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Advice on Dress and Appearance to Business Women

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from Selected Business Periodicals

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Ann T. Kellogg

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Advice on Dress and Appearance to Business Women in the 19205
from Selected Business Periodicals

By

Ann T. Kellogg

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Human Environment and Design

1995

ABSTRACT

Advice on Dress and Appearance to Business Women in the 19205
from Selected Business Periodicals

By
Ann T. Kellogg

The purpose of this research was to determine 1) what types of dress and style
elements were recommended for business and professional women of the 19205, as well
any proscriptions and prescriptions regarding overall professional appearance, 2) what
professional qualities advice authors thought these types of clothing could project about
women to the business community, and 3) what role advice authors thought clothing may
play in job acquisition and the promotion of women into traditionally male dominated
fields. Content analysis was used to collect data from three business periodicals, the
Independent Woman, the Gregg Writer. and the Woman Lawyers' Journal, for the years
1920-1929.

Four themes were identified from the data collected. The first theme, related to
specific style elements for business apparel and appearance, revealed that softly tailored
suits and dresses in dark colors and easy care fabrics were recommended with equal
frequency to business and professional women. The second theme, related to proscriptions
and prescriptions for apparel and appearance, covered t0pics such as appropriateness,
suitability, cleanliness, functionality, and especially the avoidance of extremes in
masculine/feminine appearances. The third theme provided insight into the characteristics
authors felt business apparel and appearance could convey about the individual. Authors
felt that clothing could convey women's business sense, dependability, responsibility,
organizational skills, and intelligence. The last theme examined the role of apparel and
appearance in impression management. The overwhelming majority of authors agreed that
apparel and appearance did effect decisions to hire, promote, and give salary increases to
women in white-collar positions. Additionally, the results of this study show that dress for
success advice is not new, the foundations for current advice were clearly formed by the
19205.

List of Tables
List of Figures

Introduction

TABLE OF CONTENTS

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

iv

Statement of Problem .........................
Justification .................................

Chapter 1

Review of Literature ...............................
Historical Overview .........................
Women in White-Collar Professions ..............
Women's Clothing in the 19205 ................

Nv—I

Nonverbal Communication

Chapter 2
Methodology

Procedures

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Profile of Sources .........................

Limitations
Definitions

Chapter 3
Analysis
Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3
Theme 4

Chapter 4
Conclusions

Limitations

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

For Further Study .........................

Appendix

Bibliography

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

iii

Nt-‘OOUIM
OO\

25
25
29
31
33

35
35
42
52
57

66
73
75

77

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page
1 Marital Status of Women in the Workforce 10
2 White-Collar Occupational Divisions by Sex, 1910-1930 12
3 Apparel Styles and Design Features 37
4 Proscriptions and Prescriptions for Apparel and Appearance 43
5 Characterisitcs Business Apparel and Appearance Convey 53

6 The Use of Business Apparel & Appearance in Impression Management 58

iv

Ifignare

LIST OF FIGURES

hnage

I)ress
I)ress
Stut

Stut

Page

236
I36
I36

I36

I_nt_ro_dusLi9_e

The 19205 was an era that has captured the imagination of many as a time of
flappers, gangsters, and bathtub gin. Writers, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald, and artists, such
as John Held, Jr. have helped to create this image. Through their works, people who did
not even live during the twenties have come to believe that the decade was one long party.
Phrases such as "the Jazz Age," ”the Roaring Twenties,” and "the Lawless Decade” sum
up the popularly held myth that for the United States the party began with the end of
World War I and did not stop until the crash of Wall Street in 1929.

In contrast to this view of the decade, the reality, for most of the United States
was quite different. The beginning of the second decade of the twentieth century was
plagued by high inflation, widespread unemployment, deep cuts in government spending, a
return of soldiers, many of whom were disabled, and a decrease in per capita income.1
These trends continued until 1923 when the recession ended, federal reserve interest rates
were lowered, and a labor shortage combined with increased wages marked the beginning
of the prosperity traditionally associated with this decade.2

The 19205 also was a time of redefining roles for women. Values and attitudes
that were "Victorian" at the turn of the twentieth century were essentially reshaped by the
end of the war. The modern, energetic flapper was the new role model for twentieth
century women. However, in contrast to the image of the wild flapper, who danced,
smoked, drank, and was interested in sex, another modern image for women had evolved,
that of the career woman. This working woman was ". . . self-sufficient, intelligent,

capable and active. "3

 

;Geofl‘rey Perrett, America i3 the ngie; A History (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), p. 31.
Ibid., p. 131.

3Kenneth A. Yellis, 'Prosperity's Child: Some Thoughts on the Flapper,” American Quarterly 21(1)
1969: 51.

Although women have always worked, they had a major impact on the workforce
during World War I when they were needed to fill positions left vacant by men called off
to war. This gave women the opportunity to branch out, in large numbers, into fields that
previously had been dominated by men. Before the war, lower-class, uneducated women
worked in the blue-collar industries out of necessity. Now, middle and upper class
educated women were pursuing positions in the white-collar professions, not always out
of economic necessity, but as alternatives to marriage, to provide fulfillment for

themselves, or to earn money for luxury items for their families.4

em nt of Probl m

This new business woman, whether single or married, created a new need in the
clothing market - a professional wardrobe, and she had her own finances for acquiring it.
As Yellis states, ". . . there was no precedent for dressing the women who seemed to be
emerging in the 19205.” Having changed in comparison to women of the previous
decades, women felt they ”needed a change of costume in order to better communicate
what they thought about themselves and wanted thought about them, who they were. "5
Clothing became one vehicle through which women could express their new
independence.

The question of professional appearance and appropriate business attire has been
answered simply and consistently over time for men, but the same has not been true for
women. As clothing can communicate volumes of information about the wearer in a
single glance, women have continually evaluated the message their clothing may send, and
have sought advice on how to structure their wardrobes for sending the proper message.

As contemporary women seek advice from popular and professional literature on dress

 

4Frank Stricker, ”Cookbooks and Law Books: The Hidden History of Career Women in Twentieth
Century America," Journal of Social HistoLv 10(Fall 1976): l.

5Yellis., p. 49.

6Ibid., p. 63.

and appearance, so have women in the past. From their inception, women's magazines
have been a forum for education and advice on dress, cooking, childrearing, politics and
more. It would follow then, that women would also turn to magazines for advice on
appropriate dress and grooming for the office environment. As the 19205 represents a
pivotal period marked by changes in the political climate and the opening of career
opportunities for women in the United States, it is important to examine how new ideas
about fieedom in women’s dress carried over into the world of work.

Through content analysis of the periodicals the Independent Woman, the Cgegg
Writer, and the W for the time period of 1920-1929, this study will
focus on advice to women working in white-collar professions such as secretarial, clerical,
accountancy, and managerial fields.

The specific purposes of this study are to:

1. Determine what forms of dress and style elements were recommended for

business and professional women of the 19205 to adopt into their wardrobes, as

well as any proscriptions or prescriptions regarding overall professional
appearance.

2. Determine what professional qualities the authors of advice columns thought

these types of clothing would project about women to the business community.

And,

3. Determine what role, if any, the authors thought clothing may play in job

acquisition and the promotion of women into traditionally male dominated fields.

Justification
Although there has been research published on the occupational attire for men and

women in a variety of blue-collar jobs, very little research has been done in the area of
white-collar attire for women in the 19205.“I This research will therefore contribute
information in a relatively unexplored sector of costume research - women's business
apparel.8

Further, by incorporating the nonverbal communication concept of impression
management this study hopes to gain insight into why specific types of clothing may have
been recommended for business and professional women, and explain how the adoption of
those recommendations may have contributed to the entry of women into the white-collar
professions. The symbolic fimction of clothing and appearance also was examined as a
potential tool which historically may have helped to facilitate communications between
men and women in the business community. Background information on the economic
and political climate of the United States during the 19205 helped provide the context for
the emergence of women into the white-collar workforce, what types of positions were
open to women, how many women worked, and how their presence in the workforce may

have been viewed by society.

 

7For example see Avril Lansdell. Occupational Costume. (Great Britian: Shire Publications, Ltd, 1977).
or Diana de Marly. Working Dress. (London: B. T. Batsford, 1986).

“White-Collar Worker is defined as a professional whose work usually does not involve manual labor and
who is expected to dress with some degree of formality. Blue-Collar Worker is defined as a wage earner
whose job is performed in work clothes and often involves manual labor. See pages 33 and 34 for further
definitions.

Chapter 1 Review of Litemture

Due to the nature of this research project, the review of literature was conducted
in three difl‘erent content areas: history, costume, and nonverbal communication. The first
section of this review will provide background information on the history of the United
States in the 19205. The next section will provide information on the types of white-collar
professions open to women in the 19205, the conditions in which they worked, and how
they may have been viewed by their contemporaries. The third section reviews sources on
period costume to gather information on general fashion trends of the 19203 as well as
information on occupational dress. The final section examines nonverbal communication
concepts that will be used in analyzing recommendations to women on proper business

apparel and appearance.

W

After the war, with most of Europe in ruin, the United States was able to move
forward and become a world power. In order to participate in the international market
new communication and related industries had to develop. These new industries shifted
the United States economy from an industrial base to a service base. This shift also
created a new need in the white-collar job market for educated employees.9 Although the
communications and service industries may have prospered, other business sectors
suffered due, in part, to the recession. Agriculture, shipping, railroads, coal mining and
textiles sectors were all in financial trouble. The 1928 income tax returns showed that

out of 700,000 businesses, one in four operated at a loss.10

 

9Alice Kessler-Harris. Out to Work: A Histpg pf Wage Earning Women in the United States. (New
York: OxfOl’d University Press, 1982), p. 224.

”Ferret. Amerig in me Twentips. p. 339.

Wages and working conditions of the 19205 were only beginning to be regulated
through legislation. While some protective legislation was enacted during the decade,
most individuals did not receive paid vacations, holidays, or sick leave, and many
struggled to provide for their families.u Although overall incomes rose during the decade,
the real prosperity was experienced only in the upper income brackets. The average
person in 1927 saw increase in savings of only $11.00 over 1899.12

The recession of the early twenties forced many farms, the largest sector of the
economy in the United States, into bankruptcy, and caused many people to leave their
rural communities to find other work. 13 The 1920 census reported that the majority of the
population lived in communities of 2,500 or more, indicating a shift of the American
population from rural, agricultural communities to urban centers. “ Despite the farm
crisis, the Untied States was still very rural, as communities of 2,500 tended to function
more as a large town than a large city, and reflected small town values rather than urban
ones.

The ratification of the 19th amendment, granting women equal sufl‘rage in 1920,
further helped to define the decade, improving women's political status. The League of
Women Voters, formerly the National American Woman Suffrage Association, formed in
1920 to help educate women about the political process and study economic and social
issues important to women. When the Equal Rights Amendment was introduced before
Congress in 1923, they campaigned for its ratification. However, as most women failed to
vote, or organize themselves to vote in large blocks, women continued to lack any

political leverage. ‘5

 

”Ibict, p. 322-323.

”Ibid., p. 324.

13Ibid., p. 120-121.

“Ibid., p. 117

lsFerret America in the Twenties. p. 158.

Many of the changes the United States went through during the 19205 were
already developing before the war. The war, acting as a catalyst, sped up changes in the
economy, advances in technologies, and the broadening of educational and career
opportunities for women. Radio, movies, telephones, airplanes, and automobiles made the
world smaller. Although only four automobiles were registered in 1895, by 1920 the
number reached over eight million, and nearly doubled that amount by 1927."5 The
enclosed automobile, with its newly improved engine, was now an efficient means of
transportation. Prior to the Twenties, automobiles were prone to frequent stalling and
break downs, which when combined with exposure to the elements, did not make it
practical transportation for women. The mass production techniques that were perfected
during the war soon were applied to other industries. Assembly line practices were used
to manufacture everything fiom household goods to clothing, bringing large quantities of
goods to the mass market quickly and inexpensively.

The 19205 also brought many social changes in the United States. The decade was
defined by a struggle between modernism and traditionalism, including the redefining of
women's place in society. This struggle to redefine men's and women's roles was
conducted mainly in the middle class which continued to cling to its traditional Victorian
values. ‘7 Women could now feel flee to smoke, drink, dance, wear make-up, use
contraceptives, pursue careers, and receive educations. However, by many, this new
woman also was seen as a threat to the morality of the country and as an intruder into

traditionally male dominated arenas. ‘3

 

161m, 1). 251.

”Yellis. M 11-45-47-
18Ibid., p. 63.

i hi ll r si ti

While some women worked to help support themselves or their families, other
women were now pursuing careers as an alternative to marriage, and to bring a sense of
firlfillment to their lives. During the twenties, women composed twenty-five percent of
the workforce, and were rapidly taking over white-collar professions in the secretarial,
clerical, accountancy and personnel management fields. 19

Several factors influenced the decision to employ women in the white-collar
sector. First, the new world market was causing many businesses to expand, but the
recession limited their capital. The fact that women would work for lower pay rates
enticed many companies to Open positions to women that were previously dominated by
men. Second, many of the new white-collar positions required special education and
training. More women graduated from high school or were enrolled in private and
commercial business schools than men, and by 1920, women made up forty-seven percent
of college enrollments. As a result, women were better educated and more qualified for
ofice work than men.20 As there were not enough educated men to fill the positions, this
gave women another opportunity to enter new fields. Lastly, employers viewed women as
a cheap labor pool because they believed that women would marry and leave their jobs,
not remain long enough to be promoted, accrue benefits, or draw a pension.21

Although employers paid women less than men for the same position, white-collar
work still paid more than blue-collar work, making it an attractive option for most women.
White collar work also had a shorter work week, forty-five hours instead of fifty-five or
more, and included some benefits, such as vacation time; and the environment was clean

and safe. Also, because of the educational and training requirements, white-collar

 

”Fem W p. 323-

20Margaret L. Hedstrom. ”Beyond Feminism: Clerical Workers in the United States from the 1920's
through the 1960's" in Gregory Anderson, ed., The White Blouse Revolutipn. (New York: Manchester
University Press, 1988), p. 148.

21Alice Kessler-Harris. to W rk: A Histo f W Eamin men in the ni

York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 233.

positions had a certain level of prestige attached to them, even if employers used
discriminatory practices. These features made them ideal career choices for most middle
class women, and a good alternative to teaching. Many parents who felt money spent on
education was wasted on a daughter who would ultimately marry, urged their daughters to
finish high school or enroll for business courses so they would qualify for these
professions.”

According to the 1930 census, of the forty-four million people employed in the
workforce approximately ten million, or 22%, were women. This reflects an increase in
women's employment by 22% compared to 1920 census, and an increase of 29% fiom the
1910 census. Table 1 shows a further break down for number of single, married, divorced
and widowed women in the workforce between 1910 and 1930. However, it is important
to keep in mind when examining these numbers that they reflect all women, ages fifteen
and over, employed in all sectors of the economy.

Single women clearly made up the majority of the female workforce for each
decade reflected in table 1, more than double the other classifications. However, each
decade also saw a significant number of married women employed. In 1910, 25% of the
female workforce was married, but by 1930 the number increased to 29%, or three million
women. From this 5% increase it might be concluded that it was becoming more
acceptable for married women to work. However, it is not known what types of positions
constituted this increase, what the motivating factors might be that caused additional
married women to enter the workforce, or if the increase was simply caused by growth in
the population.

However, census information reveals that the white collar sector employed 3.3
million women in 1920 and 4.7 million women in 193 0, more than either the blue-collar

sector (2 million in 1920 and 2.1 million in 1930), the domestic sector (2 million in 1920

 

22Sharon Hartman Strorn. W. (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p, 315.

10
and 2.9 million in 1930), or the agricultural sector (1.1 million in 1920 and 1 million in
1930).23 The large growth in the white-collar sector may indicate that a large portion of

new entrants into the workforce went into white-collar positions.

Table 124 Marital Status of Women in the Workforce

 

 

 

 

 

 

l 91 0 1 920 1 93 O
= _ .___..__—_ =
Married 1,891,000 1,920,000 3,071,000

Single 4,602,000 55:;029231230) 5,735,000
Widowed/Divorced 1,147,000 (13131;?000) 1,826,000
Total 7,640,000 8,347,000 10,632,000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘It should be noted that in the 1920 census, the classification of widowed or divorced was counted in with
single. However, based on the average percentage of widowed or divorced women present in the
workforce in 1910 and 1930, it can be estimated that approximately 16% in the single category were
widowed or divorced, in 1920, the adjusted numbers appear in parenthesis.

 

23U. S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Hist ii 1 tis ics f nit S

(genial Times te 1970: Series D 182-232, Maier Occupatien group of the Exmrienced Civilian Lamr
feroe. by Sex: 1900 Lo 197(L part 1, chapters A-M. (White Plains, NY: Kraus International Publications,
1989), p. 139-140.

24U. S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Higgrieal Sgtisties: fines D 49-62 Marital
States i Women in the Civilian Labor Force: 1890-1970.p. 133.

 

 

11

The expanding economy forced the opening of positions in fields such as banking,
accounting, bookkeeping, stenography, secretarial, clerical, management, marketing, and
advertising. These positions were often routinized by the introduction of new office
equipment, such as the typewriter, dictaphone, and adding machines. The new concept of
”scientific management" fiu‘ther organized the ofiice environment and created hierarchical
structures. The combination of new machines and ofiice structures created pools of
workers which resembled factory assembly lines. The end result created many entry level
positions from which women found it dificult to receive promotion.23

While the presence of women in all white-collar job sectors continued to grow
throughout the 19205, the rates varied within each field. Table 2 reflects total employment
for men and women in various white-collar positions from 1910 to 1930 based on census
information. This table clearly reflects the enormous growth of women in entry level
positions, and reveals only marginal gains in upper level positions.

In the category of clerical and kindred workers, which is comprised mainly of entry
level positions such as stenography, file clerk, typist, and billing clerk among others, the
data reveals the largest gains in employment for women. In 1910 this classification was
35% women, in 1920 it was 48%, and in 1930 it was 52%. However, by comparison, in
the category of managers, officials, and proprietors, which are mainly upper level
positions, women gained the least ground. Women comprised only 6% of this category in
1910, 7% in 1920, and 8% in 1930. However, it is also important to note that while the
overall percentage of women employed in this category was small, between 1910 and
1930 the actual number of women employed in the positions in this category nearly
doubled. In professional, technical and kindred workers, or mid-level positions such as
accountants, lawyers, nurses, and teachers among others, women comprised 41% of the

workforce in 1910, 44% in 1920, and 45% in 1930.

 

2slilyce J. Rotella Erem Heme te Qflice: United States Women eLWork. 1870-1930. (Ann Arbor, MI:
UMI Research Press, 1981), p. 67-70.

12

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 226 White-Collar Occupational Divisions by Sex, 1910-1930
1910 1920 1930
miffighmw' and 1,758,000 2,283,000 3,311,000
“mm “1'93““ and ' 2,462,000 2,803,000 3,614,000
propnetors
Clerical and kindred workers H 1,987,000 3,385,000 4,336,000
Salesworkers ll 1,755,000 2,058,000 3,059,000
Total Population 7,963,000 10,529,000 14,320,000
mfgizhmw' and 1,032,000 1,275,000 1,829,000
mfidfls’ and I 2,312,000 2,612,000 3,321,000
Clerical and kindred workers H 1,300,000 1,771,000 2,090,000
Saleswor'kers H 1,376,000 1,518,000 2,323,000
Total Male Population 6,019,000 7,176,000 9,564,000
mmgm'w and 726,000 1,008,000 1,482,000
mm°m°m and H 150,000 191,000 292,000
Clerical and kindred workers H 688,000 1,614,000 2,246,000
Salesworkers | 379,000 541,000 736,000
Total Female Populationl . 1,943,000 3,353,000 4,756,000

 

2“U. S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historiegl Statistics Series D 182-232, Major
. Sex: 1900 to 1970. 11139-140.

t1 n ftheE rienced

ivilian Labor force

 

 

 

13

While the majority of women remained in entry level positions, some women were
able to break into fields typically dominated by men Women were going to universities
and receiving degrees in law, medicine, business, and finance which provided them with
the educational background they needed to enter upper level positions. However, these
women often faced more barriers to their success, including discrimination, than did non-
college educated women because of their direct competition with men for positions with
higher earning potential.27

Organizations such as the National Federation of Business and Professional
Women's Club were formed to help combat this discrimination and further women's career
opportunities. Many of the members of these associations had been very successfiil in
their careers, and established themselves as role models for other women to follow. They
knew that it was important for all business and professional women to project a positive
image so as not to firrther undermine women's presence in the workforce.28 They also
were trying to negate the flapper stereotype, which was of an independent but also
irresponsible woman.29

The role of women in the workforce is a topic that was widely debated throughout ..
the 19205. In her research on women in white-collar professions, Fine reviewed 19205
movies to determine the images they were projecting of working women to society. She
concluded that in these movies, business women were often portrayed as office wives
who were loyal, showed initiative, and were able to help the boss or another man to
resolve a problem because of their business contacts, money or independence. However,
contradictory to the image of independence, the stories often end with the women being

”rewarded" with marriage fi'om the man she helped.30

 

2"Strum. 0nd eT writ r. p. 316

28Lisa M. Fine. The Souls of the Skygragrs. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), p. 156.
”Kessler-Harris. mt 19 Work. p. 226.

”Fine. 11539115. p. 141-142.

14

F ine also examined novels with clerical workers as main characters to see if the
image projected in them was different than the one in the movies. The clerical workers in
the novels examined were often motivated to work through a tragedy, such as the death of
a father. After receiving an education, the character would leave her small town to work in
the city, where she would find an exciting position, and become economically independent.
These characters, because of their careers and independence, often had difficulty balancing
a romantic relationship and a career, and reluctant to loose their freedom, usually gave up
the man for the career.31

Both images of business women defined by Fine seem to have been held by
society. Some people did believe women were only working to "catch" a man, hoping
they could go fi'om oflice wife to wife. Others believed that women should be allowed to
work, but should not pursue careers because after marriage when they should be devoting
all their energies to the home. The traditional family values of women staying home with
the children and caring for the home still formed the dominant model in the 19205.32

According to Strom, others felt certain positions were naturally the woman's
domain. The principles of "scientific management” required to run the office with
efficiency and precision were seen as qualities women naturally possessed fi'om running
the home. Educators also felt that women were "more sensitive, more caring and
generally morally superior to men” and would therefore perform better than men in
medical, legal, social work, personnel management and other related professions.”

Despite the lower pay and the often limited advancement opportunities, white-
collar work offered women the opportunity to challenge traditional social norms and
establish themselves as financially independent. By maintaining high standards and work

ethics some women were able to overcome discrimination and break new ground in

 

31Ibid, p. 145-148.
”Ibid, p. 145-148.

33Strum Martinis-1M2:- p- 80-

15

traditionally male dominated fields. These career oriented women helped to change
society's perceptions of women's capabilities through their education and competition with
men for upper level positions.34 The challenging and redefining of traditional roles for
women, both married and single, was perhaps the most important thing women who
entered the white-collar workforce accomplished in the 19205.

 

34Kessler-I-Iarris. @110 Work. p. 218-219.

16

W m n' 1 thin i h 1920

Changes that were beginning to take place in women's fashions before and during
the war, continued afterward. During the war, simpler more comfortable clothing, worn
without a corset, became fashionable. The loose silhouette established during the war
continued to evolve into a variety of styles during the first years of the 19205. However,
by the middle of the decade, the tubular silhouette with the waistline dropped to the hips,
and a hem length around mid calf had been established. Some women wore more extreme
versions of this style resulting in the "flapper" stereotype, with sleeveless bodices, deep
necklines, and knee length hems, but for most, that style was too extreme.

Other changes also were occurring in fashion. Chanel popularized jersey, the little
black dress, costume jewelry, and bobbed hair. Undergarments were fewer in number, and
more flexible, allowing women more freedom of movement. Compared to previous
decades, day-wear fashions in the 19205 were less embellished, simple structures that
allowed women to dress themselves without assistance. The mass production of rayon
yarns for dress fabrics and stockings allowed women with limited incomes to be in fashion
through the now vast ready-to-wear industry.

While research has been done on period dress to determine fashion trends, or
costumes worn for special occasions, such as weddings, the area of occupational costume
is relatively unexplored. The wide variety of blue-collar occupations has resulted in
research on costumes for specialized labor, such as farming or industrial work, but little
research has been done to document costumes for white-collar business professions. In
costume history publications, this category has received little or no attention.

Books on occupational costume by Lansdell, Williams and de Marly, provided
little or no information on clothing worn by women in white-collar professions. Briefly,

both Williams and de Marly note that tailor made suits and plain dresses in dark colors

17

were worn by women working in offices during and after World War I and in the 19205.35
de Marly also notes that as early as 1916 women were adopting men's neckties and pocket
handkerchiefs to show ”professionalism" in business positions.“

Another study relating the design of day dresses to educational and occupational
levels conducted by Allred notes that during the 19205, as women became employed in
positions traditionally held by men, they "began to wear clothing more like men's clothing
in detail, cut, fabric, and sewing."37 Ewing also indicates that business women adopted
classic tailor-made suits, made by men's tailors. Women were advised to help remove that
”inferiority complex”, they should wear a black tailored suit with a white silk blouse, hat,
pearl necklace, and gloves.38 In Callahan's research on twentieth century work apparel she
found that the tailored skirted suit became the standard after 1900 because of its
association with authority. 39

Only one study was found which paralleled the focus of this research. Brown
looked at advice on dress and grooming for business women in periodicals fi’om 1920-
1940. The purpose of her study was to determine what advice was given to women on
appropriate business apparel and ofiice behavior. Additionally, she wanted to determine
what advancement opportunities were available for women.“0 The periodicals in her
research satnple were 95mins. 11.19.de E03909. We, Hamis-
Honersamtt Ladiesflomeloumal. Mndenoisete Meets. and Medium:
mepam’ep. Several of these periodicals were examined by this researcher for possible

 

”Christobel Mitchell Williams. W (Poole, England: Blanford Press, 1982), p. 135.
Diana De Marly. Working DE. (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd, 1986), p. 149.

“do Marly. Wprking Dress. p. 144 and 152-153.

37Joyce Leonard Allred, ”Complexity of Structural Design of Daytime Dresses and its Relationship to
Educational and Occupational Levels of Women from 1860 to 1940" (Master's thesis, Michigan State
University, 1971), p. 15-16.

3”Elizabeth Ewing. Histog of 201h Qenmg Fashipn (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974), p. 105.
”Colleen R. Callahan "Dressed for Work, Women's Clothing on the Job, 1900-1990.” Lam's Heritage
4(Spring 1992): p. 29.

40Teresa Claire Brown. “Advice on Dress and Grooming for Business Women in Selected Women's
Periodicals, 1920-1940.“ (Master's thesis, Iowa State University, 1990), p. 2-3.

l8

incorporation into this study. After examining a random sample, it was determined that
the information contained in these sources had a more general interest content which was
targeted more to the homemaker or society woman, than the business woman. Brown's
findings, however, are still consistent with other publications providing information on
women's business dress. Brown concluded, fiom the data she collected, that women
should wear quality dresses, simple in style and conservative in nature, with small amounts
of jeweh'y, and minimum make-up. She also found contradictory advice on subjects such
as how sexually provocative clothing should be."1
An important detail omitted by each researcher is why women would adopt

masculine style features for their business apparel. What were women trying to
communicate about themselves and their abilities? Was it necessary for women to adopt
masculine clothing to legitimize their place in the business field? Some researchers have
begun to make links between nonverbal communication concepts and historic costume.
By building on their ground work, this researcher hopes to answer these questions.

Kenneth Yellis, in his research on women of the 19205, addresses some of these
questions. The new roles women took on during this period required new forms of dress
with style features more in line with new career responsibilities. Clothing became simpler
and more practical due, in part, to the new demands on the time of the working woman.
Women no longer had time for lengthy fittings, complicated garments requiring assistance
to take on and ofi‘, and fussy details which interfered with their ability to be efficient and
respected in an office environment.

As Yellis points out, a woman had to dress and groom for competition with men
for jobs and promotions, she had to conceal her sexuality, and, black and beige were
obvious choices. He concluded that ”a career woman had to conceal and control her

femininity to reduce herself to an office by minimizing her natural shape, smell, color,

 

“Ibid, p. 48-53.

l9

texture, and movement and to replace these by impersonal, neutral surface."42 He firrther

notes that

Clothes are a kind of communication, establishing a relationship between the
wearer and observer before a word is exchanged. The importance of dress

to the hurried world of business thus becomes clear: it can be a useful shortcut
to acquiring information about others and telling them about oneself. Clothing
identifies the players and the name of the game as well.43

Kidwell and Steele also stress the importance of clothing as a nonverbal
communication tool. They believe that women not only adopted style features of men's
clothing to help communicate and compete with them, but to be perceived as professional
by others, and by one's self.“ Callahan concluded that a professional wardrobe and
appearance were as important to career success as having the appropriate qualifications
for a position.45 Anspach indicated that because businesses had to appear worthy of
customer trust, that for a white-collar worker, a professional appearance was vital to
his/her career success.“

As has been touched on by a few researchers, women may have been led to adopt
and/or adapt typical men's business wear because the nonverbal communication of the
style features of men's clothing were already understood in the office setting. They also
may have adopted or adapted men's wear as a way of making themselves feel more
confident in an ofiice setting. The belief that by appearing professional you will be
regarded as professional by others, and will regard yourself as a professional also, and the
selection of clothing as a means to that end, are the nonverbal communication concepts of

impression management and self-presentation.

 

”Yellis. 'Prosperity's Child.“ p. 54

43lbid., p. 54

“Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, eds. Men and Women, Dressing the Pagt. (Washington DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), p. 17.

“Callahan. Dm fer Werk p. 36

“Karlyne Anspach The Why pf Feehien. (Ames, Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1967), p. 34.

20

Nonverbal Communication and Impression Management

Nonverbal communication literature was examined to develop an understanding of
the symbolic quality of clothing and appearance and their role in impression management.
Just as verbal communication is based upon the shared definitions of words, nonverbal
symbols can have meanings that are understood by a group that can facilitate
communication. Clothing and appearance are powerful nonverbal communication
symbols. Together they can communicate the status and role of an individual within a
society and characteristics of that individual such as power, femininity, modernity, and
more."

Sproles and Burns believe that ”similar to letters of the alphabet, the 'code' of
fashion is sometimes thought to include the type of fabric, the texture of material, the
color and pattern of materials, the volume and silhouette of the structure, and the occasion
for which it is worn.“8 The traditional styling, fabrication and coloring of business
apparel may be a code within the business community that can be translated by the
members of that group and therefore aid in communication between members. Ryan has
also suggested that "clothing actually simplifies our perception of people or of the total
situation,” which is similar to Yellis' view that clothing can identify "the players and the
name of the game."49

The interpretation of visual cues depends on several factors, including the context
in which they are worn, familiarity with the symbols, .and the assumption that everyone
will assign the same meaning to the symbol. A four stage process that guides the
interpretation of fashion symbols has been outlined by Sproles and Burns. In the first
stage, visual cues are selected, grouped according to familiarity and unfamiliarity, and the

 

"George B. Sproles and Leslie Davis Burns. han 'n A ran nderstan in Dress in
W (New York: Fairchild Publications, 1994), p. 217-218

48Ibid., p. 218

4”Mary Shaw Ryan. Qlothing, A Study in Human Behavier (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1966), p. 9.

Yellis. ”Prosperity's Child", p. 54.

21

decision is made to interpret the cues as a whole or in individual units. Next, the cues or
symbols are interpreted and assigned meaning. The meanings are based on past
associations with the symbols within a given context, often resulting in a stereotyped
image. It is at this stage that the break down in communication can occur if the symbols
convey different meanings to difl‘erent people. In the third stage, inferences are made
about the person wearing the symbols based on the meaning they have been assigned.
Lastly, a response is made toward the person, which may be favorable or unfavorable
based on the inferences that have been drawn.-"0

The response to clothing or appearance symbols can be verbal, such as a
complement, or nonverbal, such as a judgment about the personality or abilities of the
person. Impression management is defined as ”the process by which individuals attempt
to control the impressions others form of them.” Through clothing, an individual can try
to control the image they project, therefore controlling what qualities others will perceive
about them. One can use clothing to try to cultivate an appearance that will convey
aspects considered desirable and hide those not desirable. People use impression
management to help control other‘s reaction to them and to define their own role in group
interaction.

Leary and Kowalski identify two components to impression management,
impression motivation and impression construction. The "impression motivation process
is associated with the desire to create particular impressions in others' minds."2 The
motivation to use impression management is determined by the situation, as not all
situations require impression management. When the outcome of the interaction is valued,
it becomes likely that impression management will be used. Such outcomes include the

need for approval, and the exercising of influence or power. When outcomes yield

 

soSproles and Burns. changing Appearaneeg. p. 225-235.
"Mark R Leary and Robin M. Kowalski, “Impression Management: A Literature Review and Two-

Component Model," Esyehelpgy Bulletid 107 (January 1990): 34.
”Ibid, p. 35

22

material gains, such as job acquisition or promotion, or a pay raise, impression
management may be utilized.

Impression construction ”involves not only choosing the kind of impression to
create, but deciding precisely how [one] will go about doing so."53 Impression
construction requires the altering of current self-irnage to achieve what is considered to be
the ideal self-image for the given situation. In job acquisition, impression motivation is
clearly present, and the technique of impression construction can be applied so the
candidate appears to fit the mold or ideal of the company.“ The applicant who comes
closest to projecting the image the interviewer has in his/her head will most likely receive
the position. For jobs that are sex typed as masculine, impression management becomes
an important tool for women to use to help communicate their understanding of the
requirements of the position.

Impression management is not a tool of deceit, rather it is a method of
communicating one's abilities through the shared meaning of symbols. Sproles and Burns
believe that since certain types of clothing and appearance symbols are closely associated
with certain roles, that a individual may adopt those symbols to demonstrate to others
their understanding of the role they have taken on.” Furthermore, not adopting the
symbols, or ”failing to look the part", can diminish an individual's effectiveness in the role.
This concept is one Rosencranz calls role congruency, where the ”expected visual image"
matches the role of the individual.“

Self-presentation is another concept involved in impression management. It is
suggested that ”self presentation involves not only people's attempts to manage the

impressions others form, but also efi‘orts to control their impressions of themselves as

 

53Ibid., p. 35-36.

“Michele K. Kacmar and Dawn S. Carlson. "Using Impression Management in Women's Job Search
Process.” American Behavioral Scientist 37 (March 1994): 684-686.

”Sproles and Burns. changing Appearances. p. 237.

”Mary Lou Rosencranz glothing Qoneepte, A Social-chholochal Approach (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1972), p. 253.

23

well."” The term self presentation and impression management are often used
interchangeably because they both involve the concept of controlling others reactions to
the self.

Joseph has found in his research on uniforms that the uniform can help provide
self-control to the individual because of its visual symbolic display. If a member wearing
the uniform behaved in a manner that was not consistent with the goals of the group, it
would be immediately obvious to members and most non-members. Additionally,
uniforms help identify members from non-members, and provide unquestioned legitimacy
to those wearing the uniform!8 In other research on uniforms conducted by Joseph and
Alex the four functions of the uniform are outlined: "it acts as a totem, reveals and
conceals status's, certifies legitimacy, and suppresses individuality. While he is in uniform,
indicators of all other status's of a citizen are suppressed.”

This definition of the uniform as a vehicle for control over behavior and symbol of
legitimization could be extended to include other types of clothing, such as business
apparel. The adoption or adaptation of the traditional men's suit, the symbol of business
authority, could be viewed as an attempt by women to legitimize their place in the ofice
environment. Additionally, just as with the uniform, the adoption or adaptation of basic
business apparel symbols, may have been used to suppress visual cues to additional roles
the wearer may play. This concept reinforces Yellis' belief that in order to compete in the
business world a woman had to ”conceal and control her femininity, to reduce herself to
an omce.”‘°

John T. Molloy has long been an advocate for the adopting of a business uniform

for women and published the results of his research in The Wom_an's Dress for Success

 

”Leary and Kowalski. "Impression Management,” p. 34

58mm Joseph. mmdmmmcmmmmm (New York: oienwood
Press, 1979): p. 65-67.

”Nathan Joseph and Nicholas Alex. "The Uniform: A Sociological Perspective." Amerign Mtg;
M91991 (January 1972): 719-720.

“Yellis. W 9- 54-

24

1.3582];- He suggests that a skirt and jacket in dark colors accompanied by a contrasting
colored blouse will give the look of authority a businesswoman needs, and that until
women universally adopt this uniform they will never be able to truly compete with men or
attain success in the business field.“

Other contemporary popular and academic literature has addressed the question
of appropriate office attire for women. Empirical research has been conducted on the
nonverbal communication qualities that women's business apparel possess. Researchers
have tested a variety of women's business apparel combinations for perceptions of power,
authority, femininity, masculinity, and possession of management characteristics. While
the concept of nonverbal communication and impression management have been
addressed by several researchers on the subject of contemporary business wear, it has yet
to be applied to research into historic costume. This research will hopefully establish a

new application for nonverbal communication and impression management research.

 

6‘John T. Molloy. n' D f r s B k (New York: Warner Books Inc., 1977), p. 35.

25

Chapter 2 Methodology

Content Analysis Procedures

Content analysis is a research method developed by the social sciences for
measuring verbal and nonverbal data in a quantitative way. Jo Paoletti has utilized content
analysis in two historic costume studies.62 One study researched the adoption of fashion
elements in two nineteenth century patterning making companies. For this study she felt,
". . . the large number of illustrations involved made it desirable to devise a more
systematic approach for studying this bewildering mass of information."63 Paoletti went
on to further outline procedures for using content analysis in a 1982 article "Content
Analysis: Its Application to the Study of History of Costume." In this article she states
that, ”Content analysis provides a systematic, disciplined methodology in situations where
objectivity might be diflicult to maintain due to the number or the nature of the sources."64
Content analysis can help a researcher gather all the data related to his/her topic, and not
risk the elimination of data which may help to prove or disprove a hypothesis because it
requires the defining of categories and the criteria used for placing the data gathered into
each category.

In its basic form, content analysis is the simple counting of words, sentences,
paragraphs, or themes as units to note the fi'equency with which the predetermined unit of
measurement appears. In developing research procedures using content analysis Paoletti
outlines five steps. First, the source for data collection must be chosen. Next, the unit of
analysis must be determined. Third, the researcher must determine if the data of the

source is manifest or covert. Manifest data will be presented in the source in a direct,

 

62Jo B. Paoletti. ”The Role of Choice in the Democratization of Fashion: A Case Study, 1875-1885."
PM 6( 1980): 47-56.

J0 B. Paoletti. “Changes in the Masculine Image in the United States 1880-1910: A Content Analysis of
Popular Humor about Dress” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, 1981)

“Jo B. Paoletti. ”The Role of Choice.” gess 6(1980): 47.

64J0 B. Paoletti. ”Content Analysis: 115 Application to the Study of the History of Costume.” glething
WW 10932)! 14-

26

explicit manner, making it easy to count. When the source being analyzed has covert data,
the predefined categories of the instrument help to guard against subjective interpretation
of data Next the instrument categories will have to be defined. Lastly, the researcher
must chose how the data will be quantified, ranging fiom simple counting to a system of
weighting."

For this study, content analysis was used to determine the frequency with which
authors recommended certain styles of clothing for business and professional women,
what they believed these types of clothing convey about the wearer, and what role they
thought impression management may play in career success or failure. Three periodicals
were selected for use in this study, the Independent Weman, the @egg Writer, and the
W. The content of these magazines was targeted to business and
professional women, and a profile of each magazine is provided later in this chapter.
These magazines were selected because the researcher believed the information gathered
on appearance and impression management from these sources would be more relevant
than information that could be gathered item more general interest magazines such as
W Me, W or We, By contrast, these four
magazines all target a broader, more general audience, primarily homemakers, which the
researcher believed would not provide data which can answer the question, "what role, if
any, authors thought impression management played in the selection of clothing for
business and professional women?" Other periodicals examined for potential use in this
study included the Wemgp Citizen and the Wemen‘s Press. However, the primary focus
for both of these publications was politics, riot career opportunities or fashionable dress.

Categories for data collection were not predefined as it was impossible to know
before hand what type of advice would be found. However, a pilot study that used the
years 1922, 1924, 1926, and 1928 of the Independent Womfl was conducted and

 

“Ibid, p. 14-16.

27

provided guidance for data collection procedures and analysis. As the periodicals did not
have a regular fashion column, each article in each issue was scanned for key words,
themes, or phrases relating to the research questions. Often the title of the article was
used to provide a clue to its content. The data were then recorded independently by
journal, author, title, month, and year. This information was tracked in order to determine
if men or women were giving the fashion advice, if the advice changed throughout the
decade, and if it varied from journal to journal.

mm

Data were collected from a variety of articles within the magazines including
editorials, individual profiles, and feature articles, as there were no regular fashion
columns. Data were not collected fi'om advertisements, line drawings, or photographs, as
the pilot study showed that line drawing did not accurately show clothing details, and
photographs that accompanied articles were usually portraits with undetermined dates.“
The data collected were limited to information on business clothing and professional
appearance that would be appropriate for women in white-collar positions, typically in
office settings, where there was discretion in clothing choice. Advice on clothing for other
types of work, such as farming, or housekeeping, or professions that require uniforms,
such as nursing, was not gathered as it falls outside the scope of this study. Information
on apparel or appearance related to teaching was not collected because this profession did
not represent a new and emerging occupation for women (unless the information related
to positions that were administrative).

After all issues were examined, the data were sorted into categories based on four
main themes which relate to each of the research questions. The definition of each theme

and its related sub-themes are described below.

 

66While some photographs were clearly labeled with names and dates, the majority of the photgraphs
which accompanied articles clearly varied from the date of publication by two years or more.

28

Theme 1 Specific Business Apparel and Appearance Advice

This theme examines the fiequency with which certain forms of clothing and

 

accessories were recommended, including specific style elements, as well as color and
fabric recommendations. Advice on personal appearance items such as hair style, make-up

and other related issues also are included here.

Theme 2 Proscriptions/Prescriptions [or Business Apparel and Appearance
This theme contains advice related to the design elements, fiinctional requirements,

 

and nonverbal communication properties of business apparel and appearance. The
frequency with which certain inter-related sub-themes such as femininity, appropriateness,

suitability, functionality, simplicity, and cleanliness were recommended are examined.

Theme 3 Characteristics Business Apparel and Appearance Convey

About the Individual
This theme examines the qualities, skills, and intelligence levels that authors felt

were projected about the wearer through appropriate and inappropriate business apparel
and appearance. In contrast to the second theme, which only examined proscriptive and
prescriptive advice, this theme examines what authors felt could be inferred about women
through their clothing. The sub-themes revolve around issues such as dependability,
organizational skills, and the possession of business sense.

Theme 4 The Use at Business Apparel and Appearance in Impression
Management

This final theme examines the role authors felt business apparel and appearance

 

played in job acquisition, job promotion, salary increases, and belief in one’s own

competency for a position.

29

While tables are provided in the analysis chapter to show the frequency with which
the difl‘erent themes appeared in each periodical, the emphasis is on qualitative, descriptive
analysis of the data gathered to help understand what appearance-related issues the

authors felt were important to address.

Pr til f are Used67

The Independent ngg magazine, first published in December 1919, was the
ofiicial publication of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's
Clubs, Inc. The mission of the magazine and the organization was to ”promote the
interests of business and professional women; to secure combined action by them; to
gather information relative to vocational opportunity; to stimulate local and state
organizations and cooperation among business and professional women of the several
states of the United States.” A review of this magazine revealed articles on a variety of
topics of concern to business and professional women including articles on appearance and
clothing.

The monthly publication cost $.10 per issue or $1.00 per year until September
1927 when the price was raised to $.15 per issue or $1.50 per year. The average length of
each issue was twenty-five to thirty pages, for the first halfof the decade, ranging fi'om
forty to fifty pages during the last half. In 1920, approximately 10,000 women were
members of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, Inc.,
and approximately halfof them also subscribed to the Lndependentflojnan. By mid-
decade, membership had climbed to approximately 44,000 with the subscription rate at
approximately 10,000. Beginning in January 1927, the membership dues were raised to
automatically include a subscription to the periodical, bringing the circulation up to

approximately 50,000 by the close of the decade.

 

6"The appendix contains a chronological listing of all articles for each periodical from which data were
gathered

30

The sample consisted of all issues from January 1920 through December 1929,
with the exception of January - July, and October for 1920, January, March, August,
September for 1921, January for 1926, January and August for 1927, and December for
1928, which were not available. Additionally, several pages were missing fiom the August
1929 issue. This resulted in a sample size of 105 issues for this source, out of which fifty-
five of the issues contained one or more articles which related to the research conducted
here, providing a pool of eighty-seven articles written by forty-five difi‘erent authors.

The Me: was first published in 1899 by John Gregg to promote and teach
the shorthand technique he developed. The periodical could be used as a teaching tool in
the classroom, or by professionals as a study guide to refresh existing skills and learn new
ones. The periodical was targeted to secretaries, stenographers, typists, court reporters,
legal-aids, clerks, bookkeepers, and others who could utilize shorthand and typewriting in
their work. The magazine contained tests and lessons, promoted speed and accuracy
contests on a national level, profiled professionals in various occupations who used
shorthand and typewriting, and often contained plays or short-stories written in short hand
for the reader to decipher. Additionally, there were articles on appearance and dress
written to help guide men and women seeking positions in the clerical fields.

The periodical was published monthly fiom 1920-1924, and then monthly except
for July and August from 1925-1929 averaging between thirty-five and fifty pages per
issue. The resulting sample size was 108 issues. From this sample fifteen issues yielded
one or more articles resulting in a pool of nineteen articles written by fifieen difi‘erent
authors. No information on circulation or cost per issue could be obtained.

The W was published by the Women Lawyers' Association
which was founded in 1899. The purpose of the organization and the journal was for "all
to express their opinions to each other and to suggest better laws and to help bring about
the greater success of the woman lawyer.” To this end the periodical featured profiles of

women in the legal professions, provided a forum for the discussion of international and

31

criminal law and especially focused on the laws governing marriage, divorce and property
for women, and protective laws for children.

The journal was published quarterly with a subscription price of $1 .00 per year,
averaging ten pages per issue. The sample for this study consisted of all issues between
the years 1920 and 1928 with the exception of October for 1923, October for 1925,
January, March, and July for 1926, and March and October for 1928. As the periodical
was not published at all during 1929, it could not be included in this sample. The sample
comprised 29 issues out of which four months yielded five articles written by four different
authors. While this is a small sample, in a periodical so clearly devoted to legal issues the

fact that there was any mention of the role of appearance in the legal professions is

significant.

Limitationg of Agyige Litergtpgg
As Paoletti points out, "Whatever the source chosen, the requirements of quantity

and known purpose, audience or origin are essential if content analysis is to be used. No
valid interpretation can be made without information about the content of the source
itself. ”5' Two other researchers also have outlined the advantages and disadvantages of
using sources such as periodicals and manuals for data collection. The first point to be
considered when using advice literature is that advice can be given, and may be utilized,
adapted, or ignored by the reader. Secondly, the researcher must consider any bias or
motivating factors the advice giver may have, as well as what information may have been
selectively omitted. A publication's advice may be self serving, as to promote a product,
therefore there may be no relationship between the advice given and the actual behaviors

of the intended audience.

 

68Ibid, p. 15.

32

In his research on childrearing advice manuals historian Jay Mechling questions
whether ". . . childrearing manuals are evidence of childrearing values, or of childrearing
behavior, or of both or of neither.”59 He urges researchers to consider the limitation of the
sources they are using. These include: the definitions of words which may change over
time, that printed advice may simply reflect existing practices, rather than an attempt to
introduce change, and that there may be a lag between the issuing of advice and the
adopting/adapting of it.”

When drawing conclusions from data collected fi'om printed sources the researcher
must consider the limitations of the data and the bias of the sample. Most printed
materials were written by and available to only the educated population, usually the middle
and upper classes, and any conclusions made must contain this qualifying statement. Also,
although advice manuals or periodicals cannot tell us how the advice was put into
practice, what it does reflect is the values or ideals of the culture within which the material
was produced."

Conclusions from the sample used in this research were limited to only white-
collar, educated, typically white, middle and upper class women in one decade, the 1920s.
While the advice gathered from the sources reflected the beliefs of the authors or
publishers, it also reflected what they believed the ideal business women of the 19203
should wear, how she should act, and how she was perceived by society if she followed
this advice and how she was perceived when she did not. Mechling further explains
consistency in themes and advice given across several authors reflects an agreed upon
standard within that society.72 Thus, if the sources used here, and the writings by the
various authors within the sources, reflect the same advice, that advice, as the ideal

standard is given stronger credence.

 

69Jay Mechling. :Advioe to Historians on Advice to Mothers.” JQumal 9f Social Histgry 9(1975): 46.
7"Ibid., p. 47.

"Ibia, p. 47-51.

”Ibid, p. 56.

33

Cott's research on childrearing also questions the role of advice literature in
society. She agrees with Mechling on the limitations of advice literature as outlined
above, but she also feels that by examining on what issues advice was being given, the
researcher can gain an understanding of what issues were important within a society."3
She also looks at why someone may seek advice, concluding that changes in societal
values or traditions may require the younger generation to seek advice from a source other
than the older generation, who may not understand or agree with the changes taking place,
and therefore not be able to provide reliable advice in the changing society."

As the new liberated woman was entering the workforce in the 1920s in positions
that were previously unavailable to her mother, she may have sought advice on proper
attire and grooming fi'om a source that could be considered an authority. This may
especially hold true as young women fiom rural communities left for work in big cities.
The values of a small town would be difi‘erent than in the city, causing women to seek

advice on proper appearance for the new environment in which they would be working.

Definition pf :Ijgrmg”
flhitgflpllgr Wprkgr;

"Professionals whose work usually does not involve manual labor and who are expected to
dress with some degree of formality.” Individuals typically found in an office setting,
working in professions that often require additional training or education beyond high
school. Individuals working in career oriented positions, ofien with room for

advancement.

 

73Nancy F. Cott. ”Notes Toward an Interpretation of Antebellum Childrearing.” Thg Psyghg Higgry
m 6(8ng 1975): 4.

74Ibid., p. 4.

7-"Defrnitions for white-collar worker, blue-collar worker, and workforce adapted from the American
Heritage Diggignary. Second College Edition (Boston: Houghton Mifl‘lin Company, 1985). p. 191, 1378,
1391 respectively.

34

Blu ll r°
"Wage earners whose jobs are performed in work clothes and oflen involve manual labor."
Work traditionally associated with industrial positions or factory work, usually requiring

little or no formal education.

Workfpmg;

”All workers available for employment" by industry and business to whom wages are paid,

in both white and blue collar fields.

Bpsingpg pug Professipnpl Womgn;

Women employed in white-collar professions, such as law, secretarial, accountancy,
management, academia and others. Usually career oriented, married or single, and

interested in the possibilities of promotion beyond entry level positions.

Bpsingg Apparel:

All items of clothing or accessories considered appropriate to wear in white-collar office

settings, including suits, dresses, hose, shoes, hats, jewelry, and other related items.

Appgarancg;

The combination of clothing, grooming, and hygiene into an outward presentation used to

present an image of self, including apparel, hairstyle, hygiene, and other elements.

Appepmnce Advice;

Proscriptions and prescriptions reflecting the beliefs of the writer as to how the ideal
business or professional woman should present herselfin the white-collar workforce to be

considered professional and career oriented.

35

Chapter 3 Analysis

This chapter will examine the major themes and sub-themes that were compiled
fi'om the data collected from all three periodicals in this sample. Representative samples
of advice fiom various authors fi'om each source will be used to support the findings in
each category. As the advice was consistent over time and throughout each periodical, all
references cited can be considered to represent the type of advice that was given for the

entire decade.

Theme 1 Specific Business Apparel and Appearance Advice

This theme examines the frequency with which certain forms of clothing and
accessories were recommended, including specific style elements, as well as color and
fabric recommendations. Advice on personal appearance items such as hair style, make-up
and other related issues are also included here. Results from a small group of articles in
which authors describe the appearance of business and professional women they
interviewed will be compared to the data gathered.

While none of the periodicals examined here have a strong fashion orientation,
some information was provided in each periodical on the forms of clothing recommended
for business women. Additionally, after 1927, the 1nd§p§ndent 219mg; did contain a
fashion column which generated most of the information on colors, fabrics, and styles
under this category. Table 3 reflects the tabulated data for this category. Figures 1-4 on
page 36 show dress and suit designs done by the researcher based on style features similar

to those described by advice authors.

37

Then, as now, there was conflicting advice on what was more appropriate, suits or

dresses. The data collected on types of outerwear recommended to business women

shows that one-piece dresses were recommended slightly more often than suits. This is

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3 Apparel Styles and Design Features
flomen
W fiegg Writer Lmere‘ Total
—9—_ Journal
One-piece
Dr 20 2 2 | 24
Two-piece
mm 1 o 0 || 1
Suits 13 0 0 13
Strictly/ Severely
Tailored 7 0 0 7
Tailored 4 1 0 5
Sofily Tailored 6 0 0 6

 

 

 

 

 

 

contrary to the idea that only tailor-mades were acceptable for women to wear for white-

collar work. Hollander suggests that the reason women were able to wear dresses in

greater numbers for work was that through mass production, good quality dresses that fit

well could now be purchased inexpensively.“5 Prior to the 19203, women's dresses had

been too complicated to mass produce, and too elaborate and constricting to be functional

for the oflice. The tailor-made, which was first introduced in the 18803, had been

appropriate for work because it could be mass produced, and the styles were less

 

venue Hollander, x ° Evl ion fM ernD . (New York: AlfredAKnovf. 1994).

p. 142-143.

 

38

restrictive than dresses. For these reasons, dresses were probably a welcome alternative
to suits, and therefore were recommended as often.

The distinction between tailored and softly tailored dresses and suits was related to
the issue of how feminine or masculine one should appear. Recommendations for severely
tailored, tailored, and softly tailored also were made with almost equal fi'equency. Advice
ranged fiom, ”. . . the more tailored the clothes the feminine woman wears, the more
feminine she becomes. "7" to ”It is the exception now for a business woman to appear in a
black serge skirt, white shirt waist and stiff sailor hat. Her clothes are more feminine."78
Advice writers also frequently recommended that to relieve the severity of tailoring
colored ribbon, collar and cufi‘ sets, and colored blouses could be added to the ensemble.

Researchers have also noted that women adapted or adopted style features of
men's apparel into their own business apparel. This notion is supported by a reference to
wearing Windsor ties and soft collars found in the Independent Wemg in December
1920. Women may have tried to incorporate style features of men's apparel into their own
because it was the only known model of business dress there was to emulate. Women
may have continued to wear ties or other items of men's wear throughout the decade, or
perhaps, as more women entered business, and were accepted there, they were able to
develop a new, less masculine model of dress. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions
fiom this data because of the relatively small number of items in this sample related to
specific style features.

Other style features that received brief mention were necklines and sleeves. While
specific styles of necklines for ofiice wear were not indicated, the fact that necklines
needed to be high enough to cover undergarments and to sufficiently cover the chest area

was mentioned. When sleeve styles were discussed, usually the plain shirt maker style

 

77Kate 1% Tucker, "The Unconscious Standard of Dress," The Indegndent meep, December 1920,
p. 10. w l

78Lousie Klein Miller, ”Dress Well-It's Good Business," The Independent Woman, September 1922,
p. 13.

39

sleeve was recommend because it would not interfere with work. In relation to summer
time heat, two writers recommended the raglan sleeve as being cooler because of the fuller
cut around the underarm. Lastly, while one author approved of sleeveless dresses for the
ofiice, others clearly stated that bare arms were inappropriate in the office. Occasionally
the issue of appropriate skirt length was addressed by authors. Advice on skirt length
ranged fi'om just above the ankle to just below the knee, with longer skirts favored earlier
in the decade. One author advised in 1928, ”A sage rule to follow in determining the
proper length of a skirt is to measure one-third of the distance from the center of the knee-
cap to the floor.“"9

Both Williams and de Marly indicated that women wore both tailor-mades and
dresses in dark colors to work in oflices after World War I. The data collected for this
study shows that dark and neutral colors were fiequently recommended to women because
of the professionalism they convey and their ease in laundering. Darks and neutrals in
various shades of blue, green, brown, black, gray, and white were frequently
recommended. Each season a few fashion colors also were suggested to add a touch of
color and femininity to one's wardrobe. However, these fashion colors always needed to
be subdued, not too bright so as to be distracting, and not too light in order to guard
against ease of soiling. Neutral colors schemes were recommended because it made
dressing on a limited budget easier. Authors suggested, if money was a concern, to
choose two colors, in various shades, upon which to build an office wardrobe. Dressing
by this principle, a woman could save money because she would only need to purchase
one coat, one hat, one pair of shoes, and a few accessories to complete coordinating
outfits.

Recommendations for apparel occasionally would include references to fabrics that

were best suited to oflice wear. Serge, tweed, twill, crepe, shantung, and pongee in silk,

 

7S’Mary Brooks Picken, ”Keeping up with the Procession," We, May 1928, p. 197.

40

cotton, and wool were considered easy care and durable fabrics for office wear. Satin,
which was associated with party wear, and linen, which wrinkled too easily, were
considered inappropriate. Printed and woven designs for fabrics also received minor
mention Small motifs and dignified designs in two or three colors that were not too loud
and distracting were considered appropriate.

Advise was offered on legwear, footwear, handwear, and headwear. For the foot,
it was important that shoes be a dark color, cut wide across the toe and , ". . . fasten firmly
about the ankle for your work. See that the heels fit and that every lace or button is in
place.”’° When appropriate hosiery was mentioned, it was usually silk in greys and tans.
While no descriptions of appropriate hats, gloves, or handbags were given, it was noted by
all authors the importance of all accessories harmonizing with the dress or suit. An
additional item of interest was the testimonial of three women to the importance of
wearing haimets to keep the hair from becoming untidy from the frequent removal of one's
hat.

The topic of cosmetics was addressed by some advice authors. Authors approved
of the use of light cosmetics, but warned of the dangers of not applying them artistically.
Mascara, eyeshadow, penciled brows, lipstick, rouge, and powder were all acceptable, but
as one author states, ”Too much rouge doesn't always improve one’s personal appearance .
. . though the use of a small amount is quite in good taste and form."81

One last aspect of appearance that was addressed by advice authors was hair
length and style. Authors recommended bobbed hair only slightly more often than long
hair. A debate over long or bobbed hair appeared in the June 1927 issue of the Gregg
Meg. Proponents of long hair felt it was a ". . . distinctly feminine possession. . .." and

had a tidier appearance in contrast to bobs ". . . that tend to drop over the eyes

 

”'Our Faithful Friends,“ WM December 1922, p. 16.
81Florence Sands, “Why Many Women do not Succeed in Businws,” W October

1925, p. 13.

41

continually."82 However, in the editorial of that same issue the author reported on a
survey he conducted of business men regarding their preference for bobbed or long hair.
He found that nine men preferred bobs, one man preferred long, and two had no
preference. The reason he cited for the preference of bobbed hair was, "neatness,
sanitation, and the smart, alert impression of [order] the bob imparts. . . . it gave an
appearance of business-a sort of office look. ”83

To provide a comparison between the fiequency with which certain advice was
given by authors and implemented by business women, this section will examine eight

descriptions that were provided of business women's’ appearance during interviews.

1. Mrs. Dutton's attire ". . . is a marvel of simplicity and good taste,
being invariably one-piece gowns of dark material, plainly made and
simply trimmed."84

2. Mrs. Harriet C. Emmon's attire is ". . . the well cut, well-tailored,
one-piece dress of dark blue."

3. Miss Edythe Charlick's attire is ”. . . a one-piece mid-night blue
serge, no jewelry, except perhaps a string of white coral or the like,
. . . wool heather gray stockings, and low-heeled black shoes."

4. Miss Jessie Brinkley's attire is ". . . the one-piece tailor-made of
navy blue. . .. Low black shoes, silk stockings, and spars for the
street. . . ."85

5. Eva LeGallienne, a theater producer, attire is ”. . . a tailored suit. . .
of bluish gray. . .." [And her photograph shows her hair is shingledP‘6

6. Miss Dillion, president of a gas company, attire ". . . although tailored
avoids any trace of masculinity."”

 

82Bess Wheeler Skelton, "Business Clothes,” The ggegg Writer, June 1927, p. 461.

83Charles Lee Swen, “To Bob or Not to Bob,” The Qrcgg Writer, June 1927, p. 485.

8“"Irlelping Women to Find Themselves,” film Indemndent Wemen, January 1922, p. 24.
8”Descriptions 2-4 were all taken from the same article. Alida F. Sims, ”Dress Values, Net,” 13
W March 1922. p- 6-

86Grace Cooper, "Eva LeGallienne, A Productive Producer,” The Independent Woman December 1927,
p. 11.

87Mary Elizabeth Dillon, ”She Champions the Woman Executive," The Independent Wemed, March
1928, p. 101.

 

42

7. Virginia C. Gildersleeve, Dean of Barnard College, attire is ”. . . a
dark brown tweed suit, severely mannish in cut, with a high-collared
shirt of tan pongee. Her black hair, cut short, was brushed straight back,
with the feminine touch of a small comb on the side.“3

8. Mrs. Statler, a CEO of a hotel company, attire is a ". . . dark frock of

conservative cut. Her light brown hair is drawn back from her face into
a small knot at the nape of her neck.”89

This small sample reveals that business women in high level positions did not
necessarily restrict their apparel to severely tailored suits. Out of this small sample, only
two women wore suits, only one of which was severely tailored. The other women wore
dresses, some of which were tailored and some more softly tailored. The data in table one
reveals that one-piece dresses were recommended at a slightly higher rate than suits, and
that tailored and softly tailored styles also were recommended at a slightly higher
frequency than severely or strictly tailored styles. As this trend also holds true in this small
sample, it may support the notion that advice given by authors in these periodicals was
either adopted by female readers, or that the advice given simply reflected current

practices.

firm 2 floscriptions/Prescriptions [or Business Apparel and Appearance

Many proscriptive and prescriptive themes regarding business apparel and
appearance were addressed by authors in the advice literature. As information about the
wearer is encoded in color, fabric, silhouette, and style features of garments, many of the
authors addressed their recommendations specifically to these elements. Authors provided
advice on appropriate business apparel and appearance, the firnctional criteria that these
should meet, and how one's appearance may affect one's self and one's co-workers. Table

4 summarizes the tabulated data, dividing it by theme and periodical.

 

asMargaret H Spear, "Education, Business and Babies,” The Indexndent Wemen, June 1928, p. 245.
89Michael Rose, “She Manages Millions," The Independent mean, July 1928, p. 301.

43

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4 Proscriptions and Prescriptions
1mm .
Woman 9mm Total
W 21 2 27
Femmme
Clean/Neat 13 13 26
‘9me 14 7 22
Inappropriate
Harmony with
office environment 16 4 21
Becoming/
Fl . 8 18 1 21
Suitable/Practical 18 1 19
Simple!
C five 17 1 18
Functional Design
Criteria 8 ° 8
Not Distracting to 12 0 12
Wearer I I

 

 

 

 

 

 

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Not Be Too Masculine or Too Feminine
Many authors addressed the importance of not wearing business apparel that is too
masculine or too feminine in style. "Her femininity speaks in the attractiveness of her
business attire, which although tailored avoids any trace of masculinity."90 Women were
advised to find a balance between masculinely tailored clothing and their own inherit

femininity. "For she knows well how to adapt the modern ideas as to tailored costume for

the business woman to her own taste in feminine attire. ”91

 

90Mary Elizabeth Dillon, ”She Champions the Woman Executive,“ The Indemndent Wemen, March
1928, p. 101.

91"What Does She Do?" The Independent Edged, June 1922, p. 15.

Ruth Lewison discussed this issue in her address at the annual Women Lawyers'
Dinner, saying, "We need not wear uniforms, . . . we need not imitate men in voice or
dress; nor, on the other hand, need we trade in our femininity, nor over dress. . . ."92
Other authors throughout each periodical concurred with this advice. "We believe . . .
that women do not have to wear mannish clothes nor uniforms to be intelligent . . .."93

Although strongly cautioning against dressing for business in ”party clothes",
authors did suggest how to adapt traditional men's business wear for the business woman's
needs. "To relieve severity of the tailored garment, . . . there are beautiful collar and cuff
sets. . .. [and] . . . some of the silk shirts give a pretty color note. "9‘ However, they
believed it was better for women to err on the side of appearing too masculine rather than

too feminine. ". . . don't let any clerk sell you a blouse with too many bows. ”95

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be Clean and Neat

It has often been said that the appearance of each employee reflects on the image
that a company is trying to project. As many women held front office positions which
required them to greet prospective clientele or represent their employer to others in
business, authors may have felt compelled to cover topics related to cleanliness and
neatness with such frequency. Many authors felt that "Personal cleanliness and tidiness
are of the utmost importance. . . . nothing is more offensive than the odor of stale clothes
or uncleanliness."96 With the increased availability of indoor plumbing, advice on
grooming and hygiene also may reflect a change in the attitudes or standards of society
toward cleanliness.

 

9"’Ruth Lewinson ”Address of Ruth Lewinson at the Women Lawyers' Annual Dinner. Wemen Lawyets'
M. April 1924., p. 14

93Kate M. Tucker, ”The Unconscious Standard of Dress,” The lndemndent mean, December 1920, p.
10.

94"Business Dress for Business Women,” The Indemndent Wemep, January 1924, p. 25.

”Elizabeth Osborne Macdonald, ”Spring Shopping Hints,” The Independent Wemep, April 1928, p. 165.
96Florence E. Ulrich, ”On the Threshold,” in the Art and Credentials Department, The gregg Writer,
May 1927, p. 437.

45

Women were cautioned about the consequences of neglecting proper grooming
and hygiene by authors who described women as having ". . . an untidy appearance that
repelled others. ”97 Women were encouraged to monitor every facet of their appearance
and dress. “The awful backs of some bobbed heads, the sight of stockings rolled above
the knee-or even of a bare leg, grubby elbows, unpolished shoes, teeth . . ., perspiration
stains on clothing, dandruff, blackheads, lank and oily hair. "93 A business woman’s
appearance needed to be impeccable, above reproach. "She knows the color and quality
are durable; they will not fade, will not soon grow shabby. Her hat is carefully brushed. . ..
Her dress is put in order and hung. . .. Her heels are not run over. Her clothes all fit."99

In addition to advice on the irnportance of good grooming and hygiene, other
articles simply point out the difliculty in keeping light colored garments clean, suggesting
dark colors, not just for the conservative nature, but for their low maintenance. ”Light

colors . . . are always a liability . . . to much effort to keep [clean]. . .."‘°°

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be Appropriate

As clothing and appearance can communicate the status and role of an individual,
and extend legitimacy to the wearer, advice fi'equently stressed the importance of wearing
appropriate clothing in the ofiice. Clothing that was appropriate for office wear was not
only aesthetically pleasing, but projected an image of the wearer that was consistent with
that of the company with which she was employed.

Overly feminine styles were ofien reported as inappropriate for business, and were
viewed as an indication that a woman was more interested in her social life than career

success. Women were cautioned not to ". . . wear finery as if you were appearing at a

 

9"’l‘uppy Lee, ”The Making of a Secretary,” The gregg Writer, September 1921, p. 2.

9“Mary Constance Ford, ”Odds and Ends of Beauty," 13 Independent Wemep, January 1928, p. 26.
9"Lonsie Klein Miller, ”Dress Well-It's Good Business," The Indemndent Weman, September 1922,
p. 13.

l°°Mary Brooks Picken, "Keeping up with the Procession,” The Independent Wemen, May 1928, p. 197.

46

coming-out party."‘°l and not to ". . . over rouge and wear your party dress to work."102
Women were advised to always appear professional in their business dealings. In her
address at the Women Lawyers' Annual Dinner, "Miss Lewison dwelt on the obligation of
women members of the bar to look at all times like professional women."103

Men's business dress was held up as an appropriate and practical model to adopt.
"I doubt if anyone ever saw a business man in dancing pumps during office hours,. . ."‘°4
Authors also cautioned women against relaxing standards of appropriate dress during hot
summer months. ”[Sandals and sleeveless gowns] cool they may be; perhaps comfortable;
but not suited for business.”5 An appropriately dressed woman was viewed as being
business oriented, serious, and capable. In addition to recommendations on appropriate
dress for business women, advice authors often urged established business women to
guide their younger counterparts, and help them understand that their behavior and

appearance reflected on all business women.

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be in Harmony with Office Environment
A3 large quantities of women were now working along side men in ofiices, their
business apparel and appearance needed to de-emphasis their sexuath to help promote
communication on a business level. To this end, women were advised to consider the
efi‘ects their clothing and appearance would have on co-workers. "Men . . . do not
approve of exhibitions of the parts of the anatomy which the blouses are supposed to

cover. It distracts the attention of customers and other employees. It is not business-

 

mlMarian E. Price, 'A Message fi'om the Firing Line,” The gregg Writer, February 1928, p. 257.
l”Fanny E. Ray, “The Business Woman," The Independent Woman, October 1926, p. 21.
103"The Social Side," Women Lamers' Journal, June 1924, p. 17.

10“Bess Wheeler Skelton, "Business Clothes,” The Qregg Writer, June 1927, p. 461.

m5Jessie Lee Hall, ”Are the Young Business Women Found Wanting-and How?" The Indemndent
129mg, December 1923, p. 6.

47

like."1°‘5 Women were also advised to avoid using any sensual fragrances because
”Perfirme is too disturbing to mix with business."‘°7

Considering once again the front office role that many women played, or as was
the case of many court or legal stenographers who were stationed visibly in the middle of
courtrooms, they were encouraged to make themselves as inconspicuous as possible.
”[The shorthand reporter] . . . through personal appearance is in harmony with his
surroundings. . ""103 Similar advice was also given to female attorneys ". . . let us be
natural; let us fight our legal battles on merit; let us find a happy medium in neat,
inconspicuous but becoming clothes."‘°9

Women needed to consider not only if color and fabric choices were flattering to
themselves, but what efl‘ect they would have in the workplace ". . . colors, properly used,
will bring us into harmony with our surroundings . . .. ”11° and on fellow employees "A
hard color is tiresome . . . to those who must see it. The same is true of a pronounced
design in a printed silk or an elaborately decorated frock . . . fabric [should be]. . .
inconspicuous and pleasing”!!! Also, as large modern oflice buildings were often hot and
stuffy in the summer months, women were encouraged to dress to help bring a calming
efl‘ect to co-workers. ”In a large office, . . . it is foolish to add the stimulation of color and
thus supply one more attack on minds. . .. The summer aim should be to have a soothing

and tranquilizing effect [on co-workers]. . ..”l '2

 

106Vida Tyler Adams, “The Essentials for a Successful Stenographer,” W December
1922, p. 128.

l”Mary Constance Ford, ”Perfume for Romance," The Indemndent Women, December 1927, p. 24.
108Frederick H Gurtler, ”Becoming a Shorthand Reporter,” T_1te_§Legg_W_ri_te_r, May 1926, p. 463.
l”Ruth Lewinson, ”Address of Ruth Lewinson at the Women Lawyers' Annual Dinner,” Heme-d
LAW. April 1924. P- 13'14-

"0"Personality Expressed Through Colors,” The Independent Worried, October 1924, p. 18.

“‘Mary Brooks Picken, ”Business Clothes for the Business Woman," filhe Indemndent mead February
1927, p. 9.

112Elizabeth Macdon Osborne, ”Midsummer Mods for Office Wear,“ WW July
1928, p. 306.

48

Women were advised to wear properly fitting clothing so as not to disrupt the
oflice environment. ". . . let his stenographer show her knees and he is likely to be
disturbed-not by the sight of knees, . . . but because she tries to cover them when she sits
down.”"3 Similar advice also applied to wearing simple hairstyles which do not necessitate
continual rearranging, and using minimal cosmetics that do not require frequent touch-
ups because they both were disruptive and wasted time. "The unusual amount of time
spent in . . . re-arranging hair, powdering one's nose, etc., is appalling-as much as two

hours a day.""‘

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be Becoming and Flattering
to the Individual
While proscriptions and prescriptions provided general guidelines for business
apparel and appearance, individuality in dress was fi'equently stressed in the advice
literature. Although it was important for all women to present a professional image at all

times, women were advised to choose styles that flattered their figures,

Among some thousand delegates only six in strictly tailored clothes
could be found. The others were charmingly, and equally correctly,
gowned in costumes that suited each particular style of beauty. . .."5

and colors that complemented their complexion, ”You should know what colors are most
becoming and group all your costumes around these."1 “5

Contrary to the tailor-made uniform working women wore during the previous
decade, women had some latitude in choosing their business apparel. "Because a woman

enters the business field she does not feel that she must utterly forgo the more flattering

 

113nm, 1). 461.

"‘Jessie Lee Hall, “Are the Young Business Women Found Wanting-and How?” The Independent
Womap, December 1923, p. 5.

ll5Alida F. Sims, ”Dress Values, Net,” The Indmndent Women, March 1922, p. 6.

1”Virginia Dibble, ”The Costume,” The Indegndent Wemen, September 1927, p. 31.

49

garments which were formerly taboo in the best regulated office. . .."“" While selecting
clothing that was flattering to the individual was important, the overriding concern was on

appropriate appearance. ”Dress becomingly, but not flashily.” 1 18

Business Apparel Should Be Suitable and Practical for Chosen Profession

In contrast to the theme of appropriate business apparel and appearance, the
selection of clothing that was suitable and practical for work emphasized the firnctional
characteristics of dress. Determining what type of business apparel was suitable and
practical to wear for work was a problem each woman faced. Women needed clothing
that would ". . . meet the high speed demands of modern business.”"9 Authors advised
that there was no universally correct dress, that a woman who sat at a desk all day had
different requirements for her clothing than a woman who drove around making sales calls
all day. "The job of the particular woman should also influence her dress. . . . it is
essential that she be correctly dressed, and proper dress should be just as much a part of
her business equipment as her specialized training. ”‘20

Other advice on the aspects of suitability and practicality in clothing related to
criteria such as easy care fabrics and durable colors. Due to the heating systems, many
omce environment were naturally dirty causing clothing to soil easily and need frequent
laundering. Fabrics which could withstand repeated washings or that did not show soiling
as readily were recommended by authors. "The soft fabrics are more easily cared for, are
more becoming, more comfortable and durable. "121 "Prints with black backgrounds and

small patterns of color will make smart and practical ofiice dresses. . ..””?

 

lrhbar,p.461.

“sBess Wheeler Skelton, "Business Clothes,” The Qtegg Writer, June 1927, p. 461.

ll"Alice Aldus, "What Does a Woman Desire in Dress?" The Indexndent Wemap, March 1926, p. 8.
120"Business Dress for Business Women," The Independent Woman, January 1924, p. 25.

mLousie Klein Miller, ”Dress Well-It's Good Business,” The Indefindent Weptan, September 1922,
p. 13.

122Elizabeth Osborne Macdonald, ”Spring Clothes Once More,” The Independent Wemgp, March 1929,
p.114.

50

Adopting business apparel and an appearance that was suitable and practical for
one's work also was an indication that one understood and accepted the role one played in
the office. ". . . that simplicity in dress is an indication that the average woman in

unconsciously accepting the dress most suitable to her. . .."123

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be Simple and Conservative

For many decades, fashion-conscious women had dressed with all the frills and
furbelows that fashion would allow. In the twenties, business women needed clothing that
reflected their new role in the white-collar business sector. Authors advised, ”The
qualities most to be desired in a business costume are simplicity and a tendency toward the
inconspicuous, and these are by no means incompatible with smartness."124 Women were
advised to wear business apparel designed to express their professionalism, the same way
that business suits reflected men's. "Conservatism should be the watchword. . . . It is far
better to err by dressing too conservatively than to overdress for business. "”5

Simplicity also related to construction and convenience, as the modern woman not
only dressed herself, but had to remain in the same garment all day. "Next in importance
[is] . . . simplicity of construction- ease of getting into a flock. A dress that has to be
adjusted everytime it is put on, . . . is a nuisance [and a waste of time]. . ..”12‘ One
company even marketed a line of dresses designed with this criteria in mind: ". . . the Jiffy
Frock, the flock which combines practicability with style. . .. Realizing that busy business
women lose many valuable minutes in putting on gowns with complicated fastenings,

Mayer - "Chis“ designed the Jiffy Frock. . .."m

 

‘23'Value Realized,” WW December 1920. p. 18.
124Bess Wheeler Skelton, "Business Clothes,“ W June 1926, p. 462.
125"‘Business Dress for Business Women," W In 11 en W January 1924, P- 25-

12“Mary Brooks Picken, ”Business Clothes for the Business Woman,” The Indemndent Wemn, February
1927, p. 9.

12""Fashions Noted in Style Revue,“ Willem November 1923, p. 24.

51

Business Apparel Should Be Functional for Work Environment

In addition to advice on simple, practical, and appropriate clothing, some authors
ofi‘ered advice on the advantages and disadvantage of specific design elements for business
apparel. One author advised "Skirts wide enough to allow her to side step trolleys and
automobiles, and yet not so wide nor so light as to become the sport of the heavy winds. .
”~12: Another author had similar advice, "A business dress should have enough fullness in
the skirt to allow one to sit at a desk or typewriter with the knees covered. . . . enough
fullness to allow a comfortable sitting without stretching the skirt out of shape. . ..“” As
certain style features could interfere with operating ofice equipment the same author also
advised, "The long, close fitting sleeve is a necesSity in business. A full sleeve or a be-
trimmed one knocks too many things awry on the desk, soils too quickly, and is a general
nuisance.”13°

A final classification for functional criteria related to the concept of neat
appearance. It was advised not to wear fabrics that would wrinkle, such as linen, or dress
with style features that would not stay fi'esh looking all day, such as pleats. "Pleats are
more chic than gathers, but pleats all the way around a skirt are too perishable for anyone

who sits at a desk. That is one reason why so many models have fullness only across the

fi'ont."m

 

128Kate M. Tucker, ”The Unconscious Standard of Dress,” The Independent Weman, December 1920, p.
10.

12S’lVlary Brooks Picken, "Business Clothes for the Business Woman," The Indemndcnt mean, February
1927,p.9.

130Mary Brooks Picken, “Business Clothes for the Business Woman," Inc Indemndent Women, February
1927,p.9.

131\frrginia Dibble, "The Dress Critic,” The Independent Woman, June 1927, p. 22.

52

Individual Should be Unconscious of Business Apparel and Appearance

Authors also offered advice on the interaction or efi‘ects of clothing and
appearance with the self. Authors advised that women should ". . . be sure that your
personal appearance is as good as possible, so that your attention will not be distracted by
thoughts of your clothes."132 It was advised that business women ". . .should be dressed
quietly because dark clothes, quiet colors do not distract the thoughts from business, they
also stand the wear better and look fresh at the end of the day.”‘33 Additionally, clothing
needed to be comfortable so as not to interfere with work. ". . . our clothes are so easy to
put on and then forget about, leaving us fi'ee-limbed and free-minded to engage in
whatever we have at hand to do.”‘34

Lastly, as women in the 19203 not only worked along side men, but also may have
supervised male employees, they needed to be able to feel confident, not self-conscious
about the clothes they were wearing. "The neck of a dress should be high enough to
cover the under garments across the front, this simply to make one unconscious of her

clothes and to make it unnecessary to hike, pull, or pin. . .."135

Theme 3 Characteristics Business Apparel and Appearance Conv_ep
About Individual

This theme examines the qualities, skills, and intelligence levels that authors felt
were projected about the wearer through appropriate and inappropriate business apparel
and appearance. In contrast to the second theme, which only examined proscriptive and
prescriptive advice, this theme examines what authors felt could be inferred about women

through their clothing. The sub-themes revolve around issues such as dependability,

 

132Jane Deeter Rippin, "Women Can Be Efl'rcicnt Executives," The Indemndent Weman, June 1927, p. 7.
133Alida F. Sims, "Dress Values, Net,” The Independent Woman, March 1922, p. 6.
‘3‘Helen Cornelius, ”Convention-a1 Clothes a la Mode,” Th Indc ndcnt Woma March 1929, p. 110.

135Mary Brooks Picken, "Business Clothes for the Business Woman,” The Indemndent Weman, Febnrary
1927, p. 9

53

organizational skills, and the possession of business sense. Table 5 reflects the tabulated
data collect on these themes. A3 a nonverbal symbol, clothing can facilitate
communications between individuals, and reveal information about the wearer such as
authority, responsibility, status, and more. Authors of advice literature seemed to have

been aware of this and advised women to take it into consideration when selecting

 

 

   

 

 

 

apparel.
Table 5 Characteristics Business Apparel and Appearance Convey
Indedeent . Women Lem'ezs'
Wunru Wurst I 1 1 Toml
Organized/
Efi'rcient/
R ible/ l3 3 l6
Business-like
Business-Sense/
Good-Judgement 8 2 0 10
Character 3 3 0 6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Convey Organization, Efficiency,
Responsibility, and Business-like Characteristics
A3 women were entering many fields, in vast numbers, they had to collectively
present any image that would reflect their intention to participate on a serious level with
men in the business community. Clothing was a tool authors recommended that women
use to help in their transition fiom home to ofiice. Through their clothing and appearance

women could convey the skills, abilities, and qualities they could bring to the workplace.

54

Authors felt that certain types of apparel and appearance could project such strong
images that an employer might draw inferences about a woman's qualities or character that
may or may not be true from these visual cues. These inferences were often based on a
stereotype associated with the image, as was the case with the flapper. The stereotyped
view of the flapper as an irresponsible woman with painted lips and short skirts was an
image women had to be careful not to project. "To begin with, there is no room for the
so-called flappa' in the successful man's ofice. With her short silk shirts and her painted
lips, she fails to radiate dependability."'3‘s

Women also had to guard against appearing too feminine because of the
characteristics associated with traditional female roles.

IfI should put my forty years. . . under such a [limp, droopy] hat, or

into such a [boufi'ant] dress, and go to business, I would not only look
ridiculous, but no one would have any respect for my judgment or business
efiiciency. 13"

Authors felt that certain qualities of dress were synonymous with business acumen. A
woman who dressed in an organized, eflicient, and simple manner reflected clear thinking
and the understanding of the needs of an office. "Dress simply. It is more in line with . . .
business efficiency."133 However, a woman that dressed in fussy, fiilly, fancy clothing was
judged as irresponsible, and could be considered to be looking for a marriage proposal
instead of a career. ”Her face was intelligent, her voice pleasing, and her experience
splendid, but [she could not be trusted] . . . with responsibility because of the inemciency
which her clothes suggested. "139

Women were advised that proper hygiene could help them appear to possess
desirable business skills. ”If a girl . . . needs a shampoo, [or has]. . . dandruff . . . can she

 

13“Vida Tyler Adams, "The Essentials for a Successful Stencgrapher,’ The Qregg Writer, December
1922, p. 123.

”Mary Brooks Picken, “Keeping up with the Procession,” The Independent Wemep, May 1928, p. 196.
mMary Brooks Picken, "Keeping up with the Procession,“ jute Independent Wemap, May 1928, p. 196.
139Mary Brooks Picken, ”Keeping up with the Procession,” The Indegndent Women, May 1928, p. 197.

SS

talk confidently about her ability to organize a lot of small details. . . 7"”0 Authors also
recommended that, ”For the business and professional woman, a sound set of teeth, kept
clean and well polished, adds to her attractiveness and efficiency in business. . .."“

Accessories, including handbags were symbols of a woman's dedication to
adapting business principles for dress and appearance. "The woman whose handbag
contains a reasonable number of the more pertinent items on this list is apt to be possessed
of normal tidiness. . . . to have a clean cut mind and to be an efficient worker.", where as
”Laziness and procrastination betray themselves in the abundance of unnecessary
impedirnenta their owner never gets round to clearing out of her bag. . .."”?

The advice from authors gathered under this theme supports Yellis' belief that in
order to compete in the business world a woman had to "conceal and control her
femininity, to reduce herself to an office." Through appearance and dress based on
organized business principles, women were able to obscure their femininity with visual
cues that could be read and understood by members of the business community. This

practice may have helped women to assume new positions in the white-collar sector.

Business Apparel & Appearance Should Convey Business Sense & Good-Judgment
Apparel and appearance also were believed by authors to project a woman's
intelligence and ability to make sound business decisions. Every context or situation has
associations with certain appearance cues. Ifthe appropriate symbols are not seen in a
given context, a break down in communication can occur. Authors advised women that
through appropriate business apparel and appearance viewers would conclude that they
could be trusted to think clearly and exercise good-judgment in business matters. An

overly feminine appearance continued to be viewed with distrust. "There is an absence of

 

“oMary Constance Ford, "Judging from her looks," 21m Indemndent medp, September 1929, p. 432.
“‘Rose E. House, “The Care of Teeth," W2. July 1926, p. 12.
“2Maroe11e Laval, “Out of the Bagl" The Indexndent Womatt, August 1929, p. 345.

56

feminine fiipperies about her wearing apparel which seems to indicate that she leaves
herself fieedom of mind for the larger concerns of life."“3

A woman who dressed inappropriately for business was judged as being
incompetent for handling serious business matters. "It is but natural to suspect that the
girl who is guilty of such error in dress might stray equally far from good office custom in
some important detail of business." ‘4‘ Women were advised their appearance needed to
match the expected visual image of a business person in order to achieve role congrueney
and be efl‘ective in their positions. "People assume that our minds are as cluttered as our

backs. . ..““

Business Apparel and Appearance Reflect Character

Authors felt appearance cues that could be derived from hands, skin, run down
heels, and other related items could reveal a woman's true character. "A fine, clear skin, .
. . is better than a dozen letters of recommendation, because it stands for both physical
vitality and fastidious habits."“‘ Authors advised that women should pay attention to
these aspects of their appearance because of the bad habits they may present to others.
"The hands . . . tell volumes about their possessor. . . .what ugly habits they silently
advertisem" To be conscientious in all aspects of one's appearance could further
legitimize one's role and convey one's ability to pay attention to small details in business.
"The reporter's hands should be well kept, because they are on constant display. They
reflect something of the character of the reporter and his work."“8

 

143Grace Cooper, “Eva LeGallienne, A Productive Producer," The Indemndent Wemgn, December 1927,
p. 11.

144Bess Wheeler Skelton, " Business Clothes," The Qregg Writer, June 1927, p. 462.

14-"Mary Brooks Picken, "Keeping up with the Procession," The Indemndent Women, May 1928, p. 196.
1““Mary Constances Ford, "Judging from her looks," The Independent Woman. September 1929, p. 432.
147Mary Constances Ford, "Judging from her looks," The Independent Weman, September 1929, p. 432.
1‘8Frederick H. Gurtler, "Becoming a Shorthand Reporter," in the Shorthand Reporter, The Qtegg flfiter,
May 1926, p. 463.

 

57

Theme 4 The Use ot Business Apparel and Appearance in Impression
Management

 

This final theme examines the role authors felt business apparel and appearance
played in job acquisition, job promotion, salary increases, and building self-confidence. It
looks at the role authors thought impression management and self-presentation played in
constructing an image to project to prospective and current employers. The data collected
related to this theme also reveals something about the struggle many women may have
faced in entering the white-collar workforce and in competing with men for upper level

positions. Table 6 reflects the tabulated data.

The Importance of Business Apparel and Appearance in Keeping a Job,
Being Promoted, or Receiving a Raise

Through impression management individuals attempt to control the image they
project and the qualities that are perceived about themselves. In certain situations
individuals may be more motivated to try to control others' opinions about themselves. As
many women may have struggled for promotion fi'om entry level positions, authors
advised them that the proper appearance and apparel would help them to get ahead. ". . .
consciously or unconsciously it [dress] often does have a measurable influence on
81100888.”"9

Authors related stories about women who failed to succeed in business due to their
appearance. Through these stories women could see the importance of constructing the
appropriate image. "She can type like a streak, her grammar and punctuation are
practically perfect; she would go right up if it were not for her awful hands. I could

promote her right now, but no man would want those hands on his letters."150

 

l”Bess Wheeler Skelton, "Business Clothes," The Gregg Writer, June 1927, p. 461.
1~"°Mary Constance Ford, "Hands Upl" The Independent Womad, November 1927, p. 22.

58

Table 6 The Use of Business Apparel and Appearance in Impression Management

 

hgspe’glfint E Wri Women Lenders Total

 

LLurn_al

 

 

Retain Job/ I
Receive Pmmotion/ 15 7
Receive Raise

 

Business Apparel
and Appearance as 11 1
Interview

Asset
I 8 3
Business Apparel
and Appearance 9 2
Contribution to
Self-Esteem

 

Business Apparel
and Appearance
Important for Job

 

 

 

 

 

Asset

Apparel and
Appearance Do 5 2
Not Effect Career

Success

 

Appearanceas I 9 0

 

Women's Role as
Office Decoration

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

59

Women were advised that their appearance influenced their hold on a job. "F or
cleanliness to the business woman is the greatest of her assets. Woman are discharged in
omces for no other reason than lack of personal care. . .."” Authors advised women that
regardless of the quality of their work, if they did not project the proper image they risked

losing their jobs.

Personal appearance and deportment are also an important factor in an
employee's hold upon his -and still more upon her- job. The stenographer

who appears in answer to the buzzer, dressed for a ball, her hair done in the
style of the South Sea Islanders, her complexion suggesting a . . . powder
magazine, placidly chewing a cud of Wrigley's spearmint. . . may not be 'among
those present' permanently, even though turning out good work. 152

As pointed out by Anspach earlier, because a business had to appear worthy of a
customer's trust, it would have been important for all employees to present professional
images at all times. Businesses could not risk employing any one who did not "look the
part", regardless of the quality of their work. For women, who were so often in fiont desk
positions, this was especially true.

Authors suggested that women, by controlling or concealing their undesirable

qualities, could achieve success in business.

Every woman wants to be successful. Every woman wants to be attractive.
And the modern business woman is beginning to realize the important part
that the color of her costume plays in attracting success, by bringing out the
fine points in her character and thereby enhancing her personality. ‘53

These same principles also were applied to receiving salary increases. "Dressing the part
in an ofiice is of great importance. This kind of dressing shows an understanding and

sense of appropriateness. . . .Many an employee can trace a rise in salary to a well-chosen

office wardrobem‘

 

mKate M. Tucker, "The Unconscious Standard of Dress,” The Indemndent Wemep, December 1920,
p. 10.

”sz. E. E. Adams, "Far More than 'Master of Pothooks',” W April 1921, p. 257-258.
153“"Personality Expressed Through Colors," The Independent Wemap, October 1924, p. 18.
l-"“Elimbeth Macdonald Osborne, "Midsummer Modes for Office Wear," The Independent meart, July
1928, p. 322.

60

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Be Considered Business Assets
Because of the Image They Can Convey
Impression management allows an individual to communicate one's abilities
through the shared meaning of symbols. Adopting clothing appearance symbols that are
traditionally associated with business may have helped women to demonstrate an
understanding of the roles they had taken on. Furthermore, recommendations noted that

failing to adopt the appropriate symbols could diminish one's effectiveness in a role.

Take pride in your clothes and consider them a business asset. After all, the
great majority of those with whom we come in contact must judge only by
appearances. . . . if one's clothes are dowdy, matronly and unattractive, few . . .
will appraise the real 'self at its true value!”

Authors strongly urged women to consider clothing and appearance a business
asset. ”Personal appearance is one of the greatest assets for a personal career. It gets you
over."‘55 A woman's appearance could even be considered part of the equipment she
brought to a job. "She realized that it was a poor workman who went poorly equipped
into a big contract . . .. She expended all of her capital in her wardrobe and went forth
well groomed and well gowned."‘57 One author included this topic in a list of business
commandments for women. "Thou shalt not be content to go about thy business careless
in dress, for thou shouldst know that thy personal appearance is better than a letter of
recommendation."1-"8

This topic may have received so much attention because of the concern about the
image business women were projecting collectively. By frequently addressing this topic,

authors may have hoped not only to bring about changes in women's appearance, but to

 

1”Mary Brooks Picken, "Keeping up with the Procession," Madam May 1928, p. 197.
156% Klein Miller, "Dress Well-It's Good Business," WM September 1922,

p. 13.

l”Elisabeth Sears, "Brains Versus the Pay Check," The Indemndent Weman, May 1922, p. 5.
‘53'Business Commandments,” W February 1923. P- 227-

61

educate them to the fact that in the absence of other information, individuals often make

inferences about a person based solely on appearance.

Personal appearance is an important factor with business women as

well as business men. We make impressions of one kind or another
everywhere we go and if we are well groomed it goes a long way toward
forming good impressions.”9

The Role of Business Apparel and Appearance in Creating a
Good Impression in a Job Interview
Perhaps there is no stronger motivation for using impression management than
when interviewing for a new position. It was considered important for a woman to dress
in a manner that communicated her abilities, especially when seeking a position that was
traditionally sex-typed as masculine. Authors advised that applicants who's dress reflected
an understanding of the position that one would be filling, was more likely to receive the
job.

It goes without saying that one should be neatly and suitably dressed for

the initial interview. Girls in sensible office clothes stand a much better chance
that those togged up in aftemoon or evening dress. An excess of paint and
powder will generally seal the result before the interview has begun . . "15°

Stories of unsuccessful interview candidates related the dangers of presenting an image

that was not in line with the expectations of the interviewer.

But there was something underneath the surface . . . something that
warned me that the woman lacked the essentials necessary to achieve

just ordinary success. She didn't look good to me or fit into the business
atmosphere. There was too much color on her cheeks and lips-it was

not artistically nor convincingly distributed. Her clothes were all right, but
her hands were unpleasant. . . .I did not dare employ this woman.”1

 

‘59Florence Sands, "Why Many Women Do Not Succeed in Business," The Independent Womap, October
1925, p. 13.

l‘oHarold H Smith, "Making Good on the Try-Out,” in the Typist and Office Worker, The Qregg Writer,
July 1921, p. 345.

161Frances Efi‘iger-Raymond, "Sorry: We Have no Vacancy,“ The gregg Writer, May 1928, p. 440.

62

Additionally, it was noted ". . . that appearance counts most in making a lasting impression
[in interviewing]."162 Many authors gave advice on what elements of appearance one
should pay attention to when interviewing. "Such things as trimly held up stockings, well-
pressed and immaculate clothes, a neatly dusted hat, clean gloves, and polished shoes. . .

[are needed for an interviewlnrss

The Importance of Looking the Part in Building Self-Confidence

"Looking the part" is important not only in being effective in one's position, but in
building confidence in one's own abilities. Self-presentation is a tool which can help to
manage the impressions individuals form of one another, and the impressions one forms of
oneself. This self-presentation concept was addressed by several authors in this study. "A
man or woman does not wear good clothes for the impression they make on others as
much as for the stimulus they impart to the wearer. Correct clothes inspire courage, and
breed optimism."164

Kidwell and Steele felt that women not only adopted style features of men's
business clothing to communicate their professionalism to others, but to communicate it to
themselves as well. As women worked with, and also supervised men, they needed to feel
confident, and authors believed that proper appearance could give confidence. ”She
realizes that clothes can reflect her mood, or disguise it; . . .. She knows too that clothes
give assurance, poise, and courage."“” Authors addressed the concept of clothing and
appearance as tools for increasing self esteem in several articles. They believed that, "A
well dressed foot gives one a sense of comfort and self respect that nothing else can

give."166 Additionally an article encouraging women to have plastic surgery stated that,

 

162Clementine Williams, "What the Employer Expects," jljhc Ihdemndent Wemeh, June 1922, p. 25.
‘53Mary Constance Ford, "Judging From Her Looks," The Indemndent Wemeh, September 1929, p. 432.
1‘4Lousie Klein Miller, "Dress Well-It's Good Business,” Th Indc nd 11 W ma September 1922,

p. 13.

165'Alioe Aldus, "What Does a Woman Desire in Dress?" The Indemndent Wehgn, March 1926, p. 9.
1“"Our Faithful Friends,” The Indegndent Womah, December 1922, p. 16.

63

”There is nothing so advantageous as a presentable face Dr. Safian declares. It gives one
that feeling of self assurance and is so necessary in all places at all times."157
The concept that looking successful will bring one success was addressed by

authors.

The appearance of success is an important element of success. The
expression of your face, the sparkle of your eye, your manner, your
dress, your conversation should reflect the success you hope to achieve.

. . .the most natural thing in the world will be for you to look the part of
confidence in all your dealings, and confidence means success. . . . as
one meets the stern problems of life, he may feel like a bum inside but
neatness of person and keeping your eye on the goal of success will keep
your spirits up.“8

They believed if one looked successful, one would feel successful, and would be able to

succeed at whatever was attempted.

Youthful Appearance as a Business Asset

Women may have been motivated to look as young as possible because of the new
emphasis on youth in the 19203. Youthful appearance was the ideal that authors
suggested women try to achieve if they wanted to be successful in business. "There is no
place for the woman over 35 in business. . . . Unquestionably men judge by appearances.
To the woman interested in shaping a successful business career, her appearance is
obviously a matter of vital concern. No less obviously, she is justified in keeping as much
of youth as she can."159

Authors clearly felt that men did not want older women in out-dated fashions

representing their business, regardless of their abilities. The new youthful ideal stood for

 

1671111111 Dinnick, "The Modern Woman Beautiful," The Independent Wemen, May 1924, p. 11.
l‘53Fr'edcric1r H. Gurtler, "Looking the Part," in the Shorthand Reporter, The gregg Writer, June 1925,
p. 517.

l“Winifred Willson, "The Older Woman in Business," The Indegndent Wemad March 1928,

p. 102, 139.

progress is society, and an attractive young woman was an ornamental asset to any front

omce.

Men who stoically dispense with the services of a loyal and competent
employee when her 40th birthday approaches, or because she takes
dictation in clothes of an out-moded vintage, will cling with banal tenacity
to the slip-shod performance of one of these business ingenues, if she is
pleasing to the eye in a smart sports suit model, . . ..‘70

Business Apparel and Appearance Should Not Effect Employment Decisions
Despite the great amount of references to the importance of appearance for
achieving success in business for women, there was a small group of authors who felt that

appearance was not a factor in the decision to employ women. "The thing that I am
concerned with is the way she does her work and not the way she dresses her hair. . . . it
is what goes on inside the head that counts in business. . .."171

Other authors urged employers to look beyond appearances because they can be
deceiving. One may appear business-like, but be completely lacking in skills. "Too much
has been said for the first impression. Business today has become so well organized that
the trained personnel managers are looking through the surface eficiency. . . into the heart
which the efiiciency may cover. ”172 One author felt that even though an applicant may
project a negatively stereotyped image, the decision to hire should be based entirely on
qualifications.

. . . just because a girl . . . [is a] business flapper, is no indication

that her cerebral chamber is a vacuum. I certainly would not hesitate to
employee a girl just because she penciled her eyebrows, wore dangling
earrings, a bracelet or two, and other furbelows of fashion.173

 

l”Marie L. Banach, "The Woman Who Just Gets By," The Independent Wemeh, October 1929, p. 463.
‘7"It is Brains That Count,“ The Independent Woman, January 1923, p. 12.

1”Kate M. Tucker, “Are Women to Aggressive in Business?" WW January 1924,
p. 5.

mCygna Conly, “The Business Flapper Finds a Champion,” The Gregg Writer, March 1924, p. 287.

65

Women's Role in Business is as an Office Decoration

A final category of advice which received only minor attention from authors was
women's purely ornamental role in the office environment. While authors continually
stressed the importance of appearance in career success for women, this advice
emphasized that women were only valued in the office for their appearance. "A well
dressed, harmoniously gowned stenographer is an asset to any office. She is like a . . .
exquisite . . . beautiful . . . decorationm‘ "A well-gowned and pretty girl is a good
investment. She enhances the appearance of his oflice and his own prestige precisely as a
good piece of furniture does. . .."175

The data collected in this research provides insight into the appearance and dress
related issues authors felt had significant influence on women's ability to succeed in the
white-collar workforce. While the quantity of data collected on specific styles of dress
recommended for white-collar work were small, large amounts of data on the importance
of the nonverbal communication properties of dress and appearance were collected. The
data analyzed here revealed not only proscriptions and prescriptions regarding women's
appearance, but also the qualities about a woman's character and intelligence that could be
interpreted fi'om her dress, and how authors felt women should use impression
management to construct appropriate images.

The data collected has provided a wealth of information fiom which to answer the
questions posed in the introduction. The last chapter will focus on what conclusions can

be drawn based on the data collected, as well as the limitations of those conclusions.

 

l"\frda Tyler Adams, "The Essentials for a Successful Stenographer," The Gregg Writer, December
1922, p. 128.

"56m Sweeney, "Wasting Woman-Power," The Indemndent Wemeh, June 1927, p. 18.

66

Chapter 4 Conclusions

Analysis of the data collected reveals the important roles that authors believed
business apparel and appearance played for business women. Authors addressed topics
such as clothing styles, the properties of a professional wardrobe and appearance, the
qualities clothing could project about the wearer, and the role of impression management
in career success for women in white-collar fields. The wide variety of data collected
allows various conclusions to be drawn which help to answer the research questions posed
in the introduction.

The first research question was to determine what forms of dress were
recommended for business women. The analysis clearly shows that dresses and suits were
recommended with almost equal fiequency throughout the decade. Based on the fact that
from their introduction at the end of the nineteenth century suits or tailor-mades were the
only form of apparel considered appropriate for working women, and that in recent
decades dress for success authors such as Molloy still consider suits the only appropriate
attire, one might expect to find similar advice in the 19203. However, there are three
reasons that might explain the acceptance of dresses as appropriate oflice attire for women
in the 19203. First, as women earned less than men, they had less disposable income to
spend on clothing. A3 suits were often custom made by a tailor, they were more
expensive to purchase than dresses which were then inexpensively mass produced.
Dresses could be produced in cotton and silk, or even more inexpensively in rayon,
making them affordable to the working woman. Suits, even the ones that could be mass
produced, were typically made out of wool which was more expensive, and required the
additional purchase of a blouse. However, it could be argued that suits were the better
value because of the higher quality of the fabric and construction.

Second, compared to the more complicated styles for day dresses in prior decades,

dresses in general, in the 19203 were structurally simpler, easier to care for, and more

67

comfortable. The new light weight dresses, with simple one-piece constructions, easy
closures, and a drastically reduced number of undergarments, allowed women variety in
style, with practicality. The last consideration for the recommendation of dresses is that in
the 19203 dresses were more typically one-piece designs, while suits involved two to three
pieces. \Vrth a fashionable dropped waistline, the weight of the tubular silhouette needed
to be supported from the shoulders, which was easily accomplished in dress designs.
However, as a skirt needs to be suspended from the natural waistline, an overblouse
would have to be worn on the outside of the skirt to create the appearance of a dropped
waistline, a design that was probably not as functional or neat in appearance.

Another unexpected finding was the close frequencies with which each strictly
tailored, tailored and softly tailored styling was recommended. As structured tailoring has
been traditionally associated with men's business wear, it would seem likely that authors
would recommend a more structured silhouette for women's business apparel in order to
communicate their understanding of the role of a white-collar professional to men.
However, the writers may have considered visual cues from a masculinely tailored suit to
conflict with softer fabrics and less structured features traditionally associated with
femininity. To diminish this conflict, they may have recommended that women choose
garments with softly tailored details that would compliment, instead of conceal, visual
cues of the other roles they may play.

The second focus of the first research question was to determine what
proscriptions and prescriptions regarding professional dress and appearance authors
issued. The concept of not appearing too masculine or too feminine was addressed with
the highest fi'equency. Similar to the advice on tailored dress, authors advised women to
adapt masculine styles to fit their feminine appearance, without appearing overtly
feminine. In order to be effective in their roles, women needed to demonstrate visually

their ability to "play the part."

68

While examples were given of extremes in masculine and feminine appearance,
what was not specified was how to dress with moderation. The fact that the fashion ideal
for women in the 19203 was a boyish appearance (which included bobbed hair, a thin,
angular body shape, and de-emphasized hips and bust) may have influenced perceptions of
masculinity and femininity. This ideal may have helped to create a favorable bias toward a
slightly more masculine appearance during this decade in comparison to distinctly feminine
fashion ideals which emphasized the hips and/or bust during previous decades.

Business women's apparel and appearance needed to be simple, appropriate, in
harmony with the omce surroundings, and suitable to the line of work. However, authors
also felt that apparel had to be becoming, suited to individual complexions and body types,
and provide a variety of wardrobe changes. The recommendations for variety in dress
reveal that authors did not advocate any type of uniform for business women. They did
not feel that women needed one specific form of clothing to provide unquestioned
legitimacy in the workplace, or to suppress other visual cues about the wearer's roles.
Instead, they encouraged women to express their individuality within narrow parameters.
This notion also contradicts Yellis' idea that business women needed clothing that
concealed their femininity in order to compete with men.

Brown's thesis research on dress and behavior advice for working women from
1920-1940 identified similar themes in the selected general popular periodicals used in her
sample as were found in the business periodicals used in this sample. From the advice
gathered, Brown concluded that business women's clothing should be of good quality,
planned around color schemes and wardrobe needs, conservative, simple, not too
masculine, and that cosmetics use should be minimal. Brown also concluded that proper
hygiene was important for business women. 17‘ Brown's findings help to support the

conclusions drawn fiom the data related to proscriptions and prescriptions collected in this

 

1"“Brown. "Advice on Dress and Grooming." p. 48-53.

69

study. However, due to the scope of her research topic, no data was collected on the role
authors felt apparel and appearance played in business women's success or failure. The
data collected fiom the business periodicals in this study provided a wider variety of
themes than were identified in Brown's study. This may be due, in part, to the general
interest content of the periodicals used by Brown which may have resulted in a smaller
sample with fewer themes related to business women's apparel and appearance.

The second research question was posed to determine what qualities related to
business skills and intelligence authors felt clothing could project about the wearer. The
nonverbal communication qualities of clothing allow observers to make inferences about a
person's status, roles, and the skills or abilities that person holds. Women needed to
communicate their business acumen and authors felt that organizational skills,
responsibility, possession of good-judgment and business sense were qualities that could
be inferred fiom a woman's dress and appearance. By cultivating an appearance
appropriate to the role one is filling, the favorable characteristics and qualities associated
with that role are conferred on the individual by the observer. As women began to
compete with men for upper level positions, the majority of authors felt that an
appropriate appearance could be pivotal to their success.

The last question posed in this research asked what role, if any, authors thought
clothing and appearance played in job acquisition, promotion, and the success of women in
traditionally male dominated fields. It was surprising the quantity of advice that was
ofl‘ered by authors on this topic, and it perhaps reveals the most about women's struggle to
enter into male dominated fields. Only seven references, out of the seventy-seven in this
category, indicated that appearance or clothing was not relevant to a woman's success in
business. The overwhelming majority felt that appropriate dress and appearance acted as
a business asset for women.

Impression management is a tool that people can use to help control others'

reactions toward them and to define their role in group interaction. Many authors felt that

70

clothing and appearance were business assets and urged women to construct appropriate
images. Certain types of appearance symbols, such as dark colors, plain styles, and tailored
features that are used in men's wear, can suggest the business environment. Women were
encouraged to adopt these visual cues so they would be identified with this environment.
To further impress upon women the importance of appearance to career success, many
authors related instances when appearance either contributed to the success or failure of
women to receive promotions and salary increases.

Appropriate appearance also was viewed as crucial in job interview situations.

The fact that in the absence of other information, individuals are even more likely to make
judgments based on appearance, was fiequently stressed. The concept of role congruency,
or looking the part one wants to play, also was important for interviewing. Authors
advised that the applicant who's appearance projected the image traditionally associated
with a given role or context was more likely to receive the position.

In addition to discussing impression management concepts, authors also addressed
issues of self-presentation. Self-presentation is a technique for controlling one's own
impression of him/herself. Eleven references out of seventy-seven offered advice on the
effects of clothing on the wearer, and the role of appearance in developing self-confidence
and self-esteem in the wearer. As women now worked along side men, supervised men,
and competed with men, authors felt that being appropriately dressed could provide them
with the extra confidence they needed to achieve their goals.

In recent decades academic, professional, and p0pular literature have provided a
wealth of advice on appearance for business women. Topics such as masculine and
feminine appearance, impression management, and self-presentation have been addressed
by many authors. Molloy asserted himself as an expert in image development with his
W book, opening the door for the new image consulting industry
to emerge. Molloy felt that the only appropriate "uniform" for business women was the

suit, which consisted of a dark colored skirt and jacket, and a contrasting colored blouse.

71

In comparison to writers in the 19203 who felt dresses and suits were both acceptable, he
believed that any style of clothing other than suits could not convey the authority women
needed to compete with men.177

Other periodicals, such as Vegpe, offer advice on appearance for today's career
women, promoting both dresses and suits in individual, relaxed, fashion-oriented styles. ‘73
This type of advice, which considers appropriateness, professional appearance, comfort,
and fashionability, is similar to the advice ofl‘ered in the 19203. Other research currently
published in academic periodicals has tried to empirically measure the impact of women's
apparel and appearance on their career success. Researchers have drawn conclusions
similar to Molloy, mainly that a suit, or jacketed ensemble, convey authority, command
respect, and may contribute to career success. ‘79 However, they have also found, similarly
to writers in the 19203, that appearing too masculine or too feminine may have a negative
efi‘ect on a woman's career.mo

Many of the proscriptions and prescriptions identified here have been themes in
advice literature in decades prior to the 19203. By looking at past advice literature it
becomes obvious that certain apparel and appearance related issues have always been
addressed by authors; they did not emerge as new topics related only to business women
in the 19203. Proscriptions and prescriptions regarding hygiene, neat and becoming
appearance, and the concept that clothing and appearance may reflect a woman's character
were identified by Helvenston in her research on advice to well dressed women in the

nineteenth century. 13' The similarity of themes in each century makes it clear that there

 

17"John T. Molloy. The Wempn'e Dress for Suceese Book (New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1977), p. 35.
178For example see Katherine Betts, "Working it Out,” lpgpe 183 (August 1993): 222, 311-312.

‘79For example see Sandra M. Forsythe, ”Dressing for Success: The Myth and the Reality,” leumel pf
Heme mm 85 (Winter 1993): 49-52.

Linda B. Temple, and Karen R Loewen. "Perceptions of Power: First Impressions of a Women Wearing
a Jacket," Pemtual and MQIOI' Skill§ 76 (1993): 339-348.

180For example see Kim Johnson, Christy Crutsinger, and Jane E. Workman ”Can Professional Women
Appear too Masculine?” Clething and Textiles Research Journal 2 (1994): 27-31.

181Sally Helvenston ”Popular Advice for the Well Dressed Woman in the 19th Century.“ Dress 5( 1980):
p. 32-46.

 

72

was never a time when it was desirable to have dirty nails, stringy hair, or wrinlded
clothing Clearly, in each century women were judged by their contemporaries based on
their appearance.

Authors in the nineteenth century felt that clothing could reflect a woman's
character and values, as well as the quality of her home environment. Women in the
nineteenth century were required to always look their best, even when home alone because
of the embarrassment an inappropriate appearance could cause oneself and family.182
Authors in the 19203 provided similar advise to business women. They advised women to
dress appropriately because the image they projected reflected the values of the company
they worked for and could help to build trust with customers, co-workers, and employers.
Authors in the 19203 felt that neat, conservative, and appropriate, apparel and appearance
could communicate a business woman's intelligence and skills. However, in contrast to
the 19203, nineteenth century writers associated a neglected or disorderly appearance with
women absorbed in intellectual or educational pursuits; a notion that reflects the way
various aspects of appearance can change meaning over time.183

Many of the categories of advice that were ofi‘ered to business women in the 19203
were not necessarily new. However, when compared to past decades, the large quantity
of women in the white-collar business sector provided authors with a new outlet for
adapting their advice, which was channeled through new and existing business periodicals
marketed to both women and men. The advice in the Twenties business periodicals was
targeted at the new, modern business woman, instead of the traditional housewife and
mother. In the nineteenth century the impetus for adapting/adopting the advice offered
may have been the development of a healthy, moral home environment, but in the
Twenties, women may have utilized the advice that was offered to help achieve career

goals.

 

mlbid, p. 3739.
183nm, p. 37.

73

Today, women still seek out advice on careers and families fi'om popular and
professional sources, as in the 19203. The advice and concepts related to apparel and
appearance addressed by Molloy and others are not new. Although advice may vary on
what constitutes appropriate dress for business women from decade to decade, it is clear
that the foundations for the importance of apparel and appearance for business women

were solidly formed by the 19203.

Limitations

One problem in collecting data from advice literature is that it can never be known
how the advice was used by its readers. Advice may be used firlly, partially, or ignored
completely depending on the situation of the individual reading it. Additionally, it is
impossible to know what societal rules for proper dress were so commonly known and
accepted that it was not necessary to write them down. However, with the rapid changes
that were taking place in the 19203, individuals may have been forced to look outside the
family sphere for advice on living in the new, modern society.

The concept of impression motivation, that when an outcome is highly valued an
individual is more likely to engage in impression management, makes it likely that advice
given by authors from a reputable source, such as those used here, was either fully or
partially used by its readers. When the opportunity for a raise in salary, a promotion, or a
job interview was available, it is likely that women did engage in impression management
to help secure the desired outcome. Women also may have used impression management
to counteract negative stereotypes, such as the belief that women's only role in the office
was ornamental.

The low ratio of women to men in upper level white-collar positions also may have
been a factor that would motivate women to engage in impression management. Women
may have considered their appearance a tool that could help communicate their abilities

and intelligence, especially in an interview situation. Although the number of women

74

entering the whiteocollar workforce steadily increased throughout the decade, as a group,
they were clearly in the minority in upper level positions. Authors clearly felt that
appearance could make the difference in receiving a position, a salary increase, or a
promotion.

In drawing conclusions from advice literature, one must consider if any factors
may have motivated authors to offer up specific advice. The sources used for data
collection in this research all shared one goal, to firrther the opportunities for women
entering white-collar professions; a goal which the authors also seemed to share. The only
thing that may question the reliability of the advice that was presented here is the fact that
the majority of authors, fifty-six out of the sixty-four, who offered advice on how business
men perceived business women, were women. While most of the articles written were by
business women about themselves or other business women, a small group of authors
ofi‘ering advice considered themselves experts in the apparel and appearance fields.

Mary Brooks Picken, who wrote two articles for the Independent Wemen, also
was the fashion editor for the W. Picken wrote two books on appearance,
WW (1918). 811d W (1924), 88 well 38
fashion dictionaries. Helen Cornelius, who contributed one article to the I_n_dep_er_1d_eht
Weman, was the assistant editor for Hat-pefisfigg; Mrs. Chester B. Story, and Jessie L.
Thompson, who each contributed one article apiece, were trained as a dress economist
and a color specialist respectively. Finally, the woman who contributed the greatest
number of articles, thirteen, was the fashion editor of the Women's Home Companion. and
a dress and grooming consultant was Elizabeth Macdonald Osborne, who also wrote
under the name Virginia Dibble. The specialized education and/or training of this group of
authors makes it more probable that their advice accurately reflected the standards of
dress and grooming expected of business and professional women, and the role that
apparel and appearance played in women's career success. Also, because of their status as

experts, it is more likely that women adopted their recommendations.

75

The last limitation on the advice collected here is that it pertained to women who
could afl'ord subscriptions to the periodicals and pay membership dues to the
organizations. These factors probably limit the readership of the periodicals to women of
the middle and upper classes. Additionally, given the social and economic climate of the

times, the intended audience of the advice was probably predominantly white.

For Further Study

The data collected from the three periodicals used here only scratched the surface
of the information on business women they contained. This study could be duplicated
using the photographs, line drawings, and/or advertisements that were present in each
periodical. However, many of the photographs were not dated, or were taken of women
in formal wear, which could limit their potential usefulness as a source.

Another topic that could be explored through content analysis of these sources is
what women thought of themselves, how they wanted to be viewed by others, and how
they felt they were viewed by the business community and society. The appropriateness of
women working, especially married women, has always been an issue. Many of the
articles in the periodicals reflected the challenges they faced in society as they entered the
white-collar business sector.

A comparison study between the data collected here, and the data collected in Lisa
Fine's research on Chicago business women could form the basis of another study. Data
on appearance could be gathered from the novels, short stories, and movies she examined
and cross-checked against that gathered from the three sources used here. Similarly, if a
source or sources could be found, a comparison between dress codes established by
companies to the recommendations collected here could provide additional insight into
how the proscriptions and prescriptions in advice literature were used. Oral histories from
women who worked in various white-collar professions during the 19203 could add

another dimension to this study.

76

As the W was marketed to men as well as women, this study could be
duplicated, and additional sources added, to determine what types of apparel were
recommended for business men in the 19203, and if appearance was considered important
to their business success. Additionally, as the Qteggfltjtet was first published in 1899, a
study could be conducted to determine if there have been any changes in appearance
related advice for men, women, or both, over the course of several decades.

One last t0pic that could be explored is the opportunities for women with physical
handi-caps or disabilities in the white-collar sector. A couple of articles surfaced in the
fipeggfltjtet highlighting women who had adapted business equipment, such as
typewriters, to suit their special needs. Given the notion that individuals with handi-caps
were usually considered unproductive members of the society, to be hidden away from

view, it was interesting to find articles written specifically highlighting their achievements.

it.

Although authors in the 19203 did not formally address the nonverbal
communication properties of apparel and appearance by using specific terminology, such
as impression management, it is clear they understood the concepts behind this, and other,

nonverbal communication concepts, and incorporated them into their advice.

APPENDIX

77

APPENDIX

The following is a chronological bibliography for each periodical of all the articles that
data were collected fi'om for this study.

In nnWmn

1920:

Clark, Keith. "As Others See Us." August, p. 8-9.

Tucker, Kate M. "The Unconscious Standard of Dress." December, p. 10
"Value Realized." December, p. 18.

1921:
Keelor, Helen Gano. "Business Secrets Safe with Women." May, p. 7, 25.
Wilkin, Mae B. ”Leader of Business Women." May, p. 26

1922:

"Helping Women to Find Themselves. January, p. 14-15, 24

Story, Mrs. Chester B. "Your Clothes-An Asset." February, p. 13.

Sims, Alida F. "Dress Values, Net." March, p. 6.

"The Silent Influence." March, p. 9.

Sears, Elisabeth. "Brains Versus the Pay Check." May, p. 5.

"What Does She DO?" June, p. 14-16.

"Shopping as a Profession." June, p. 14-16.

erliams, Clementine. "What the Employer Expects." June, p. 25.
”Better Educational Foundations.” August, p. 10.

Penney, Mary Arleite. "The Business Woman's Asset." September, p. 12-13.
Miller, Louise Klein. "Dress Well-It's Good Business." September, p. 13.
"The Hours of Relaxation." September, p. 18-20.

Sears, Elisabeth. "They Pay Their Bills." November, p. 5.

”Our Faithful Friends.” December, p. 16-17.

78

1923:

"Not Guilty Your Honor." January, p. 9.

"The First Essential." January, p. 10.

"It's Brains that Count." January, p. 12-13.

"Mind the Paint." August, p. 7.

Mitchell, Hannah. "Publicity for West Virginia." October, p. 6.

”Fashions Noted in Style Revue. November, p. 24.

Hall, Jessie Lee. "Are the Young Business Women Found Wanting-and How?"
December, p. 5-6.

1924:

Tucker, Kate M. "Are Women too Aggressive in Business?" January, p. 5-6.
Pine, Ruth B. "Introducing the Under-Sherifi'." January, p. 8.

"Business Dress for Business Women." January, p. 25.

Harmon, Margaret. "Secretary of State Bankers.” February, p. 27.
Johnson, Edith. "To Women of the Business World.” February, p. 22.
Dinnick, Ruth. "The Modern Woman Beautiful." May, p. 11.

Rich, Ruth. "Stenographers vs. Senators' Wives." June, p. 20.
"Personality Expressed Through Colors." October, p. 18.

Pickett, Kathryn. "Forba McDaniel-Banker's Secretary." November, p. 13.
Mitchell, Hannah "Women's Activities Exhibit." November, p. 14, 22.

1925:

Tapp, Marian. "A Licensed Woman Realtor." January, p. 12.

Dowie, Lucie. "Way Down South in Dixie." June, p. 42.

Sands, Florence. "Why Many Women Do Not Succeed in Business." October, p. 12-13.

1926:

Aldus, Alice. "What Does a Woman Desire in Dress?" March, p. 8-9.

"Dealing in Personalities." July, p. 9.

House, Rose E. "The Care of the Teeth." July, p. 12.

Ray, Fanny E. "The Business Woman." October, p. 21.

Scott, Rebecca Dare. "Women on the Air." November, p. 9-11.

McLaughlin, Mabel. "Emma Guy Cromwell Kentucky's Secretary of State." November,
p. 15, 26.

1927:

Picken, Mary Brooks. "Business Clothes for the Business Woman." February, p. 9, 34.

"You-As Others Now See You." May, p. 13, 35.

Dibble, Virginia. "The Dress Critic: What is Your Goal?" May, p. 23, 43.

Rippin, Jane Deeter. "Women Can Be Emcient Executives." June, p. 6-7, 50.

Sweeney, Grace. "Wasting Woman-Power." June, p. 17-18.

Dibble, Virginia. "The Dress Critic." June, p. 22.

"A Certain Lady - Mrs. Mabel Walker Willebrandt, Assistant Attorney General." July, p.
7, 40-41.

79

Ford, Mary Constance. ”Forever Twenty-Eight.” July, p. 20, 35.

Dibble, Virginia. "Keeping Cool in Ofice Clothes." July, p. 21, 50.

Dibble, Virginia. "The Costume." September, p. 31, 37.

Ford, Mary Constance. "How Bright Are Your Eyes?" October, p. 20.

Ford, Mary Constance. "Hands Up!" November, p. 22, 45.

Dibble, Virginia. "The Stuff that Clothes Are Made of." November, p. 23, 45.
Cooper, Grace. "Eva LeGallienne, A Productive Producer." December, p. 10-11.
Ford, Mary Constance. "Perfume for Romance." December, p. 24.

1928:

"It Points to a Moral." January, p. 1.

Eldredge, Helen Wmne. ”Are You Adjusted?" January, p. 12-13.
Ford, Mary Constance. "Odds and Ends of Beauty." January, p. 26.
Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. ”What Support?” February, p. 73, 92.
Dillon, Mary Elizabeth. "She Champions the Woman Executive." March, p. 100-101, 134.
erlson, Winifi'ed. "The Older Woman in Business." March, p. 102-103, 139-140.

Ford, Mary Constance. "Modish Tresses." March, p. 119.

Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "Spring Shopping Hints." April, p. 165, 178.

”Older Woman Inflexible.” In the Mail flex. April, p. 171.

"Eficiency is the Thing." In the MeLIBQx. April, p. 171.

Picken, Mary Brooks. "Keeping up with the Procession.” May, p. 196-197.

Speer, Margaret H. "Education, Business and Babies." June, p. 245, 284.

Rose, Michael. "She Manages Millions." July, p. 301, 305.

Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "Midsummer Modes for Office Wear." July, p. 306, 322.
Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "Artistry a la Mode." September, p. 405, 412.

Seeley, Evelyn. "A Modern Portia." October, p. 449, 458.

Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "For Fall Wear." October, p. 450, 458.

1929:

Oddie, Carlotta. "Employment-Female." January, p, 4-5, 44-46.

Cornelius, Helen. "Convention-a1 Clothes a la Mode." March, p. 110-111.

Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "Spring Clothes Once More." March, p. 114, 128.
Macdonald, Elizabeth Osborne. "Cool Frocks for Hot Days." July, p. 308, 334.

Laval, Marcelle. "Out of the Bag!" August, p. 345, 366.

Ford, Mary Constance. "Judging From Her Looks.” September, p. 402, 432.

Darrach, Marie L. "The Woman Who Just Gets By." October, p. 436-438, 463, 467.
Postlethwaite, Sarah. "The Real Thing in Secretaries." November, p. 496-497, 513-514.
Ford, May Constance. ”Encouraging Good Looks." November, p. 501, 512.

80

Writs:

1920:
Dix, Dorothy. "The Young Woman in Business." April, p. 372.

1921:

"Hints to Girls, How to be a Failure in Business." March, p. 224.

Adams, Mrs. E. E. "Far More than 'Master of Pothooks'." April, p. 257-258.

Smith, Harold H. "Making Good on the Try-Out." in the Typt'a ehd Qffig Werker. July,
p. 345-347.

Lee, Tuppy. "The Making of a Secretary.” September, p. 1-3.

"Why One Girl Failed to Get on in Business." September, p. 34.

Ogden, Isabelle C. "Employers I Have Known." October, p. 49-52.

1922:
Adams, Vida Tyler. "The Essentials for a Successfiil Stenographer." December, p. 125-
128.

1923:
"The Business Man's Yardstick." January, p. 211.
"Business Commandments." February, p. 227.

1924:
Conly, Cygna. "The Business Flapper Finds a Champion." March, p. 287-288, 316.
Sears, Elisabeth. "Business Etiquette." March, p. 289.

1925:
Gurtler, Frederick H. "Looking the Part.” in the MM. June, p. 517-519.

1926:

Ulrich, Florence. "The Business Man's Yardstick." in the M ghd Credentials Depattment.
May, p. 441-442.

Gurtler, Frederick H. "Becoming a Shorthand Reporter.” in the h h n R er.
May, p. 461-463.

1927:

Ulrich, Florence E. "On the Threshold." in the WW. May,
p. 43 7-438.

Skelton, Bess Wheeler. "Business Clothes." June, p. 461-462.

Swen, Charles Lee. "To Bob or Not to Bob." in Editerigt yiewe. June, p. 485.

1928:
Price, Marian E. "A Message from the Firing Line." February, p. 255-257.
Efiiger-Raymond, Frances. "Sony: We Have no Vacancy." May, p. 440.

81

The Wemen Leggers' dpurngl

1921:
"Two-Minute Talks." November, p. 3.

1922:
"Annual Banquet of the Women Lawyers' Association.” March, p. 17

1924:

Lewinson, Ruth. "Address of Ruth Lewinson at the Women Lawyers' Annual Dinner."
April, p. 13-14.

'The Social Side." June, p. 16-17.

1927:
Stonestreet, Henrietta Dunlop. "The Women Lawyers in Maryland." July, p. 8.

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82

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