Police chiefs are charged with regulating this
process in their organizations.

To place these competing theories in perspective, this study uses Agency Theory
to guide the analysis and interpretation of the data. Agency Theory provides an
alternative management model for police administrators to assess the strengths and
weaknesses of Wilson’s reform model. Agency Theory is useful for understanding
cooperative approaches, as well as incentive and sanctioning schemes. Agency Theory
will provide a bridge between traditional police management philosophies and the
management proposals of community policing advocates.

Control is an important element of both the Reform Model and Agency Theory.
In police organizations, control is often determined through monitoring. Monitoring is an
important element of the police chiefs role and is repeatedly stressed in the traditional
reform model (Wilson, 1963).

While traditionalists emphasize punishment, community policing advocates stress
the importance of incentives. The chief, or principal, may use incentives and

punishments to induce ofﬁcers, or agents, to act in a desired manner. These inducements

6

are tools whose usefulness is generally evaluated through monitoring. However, when
the effectiveness of monitoring is limited, other factors may be more useful. This study
focuses on goals and job satisfaction as indicators of the potential compliance and
resistance. Examining principal-agent relationships highlights supervisory problems and
provides a framework for better problem-solving. Through Agency Theory, we can better
understand the behavioral dynamics in police organizations.

Two of the components of Agency Theory, adverse selection and moral hazard,
are particularly appropriate to this study. Agency Theory simpliﬁes relations in
organizations to the actions of two players, principals and agents. Agency Theory has not
previously been applied to police administration. The model that is developed here,
while unconventional in its approach, is rooted in the vast literature of Agency Theory.
Because most police administrators know little of Agency Theory, some background is
now provided. The brief discussion that follows is developed more fully in Chapter 2.

Organizations are viewed as a series of contracts negotiated between principals
and agents. Adverse selection is the problem that confronts the principal when entering
into a contract with an agent. Agents attempt to present an image that will qualify them
to receive the contract. This may include exaggerating his or her level of talent or work
effort. The principal can never be certain of the agent’s skills and goals until after
entering into the employment contract.

Moral hazard is a problem of unobservable activity. This is a particular problem
for managers in occupations such as policing. Once agents are hired, much of their work

is unsupervised. The principal rarely knows the full nature of the agents’ activities and

7

motivations. Most police scholars and administrators now recognize the futility of trying
to account for ofﬁcers’ activities by counting tickets and arrests. The proxy measures
used to evaluate policing are fraught with moral hazard (Moe, 1984). Police officers,
because of the unsupervised and discretional nature of their work, have ample
opportunity to Shirk.

Both these problems could be partially alleviated if the principal could be sure of
the agents’ goals and commitment to the organization. Knowing agents’ goals does not
ensure you can predict their behavior. Nonetheless, this information is useful to
managers and may be a more meaningful predictor of behavior than what is now
available. If agents share similar goals with their principal and are satisﬁed in their jobs,
they are likely to have larger zones of indifference (parameters of acceptance) toward the
principal’s policies and directives. When agents have larger zones of indifference, they
are more likely to comply with, rather than resist, direction from their principal.

Wilson used job assignments to control the work process. Police organizations
are divided into specialized units. Though there are many subspecialties, two traditional
units are patrol and detectives. These are well-established job assignments in traditional
police agencies. Community policing redeﬁnes the role of police ofﬁcers. Community
police officers perform some of the functions of both patrol and detectives. We know
little about how to effectively manage community police ofﬁcers. Each of these job
assignments will be examined using a principal-agency model to identify potential

management problems. As long as police organizations are structured and administered

8

in specialized units, job assignments will be important elements of management
strategies.

If the managing is viewed from a principal-agent perspective, we can begin to
categorize and predict possible agent behavior. First, we must view organizations as a
series of contracts and negotiations where agents have hidden information and are
motivated to Shirk. Goals are important because they help to diminish the risks of
alleviating adverse selection and the moral hazard of unobserved activity. Knowing an
agent’s goals helps to identify potential management problems. Although principal-
agent theory will not help predict levels of goal alignment for different job assignments,
knowing the level of goal alignment clariﬁes the management task. Knowing agents’
goals helps to alleviate the problem of asymmetrically distributed information. If the
manager and subordinate are in close goal agreement, the manager knows that incentives
being offered are sufﬁcient, and extensive monitoring may not be necessary. If there is
high goal disparity between managers and subordinates, more incentives, sanctions, and
closer monitoring may be in order. Managers can then deﬁne supervisory challenges as
problems associated with inducing desired behavior.

Principal-agent theory may be more helpﬁrl in predicting levels of job satisfaction.
Many factors can affect job satisfaction. Ofﬁcers’ levels of job satisfaction may stem
from their goal congruence with their chief. Close goal congruence may elevate job
satisfaction by fostering a feeling of working toward a common cause. High levels of
goal disparity may lower job satisfaction if subordinates feel frustrated because their

efforts are directed toward unimportant activities. Subordinates may have high levels of

9

job satisfaction if they feel that incentives (pay, status, opportunity to Shirk, etc.) fully
compensate their abilities and work effort. If incentives excessively compensate (an
example of classic adverse selection) the employee, he or she should have high levels of
job satisfaction.

Applying this to police organizations, the model would predict detectives to have
high levels of job satisfaction and patrol officers to have low levels of job satisfaction.
Community police ofﬁcers should fall somewhere in between. Detectives have high
levels of career status and greater discretion, possess signiﬁcant amounts of conﬁdential
information, and are less identiﬁable in public. In short, detectives receive many
incentives and have more opportunity to Shirk. Patrol ofﬁcers are more closely monitored
by rules, report writing requirements, radio dispatch and are readily identiﬁed in public by
their uniforms and marked patrol cars. Success is often deﬁned as transferring out of
patrol to a new job assignment. Patrol ofﬁcers enjoy fewer organizational beneﬁts and
have less opportunity to Shirk. Community police ofﬁcers have fewer constraints than
patrol ofﬁcers, but more than detectives. Community police ofﬁcers receive more
beneﬁts than patrol, but fewer than detectives. They should be more able to Shirk than
patrol officers and less able to Shirk than detectives.

Ifdifferences are found between job assignments, then police chiefs can devise
more appropriate management techniques. Knowing what job assignments are more
likely to foster compliance or resistance to policy direction is important for developing
effective management strategies. It allows managers to formulate more efﬁcient and

effective incentives, sanctions, and monitoring schemes.

10

1.3 Research Problem and Research Questions

American police chiefs direct and control complex organizations and oversee a
variety of social control agents. These agents, though, may have diverse and competing
objectives. New programs, such as community policing, must be integrated into this
organizational milieu. Once a program is in place, the executive needs to monitor activity
to determine if the desired results are being achieved. Unfortunately, monitoring does not
deliver perfect information to the chief.

This brings us to the purpose of our research. The ﬁrst question is derived from
Wilson’s belief that the work process can be controlled through job specialization and the
principal-agent model’s concern for negotiating compliance from subordinates. Do the
goals and values of officers diﬂer across job assignments in police organizations? If we
can determine subordinates’ goals, the asymmetrical distribution of information is
reduced. Administrators improve their knowledge base and can develop more effective
management strategies.

The second research question is also derived from Wilson’s emphasis on
specialized job assignments, his concern for high morale, and principal-agent model’s
recognitions of shirking, and the negotiated nature of employment contracts. Do levels of
job satisfaction and commitment to the organization diﬂer across job assignments in
police organizations? Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are closely related
indicators of job morale and are often measured together (Miller, 1991). If we know the

levels of employees’ job satisfaction, we can better evaluate incentive schemes.

11

This study examines the relationship between job assignment and potential areas
of policy resistance in police organizations. Ofﬁcers’ attitudes and perceptions are
measured and analyzed to detect differences associated with job assignments. Three
typical job assignments in police departments are examined: patrol/trafﬁc, community
policing, and detective/investigation. If police ofﬁcers comprise a single research
population, we can expect these three groups will share similar attitudes. Attitudes of
officers and their levels of commitment to the organization are measured and compared.
If a signiﬁcant variance is found among these groups, it may indicate a need for different
management schemes.

1.3.1 The Manager’s Problem

The purpose of this study is to help police chiefs devise more efﬁcient and
effective management schemes. In the process, resources can be more effectively utilized
if chiefs better understand the motivations of their employees. This study will attempt to
separate areas that may need increased monitoring from areas that require less
monitoring. It will provide additional understanding of employees’ potential actions not
revealed by monitoring.

Traditional police administrative theory separates job assignments into semi-
autonomous units, but often policy is implemented as if organizational members are
cohesively uniform. If areas of potential compliance and resistance can be identiﬁed,
police chiefs can more effectively design policy and manage implementation. Examining
this issue as a principal-agent problem helps to conceptualize the complexities involved

in managing police organizations.

12

Each action a manager takes consumes resources. Police chiefs, as public
managers, must work within the restraints of their budgets. They are charged with
guiding and directing their organizations through recurring, as well as unexpected,
problems. Effective managers will allocate sufﬁcient resources to solve the problem at
hand. Their objective is to spend only the resources necessary to resolve the matter.
Managers who expend more than needed to solve a problem are inefﬁcient. Inefﬁcient
managers have fewer resources to allocate to organizational functions and problem
solving. In short, the objective is to reduce managers’ transaction costs.

Police chiefs are especially aware of the importance of controlling behavior
(Goldstein, 1977, 1994; Eek & Rosenbaum, 1994; Alpert & Dunham, 1992; ; Kelling,
Wasserman & Williams, 1988; J. Wilson, 1978; O. Wilson, 1963). Chiefs know they
must appear in control of their organization if they are to maintain their jobs. Where
monitoring is inefficient, the police manager has little available to guide decision making.
Some managers may over monitor their employees to stave off the appearance they lack
control. This wastes resources.

In addition to being efﬁcient, management strategies must be effective. A chief’s
concern for maintaining control narrows his or her policy alternatives. Fearing the loss of
organizational stability, a chief may shun programs that lack traditional control structures.
A chief, concerned with cost and effective monitoring, may forgo unproven programs.
This hampers effectiveness.

A chief must design effective and efﬁcient management strategies. Monitoring

increases transaction costs. Over monitoring consumes excessive resources and decreases

13

efficiency. Inappropriate incentives also reduce efﬁciency. To be effective and efﬁcient,
the management strategy should be tailored to the organization’s task and employees’

characteristics.

1.4Methodology

This section presents a brief overview of the methodology and models used in the
study. The model is more fully developed in Chapter 2. A detailed discussion of the
research design is found in Chapter 3.

Chiefs may mistakenly believe that all employees require similar supervision or
management strategies. Tasks, working conditions and personal characteristics may create
the need for different management schemes. This study will examine common job
assignments in police organizations - patrol/trafﬁc ofﬁcers, detectives/investigators and
community police ofﬁcers - to determine their potential for compliance or resistance to
policy direction.

Patrol and trafﬁc officers will serve as a bench mark for organization personnel.
For much of the twentieth century, police reformers have used various monitoring
techniques to control patrol ofﬁcers’ behavior. Police departments have the most
experience trying to regulate this group. Comparing the other groups to patrol/trafﬁc will
give perspective to the management problem.

Detectives and investigators, in a traditional department, are bestowed higher
status than patrol ofﬁcers (Walker, 1983; Goldstein, 1977). They often have greater

discretion and are subjected to fewer structural constraints. In addition, the nature of their

r4

assignments allows them to circumvent aspects of the monitoring system. This increased
freedom is highly valued by ofﬁcers. Many ofﬁcers seek assignment to a detective or
investigative unit for this greater ﬂexibility and status. This group will help us
understand the problems managing elite units.

Less is known about the problems managing community police ofﬁcers. It is
uncertain how community police ofﬁcers ﬁt into the management system. The
philosophy of community policing requires that some decision making be moved down
the hierarchy to these lower-level employees. It advocates giving ofﬁcers greater
autonomy and ﬂexibility. However, it is uncertain what effect this has on organization
control. More information is needed to determine the most effective management scheme
for this group.

1.4.1 Deg Collection

This is a study of police ofﬁcers from two large US. departments engaged in
community policing. These departments have distinct job classiﬁcations for community
police officers, patrol ofﬁcers, and investigators or detectives. Data are collected using
self-administered questionnaires. The data consist of officers’ views about policing
issues, their perception of their chief’s views on these issues, and their level of job
satisfaction and commitment to the organization. Patrol and trafﬁc ofﬁcers are used as a
base line to compare detectives and community police ofﬁcers. Attitudinal responses of
each group are compared to determine differences associated with job assignment.

The ﬁrst step is to determine if job assignment is associated with a police ofﬁcer’s

attitudes and attachment to the organization. It makes little difference if job assignment

15

inﬂuences attitudes, or if ofﬁcers with particular attitudes seek particular job assignments.
The management problem is the same. We need to know if ofﬁcers’ job assignments
affect the principal-agent relationship. Do ofﬁcers differ in their level of goal congruence
with the chief? Do they have the same level of commitment to the organization? Once
we know the answers to these questions, we better understand the problems that confront
managers. If ofﬁcers in these job assignments differ, it may be inefﬁcient and ineffective
to treat them as if they were the same.

1.4.2 Deﬁnition of Terms

Community policing is a philosophy of client-oriented service delivery aimed at
improving police effectiveness and accountability. For a program to qualify as
community policing, it should contain these elements: community partnership, problem
solving, decentralized tasks with responsibility and accountability for outcomes resting

with beat ofﬁcers.

To simplify the analysis, the policing function will be condensed into the role of
two actors: principals and agents. In Agency Theory, the principal is a person that
contracts a service. The principal employs the services of others to accomplish

objectives. In this study, the principal is the chief of police.

An agent is the person who is contracted to perform a task. In this study, agents
are line-level officers. Agents will have job assignments such as patrol and trafﬁc,

detective and investigator, and community police ofﬁcer.

16

1.4.3 Delimitations of Scop_e and Key Assumptions

This study examines police ofﬁces’ attitudes and their perceptions of goal
congruence with their chief. Perceptions are measured - not actual behavior. There is no
attempt to evaluate the validity of these perceptions. It is assumed that increased goal
congruence and higher levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment will lead
to more compliant workers. It is presumed that perceptions guide decision making and

resistance to policy.

To make this study useful for scholars and police administrators interested in
community policing, it was necessary to ensure that community policing is a valid
variable. The sample is drawn from two police organizations. Each organization was
selected for its commitment to community policing. The value of their programs is
recognized and ﬁnancially supported by the US. Department of Justice. Nevertheless, as
with any case study data, one must be cautious in generalizing these ﬁndings to other

police organizations.

1.5 Justiﬁcation for the Research

Since its inception in the early 19808, the popularity of community policing has
continued to grow. Community policing has been proclaimed the future of American
policing ( Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1994; Harrison, 1994; Rosenbaum, 1994;
Wilkinson & Rosenbaum, 1994; Norrnandeau, 1993; National Institute of Justice, 1988-

1993; Moore & Trojanowicz, 1988; Barr, 1992; Mott, 1987). Presidents Bush and

17

Clinton included community policing as an important element of US. crime policy. This
stimulated the implementation of community policing throughout the country. Such a
growing phenomenon places more pressure on police chiefs to implement community
policing in their departments. However, police chiefs know little about how to effectively
manage ofﬁcers involved in these programs.

Theories of police administration are shaped by urban political thought. In the
recent past, reformers have focused on technocratic job deﬁnition and structural
constraints to control employees. Currently, public administrators are being encouraged
to move beyond regulating organizational process. The reinventing government
movement (National Performance Review, 1993; Osborne & Gaebler, 1992) has altered
our perception of government performance. Increased attention is focused on
productivity and outputs (Boschken, 1994; Walton, 1986; Peters & Waterman, 1982).
Managers are now being judged on the quality of the goods and services produced.

As this new political theory shapes our expectations, police chiefs will need to
shift their focus from controlling behavior to improving productivity. Advocates claim
community policing will address these new demands. Police chiefs face increasing
pressure to innovate, but are given little direction. Chiefs will need to ensure
management strategies are appropriate for these new policies. Can chiefs maintain
control of their organization if employees are freed from structural constraints? To
address this concern, we need to know more about the potential for policy compliance

and resistance of various actors within police departments.

The recent police effort to manage and control employees through organizational
structure is one of many possible strategies. Behavior can also be managed and
controlled through internalized values. However, the importance of values is often

overlooked by policy makers accustomed to relying on structural controls.

Values have many components and help to determine a person’s actions. They are
often the motivation for individuals’ behavior. Values are difﬁcult to identify and to
measure. Without a true measure, a surrogate must be found. Values can be expressed in
an individual’s goals and his or her satisfaction with surroundings. In this study, ofﬁcers’
level goal alignment with their police chief and their level of job satisfaction are used as
substitute measures of motivation or propensity to comply with or resist policy. If we can
identify a person’s goals and job satisfaction, we can better determine how to formulate

policy and monitor its implementation.

We cannot assume that management schemes are equally effective or necessary
for all employees. An individual’s place in the organization may affect his or her level of
resistance or compliance. If we compare police ofﬁcers in different job assignments, we
may more fully understand organizational dynamics. By examining levels of
organizational commitment and goal alignment associated with job assignments, we are
better able to assess management requirements. This study will help identify areas of
policy compliance and resistance in various job assignments throughout police

organizations. It brings to police administration a new model for developing more

19

effective management schemes. This research will also address some of the concerns

about managing community police ofﬁcers.

1.6 Conclusion

By examining police ofﬁcers’ goals and levels of job satisfaction, we can
formulate better management strategies. The implementation of community policing
presents an opportunity to examine the concerns critics have regarding maintaining
control of police organizations, as well as other important management issues. When
these problems are conceptualized, using a principal-agent model, the dynamics of

behavior in police organizations are better understood.

This chapter presented an overview of the study and its design. It introduced the
research problem and research questions. A brief methodology was presented with an
overview of the principal-agent model; key terms were deﬁned, and the limitations of the

research discussed. Finally, the importance of this research was discussed.

This study will follow the traditional order of presentation for dissertation
research. Chapter 1 has introduced the research problem and provided an overview of
the study. Chapter 2 reviews the literature on police administrative theory and Agency
Theory. Efforts to reform policing are examined, and a principal-agent model is
developed. The traditional model of police administration is then examined, using the

principal-agent model. Chapter 3 details the study’s design and methodology.

20

Hypotheses, data collection and statistical procedures are discussed. Chapter 4 discusses
the research ﬁndings, and their implications; it begins the construction of a predictive
model. In Chapter 5, conclusions are drawn from the data, and implications for future

research are discussed.

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Police managers have long struggled to monitor and control the actions of
enforcement agents. Their management styles shift with political trends and ideology.
The following discussion traces the development of police administrative theory and
suggests how it can be improved. This presentation will address how police management
theory came to its current state, its shortcomings, and the development of a new
management model.

It is important to understand an existing system of management before suggesting
a replacement model. It makes little sense to try to replace a system you know little
about. This is particularly true in policing. Police chiefs differ from many other public
administrators. Police administrators tend to be conservative in their approach to
management. Most have worked their way up from line-level policing, advancing
through the organization they now direct. Many are college educated, with a large
number of them completing their education while working as police ofﬁcers. They are
not an elite cadre of public administrators trained in universities before being sent into the
ﬁeld. Much of what they know of management was learned on the job. The police

management system is second nature to them, and it inﬂuences how they conceptualize

2l

22

problems. Police managers have shown little interest in suggestions from those who have
not shown that they thoroughly understand policing. To inﬂuence these administrators,
one must demonstrate that one thoroughly understands what they are trying to do.
Suggestions must be viable.

The presentation that follows will attempt to address the concerns of police
administrators. It begins with a brief history of how the current theory of police
administration developed. This section will explain how police management arriVed at its
current state, why police management systems do what they do, and the new challenges
police administrators face. Next, a model of the traditional administrative system is
constructed to demonstrate how it is supposed to operate, along with some of its
shortcomings. This section will explain why police administrative systems do not work as
well as intended. Finally, a new model of police administration is described. The new
model is used to re-examine the traditional model and show its inherent deﬁciencies.

This section will explain advantages of a new model for police management.

2.2 Eras of American Policing

George Kelling and Mark Moore constructed a typology of American police
history by examining the dominant strategies of policing (1988a, 1988b). They
delineated three eras: political, reform and community. The political era, from the
introduction of policing in the 18403 to the 19005, was characterized by a closeness to
politicians and political machines. During this period, policing was fraught with

corruption. The reform era, 19305 to the late 19703, reﬂected the Progressive

23

Movement’s efforts to rationalize government through bureaucratic professionalism.
Reformers attempted to centralize power in the ofﬁce of the chief. The community era,
beginning in the late 19708, seeks to instill a client-centered approach in policing.
Decision making is transferred to lower levels in the organization.

Though widely cited, Kelling and Moore’s typology has drawn criticism. The
critical views are best represented by Kappeler (1996) who says, “[t]his presentation of
police history is far too neat, isolated and indefensible to the intellectual.” (4) In addition,
he faults it for being simplistic, linear and too deﬁned in paradigmatic shifts. Critics have
called Kelling and Moore’s work an invented history (Kappeler, 1996; McDonald, 1993).

These critics are demanding more from these typologies than the authors intended.
Kelling and Moore did not propose their typologies to be so conﬁning. They argue that
their typology consists of the themes that dominated policing within general time periods.
In addition, these themes coincide with generally accepted theories of urban politics (See
Osborne & Gaebler, 1992; Judd & Kantor, 1992; Yates, 1977; Banﬁeld & Wilson, 1965;
Lynd & Lynn, 1956).

Kelling and Moore’s typology is a useful tool for analyzing the history of police
administrative theory. By examining the political era, we can begin to understand what
reformers were attempting to overcome. Examining the reform era gives us a better
understanding of the dominant theory of police administration. Examining the
community era will identify new challenges that confront police administrators. When
we have ﬁnished, we will be better able to evaluate a new model for police

administration.

24

2.2.1 Political Era

Formal police organizations emerged during the political era. Patronage and
political inﬂuence were common in organizations that were staffed and maintained by
political machines (Kelling & Moore, 1988a; Walker, 1983; Auten, 1981). Corruption in
these organizations ﬂourished, while standards were few (Dempsey, 1994; LaGrange,
1993; Stamper, 1992; Alpert & Dunham, 1992; Kelling & Moore, 1988a, 1988b; Knott &
Miller, 1987; Walker, 1983, 1984; Eldedono, Coffey & Grace; 1982; Auten, 1981; Carte
& Carte, 1975). The ofﬁcers were closely tied to their ward politicians (Kelling &
Moore, 19883), the mayor (Flinn, 1973), and political factions (Walker, 1977). Police
' ofﬁcers owed their jobs and gave their allegiance to the ward boss and police captain that
chose them (Uehida, 1993; Alpert & Dunham, 1992). In return, the police helped their
ward politicians stay in power (Dempsey, 1994; Holden, 1992; Hartrnann, 1988; Knott &
Miller, 1987; Chapman & St. Johnston, 1962) by ﬁnding supportive voters, discouraging
supporters of opponents, and helping to rig elections (Kelling & Moore, 1988b; Knott &
Miller, 1987; Astor, 1971). Officers needed to make a sufﬁcient contribution to the
political party in power to be promoted to higher ranks (Astor, 1971). Precinct captains
held the real power in these organizations, while police chiefs had no way to effectively
supervise or control officers (Walker, 1977, 1983).

Chiefs used many devices to manage and monitor employees. Uniforms were
introduced to improve performance (Astor, 1971). Ofﬁcers were ﬁned or transferred for

their indiseretions (Astor, 1971). Over the objections of ofﬁcers, call boxes were

25

installed to reduce shirking (Walker, 1977; Astor, 1971). Efforts to end corruption and
bring police organizations under control of the police chief grew into the reform era.

2.2.2 Reform Era

The Progressive Movement sought to reform local government and governmental
agencies such as the police (Toch, 1997; Patterson, 1995; Kelling & Bratton, 1993; Hunt
& Magenau, 1993; Cole, 1989; Knott & Miller, 1987; Walker, 1977). Though the
Progressives had little direct effect on police organizations, their efforts did spawn the
Reform Model of policing (Uehida, 1993). Reform strategies were technical and
mechanistic (Stamper, 1992). The Reform Model, emanating from the work of Richard
Sylvester and August Vollmer, came to fruition through the work of reformers such as
O.W. Wilson (Kelling & Moore, 1988b). Reform policing began in the 19303, thrived in
the 19503 and 19603, and began to decline in the late 19703 (Kelling & Moore, 1988a).

Sylvester, as superintendent of the Washington, DC. Police Department and
president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), encouraged
professional development (Alpert & Dunham, 1992; Walker, 1983). The IACP called for
civil service, centralization and strong executive leadership (Patterson, 1995). The thrust
of Sylvester’s efforts was to improve the image of policing (Walker, 1977). Sylvester’s
concern for professional development suggests an interest in internalizing values as a
method of control. However, Sylvester focused his reforms on the chief rather than line-
level ofﬁcers.

Vollmer, as chief of the Berkeley Police Department, expanded Sylvester’s ideas

to develop a strategy that stressed education (Alpert & Dunham, 1992). Vollmer came to

26

symbolize an idealized model of professional policing (Dempsey, 1994; Klockars, 1980).
He envisioned the police being deeply involved in the community, as rigorously trained,
highly skilled crime ﬁghters who used science and technology to solve social problems
(Carte & Carte, 1975; Klockars, 1980). He sought middle-class, college-trained ofﬁcers
(Dempsey, 1994; Walker, 1983) who would remove policing from the lower-class,
immigrant culture (Carte & Carte, 1975). Vollmer admired the organization skills of the
professional army corps, but felt the military model to be inappropriate for police work
(Carte & Carte, 1975). He feared it would inhibit ofﬁcers from a close relationship with
the community.

Vollmer took a step toward utilizing goals and internalized values to control
police behavior. He recruited middle-class officers in an effort to eliminate the values of
the immigrant class. His advocacy of college education for police officers was
revolutionary for its time. He believed that college educated middle-class ofﬁcers would
have the skills and values to elevate policing.

As chief of Wichita and Chicago, as well as dean of the School of Criminology at
the University of California (Alpert & Dunham, 1992; Uchida, 1993; Walker, 1983),
O.W. Wilson reﬁned Vollmer’s ideas. Wilson, a prote'gé of August Vollmer, became a
leading spokesman for the Reform movement of the 19503 and 19603 (Toch, 1995;
Uchida, 1993; Walker, 1977, 1984, 1993; Wrobleski & Hess, 1993; Cole, 1989;
Klockars, 1980; Bopp, 1977; Carte & Carte, 1975). Wilson relied on bureaucratic
structure and the principles of scientiﬁc management to shape his management

philosophy. His book Police Administration became the bible of police management

27
(Dempsey, 1994; Cole, 1989; Walker, 1983, 1984). “The Wilson model emphasized the
efﬁcient use of technical skills and equipment to suppress criminal acts and became more
detached from the community than Vollmer’s Berkeley model.” (Carte & Carte, 1975: 3)
The reform philosophies of O.W. Wilson greatly inﬂuenced police managers.

Wilson hoped to bring legitimacy to policing by transforming police departments
into efﬁcient organizations carefully controlled by the chief (Walker, 1993; O. Wilson,
1963). It is important to note, Wilson sought to maximize managerial efﬁciency
(Dempsy, 1994). “Wilson believed that corruption was the by-product of poor
organization, scant planning, and tangled lines of command.” (Holden, 1992: 69)

Wilson felt that:

. . . line police ofﬁcers must be closely supervised, the subject of massive

policy pronouncements limiting their discretion, and consistently

threatened with punishment lest they misbehave. Wilson held that

policemen, if not closely controlled, would avoid work, engage in

extralegal behavior, and would subvert the administration’s goals. (Bopp,

1977: 134)

Through strict discipline, the chief could build the esprit de corps necessary for a well
functioning police organization (Wilson, 1963).

Wilson thought it futile to train subordinates when greater returns were achieved
training command ofﬁcers (Carte & Carte, 1975; Archambeault & Weirrnan, 1983).

He believed charismatic leaders could be developed from intelligent, contagiously

enthusiastic, forceful men. These new leaders would use all the available talent in their

organization (Wilson, 1963).

28

Under O.W. Wilson, police administrators retreated from Vollmer’s suggestion of
managing through internalized values. For Wilson, structure, specialization, rules and
close supervision were the appropriate mechanisms of control. He believed that job
assignment could be used as a mechanism of control. He felt if he could focus the scope
of ofﬁcers’ work, he could control ofﬁcers’ behavior.

The tools of the reform manager were bureaucratic procedure and scientiﬁc
management (Kelling & Bratton, 1993; Moore & Stephens, 1991; Kelling & Moore,
1988a, 1988b; Harring, 1984; Archambeault & Weirman, 1983; Walker, 1977; Wilson,
1963). O.W. Wilson saw these as the most effective mechanisms to control police
organizations (Uchida, 1993; Kelling & Bratton, 1993; Manning, 1992). Reformers tried
to minimize ofﬁcer discretion, centralize command, specialize and routinize work by
increasing rules and the role of middle management (Toch, 1997; Kelling & Bratton,
1993; Walker, 1993; Nelligan & Taylor, 1994; Kelling & Moore, 1988b; Bopp, 1977).
Police organizations adopted more bureaucratic and more militaristic organizational
structures to control ofﬁcers ( Meese, 1993; Moore, 1992; Sparrow, 1992; Alpert &
Dunham, 1992; Moore & Stephens, 1991; Klockers, 1988; Auten, 1981; Bopp, 1977;
Bittner, 1970). Technology, such as two-way radios, was also introduced to control
ofﬁcers (Alpert & Dunham, 1992). These principles of reform became entrenched in
police organizations (Archambeault & Weirman, 1983). Today, police managers
continue to work among the vestiges of Wilson’s reforms.

Taylor’s (1939) scientiﬁc management sought to control the work process by

lirrriting worker discretion. Unfortunately, police managers are not skilled in work

29

analysis required by scientiﬁc management. Harring describes police managers as the
worst in the public sector (Harring, 1981). They come through the ranks of conservative
organizations, with little formal management training. Police management strategy is
entangled in organization politics. The paramilitary structure creates an image of
accountability, but leaves ofﬁcers with considerable discretion (Mastrofski & Greene,
1993; Sykes, 1985; Manning, 1978). Taylor recognized that workers would not give their
best work effort unless managers provide the proper inducement. It was the manager’s
function to determine the one best method for every job (Lynch, 1986). Emphasis was
placed on eliminating waste, and it was assumed that the workers and employer shared
the same interests and goals (Hunt & Magenau, 1993; Taylor, 1939).

Police reform attempted to subordinate ofﬁcers to bureaucratic process, but
ignored the functional role of policing (Sykes, 1985; Manning, 1978). Ofﬁcers do not
work under close supervision, and patrol cannot be made routine (Kelling, Wasserman &
Williams, 1988). Ofﬁcers ". . . resent being treated as mere bureaucrats and resist the
translation of their work into quotas, directives, rules, regulations, or other abstract
speciﬁcations." (Klockars, 1980: 342)

Police chiefs are administrators and policy makers. They need to ensure that
employees respond to policy direction. Preventing negative behavior is not the same as
inducing positive behavior. Reform failed to devise methods to maintain control of the
organization and to overcome the strategic behavior of employees. It focused on limiting
inappropriate behavior, but did not guide police chiefs in inducing ofﬁcers to comply

With policy initiatives. Veteran ofﬁcers were seen as unproductive, with low levels of j ob

30

satisfaction (Pogrebin, 1987; Robinette, 1982; Schwartz & Schwartz, 1975). At the end
of the Reform era, the management problems were changing for the police manager.

In summary, the reform movement sought to remove the police from the inﬂuence
of corrupt political machines. Managers focused on controlling the behavior of ofﬁcers.
Technology, structure and mechanistic processes were used to control subordinates’
behavior. Efﬁcient management through organization, planning, strict lines of command,
extensive rules and threats of punishment were the principal control devices. The
perception of control extended to improving the image of policing and transforming it
from a lower-class immigrant occupation to a middle-class profession, but the reformers
failed to account for differing motivations and values of the people performing the work.

2.2.3 Cgmmmity Era

In the 19803, the emphasis of policing began to shift to what is now called
community policing. Community policing attempts to address the Reform Model’s
failure to reduce crime and improve quality of life (Moore & Trojanowicz, 1988). Civil
unrest in the 19603 led to an increased research interest in policing (Patterson, 1995;
Dempsey, 1994; Nelligan & Taylor, 1994; Alpert & Dunham, 1992) that helped set the
stage for this new policing philosophy. Community policing also proposes new
management strategies.

Advocates of community policing advocated loosening structural constraints on
ofﬁcers to allow them to be more creative problem solvers (Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux,
1990, 1994; Redlinger, 1994; Wrobleski & Hess, 1993; Sparrow, Moore & Kennedy,

1990; Weisburd, Me Elroy & Hardyman, 1988). They proposed reducing hierarchal

31

levels in the organizational structure (Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990, 1994) and
adopting a more collegial management style (Meese, 1993; Sunahara, 1991). The
organization would become less authoritarian, with less emphasis on command and
control, and have a more ﬂexible participatory management approach that put more
decision making in the hands of ofﬁcers (Walsh, 1995; Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux,
1990, 1994; Wycoff & Skogan, 1994; McElroy, Cosgrove & Sadd, 1993; Murphy, 1993;
Cole, 1993; Sunahara, 1991; Sparrow, Moore & Kennedy, 1990; Weisburd, McElroy &
Hardyman, 1988; Kelling, Wasserman & Williams, 1988; Kelling & Moore, 1988a).
"Community policing is, therefore, as much a force for organizational and management
reform as it is an attempt to reform the police role in the community." (Murphy, 1988:
180) Advocates believe that recruiting and training can be used to control ofﬁcer behavior
by changing the culture of organizations (Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990, 1994;
Redlinger, 1994; Meese, 1993). Less emphasis is placed on rule enforcement and more
emphasis placed on values ( Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990, 1994; Meese, 1993;
Sparrow, Moore & Kennedy, 1990; Kelling & Moore, 1988a).

Community policing moves away from the traditional organizational theory
imposed by Wilson’s reforms. It entails freeing ofﬁcers from some structural constraints
to be more creative (Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990, 1994). Community policing
embraces the theory of cooperative organization proposed by Barnard (1962). Advocates
believe a common purpose will bond individuals to seek similar goals. The task itself

will control the actions of officers.

32

2.2.4 Summag

This section has discussed the development of police administrative theory.
Attempts to control ofﬁcers and reduce corruption led to rule-bound, highly structured
organizations. Reformers believed the police chief, with the proper structure, could
control every important organizational decision. The early reformers’ proposals to
control through values gave way to the technocrats’ structures. The era of community
policing brings new challenges to the police administrator. Advocates of community
policing propose a re-evaluation of management strategies they believe have failed.
Efforts to ﬁnd new ways to oversee ofﬁcers have brought renewed interest in goals and
values. This suggests a need for a new management model.

This section has placed the management problem into historical context. Police
administrators must devise management schemes to use within the structures of the
organizational environment. The new challenges of community policing present an
opportunity to examine new management models. Utilizing previously overlooked
factors, such as goals and values, may help us to develop more effective management

strategies.

2.3 Traditional Bureaucratic Model

Before turning to a new management model, the traditional model will be
examined. This is the model O.W.Wilson worked to implement. It is presented here in
its idealized form. Understanding how this model is supposed to work will later help us

understand its deﬁciencies and how to remedy them.

33

Traditional managers use structure to guide subordinates (Perrow, 1986; Dessler,
1980; O. Wilson, 1963). Management analyzes the work process and directs employees’
activity. Employees execute management’s directives. To be successful, managers use
the tools of bureaucracy to secure cooperative and predictable behavior from subordinates
(Pressman & Wildavsky, 1979). Bureaucratic organizations use a pyramidal hierarchy to
transmit information from line operators to decision makers. The top of the hierarchy
relies on the lower levels for detail, while the lower levels seek insight from the top
(Marx, 1967). Instructions are transmitted back down the structure to direct subordinate
activity. Managers formulate decisions from the information provided by subordinates.

In the classic bureaucratic model (See Figure 1) information is gathered at the line
level and transmitted to the top of the organization. “The essence of this theory is that
organizations pursue economy and efﬁciency through division of labor, specialization of
work, impartial treatment of clients, and, above all, a hierarchical authority structure.”
(Bourns, 1995: 3) By design, all the line operator’s information is not passed upward
through the hierarchy (Scott, 1986; Arrow, 1984). Transmitting all available information
would overwhelm the decision maker with irrelevant detail. It is important to the
principal that only relevant information is passed on. Structure is used to make the
decision process more efﬁcient by ﬁltering information at each level of the hierarchy.

Policymaking involves the choice of an option from some larger set of options.

As information and advice about an advisory task ﬂow upward, lower-level

ofﬁcials gradually eliminate options from further consideration. The result is that
only a small subset of options may reach the director. (Hammond, 1986: 387)

34

Traditional Model

 

 

 

Figure 1

35

Nonessential information is ﬁltered from the process with each increasing step. The goal
is to supply proper information for decision makers to direct the organization (Simon,
1976). Redundant information is deleted (Arrow, 1984; Simon, 1976; Weber, 1958).
Information that merely conﬁrms what has already been reported, especially if it pertains
to routine matters, is not passed on.

Only relevant information is useful. In theory, only information important to
decision making is to be transmitted up the hierarchy. If the information is not relevant to
the organization’s purpose, it is disregarded (Simon, 1976; Weber, 1958).

Classic organizations strive for efﬁciency (Boums, 1995; Perrow, 1986; Dessler,
1980; Weber, 1958; Taylor, 1939). Extraneous information complicates the decision-
making process. It may confuse or divert a decisionmaker’s focus from more substantive
areas. To make the process efﬁcient, information perceived to have slight value in the
decision-making process may be eliminated (Arrow, 1984).

If the data cannot be readily processed by organizational mechanisms, they will
need to be transformed. Organizations are poorly prepared for adapting to performing
new tasks and are designed to resist innovation (Wilson, 1989). Depending upon the
efﬁciency of the transforming mechanism, important information may be lost or its
meaning altered in the transformation process.

Organizations divide and specialize work processes (Boums, 1995; Hummel,
1994; Dessler, 1980; Weber, 1958; Taylor, 1939;). If the data do not seem applicable to
the organization’s purpose, it may be diverted to another division or another organization.

As specialization increases, it becomes more difﬁcult for a manager to integrate units into

36

an effective organization (Gruber & Niles, 1976). If the organization’s screening process
is ineffective, valuable information may be transferred rather than processed.

Organizations are staffed by experts, technically trained to perform organizational
functions (Hummel, 1994; Weber, 195 8). However, no human organization is perfect. If
a processor misinterprets the value of data, it may not be passed on to the next level.
Specialization and narrow responsibility lessen the abilities of people to work together
(Hummel, 1994). Important information may also be inadvertently removed from the
decision process through decision error.

Structure is used to direct the communication process. However, messages
become distorted as they pass through many people (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989).
Information transmission may be misdirected, poorly transmitted, distorted or not
received (Skinner & Gilbert, 1978).

To summarize, the chief executive at the top of the hierarchy receives only a
portion of the information collected or generated by the organization (Arrow, 1984;
Wildavsky, 1972). Each step of the hierarchy reﬁnes and tailors the information for the
needs of superior levels. The chief executive analyzes the information in light of the
overall mission of the organization. Decisions are reached and directions transmitted
back down the hierarchy to direct the activities of organizational members. This model

assumes employees at each level are acting in the best interests of the organization.

37

2.4 Principal-Agent Model

It is difﬁcult for police chiefs to monitor and evaluate their personnel. The work
process and work effort of police ofﬁcers are not easily measured. “Because police
ofﬁcers often work alone with very little direct supervision, their activities are extremely
difﬁcult to control.” (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989: 250) “[T]he work of patrolmen is
difﬁcult, if not impossible, to evaluate.” (VanMaanen, 1978: 233) The complexity of
police work and ambiguity of performance standards make it difﬁcult for the chief to
exercise control. (Hunt & Magenau, 1993).

Because [police ofﬁcers] work alone his [sic] superior can never know

exactly what happened and must take either his [sic] word or the

complainant’s. The patrolman necessarily exercises wide discretion, but

the police administrator is obligated publicly to deny that there is much

discretion in police work . . . (Wilson, 1978: 72)
“Where both outputs and outcomes are unobservable there is likely to be a high degree of
conﬂict between managers and operators in public agencies, especially those that must
cope with a clientele not of their own choosing.” (Wilson, 1989: 169) When there is
intense conﬂict in goals, it is more likely that ofﬁcers will hide their activities from
managers (Sherman, 1978). The monitoring problem lessens when the principal and agent
share similar goals (Arrow, 1984).

To compensate for the difﬁculty evaluating ofﬁcers, managers have emphasized
process measures. This has not solved the management problem. What can be easily
measured (numbers of arrests, tickets, reports written, calls answered, etc.) is either easily

manipulated by ofﬁcers or is not a useful measure of policing performance (Trojanowicz,

Bucqueroux & Sloan, 1993; Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1992, 1990; Carter, 1990;

38

Goldstein, 1990; Trojanowicz, 1990; Trojanowicz & Belknap, 1986; Wycoff & Manning,
1983). Subordinates may become efﬁcient at achieving process indicators while
neglecting the underlying objectives of the organization. This process orientation
provides agents opportunities to Shirk. With no reliable way to judge success, chiefs must
overcome self-interest of organizational members (Kelling & Bratton, 1993).

Assessing quality and quantity is often difﬁcult for police administrators.
Reporting systems that tabulate quantities are often incapable of evaluating quality.
Assessing quantity is also problematic. The upper range of production is unbounded and
the workers’ true opportunity to produce is seldom known. The lower limit can only be
gauged by estimating or comparing to the production level of others in the work group.

It may be more difﬁcult for a police chief than for other public administrators to
implement new policy. “Such characteristics of police work as discretion, authority,
variety, ambiguity and danger distinguish it greatly from what most people do for a
living.” (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989: 46) “The task of restructuring is more complex with
police because the workﬂow of a police service differs markedly from other bureaucratic
organizations in that the ofﬁcer in the ﬁeld has signiﬁcant discretion to generate or not to
generate work.” (Dean, 1995: 339)

Agency Theory provides a useful new perspective for police administrators to
conceptualize management problems. It has been used to examine relationships in many
public bureaucracies, but until now it has not been applied to police organizations.

Agency Theory will increase our understanding of relationships in police organizations.

39

Principal-agent models are derived from economic theory to examine hierarchical
relationships ( DeGeorge, 1992; Koford & Penno, 1992; Moe, 1984, 1990; Cook &
Wood, 1989; Alvi, 1988; Alchian & Demsetz, 1972). The principal, with goals and
objectives to accomplish, enters into contracts with agents to perform speciﬁc or general
tasks. Each party to the relationship has power over some aspects of the interaction.

Principal-agent theory applies to circumstances when one person (the principal)

arranges for another (the agent) to take an action that is beneﬁcial to the principal

but costly to the agent, under circumstances when the principal cannot perfectly
and costlessly enforce an ex ante promise by the agent to act in the best interests

of the principal. (McCubbins, N011 and Weingast, 1989: 433-434)

Each party in the relationship has power over some aspects of the interaction. A
principal’s effectiveness is determined by his or her ability to gain compliance from the
agent.

A principal-agent model, with its focus on information usage, is particularly
appropriate for the study of information-dependent organizations, such as policing. The
model recognizes that information accumulates around line functions. Those who
possess information may be able to manipulate the transaction cost for others, including
the principal. For the agent, work effort is determined by the task, personal objectives
and opportunity to Shirk. For the principal, the focus and intensity of the work effort
determine the need to monitor. These disparate motivations complicate the management
process.

The police use paramilitary bureaucratic devices to structure their organizations.

Bureaucratic organizations are designed for efﬁciency. When production demands in

40

these organizations are met without completely consuming the resources allocated, the
unused resources become slack. In a classic bureaucracy, slack resources are passed on to
the entrepreneur. It has long been recognized, though, that managers accumulate slack
resources to more effectively manage the organization (Cyert & March, 1963). Slack
provides a cushion for coping with unexpected events. Though seldom discussed,
employees can also accumulate and control slack. Their use of Slack bypasses the intent
of bureaucratic structures. In policing, slack includes work effort, choice of activities and
management of unallotted time.1 As the goals of the principal and agent become more
disparate, it becomes more difﬁcult for the principal to direct the organization.

The principal-agent problem centers on the supervisory relationship. The
principal is plagued by the problems which can be described as asymmetric information,
adverse selection, moral hazard and the transaction costs of monitoring. Terry Moe
(1987) best summarizes the principal-agent relationship.

The principal tries to control the behavior of his agent, but the agent is driven by

his own interests, makes decisions on the basis of information only imperfectly

available to the principal, and engages in behavior that the principal can only
imperfectly observe. Because of these fundamental problems, the principal
ordinarily must expect some and often a great deal of slippage between the
performance he desires from the agent and the performance he actually receives.

His task as a rational actor is to search among feasible structures for monitoring,

rewarding and sanctioning the agent, and to employ those that seem most

efﬁcacious for minimizing the gap between desired and actual performance.
(480-481)

 

l

The Detroit Police Department recently acknowledged a problem with on-duty
uniformed officers shopping in malls, sitting in movie theaters and dining in restaurants
several miles from the city {Robertson, B. (1996, September 28). McKinnon blasts
cheating cops. Detroit Free Press, pp. 3A, 5A.}

41

Each element of the principal-agent model will now be developed in greater detail. The
model will then help us identify the deﬁciencies of the traditional hierarchal approach to
management.

2.4.1 Asymetric Information

Principal-agent models recognize the asymmetric distribution of information and
the need for the principal to monitor employees (Kolt & Zupan, 1990; Alvi, 1988; Ma,
1991). Without effective monitoring, agents are likely to Shirk (Azariadis, 1983). The
principal must overcome the problems of an unsupervised work process and asymmetric
distribution of information within the organization where monitoring is imperfect.

Each party entering a contract attempts to negotiate a good deal. As a result, the
principal often encounters difﬁculty monitoring the contract. The unequal distribution of
information makes it difﬁcult for the principal to provide incentives and share risks (Ma,
1991). "Asymmetric information generally results in a suboptimal allocation of both risk
and worker effort . . . " (Azariadis, 1983: 157). "The theory of principal-agent
relationships would suggest that principals have an interest in designing incentive and
penalty reward systems that optimally inhibit agent shirking." (Kolt & Zupan, 1990: 119,
Also see Lazer, 1996)

Those who possess needed information hold advantage over those requiring
information. The principal must overcome this information disadvantage. A principal-
agent model recognizes that information accumulates around line functions. Those who
possess information may be able to manipulate the transaction cost for others, including

the principal. All managers face difﬁcult challenges monitoring employee performance.

42

[Elffort is unobservable to the ﬁrm. In such situations, it may be of mutual

interest to the contracting parties to generate information that is unavailable

otherwise . . . [A] greements between ﬁrms and workers are not merely risk-
sharing and resource-allocating mechanisms but also information-revealing ones.

Without this information-generating role, agreements do not make much sense

under asymmetric information. (Alvi, 1988:133)

Managers must devise management strategies to overcome these disadvantages.

2.4.2 Adverse Selection

Adverse selection is an advantage agents have when entering into contracts with
their principal. Agents know the extent and limits of their talent, but the principal cannot
be certain of the agent’s abilities until after entering into the contract (DeGeorge, 1992;
Moe, 1984). It is in the principal’s best interests to hire agents who share his or her goals
and objectives.

A principal will attempt to employ agents who are qualiﬁed to perform necessary
tasks. Agents sell their labor in a competitive market. It is in the agent’s interests to seek
maximum beneﬁts (prestige, status, income, leisure) for his or her work effort. An agent
is aware of his or her own talents and limitations, but the principal cannot be certain of
the agent’s skills until after entering into the contract. This uncertainty is known as
adverse selection. It ". . . derives from unobservability of the information, beliefs, and
values on which the decisions of others are based." (Moe, 1984: 754)

Anyone who has ever experienced an employment interview can readily

understand the concept. Each side attempts to discern information that is not easily

veriﬁable. It is a problem of uncertainty and limited information (Arrow, 1984). The

43

principal hopes, and sometimes unjustiﬁably assumes, that agents share his or her goals
and objectives.

2.4.3 Hidden Information, Actions and Moral Hazard

Agents derive advantage when the work process is unsupervised. Decisions are
made and actions taken outside the principal’s direct control. Moral hazard is the term
applied to an agent's advantage tha ". . . arises from the unobservability of actual
behavior . . ." (Moe, 1984: 755). The terrn’s meaning has been expanded beyond its
origins in the insurance industry and is now commonly substituted for hidden action.
Line-level policing is typically unsupervised. Police ofﬁcers function with little direct
supervision and are susceptible to moral hazard. “[B]y deﬁnition the agent has been
selected for his [sic] specialized knowledge, and therefore the principal can never hope to
check completely the agent’s performance.” (Arrow, 1984: 104) The independence and
discretion of street-level bureaucrats, coupled with the weakness of ﬁeld supervision,
translate into relatively weak control over service delivery (Yates, 1977).

Much of management’s knowledge of subordinate activity is through self-
reporting. This provides subordinates an advantage in contracted interaction. As the
agent becomes better informed (i.e., experience), he or she has more actions available and
the number of incentive schemes available to the principal decreases (Sobel, 1993).

Harmony within the organization is also important to police managers. Internal
dissension can be a powerful threat to the chief (Wycoff & Kelling, 1978). Excessive
complaints and low morale confound management efforts. The chief is sometimes

trapped between efﬁciency and workplace harmony.

44

The nature of policing makes the principal-agent model useful to the study of
police organizations. A principal-agent model more adequately accounts for information
manipulation that is likely to occur. Past efforts have not fully accounted for these factors.

2.4.4 Monitoring and Transaction Costs

While the principal attempts to direct the organization toward speciﬁc goals,
agents may be pursuing other objectives. "The superior who cannot monitor the
subordinate may well ﬁnd out after the fact that the subordinate was pursuing his or her
own interests." (Knott & Miller, 1987: 159) A problem occurs when the goals of the
principal and agents are greatly dissimilar. As the goals of the principal and agent
become more disparate, it becomes more difﬁcult for the principal to direct the
organization (Arrow, 1984). When ofﬁcers realize they can misuse their authority or
neglect their responsibility, they will; and it is the manager’s responsibility to monitor
everyone (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989; Gouldner, 1954). If managers focus on production
measures, “. . . employees become self-focused manipulators of production statistics.”
(Wadman & Bailey, 1993: 81) Rarely can police executives directly observe ofﬁcers’
activity, and they are forced to use indirect, surreptitious and sometimes distasteful means
to monitor employees (Sherman, 1978).

Information may come from various sources. Monitoring may be through direct
observing, self-reporting, or reporting by knowledgeable third parties (Lupa &
McCubbins, 1994). “The primary drawback of direct monitoring is that it consumes large
quantities of time and effort that could be expended towards other, perhaps more

valuable, activities.” (Lupa & McCubbins, 1994: 93) This leaves the principal with the

45

problem of selecting less costly and less effective methods. Much of the information a
manager receives about subordinate activity is obtained through self-reporting of action
already taken. Self-reporting suffers from the reluctance to reveal private information,
while third party reporting is plagued by misrepresentation to further self-interests (Lupa
& MeCubbins, 1994). Therefore, the cost of monitoring limits its effectiveness
(McCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987). The costs to the principal from contract
negotiation, monitoring and enforcing are called transaction costs (Stokey, &
Zeckhausser, 1978; Apgar & Brown, 1987). The opportunity cost2 to monitoring includes
resources, which could have gone to service delivery, as well as the time used to acquire
information, assess noncompliance and devise a strategy or punishment (McCubbins,
Noll & Weingast, 1987). There is also “. . . a degree of cost in enforcing the penalties.”
(Arrow, 1984: 163) Transaction costs are increased by inefﬁciencies. Kolt and Zupan
(1990) suggest that costs ensure monitoring is likely to be incomplete, thus allowing
room for shirking. Restrictive budgets make this especially true in policing.

Control becomes more difﬁcult for the principal as the agent’s level of discretion
and information increases. An agent's prior knowledge or expertise provides advantages
and greater ﬂexibility. “The rationality of policy under a hierarchical system is thus
constantly threatened by the disjunction between power and knowledge.” (Rourke, 1984:
149)

Difficulty in monitoring the actions of subordinates, asymmetric information in
the form of expertise, or transaction cost in overturning the actions of

 

2 An economic term that includes the price forgone alternatives.

46

subordinates all can give agents some opportunity for discretion. (Songer et al.,
1994:674)

[A]n informed agent has more actions available than an uninformed agent. This
decreases the number of incentive schemes available to the principal. (Sobel,
1993: 269)
The principal must accept the unlikelihood of completely regulating the agent’s
activities. Monitoring is limited by its transaction cost. The level of monitoring is
generally established at the equilibrium of marginal cost and marginal beneﬁts. Agents
may structure their behavior around the effectiveness of monitoring activity. The
inefﬁciencies of monitoring suggest the need for an alternate method of evaluating
personnel.
2,4.§ Principal-Agent Model
If principals and agents shared common goals, the bureaucratic model would
effectively explain behavior in organizations. The principal would develop policy and
agents would dutifully carry it out. The only variable would be the effectiveness of the
communication system. The traditional bureaucratic model will now be viewed from a
principal-agent perspective to identify its deﬁciencies. The principal-agent model will
demonstrate how, when the goals of the principal and agents diverge, agents are able to
thwart or sabotage the principal’s policy directives. Additional rules, structure or
monitoring cannot completely prevent these actions. This example will demonstrate the
importance of shared goals and objectives.

The relatively simple process depicted in the traditional hierarchy model fails to

account for important activities of employees (See Boums, 1995). Organizations are

47

replete with “. . . parochialism, possessiveness and the clutching of information as a
source of power. . . .” (Sparrow, 1993: 4) “There is an area of acceptance within which
the individual will behave ‘organizationally.’ When the organizational demands fall
outside this area, personal motives reassert themselves . . .” (Simon, 1976: 204; Also
see Perrow, 1986) A new and more effective model will now be constructed. This new
model is constructed from Agency Theory, a review of police and organizational
literature and observing and interacting with police ofﬁcers. This model is based upon
the inevitable presence of incentives and motives for agents to take actions that do not
comply with their principal’s desires. In addition to the ﬁlters employed by classic
bureaucratic structure, there are ﬁlters created by employees. Subordinates act
strategically to protect and further their interests.

Because these ﬁlters are inconsistent with the organization’s purpose, they shall
be labeled self-serving ﬁlters (See Figure 2). “Clearly, the American research literature
conﬁrms the potency of the street level police culture to subvert, deﬂect, and distort
managerially imposed structures, directions, and practices . . .” (Dean, 1995: 346)
Wycoff and Kelling (1987) documented deliberate distortions of information by ofﬁcers
in the chain of command. Strong resistance from the rank and ﬁle can ghettoize or
eviscerate an unpopular program (Buerger, 1993). Upward communication is distorted to
protect the sender (Wildavsky, 1992; Sheehan & Cordner, 1989; Scott, 1986).

Self-serving ﬁlters act to promote an individual's or group interest, rather than
the organization's goals. Information is transmitted or blocked for personal rather than

organizational reasons. Subordinates support or Oppose programs or policy while they

48

Principal-Agent View of the Bureaucratic Model

  
    
    
   

Filters
Self-eervlng Filters Redunda'”
. . Relevance
Philosophical .
Political ”WW
Self-interim C°""°'s'°"
Interpersonal

Referral

Unrecognized

Communication
Failure

lnformaton
a l
Propaganda -. Propaganda

|. Agent l

lnforrnation

Figure 2

49

attempt to manipulate the organizational environment. The likelihood of improper
behavior is derived from a cost calculation of possible detection, probable punishment,
and divergence of principal and agent interests (MeCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987).

Filters have various sensitivity and threshold levels to regulate the ﬂow of
information. They are more likely to be employed when the agent perceives an activity
does not serve his or her personal interest (McCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987). To
fully understand them, one must understand the goals and objectives of all the actors
involved.

Because of these ﬁlters, the communication ﬂow is not as efﬁcient nor behavior
as stable as depicted in the traditional model. Personal interests compromise the
organizational communication system, which is designed to carry information up the
hierarchy and direction back down. Self-serving information is used to manipulate
organizational processes for nonorganizational purposes. Employees may use
information as propaganda to further their interests. This propaganda takes many forms
and is usually dysfunctional to organizational objectives. “Hence the superior is not
likely to be given information by subordinates that would lead to decisions affecting
them adversely. They not only tell the superior what he or she wants to hear, but also
what they want the supervisor to know.” (Whisenand & Rush, 1988: 115)

Agents may emphasize or report only information that supports their positions by
intentional manipulation (See Whisenand & Rush, 1988). Employees may emphasize
or report only negative information about a competitor's program or activity. They may

even sabotage activities they feel undercut their interests. This organizationally

50

dysfunctional activity may emanate from authority struggles. These unproductive
behaviors can occur when an agent perceives that someone is exceeding his or her realm
and invading the agent's turf, or when a new policy requires more work or reduces the
agent's status (Gouldner, 1954). If the history of the organization does not support risk
taking, the agent will ﬁnd little reason to support new activity.

One type of self-serving ﬁlter can be called a philosophical ﬁlter. It represents
activity based on professional training, bias, ethics, equity or personal orientation. The
principal and agent may differ in their philosophical orientation or beliefs. Decision
making is affected by one’s belief system (Schmalleger, 1995; Bennet, 1994; DeGeorge,
1992; Wilson, 1989; Rourke, 1984, Walker, 1977; Kaufman, 1973). “Gut-level value
systems automatically ﬁlter the way we view reality.” (Whisenand & Ferguson, 1996:
39) Questions of legitimacy may arise when an action does not appear consistent with
past organizational practices, does not make sense to employees, or is perceived to
abandon previous efforts (Clainnont, 1991; Lynch, 1986). Resisters may sincerely
disagree with a policy or organizational goal (Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1994; Wycoff
& Kelling, 1978). Similarly, actions may be accepted as legitimate, without scrutiny, if
they seem to make sense and are consistent with past activity.

A person’s perspective determines if he or she will recognize or understand the
importance of what is being offered by another (Gruber & Niles, 1976). The
communication process may be corrupted through selective perception (Whisenand &
Rush, 1988). Employees may not put forth their best effort if they perceive the activity

wastes their time (McCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987). Obsolete performance criteria

51

may hamper the evaluation of new activities. The merits of the new activity may not be
seen when viewed from an out-of-date perspective. Flaws may be emphasized and
beneﬁts downplayed. In these instances, ideology may supersede empirical evidence.

A second ﬁlter has a political nature. A principal and agent may have different
political objectives. To gain inﬂuence, power or status, subordinates use political ﬁlters.

Bureaucratic organizations are all about power and the acceptance of unequal power
relationships (Perrow, 1986). Employees may attempt to manipulate the environment to
their advantage (Wilson, 1989; McCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987; Perrow, 1986;
Lipsky, 1980; Kanter, 1977; Bopp, 1977; Downs, 1967; Cyert & March, 1963; Barnard,
1962). “[I]ndividuals in organizations will always be playing political games in
response to incentives that they perceive.” (Knott & Miller, 1987: 187)

Political actions include siding with the right people to punish enerrries and
reward friends (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989). Officers may mistrust management or fear
losing power or authority (Roberg, 1994; Greene, Bergman & McLaughlin, 1994;
Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990, 1994; Sherman, 1986 Lynch, 1986; Wycoff &
Kelling, 1978). They may be vengeful or hope that weakening an enemy will lead to
personal advancement (Wycoff & Kelling, 1978). These actions differ from
philosophical ﬁlters in that they are conscious manipulations aimed at increasing
personal utility. Political ﬁlters are calculated acts. Philosophical ﬁlters, on the other
hand, are the result of judgments shaped by belief.

A third ﬁlter involves protecting self interest. It includes two closely related

concepts: economic advancement and protecting vested interests. Agents may pursue

52

their self-interest to the detriment of the principal. Both types place individual interests
above those of the organization.

Economic self-interest ﬁlters are used to maximize or maintain monetary
compensation, opportunity for advancement, economic beneﬁts, resource control and
allocation, or minimize or maintain levels of work effort ( Buerger, 1994; Koford &
Penno, 1992; Wilson, 1989; Bombrink, 1988; McCubbins, Noll & Weingast, 1987;
Perrow, 1986; Lipsky, 1980; Dessler, 1980; Cyert & March, 1963; Barnard, 1962).
Agents examine policy actions to determine how they affect workloads, opportunity for
additional compensation (i.e., overtime, compensatory time, allowances) or beneﬁts.
Agents also ﬁnd opportunities to Shirk their responsibilities. For police ofﬁcers may
include cooping (resting or hiding), cruising aimlessly, extended meal breaks, and
unnecessarily long conversations with merchants or residents (McElroy, Cosgrove &
Sadd, 1993). “Police officers have an interest in downgrading the classiﬁcation of calls,
in order to evade paperwork and accountability.” (Sheehan & Cordner, 1989: 57; also
see Osterloh, 1975) Ofﬁcers may fear that change may lead to the elimination of their
jobs, positions (Wycoff & Kelling, 1978) or supplemental incomes (Buerger, 1994).
Employee incentive plans, such as Scanlon Plans (DuBrin, 1985; Ouchi, 1981), are
attempts to use self-serving motivations to the beneﬁt of the organization.

A closely related concept is protecting vested interests. Agents become vested in
the organizational system (Kelling & Bratton, 1993; Moore & Stephens, 1991;
TrOjanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990; Wycoff & Kelling, 1978; Sparrow, 1988; Haimann

& Hilgert, 1977; Carte & Carte, 1975). Their response to change will be governed by

53

incentives (Wilson, 1989). Individuals may not act upon organizational information they
do not perceive to support their interests (Perrow, 1986). Actions that lessen their
opportunity to advance may be opposed (See Carte & Carte, 1975), as will actions that
threaten current status or autonomy (Redlinger, 1994). Employees are also likely to
highlight information that improves their standing in the organization. They have shown
their ability to frustrate efforts to increase their accountability (Walker, 197 7) or redeﬁne
their role (Sadd & Grinc, 1994). Participatory management (Shafritz et al., 1992;
Holzer, 1990; DuBrin, 1985;Dessler, 1980), job enrichment (Perrow, 1986; DuBrin,
1985; Dessler, 1980; Hampton, 1977), labor-management committees (Holzer, 1990;
Dawson, 1990; DuBrin, 1985), quality of work-life programs (Shafritz et al., 1992;
Holzer, 1990), quality circles (Shafritz et al., 1992; Dubrin, 1985; Odaka, 1986; Ford,
1983; Ouchi, 1981), management by objective (Shafritz et al., 1992; Dessler, 1980;
Hampton, 1977; Carrol & Tosi, 1973) and total quality management (Shafritz et al.,
1992; Walton, 1986) are examples of attempts to bring together the interests of
management and employee.

A fourth ﬁlter centers on interpersonal relationships. An agent may be
inﬂuenced more by a social group than by his or her principal. “The evidence from the
behavioral science indicates clearly that the human being is a social organism.”
(McGregor, 1966: 227) “[T]he police officer becomes subjected to intense peer group
inﬂuence and control.” (Barker, 1977: 50) This begins when veteran ofﬁcers teach
rookie ofﬁcers to forget what they were taught in the academy and learn the job from

eXperienced ofﬁcers (Hunt & Magenau, 1993; Goldstein, 1977). “Peer expectations not

54

only affect how hard people work at their jobs; they can affect what they decide the job
is.” (Wilson, 1989: 48)

Interpersonal ﬁlters have a social origin. They include acceptance, recognition,
loyalty, group status, norms, personality conﬂict, and prejudice ( McElroy, Cosgrove &
Sadd, 1993; Walker, 1993; Holden, 1992; Wilson, 1989; Wycoff & Kelling, 1987;
Sherman, 1982; Carte & Carte, 1975; Osterloh, 1975; Alchian & Demsetz, 1972; Astor,
1971; Downs, 1967; McGregor, 1966; Cyert & March, 1963; Barnard, 1962). Ofﬁcers
may be reluctant to pass along negative information they fear might damage another
ofﬁcer’s career (McElroy, Cosgrove & Sadd, 1993). Agents may become so involved in
outside activities it becomes detrimental to their organizational role (Cooper, 1996).
Informal groups are likely to set production rates (Roethlisberger, 1941). “Probably the
strongest motivating force in a police agency is in the peer-group bonds. . . .” (Osterloh,
1975: 61) Agents may not report the transgressions of other agents (McElroy, Cosgrove
& Sadd, 1993; Astor, 1971). Agents may use information as currency in a market of
social-economic exchange. When an agent performs a favor to help an associate, it can
bind that associate in some ﬁrture action. Individuals may seek to make their friends
look good and competitors appear unfavorably to others of importance. T-groups
(Perrow, 1986; Dessler, 1980), organizational development (Dessler, 1980; Hampton,
1977) and Japanese management techniques ( Odaka, 1986; DuBrin, 1985; Ford, 1983;
Ouchi, 1981) are attempts to use group socialization to facilitate organizational goals.

In conclusion, police organizational structures may not operate to keep the chief

fully informed. “A major communications problem, then, of the higher levels of the

55

administrative hierarchy is that much of the information relevant to the decisions at this
level originates at lower levels, and may not ever reach the higher levels unless the
executive is extraordinarily alert.” (Simon, 1976: 163) If we view management through
a principal-agent model, we can more fully understand its complexity. If subordinates
share the same goals as their manager, they are more likely to comply with policy
direction rather than subvert organizational activities. If agents are reasonably satisﬁed
in their jobs, they are less likely to be disruptive. Satisﬁed employees who pursue
organizational goals are less likely to ﬁlter organizational processes to advance
dysfunctional objectives.

2.4.6 Summm

This section has introduced the principal-agent model as a tool for understanding
the problems of police administration. The model was used to demonstrate the
deﬁciencies of the traditional bureaucratic model. These deﬁciencies are not the product
of poor implementation. The bureaucratic model will not be more successful if more
rules or structure are added. A principal-agent approach to problems demonstrates the

fundamental shortcomings of the traditional approach and suggests possible remedies.

2.5 Importance of Shared Values
Critics of classic organizational theory have long recognized the economic
nature of organizational behavior. Douglas McGregor (1966) believed that human

relationships are transactional. Elton Mayo, a founding force behind Human Relations

56

theory of management, believed “. . . each individual acts according to calculations of
his or her own self-interests. . . .” (Perrow, 1986: 60)

“Police departments are powerfully inﬂuenced by their values.” (Wasserman &
Moore, 1988: 1) "[H]ow an organizational culture responds to change will depend on
the meaning and values carried by its members." (Crank, 1996: 266) "[O]ur value
system assists us in making decisions. Conversely, when two or more of us possess
different values, we are apt to conﬂict with one another." (Whisenand & Ferguson,
1996: 40) Values act as ﬁlters (Whisenand & Rush, 1988). The task of managers is
" . . . to seek to create conditions (an organizational environment) such that members of
the organization at all levels can best achieve their own goals by directing their efforts
toward the goals of the organization." (McGregor, 1966: 212)

When managers and subordinates share goals and objectives, many of the
management problems are lessened. "[W]hen the exchange of values for values is
simultaneous or nearly so, the contracts may almost be self-enforcing." (Arrow, 1984:
163) "Some analysts warn that only when the formal values espoused by today’s
innovative police administrators begin to match those of rank-and-ﬁle ofﬁcers can any
police organization begin to be high performing." (Schmalleger, 1995: 202) " Values
clariﬁcation is the main hope today for keeping the police workforce united."
(Whisenand & Ferguson, 1996: 17; also see Stephens, 1994; Hunt & Magenau, 1993;
Couper & Lobitz, 1993; Sheehan & Cordner, 1989) When organizational values
inﬂuence behavior, actions are more coherent and predictable, and there is less need for

strong control (Wasserman & Moore, 1988). It should now be apparent that the

57

principal’s management problems are greatly reduced when the principal and agent share

common goals.

2.6 Conclusion

Sadd and Grinc (1996) spoke of the difﬁculty police managers have in
communicating their goals to employees. Management initiatives are given little
credibility by the rank and ﬁle. The chief needs to address this when devising
management strategies. Where there is great disparity in goals between principal and
agent, management becomes more challenging. It is more difﬁcult for the principal to
induce compliance and to monitor behavior. Policymakers may overlook the complexity
of management if they do not consider the issue of goal congruence.

Classic bureaucratic theory does not fully explain subordinate behavior. The
mechanistic efficiency envisioned by the bureaucratic model is rarely achieved.
Interactions are not rigidly controlled by organizational structure. Each actor inﬂuences
transactions. Reporting and communications are ﬁltered. Organizational actors
manipulate the information system. When employee evaluating and monitoring are
imperfect, the challenge to managers increases.

To direct the organization and to implement policy, managers must rely upon
supporters and overcome resisters. A principal-agent approach helps to identify the
difﬁculties confronting managers. Managers who can identify areas of support and

resistance can formulate more efﬁcient and effective policies.

58

Adopting a principal-agent perspective allows us to reconceptualize the
management problems in police organizations. The ﬁrst step is to search for areas of
compliance and resistance within the traditional structure of police organizations. We
can then determine if job assignment is related to ofﬁcers’ attitudes and attachment to
the organization. 13 job assignment related to the level of goal congruence with the
chief? Do ofﬁcers in different job assignments have the same levels of commitment to
the organization? Once these questions are answered, we can better address
management problems. If ofﬁcers in particular job assignments differ, it may be

inefﬁcient and ineffective to treat them as if they were the same.

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Police departments are complex organizations whose management requires the
continual attention of police administrators. As demonstrated in the previous chapter,
subordinates have the means to manipulate organizational systems (See Chapter 2). This
becomes a problem for the organization if principal and agents do not share the same
goals and values. Agents may be able to further their own interests at the expense of the
organization, while shielding their activities from their principal. Chapter 3 deﬁnes a
methodology to explore potential conﬂict and how it affects a police chiefs management
strategy.

Classic bureaucratic theory does not sufﬁciently explain behavior in police
organizations. The assumptions of classic hierarchical theory are problematic. A
hierarchical structure assumes that agents will readily provide the proper information
when the principal needs it for decision making. Common experience teaches that this
may not be so.

Policy resistance may include the manipulation of information. Resisters may use

active methods: blocking, obstructing or sabotaging information delivery. Or, resisters

59

60

may be more passive, failing to report the noncompliance or the overt disobedience of
others. The method of resistance is chosen through a calculation of beneﬁts, risk and
opportunity.

This study explores relationships between police personnel. Its purpose is to
provide insight into the relationship between police chiefs and their employees. It will
help guide police chiefs to manage subordinates by investigating whether policy
resistance is more likely in certain job assignments. As with any inquiry, it begins with
certain assumptions.

The ﬁrst assumption is that actors behave rationally. A principal-agent model
incorporates the concepts of economic incentives and rational behavior. Actors are
assumed to be utility maximizers, although models have been developed to represent
utility stabilizers (Rogerson, 1985). The use of rational actor models does not rule out
altruistic behavior. Such activity appears in these models as a stochastic component.

The theory proposes that altruistic behavior is exceptional and that most organizational
behavior is best modeled by a rational actor metaphor. It is further assumed that when
agents’ goals are closely aligned with their principal’s goals, there is less need to monitor
behavior (Arrow, 1984). This assumption is derived from the premise that agents who
are pursuing the same goals and objectives as their principal will require fewer incentives
than agents who pursue goals and objectives different from those of their principal.

This inquiry begins with the null hypothesis that the goal congruence between

police chiefs and subordinates is independent of job assignment. This hypothesis stems

61

from the Reform Model’s reliance on structure and the principal-agent model’s concern
for control.

Ho: Job assignment is unrelated to the goal alignment of principal and agents.

If there is no relationship between job assignments and goal alignment, then the
management problem for the principal may be the same for each job assignment.
However, if the level of goal alignment varies signiﬁcantly for different job assignments,
then the principal may need to design management strategies for each group. Police
managers have long recognized the need to closely monitor and control the behavior of
their employees (See Wilson, 1963 and Goldstein, 1977), but community policing brings
new challenges for the police chief. We know little about how to effectively manage
community police ofﬁcers. The chief may need to devise very different management
strategies for community police ofﬁcers if their attitudes and goals differ signiﬁcantly
from other ofﬁcers.

The second hypothesis deals with employees’ job satisfaction and commitment to
the organization that employs them. In this study, organizational commitment refers to
the employee’s likelihood of remaining in the organization and the employee’s perception
that his or her future is linked to the organization. More committed employees are less
likely to disrupt organizational activity. When commitment levels are high, officers have
a larger zone of indifference for the policies of their chief. In other words, they are less
likely to challenge their chief s policy. These employees are more likely to accept their
chier authority and act to further their chiefs objectives. It is presumed that employees

with greater attachment to the organization are less likely to jeopardize their investment

62

in the organization. These employees are more likely to conform to their principal’s
desires and are less likely to subvert or sabotage policy. An employee’s commitment to
an organization is often closely related to his or her level of job satisfaction. This study
will combine measures of organizational commitment and of job satisfaction into a scale
of employee satisfaction. The null hypothesis, proposed for subordinates in different job
assignments, stems from O.W. Wilson’s concern for esprit de corps and Agency Theory’s
focus on negotiating acceptable contracts.

11,: Job assignment is unrelated to levels of organizational commitment or job

satisfaction.
If no relationship is found between job assignment and levels of organizational
commitment and job satisfaction, then the principal’s inducement strategies may be
equally effective for each job assignment. However, if commitment and satisfaction
levels vary across job assignments, then the principal may need to adjust inducement
schemes for each job assignment. Once again, we know little about the incentives
required to motivate community police ofﬁcers. The chief may need to be less concerned
about the actions of community police ofﬁcers if it is shown they are more satisﬁed and
more committed to the organization. Or, the chief may need to more closely monitor and
offer greater inducements to community police ofﬁcers if it is shown they are less
satisﬁed and less committed to the organization.

A principal-agent model helps to clarify the chief’s management problems by
bringing the effects of incentives on behavior to the forefront. The model makes certain

assumptions. It assumes that common goals, values, job satisfaction and commitment to

63

the organization will result in less policy resistance. As employees become more
motivated and contented in their jobs, they need fewer inducements and less monitoring.

This study explores some of the secretive aspects of the principal-agent relationship.

3.2 Unit of Analysis

Though data are collected in two police departments, the unit of analysis of this
study is individual officers. The research focuses on three job assignments: patrol,
detectives and community police ofﬁcers. Each category presents unique challenges for
police managers. Patrol is the most prevalent classiﬁcation and has received the most
attention from police reformers. Detectives hold the most status in traditional
organizations, and the extra perks and fringe beneﬁts (ﬂex-time, weekends off, decreased
accountability through paper work, and increased discretion) they receive, confounds
attempts to monitor them. Community police ofﬁcer is a new job classiﬁcation and little
is known about how to effectively manage these ofﬁcers. The increased discretion and

decision-making power granted community police officers are a concern for many police

managers.

3.3 Sites and Sample

Data were collected in two regionally diverse American police departments. The
departments were selected for their reputed commitment to community policing. Both
departments have community policing programs ﬁmded, in part, by the Department of

Justice and are well respected in the policing community. In addition, both departments

64

have an adequate number of ofﬁcers assigned to community policing to provide a
sufﬁcient sample for that job description. A sample of at least thirty community police
ofﬁcers was sought to provide a statistically large sample and avoid the inherent problems
of small sample size.

.3_._3_-1C_it.i2§

The ﬁrst research site is Cincinnati, Ohio. It is a Midwestern industrial city
located on the Ohio-Kentucky border. Its location also makes it a gateway to the South.
Cincinnati is racially diverse with a population of 358,170. The city is energetic and
shares the complexity and challenges of other cities its size.

Colorado Springs, the second research site, is located adjacent to the Rocky
Mountains in central Colorado. A city with a population of 316,48, it thrives on tourism,
high technology and its close proximity to several military installations.

Similarities and differences between these two cities are evident from US. Census
Bureau data (1996). Cincinnati is ranked 46‘" in p0pulation. Colorado Springs is ranked
51’t in population. Cincinnati’s population is contained within 77.2 square miles, while
the population of Colorado Springs is spread over 183.2 square miles. In Cincinnati
nearly forty percent (37.9%) of the population is African American and less than one
percent (0.7%) is Hispanic. In Colorado Springs seven percent (7%) of the population is
African American and nine percent (9.1%) is Hispanic. Cincinnati is experiencing a
decline in population, while Colorado Springs’ population is growing. Though similar in

size, Cincinnati is more densely populated with a large minority population. Colorado

65

Springs, on the other hand, is a growing and more spacious city with a smaller minority
population.

3.3.2 Police Departments

The Cincinnati Police Division has 962 sworn ofﬁcers. Thirty-three officers (33)
are assigned to community policing in the Community-Oriented Policing Unit. The racial
composition of the department is sixty-four percent (64.3 %) white, nearly thirty-ﬁve
percent (34.7 %) Aﬁican American, less than one tenth percent (0.1%) Hispanic and one
percent (1%) Oriental (Reaves & Smith, 1995). The gender composition is eighty-four
percent (84.3%) male and nearly sixteen percent (15.7%) female (Reaves & Smith, 1995).

The Colorado Springs Police Department has 512 sworn ofﬁcers. There are
twenty-four (24) community policing officers assigned to the Neighborhood Policing
Unit. The racial composition of the department is nearly eighty-ﬁve percent (84.8%)
white, ﬁve percent (5.1%) Aﬁican-American, nine percent (9.3%) Hispanic and four
tenths percent (0.4%) Oriental (Reaves & Smith, 1995). The gender composition is
eighty-nine percent (89.2%) male and nearly eleven percent (10.8%) female (Reaves &
Smith, 1995).

The 1997 Preliminary Budget Report for the Colorado Springs Police Department
uses a summary of US Census Bureau and Department of Justice information to highlight
the differences between the two departments. Cincinnati has 2.72 ofﬁcers per 1000
population and 82.09 crimes per 1000 population. In Colorado Springs, there are 1.49

ofﬁcers per 1000 population and 65.78 crimes per 1000 population. Though similar in

66

population size, Colorado Springs enjoys a lower crime rate and employs fewer police
ofﬁcers.

3.3.3 Sampling Frame and Sample Size

The sample consists of police ofﬁcers from departments engaged in community
policing. These departments have distinct job descriptions for community police ofﬁcers
(CPO), patrol ofﬁcers and investigators or detectives. Most of the data were collected
during a two-week period in July 1997, to limit the inﬂuence of historical effects and
other stochastic factors. Some data were also collected in August 1997 (See section
3.4.3).

Two hundred thirty-eight ofﬁcers (238) were surveyed in the Cincinnati Police
Department. One hundred eighty-two (182) usable surveys were returned for a response
rate of seventy-six percent (76%). The race of respondents was: 126 (69.23%) white, 45
(24.73%) African American, 2 (1.1%) Hispanic, 1 (0.55%) Oriental, 3 (1.65%) other, and
5 (2.75%) did not respond to the race question. The gender of the respondents was 144
(79.12%) males, 37 (20.33%) females and 1 (0.55%) did not respond to the gender

question.

67

Table 1— Cincinnati Response

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Job Assignment Surveys Distributed Usable Surveys Returned
Patrol 166 118
Detectives 40 36
Community Police 32 23
Nonspeciﬁed 6
Total 238 182

 

One hundred sixty-six (166) surveys were sent to ofﬁcers at the Colorado Springs

Police Department. One hundred ﬁfty-three (153) usable surveys were returned for a

response rate of ninety-two percent (92%). The races of the respondents were 122

(79.74%) white, 7 (4.58%) African American, 17 (11.11%) Hispanic, 3 (1.96%) Oriental

and 4 (2.61%) other. The gender of the respondents was 127 (83.01%) males and 26

 

 

 

 

 

(16.99%) females.
Table 2— Colorado Springs Response
Job Assignment Surveys Distributed Usable Surveys Returned
Patrol 100 93
Detectives 45 41
Community Police 21 19
Total 166 153

 

 

 

 

 

 

68
3.4 Data Collection Instrument

A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. The instrument
consists of four parts. Data in the ﬁrst three sections are used to create scales. The ﬁnal
section uses a multiple-choice format to collect demographic information. The instrument
was distributed to officers at their roll calls or line-ups. Once completed, officers sealed
the instruments in the provided envelope and returned them.

Sections One through Three consist of responses on Likert-style scales or feelings
thermometer. Section One consists of the officer’s reaction to statements about issues in
policing. It measures ofﬁcers’ reactions to issues confronting policing. It consists of ten
questions. The questions touch on courtesy, accountability, bending rules, use of force,
misleading the public, the image of policing, decision making, loyalty to the organization,
uses of time and the inﬂuence of coworkers. These topics cover a wide range of policing
issues.

Section Two asks the ofﬁcer to respond as his or her chief to the questions in
Section One. It solicits ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their police chiefs views. This section
contains the same ten questions as Section One, but the respondent is instructed to
indicate his or her chief’s opinion on these issues. The section provides a subtle
opportunity for ofﬁcers to express their support or displeasure with the views of their
chief.

Section Three collects data on the individual’s job satisfaction and commitment
to the organization. Section Three measures job satisfaction and the ofﬁcer’s level of

commitment to the organization. The section contains 18 questions drawn from

69

Schuessler’s job satisfaction survey and from the Science Research Associates Attitude
Survey. Both surveys have been shown to have high reliability and validity (Miller,
1991)

Section Four collects demographic information. The seven questions cover job
classiﬁcation, how the assignment was obtained, gender, race, level of education, length
of job tenure, and tenure in current assignment. A copy of the questionnaire is included
in Appendix A.

3.4.1 Pretest

The survey instrument was pretested three times with ofﬁcers of the Bay County
Sheriff 3 Department, Bay City, Michigan. Each test was timed and followed by a
debrieﬁng of the participants. These sessions helped to clarify the survey questions and
remove ambiguity from the instrument. In its ﬁnal form, the survey could readily be
completed in less than ten minutes. It was important to limit the time required to
complete the instrument. Understandably, administrators at the survey sites did not want
the research process to unduly disrupt ofﬁcers’ duties.

3.4.2 Treatment of Data

Sections One through Three collect discrete, interval data to be used to construct
scales of attitudes and values. Of interest is the difference between ofﬁcers’ views on the
issues and their perceptions of their chief‘s views on the issues. Section One collects
officers’ views on issues. The questions in Section One were composed after a review of
policing issues in the literature. Three panels of police ofﬁcers examined the questions

and helped to reﬁne them. Section Two collects ofﬁcers’ perception of their chief’s

70

views on these issues. The responses from Sections One and Two were used to make a
scale of goal alignment. Each question in Section Two is subtracted from its counterpart
in Section One. The absolute values of the difference in each question were summed to
create the variable differ. This variable is a measure of goal alignment between ofﬁcers
and their chief. It is this perception of goal alignment that inﬂuences an agent’s response
to his or her principal’s directives. “[H]uman behavior is seldom a direct response to
objective reality, but is rather a response to the individual’s perception of that reality.”
(McGregor, 1966: 216) These perceptions determine an agent’s zone of indifference,
compliance levels, and strategies.

The responses in Section Three comprise a scale of j ob satisfaction and
commitment to the organization. The questions were drawn from previously successful
surveys of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Some of the questions were
selected from the job satisfaction sections of Schuessler’s Social Life Feelings Scales
which have been found to have a good alpha reliability of .75 (Miller, 1991). Other
questions were selected from the Science Research Associates Attitude Survey which as
been found to have a good product-moment correlation of .89 (Miller, 1991). Some of
the questions are written as negative indicators of commitment and job satisfaction.
Questions 1-5, 12-13 and 15 were reeoded to make them positive indicators. After
recoding these questions, responses were totaled to become variable satcom.

Missing data is a problem when constructing scales. Scales are meaningless

unless participants respond to the same number of questions. The researcher is confronted

71

with the options of disregarding cases that have missing data or coding missing responses
to utilize as much data as possible. I chose the latter option.

On some questionnaires a question was skipped or, in a couple of incidents, a
page missed. For these cases, the value of the mean for that department (rounded to the
closest discrete value) was substituted for the missing value. Using the mean value is an
appropriate substitution value for interval data (Babbie, 1979). This procedure is a
conservative approach that supports the null hypotheses of no difference between job
assignments. It will require a larger effect to reject the null hypotheses. A summary of
the recoding of missing data can be found in Appendix B.

3.4.3 Dena; Collection and Administration of Instrument

Data were collected during the summer of 1997. The survey instrument,
instructional sheet and a return envelope were distributed to officers (See Appendix A).
Ofﬁcers were asked to complete the questionnaire and place it in the provided envelope.

In Cincinnati, surveys were distributed through the interofﬁce mail system of the
Cincinnati Police Division. Responses were gathered from each police district.
Questionnaires were sent to ofﬁcers assigned to work on the dates of data collection. The
police division is decentralized into ﬁve stations dispersed geographically throughout the
city. It would have been very difﬁcult to attend roll calls at each division in the time
allotted to collect data. The surveys were distributed and returned by the Community-
Oriented Policing Unit located in the headquarters building. This method of data

collection has been successfully used in previous research projects.

72

One hundred ninety-one (191) surveys were returned from the Cincinnati Police
divisions, but nine (9) surveys were unusable. Nine (9) surveys were determined to be
duplicates of an original community police ofﬁcer’s questionnaire. The original
questionnaire was retained in the sample. The nine copies were discarded. This
deception was troublesome because of the necessity of procuring a sufficient sample of
community police ofﬁcers.

Most of the Colorado Springs data were collected in the third week of July 1997.
Questionnaires were distributed and collected at patrol roll calls or line-ups. This method
proved very tedious. Ofﬁcers in Colorado Springs work ten-hour shifts, and their starting
times are determined by computer analysis of the projected workload. Unlike most
departments that have one roll call at the beginning of a shift, in Colorado Springs each
shift has multiple roll calls. Some roll calls may have nine or ten ofﬁcers and other roll
calls only two or three ofﬁcers. Many times there were very few officers attending roll
calls because of training, vacation, and court schedules. This made it difficult to obtain a
sufﬁcient sample. Despite this problem, all but two roll calls were surveyed in the three
police divisions over the four-day research period. For roll calls I could not attend,
questionnaires were left with the shift supervisor to distribute and collect.

The hectic pace of attending patrol roll calls made it impossible to attend detective
roll calls. Surveys were left with supervisors of detective units to distribute and collect. I
later retrieved these from the supervisors.

The community police ofﬁcer sample was particularly difﬁcult to collect. About a

month before my research visit, the Neighborhood Policing Units (N PU) were

73

temporarily disbanded and their ofﬁcers assigned to patrol duties. The community police
ofﬁcers were needed to assist patrol officers with the increased complaint volume for the
summer months. Ofﬁcers were scheduled to return to the NPU units two weeks after the
research period. The importance of collecting a sufﬁcient sample of community police
ofﬁcers necessitated adjusting the survey procedure. 1 arranged to have NPU supervisors
distribute questionnaires to the NPU ofﬁcers missed in the ﬁrst survey. The NPU
supervisors distributed and collected questionnaires after the units were restaffed.
Sixteen (16) surveys were completed and returned to me in mid-August.

Ofﬁcers of the Colorado Springs Police Department returned one hundred ﬁfty-
ﬁve (155) surveys. One blank survey was returned in a sealed envelope, and another
returned with no responses to questions on pages one through ﬁve. Both surveys were
discarded for a total of one hundred ﬁfty-three (1 5 3) usable surveys.

3.4.4 Statistical Techniques

The two scale variables, differ and satcom, are the focus of data analysis. These
variables are comprised of interval data collected on Likert scales. Later these variables
will be collapsed into ordinal data so they can be used in contingency tables. Job
assignments and the demographic data are examined to determine if they help to predict
an individual’s placement on these scales.

Patrol and traffic ofﬁcers will comprise a baseline group. Detectives will
represent elite assignments, and community police ofﬁcers will compose the ﬁnal group.
Attitudinal responses of the groups will be compared to determine differences associated

with job assignment. Data from each of the ﬁrst three sections will comprise scales of

74

ofﬁcers’ views, perceptions of their chief’s views, and job satisfaction and organizational
commitment levels. Data from Section Four will be used as controls.

Four common techniques are used to report data: contingency tables, chi-square,
measures of association (Cramer’s V and Kendall’s tau-b and tau-c), and t-tests. Each
contributes to our understanding of the data in a unique way.

Contingency tables show relationships between two variables that have been
classiﬁed into mutually exclusive categories (Pagano, 1986). Contingency tables and
measures of association are appropriate techniques to study cross-sectional data
(O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995; Norusis, 1993; Babbie, 1979).

Chi-square is an appropriate statistic for examining nominal data and is usually
used with contingency tables (O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995; Norusis, 1993; Lapin, 1993;
Vito & Latessa, 1989; Babbie, 1979). “The chi-square test for independence provides a
standard for deciding whether two variables are statistically independent.” (Reynolds,
1984: 15) It is the “. . . inference test most often used with nominal data . . .” (Pagano,
1986: 376). This technique is useful to test for independence, to compare several
population proportions and to compare qualitative variables (Lipin, 1993). Chi-square
measures the difference between expected and observed frequencies and allows the
probability of a Type I error to be determined (Lipin, 1993). “It is an extremely popular
statistic because it has very few assumptions. It’s a nonparametric statistic that allows the
researcher to calculate statistical signiﬁcance with nominal level data.” (Vito & Latessa,

1989: 96) Chi-square is appropriate for an exploratory study of this type because of its

75

non-parametric nature, its usefulness for comparing qualitative variables, and its
usefulness in identifying the distribution of variables.

Cramer’s V is a sensitive measure of association useful for exploratory studies of
nominal level data (O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995; Norusis, 1993). It is a symmetric
measure used to detect the strength of associations. Though sensitive, the measure rarely
obtains a level greater than .80 (O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995).

Kendall’s tau is an appropriate measure of association for ordinal level data.
Tau-b is useful with square tables, and tau-c is appropriate for rectangular tables
(O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995; Norusis, 1993).

Chi-square and contingency tables can be inﬂuenced by how the data is
aggregated (O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995). To overcome the problem of collapsing interval
data into ordinal data, t-tests of mean values will also be performed to conﬁrm chi-square
ﬁndings. T-tests will be conducted on the mean value of each variable attribute to
determine possible signiﬁcance.

This is an exploratory study and begins with no assumptions of causality, linearity
or distributions of variables. However, if the data analysis suggests ordinary least squares
(OLS) analysis may be productive, a regression model will be developed. OLS is useful
for evaluating the inﬂuence of multiple independent variables on the dependent variable
and building predictive models (Norusis, 1993; Lapin, 1993; Vito & Latessa, 1989;
Pagano, 1986). It should be noted beforehand that regression analysis is most appropriate
when dependent variables consist of continuous data (Babbie, 1979). The data in this

study is discrete.

76

The primary focus of this study is the variable job assignment and its relationship
to goal congruence and job satisfaction. However, the job assignment variable may reach
statistical signiﬁcance because of its association with some other factor. The
demographic variables consist of factors commonly proposed as inﬂuencing police
behavior (job selection process, gender, race, education, job tenure and length of job
assignment). These variables will be used as controls. Findings will not be considered
signiﬁcant unless they achieve a ninety-ﬁve percent (95%) conﬁdence level.

This study is designed to solicit sensitive information about police ofﬁcers’
acceptance of the policies pursued by their chief. Other methods could be used to collect
this data, but they may be less efﬁcient. Personal interviews might be revealing if one
could overcome the native suspicions of the survey subjects. It would most likely take
considerable time at the research site to develop the rapport necessary for the researcher
to collect the data. Telephone interviews are another possibility, but it is unlikely they
would be productive. Direct observation would be useful, but very time intensive.
Outsiders often ﬁnd it difﬁcult to gain acceptance in police organizations. Participant
observation might be useful, but the researcher would need to already be a member of the
organization. The research method employed in this study allows ofﬁcers to indirectly

question the positions of their chief and remain anonymous.

3.5 Ethical Issues
It is important that research efforts cause no harm to the participants. This study

examines employees’ potential noncompliance to the policies of their managers. It is

77

likely that both police chiefs and ofﬁcers consider this sensitive information. This
necessitates protecting the conﬁdentiality of the participants’ responses.

The ﬁrst precaution taken was the mandatory review of the survey procedure and
instrument by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects at
Michigan State University. This committee examines research proposals to ensure they
do not harm participants. This study was submitted to the Committee and passed its
review procedures.

The instructions, attached to the survey instrument, pledged conﬁdentiality. The
responses of participants remained anonymous. An envelope was provided with each
survey so participants could conceal their response after completing the questionnaire.
No one in the ofﬁcer’s police department viewed the completed surveys. The surveys
were not viewed until I opened envelopes upon returning to Michigan.

Anonymity will also be protected when reporting the data. The data have been
aggregated for analysis. The data will not be reported in a manner that will allow
individual respondents to be identiﬁed.

Respondents participated voluntarily. Surveys were completed while the ofﬁcers
were on duty to limit intruding into their private lives. No one was required to complete
the survey. If an ofﬁcer felt pressured by peers or supervisors to participate, he or she
could place a blank survey in the sealed return envelope (as did one Colorado Springs
ofﬁcer).

Participants were told the nature of the research. In both the instructional sheet

and my introduction, respondents were told I was a police ofﬁcer conducting research for

78

my dissertation. I attribute the high response rate and high level of support I received

from both police departments to my status as a police ofﬁcer.

3.6 Conclusions

The purpose of this research is to examine areas of potential compliance and
resistance to policy direction. The relationship between police chiefs and their officers is
examined. This study begins with the assumption that higher levels of goal alignment
and greater job satisfaction are characteristic of more policy compliant agents. It is
assumed that agents’ perceptions of goal alignment with their chief are associated with
their level of job satisfaction and inﬂuence their levels of compliance and resistance to
policy.

This study is limited by the size of the sample. Only two police departments were
surveyed. More study sites are always welcome. Though nothing was found to indicate
these departments are atypical of departments their size, replication of this study in other
police departments is encouraged.

This research would also have beneﬁtted from extended direct observation at the
study sites and the inclusion of extensive interviews of the research subjects. The time
constraints of this unfunded research did not allow for these additions.

The effect of reassigning Colorado Springs NPU officers to patrol duties is
unknown. This may have caused NPU ofﬁcers to respond more like patrol ofﬁcers. The
timing of this redeployment was one of the unfortunate consequences of real world

research.

79

The effect that the duplicate surveys submitted by Cincinnati Police Division
community police ofﬁcers had on the study is unknown. More conﬁdence could be
placed in the research ﬁndings if the community police ofﬁcer sample was larger.
However, the incident is a useful research lesson and may say something about the need
to monitor community police ofﬁcers.

Chapter 4 interprets and discusses the data. A detailed account of the data
analysis is presented. The major ﬁndings and their implication for police chiefs’

management schemes are discussed.

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The discussion now turns to an analysis of the data and the implications of the
ﬁndings. Evidence is found to reject the ﬁrst null hypothesis of no association between
ofﬁcers’ job assignment and their level of goal congruency with their chief. The second
null hypothesis of no association between job assignment and ofﬁcers’ job satisfaction
and commitment to the organization cannot be rejected. The entire data set is examined,
and then the data for each department is examined separately. This process revealed

interesting and unexpected ﬁndings.

4.2 Frequencies and Demographics

An effective supervisor ﬁnds a proper technique to manage the situation at hand.
The challenge is to properly assess what is needed to motivate subordinates. This study
examines the attitudes and values of police ofﬁcers to help managers identify areas of
potential policy compliance and resistance. Knowing where policy compliance or
resistance is likely to come helps managers assess implementation problems. If the police
administrator views management problems from a principal-agent perspective, the value
of this information becomes clear. The police administrator can use this information to

formulate more effective management strategies. Three hundred thirty-ﬁve usable

80

81

surveys were collected (n = 335). The data from Sections One through Three were used
to construct scales of ofﬁcers’ attitudes, values and perceptions. Section Four of the
questionnaire collected demographic information to test the null hypotheses and to
control for alternative explanations.

The principal research concern is the effect of job assignment on ofﬁcers’
attitudes and values. Data were collected in three categories: patrol, detectives and
community police officers. Table 3 shows how the job assignments were distributed

among the participants in this study.

Table 3 — Job Assignments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent‘
Patrol 211 64.0
Detective 77 23.3
Community police ofﬁcer 42 12.7
Total 330 100.0
Missing 5
Total 335

 

 

By design, most of the respondents (64.0%) were patrol ofﬁcers. Patrol serves as a
benchmark to compare the other two job assignments, detectives (23.3%) and community

police ofﬁcers (12.7%).

 

' Valid percent is the percentage of responses after missing responses are removed.

82

The remaining variables in Section Four are used as controls or alternative
explanations to reject or support the hypotheses. For convenience, they are called
demographic variables. The ﬁrst variable measures how the ofﬁcer acquired his or her
assignment. Two possibilities were measured. Ofﬁcers can be assigned their job position
or acquire it upon entering the department. Or, ofﬁcers can volunteer for a job position or

achieve it through promotion.

Table 4 — Job Assignment Acquisition

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent
Assigned or entry level 205 61.4
Volunteer or promotion 129 38.6
Total 334 100.0
Missing 1
Total 335

 

Table 4 reﬂects the unbalanced sampling scheme. As seen in the previous table, most of
the participants (64.0%) are assigned patrol. Ofﬁcers begin their careers in patrol
assignments and serve apprenticeships to prove their worth. It is not surprising that most
of the respondents report they have an assigned or entry level position (61.4%). Nearly
thirty-nine percent (38.6%) of ofﬁcers volunteered or were promoted to their positions.

A person’s gender may inﬂuence how he or she feels about certain issues. Males
dominate the policing workforce. The sample is composed of eighty-one percent (81.1%)

males and nearly nineteen percent (18.9%) females.

83

Table 5 — Gender

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent
Male 271 81.1
Female 63 1 8.9
Total 334 100.0
Missing 1
Total 335

 

Race may also inﬂuence views and opinions. The questionnaire asked

participants to identify their race. The majority (75.2%) of the participants were

Table 6 - Race

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent

White/non-Hispanic 248 75.2
Aﬁican American 52 15.8
Hispanic 19 5.8
Asian 4 1 .2
Other 7 2. 1
Total 330 100.0
Missing 5

Total 335

 

 

 

84

white/non-Hispanic. African Americans represented nearly sixteen percent (15.8%) of
the sample. Hispanics (5.8%), Asians (1.2%), and others (2.1%) comprised the remainder

of the sample population.

Education is thought to inﬂuence a person’s attitudes and beliefs. Four levels of
education were measured. Most of the respondents have some level of college education.

Ten percent (10.2%) of the sample had only a high school education. The largest group

Table 7 - Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent

High School or GED 34 10.2
Some college/associate 180 53.9
Bachelor’s degree 106 31.7
Postgraduate degree 14 4.2
Total 334 100
Missing 1

Total 335

 

 

 

 

 

of respondents (53.9%) had taken some college course or earned an associate’s degree.
The next largest portion (31.7%) consists. of respondents who earned a bachelor’s degree.
A few of the respondents (4.2%) had earned postgraduate degrees. The data show the
majority of police officers (89.8%) have taken some college classes or have earned a

college degree.

85

The experience of policing is thought to make ofﬁcers suspicious and cynical.

The length of police service or job tenure was measured to examine its influence. This

variable requested the respondents’ total police experience, including prior experience

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

with other police departments.
Table 8 — Job Tenure
Frequency Valid Percent
Less than 1 year 13 3.9
1 to 5 years 92 27.7
6 to 10 years 83 25.0
11 to 15 years 40 12.0
16 or more years 104 31.3
Total 332 100.0
Missing 3
Total 335

 

 

 

 

The largest segments consist of ofﬁcers with either one to ﬁve years of experience

(27.7%) or sixteen or more years of experience (31.3%). The next largest group had six

to ten years of experience (25.0%). There were few ofﬁcers with less than one year

experience (3.9%), and a small group had eleven to ﬁfteen years of experience (12.0%).

Ofﬁcers’ attitudes may be inﬂuenced by the length of time they spend in a job

assignment. They may also be excited or apprehensive about a new assignment. They

 

86

may become comfortable or bored with a long-term job assignment. Tenure in the

ofﬁcers’ current assignment was measured in four levels.

Table 9 — Tenure in Current Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Valid Percent

Less than 1 year 66 19.8
1 to 2 years 81 24.3
3 to 4 years 62 18.6
5 or more years 124 37.2
Total 333 100.0
Missing 2

Total 335

 

The largest group consists of ofﬁcers who have held their current assignment for

ﬁve or more years (37.2%). The next largest segment has been in their assignments for

one to two years (24.3%). Nearly equal groups have been in their current assignment for

less than a year (19.8%) or three to four years (18.6%).

4.3 Goal Alignment

If pockets of potential policy compliance and resistance can be identiﬁed in an

organization, administrators can formulate more effective management schemes. The

ﬁrst step is to determine goal alignment between police chiefs and officers. To measure

goal alignment, ofﬁcers’ attitudes and opinions on important issues were measured.

 

87

Next, ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their chief’s views were measured. Their divergence was
then calculated. The variable diﬂer represents the sum of the absolute values of each
ofﬁcer’s response to questions in Section One subtracted from the corresponding question
in Section Two. If there is total goal congruence between the ofﬁcers and his or her
chief, the values of each question in Section Two would be the same as in Section One.
The difference for each question would be zero. The sum of the ten questions would be
zero for the variable diﬂer. If there is no goal agreement, the value of diﬂer would be
ninety. The maximum goal disagreement for each question is nine. That would result if
the ofﬁcer indicated a response of one (no agreement) and also indicated a response of ten
(high agreement) for his or her chief. When the question in Section Two is subtracted
from the corresponding question in Section One, the goal difference for that issue is nine.
The absolute value of the difference was used to construct the scale, so the reverse of this
example also equals a goal difference of nine. If the ofﬁcer responded to each question in
this manner, the total for the ten questions would be ninety. This constitutes a theoretical

range of ninety for this variable.

Table 10 — Difference in Goal Alignment

 

Total Mean Std.Error Median Std. Range
Deviation

Differ 335 20.5463 .6394 20.00 1 1.7025 64.00

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

88

The mean value (20.5463) and mode value (22) are in the lower end of the
theoretic range. The actual range (64) is only seventy-one percent (71.1%) of the
theoretical range. This data is used to test the ﬁrst null hypothesis.

Ho: Job assignment is unrelated to the goal alignment of principal and agents.

To test this hypothesis, the interval data collected in variable diﬁ’er must be
collapsed into ordinal data to construct contingency tables. The variable differ was
reeoded into three levels. Approximately the ﬁrst third of the scale (0 to 35.2% of the
cumulative percentage) was categorized as low. The approximate upper third of the scale
(65.7% to 100% of the cumulative percentage) was categorized as high. The approximate
middle third of the scale was categorized as moderate. This reeoded variable, diﬂer] ,
was used for contingency tables and chi-square tests.

The next step is to determine if any of the variables in Section Four are associated
with the level of goal congruence, diﬁier . Each variable was tested with diﬂer] as the

dependent variable.

89

Table 11 — Goal Alignment and Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 62 37 16 1 1 5
Difference 29.4% 48.1% 38.1% 34.8%
Moderate 72 16 13 101
Difference 34.1% 20.8% 31.0% 30.6%
High 77 24 13 1 14
Difference 36.5% 31.2% 31.0% 34.5%
Total 21 l 77 42 330

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

X2=9°714 df=4 p<.046 Cramer’sV=.121

Returning to the focus of this study, the ﬁrst variable to be tested was job
assignment. The association for job assignment and goal alignment is found to be
signiﬁcant (x2 = 9.714, df = 4, p < .046), though the strength of the relationship is modest
(Cramer’s V = .121). Nearly half of the detectives (48.1%) perceived themselves to be in
close goal alignment with their chief. Detectives (48.1%) and community police ofﬁcers
(3 8.1%) were more likely than patrol ofﬁcers (29.4%) to be closely aligned with their
chief. Patrol ofﬁcers (34.1%) and community police ofﬁcers (31.0%) are more likely to
have moderate levels of goal disagreement than detectives (20.8%). Patrol ofﬁcers
(36.5%) are slightly more likely than detectives (31.2%) and community police ofﬁcers

(31.0%) to have high levels of goal disagreement with their chief. Overall, detectives and

90

community police ofﬁcers feel more closely aligned to the goals of their chief than do
patrol ofﬁcers.

Next, the mean values for each group were examined; patrol (21.6398), detectives
(18.1039) and community police ofﬁcers (19.5000). Patrol ofﬁcers were found to have
higher levels of goal discrepancy with their chief than did detectives (t = 2.31, df = 286,
p < .021). The mean values of community police ofﬁcers were not found to be
signiﬁcantly different from those of patrol ofﬁcers or detectives.

In summary, detectives have a signiﬁcantly higher level of goal congruence with
their chief than do patrol ofﬁcers. Community police ofﬁcers are spread more uniformly
through the goal alignment scale. Community police ofﬁcers fall somewhere between
detectives and patrol ofﬁcers in their levels of perceived goal congruity with their chief.
The null hypothesis is rejected for goal alignment and job assignment. Now it needs to be

determined if other variables are associated with goal alignment.

91

Table 12 - Goal Alignment and Job Acquisition

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assigned/Entry level Volunteer/Promoted Total

Low 72 46 1 18
Difference 35.1% 35.7% 35.3%
Moderate 63 39 1 02
Difference 30.7% 30.2% 30.5%
High 70 44 l 14
Difference 34.1% 34.1% 34.1%
Total 205 129 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

x2 = .013, df= 2, p < .994

Before we can be conﬁdent of an association for goal alignment and job
assignment, additional factors must be explored. There may be other variables affecting
this association. The manner in which a job assignment was acquired (assigned/entry
level or volunteer/promoted) was tested for an association to goal alignment. A chi-
square test of this relationship showed no signiﬁcance. The mean values of the
assigned/entry level group (20.8049) and the volunteer/promotion group (19.7974) were
not signiﬁcantly different (t = .78, df = 332, p < .436). The manner in which
appointments are made was not signiﬁcantly related to the ofﬁcers’ levels of goal
congruence with their chief.

Though their numbers continue to grow, there are still relatively few women in

policing. Gender was tested for an association to goal alignment. The question is, do

92

men and women share similar views about policing issues, and do they have similar

levels of goal congruence with their chief?

Table 13 — Goal Alignment and Gender

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male Female Total

Low 96 22 1 18
Difference 35.4% 34.9% 35.3%
Moderate 84 18 102
Difference 3 l .0% 28.6% 30.5%
High 91 23 1 14
Difference 33.6% 36.5% 34. 1%
Total 271 63 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

12:.231, p<.89l

The chi-square test revealed no signiﬁcant association for gender and goal

alignment. The mean values for males (20.2915) was not signiﬁcantly different from the

mean values for females (20.9524) in the t-test (t = -.41, df = 332, p < .681). Gender is

not associated with goal alignment.

Race was the next variable examined. Because of the small number of Asians in

the sample, the race variable was recategorized to place Asian ofﬁcers in the other

category. No signiﬁcance was found for race using chi-square (x2 = 7.052,

 

93
df = 6, p < .316) or t-test (White, 20.4374; African American, 19.5385; Hispanic,
21.0000; or Other, 17.7273). This variable had three cells with an expected count of less

than ﬁvez. Race was then reeoded into two categories white and other. No

Table 14 — Goal Alignment and Race

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

White Other Total

Low 83 35 1 18
Difference 33.5% 42.7% 35.8%
Moderate 81 21 102
Difference 32.7% 25.6% 30.9%
High 84 26 1 10
Difference 33.9% 31.7% 33.3%
Total 248 82 330

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

x’ = 2.541, df= 2, p < .281

signiﬁcant association was found for race and goal alignment using chi-square
(x2 = 2.541, df = 2, p < .281) or t-test of mean values (White, 20.4274; Other, 19.6341;

t = .55, df= 328, p < .585).

 

2 Though it is recommended that expected frequencies be kept to 5 or more for each cell,
several authors now believe that standard is too stringent and can be relaxed (N orusis,
1993; O’Sullivan & Rassel, 1995; Reynolds, 1984).

94

Because so few ofﬁcers had postgraduate degrees ( 14), the variable measuring

education was reeoded to combine bachelor degrees and postgraduate degrees. This new

variable was then examined for an association with goal alignment.

Table 15 - Goal Alignment and Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High School Some College/ Bachelor/ Total
Associate Degree Postgraduate

Low 10 70 38 118
Difference 29.4% 38.9% 31.7% 35.3%
Moderate 10 46 46 102
Difference 29.4% 25.6% 38.3% 30.5%
High 14 64 36 114
Difference 4.2% 35.6% 30.0% 34.1%
Total 34 180 120 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 6.505, p < .164

No signiﬁcant association was found for level of education and perceived goal

alignment with the chief (x2 = 6.505, df = 4, p < .164). T-test of the mean values high

school (22.8824), some college/associate degree (20.2056) and bachelor/postgraduate

(20.0333) did not signiﬁcantly different from one another.

The experience of policing may change ofﬁcers’ perspectives. Are the stages of

an ofﬁcer’s career associated with his or her goal alignment with the police chief?

 

95

Oﬂicers’ level of experience was analyzed to determine if there was an association with

 

 

goal alignment.
Table 16 - Goal Alignment and Job Tenure
<1 yr. 1-6 yrs 6-10 yrs 11-15 yrs 216 yrs Total
Low 8 36 26 10 38 118

Difference 61.5% 39.1% 31.3% 25.0% 36.5% 35.5%

 

Moderate 5 26 29 14 27 101

Difference 38.5% 28.3% 34.9% 35.0% 26.0% 30.4%

 

 

High 0 30 28 16 39 113
Difference .0% 32.6% 33.7% 40.0% 37.5% 34.0%
Total 13 92 83 40 104 332

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x’ =11.697, df= 8, p < ,165

The tenure of police officers was not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with the
perception of goal congruency (x2 = 11.697, df = 8, p < .165). Though no signiﬁcant
association was found, it should be noted that the small sample of ofﬁcers with less than
one year experience showed close congruence with the police chief. The majority
(61.5%) were in the low category and the remaining (38.5%) were in the moderate
category. None of these ofﬁcers registered in the high category. Next, the mean values
for the ﬁve categories of experience were examined: less than one year (11.8462), one to
five years (20.1196), six to ten years (20.9518), eleven to ﬁfteen years (22.7500), and

sixteen or more years (20.2308). The t-test determined that ofﬁcers with less then one

96

year experience perceived themselves to be more closely aligned with their chief than did
ofﬁcers with one to ﬁve years (t = -.391, df = 27.8, p < .001), ofﬁcers with six to ten
years (t = -2.89, df = 94, p < 005), ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years (t = -3.36, df = 51,
p < 001) and ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years (t = -4.12, df = 24.28, p < .0001). None
of the other tests of mean values were signiﬁcant. Though it cannot be determined if this
is a selection or maturation effect, ofﬁcers with one year of experience or more did not
perceive such close goal alignment with their chief.

A similar concern can be raised for an ofﬁcer’s tenure in his or her job
assignment. Do levels of goal alignment change as ofﬁcers gain experience in a job
assignment? The amount of time that an ofﬁcer has occupied his or her current
assignment was examined for its association to goal alignment. The purpose of this
variable is to measure for a honeymoon-effect stemming from appointment to new
assignments. Are ofﬁcers in new assignments more receptive to the direction of their
chief? Do officers become bored or ﬁ'ustrated in their job assignments and become less

receptive to the direction provided by their chief?

97

Table 17 — Goal Alignment and Tenure in Current Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

< 1 yr 1-2 yrs 3-4 yrs 5 or more yrs Total

Low 31 30 22 35 118
Difference 47.0% 37.0% 35.5% 28.2% 35.4%
Moderate 17 29 21 35 102
Difference 25.8% 35.8% 33.9% 28.2% 30.6%
High 18 22 19 54 113
Difference 27.3% 27.2% 30.6% 43.5% 33.9%
Total 66 81 62 124 333

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

x2 = 11.555, df= 6, p < .073

No signiﬁcant association was found for tenure in a job assignment and the perception of
goal alignment with the police chief (x2 = 11.555, df = 6, p < .073). Nonetheless, it is
interesting to note that forty-seven percent (47%) of ofﬁcers with less than a year in their
current assignment were in the low diﬂerence category, and over forty-three percent
(43.5%) of the ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years in their current assignment were in the
high difference category. The mean values for tenure in job assignment categories were
examined: less than one year (17.2879), one to two years (19.6667), three to four years
(20.1452), and ﬁve or more years (22.5242). Ofﬁcers with less than one year in their
current job assignment were aligned signiﬁcantly closer to the goals of their chief than
were officers with ﬁve or more years in their current job assignment (t = -3.18, df = 188,

p < .002). Again, it cannot be determined if this is a selection or maturation effect.

98

However, the close goal alignment between ofﬁcers in new job assignments and their

chief progressively declined after the ﬁrst year.

To summarize, job assignment is associated with ofﬁcers’ level of goal alignment
with their chief. Detectives are the most closely aligned with their chief. Patrol ofﬁcers
have high levels of goal disparity with their chief. Community police ofﬁcers’ levels of
goal congruity fall between detectives and patrol ofﬁcers.

First-year ofﬁcers and ofﬁcers in their ﬁrst year of a job assignment were also
more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than were ofﬁcers with more tenure. It
should be remembered that ﬁrst-year ofﬁcers are assigned to patrol; so depending on the
rate of hire, many of the ofﬁcers in new assignments may also be in patrol.

Further analysis of the data set (See Appendix C) produced these additional
frndings:

- Assigned Oﬁ‘icers and Goal Alignment. Ofﬁcers assigned (rather than
volunteer/promoted) to detective and community policing jobs have higher levels
of goal congruence with their chief.

- Race and Goal Alignment. White detectives are the most likely to be closely
aligned with the goals of their chief.

- Education and Goal Alignment. For ofﬁcers with bachelor’s or postgraduate
degrees, detectives were likely to be closely aligned and patrol ofﬁcers moderately

aligned with the goals of their chief.

99

- Tenure and Goal Alignment. Ofﬁcers with less than one year of police experience
are more closely aligned to the goals of their chief than are more experienced
ofﬁcers.

- Tenure in Job Assignment and Goal Alignment. Ofﬁcers in their ﬁrst year of a job
assignment are more closely aligned to the goals of their chief than are ofﬁcers

who have held their assignment for ﬁve or more years.

4.4 Job Satisfaction and Commitment to the Organization

If subordinates have high levels of j ob satisfaction and commitment to the
organization, they are less likely to disrupt organizational activities. If they have low
levels of job satisfaction and commitment to the organization, the principal may need to
monitor them more closely or offer more incentives. It is likely that different
management strategies are necessary for each of these situations. Section Three of the
survey measured ofﬁcers’ job satisfaction and level of commitment to their organization.
The interval data collected in Section Three was totaled to become the variable satcom.
The theoretical range of the variable satcom is 18 (a lack of job satisfaction and
commitment to the organization) to 180 (very satisﬁed with the job and committed to the
organization). The observed range was 52 to 140, about ﬁfty-four percent (54%) of the

theoretical range.

100

Table 18 - Job Satisfaction and Commitment to the Organization

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total Mean Std.Error Median Std. Range
Deviation
Satcom 335 96.4269 .751 1 97.0000 13 .7466 88.00

 

This variable needed to be transformed to be used in contingency tables. The
variable satcom was then collapsed into three categories of ordinal data to create the
variable satcom] . Approximately one third of the response totals were assigned to each
category. The lower third of the range of responses was categorized as low (0 to 33.4% of
the cumulative percentage). The middle third of the range of responses was categorized
as moderate (35.5% to 65.4% cumulative percentage). The highest third of the range of
responses was categorized as high (67.5% to 100%).

Next the variable satcom] and job assignment were examined to determine if
there is an association between the job assignments of ofﬁcers and their levels of job
satisfaction and commitment to the organization. This data is used to test the second null
hypothesis.

H,: Job assignment is unrelated to levels of organizational commitment or job

satisfaction.

101

Table 19 - Job Satisfaction and Job Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detectives CPO Total

Low 66 27 16 109
Satisfaction 31 .3% 35.1% 38.1% 33.0%
Moderate 60 3 1 l 5 1 O6
Satisfaction 28.4% 40.3% 35.7% 32.1%
High 85 19 1 l 1 15
Satisfaction 40.3% 24.7% 26.2% 34.8%
Total 221 77 42 330

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

x’ = 8.246, df= 4, p < .083

No signiﬁcant association was found between job assignment and job satisfaction

(x2 = 8.246, df = 4, p < .083). T-tests were conducted on the mean values for patrol

officers (97.3602), detectives (95.2857) and community police ofﬁcers (94.5238). No

signiﬁcant associations were found. The second null hypothesis cannot be rejected.

The method of job acquisition was examined for its association to ofﬁcers’ job

satisfaction and commitment to the organization. It was assumed that ofﬁcers who

volunteered or were promoted to their assignments would have higher levels of j ob

satisfaction.

 

102

Table 20 — Job Satisfaction and Job Acquisition

 

 

 

 

 

Assigned/Entry Level Volunteer/Promotion Total

Low 67 44 1 1 1
Satisfaction 32.7% 34. 1% 33.2%
Moderate 59 48 1 07
Satisfaction 28.8% 37.2% 32.0%
High 79 37 l 16
Satisfaction 38.5% 28.7% 34.7%
Total 205 129 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

 

 

x’ = 4.018, df= 2, p < .134

No signiﬁcant association was found for the method of job acquisition and
ofﬁcers’ level of job satisfaction (x2 = 4.018, df = 2, p < .134). Volunteers and promoted
officers were no more satisﬁed with their jobs than were entry level and assigned ofﬁcers.
The mean values of assigned or entry level ofﬁcers (96.8488) and volunteer or promoted
ofﬁcers (95.8140) were compared using a t-test. Again, no signiﬁcance was found
(t = .669, df = 332, p < .504).

It is sometimes proposed that employing more female ofﬁcers could help to
soften the adversarial relationship many departments have with the public. At the same
time, many feel that a male dominated occupation, such as policing, is a hostile work

environment for women. Are women comfortable in this organizational environment?

103

There appears to be some support for this concern. Women do not seem to ﬁnd as much

satisfaction in their jobs. Gender was found to be a signiﬁcant factor.

Table 21 — Job Satisfaction and Gender

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male Female Total

Low 81 30 111
Satisfaction 29.9% 47.6% 33.2%
Moderate 93 14 107
Satisfaction 34.3% 22.2% 32.0%
High 97 19 116
Satisfaction 35.8% 30.2% 34.7%
Total 271 63 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 7.636, df = 2, p < .022, Cramer’s V = .151

Female ofﬁcers were found to be signiﬁcantly less satisﬁed with their jobs than

male officers (x2 = 7.636, df = 2, p < .022). Nearly half (47.6%) of the female officers

had low levels of job satisfaction compared to nearly thirty percent (29.9%) of male

officers. Seventy percent (70.1%) of male ofﬁcers had moderate or high levels of job

satisfaction compared to only slightly more than half (52.4%) of female ofﬁcers. The

strength of this association is modest (Cramer’s V = .151). The mean value for male

ofﬁcers (97.2657) was also found to be signiﬁcantly higher than that of female ofﬁcers

(92.9365) in t-tests (t = 2.263, df =332, p < .024).

 

104

Police organizations have made considerable strides since the civil unrest of the

19603, when white males dominated policing. Today, police departments more closely

reﬂect the racial diversity of the communities they serve. This change brings new

questions. Does this diversity affect management and ofﬁcers’ perception? Do police

organizations address the needs and aspirations of all their members? Does the

organization treat everyone fairly? Race was next examined for an association to job

satisfaction. Because few were found in the sample, Asians were reeoded and added to

the other category. No signiﬁcance was found for race and its association with job

satisfaction (x2 =8.75 8, df = 6, p < .188). T-tests were performed on the mean values of

the categories White (96.3065), Aﬁ'ican American (98.1731), Hispanic (94.2632), and

Other (96.0000) and no signiﬁcance was found.

Table 22 — Job Satisfaction and Race

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

White African American Hispanic Other Total

Low 85 13 9 ’ 2 109
Satisfaction 34.3% 25.0% 47.4% 18.2% 33 .0%
Moderate 77 18 4 7 106
Satisfaction 31.0% 34.6% 21.1% 63.6% 32.1%
High 86 21 6 2 115
Satisfaction 34.7% 40.4% 31 .6% 18.2% 34.8%
Total 248 52 19 11 330

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 8.758, df= 6, p < .188

 

105

The race variable was then reeoded into two categories: White and Other. Once
again, no signiﬁcance was found for race and job satisfaction (x2 = .834, df = 2, p < .659).
T-tests were then conducted on the mean values of the categories White (96.3065) and
Other (96.9756). No signiﬁcant difference was found (t = -.384, df = 328, p < .701).

Since the time of August Vollmer, reformers have advocated higher levels of
education to improve the competence and professionalism of the police. One purpose of
education is to change the way people perceive events and problems. It remains unclear
how these more educated ofﬁcers ﬁt into police organizational structure. Ofﬁcers’ level
of education was compared to their level of job satisfaction to determine if they are

associated. Levels of education did not appear to affect ofﬁcers’ job satisfaction.

106

Table 23 — Job Satisfaction and Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High School Some College/ Bachelor/Post- Total
Associate graduate

Low 1 1 66 34 11 1
Satisfaction 32.4% 36.7% 28.3% 33.2%
Moderate l 1 57 39 107
Satisfaction 32.4% 31.7% 32.5% 32.0%
High 12 57 47 116
Satisfaction 35.3% 3 l .7% 39.2% 34.7%
Total 34 180 120 334

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

x’ = 2.700, df= 4,

p < .609

No signiﬁcance was found for officers’ level of education and their level of job

satisfaction (x2 = 2.700, df = 4, p < .609). The mean values for the variables High School

(96.1176), Some College/Associate Degree (95.8444) and Bachelor/Postgraduate

Degrees (97.4500) were examined. No signiﬁcant difference was found in t-tests of their

mean values.

It is often thought that policing is a negative experience for its practitioners. The

longer individuals work as police officers, the more cynical and less satisﬁed with their

jobs they become. This observation was supported by the data.

 

107

Table 24 - Job Satisfaction and Job Tenure

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

<lyr 1-5yrs 6-10yrs 11-15yrs 216yrs Total
Low 0 25 32 14 39 110
Satisfaction .O% 27.2% 3 8.6% 35.0% 37.5% 33.1%
Moderate 5 27 23 13 38 106
Satisfaction 38.5% 29.3% 27.7% 32.5% 36.5% 31.9%
High 8 40 28 13 27 116
Satisfaction 61 .5% 43.5% 33.7% 32.5% 26.0% 34.9%
Total 13 92 83 40 104 332

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 15.249, df = 8, p < .054, Kendall’s tau-c = -.15

A signiﬁcant association was found for the length of job tenure and ofﬁcers’ level
of job satisfaction (x2 = 15.249, df = 8, p < .054). Levels of job satisfaction decreased as
years of police experience increased. None of the police ofﬁcers with less than a year of
experience were in the low satisfaction category compared to nearly thirty-nine percent
(38.6%) of ofﬁcers with six to ten years of experience and nearly thirty-eight percent
(37.5%) of ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of experience. The majority of officers
(61.5%) with less than one year experience reported high levels of job satisfaction
compared to only twenty-six percent (26%) of ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of
service. Though the strength of the association is modest (tau-c = -.150), it is consistent
with the observation that police ofﬁcers become more cynical and discontented from the

policing experience.

108

This ﬁnding was conﬁrmed by the t-tests. T-tests were performed on the mean
values of the job tenure categories Less than One Year (105.3846), One to Five Years
(98.5435), Six to Ten Years (95.0964), Eleven to Fifteen Years (96.3000), and Sixteen or
More Years (94.6595). The mean values for ofﬁcers with less than one year of police
experience was signiﬁcantly higher than in each of the other categories (signiﬁcant levels
.054, .013, .015, .018). There was no signiﬁcant difference found in comparison of the
other tenure categories. (Comparison of the means of One to Five Years and Six to Ten
Years {t = 1.751, p < .082} and One to Five Years and Sixteen or More Years {t = 1.932,
p < .055} nearly reached signiﬁcant levels.)

Finally, the effect of taking a new job assignment was examined. New job
assignments can bring enthusiasm or apprehension. Ofﬁcers may also become bored or
discontented with their assignments. An ofﬁcer’s length of tenure in his or her current

assignment may affect his or her level of job satisfaction.

Table 25 — Job Satisfaction and Tenure in Current Assignment

109

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

< 1 yr 1 to 2 yrs 3 to 4 yrs 5 or more yrs Total

Low 20 26 24 41 11 1
Satisfaction 30.3% 32.1% 38.5% 33.1% 33.3%
Moderate 22 29 1 8 3 7 1 06
Satisfaction 33.3% 35.8% 29.0% 29.8% 31.8%
High 24 26 20 46 116
Satisfaction 36.4% 32.1% 32.3% 37.1% 34.8%
Total 66 81 62 124 333

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = -2.033, df= 6, p < .917

No signiﬁcant association was found for ofﬁcers’ tenure in their current job

assignment and their level of job satisfaction. The mean values of the categories Less

Than One Year (96.9545), One to Two Years (95.3457), Three to Four Years (96.4032),

and Five or More Years (96.9032) were compared using t-tests; no signiﬁcant difference

was found. Ofﬁcers’ tenure in their current job assignments was not associated with their

level of job satisfaction.

To summarize, no signiﬁcant association was found between job satisfaction and

job assignment. Hypothesis two cannot be rejected. No association was found for the

method of job acquisition, race, level of education or tenure in current job assignment.

Levels of job satisfaction were found to decrease as experience as a police ofﬁcer

 

110

increased. Furthermore, female ofﬁcers were found to have lower levels of job

satisfaction than male ofﬁcers.

Additional chi-square and t-test analysis (See Appendix C) produced the

following ﬁndings:

Education and Job Satisfaction. For ofﬁcers with some college or associate’s
degrees, eighty-one percent (81.4%) of community police ofﬁcers, nearly eighty
percent (79.6%) of detectives, and nearly sixty percent (59.8%) of patrol ofﬁcers,
had low or moderate levels of job satisfaction. At this level of education, nearly
forty-one percent (40.6%) of patrol ofﬁcers, twenty percent (20.4%) of detectives,
and nearly nineteen percent (18.5%) of community police ofﬁcers had high levels
of job satisfaction.

Tenure in Job Assignment and Job Satisfaction. For ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of a
new job assignment, seventy-one percent (71.4%) of community police ofﬁcers
and nearly forty-two percent (41.7%) of detectives had low levels of job
satisfaction. Half (50.0%) of the patrol ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of a new job
assignment reported high levels of job satisfaction. For ofﬁcers in their current
assignment for ﬁve (5) or more years, forty percent (40.2%) of patrol ofﬁcers
reported high levels of job satisfaction; ﬁfty-four percent (54.2%) of detectives
reported moderate job satisfaction, and nearly forty-six percent (45.5%) of
community police ofﬁcers reported low job satisfaction.

Gender and Job Satisfaction. Female ofﬁcers have lower levels of job

satisfaction than do male officers.

111

- Tenure and Job Satisfaction. Levels of job satisfaction decrease as tenure

increased.

4.5 Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction

Finally, a closer look is taken at the premise that goal alignment and job
satisfaction are associated. One of the theoretical assumptions of this study is that
ofﬁcers who are more closely aligned with the goals of their chief (low difference) will
have higher levels of job satisfaction. Conversely, it is assumed that ofﬁcers who are
dissatisﬁed in their jobs are likely to have more goal disparity with their chief. It is
further assumed that unhappy employees who are pursuing disparate goals are a greater
challenge for police administrators. These assumptions are tested by comparing the goal

alignment variable (difﬁrl) and the job satisfaction variable (satcoml).

112

Table 26 - Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 26 41 51 1 18
Difference Differl 22.0% 34.7% 43.2% 100.0%
Satcoml 23.2% 38.3% 44.0% 35 .2%
Moderate 34 33 35 102
Difference Differl 33.3% 32.4% 34.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 30.4% 30.8% 30.2% 30.4%
High 52 33 30 1 15
Difference Differl 45.2% 28.7% 26.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 46.4% 30.8% 25.9% 34.3%
Total 1 12 107 1 16 335
Differl 33.4% 31.9% 34.6% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 14.980, df = 4, p < .005 Kendall tau-b = -.181,

A signiﬁcant association was found between ofﬁcers’ level of goal alignment with
their chief and their level of job satisfaction. The direction of this relationship is
consistent with the principal-agent model and the underlying assumptions of this study.
Ofﬁcers who have close goal alignment with their chief (Low Dﬂrence) are more likely
to have high levels of job satisfaction (44.0%) than low levels of job satisfaction (23.2%).
Ofﬁcers who have little goal congruence with their chief (High Diﬁ’erence) are more
likely to have low levels of job satisfaction (46.4%) than high levels of job satisfaction
(25.9%). Conversely, ofﬁcers with low levels of job satisfaction (Low Satisfaction) are
more likely to have high levels of goal disagreement (45.2%) than low levels (22.0%) of
disagreement with the goals of their chief. Ofﬁcers with high levels of job satisfaction

(High Satisfaction) were more likely to have low levels of goal difference (43.2%) than

113

high levels (26.1%) of goal difference with their chief. The strength of this relationship is

modest (tau-b = -.181). These ﬁndings support the theoretical assumptions of the study.

Additional analysis of the data (See Appendix C) revealed the pattern of high job

satisfaction and close goal congruence held for following groups:

Patrol ofﬁcers, but not detectives. There were too few community police ofﬁcers
in the survey to construct an accurate chi-square test.

Volunteer/Promoted Ofﬁcers.

Male Ofﬁcers.

Both white and minority ofﬁcers.

Officers with some college or associate’s degrees.

Ofﬁcers with one to ﬁve years’ tenure and officers with sixteen or more years’
tenure.

Ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of a new job assignment.

4.6 Summary

Analysis of the data set allow us to reject the ﬁrst null hypothesis. Ofﬁcers’ goal

congruence with their chief is associated with their job assignment. Detectives were

found to be closely aligned with the goals of their chief. Patrol ofﬁcers were found to

have the most goal disparity with their chief. Community police officers occupied the

middle ground between these two groups.

114

When the method of job acquisition was controlled, it was found that entry level
or assigned detectives and community police ofﬁcers had goals and values signiﬁcantly
closer to their chief than did patrol ofﬁcers.

When race was controlled, white detectives were found to hold goals and values
signiﬁcantly closer to the goals of their chief than officers in other job assignments. This
association was not signiﬁcant for minority ofﬁcers.

By controlling level of education, it was found that detectives who held bachelor’s
or postgraduate degrees were more closely aligned than other ofﬁcers to the goals of their
chief. Controlling for other levels of education did not produce signiﬁcant associations.

Controlling officers’ job tenure revealed two signiﬁcant categories. Ofﬁcers with
less than one year experience were all assigned to patrol, so they were excluded from this
analysis. Detectives with six to ten years of tenure were closely aligned with the goals of
their chief, as were detectives with sixteen or more years of experience. No other tenure
levels were found signiﬁcant.

The second research question demonstrates its importance by what the analyses
did not ﬁnd. The issue of job satisfaction is more complex than anticipated. No support
was found for an association between job satisfaction and job assignment.

Some of the demographic variables were found to be associated with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment. Women officers had lower levels of job

satisfaction and commitment to the organization than men. Tenure was also found to be

signiﬁcant. Levels of job satisfaction decreased with years of service.

115

Though the association between job satisfaction and job assignment was not
signiﬁcant, it became signiﬁcant when certain factors were controlled. When education
was controlled, it was found that community police ofﬁcers with some college or
associate’s degrees had low levels of job satisfaction. When tenure in current assignment
was controlled, community police ofﬁcers and detectives in their ﬁrst year of their
assignments had low levels of job satisfaction. For ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years of
service, community policing officers were least satisﬁed.

The complex nature of job satisfaction was further demonstrated when it was
found that goal alignment and job satisfaction were signiﬁcantly associated. Ofﬁcers
with close goal congruence with their chief tended to have high levels of job satisfaction.
Ofﬁcers in goal conﬂict with their chief tended to have low levels of job satisfaction.
This association reached signiﬁcance for patrol ofﬁcers, but not detectives. The issue
was further clouded when community police ofﬁcers could not be analyzed because of
small sample size. Controlling for the demographic variables found signiﬁcance for
ofﬁcers in the following categories: volunteers and promoted, males, those with some
college or associate degrees, those with one to ﬁve years of tenure and those with sixteen

or more years experience, and ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of their assigned job.

1 16
4.7 Regression Models

The complexity of the ﬁndings suggests it would be useful to re-examine the data
while controlling for multiple variables. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was
used to construct models that controlled for multiple variables. Dummy variables were
created and variables reeoded so they could be used in regression analyses of the variables
for goal alignment (differ) and job assignment (satcom). Tables of coefﬁcient
correlations can be found in Appendix D.

The analyses began by examining goal alignment. A regression model was
constructed with goal alignment (differ) as the dependent variable and police department,
job assignment and the demographic variables as independent variables. Only the
variables for department, detective and tenure in current assignment achieved
signiﬁcance. The signs of the betas were in the expected direction. It should be noted that
the dependent variable measures level of goal difference. Negative betas indicate
contributing to closer goal alignment. The negative betas for detective and community
police ofﬁcers indicate closer goal alignment for those job assignments. The R2 for the

model was .109 and the adjusted R2 was .084.

117

Table 27 - Dummy Variables & Recoding

 

Variable Name

Coding

 

 

Department

(dept)
Detective

Community policing ofﬁcer
(9pc)

Volunteer/Promoted
(volpro)

Female

Minority

Education
(educate)

Job Tenure
(tenure)

Tenure in Current Assignment
(curasgn)

 

Cincinnati =1, Colorado Springs = O
Detective = 1, other job assignment = 0
CPO = 1, other job assignments = 0
Volunteer/Promoted = 1, Assign/Entry = 0
Female =1, Male = 0

Minority = 1, White = 0

High School = 0

Some college/associate’s degree = 1
Bachelor’s Degree = 2
Postgraduate Degree = 3

less than 1 year= 0
ltoSyears=l

6to 10 years =2

11 to 15 years=3
16 or more years = 4

less than 1 year = 0
1 to 2 years =1
3 to 4 years = 2
5 or more years = 3

 

 

118

Table 28 - Exploratory Goal Alignment Regression’

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance

Constant 12.955 2.304 5.622 .000

Dept 5.978 1.264 4.728 .000 .908
Detective -3.384 1.728 -1.958 .051 .669
CPO -1.789 1.988 -.900 .369 .812
Volpro .891 1.532 .582 .561 .647
Female .479 1.585 .302 .763 .956
Minority -1.244 1.436 -.866 .387 .952
Educate .755 .903 .836 .404 .902
Tenure .781 .623 1.254 .21 l .562
Curasgn 1.267 .641 1.976 .049 .657

 

The regression model was trimmed to include department, detective and current
assignment as the independent variables. When the second model was calculated, the
variable detective was no longer signiﬁcant, and the model explained nearly as much of
the relationship as the previous model. The R2 for the second model is .099 and the
adjusted R2 is .090. This model indicates that the department and the ofﬁcer’s tenure in

his or her current assignment are the most useful variables for predicting levels of goal

alignment.

 

3 Tables of coefﬁcient correlations are found in Appendix D. These tables are numbered
the same as the table for the model with the addition of the suffix “A”and “B”, e.g. Table
32A.

119

Table 29 - Goal Alignment, Department, Detective & Current Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 15.183 1.352 11.229 .000
Department 5.643 1 .208 4.670 .000 .994
Detective -2.061 1.433 -1 .438 .151 .980
Curasgn 1.583 .524 3 .022 .003 .986

 

 

 

Next, the analyses turned to job satisfaction. The demographic variables were

used as independent variables with job satisfaction as the dependent variable. Three

variables were found to be signiﬁcant: department, female and job tenure. This model

did not explain much of the change in the dependent variable. The R2 was only .076 and

the adjusted R2 was .049. The department remains a signiﬁcant predictor of ofﬁcers’ goal

alignment. Job assignment was not a signiﬁcant predictor, although the beta signs for

detective and community police ofﬁcer are in the direction of lower job satisfaction. The

negative beta sign for tenure indicates decreasing job satisfaction as ofﬁcers gain

experience. Female ofﬁcers are less satisﬁed in their jobs than are male ofﬁcers.

120

Table 30 - Exploratory Job Satisfaction Regression

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance

Constant 105.089 2.788 37.687 .000

Dept 4329 1.530 -2.829 .005 .908
Detective -. l 36 2.091 -.065 .948 .669
CPO -2.122 2.406 -.882 .378 .812
Volpro 1.415 1.854 .763 .446 .647
Female -4.109 1.918 -2.143 .033 .956
Minority -.301 1.738 -.173 .862 .952
Educate -.764 1 .093 -.699 .485 .902
Tenure -2.785 .754 -3.696 .000 .562
Curasgn 1.153 .776 1.485 .139 .657

 

 

The model was respeciﬁed to include only the signiﬁcant variables: department,

female and tenure. The new model was less predictive than the model including all

variables. The R2 of the new model was .065 and the adjusted R2 was .056.

Table 31 — Job Satisfaction, Department, Female and Job Tenure

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 104.102 1.910 54.489 .000
Dept -3 .965 1.490 -2.661 .008 .986
Female -5.174 1.916 -2.700 .007 .974
Tenure -1.892 .584 -3.241 .001 .964

 

 

The most signiﬁcant variables were used to construct a model to predict goal

alignment. Department, tenure in current assignment and level of job satisfaction

(satcom) were examined for their affect on level of goal alignment. This model had an R2

of .132 and an adjusted R2 of .124. The signs of betas were in the expected direction.

121

The beta for job satisfaction was negative, so increasing levels of job satisfaction mean

closer goal congruency. The sign for tenure in current assignment was positive. Officers’

level of goal congruence declines as tenure in a job assignment increases.

Table 32 - Goal Alignment Model

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 31.475 4.527 6.953 .000
Dept 4.873 1.188 4.101 .000 .983
Curasgn 1.707 .509 3.356 .001 1.000
Satcom -.173 .044 -3 .92 .000 .982

 

Additional regression models were developed for goal alignment for each job

assignment (See Appendix C). The most useful variables for predicting patrol officers’

goal alignment were tenure in current job assignment and job satisfaction (R2 = .130,

adjusted R2 = .122). Increased levels of job satisfaction brought closer goal congruence,

and increased tenure in current job assignment brought more goal disparity. For

detectives, job tenure, tenure in current assignment, and job satisfaction were the most

useful predictors of goal alignment (R2 =.118, adjusted R2 = 081). Increasing detectives’

job tenure and job satisfaction brought closer goal congruency, while increased tenure in

current job assignment brought increased goal disparity. The most unexpected ﬁnding

was for community police ofﬁcers. The only signiﬁcant predictor for community police

officers was race. Minority community police ofﬁcers were more closely aligned with the

goals of their chief (R2 = .151, adjusted R2 = .130).

 

122
4.8 Using Departments as Controls

Each police department provides unique management challenges. To more
closely examine the differences in departments, the data from each police department was
analyzed separately. The same procedures and techniques that were used to analyze the
whole data set were applied to the individual departments. Before presenting the
ﬁndings, some comments are in order.

Associations found signiﬁcant in the larger data set may not be replicated in the
analysis of data from individual departments. One reason pertains to sample size. When
reducing the data pool to individual departments, the sample of detectives and community
police ofﬁcers becomes very small. The paucity of the sample in some categories may
reduce the power of statistical tests to achieve signiﬁcance. Another possible factor is the
recoding procedure. As discussed in Chapter 3, missing values for scale questions were
replaced with the question’s mean value for ofﬁcers from that department. This
procedure allowed the use of surveys with missing responses, but it increased the
difﬁculty in ﬁnding signiﬁcance. While relatively few values had to be substituted, the
problem would be magniﬁed in smaller data sets.

4.8.1 Department’s Demoggaphic Data

One hundred eighty-two usable (182) surveys were collected from the Cincinnati
Police Division. Patrol ofﬁcers constituted nearly sixty-seven percent (67%) of the
respondents, followed by detectives (20.3%) and community police ofﬁcers (13%).

The sample from Colorado Springs was slightly smaller. One hundred ﬁfty-three

(153) usable surveys were returned from the Colorado Springs Police Department. The

123

majority of respondents were patrol ofﬁcers (60.8%). Nearly twenty-seven percent

(26.8%) of the sample were detectives, and the remainder were community police ofﬁcers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(12.4%).
Table 33 - Job Assignments by Department

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Springs Colorado Springs

Frequency Valid Percent Frequency Valid Percent
Patrol/traffic l 18 66.6 93 60.8
Detectives 36 20.3 41 26.8
CPO 23 13.0 19 12.4
Total 177 100.0 153 100.0
Missing 5 0
Total 182 153

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

About two thirds of Cincinnati police ofﬁcers were working at assigned or entry
level jobs. The remaining ofﬁcers either volunteered or were promoted to their
assignment. The Colorado Springs respondents were nearly equally divided between

assigned or entry level positions and volunteer or promotional assignments.

124

Table 34 — Job Acquisition by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Colorado
Frequency Valid Percent Springs Springs
Frequency Valid Percent
Assigned/Entry level 120 66.3 85 56.6
Volunteer/Promotion 61 33.7 68 44.4
Total 181 100.0 153 100.0
Missing 1 0
Total 182 153

 

As the number of women entering the police workforce continues to grow, the

occupation is still dominated by men. About eighty percent of the respondents were

male. The Cincinnati Police Division sample was over seventy-nine percent (79.6%)

male and twenty percent (20.4%) female. The Colorado Springs Police Department

sample was composed of eighty-three percent (83.0%) male and seventeen percent

(17.0%) female officers.

 

125

Table 35 - Gender by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Springs Colorado
Frequency Valid Percent Frequency Springs
Valid Percent
Male 144 79.6 127 83.0
Female 37 20.4 26 17.0
Total 181 100.0 153 100.0
Missing 1 0
Total 1 153

 

 

 

 

 

 

Over seventy-one percent (71.2%) of Cincinnati respondents were white and over
twenty-ﬁve percent (25.4%) African American. Few Asians and Hispanics were found in
the Cincinnati Police Department. The department is sixty-four percent (64.3%) white,
thirty-four percent (34.7%) African American, less than one percent (.1%) Hispanic and
less than one percent (1%) Asians.

Nearly eighty percent of the Colorado Springs respondents were white (79.7%),
with Hispanics composing the next largest group (11.1%). African Americans comprise
less than ﬁve percent (4.6%) of the sample. Only two percent (2%) of the sample were
Asians. The Colorado Springs Police Department is eighty-four percent (84.8%) white,
nine percent (9.3%) Hispanic, ﬁve percent (5.1%) African American, and less than one

percent (0.4%) Asians.

 

126

Table 36 - Race by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Springs Colorado Springs
Frequency Valid Percent Frequency Valid Percent
White 126 71.2 122 79.7
African 45 25.4 7 4.6
American
Hispanic 2 1.1 17 11.1
Asian 1 .6 3 2.0
Other 3 1.7 4 2.6
Total 177 100.0 153 100.0
Missing 5 0
Total 182 153

 

College education for police ofﬁcers has become quite common. Over eighty

percent (82.9%) of the respondents from Cincinnati had taken at least some college

classes. Nearly thirty percent (28.2%) have earned a bachelor’s degree as their terminal

degree. Few in the sample (1.7%) had postgraduate degrees.

Nearly all of the Colorado Springs respondents had taken at least some college

courses (98%), and nearly thirty-six percent (35.9%) have earned bachelor’s degrees as

their terminal degrees. Over seven percent (7.2) have postgraduate degrees.

 

127

Table 37 — Education by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Colorado
Frequency Valid Percent Springs Springs
Frequency Valid Percent

High School or GED 31 17.1 3 2.0
Some college/associate 96 53.0 84 54.9
Bachelor’s degree 51 28.2 55 35.9
Postgraduate degree 3 1.7 11 7.2
Total 181 100.0 153 100.0
Missing 1 0
Total 182 153

 

The Cincinnati respondents had a wide range of police experience. However,

there were few respondents in the less than one year (2.8%) and the eleven to fifteen

years (8.9%) categories. Most (60.5%) of the ofﬁcers had between one and ten years’

experience. The Colorado Springs sample also included ofﬁcers with a wide range of

police experience. There were, though, few ofﬁcers (5.2%) with less than one year of

experience.

 

128

Table 38 - Job Tenure by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Colorado
Frequency Valid Percent Springs Springs
Frequency Valid Percent
Less than 1 year 5 2.8 8 5.3
1 to 5 years 60 33.3 32 21.1
6 to 10 years 49 27.2 34 22.4
11 to 15 years 16 8.9 24 15.8
16 or more 50 27.8 54 35.5
years
Total 180 100.0 152 100.0
Missing 2 1
Total 1 82 1 53

 

The sample contained a good distribution of ofﬁcers at each tenure level. The
majority of the Cincinnati respondents have been working in their current assignments for
over three years (55.8%). The Colorado Springs respondents had a full range of

experience in their present assignments with each category well represented.

129

Table 39 - Tenure in Current Job Assignment by Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cincinnati Cincinnati Colorado Springs Colorado Springs
Frequency Valid Percent Frequency Valid Percent
Less tlranl 31 17.1 35 23.0
year
1 to 2 years 49 27.1 32 21.4
3 to 4 years 37 20.4 25 16.4
5 or more 64 35.4 60 39.5
years
Total 181 100.0 152 100.0
Missing 1 1
Total 182 153

 

 

4.8.2 Cincinnati Data Analysis

Analyses of the Cincinnati data produce few signiﬁcant associations. The
complete analysis can be found in Appendix C. The following is a summary of the
ﬁndings:

° Race and Goal Alignment. Minority ofﬁcers (41.2%) have the highest levels of
close goal alignment with their chief, and white officers (45.7%) have the highest
goal disparity with their chief.

' Tenure and Goal Alignment. Ofﬁcers with less than one year of experience were
more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than were ofﬁcers with six to
ﬁfteen years of experience. Ofﬁcers with one to ﬁve years of experience are more

closely aligned with the goals of their chief than were officers with eleven to

130

ﬁfteen years of experience. Ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years of experience
were more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than were ofﬁcers with

sixteen or more years of experience.

- Gender and Job Satisfaction. Female ofﬁcers had lower levels of j ob satisfaction
than did male officers.
- Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction. For patrol ofﬁcers, levels of goal alignment

with their chief were associated with job satisfaction. Ofﬁcers closely aligned

with their chief’s goals were likely to have high levels of job satisfaction.

Officers with low levels of job satisfaction were likely to have high levels of goal

disparity with their chief.

The Cincinnati data was also examined using regression analysis. Once again,
few signiﬁcant ﬁndings arose from this data set. An OLS model was constructed for the
dependent variable for goal alignment (diﬁ'er). Job assignment and the demographic
variables were regressed on the dependent variable. None of the betas for the
independent variables were signiﬁcant.

The models for job satisfaction were somewhat more successful. The independent
variables were regressed on the dependent variable for job satisfaction (satcom). Only the
beta for the job tenure variable was found to be signiﬁcant. The beta for female ofﬁcers

was nearly signiﬁcant (.083). The R2 was .094 and the adjusted R2 was .050.

131

Table 40 — Exploratory Job Satisfaction Model for Cincinnati

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 104.246 3.365 30.978 .000

Detective .339 2.937 .115 .908 .688
CPO -4.424 3.115 -1.420 .158 .874
Volpro -1.701 2.562 -.664 .508 .663
Female -4.405 2.524 -1.745 .083 .951
Minority 1.509 2.260 .668 .505 .944
Educate -2.141 1.459 -1 .467 .144 .924
Tenure -2.227 1.036 -2. 149 .033 .575
Curasgn -.197 1.142 -.173 .863 .607

 

The model was respeciﬁed with female and tenure as the independent variables.

The new model had an R2 of .057 and an adjusted R2 of .046. The best predictors of job

satisfaction in the Cincinnati Police Division are gender and job tenure. The betas for

both variables are negative, meaning both variables work to reduce the level of job

satisfaction.

Table 41 — Job Satisfaction, Female Ofﬁcers and Tenure in Cincinnati

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 100.496 2.238 44.910 .000
Female -1.925 .819 -2.351 .020 .978
Tenure -6.556 2.547 -2574 .01 l .978

 

 

 

132

4.8.3 Colorado Springs Data Analysis

Analysis of the Colorado Springs data produced signiﬁcant associations for goal

alignment but not for job satisfaction (See Appendix C). The analysis produced the

following ﬁndings:

Job Assignment and Goal Alignment. Ofﬁcers’ goal congruency with their chief
was associated with their job assignment. The majority of detectives (65.9%) and
community police ofﬁcers (52.6%) were closely aligned with the goals of their
chief. Nearly thirty percent (28.0%) of patrol ofﬁcers, compared to twelve percent
(12.2%) of detectives and nearly sixteen percent (15.8%) of community police
ofﬁcers, had high levels of goal disparity with their chief.

Tenure in Current Assignment and Goal Alignment. Goal congruency with the
chief is greatest in the ﬁrst year of a new job assignment and declines each year
after.

Education and Goal Alignment. For ofﬁcers with bachelor’s or postgraduate
degrees, nearly sixty-nine percent (68.6%) of detectives, ﬁfty percent (50.0%) of
community police ofﬁcers, and nearly thirty percent (29.8%) of patrol officers are
closely aligned with the goals of their chief.

Tenure and Goal Alignment. For ofﬁcers with sixteen (16) years or more of
experience, over sixty-eight percent (68.4%) of detectives, nearly sixty-seven
percent (66.7%) of community police ofﬁcers, and nearly twenty-eight percent

(27.6%) of patrol ofﬁcers, were closely aligned with their chief.

133

As expected, the OLS models for Colorado Springs were more productive. The

independent variables were regressed against the dependent variable for goal alignment,

diﬂer. The model had an R2 of .126 and an adjusted R2 of .077. Only the variable for the

job assignment of the detective was found signiﬁcant. The Sign of the beta was in the

expected direction, indicating detectives are more closely aligned with their chief. The

variable for tenure in ofﬁcers’ current assignment was nearly signiﬁcant and indicated

diminishing goal alignment as tenure increases.

Table 42 - Exploratory Model for Goal Alignment in Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance

Constant 14.579 2.612 5.582 .000

Detective -5.576 2.054 -2.714 .007 .636
CPO -3.246 2.631 -1.234 .219 .698
Volpro .488 1.919 .254 .800 .581
Female 1.254 2.007 .625 .533 .955
Minority -1.328 1.868 -.71 1 .478 .956
Educate -.199 1.142 -.174 .862 .962
Tenure .989 .760 1 .3 O2 .195 .540
Curasgn 1.331 .730 1.824 .070 .684

 

When the model was respeciﬁed with the variables for detective and tenure in

current assignment, both betas were found signiﬁcant. Signs for the betas were in the

expected direction. The detective job assignment was an indicator of closer goal

alignment. Each year in job assignment increased levels of goal disparity. The R2 was

.100 and the adjusted R2 was .088.

 

134

Table 43 — Goal Alignment, Detectives and Tenure in Assignment Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 14.916 1.353 11.026 .000
Detective -3.617 1.630 -2.218 .028 .998
Curasgn 1.981 .601 3.297 .001 .998

 

When the variable for job satisfaction was added to this model, it slightly

increased the predictive value of the model. The R2 of the new model was .128 and the

adjusted R2 was .111. Higher level of job satisfaction was a predictor of closer goal

alignment.

Table 44 - Goal Alignment, Detectives, Tenure in Assignment and Job Satisfaction
in Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 26.556 5.450 4.873 .000
Detective -3.880 1.614 -2.404 .017 .992
Curasgn 2.040 .594 3.434 .001 .996
Satcom -.1 19 .054 -2.203 .029 .992

 

An examination of a scatter plot of the error residuals and variable curve estimates

suggested that this model could be improved if the variable for job satisfaction was

adjusted. The variable was cubed and the respeciﬁed model reanalyzed. The R2

improved to .135 and the adjusted R2 to .1 17.

 

 

135

Table 45 — Goal Alignment in Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 18.894 2.102 8.987 .000
Detective -3.862 1 .607 -2.403 .017 .994
Curasgn 2.070 .592 3.495 .001 .994
Satcom3 -4.0E-06 .000 -2.445 .016 .992

 

The analysis again returned to the issue of job satisfaction. Job assignment and

the demographic variables were regressed against the dependent variable for job

satisfaction. I ob tenure and tenure in current assignment were the only variables found to

be signiﬁcant. The R2 for the model was .094 and the adjusted R2 was .043.

Unexpectedly, the results were contradictory. Tenure decreased levels of job satisfaction,

while tenure in current assignment increased levels of job satisfaction.

Table 46 - Exploratory Job Satisfaction Model for Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance

Constant 100.931 3.808 26.503 .000

Detective -.208 2.995 -.069 .945 .636
CPO 1.585 3.336 .413 .680 .698
Volpro 4.390 2.797 1.569 .119 .581
Female -3.881 2.926 -1.326 .187 .955
Minority -4.032 2.724 -1.480 .141 .956
Educate l .366 1.666 .820 .414 .962
Tenure -3.642 1.108 -.3287 .001 .540
Curasgn 2.364 1.064 2.221 .028 .684

 

 

 

136

When the model was recast to include only the signiﬁcant variables, the R2

dropped to .046 and the adjusted R2 to .034. The beta for tenure in current assignment

was no longer signiﬁcant.

Table 47 - Job Satisfaction, Tenure and Tenure in Assignment for Colorado

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Springs
Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 101.620 2.432 41.784 .000
Curasgn 1.713 .993 1.725 .087 .794
Tenure -2.410 .928 -2.624 .010 .794

 

 

Removing the variable for tenure in current assignment did not improve the

model. The R2 became .027 and the adjusted R2 was .021. The negative beta for tenure

means that increasing tenure remains a factor in decreasing job satisfaction.

Table 48 — Job Satisfaction and Tenure in Colorado Springs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance
Constant 102.736 2.360 43.534 .000
Tenure -1 .690 .824 -2.052 .042

4.9 Summary

Goal Alignment and Job Assignment. There appears to be some support for the
proposition that goal alignment is associated with job assignment. This was conﬁrmed by
both the chi-square and regression analysis. Detectives are more closely aligned with the

goals of their chief. The detective job classiﬁcation remained a useful predictor of goal

137

alignment in many of the regression models, though job assignment quickly fell out of the
regression model once nonsigrriﬁcant variables were removed. Patrol officers have the
greatest goal discrepancies with their chief. Community police officers fall between these
two groups. This pattern was also seen in the Colorado Springs data, but not the
Cincinnati data. These discrepancies in goal alignment may have important implications
for police chiefs’ management strategies.

Goal Alignment and Demographic Variables. Many of the other variables are
important for their direct effect or lack of effect on goal alignment. Knowing the
department the officers were from was an important factor in all the regression models.

In the chi-square analysis, the method of job acquisition, entry level/assigned or
volunteer/promoted, had no effect in any of the data sets. Gender was not signiﬁcant in
any of the data sets. Race was only signiﬁcant for the Cincinnati data where minority
officers more closely aligned with their chiefs goals. Education had no effect, except for
a small sample of Colorado Springs ofﬁcers whose highest level of education was a high
school degree. These ofﬁcers had higher goal disparity with their chief than did more
educated ofﬁcers.

In each data set, job tenure was associated with goal alignment for new ofﬁcers.
Ofﬁcers with less than a year of experience had goals signiﬁcantly closer to their chief
than did ofﬁcers with long tenure.

Ofﬁcers in new assignments were more closely aligned with the goals of their

Chief than were long-tenured ofﬁcers. Tenure in the ofﬁcers’ current assignment was an

138

important factor for predicting goal alignment with the chief in all the regression models.
Along with the variable for department, it was the most revealing variable.

Goal Alignment and Job Assignment Controlled. When the demographic
variables were used to control the association between goal alignment and job
assignment, other interesting associations were found in chi-square analysis. In the large
data set, assigned detectives and community police ofﬁcers were more closely aligned
with the goals of their chief than were volunteers and promoted ofﬁcers. This association
was not found in the data for individual departments. Gender was not found to be
signiﬁcant in any of the data sets. White detectives were more closely aligned with the
chief in the aggregated data set. White detectives and community police officers were
more closely aligned with their chief in the Colorado Springs data. Race was not
signiﬁcant in Cincinnati. In the aggregated data set, detectives with bachelor’s/post-
graduate degrees were more closely aligned with the chief. Detectives and community
police ofﬁcers with bachelor’s/postgraduate degrees in Colorado Springs were closely
aligned with their chief. In the whole data set and in Colorado Springs, more tenured
detectives and, in some cases, community police ofﬁcers were more closely aligned with
their chief. In contrast to its importance in the regression models, an ofﬁcer’s tenure in
his or her current assignment was not signiﬁcant in any of the data sets.

Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was not found to be associated with job
assignment, job acquisition, race, education or tenure in the current assignment for any of
the data sets. Women were found to have lower levels of job satisfaction in the

aggregated data set and in Cincinnati. Gender was a useful predictor in regression models

139

for the entire data set and for Cincinnati, but not for Colorado Springs. New ofﬁcers
were found to have higher levels of job satisfaction in the aggregated data and in
Colorado Springs. In the regression models, tenure in the ofﬁcers’ current assignment
was only a useful predictor of job satisfaction for Colorado Springs. Overall, tenure and
department were the most signiﬁcant indicators of job satisfaction in the regression
models.

Job Satisfaction and Job Assignment Controlled. Re-examining job satisfaction
and job assignment with the demographic variables controlled provided little new
information in the chi-square analysis. The method of job acquisition, gender, race, and
tenure were not signiﬁcant. For ofﬁcers with some college or associate’s degrees in the
aggregated data set, community police ofﬁcers had low job satisfaction; detectives were
moderately satisﬁed, and patrol ofﬁcers more highly satisﬁed. Tenure in the current
assignment was signiﬁcant. For officers with less than one year in their assignment,
community police ofﬁcers and detectives had low job satisfaction, while patrol ofﬁcers
had high levels of job satisfaction. For ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years in their job
assignment, community police ofﬁcers had low levels of job satisfaction, detectives had
moderate levels of job satisfaction, and patrol ofﬁcers were likely to have high or low
levels of job satisfaction.

Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction. When goal alignment was compared to job
satisfaction, signiﬁcant associations were found in all but the Colorado Springs data.
Officers closely aligned with the goals of their chief were also likely to have high levels

of job satisfaction. Ofﬁcers who had high levels of goal disparity with their chief were

140

likely to have low levels of job satisfaction. When this association was examined with
job assignment controlled, the same pattern was found in the aggregated and Cincinnati
data for patrol ofﬁcers. In the regression models, job satisfaction was found to be a

useful predictor of goal alignment for the entire data set and for Colorado Springs.

4.10 Discussion

What do these ﬁndings mean for police chiefs attempting to manage their
ofﬁcers? Each job classiﬁcation has different management problems. Detectives are the
most closely aligned with the goals of their chief. Patrol ofﬁcers have the most disparate
goals. Community police ofﬁcers are somewhere in between. A brief composite can now
be drawn of each job assignment.

Patrol Oﬂicers. The association between job satisfaction and goal congruence
with the chief holds only for patrol officers. We cannot determine cause from effect.
However, low levels of job satisfaction are indicators of high levels of goal disparity for
patrol ofﬁcers. One of the most useful predictors of goal congruence for patrol ofﬁcers
was level of job satisfaction. Goal congruency diminished the longer an officer was in
this assignment. New ofﬁcers reported high levels of job satisfaction. Since new ofﬁcers
begin their careers in patrol, we should expect patrol ofﬁcers to begin with high levels of
job satisfaction. These ofﬁcers may be more receptive to direction from their chief.

Long-tenured patrol ofﬁcers, though, report high levels of goal disparity with their
chief. These officers are likely to be the most knowledgeable about organizational

procedures and processes. The principal-agent literature tells us that the more

141

knowledgeable agents become, the more difﬁcult negotiating and monitoring become for
the principal. These ofﬁcers may be less receptive to direction.

The effect of education is mixed and did not achieve signiﬁcance in any of the
regression models. Patrol ofﬁcers with some college or associate’s degrees had higher
levels of job satisfaction. This was not found for patrol ofﬁcers with bachelor’s or post-
graduate degrees. Nevertheless, higher levels of education may improve goal alignment.
Ofﬁcers with bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees were likely to have moderate levels of
goal alignment with their chief. Ofﬁcers with higher levels of education who move from
patrol to other job assignments were more satisﬁed.

Detectives. Detectives were the most closely aligned with their chiefs goals.
White detectives were more closely aligned with their chief than were minority
detectives. Ofﬁcers assigned to detective duties (as opposed to volunteers or promoted
ofﬁcers) had greater goal congruency with their chief than did other ofﬁcers. More
tenured detectives (six or more years) were more closely aligned with their chiefs goals.

Job satisfaction was not a signiﬁcant factor in detectives’ goal alignment in the
chi-square analysis, but emerged as important in the regression model for detectives.
Detectives with ﬁve or more years in their assignment had moderate levels of job
satisfaction. In the model, increasing levels of job satisfaction and tenure were useful
predictors of closer goal congruence. It appears that ofﬁcers’ resolve is challenged in the
early years in this job assignment. In the ﬁrst few years of the assignment, detectives
undergo a difﬁcult transition. It seems to take ofﬁcers several years to work through the

frustrations of this period.

142

Education is associated with detectives’ attitudes. Detectives with some college
or associate’s degrees had moderate (40.8%) or low (38.8%) levels of job satisfaction.
Detectives with bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees were more closely aligned with the
goals of their chief (56.5%).

Detectives share close goal congruence with their chief. This study cannot
determine whether this is caused by selection bias, a result of performing the detective’s
role, or a function of increased status in the organization. Some factors suggest that
status plays a role. The closer congruency of assigned detectives (rather than volunteer or
promoted) suggests that these ofﬁcers may feel rewarded by their assignments. The
closer congruence of more highly educated ofﬁcers suggests that detective assignments
are perceived to enhance ofﬁcers’ careers. Both suggest that ofﬁcers who have acquired
detective assignments may be motivated to preserve their vested interests. This may
mean that detectives are more receptive to manager’s direction.

Community Police Officers. Community police ofﬁcers fall between patrol
ofﬁcers and detectives in their levels of goal congruity with their chief. Though the
association between goal alignment and job satisfaction could not be fully analyzed for
community police officers, it provided some interesting paradoxes. Low levels of j ob
satisfaction were found for the majority (71.4%) of ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of their
assignment and for many (45.5%) ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years of tenure. At the same
time, ofﬁcers assigned to community policing (as opposed to volunteers or promoted
ofﬁcers) were closely aligned with their chief’s goals. More tenured ofﬁcers were more

closely aligned with the goals of their chief than officers with less tenure. Community

143

police ofﬁcers with six to ten years of experience were moderately (46.7%) or closely
(40.0%) aligned with their chief. Ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of tenure were
equally likely to have high or low levels of goal alignment. The regression model for
community police ofﬁcers found that minority ofﬁcers were more closely aligned with
their chief’s goals. Overall, community police ofﬁcers were more evenly distributed
throughout the alignment scale.

Education level is also associated with a community police ofﬁcer’s level of goal
alignment. Detectives with bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees have closer congruency
with their chief’s goals, and patrol ofﬁcers have moderate levels of goal congruency.
However, similarly educated community police ofﬁcers were equally likely to have high
or low levels of goal congruency.

Community police ofﬁcers remain a step somewhere between patrol and
detectives. Regardless of whether community policing transforms officers or whether
atypical ofﬁcers ﬁnd themselves in community policing jobs, the ﬁndings of this study
indicate community police ofﬁcers are more closely aligned with the goals of their chief
than are other uniformed officers assigned to patrol. There are indications that managing
community police officers may require different strategies than managing patrol ofﬁcers
and detectives.

Predicting Goal Alignment. The regression models help to clarify the effects of
the many associations found in the data analyses. Goal alignment, as well as levels of job
satisfaction, varies among police departments. Each department has its own norm, but it

is likely this also varies with circumstances. Job assignment, tenure in the ofﬁcer’s

144

current assignment and levels of job satisfaction appear to be the most useful predictors

of goal alignment with the chief.

Chapter 5

CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Introduction

An opportunity is at hand to examine police management strategies. The
implementation of community policing has challenged police managers to reassess
organizational processes and procedures. We can more effectively administrate
community policing if we determine how it ﬁts into the management schemes of police
organizations. This study examines job assignments as a way to better understand police
management problems. Speciﬁcally, can we identify areas of potential policy compliance
and resistance? Does the implementation of community policing affect management
strategies? Must the chief be wary of losing control because of the less structured role of
community police ofﬁcers? Or, can chiefs maintain control through other means? Police
chiefs must come to terms with these issues to effectively manage their changing
organizational environments. A better understanding of ofﬁcers’ goals and attitudes will
help us answer these management questions.

Public managers are under increasing pressure to be effective and accountable.
Police chiefs can no longer focus on iron-ﬁsted control at the expense of productivity.

Today, police chiefs are forced to be more innovative to show they are effectively

145

146

managing public resources. Managers must ﬁnd ways to implement new programs while
maintaining control of the organization. Now more than ever, police administrators need
to be seen as effective managers.

Previous research has not addressed this issue. Police administration remains
strongly rooted in the management reforms of the 19303. Case studies of community
policing have focused on implementation problems, crime rates, calls for service rates,
and community and organizational perceptions. Management issues are only tangentially
addressed. This study takes a step toward ﬁlling that void.

Before drawing conclusions from the data, the ﬁndings need to be placed in the
proper context. Each organization is a unique collection of individuals who have speciﬁc
needs, desires and motivations. Sampling accounts for some of the differences found
between departments and participants in this study. Other discrepancies reﬂect true
differences in the organizations and individuals. Research conclusions must be
cautiously applied to people and organizations outside the research sample. Despite
these limitations, some cautious generalizations can be made to assist managers and to

develop administrative theory.

5.2 Conclusions About Hypotheses and Research Questions
Officers’ goal alignment and job satisfaction were examined in four areas: job
assignment and goal alignment, job assignment and job satisfaction, goal alignment and

job satisfaction, and other demographic factors.

147

The independent variables represent factors commonly believed to inﬂuence
interactions in police organization. Even so, the research shows there is still much to learn
about relationships between police officers and their supervisors. The independent
variables fall short of explaining changes in the dependent variables, indicating the
complexity of these relationships. Low Cramer’s V, Kendall’s tau and R2 statistics
indicate the results are muddled and somewhat confusing.’ With these cautions, the
discussion now turns to a summary and explanation of the ﬁndings for each hypothesis.

5.2,1 Goal Aligr_rr_n_ent and Job Assigment

Police ofﬁcers’ goal congruency with their chief is a complex issue that is only
partially explained by their job assignments. Both chi-square analysis and regression
models indicate that levels of goal alignment are associated with ofﬁcers’ job assignment.
It is also clear that there are other important factors not identiﬁed in this study that affect
goal congruency. These ﬁndings provide a ﬁrst step toward a better understanding of
police management problems.

Officers’ goals and motivation are important elements of policy implementation
and organizational management. Previous research ignores the role goals and
motivations play in management and policy resistance. Community policing was a
response to a stagnating and self-absorbed style of policing that emerged from

bureaucratic reforms. Advocates encouraged freeing ofﬁcers from structural constraints

 

' The R’s might have been slightly higher if the instrument had been designed to collect
data for regression analysis. The OLS models were added to the analyses after it became
apparent a multivariate approach was needed.

148

to be more effective problem solvers. Once again, it is assumed that ofﬁcers will pursue
the goals of their chief.

This study examines that assumption. Evidence is found of an association
between officers’ level of goal alignment and their job assignment. This association is
interestingly dispersed. The most regulated ofﬁcers, patrol, had the most goal disparity
with their chief. Ofﬁcers who are given the most discretion, detectives, had the closest
goal alignment with their chief. Patrol ofﬁcers who are allowed some relief from
restraints, as community police ofﬁcers, have higher levels of goal alignment with their
chief.

It cannot be determined from the data if job assignment affects goals or if the
ﬁndings emerge ﬁom selection bias. More goal congruent ofﬁcers may seek job
assignments as detectives or community police ofﬁcers. Or, chiefs may be assigning
more compliant ofﬁcers to these positions - a difﬁcult task for chiefs restricted by labor
agreements. In either event, knowing where policy compliance or resistance is likely to
come can assist administrators to formulate more effective management strategies.

Status and career advancement appear linked, if not the cause, of ofﬁcers’ level of
goal alignment with their chief. Ofﬁcers who could be perceived as in the organization’s
fast track had closer goal congruence with their chief. White or more highly educated
detectives are closely aligned with their chief. Ofﬁcers assigned, rather than volunteered
or promoted, to detective or community policing assignments, also had close goal
congruence. An argument could be made that these ofﬁcers have positioned themselves

to enjoy the beneﬁts of the organization and continue to advance their careers.

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Another factor to consider is the loosening of structural constraints. 13 the closer
goal congruence found for detectives and community police ofﬁcers the result of freeing
them from constraints? If loosening restraints brings more positively directed employees,
then administrators should closely examine present management practices.

Finally, we need to learn why ofﬁcers become disenchanted with their jobs.
Ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year of a job assignment have close goal congruence with their chief,
but drift further away with each passing year. What is there in the organizational
experience that transforms compliant supporters into disillusioned policy resistors? Are
ofﬁcers’ expectations too high when they begin a new job assignment? Do police
organizations fail to provide opportunities for success or self actualization? Do ofﬁcers’
interests shift from organizational objectives to pursuing and protecting personal interests
as their tenure increases in a job assignment? We need to learn why ofﬁcers become
more goal disparate the longer they spend in a job assignment.

These ﬁndings have important implications for police chiefs implementing
community policing. Chiefs need not fear loosening constraints. Community police
officers are more likely than patrol ofﬁcers to share the goals of their chief.

The association between goal alignment and job assignment is not universal. It
was not found in the Cincinnati data set. This ﬁnding means that police chiefs cannot
rely on job assignment alone to bring closer goal alignment. Even so, this does not
necessarily mean that job assignment has no effect on goal alignment in Cincinnati. It
may mean the more modest effects of job assignment are overcome by other powerful

factors inﬂuencing goal alignment.

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In Cincinnati, job tenure and race were the only variables signiﬁcantly associated
with goal alignment. Levels of goal alignment decreased as ofﬁcers’ years of experience
increased. Minority ofﬁcers were more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than
were white ofﬁcers. Long-tenured white ofﬁcers were less likely to be closely aligned
with their chief’s goals. These ofﬁcers may perceive that the direction the department is
going offers them little opportunity.

It should be noted that in the year of the study, the Cincinnati Police Division
worked through several difﬁcult issues. Civil rights groups demonstrated to show their
concern for the shooting of a black man by a white officer. A white detective was ﬁred
when he admitted planting evidence, several years earlier, in a drug investigation. A
white patrol officer was ﬁred after a violation of pursuit policy that resulted in the death
of one teenager and injury to two others. Black residents protested police patrols of a
local park as racially motivated. To the credit of the chief and department, these issues
were handled in a manner that maintained general support from the public.

The lesson from the Cincinnati data may be that we cannot depend on job
assignment alone to manage goal alignment. Levels of goal alignment are inﬂuenced by
other important factors. With this in mind, chiefs need to careﬁrlly assess the motivations
of officers when implementing or changing policy.

5.2.2 Job Satisfaction and Job Assignment

As found with goal alignment, there is little we know about ofﬁcers’ level of job
satisfaction. "Unlike researchers in organizational behavior, criminal justice scholars

have shown little interest in employees’ job satisfaction. . . ." (Bennett, 1997) It was

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expected that loosening constraints and participatory management techniques would
increase the level of job satisfaction for community police ofﬁcers. Trojanowicz (1982,
1985, 1990, 1994) found community police ofﬁcers had higher levels of job satisfaction
than did patrol ofﬁcers. However, an association between job assignment and job
satisfaction was not found in this study. Little relevance was found for job satisfaction.

There are several possibilities why an association could not be found for job
assignment and job satisfaction, and why this research conﬂicts with the previous work of
Trojanowicz. First, it is possible that job assignment has no effect on ofﬁcers’ level of
job satisfaction. This is the only conclusion that can be supported by the analysis of this
data. Nevertheless, there may be other explanations. It may be useful to speculate why
no association was found, especially when an effect was found in other studies.

The methodology of this study may be responsible for the absence of an effect for
job satisfaction. The sample may have been too small. There may not have been enough
community police ofﬁcers in the sample for signiﬁcance to be achieved. Had the study
been designed to include more ofﬁcers, or if the sample from Cincinnati had completed
their surveys rather than sending duplicate surveys, the results might have been different.
Perhaps the survey instrument or the statistical techniques were not sufﬁciently sensitive
to detect an effect. The method for coding missing values may have worked against an
effect being discovered. These last two issues, though possible, are less likely than other
explanations. The survey questions were taken from a previously successﬁrl instrument

and few responses needed recoding.

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In Trojanowicz’s work, ﬁndings of high levels of job satisfaction were based on
his seminal work in Flint, Michigan. The Flint Foot Patrol Study was a major
undertaking for the Flint Police Department. It changed the way policing was performed
in Flint. Because of the magnitude of that program, we must consider the possibility of a
Hawthorne effect. Community police officers were the major focus of the Flint study.
They may have become more satisﬁed in their jobs because of the increased attention they
received.

Another possible reason this study conﬂicts with the Trojanowicz study is a
difference in the programs themselves. The Trojanowicz project emphasized changing
the role of the community police ofﬁcers. Today, there is less emphasis on transforming
ofﬁcers. More frequently, assignments are made and it is assumed that ofﬁcers will
adapt. In addition, more departments are claiming all their ofﬁcers perform community
policing, blurring the distinction between roles.

A ﬁnal possibility is the reassignment of ofﬁcers in Colorado Springs. The
temporary reassignment of community police ofﬁcers to patrol may have had unintended
consequences. Their transfers may have prompted community police ofﬁcers to conclude
their role was less important to the organization. Or, the return to patrol may have
lessened gains in job satisfaction acquired through the experience of community policing.

5.2.3 Other Research Questions

Built into the design of this research was an assumption that goal alignment and
job satisfaction are associated. Officers with little goal alignment with their chief are

likely to have low job satisfaction. Ofﬁcers closely aligned with the goals of their chief

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are likely to have higher levels of job satisfaction. The data conﬁrmed this association,
but with some interesting collateral ﬁndings.

When job assignment was controlled, the association holds only for patrol
ofﬁcers. The levels of job satisfaction for detectives and community police ofﬁcers are
not associated with their levels of goal alignment with their chief. What does this mean
in light of the previous ﬁnding that goal alignment and job assignment are associated? It
may mean that patrol ofﬁcers are more likely to blame their chief for the frustrations they
encounter in their jobs. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers may be more focused
on long-term objectives. They could be more goal-directed and less distracted by job
frustrations. They might be less concerned about intervening obstacles as they remain
focused upon what they perceive is a common goal. Detectives and community police
ofﬁcers may see their job assignments as career opportunities. They may be more willing
to cope with their current job frustration as a step toward long-term advancement. They
may be more willing to accept job frustrations, rather than blame their chief or turn to
personal objectives. If this is so, then detectives and community police ofﬁcers are more
likely to subordinate their job ﬁ'ustrations and remain supportive of their chief’s goals.

This is an indication of the complexity of the job satisfaction issue. We cannot
assume that happy employees support the boss and that frustrated employees make
trouble. Knowing levels of job satisfaction can be of value in predicting goal congruency,
but many situational factors alter the usefulness of this knowledge.

Though not a principal focus of this research, other ﬁndings emerged that are

important to management strategies. First, goal alignment and job satisfaction both

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decrease as ofﬁcers’ level of job tenure increases. Veteran officers tend to drift away
from the organization. As officers gain experience in the organization, they become more
dissatisﬁed and less receptive to direction. Tenure emerged as an important factor in
many of the models. Secondly, female officers tend to have lower levels of job
satisfaction than do male officers. Police organizations are less adept at meeting the
needs of their female ofﬁcers. Both of these problems present serous challenges for
police administrators. Police chiefs need to recognize these problems when

implementing policy and management strategies.

5.3 Conclusions About the Research Problem

This study of two police departments contributes to the body of knowledge of
police administration by creating a new model for understanding the intricacies of
effective police management. The research reveals factors that identify deﬁciencies in the
reform model that is the basis of police administration. A new model is suggested that
can help identify corrective measures.

The ﬁndings discussed in the previous section advance our understanding of the
complexities of managing police organizations. The intricacies of police management
may be more understandable when framed as problems of negotiating compliance. By
viewing the problem in a principal-agent context, we can better conceptualize the
challenges confronting police administrators by focusing attention on subordinates’
motivations. The importance of goals and values comes to the forefront. This is a

signiﬁcant shift in police management perspective.

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In the police departments studied, officers’ job assignment was an important
indicator of their goal alignment with the chief. On the other hand, job satisfaction
played a minor role. Job satisfaction was a more important indicator of goal alignment
for patrol ofﬁcers than for detectives or community police ofﬁcers. Though it is more
difﬁcult to monitor the behavior of detectives and community police ofﬁcers, it appears it
is less necessary. Detectives and community police officers are more likely to pursue the
same goals as their chief. These ﬁndings provide an alternative perspective for
management.

By identifying areas of potential compliance or resistance, police chiefs can tailor
their management efforts to incentives and monitoring needs. In areas where additional
incentives and monitoring are most needed, they can be intensiﬁed. In areas where
subordinates are more likely to be compliant, managers can loosen constraints. This will

free resources and allow for more ﬂexible problem solving.

5.4 Implications for Theory

Examining goal alignment and job satisfaction contributes to the immediate
discipline of police administration and the wider ﬁeld of public administration. The
relationship between goal alignment and job assignment has not previously been
examined in police organizations. Until now police administrative theory has not
considered job assignments as potential pockets of compliance or resistance to policy.
Ofﬁcers were thought to be interchangeable cogs in the organizational machine.

Supervisors evaluated ofﬁcers’ levels of talent, but not their goals, motives or values.

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Managers relied on organizational structure to maintain control. This study suggests that
the traditional approach is inefﬁcient, if not faulty.

There may be fundamental ﬂaws in the basic assumptions of reform era
management, at least for some organizational functions. The bureaucratic structures
reform managers created are inefﬁcient because they overly constrain more compliant
subordinates. In addition, questions are raised about the appropriateness of traditional
bureaucratic constraints. If constraints are designed to deal with the most recalcitrant
employees, they are likely to unnecessarily constrain the efﬁciency of the more compliant.
Such constraint stiﬂes creativity and problem solving. It further diminishes productivity
by wasting resources through over monitoring. Management strategies may be more
efficient if tailored to the goals of ofﬁcers in different job assignments. This will not be
done unless organizations are viewed as cooperative enterprises where compliance is
negotiated.

It remains unclear why goal alignment differs with job assignment. Some
possibilities include loosening restraints, more goal-directed tasks, or factors unique to
the job task. However, the evidence suggests the need to re-evaluate management
schemes. It may be possible to use management resources more wisely. This starts with
a reconceptualization of the interactions in police departments.

For managers to tailor policy initiatives to the various groups within their
organization, they need to better understand the motivations of subordinates. Managers
can more effectively communicate their message and more efﬁciently monitor their

employees if they recognize the important differences between them. Groups vary in

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their receptiveness to communication techniques, and management needs to adopt
different strategies for each group (Bennett, 1996). The messages managers send need to
speak to subordinates’ concerns, if they are to be accepted.

An effective management strategy anticipates areas of resistance and support.
Supporters can carry a larger burden if properly approached. Potential resisters may need
to be won over, coopted or constrained. "[P]olice are bureaucratic workers who respond
to the organizational reward structure." (Skolnick, 1993: 195-196). "Once the reasons for
resistance are understood, the change agent has to work to gain acceptance." (Ofﬁce of
Security Programs, 1995: 81)

Managers can more effectively use their resources and time if they limit
monitoring to where it is needed. Monitoring imposes cost, actual and opportunity, on
the principal; and it is limited by the effectiveness of the techniques used (McCubbins,
Noll & Weingast, 1987). Goal congruity expands an ofﬁcer’s zone of indifference for the
policies of his or her chief. Ofﬁcers with large zones of indifference more readily accept
direction and policy. The chief needs to spend fewer resources monitoring supportive
personnel. Ofﬁcers with small zones of indifference are more critical of managers’
actions. These ofﬁcers may need additional incentives and closer monitoring. Managers
should give priority to identifying supporters and resisters.

Declining levels of goal alignment and job satisfaction associated with increasing
tenure in job assignments and in the organization suggest that individuals may follow
rigidity cycles similar to those described for organizations by Downs (1967). New

employees, much like new organizations, are energetic and focused on goals. They have

158

the personalities of advocates or zealots. As time passes, they lose much of their
enthusiasm and focus. Their interest shifts to preserving the beneﬁts they have
accumulated. They adopt the personalities of conservers. Breaking this rigidity cycle for
individuals may be a more challenging task than it is for bureaus.

A new more eclectic theory of police administration is needed. This new
approach must recognize negotiating compliance and strive to develop goal-revealing
mechanisms. We might begin by revisiting Bamard’s (193 8) visions of cooperative
organizations. Nothing gets done without the cooperation of employees. The structured
bureaucratic approach misleads managers into thinking productivity can be dictated.
Next, managers need to reconceptualize management problems. A principal-agent
approach to problem solving would help managers devise more effective strategies.
Approaching a problem as a negotiation helps identify important factors. It provides a
more accurate perspective of the difﬁculties of implementing policy. While Agency
Theory has not been effective for predicting action, it remains a useful tool for explaining
and understanding organizational interaction. Finally, in areas where consistency is
essential, Simon’s concept of frozen decisions may be most effective. Managers can
continue to use structure and controlled information delivery to limit the range of
employees’ actions. Where consistency is more important than adaptability, the
structured approach is still effective.

While only police organizations were studied, these ﬁndings may extend beyond
the police to others in the criminal justice system and the public sector. The focus on

motivational theory is applicable to many management situations. Management schemes

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based upon value-driven goal motivations should be applicable throughout the public
sector. Where performance is difficult to measure and monitor, it may be more
productive for managers to focus on goals and motivation. If it is not certain what

subordinates are doing, it may be more important to know what they are trying to do.

5.5 Implications for Police and Practice

This study focuses on the police chief, because of the importance of that role in
the operation and management of police organizations. Nevertheless, the ﬁndings may be
applicable to other managers in police organizations. The data identiﬁes potential
pockets of support and resistance with which managers must deal.

The research emerged from a concern for the effect of community policing on
police organizations. "Community policing places greater authority and responsibility in
the hands of line ofﬁcers and supervisors, and will usually necessitate changes in
management practices and organizational structure." (Ofﬁce of Security Programs,

1995: 2) The fear that loosening constraints will jeopardize the chief s ability to control
the organization appears overstated. Closer goal alignment may compensate for the
weakening of structural controls. Community police ofﬁcers are likely to be more closely
aligned with the goals of their chief than are patrol officers.

In addition, the argument for loosening constraints is bolstered by the data on
detectives. The greater discretion and fewer constraints granted to detectives appear to
pay off in organizational beneﬁts. Detectives are the most goal congruent officers in the

department. Detectives are more prone to support, rather than resist, policy.

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Regardless of the reason, ofﬁcers in each job assignment have characteristic
beliefs and goals. Managers should not assume ofﬁcers in different job assignments will
equally accept or comply with policy. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers are more
supportive of the goals of their chief than are patrol ofﬁcers. At the same time, they are
often less satisﬁed in their jobs, especially in their ﬁrst year of assignment. This paradox
may result from career aspirations. Happy employees are not necessarily better
employees. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers may be more willing to cope with
their job frustrations to continue pursuing their career goals.

A note of caution is important here. Goal alignment is not the same as blind
obedience. The police chief should not expect detectives and community police ofﬁcers
to unquestioningly follow every directive. At times, these ofﬁcers may be openly critical
of the chief’s initiatives. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers may vigorously
oppose a particular policy, especially if they sense their roles have special importance.
Patrol ofﬁcers, on the other hand, may feel their objections will bring nothing but
reprisals and resist more cautiously. What is important is that detectives and community
police ofﬁcers, because of their closer goal alignment, are more likely to comply with
their chiefs initiatives. Their actions are more likely to conform to their chief’s desires.
These internal forces diminish the need for external constraints.

Relying on goal alignment is much like following a compass direction. When the
chief instructs the troops to march north, those with closer goal alignment will head in a
northerly direction. Ofﬁcers with greater goal disparity may march more to the east. The

chief must monitor the direction of the troops and correct deviations from the proscribed

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course. This does not mean that there is no value in heading east. It may be the most
prudent course to take. However, for a manager, it can be a signiﬁcant problem.

Police managers’ greatest concern lies with the compliance of older patrol
ofﬁcers. Identifying a problem with long-term patrol ofﬁcers is no revelation to police
chiefs. Police chiefs and scholars (Pogrebin, 1987; Robinette, 1982; Schwartz &
Schwartz, 1975) are well aware that veteran ofﬁcers seldom show enthusiasm for new
policy directives. The problem of motivating these ofﬁcers needs to be more closely
examined.

Some of the problems with long-term patrol ofﬁcers stem from lack of
opportunity. These ofﬁcers are doing essentially the same job as entry-level personnel.
There is little prospect for them to advance in the organization. They have missed their
chance to move to new positions and now have nowhere to go. For lack of other options,
they are often ignored, leaving the chief a dilemma. There are too many in the
organization to move to other positions, but ignoring them encourages unproductive
behavior.

With few solutions and other more pressing matters, these ofﬁcers are often
overlooked, except when creating problems. They are often very proud and easily
offended. They recognize the organization holds little opportunity for them. They have
become true conservers (Downs, 1967) with little incentive except to hold on to what
they have. They have seen many up-and-comers, while they have been passed over.
Their skills are suspect because they are still on patrol. Supervisors and younger ofﬁcers

question the veterans’ lack of aggressiveness. These veteran ofﬁcers have developed

162

considerable skill in manipulating the utility of every situation. Through their longevity,
they have acquired experience and knowledge about surviving and manipulating
organizational processes, but have been unable to advance. With little incentive, they
focus on retirement and outside interests.

Long-term patrol officers are often the spokesmen for dissent and seldom leaders
for constructive change. They are sages of organizational failure. These veterans can
often be found holding court in the squad room about how tough policing used to be.
They tell wild stories about what the old timers could do and still escape punishment.

Police chiefs are well aware of this problem. Administrators at various sites
expressed a common concern. "We can’t guarantee some of the old dinosaurs will
participate."

When participating in the study, some of the old dinosaurs were quick to grumble,
"Another survey! No one listens to us anyway!" But, they were no less likely to
complete the questionnaire and smile when ﬁnished. They like to bark, but rarely bite.

It is the rare long-term patrol ofﬁcer that still enthusiastically chases taillights.
Long-term ofﬁcers often seem less motivated and more likely to lay blame for misfortune
on the victim. They remain locked into place, with nowhere to turn but inward, or to their
subculture.

In a social environment with continually shifting norms, ofﬁcers begin to search
for stability. Ofﬁcers retreat to their own value system to maintain their psychological
balance. Veteran ofﬁcers may see themselves as the ﬁnal arbitrator in determining proper

enforcement policy. It must be remembered that at one time most of these employees

163

were considered to be productive employees. The organization has, in many cases,
changed and passed them by. If policing were to develop into the profession it aspires to
be, maybe professional norms could provide for the stability officers seek.

The data consistently showed closer goal alignment for ofﬁcers in new
assignments. This suggests that more variety and ﬂexibility in job assignments might
overcome some of the losses associated with job tenure. If managers can tap the interests
of veteran ofﬁcers, they may be able to revive levels of motivation.

Obviously, this is not a simple task. It will take careful consideration and
innovative thinking to devise meaningful new job opportunities for veteran officers.2 The
data suggests that the beneﬁts of new assignments diminish after about a year. A plan to
rotate ofﬁcers to new challenges would need to continually generate new opportunities. It
is doubtful police managers could accomplish this on a large scale. It is yet to be seen if
community policing can motivate and reanimate the careers of veteran ofﬁcers.

Conversely, police chiefs may have a special opportunity to inﬂuence new
employees. New ofﬁcers start with more than a clean slate. They have very high levels of
job satisfaction and goal alignment with their chief. After they are hired, new officers are
assigned to more experienced officers for training. Veteran ofﬁcers teach the rookies the
skills they will need to become proﬁcient police ofﬁcers. The data consistently shows
that the most experienced ofﬁcers have the most goal disparity and the lowest levels of

job satiSfaction. By the end of their ﬁrst year on the job, new ofﬁcers lose their high

 

2 Community policing has been proposed as a way to excite and motivate veteran patrol
ofﬁcers, but such an effect cannot be evaluated by the data in this study.

164

levels of goal alignment and job satisfaction. This decline continues as years of
experience increase.

If we assume that ofﬁcers’ levels of goal alignment and job satisfaction decline
with each year of experience, we need to ask what happens to ofﬁcers during that ﬁrst
year. What are ofﬁcers learning that critical ﬁrst year that so greatly changes their
perceptions? Are these new officers reacting to their own experience or to that of others?
Whose goals are being nurtured? Patrol ofﬁcers as a group had the lowest level of goal
congruence with their chief. Do current practices teach new ofﬁcers to develop goal
disparity with their chief? Why do ofﬁcers drift continually further from their chief?
Police chiefs need to examine the possibility that current practices are misdirecting new
employees. They should closely scrutinize this opportunity to develop more supportive
employees.

Reform era reformers, such as O.W. Wilson, stressed the science of management,
but often neglected the art of management. Reformers tried to codify and forrnularize
management. It may be time to reinvest in the art of police administration.
Reconceptualizing management problems is a step in that direction. Managers need to
better understand the motivations of the employees they oversee. Barnard’s concept of
cooperative organizations does not mean managers allow subordinates to do whatever
they want. It means that effective managers ﬁnd ways to get employees to want to do
what managers have proposed.

Chiefs should realize they rely upon someone else for most of what they know

about their organization. Each person who informs the chief also has his or her own

165

goals, values and objectives. Each person who carries out policy has his or her own
goals, values and objectives. If chiefs do not account for these varying motivations, they
may be unwittingly manipulated by others in the organization. Police managers can be
more effective if they can devise methods to incorporate subordinates’ goals into
management strategies. In this regard, managers would be wise to develop goal-revealing

strategies and mechanisms to guide their decision making.

5.6 Implications for Future Research

It is common for research to raise as many questions as it answers. That is
certainly the case here. The exploratory nature of this study suggests lessons for further
research.

First, this study measures police ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their chief’s goals. It
does not measure the actual goals of the chief. As previously discussed, these perceptions
inﬂuence ofﬁcers’ behavior. By focusing on perceptions rather than the chief’s actual
goals, the issue of communicating goals is avoided.

Learning the true goals and attitudes of a police chief is a very difﬁcult and time
intensive undertaking.3 Police chiefs are players in their local political arena. As a
political actor, the chief must ensure that he or she is properly positioned on important
issues. Public proclamations may not reveal the chief’s private beliefs. It becomes

difﬁcult to distinguish between the chief’s goals and his or her political rhetoric. Chiefs

 

3

The study was designed before the research sites were selected so the following
comments are not directed to the chiefs of the departments studied.

166

sometimes undermine symbolic policies by subtle actions or inaction on issues.
Subordinates are best able to detect these discrepancies and act accordingly.

Second, this study measures only the potential for policy resistance. We cannot
say that high levels of goal disparity will result in policy resistance. Actual policy
resistance was not identiﬁed. It is assumed that ofﬁcers with greater goal disparity with
their chief are more likely to resist policy directions and need additional incentives or
closer monitoring.

Third, researchers need to consider the effect extensive study has on their
subjects. Some departments receive little attention from researchers. Other departments
are under almost constant scrutiny. Innovative police departments located near
universities that receive federal grants can receive considerable research attention.
Ofﬁcers from these departments may be studied by their administration, acadenrics, and
federal agencies. Can ofﬁcers become experienced study subjects and manipulate
research results? Do ofﬁcers learn to sanitize responses to present a better image or to
avoid criticism? No evidence of such behavior was detected in this study, but researchers
should nonetheless be wary of the possibility.

Fourth, this study introduces the concept of differential goal alignment as a
function of job assignment. It brings a new understanding of the management problems
that confront the police chief. It is only a beginning and suggests other topics and
methodologies to continue this line of exploration in ﬁrrther research.

Fifth, the ﬁndings are based on the study of two American police departments.

Replication of the study in other police departments would contribute to our

167

understanding of the factors studied. More data are needed to evaluate what has been
found in this research.

Sixth, this research is primarily a management study. Its ﬁndings may extend
beyond the police chief to other managers. Police chiefs play an important role in policy
formation and formulating management strategies. Unfortunately, police chiefs do not
play the same role in all police departments. The effects the chief has on subordinates’
decision-making needs further exploration. Are some chiefs, through department size or
management style, so remote they are no longer important inﬂuences on line-level
decision-making? Does the chief lose relevance in the principal-agent relationship? Are
chiefs perceived as distant politicians, such as mayors or council persons? If so, at what
point does this happen?

The goal alignment approach should be examined for other levels of management.
The principal-agent goal alignment focus should be applicable to managers throughout
police organization.

Finally, future research needs to focus on more productive measures. Possibly the
issues used to compose the goal alignment scale should be derived from the department
under study, rather than the policing literature. Though the researcher would then have to
overcome problems of comparability, the goal alignment scale might be more sensitive.
Job assignment explains a portion of police ofﬁcers’ level of goal alignment.
Understanding the association with job assignment is important to determining

management strategies. There are other variables not identiﬁed in this study that affect

168

goal alignment and job satisfaction. Additional research is needed to identify these

variables so we can better understand the interpersonal dynamics in police organizations.

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

Your participation in this survey is greatly appreciated. It should take less than 10 minutes to
complete this questionnaire. As a police ofﬁcer, I know how important front-line ofﬁcers are in the
operation of a police department. This is your opportunity to help us better understand problems
in policing. The information you provide will be used in my dissertation and help to explain how
police departments operate. I promise to protect the conﬁdentiality of your responses.

Pledgg of conﬁdentially. Your responses will remain conﬁdential. You will remain anonymous.
After you complete the questionnaire, seal it in the attached envelope. The envelopes will not be
opened until I return to my ofﬁce in Michigan. After the information is tabulated, the
questionnaires will be destroyed. No member of your department will be shown the
questionnaires or any information that could identify you by your responses. Survey data will be
grouped to ensure that individuals cannot be identiﬁed. Even though I ask questions about you,
the information will not be used in a way that will identify you.

lnstrpctions

This questionnaire is designed to seek your reaction to statements about policing. Each
statement is followed by a scale. Think of the scale as a thermometer or gauge of your feelings
toward or your agreement with the statement. The scale runs from 0 (no support) to 10 (high
support). There are no right or wrong answers. What is important is that your selection records
your opinion of the statement. Please circle the number that most represents your feelings or
support for the statement.

Example:

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l 0

no high
agreement agreement

Participation is voluntary. Your answers will remain conﬁdential. You indicate your voluntary
agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. Your assistance is
very important and greatly appreciated. Thank you.

169

170

APPENDIX A

Part One

Circle the number that best expresses your level of agreement with these statements. Your
answer should reﬂect your feelings on the issue, not how you think your department would like you to
respond. Your responses will remain conﬁdential. No one from you department will see his
questionnaire.

I. Courtesy to the public is an important element of performance evaluation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l 0
no high
agreement agreement

2. The police need to be accountable to the public and seek public input in guiding
department policy and direction.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l 0
no high
agreement agreement

3. It is sometimes necessary and proper to bend the rules to be an effective police
ofﬁcer.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

4. The police are best able to determine the level of force necessary to handle a
situation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

5. It is sometimes necessary to mislead the public for their own good.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

171

APPENDIX A

6. It is a part of a patrol ofﬁcer’s job to create a good public image of the
department.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
7. Street ofﬁcers are often the most capable of determining the most effective
method of policing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
8. Regardless of the consequences, an officer needs to remain loyal to the
department.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
9. Getting the job done is more important than keeping busy for the whole shift.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
10. An ofﬁcer’s co-workers have an important inﬂuence on the decisions he or she

makes.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

 

172

APPENDIX A
Part Two

In this section, indicate how you believe your current police chief would respond to these
statements. Please indicate what you think are your chief 3 true feelings, not the answers the chief
might give for public relations.

1. Courtesy to the public is an important element of performance evaluation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

2. The police need to be accountable to the public and seek public input in guiding
department policy and direction.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

3. It is sometimes necessary and proper to bend the rules to be an effective police
ofﬁcer.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

4. The police are best able to determine the level of force necessary to handle a
situation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

5. It is sometimes necessary to mislead the public for their own good.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

173

APPENDIX A
6. It is a part of a patrol ofﬁcer’s job to create a good public image of the department.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

 

7. Street ofﬁcers are often the most capable of determining the most effective
method of policing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no huh
agreement agreement
8. Regardless of the consequences, an ofﬁcer needs to remain loyal to the
department.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
9. Getting the job done is more important than keeping busy for the whole shift.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
10. An ofﬁcer’s co-workers have an important inﬂuence on the decisions he or she
makes.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
Part Three

1.

In this section, please respond how YOU feel about these statements.

There is too little variety in my job.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

174

APPENDIX A

I tend to get bored on the job.

1 2 3 4 5 6
no
agreement

There must be better places to work.

1 2 3 4 5 6
no
agreement

I would like more freedom on the job.

1 2 3 4 5 6

no
agreement

I have too small a share in deciding matters that affect my work.

1 2 3 4 5 6

no
agreement

My job means more to me than just money.

1 2 3 4 5 6
no
agreement

I am satisﬁed with the work I do.

1 2 3 4 5 6

no
agreement

My job gives me a chance to do what I do best.

1 2 3 4 5 6
no

agreement

7

8

9

10
high
agreement

I 0
high
agreement

1 0
high
agreement

10
high
agreement

1 0
high
agreement

I 0
high
agreement

10
high
agreement

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

175

APPENDIX A
People feel like they belong where I work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

Management here does everything it can to see that employees get a fair break on
the job.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

Management here is really trying to build the organization and make it successful.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

Change is made here with little regard for the welfare of employees.

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

Sometimes I feel that my job counts for very little in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

I have a great deal of interest in this organization and its future.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

I have little opportunity to use my abilities in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l 0
no high
agreement agreement

176

APPENDIX A
16. I have conﬁdence in the fairness and honesty of management.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

17. Long service means something in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement

18. The people who get promotions around here usually deserve them.

 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no high
agreement agreement
Part Four

In this section, circle the number of the selection that best describes you. This information is
necessary in the statistical analysis to make sure other factors are not inﬂuencing the data. Again, your
responses are strictly conﬁdential. This information will not be use to identify you.

1. Even if your department deﬁnes community policing as a philosophy practiced by
everyone, how would you describe your current job assignment/position?

patrol/trafﬁc ofﬁcer

detective or drug/vice investigator

community policing officer (i.e. CPO, NPO, COPS, etc.)
other

99°19:-

177

APPENDIX A
2. How did you acquire your present job assignment/position?

1. assigned or entry level
2. volunteer or promotion
3. What is your sex?

1. male
2. female

A

. What is your race/ethnic group?

White/Non-Hispanic
Black/African American
Hispanic/Latin
Oriental/Asian

Other

999319:-

5. What is your level of education?

1. high school or GED

2. some college or associates degree
3. bachelors degree (4 years)

4. post graduate degree

6. How long have you been a police ofﬁcer (include previous jobs)?

less than 1 year
1 to 5 years

6 to 10 years

11 to 15 years
16 or more years

5":‘59‘191‘

7. How long have you held you current job assignment?

1. less than 1 year
2. l to 2 years

3. 3 to 4 years

4.

5 or more years

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

Table 49 — Assigned Values

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Section/ Variable CPD“ CPD Number CSPD" CSPD Number
Qt. # Name Mean Value Missing Mean Value Missing

I/l courtesy 8.2003 8 0 8. 1373 8 O
1/2 account 5.8956 6 0 6.6797 7 0
1/3 bendrule 5.4176 5 0 5.2484 5 0
1/4 force 8.7802 9 0 8.241 8 8 0
1/5 mislead 3.6813 4 0 3.7974 4 0
1/6 image 9.0385 9 0 8.9935 9 0
1/7 methods 8.2143 8 0 7.9216 8 0
1/8 loyalty 5.1564 5 3 5.1503 5 0
1/9 jobdone 8.0221 8 1 7.8170 8 0
[HO coworker 6.01 10 6 0 6.6405 7 0
III] ccourtsy 9.2265 9 1 8.9356 9 0
II/2 caccount 8.3260 8 1 8.1634 8 0
MB crule 2.9171 3 1 3.3922 3 0
HM cforce 6.5754 7 3 7.2418 7 0
11/5 cmislead 2.8177 3 1 3.2876 3 0
II/6 cimage 9.4807 9 1 9.3791 9 0
11/7 cmethods 5.01 l l 5 2 5.9.150 6 0
11/8 cloylty 7.7095 8 3 7.4771 7 0
11/9 cjobdone 6.6648 7 3 6.9803 7 I
II/ 10 ccowker 6.2849 6 3 6.6340 7 0
111/ l variety 2.7207 3 3 2.9216 3 0
III/2 bored 3.1 105 3 1 3.1250 3 l
Ill/3 betjob 5.0442 5 1 4.3816 4 1
Ill/4 freedom 5.2155 5 1 4.7368 5 l
III/5 input 6.0994 6 l 5. 1579 5 l
III/6 value 7.6464 8 1 7.3841 7 2
III/7 satfy 8.0110 8 1 8.1579 8 l
Ill/8 best 7.4278 7 2 7.6645 8 I
111/9 belong 5.7735 6 1 6.4867 6 3
III/10 goodman 3.8772 4 2 5.0915 5 O
111/1 1 success 4.2222 4 2 6.0654 6 0
III/12 welfare 6.2056 6 2 5.5197 6 |
Ill/l3 worth 5.6188 6 1 5.2810 5 0
III/14 future 6.9392 7 1 7.5033 8 0
III/15 fulﬁll 4.1833 4 2 3.9281 4 0
III/16 fair 3.9444 4 2 5.3289 5 l
111/] 7 tenure 4.5444 5 2 4.7237 5 l
111/] 8 promo 4.1657 4 1 4.9803 5 l

 

* Cincinnati Police Department

" Colorado Springs Police Department

178

 

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C

Supplementary Data Analysis

Additional Analysis of the Entire Data Set

Goal Aligpment

The association between levels of goal alignment and job assignment was
examined using the demographic variables as controls. When the method of job
acquisition was controlled, a signiﬁcant association was found for entry level or assigned
ofﬁcers. No signiﬁcant association was found for ofﬁcers who volunteered or were
promoted to their job assignment. Entry level or assigned detectives and community
police ofﬁcers are more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than are patrol
officers (x2 = 9.366, df = 4, p = .053). This association is modest in strength (Cramer’s
V = .152). The majority of detectives (57.9%) and community police ofﬁcers (57.1%)

had low levels of difference with their chief compared to 30.2% of patrol ofﬁcers.

179

180

APPENDIX C

Table 50 - Goal Alignment and Assigned/Entry Level Officers by Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detectives CPO Total

Low 51 ll 8 70
Difference 30.2% 57.9% 57.1% 34.7%
Moderate 56 3 3 62
Difference 33.1% 15.8% 21.4% 30.7%
High 62 5 3 70
Difference 36.7% 26.3% 21 .4% 34.7%
Total 169 19 14 202

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 9.366, = 4, p < .053, Cramer’s V = .152

Gender was not found to be a signiﬁcant factor in the goal congruence and job

assignment association. Men (x2 = 8.284, df = 4, p < .082) are no more likely than

women (x2 = 6.654, df = 4, p < .155) to have high or low levels of goal alignment with

their chief.

Race was found to be a signiﬁcant factor in the goal alignment and job assignment

association. For white ofﬁcers, detectives were signiﬁcantly (x2 = 14.529, df = 4,

p < .006) more likely to have low levels of goal difference with their chief (52.5%)

compared to patrol ofﬁcers (26.1%) and community police officers (28.6%). White

community police ofﬁcers also had high levels of goal difference (39.3%).

 

181

APPENDIX C

Table 51 - White Officers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 41 32 8 81
Difference 26.1% 52.5% 28.6% 32.9%
Moderate 59 13 9 81
Difference 37.6% 21.3% 32.1% 32.9%
High 57 16 1 l 84
Difference 36.3% 26.2% 39.3% 34.1%
Total 157 61 28 246

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

12 = 14.529, df = 4, p < .006, Cramer’s V =.243

The strength of this association is modest (Cramer’s V = .172). The effect could be

explained by the large number of white ofﬁcers in detective positions. It may also reﬂect

white officers’ disillusionment with appointment to community policing positions.

Minority ofﬁcers were not found to have a signiﬁcant effect on this goal alignment and

job assignment association (x2 = 4.468, df = 4, p < .346).

Level of education only reached signiﬁcance for ofﬁcers who achieve bachelor’s

or postgraduate degrees (x2 = 11.854, df = 4, p < .018). Detectives with higher levels of

education (56.5%) were likely to have closer goal congruence with their chief. Patrol

 

officers were more likely to have moderate levels of difference (46.5%) with the goals of
their chief. The small sample of community police ofﬁcers was equally distributed. This

association is of moderate strength (Cramer’s V = .222) and needs to be interpreted with

182

APPENDIX C

caution because of low levels of expected frequency in some of the table’s cells. (Three

cells have an expected frequency of less than ﬁve.)

Table 52 — Bachelor/Postgraduate Degrees and Goal Alignment by Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 21 13 4 38
Difference 24.4% 56.5% 36.4% 3 1 .7%
Moderate 40 3 3 46
Difference 46.5% 13.0% 27.3% 38.3%
High 25 7 4 36
Difference 29.1% 30.4% 36.4% 30.0%
Total 86 23 11 120

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 11.854, p < .018, Cramer’s V = .222

Job tenure has a mixed association with the relationship between officers’ job

assignment and their goal alignment with their chief. Ofﬁcers with less than one year

experience were all assigned to patrol so no comparison could be made. The effect of one

to ﬁve years’ experience was not signiﬁcant (x2 = 5.415, df = 4, p < .247). Signiﬁcance

was found for officers with six to ten years’ experience (7(2 = 10.003, df = 4, p < .040).

Patrol officers were likely to have high goal discrepancies with their chief (44.7%).

Detectives were likely to have close goal congruence with their chief’s goals (50.0%).

Community police ofﬁcers were likely to have moderate (46.7%) or low (40.0%) levels

 

183

APPENDIX C

of difference with their chiefs goals. This association is moderate in strength (Cramer’s

V = .247).

Table 53 — Six to Ten Years’ Experience by Goal Alignment and Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 9 10 6 25
Difference 19.1% 50.0% 40.0% 30.5%
Moderate 17 5 7 29
Difference 36.2% 25.0% 46.7% 35.4%
High 21 5 2 28
Difference 44.7% 25.0% 13.3% 34.1%
Total 47 20 15 82

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 10.003, p < .040, Cramer’s V = .247

No signiﬁcance was found for ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years’ experience

(x2 = 8.581, df = 4, p < .072). A signiﬁcant association was again found for ofﬁcers with

sixteen or more years of experience (x2 = 9.494, df = 4, p < .050). Once again, detectives

were more likely (51.4%) to have low levels of difference with the goals of their chief,

and patrol ofﬁcers likely (40.0%) to have higher levels of goal disparity with their chief.

Community police ofﬁcers were likely to have either close congruency (41.7%) or high

disparity (41.7%) with the goals of their chief. The strength of this association is

moderate (Cramer’s V = .216). These results need to be interpreted cautiously because of

 

184

APPENDIX C

low expected values in some of the table’s cells. (Three cells have expected counts of
less than ﬁve.)

Finally, ofﬁcers’ tenure in their current assignment was controlled and the
association between goal alignment and job assignment examined. No signiﬁcant
association was found for tenure in assignment.

To review, when controlling the association between goal alignment and job
assignment, new aspects were found. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers had
higher levels of goal congruence with their chief. White detectives were more closely
aligned with their chief than were white community police ofﬁcers or white patrol
ofﬁcers. Detectives with higher levels of education were more closely aligned with their
chief than were similarly educated community police ofﬁcers and patrol ofﬁcers. For
moderately tenured ofﬁcers, six to ten years of tenure, detectives were likely to be closely
aligned with their chiefs goals; community police ofﬁcers were likely to have low or
moderate goal alignment, and patrol ofﬁcers were likely to have high goal disparity with
their chief. A similar pattern was found for ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of tenure.
(Community police ofﬁcers were equally likely to have high or low levels of goal
congruence with their chief.)

Job Assignment and Job Satisfaction

The analysis turns to the issue of job assignment and job satisfaction. Though no
signiﬁcant association was found between job assignment and job satisfaction, these
variables were retested with the demographic variables used as controls. This analysis

attempted to ﬁnd conditions to reject the second null hypothesis. No signiﬁcant

185

APPENDIX C

association was found when the method of job acquisition, gender, race or job tenure was

controlled. A signiﬁcant association was found for ofﬁcers with some college or

associate degrees when education was controlled (x2 = 9.547, df = 4, p < .049).

Table 54 - Some College/Associate Degree by Job Satisfaction and Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 33 19 13 65
Satisfaction 32.7% 38.8% 48.1% 36.7%
Moderate 27 20 9 56
Satisfaction 26.7% 40.8% 33 .3% 31.6%
High 41 10 5 56
Satisfaction 40.6% 20.4% 18.5% 3 1.6%
Total 101 49 27 177

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 9.547, df = 4, p < .049, Cramer’s V = .164

Among ofﬁcers with some college or associate’s degrees, community police

ofﬁcers were likely to have low levels of job satisfaction (48.1%). Detectives were likely

to have moderate (40.8%) or low (38.8%) levels of job satisfaction. Patrol ofﬁcers were

likely to have high (40.6%) levels of job satisfaction. The strength of this association was

modest (Cramer’s V = .164). Other levels of education were not found to be signiﬁcant.

Signiﬁcance was also found when controlling tenure in current job assignment for

ofﬁcers with less than one year experience (x2 = 13.539, df = 4, p < .009) and ofﬁcers

 

186

APPENDIX C

with ﬁve or more years’ experience (at,2 = 9.546, df = 4, p < .049). No other level of job

tenure in a current assignment was found signiﬁcant.

Table 55 - New Job Assignments and Job Satisfaction by Job Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 4 10 5 l9
Satisfaction l 1.8% 41.7% 71.4% 29.2%
Moderate 13 8 1 22
Satisfaction 38.2% 33.3% 14.3% 33.8%
High 17 6 1 24
Satisfaction 50.0% 25.0% 14.3% 36.9%
Total 34 24 7 65

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

 

 

x2 = 13.539, df= 4, p < .009, Cramer’s V = .323

Community police ofﬁcers with less than one year in their assignment had the
lowest level of job satisfaction (71.4%). Surprisingly, ﬁrst year detectives also had low
levels (41.7%) of job satisfaction, and ﬁrst year patrol ofﬁcers had high levels (50.0%) of
job satisfaction. It should be remembered that most of these patrol ofﬁcers are new
ofﬁcers. Community police ofﬁcers and detectives have longer tenure in the department.
The high satisfaction of patrol officers reﬂects the high proportion of new ofﬁcers in the
patrol category. The low satisfaction levels for community police officers and detectives
could indicate transition problems or unfulﬁlled expectations in new assignments. The

strength of this association is moderate (Cramer’s V =.323). Caution should be used in

 

187

APPENDIX C

drawing conclusions from this table because of low values in some of the cells. (Three

cells have expected counts of less than ﬁve.)

Table 56 - Long-Term Job Assignment and Job Satisfaction by Assignment

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 31 4 5 40
Satisfaction 35.6% 16.7% 45.5% 32.8%
Moderate 21 4 2 36
Satisfaction 24.1% 54.2% 18.2% 29.5%
High 35 7 4 46
Satisfaction 40.2% 29.2% 36.4% 37.7%
Total 87 24 11 122

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 9.546, p < .049, Crarner’s V = .198

A different trend emerges for ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years in their current

assignment. Community police ofﬁcers again are the least satisﬁed (45.5%) and patrol

ofﬁcers are the most satisﬁed (40.2%). Detectives were most likely (54.2%) to be

moderately satisﬁed. Community police ofﬁcers may become more satisﬁed with their

duties as they gain experience and detectives may become more moderate. The strength

of this association is modest (Cramer’s V = .198). Again, interpretations of this data

 

must be cautious because of low values in some cells. (Three cells have expected counts
of less than ﬁve.)

To review, when the demographic variables were used to control the relationship
between job satisfaction and job assignment, no signiﬁcant association was found for the

method of job acquisition, gender, race or job tenure. For ofﬁcers with some college or

188

APPENDIX C

associate degrees, community police ofﬁcers had low levels of job satisfaction; detectives
had low to moderate levels of job satisfaction, and patrol ofﬁcers had higher levels of job
satisfaction. Tenure in the ofﬁcer’s current job assignment was signiﬁcant for officers
with less than one year experience and for ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years’ experience.
In their ﬁrst year in new job assignments, community police ofﬁcers had very low levels
of job satisfaction; detectives had low levels of job satisfaction, and patrol ofﬁcers had
high levels of job satisfaction. For ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years’ tenure in their current
assignment, community police ofﬁcers were the least satisﬁed; detectives were
moderately satisﬁed, and patrol ofﬁcers were the most satisﬁed. New detectives and
community police ofﬁcers ﬁnd little satisfaction in their jobs, but their levels of
satisfaction moderate as years pass.

Goal Aligpn_rent and Job Satisfaction by Job Assignment

The association between goal alignment and job satisfaction was reexamined with
job assignment controlled. No signiﬁcance was found for detectives. The analysis of
community police ofﬁcers was plagued by low expected values in too many cells. (Seven
cells have an expected count of less than ﬁve. However, the contingency table showed
officers relatively evenly distributed throughout the table.) A signiﬁcant association was
found for patrol ofﬁcers (at2 = 16.563, df = 4, p < .002). The strength of this association

was moderate (Kendall’s tau-b = -.23 7).

189

APPENDIX C

Table 57 — Patrol Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 10 19 33 62
Difference Differl 16.1% 30.6% 53.2% 100.0%
Satcoml 15.2% 31.7% 38.8% 29.4%
Moderate 20 22 30 72
Difference Differl 27.8% 30.6% 41.7% 100.0%
Satcoml 30.3% 36.7% 35.3% 34. 1%
High 36 19 22 77
Difference Differl 46.8% 24.7% 28.6% 100.0%
Satcoml 54.5% 31.7% 25.9% 36.5%
Total 66 60 85 211
Differl 31 .3% 28.4% 40.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 16.536, df = 4, p < .002, Kendall’s tau-b = -.237

This table mirrors the previous table reporting the association of goal alignment and job

satisfaction. Ofﬁcers with close goal congruence with their chief (low difference) were

more likely to have high levels of job satisfaction. Ofﬁcers with high levels of goal

discrepancy with their chief (high difference) were more likely to have low job

satisfaction. Forty percent (40.3%) of patrol officers had high levels of job satisfaction

and nearly thirty percent (29.4%) were closely aligned with the goals of their chief.

Next the association between goal alignment and job satisfaction was examined

with the method of job acquisition controlled. Signiﬁcance was found for ofﬁcers who

volunteered or were promoted to their assignments.

 

APPENDIX C

Table 58 — Volunteers/Promoted Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 7 21 18 46
Difference Differl 15.2% 45.7% 39.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 15.9% 43.8% 48.6% 35.7%
Moderate 16 14 9 39
Difference Differl 41.0% 35.9% 23.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 36.4% 29.2% 24.3% 30.2%
High 21 13 10 44
Difference Differl 47.7% 29.5% 22.7% 100.0%
Satcoml 47.7% 27.1% 27.0% 34.1%
Total 44 48 37 129
Differl 34.1% 37.2% 28.7% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 12.068, df = 4, p < .017, Kendall’s tau-b = -.235

The association between goal alignment and job satisfaction continues to follow the

pattern established previously. The association is moderate in strength (Kendall’s

tau-b = -.235). Nearly thirty-six percent (35.7%) of ofﬁcers who volunteered or were

promoted to their job assignment were closely aligned with the goals of their chief. Of

ofﬁcers closely aligned with their chief, nearly forty-nine percent (48.6%) had high job

satisfaction compared to under sixteen percent (15.9%) who had low job satisfaction.

Thirty-four percent (34.1%) had low levels of job satisfaction. Of these ofﬁcers, nearly

forty-eight percent (47.7%) had high goal disparity with their chief, compared to less than

sixteen percent (15.2%) who were closely aligned with their chief.

The association was examined with gender controlled. Signiﬁcance was found for

male ofﬁcers, but not for female ofﬁcers. This pattern is similar to the one found for the

 

191

APPENDIX C

entire data set. Over thirty-ﬁve percent (35.4%) of male ofﬁcers were closely aligned
with the goals of their chief and nearly thirty-six percent (35.8%) had high levels of job

satisfaction. The association is moderately strong (Kendall’s tau-b = -.206).

Table 59 - Males Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 16 38 42 96
Difference Differl 16.7% 39.6% 43.8% 100.0%
Satcoml 19.8% 40.9% 43.3% 35.4%
Moderate 25 27 32 84
Difference Differl 29.8% 32.1% 38.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 30.9% 29.0% 33.0% 31.0%
High 40 28 23 91
Difference Differl 44.0% 30.8% 25.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 49.4% 30.1% 23.7% 33.6%
Total 81 93 97 271
Differl 29.9% 34.3% 35.8% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 17.501, df = 4, p < .002, Kendall’s tau-b = -.206

Race was found to be a signiﬁcant factor in the goal alignment and job

satisfaction association. Signiﬁcant levels were reached for both white and minority

ofﬁcers. The familiar pattern between goal alignment was found for both white and

minority officers. Nearly forty-three percent (42.7%) of minority ofﬁcers compared to

nearly thirty-four percent (33.5%) of white ofﬁcers were closely aligned with their chief.

Both were as likely to have high job satisfaction. The strength of the association was

 

192

APPENDIX C

modest for white ofﬁcers (Kendall’s tau-b = -.148) and moderate for minority ofﬁcers

(Kendall’s tau-b = -.258).

Table 60 — White Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction

Low 20 29 34 83
Difference Differl 24.1% 34.9% 41.0% 100.0%
Satcoml 23.5% 37.7% 39.5% 33.5%

Moderate 26 28 27 81
Difference Differl 32.1% 34.6% 33.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 30.6% 36.4% 31.4% 32.7%

High 39 20 25 84
Difference Differl 46.4% 23.8% 29.8% 100.0%
Satcoml 45.9% 26.0% 29.1% 33.9%

Total 85 77 86 248
Differl 34.3% 31.0% 34.7% 100.0%

Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 9.960, df = 4, p < .041, Kendall’s tau-b = -.148

 

193

APPENDIX C

Table 61 - Minority Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 6 12 17 35
Difference Differl 17.1% 34.3% 48.6% 100.0%
Satcoml 25.0% 41 .4% 58.6% 42.7%
Moderate 8 5 8 21
Difference Differl 38.1% 23.8% 38.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 33.3% 17.2% 27.6% 41 .7%
High 10 12 4 26
Difference Differl 38.5% 46.2% 15.4% 100.0%
Satcoml 41.7% 41.4% 13.8% 31.7%
Total 24 29 29 82
Differl 29.3% 35.4% 35.4% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 9.433, df= 4, p < .051, Kendall’s tau-b = -.258

When level of education was controlled, ofﬁcers with some college or associate’s
degrees were found signiﬁcant in the goal alignment and job satisfaction association (x2 =
15.652, df = 4, p < .004). These ofﬁcers were nearly as likely to be closely aligned with
their chief (38.9%) as to have highly disparate goals (35.6%). They were slightly more
likely to have low levels of job satisfaction (36.7%) than high levels of job satisfaction
(31.7%). The pattern of high job satisfaction and low goal difference was again
established. The strength of this association was moderate (Kendall’s tau-b = -.242). An
analysis of ofﬁcers with high school educations could not be performed because of the
small sample size. Controlling for bachelor’s and postgraduate degrees was not found

signiﬁcant.

194

APPENDIX C

Table 62 - Some College/Associate Degree and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction

Low 14 25 31 70
Difference Differl 20.0% 35.7% 44.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 21.2% 26.3% 54.4% 38.9%

Moderate 20 15 11 46
Difference Differl 43.5% 35.7% 23.9% 100.0%
Satcoml 30.3% 26.3% 19.3% 25.6%

High 32 17 15 64
Difference Differl 50.0% 26.6% 23.4% 100.0%
Satcoml 48.5% 29.8% 26.3% 35.6%

Total 66 57 57 180
Differl 36.7% 31.7% 31.7% 100.0%

Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 15.652, df = 4, p < .004, Kendall’s tau-b = -.242

When job tenure was controlled, the association between goal alignment and job

satisfaction was signiﬁcant for officers with one to ﬁve years of tenure (x2 = 12.684,

df = 4, p < .013 ) and officers with sixteen or more years’ tenure (x2 = 12.573, df = 4,

p < .014). Of the officers with one to ﬁve years of tenure, over forty-three percent

(43.5%) had high levels of job satisfaction, and nearly forty percent (39.1%) had close

goal alignment with their chief. Over forty percent (40.0%) of officers with high levels

of job satisfaction had low levels of difference with the goals of their chief. Sixty percent

(60.0%) of ofﬁcers with low job satisfaction had high levels of difference with their

chiefs goals. Of the ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of tenure,

 

195

APPENDIX C

Table 63 — One to Five Years’ Tenure and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction

Low 6 14 16 36
Difference Differl 16.7% 38.9% 44.4% 100.0%
Satcoml 24.0% 51.9% 40.0% 39.1%

Moderate 4 8 14 26
Difference Differl 15.4% 30.8% 53.8% 100.0%
Satcoml 16.0% 29.6% 35.0% 28.3%

High 15 5 10 30
Difference Differl 50.0% 16.7% 33.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 60.0% 18.5% 25.0% 32.6%

Total 25 27 4O 92
Differl 27.2% 29.3% 43.5% 100.0%

Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 12.684, df = 4, p < .013, Kendall’s tau-b = -.242

twenty six percent (26.0%) had high levels of job satisfaction, and over thirty-six percent

(36.5%) were closely aligned with their chief. Nearly ﬁfty percent (48.7%) of officers

with low levels of job satisfaction had high goal difference with their chief. Over ﬁfty

percent (51.9%) of ofﬁcers with high levels of job satisfaction had low levels of goal

difference with their chief. The strength of this association was modest for officers with

one to ﬁve years of tenure (Kendall’s tau-b = -.173) and moderate for ofﬁcers with

sixteen or more years of tenure (Kendall’s tau-b = -.253).

196

APPENDIX C

Table 64 — Sixteen or More Years’ Tenure and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction

Low 6 18 14 38
Difference Differl 15.8% 47.4% 36.8% 100.0%
Satcoml 15.4% 47.4% 51 .9% 36.5%

Moderate 14 7 6 27
Difference Differl 51.9% 25.9% 22.2% 100.0%
Satcoml 35.9% 1 8.4% 22.2% 26.0%

High 19 13 7 39
Difference Differl 48.7% 33.3% 17.9% 100.0%
Satcoml 48.7% 34.2% 25.9% 37.5%

Total 39 38 27 104
Differl 37.5% 36.5% 26.0% 100.0%

Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 12.573, df = 4, p < .014, Kendall’s tau-b = -.253

Finally, officers’ tenure in their current job assignment was controlled and the

association between goal alignment and job satisfaction re-examined. Signiﬁcance was

found for ofﬁcers with less than one year in their current assignment (x2 = 13.111, df = 4,

p < .011). F orty-seven percent (47.0%) of officers in new assignments were closely

aligned with their chief and thirty-six percent (36.4%) had high levels of job satisfaction.

Over sixty-one percent (61.1%) of ofﬁcers with high goal disparity with their chief had

low job satisfaction. Over ﬁfty-four percent (54.2%) of ofﬁcers with high job satisfaction

levels were closely aligned with the goals of their chief. The strength of this association

was moderate (Kendall’s tau-b = -.256).

 

197

APPENDIX C

Table 65 — New Assignments and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction

Low 7 11 13 31
Difference Differl 22.6% 35.5% 41.9% 100.0%
Satcoml 35.0% 50.0% 54.2% 47.0%

Moderate 2 6 9 17
Difference Differl 11.8% 35.3% 52.9% 100.0%
Satcoml 10.0% 27.3% 37.5% 25.8%

High 11 5 2 18
Difference Differl 61.1% 27.8% 11.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 55.0% 22.7% 8.3% 27.3%

Total 20 22 24 66
Differl 30.3% 33.3% 36.4% 100.0%

Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 13.111, df= 4, p < .011, Kendall’s tau-b = -.256

To review, goal alignment and job satisfaction are signiﬁcantly associated.

Ofﬁcers with high levels of job satisfaction were likely to be closely aligned with the

goals of their chief. Ofﬁcers with low levels of job satisfaction tended to have high levels

of goal differences with their chief. Using the demographic variables to control the goal

alignment and job satisfaction association revealed additional information. When job

assignment is controlled, patrol ofﬁcers exhibit the same high satisfaction and close goal

 

congruency pattern. The association between high job satisfaction and close goal
congruence was also found for volunteers and promoted ofﬁcers, male ofﬁcers, both
white and minority ofﬁcers, ofﬁcers with some college or associate degrees, ofﬁcers with
either one to ﬁve years’ tenure or officers with sixteen or more years’ tenure, and ofﬁcers

in new job assignments.

198

APPENDIX C

Job Assigpment Reggession Models

The data set was divided into the three job assignments. Regression models were

developed for the most productive variables.

Table 66 - Patrol Data Model

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B Std. Error t Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 44.082 5.974 7.379 .000
Satcom -.270 .058 -4.589 .000 .993
Curasgn 1.890 .684 2.758 .006 .993

 

The most useful predictors of patrol ofﬁcers’ goal alignment were their level of

job satisfaction and tenure in current assignment (R2 = .130, adjusted R2 = .122). As

levels of job satisfaction increased, goal congruence with the chief increased. As tenure

in current assignment increased, goal congruence diminished.

Table 67 - Detective Data Model

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B Std. Error Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 41.270 8.901 4.636 .000
Tenure -3. 130 1.395 -2.240 .028 .596
Satcom -.187 .083 -2.249 .028 .954
Curasgn 2.805 1.171 2.396 .019 .581

 

For detectives, levels of job satisfaction, job tenure and tenure in current

assignment were the best predictors of goal congruence with the chief (R2 = .118,

adjusted R2 = .081). Increasing levels of job satisfaction and job tenure brought closer

 

 

199

APPENDIX C

goal congruence with the chief. Increased tenure in current job assignment brought more

 

 

goal disparity.
Table 68 - Community Policing Data Model
B Std. Error 1 Signiﬁcance Tolerance
Constant 22.463 1.925 1 1 .670 .000
Minority -8.893 3.334 -2.667 .01 1 1.000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The only signiﬁcant predictor of the goal alignment of community police ofﬁcers

was race (R2 = .154, adjusted R2 = .111). Minority ofﬁcers have closer goal alignment

with their chief.

Additional Cincinnati Data Analysis

Analysis of the data from the Cincinnati Police Division revealed few signiﬁcant

associations. Job assignment was not signiﬁcantly associated with goal alignment or job

satisfaction. Both null hypotheses were maintained. Only one chi-square test of
associations with goal alignment or job satisfaction achieved signiﬁcance. The sole

signiﬁcant association was between goal alignment and race (x2 = 6.083, df = 2, p <

.048). White ofﬁcers had higher levels of goal disagreement (45.2%). Minority ofﬁcers

had the highest levels of goal congruence with their chief (41.2%). The strength of this

association is modest (Cramer’s V = .185).

 

200

APPENDIX C

Table 69- Goal Alignment and Race
Cincinnati Police Division

 

 

 

 

 

White Other Total

Low 29 21 50
Difference 23.0% 41 .2% 28.2%
Moderate 40 ~ 1 1 51
Difference 3 1 .7% 21 .6% 28.8%
High 57 i 19 76
Difference 45.2% 37.3% 42.9%
Total 126 5 l 1 77

100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

 

 

X2 = 6.083, df= 2, p < .048, Cramer’s V = .185 x

The association between goal alignment and job satisfaction just missed the
signiﬁcant level ()8 = 9.212, df = 4, p < .056). Because of the theoretical importance of
this association and its near signiﬁcance, it is included here. The strength of this
association is moderate (Kendall’s tau-b = -.200). Goal alignment and job satisfaction

follow the same pattern as seen in the larger data set.

201

APPENDIX C

Table 70 - Goal Alignment and Job Satisfaction
Cincinnati Police Division

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 12 16 22 50
Difference Differl 24.0% 32.0% 44.0% 100.0%
Satcoml 17.6% 28.1% 38.6% 27.5%
Moderate 18 16 17 51
Difference Differl 35.3% 31.4% 33.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 26.5% 28.1% 29.8% 28.0%
High 3 8 25 18 81
Difference Differl 46.9% 30.9% 22.2% 100.0%
Satcoml 55.9% 43.9% 31.6% 44.5%
Total 68 57 57 182
Differl 37.4% 31.3% 31.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
x2 = 9.212, df = 4, p < .056, Kendall’s tau-b = -.200

Though few chi-square tests reached signiﬁcance, t-tests were more productive.
Several t-tests for the variables job tenure and goal alignment were signiﬁcant. The mean
value for ofﬁcers with less than one year experience (12.000) was signiﬁcantly lower
(closer goal congruence) than were mean values for ofﬁcers with six to ten years’
experience (23.2857, t = -2.15, df = 52, p < .036), and ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years
of experience (29.5000, t = -3.05, df = 19, p < .007). The mean value for ofﬁcers with
one to ﬁve years of experience (22.2167) was signiﬁcantly lower (closer goal
congruence) than were mean values for ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years of experience

(29.0000, t = -2.00, df = 74, p < .049). The mean value for ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen

202

APPENDIX C

years of experience (29.0000) was signiﬁcantly higher than that for ofﬁcers with sixteen
or more years of experience (22.2800, t = 2.05, df = 64, p < .045).

Female ofﬁcers were less satisﬁed in their job than male ofﬁcers. The mean value
for male ofﬁcers (95.9306) was signiﬁcantly higher than that for female ofﬁcers
(90.2973, t = 1.97, df = 49.26, p < .054). No other variable was found to be signiﬁcantly
associated with ofﬁcers’ level of job satisfaction.

Next the association between goal alignment and job satisfaction was re-examined
with job assignment controlled. An association of signiﬁcance was found for patrol
ofﬁcers (x2 = 12.6100, df = 4, p < .013). The same inverse pattern of association between
goal difference and job satisfaction was found. Sixty-one percent (61 .0%) of ofﬁcers
with low job satisfaction had high levels of goal discrepancy with their chief. Over ﬁfty-
eight percent (58.1%) of ofﬁcers closely aligned with the goals of their chief had high
levels of job satisfaction. The strength of this association is moderate (Kendall’s

tau-b = -.290). No other attributes were found to be signiﬁcant.

203

APPENDIX C

Table 71 -— Patrol Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Satisfaction

Cincinnati Police Division

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Moderate High Total
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
Low 5 8 18 31
Difference Differl 16.1% 25.8% 58.1% 100.0%
Satcoml 12.2% 24.2% 40.9% 26.3%
Moderate 11 11 14 36
Difference Differl 30.6% 30.6% 38.9% 100.0%
Satcoml 26.8% 33.3% 31.8% 30.5%
High 25 14 12 51
Difference Differl 49.0% 27.5% 23.5% 100.0%
Satcoml 61.0% 42.4% 27.3% 43.2%
Total 41 33 44 118
Differl 34.7% 28.0% 37.3% 100.0%
Satcoml 100.0% 100.0% 100.3% 100.0%
x2 = 12.6100, df= 4, p < .013, Kendall’s tau-b = -.290

Finally, the association between goal alignment, job satisfaction and job
assignment was re-analyzed with the demographic variables used as controls. No
signiﬁcant associations were found.

In summary, the data from Cincinnati did not reject the null hypotheses. No
signiﬁcant associations were found between job assignment and goal alignment or job
satisfaction. Of all the demographic variables, only the chi-square analysis of race was
found to be signiﬁcantly associated to goal alignment. White officers had high levels of
goal disparity with their chief. Minority ofﬁcers had the highest levels of goal alignment

with their chief.

204

APPENDIX C

The evaluation of goal alignment and job satisfaction missed the signiﬁcant level
by .002. The pattern of low levels of goal difference and high levels of job satisfaction
was once again found. This relationship was re-examined with job assignment
controlled. The pattern of low goal differences and high job satisfaction as well as low
job satisfaction and high goal difference reached signiﬁcance for patrol ofﬁcers.
Controlling for the other job assignments did not produce signiﬁcant associations. None
of the demographic variables were found signiﬁcant when used as controls.

More was determined by analyzing the mean values of variable attributes with
t-tests. Differences were found between ofﬁcers with varying levels of tenure. Officers
with less than one year experience were found to be more closely aligned with the goals
of the chief than were ofﬁcers with six to ten years of experience and ofﬁcers with eleven
to ﬁfteen years of experience. In addition, officers with one to ﬁve years of experience
were more closely aligned with the goals of their chief than were ofﬁcers with eleven to
ﬁfteen years of experience. Ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years’ experience had a greater
level of goal disparity with the chief than did ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of
experience.

Female ofﬁcers had lower levels of job satisfaction than male ofﬁcers. No other

variable was found to be associated with job satisfaction in t-test analysis.

Additional Colorado Springs Data Analysis
The Colorado Springs data produced ﬁndings much different from the Cincinnati

data. There are several possible explanations for this aside from obvious differences in

205

APPENDIX C

the two police departments. As previously discussed, the smaller sample size, resulting
from separating the data base, affects the statistical tests. With less data, it becomes more
difﬁcult to achieve statistical signiﬁcance. Another likely possibility is the
representativeness of the sample. The Colorado Springs responses included a wider
range of variable attributes. Due to this dispersion, some categories had larger numbers
of responses even though the Colorado Springs data set was smaller than that of
Cincinnati.

A signiﬁcant association was found between goal alignment and job assignment
for the officers of the Colorado Springs Police Department (x2 = 13.1008, df = 4, p <
.011). Detectives (65.9%) and community police officers (52.6%) were more likely than
patrol ofﬁcers (33.3%) to have close goal congruence with their chief. Patrol officers
(28.0%) had the highest level of goal difference with their chief. The strength of this

association is moderate (Cramer’s V = .207).

206

APPENDIX C

Table 72 — Goal Alignment and Job Assignments
Colorado Springs Police Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detectives CPO Total

Low 3 1 27 10 68
Difference 33.3% 65.9% 52.6% 44.4%
Moderate 36 9 6 5 1
Difference 38.7% 22.0% 31.6% 33 .3%
High 26 5 3 34
Difference 28.0% 12.2% 15.8% 22.2%
Total 93 41 19 153

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

x2=l3.1008, df=4, p<.Oll, Cramer’3V=.207

The mean values of patrol ofﬁcers (19.2796), detectives (14.5366) and community
police ofﬁcers (15.3684) were compared. Detectives were signiﬁcantly more closely
aligned with the goals of their chief than were patrol ofﬁcers (t = 2.67, df=132, p < .009).

No signiﬁcant association was found for goal alignment and the method of job
acquisition (x2 = 1.5618, df = 2, p < .458). The mean values for assigned or entry level
(18.1647) and volunteer or promoted (16.7206) were not signiﬁcantly associated (t =.93,
df=151, p < .353).

Gender was not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with goal alignment
(x2 = .7182, df = 2, p < .698). T-tests of the mean values of males (17.3150) and females

(18.5385) did not signiﬁcantly differ (t = -.60, df = 151, p < .553).

207

APPENDIX C

Race was not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with ofﬁcers’ level of goal
alignment (x2 = .0202, df = 2, p < .990). The mean values for white ofﬁcers (17.6967)
and minority ofﬁcers (16.8387) did not signiﬁcantly differ (t = .45, df = 151, p < .656).

It is impossible to properly judge the effect of education on levels of ofﬁcers’ goal
alignment. Only three ofﬁcers were in the High school/GED category. Education levels
were not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with ofﬁcers’ goal congruence with their
chief (x2 = 6.040, df = 4, p < .196). However, the mean value for ofﬁcers with a high
school education (32.6667) was signiﬁcantly higher than that for ofﬁcers who attended
some college classes or had associate’s degrees (17.2381, t = 2.83, df = 85, p < .006) and
ofﬁcers with a bachelor’s or postgraduate degree (17.1970, t = 2.77, df = 67, p < .007).
Though the mean value for ofﬁcers with a high school education is nearly twice as high
as officers with some college classes, we must be cautious in drawing conclusions from
such a small sample.

Officers’ total police experience (job tenure) was not signiﬁcantly associated with
their level of goal congruence with their chief (x2 = 8.6022, df = 8, p < .377). T-tests of
the mean values for ofﬁcers with experience levels less than one year (11.7500), one to

ﬁve years (16.1875), six to ten years (17.5882), eleven to fifteen years (18.2500) and
sixteen years or more (18.3333) revealed signiﬁcant differences. Ofﬁcers with less than
one year of experience had signiﬁcantly closer goal congruence with their chief than
officers with eleven to ﬁfteen years of experience (t = -2. l 3, df =30, p < .042) and
ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of experience (t = -2.48, df =13.30, p < .027). This

close goal congruence disappeared for ofﬁcers with one year or more of experience.

208

APPENDIX C

Ofﬁcers’ tenure in their current assignments was found to be associated with their
goal congruence with the chief (x2 = 17.7619, df = 6, p < .007). Ofﬁcers in the ﬁrst year
of a new job assignment were closely aligned with the goals of their chief. Ofﬁcers’ goal
congruency decreased with each additional year in their assignment. The strength of this
association is moderate (Kendall’s tau-c = .224). This association could not be compared
to job tenure because of low expected counts in too many cells.

Table 73 — Goal Alignment and Tenure in Current Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

< 1 yr 1-2 yrs 3-4 yrs 5 or more yrs Total

Low 22 15 10 21 68
Difference 62.9% 46.9% 40.0% 35.0% 44.7%
Moderate 7 15 11 18 51
Difference 20.0% 46.9% 44.0% 30.0% 33.6%
High 6 2 4 21 33
Difference 17. 1% 6.3% 16.0% 35.0% 21.7%
Total 35 32 25 60 152

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 17.7619, 6, p < .007, Kendall’s tau-c = .224

T-tests conﬁrmed a pattern of declining goal congruence for ofﬁcers in their

current assignment for less than one year (14.7429) one to two years (14.7500), three to

four years (17.0000), and ﬁve or more years (20.4167). The mean values for ofﬁcers

with less than one year experience (t = -2.81, df = 93, p < .006) and ofﬁcers with one to

 

209

APPENDIX C

two years’ experience (t = -3.20, df = 83.85, p < .002) were signiﬁcantly lower than for
ofﬁcers with ﬁve or more years of experience. These ﬁndings suggest that ofﬁcers see
the organization heading in the right directions when they start their careers, but begin to
question organizational direction as they settle into their assignment.

The association for goal alignment and job assignment was revisited with the
demographic variables used to control the analysis. The method of job acquisition,
gender of the ofﬁcer, and tenure in current assignment were not signiﬁcant. Race was
signiﬁcant for white ofﬁcers. White detectives (68.6%) and community police officers
(50.0%) were more likely than patrol ofﬁcers (32.0%) to have low goal conﬂict with their
chief (x2 = 13.2912, df = 4, p < .010). This association was moderate in strength

(Cramer’s V = .234).

210

APPENDIX C

Table 74 - White Officers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 24 24 6 54
Difference 32.0% 68.6% 50.0% 44.3%
Moderate 30 7 4 41
Difference 40.0% 20.0% 33.3% 33.6%
High 21 4 2 27
Difference 28.0% 11.4% 16.7% 22.1%
Total 75 35 12 122

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 13.2912, p < .010, Cramer’s V = .233

Education affects the goal alignment and job assignment association for ofﬁcers

with bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees (x2 = 10.3329, df = 4, p < .035). Over three

quarters (76.9%) of detectives and half (50%) of community police ofﬁcers with a

bachelor’s or postgraduate degree were closely aligned with the goals of their chief. The

strength of this association is moderate (Cramer’s V = .280), but should be interpreted

cautiously because of low cell counts. (Four cells had expected cell counts of less than

ﬁve.)

 

211

APPENDIX C

Table 75 - Bachelor/Postgraduate Degrees and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detectives CPO Total

Low 14 10 3 27
Difference 29.8% 76.9% 50.0% 40.9%
Moderate 23 1 2 26
Difference 48.9% 7.7% 33.3% 39.4%
High 10 2 1 13
Difference 21 .3% 15.4% 16.7% 19.7%
Total 47 13 6 66

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

x2 = 10.3330, p < .035, Cramer’s V = .280

The association for goal alignment and job assignment is affected by ofﬁcers’

tenure. First-year ofﬁcers are excluded because they are all assigned to patrol. No

signiﬁcance was found for ofﬁcers with one to ﬁve years’ experience. A signiﬁcant

association was suggested for ofﬁcers with six to ten years’ experience (x2 = 10.9354,

df = 4, p < .027), but the table was plagued with an excessive number of cells with low

cell counts. (Seven cells had an expected count of less than ﬁve.) A signiﬁcant

association was found for ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of service (x2 = 10.6756,

df = 4, p < .030). Detectives (68.4%) and community police ofﬁcers (66.7%) with

sixteen or more years of experience were more closely aligned with the goals of their

 

212

APPENDIX C

chief than similar patrol ofﬁcers (27.6%). The strength of this association is moderate

(Cramer’s V = .314). (Four cells had an expected count less than ﬁve.)

Table 76 — Long Tenured Ofﬁcers and Goal Alignment by Job Assignment
Colorado Springs Police Department

 

 

 

 

 

Patrol Detective CPO Total

Low 8 1 3 4 25
Difference 27.6% 68.4% 66.7% 46.3%
Moderate 1 1 2 0 13
Difference 37.9% 10.5% .0% 24. 1%
High 10 4 2 16
Difference 34.5% 21.1% 33.3% 29.6%
Total 29 19 6 54

100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

X2 = 106756, df= 4, p < .030, Cramer’s V = .314

Next, job satisfaction was examined. No signiﬁcant association was found for job
assignment and job satisfaction (x2 = 3.1693, df = 4, p < .530). T-tests of the mean
values for patrol ofﬁcers (98.9677), detectives (96.7561) and community police ofﬁcers
(99.3684) also failed to ﬁnd any signiﬁcant associations. Job satisfaction and job
assignment were re-examined with the demographic variables controlled, and no
signiﬁcant associations were found.

The manner of job acquisition was not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with

the level of job satisfaction (x2 = .9923, df = 2, p < .609). The mean values for entry level

213

APPENDIX C

or assigned ofﬁcers (98.2588) and volunteer or promoted ofﬁcers (98.6324) were not
signiﬁcantly different (t = -.l7, df = 151, p < .864).

Gender was not signiﬁcantly associated with ofﬁcers’ level of job satisfaction
(x2 = 5.1561, df = 2, p < .076). Male (98.7795) and female (96.6923) ofﬁcers were
compared and no significant difference was found (t =.73, df = 151, p < .468).

Race was not signiﬁcantly associated with level of job satisfaction (x2 = 1.6207,
df = 2, p < .445). There was no signiﬁcant difference between the mean job satisfaction
level for white (98.9836) and minority (96.2258) ofﬁcers (t = 1.03, df = 151, p < .305).

Ofﬁcers’ level of education was not found to be signiﬁcantly associated with their
level of job satisfaction (x2 = 4.3351, df = 4, p < .363). The mean job satisfaction values
for education categories High School/GED (91.6667), Some College/Associate Degrees
(97.5238), and Bachelor/Postgraduate Degree (99.8788) were not signiﬁcantly different.

Job tenure as a police ofﬁcer was not signiﬁcantly related to officers’ level of job
satisfaction (7(2 = 9.5138, df = 8, p < .301). The mean job satisfaction values for the job
tenure categories Less than One Year (106.3750), One to Five Years (100.5000), Six to
Ten Years (98.3824), Eleven to Fifteen Years (97.7500), and Sixteen or More Years
(96.3333) were compared using t-tests. Only the comparison between ofﬁcers with less
than a year of experience and ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years of experience was
found signiﬁcant (t = 2.00, df = 30, p < .054). Ofﬁcers with less than one year of

experience had higher levels of job satisfaction than ofﬁcers with eleven to ﬁfteen years.

214

APPENDIX C

The length of ofﬁcers’ tenure in their current assignment was not signiﬁcantly
associated with their level of job satisfaction (x2 = 4.9512, df = 6, p < .550). Ofﬁcers in
their current assignment for Less than One Year (97.8571), One to Two Years (98.1563),
Three to Four Years (96.8000) and Five or More Years (99.6557) were not signiﬁcantly
different.

Ofﬁcers’ goal alignment with their chief was compared to their level of job
satisfaction. No signiﬁcant association was found (x2 = 5.2774, df = 4, p < .260).
Controlling for job assignment, gender, race, education, job tenure, and tenure in current
assignment did not produce any signiﬁcant associations.

To summarize, several signiﬁcant associations were found in the Colorado
Springs data. Ofﬁcers’ goal alignment with their chief was associated with job
assignments. Detectives and community police ofﬁcers were more closely aligned with
the goals of the chief than were patrol ofﬁcers.

An analysis of educational levels and goal alignment was hampered by the lack of
ofﬁcers whose education was limited to high school degrees. In a very small sample,
officers with only high school degrees had signiﬁcantly higher levels of goal disparity
with their chief than did ofﬁcers with some college or college degrees.

Tenure as a police ofﬁcer was associated with ofﬁcers’ level of goal congruence
with their chief. Ofﬁcers with less than one year of experience were more closely aligned

with their chief’s goals than were ofﬁcers with eleven or more years of experience.

215

APPENDIX C

Ofﬁcers’ tenure in job assignment was associated with goal alignment. Ofﬁcers
in the ﬁrst year of a job assignment were the most closely aligned with their chief. Goal
congruence declined with each additional year of service.

When the association between goal alignment and job assignment was controlled,
several other associations were found. Race was signiﬁcant for white ofﬁcers, but not
minority officers. White detectives and community police ofﬁcers were more closely
aligned with their chief than were patrol officers. Education was signiﬁcant for ofﬁcers
with bachelor or post graduate degrees. Three quarters of detectives and half of the
community police ofﬁcers with higher levels of education were closely aligned with the
goals of their chief. Job tenure was signiﬁcant for ofﬁcers with sixteen or more years of
service. The long-tenured detectives and community police ofﬁcers were closely aligned
with their chiefs goals.

No signiﬁcant associations were found for job satisfaction. Neither job
assignment nor control variables reached signiﬁcant levels. T-test conﬁrmed the absence

of signiﬁcant associations.

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

Correlation Tables

Table 32A - Pearson Correlations for Table 32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

216

differ dept detective cpo volpro female minority educate tenure
differ 1.000 .243 -.108 -.027 -.040 .007 -.040 -.031 .089
dept .243 1.000 -.072 .012 -.109 .049 .100 -.244 -.118
detective -.108 -.072 1.000 -.215 .414 .052 -.046 -.020 .280
cpo -.027 .012 -.215 1.000 .218 -.018 .081 -.O79 .047
volpro -.040 -.109 .414 .218 1.000 -.007 -.101 .005 .330
female .007 .049 .052 -.018 -.007 1.000 -.048 .072 -.150
minority -.040 . 100 -.046 .081 -.101 -.048 1.000 -.077 -.122
educate -.031 -.244 -.020 -.079 .005 .072 -.077 1.000 -.114
tenure .089 -.118 .280 .047 .330 -.150 -.122 -.114 1.000
curasgrr .178 .004 -.l20 -.O68 -.151 -.067 -.010 -.113 .453
curasgn
differ .178
dept .004
detective -.120
cpo -.068
volpro -.151
female -.067
minority -.010
educate -.113
tenure .453
curasgn 1.000

 

217

APPENDIX D

Table 328 - Coefficient Correlations for Table 32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

curasgn dept cpo female minority detective educate volpro tenure
ctu'asgn 1.000 -.021 .109 -.043 -.041 .214 .059 .232 -.555
dept -.021 1.00 -.001 -.056 -.064 .017 .253 .042 .095
cpo .109 -.001 1.000 -.026 -.l 12 .361 .088 -.303 -.090
female -.043 -.056 -.026 1.000 .068 -. 100 -.065 -.010 .158
minority -.041 -.064 -.l 12 .068 1.000 -.062 .055 .078 .1 l4
detective .214 .017 .361 -. 100 -.062 1.000 .052 -.357 -.262
educate .059 .253 .088 -.065 .055 .052 1.000 -.034 .080
volpro .232 .042 -.303 -.010 .078 -.357 -.034 1.000 -.294
tenure -.555 .095 -.090 .158 .1 14 -.262 .080 -.294 1.000

 

Table 33A — Pearson Correlations for Table 33

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ dept detective curasgrr
differ 1.000 .253 -.l 15 . l 71
dept .253 1.000 -.078 .005
detective -.l 15 -.078 1.000 -.1 l9
curasgrr .171 .005 -.l 19 1.000

 

 

Table 33B Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 33

 

 

 

 

 

curasgrr dept detective
curasgn 1.000 .005 .l 19
dept .005 l .000 .078
det . 1 19 .078 1.000

 

 

 

 

218

APPENDIX D

Table 34A - Pearson Correlations for Table 34

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom dept detective cpo volpro female minority educate tenure
satcom 1.000 -.132 -.052 -.058 -.046 -.095 .005 .015 -.166
dept -.132 1.000 -.072 .012 -.109 .049 . 100 -.244 -.l 18
detective -.052 -.072 1.000 -.215 .414 .052 -.046 -.020 .280
cpo -.058 .012 -.215 1.000 .218 -.018 .081 -.079 .047
volpro -.046 -.109 .414 .218 1.000 -.007 -.101 .005 .330
female -.095 .049 .052 -.01 8 -.007 1.000 -.048 .072 -.150
minority .005 . 100 -.046 .081 -.101 -.O48 1.000 -.077 -.122
educate .015 -.244 -.020 -.079 .005 .072 -.077 1.000 -.1 l4
tenure -. 166 -.1 18 .280 .047 .330 -.150 -.122 -.1 14 1.000
curasgn -.014 .004 -. 120 -.068 -.151 -.067 -.010 -.l 13 .453
curasgn
satcom -.014
dept .004
detective -. 120
cpo -.068
volpro -.151
female -.067
minority -.010
educate -.1 l3
tenure .453
curasgn 1.000
Table 34B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 34
curasgn dept cpo female minority detective educate volpro tenure
curasgn 1.000 -.021 .109 -.043 -.041 .214 .059 .232 -.555
dept -.021 1.000 -.001 -.056 -.064 .017 2.53 .042 .095
cpo .109 -.001 1.000 -.026 -.l 12 .361 .088 -.303 -.090
female -.043 -.056 -.026 1.000 .068 -.100 -.065 -.010 .158
minority -.041 -.064 -.l 12 .068 1.000 -.062 .055 .078 .l 14
detective .214 .017 .361 -. 100 -.062 1.000 .052 -.357 -.262
educate .059 .253 .088 -.065 .005 .052 1.000 -.034 .080
volpro .232 .042 -.303 -.010 .078 -.357 -.034 1.000 -.294
tenure -.555 .095 -.090 .158 .1 14 -.262 .080 -.294 1.000

 

 

 

219

APPENDIX D

Table 35A - Pearson Correlations for Table 35

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom dept female tenure
satcom 1.000 -.13 l -.126 -.137
dept -. 131 1.000 .053 -.l 15
female -.126 .053 1.000 -.158
tenure -.l37 -.1 15 -.158 1.000

 

 

Table 35B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 35

 

 

 

 

 

tenure dept female
tenure 1.000 .108 .153
dept .108 1.000 -.035
female .153 -.035 l .000

 

 

 

 

220

APPENDIX D

Table 36A - Pearson Correlations for Table 36

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ dept detective cpo volpro female minority educate tenure
differ 1.000 .243 -.108 -.027 -.040 .007 -.040 -.03 1 .089
dept .243 1.000 -.072 .012 -.109 .049 . 100 -.244 -.1 l8
detective -.108 -.072 1.000 -.215 .414 .052 -.046 -.020 .280
cpo -.027 .012 -.215 1.000 .218 -.018 .081 -.079 .047
volpro -.040 -.109 .414 .218 1.000 -.007 -.101 .005 .330
female .007 .049 .052 -.018 -.007 1.000 -.048 .072 -.150
minority -.040 . 100 -.046 .081 -.101 -.O48 1.000 -.077 -.122
educate -.03 l -.244 -.020 -.079 .005 .072 -.077 1.000 -. l 14
tenure .089 -.l 18 .280 .047 .330 -. 150 -.122 -.l 14 1.000
curasgn .178 .004 -. 120 -.068 -.151 -.067 -.010 -.1 13 .453
satcom -.237 -. 132 -.052 -.058 -.046 -.095 .005 .015 -. 166

curasgn satcom
differ .178 -.237
dept .004 -.132
detective -. 120 -.052
cpo -.068 -.058
volpro -. 15 l -.046
female -.067 -.095
minority -.010 .005
educate -.113 .015
tenure .453 -.166
curasgn 1.000 -.014
satcom -.014 1 .000

 

 

 

 

Table 368 - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 36

 

 

 

 

 

 

dept satcom curasgn
dept 1.000 .132 -.003
satcom .132 1.000 .013
curasgn -.003 .013 1.000

 

 

 

221

APPENDIX D

Table 44A - Pearson Correlations for Table 44

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom detect cpo volpro female minority educate tenure curasgn
satcom 1.000 -.049 -.128 -.13 1 -.l 13 .099 -.076 -.203 -.071
detective -.049 1.000 -.201 .412 .096 -.006 .012 .215 -.198
cpo -.128 -.201 1.000 .149 -.070 .018 -.059 .098 .017
volpro -.131 .412 .149 1.000 .032 -.155 .037 .216 -.278
female -.1 13 .096 -.070 .032 1.000 -.061 .1 17 -.134 -.074
minority .099 -.006 .018 -.155 -.061 1.000 -.061 -.124 .000
educate -.076 .012 -.059 .037 .l 17 -.061 1.000 -.231 -.170
tenure -.203 .215 .098 .216 -.134 -.124 -.231 1 .000 .460
curasgn -.071 -. 198 .017 -.278 -.074 .000 -. 170 .460 l .000

Table 448 - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 44
curasgn minority cpo female educate detective volpro tenure

curasgn 1.000 -.030 .041 -.044 .035 .217 .323 -.560
minority -.030 1.000 -.073 .074 .075 -.l 10 .140 .13 1
cpo .041 -.073 1.000 .023 .036 .305 -.227 -.l l 1
female -.044 .074 .023 1.000 -.075 -.l 1 l -.019 .141
educate .035 .075 .036 -.075 1.000 -.010 -.051 .175
detective .217 -.1 10 .305 -.l l l -.010 1.000 -.328 -.276
volpro .323 .140 -.227 -.019 -.051 -.328 1.000 -.261
tenure -.560 .131 -.l l l .141 .175 -.276 -.261 1.000

 

 

 

Table 45A -- Pearson Correlations for Table 45

 

 

satcom tenure female
satcom 1.000 -.146 -. 164
tenure -. 146 1.000 -. 147
female -. 164 -. 147 1.000

 

 

 

 

 

 

222

APPENDIX D

Table 45B — Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 45

 

 

 

 

female tenure
female 1 .000 . 147
tenure . 147 l .000

 

 

 

Table 46A -- Pearson Correlations for Table 46

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ detective cpo volpro female minority educate tenure curasgn
differ 1.000 -. l 84 -.081 -.061 .010 -.074 .010 .138 .264
detective -.184 1 .000 -.230 .407 .010 -.078 -.097 .334 -.045
cpo -.081 -.230 1.000 .300 .047 .162 -.103 -.008 -. 161
volpro -.061 .407 .300 l .000 -.042 -.014 -.093 .43 l -.024
female .010 .010 .047 -.042 1.000 -.042 .046 -.l61 -.060
minority -.074 -.078 . 162 -.014 -.042 1.000 -.046 -.096 -.023
educate .010 -.097 -.103 -.093 .046 -.046 1.000 -.050 -.053
tenure .138 .3 34 -.008 .431 -. 161 -.096 -.050 1.000 .454
curasgn .264 -.045 -. 161 -.024 -.060 -.023 -.053 .454 1 .000

Table 468 - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 46

curasgn minority volpro female educate cpo detective tenure
curasgn 1.000 -.050 .122 -.056 .092 .191 .230 -.531
minority -.050 1.000 .019 .067 .028 -.156 -.015 .097
volpro .122 .019 1.000 .016 .009 -.407 -.382 -.346
female -.056 .067 .016 1.000 -.056 -.091 -.099 .170
educate .092 .028 .009 -.056 1 .000 .128 .126 -.046
cpo .191 -.156 -.407 -.091 .128 1.000 .419 -.048
detective .230 -.015 -.3 82 -.099 .126 .419 1.000 -.247
tenure -.531 .097 -.346 .170 -.046 -.048 -.247 1.000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 47A - Pearson Correlations for Table 47

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ detective curasgn
differ 1.000 -.184 .264
detective —. 184 l .000 -.045
curasgn .264 -.045 l .000

 

 

 

223

APPENDIX D

Table 47B - Coefficient Correlations for Table 47

 

 

 

 

 

curasgn detective
curasgn l .000 .045
detective .045 l .000

 

 

Table 48A - Pearson Correlations for Table 48

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ detective curasgn satcom
differ 1.000 -. l 84 .264 -.143
detective -. l 84 1.000 -.045 -.076
curasgn .264 -.045 1.000 .048
satcom -. I43 -.076 .048 1 .000

 

Table 48B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 48

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom curasgn detective
satcom l .000 -.045 .074
curasgn -.045 1.000 .042
detective .074 .042 l .000

 

 

Table 49A - Pearson Correlations for Table 49

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ detective curasgn satcom3
differ 1.000 -. 184 .264 -.159
detective -. l 84 l .000 -.045 -.065
curasgn .264 -.045 1.000 .064
satcom3 -. l 59 -.065 .064 1 .000

 

 

 

224

APPENDIX D

Table 49B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 49

 

satcom3 curasgn detective

 

satcom3 1 .000 -.061 .062
curasgn -.061 1.000 .041
detective .062 .041 l .000

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 50A - Pearson Correlations for Table 50

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom detective cpo volpro female minority educate tenure curasgn
satcom 1.000 -.076 .027 .014 -.061 -.085 .055 -. 165 .048
detective -.076 1.000 -.230 .407 .010 -.078 -.097 .334 -.O45
cpo .027 -.230 1.000 .300 .047 .162 -.103 -.008 -. 161
volpro .014 .407 .300 1.000 -.042 -.014 -.O93 .431 -.024
female -.061 .010 .047 -.042 1.000 -.042 .046 -. 161 -.060
minority -.085 -.O78 .162 -.014 -.042 1.000 -.046 -.096 -.023
educate .055 -.097 -.103 -.093 .046 -.046 1.000 -.050 -.053
tenure -. 165 .334 -.008 .43 1 -. 161 -.096 -.050 1.000 .454
curasgn .048 -.045 -. 161 -.024 -.060 -.023 -.053 .454 1 .000

 

 

Table 50B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 50

 

 

curasgn minority volpro female educate cpo detective tenure
curasgn 1.000 -.050 .122 -.056 .092 .191 .230 -.531
minority -.050 1.000 .019 .067 .028 -.156 -.015 .097
volpro .122 .019 1.000 .016 .009 -.407 -.3 82 -.346
female -.056 .067 .016 1.000 -.056 -.091 -.099 .170
educate .092 .028 .009 -.056 1.000 . 128 .126 -.046
cpo .191 -.156 -.407 -.091 .128 1.000 .419 -.048
detective .230 -.015 -.382 -.099 .126 .419 1.000 -.247
tenure -.531 .097 -.346 . 170 -.046 -.048 -.247 1.000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

225

APPENDIX D

Table 51A - Pearson Correlations for Table 51

 

 

 

 

 

 

satcom curasgn tenure
satcom 1.000 .048 -. 165
curasgn .048 1.000 .454
tenure -. 165 .454 l .000

 

Table 51B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 51

 

 

 

 

 

curasgn tenure
curasgn l .000 -.454
tenure -.454 l .000

 

 

Table 52A - Pearson Correlations for Table 52

 

satcom l tenure

 

satcom
tenure

 

 

1.000
-.l65

 

-. 165
1.000

 

 

Table 70A - Pearson Correlations for Table 70

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ curasgn satcom
differ 1.000 .204 -.3 l4
curasgn .204 1.000 -.084
satcom -.3 14 -.084 1.000

 

Table 70B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 70

 

 

 

 

 

curasgn satcom
curasgn l .000 -.084
satcom -.084 l .000

 

 

 

 

226

APPENDIX D

Table 71A - Pearson Correlations for Table 71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

differ curasgn satcom tenure
differ 1.000 .105 -. 194 -.101
curasgn .105 1.000 .164 .625
satcom -. 194 . 164 1.000 -.007
tenure -.101 .625 -.007 1.000

 

Table 71B - Coefﬁcient Correlations for Table 71

 

 

 

 

 

 

curasgn satcom tenure
curasgn 1.000 . 164 .625
satcom . 164 l .000 -.007
tenure .626 -.007 1 .000

 

 

Table 72A - Pearson Coefﬁcients for Table 72

 

 

 

 

 

differ minority
differ 1.000 -.3 89
minority -.3 89 1.000

 

 

 

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