ERSITY LIBRARIES IOIIIIIIII MICHI IGAN 5" IIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII III IIIIII THES'S I I 3 1293 I This is to certify that the dissertation entitled MORAL BEHAVIORAL TRAINING AND CONTROLS IN I HIGHER EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE TO STUDENT SATISFACTION presented by I Dugald McMillan I has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ~Ph .D . _degree in Educational Administration Mr professor Dateggfifl-‘to, /‘79¢ MS U u an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Michigan State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove thi- chockom from your record. TO AVOID FINES mum on or bdoro dd. duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE MORAL BEHAVIORAL TRAINING AND CONTROLS IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE TO STUDENT SATISFACTION. BY DUGALD MCMILLAN A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Ph.D. Program in Educational Administration College of Education 1996 ABSTRACT MORAL BEHAVIORAL TRAINING AND CONTROLS IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE TO STUDENT SATISFACTION BY Dugald McMillan In a present which increasingly worries about the apparent dearth of ethics and morals in the young, the history and place of moral behavioral training and standards in higher education is of especial interest. A review of the history of higher education shows that moral behavioral training has continuously retreated before the successive and complementary forces of vocationalism, the research university ideal, and latter day moral relativism. Analysis of the institutional policies of a very large sample of colleges and universities shows that, although moral behavioral training and standards rest at an historically low ebb nationally, many schools continue to rest their educational processes upon bases made up of a multitude of religious and philosophical tenets. Geographical analysis of the surveyed institutions provides a clarifying and informing commentary describing the location and values of areas of specific moral behavioral training levels which is consistent with and supported by the general socio-historical record. A scientific sample of students at seventy-two colleges and universities throughout the United States provided data to show that for many students the provision of a moral behavioral framework has a significant effect upon students’ satisfaction with the higher education experience. Copyright 1996 by Dugald McMillan Dedication To Robin and Dolly for all their energy and work. To Nina for her everlasting patience and support. Let me count the ways. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like first to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Mary Lee Davis for her generous guidance, encouragement and patience. My thanks also to Professor Frederick Ignatovich and Professor Keith Anderson for their rigorous and useful advice and insight. Finally, I am grateful to Professor Gordon Stewart who, joining my committee at a late date, nonetheless provided meaningful aid in this endeavor. I would also like to acknowledge two great and real friends who are no longer with us. Professor Donald Nickerson and Professor Justin Kestenbaum never wavered in their encouragement and support and played no small part in the completion of this study. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF MAPS CHAPTER I. PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Statement of the Problem The Purpose of the Study The Need of the Study The Significance of the Study Hypothesis . . . . . . . Sub- -Hypothesis Definition of Terms . . Scope and Limitations of the Study The Organization of the Study CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Historical DeveIOpment The Colonial Period . The Industrial Revolution The German University Civil War to 1900 1900 to 1941 1945 to Present . Modern Literature Pertaining to the Relationship Between School and Student Modern Literature Pertaining to the Moral Behavioral Needs of Students and Institutional Reactions to Those Needs CHAPTER III. METHODS . Purpose of the Study Hypotheses and Null Versions The Institutional Sample The Survey Sample The Survey Instrument Alumni Solicitation Test Scaling Field Test Reliability Validity . Administration of the Instrument Statistical Analysis vii ix xii 15 15 15 15 17 19 20 21 25 29 34 54 54 56 57 6O 61 63 63 64 65 65 66 66 CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Geographical Analysis . Regional Geographical Distribution . Regional Distribution of Institutions of Less Than 2,000 Students . Regional Distribution of Institutions of more Than 2,000 Students Categorization of Institutions by Moral CHAPTER V. Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Behavioral (MBD) Levels Category Frequency Distribution by State and Region . . . State and Regional MBD Means . Weighted State and Regional MBD Means Statistical Analysis of Survey Data . 1 — Original Motive for Attendance Scale Scale Scale Scale Scale 2 3 4 5 Satisfaction of Motive for Attendance Conformance with Eddy Guidelines Satisfaction with Eddy Guidelines Conformance . . . . . . General Satisfaction Alumni Solicitation Test SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . Summary of the Problem and Methods of Investigation Survey Data General Observations Presentation of the Conclusions Moral Behavioral Development Categorization and Geographical Distribution Statistical Investigation Further Discussion and Conclusions Implications for Further Study I Survey Questionnaire II Survey Questions in Each Scale . III Tabulated Question Means by Institutional Group Cell IV List of Participating Institutions Bibliography viii 68 68 69 71 73 75 76 9O 93 97 97 107 110 112 114 116 122 122 125 127 130 130 132 143 155 160 167 169 171 173 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Regional Geographical Institutional Frequency Distribution ................... 69 Table 2. Regional Geographical Frequency Distribution of Institutions of less than 2,000 Students ...................... 71 Table 3. Regional Geographical Frequency Distribution of Institutions of more than 2,000 Students ...................... 73 Table 4. National Frequency Distribution by MBD Level ................................ 75 Table 5. Category 1 Frequency Distribution by State and Region ...................... 78 Table 6. Category 2 Frequency Distribution by State and Region ...................... 82 Table 7. Category 3 Frequency Distribution by State and Region ...................... 86 Table 8. Motive 1 Frequency Distribution .......... 98 Table 9. Motive 2 Frequency Distribution .......... 100 Table 10. Motive 3 Frequency Distribution .......... 102 Table 11. Motive 4 Frequency Distribution .......... 104 Table 12. Motive 5 Frequency Distribution .......... 106 Table 13. Correlation of Motive and Question Scores .......................... 108 Table 14. Correlation of Motive and Negative/ Positive Question Presponses .............. 108 Table 15. Geographical Frequency Distribution of Returned Questionnaires .................. 126 Table 16. Institutional Size and MBD Category of Returned Questionnaires .................. 126 ix Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF FIGURES Motive 1 - Academic Reputation Statistic 99 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 99 Motive 2 - Special Curricula Statistic 100 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 101 Motive 3 - Environment/Athletics Statistic 102 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 103 Motive 4 - MBD Policy Statistic .......... 104 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 105 Motive 5 - Ecucational Value Statistic 106 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 107 Satisfaction of Original Motive Statistic ................................ 109 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 110 Eddy Principals Conformance Statistic 111 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 112 Student Satisfaction/Eddy Principals Statistic ................................ 113 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 114 Figure Figure Figure Figure 17. 18. 19. 20. General Satisfaction Scale Statistic ..... 115 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell .................................. 116 Alumni Solicitation Test Statistic ....... 117 Equalized Alumni Solicitation Test Statistic ................................ 117 xi 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF MAPS Regional Distribution of Subject Institutions ................................ Regional Distribution of Institutions of less than 2,000 Students ................. Regional Distribution of Institutions of more than 2,000 Students ................ Distribution of MBD Category 1 Institutions by State .................................... Regional Distribution of MBD Category 1 Institutions ................................ Distribution of MBD Category 2 Institution by State .................................... Regional Distribution of MBD Category 2 Institutions ................................ Distribution of MBD Category 3 Institutions by State .................................... Regional Distribution of MBD Category 3 Institutions ................................ Computed MBD Institutional Rating Average by State .................................... Computed MBD Institutional Rating Average by Region ................................... Weighted MBD Institutional Rating Average by State .................................... Weighted MBD Institutional Rating Average by Region ................................... xii PAGE 72 74 8O 81 84 85 88 89 91 92 94 95 Chapter I Purpose and Significance of the Study THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM During the last one hundred and fifty years, the interaction of various dynamic factors has led to a marked change in the general perception of colleges’ and universities’ responsibility for the moral behavioral training and guidance of students. The years have seen a steady progression away from the pervasive control of the colonial college toward a state of value-neutral indifference. Rudolph (1962), in his comprehensive historical survey of American higher education, The American College and University: A History, points out that colonial paternalism did not develop over time but was a fundamental principle undergirding the educational system. Only through strict and complete control of students’ lives and thoughts could the moral growth necessary in a Christian man be guaranteed. This moral growth was the true stuff, the basis, upon which the early colleges were founded. Secular learning, which today is considered the core of the college experience, was in those early days 2 considered to be merely intellectual equipment for the furtherance of moral development.1 The combined effects of democracy, vocationalism, and the university ideal have led to a reconstitution of the goals of higher education and of the relationship between school and student. The student has become, on the one hand, a resource for the furtherance of the intellectual goals of the university and, on the other, a vessel to be filled with sets of applied knowledge for the good of industry, commerce, and government.2 Students have not had to be forced to participate in this process. They are the children of a moral neutral society that sees little utility in expending either time or effort to instill any but the most rudimentary social values in the young. There is in fact a tendency to label any attempt to teach comprehensive moral systems as totalitarianism or reactionary philosophy. E. G. Williamson (1961), in describing the separation of the academic and student personnel spheres, laments 1Frederick Rudolph,The American College and University: A History (New York: Vintage Books, 1962) Chap. 1. 2Rudolph, Chaps. 10-14 3 that at the majority of public colleges and universities, behavioral control and leadership is left to student personnel staff whose working brief can fairly be characterized as "containment". They work to modify destructive and overtly anti-social behavior but, reflecting the demo-anarchic ethos, take care to avoid condemnation or castigation. Indeed, given the limited nature of the environment in which they are allowed to operate, an activist-critical attitude would be out of place.3 The collegiate renunciation of responsibility for the moral behavioral development of students has had two interconnected yet specific effects. In freeing itself of its historical responsibility, American higher education has had to relinquish its position of moral authority and leadership. Although it remains the chief repository of knowledge concerning moral thought, philosophy, and civilization, higher education has, to a great extent, become spiritually impotent. The knowledge so zealously collected and studied is not applied. In effect, the historical drive to assimilate the knowledge of the past and synthesize moral—societal viewpoints and goals for the 3E.G. Williamson, Student Personnel Services in Colleges and Universities New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961) 4 present and future has been replaced by a introverted scholasticism that does not affect the commonweal. At the institutional level, students may not be receiving the education either they or society deserve. Such is the current state of affairs that neither party is aware of the deficiency. On the one hand, graduates merge smoothly into the larger society bringing little moral- ethical baggage with them for either their own or society’s ongoing development. On the other hand, the time spent in school is made inordinately lonely and difficult by the need for each student to struggle virtually alone to wrest a sense of place and worth from the maelstrom of social and intellectual activity which is the modern public campus. One hundred and fifty years of thought and rationalization have produced a higher education system predicated on the notion that students should provide for their own moral behavioral development. As Helen Nowlis (1961) has written, in what may be considered the definitive statement of this view, "Becoming adult involves, at a minimum, substituting independence for dependence, individual identity for borrowed or assigned identity, and meaningful social relationships with a variety of individuals outside the family circle for basic relationships within the family. It involves the development of a 5 meaningful sexual identity and appropriate masculine and feminine roles and meaningful relationship to life and the meaning of life. The attainment of maturity also involves the ability to postpone immediate gratification in the interests of long range goals neither meaningful identity nor a set of values to live can be bestowed like a mantle. They must become a part of one’s being, and the process of internalizing them can be painful, both for the person and for those who care."4 The wisdom and efficacy of the contemporary view that college students are responsible for their own moral behavioral development provides the focus for this study. THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study will examine the extent to which moral behavioral training currently operates in public and private four year colleges and the effects that moral behavioral training have upon matriculation and student satisfactions with the educational experience provided. In a more general sense, the current state of the relation between school and student mirrors the current state of the general society both in terms of a lack of direction and the failure to guide our citizens toward a ‘Helen Nowlis, Drugs on the College Campus (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1969) pp. 21422. 6 set of common and constructive values that can provide the social and ethical integration necessary for a healthy civilization. At an emotional level, the psychological alienation prevalent in contemporary society is reflected in the alienation which students experience in the present campus environment. In a system that provided more support and guidance, in which moral/behavioral goals were set and understood, students would have a framework within which to live and develop, feel valued, and see themselves as prideful participants in the collective effort. At issue is whether American higher education is as effective or as fulfilling as it could be. While effectiveness is a matter of immediate and popular concern, even though it appears that much of the effort expended in studying the effectiveness of educational methods is superficial, the student’s emotional reaction to the educational experience provided has been neglected, due to the difficulty of study and an aversion to examine critically certain basic precepts, the validity of which is crucial to the continuation of the system which the researchers themselves depend upon and hold dear. It is hoped that this study will help to bridge this gap. THE NEED FOR THE STUDY The views governing relations between colleges and universities and their students can fairly be characterized as static and self-serving. Historically, the change from active intervention and control of student conduct and moral development to a condition that can most kindly be described as "benign neglect" is the result of a renunciation of responsibility due to a collective desire on the part of faculty, administration, and society to concentrate on more desirable activities. In fairness, it should be pointed out that public higher education in this regard is but a mirror of the greater society. Nonetheless, the fact remains that higher education need not reflect society’s tendency to embrace the desirable at the expense of the necessary. There is reason to regard this point of value only as an excuse obviating the necessity to seriously consider the implications of the retreat from moral leadership. In acceptable realms of academic endeavor, there certainly is no predisposition to emulate general societal mores or beliefs. In fact, the opposite is true. Academics routinely see their work and views as more sophisticated and, in a real sense, better than that which exists beyond the campus boundaries. 8 In an environment in which there is no real desire to examine basic precepts, there is a tendency to gravitate toward study of the safe and, unhappily, the irrelevant. The questions asked routinely examine the efficacy of techniques and trends within the unquestioned general institutional framework. The failure to confront sacred tenets severely circumscribes the potential scope of inquiry. In addressing such large questions as the general social and emotional goodness of the higher education system, it is indeed necessary to step beyond what have come to be considered the accepted boundaries of scholarly investigation. The fact that practitioners universally approve of the principles governing higher education does not absolve educational researchers of the scholarly responsibility to investigate all factors having an effect upon the educational process in particular and the subsequent effect of that process upon the welfare of society in general. In the absence of scholarly investigation and challenge of the current ethos, studies such as this are needed. 9 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY A review of existing literature shows that studies of the effects of college upon students have been severely limited by two important factors. First, and definitely the most important, questions have been limited by the extent to which researchers have been willing to challenge the beliefs undergirding the system. Generally, researchers have not been at all willing to question basic precepts. Furthermore, student perceptions and reactions have been limited by a high level of conceptual specificity and by the preconceived notions and goals governing the researches. Students answer the questions they are asked, and no more. What of the answers they hold for questions not asked? And, what of the subconscious feelings and needs that they cannot verbalize or even acknowledge because of personal or societal pressures to the contrary? It is symptomatic of the state of modern public higher education that its collective self-perception leads researchers to a constant reaffirmation of the system and more pointedly accepts the questionable premise that four years of undergraduate education renders students, who a short time earlier were characterized as "empty vessels", capable judges of the effects of their educational 10 experiences.5 It is a cardinal precept of this study that students do not go through miraculous transformations at matriculation or graduation. The weakness of the "empty vessel" image is obvious but so too it the concept that students have clear and valid ideas of what they need to gain from their educational experiences and are able to gauge the effectiveness of the process once their educations have finished. What is being examined in this study is the extent to which moral behavioral training exists and the effects that the existence of that training has upon students’ educational plans and satisfaction. The definition of these wants and needs is controlled not by the preconceptions of educators or the socially acceptable and popular precepts consciously embraced by students but rather by the generally accepted psychological and sociological principles governing the individual’s essential relation to the social environment. It is necessary at this point to acknowledge that public higher education does satisfy a majority of consciously perceived student desires, especially the material and scholastic. It seems appropriate to maintain 5Kenneth A. Feldman and Theodore M. Newcomb, The Impact of College on Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969) vol. I. 11 that higher education is effective in accomplishing its mission. The problem is that the definition of that mission may be flawed. The significance of this study lies in the challenge presented to the contemporary frame of reference and belief. HYPOTHESIS The hypothesis of this study is: Undergraduate students react directly and favorably to the level of moral behavioral direction provided by higher education institutions. Three sub-hypotheses provide the informational bases for the main hypothesis: SUB-HYPOTHESES 1. Students’ original motives for attendance at particular institutions are related to institu- tional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. The degree to which students’ original motives for attendance are satisfied is related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. Institutional conformity to the Eddy principles is related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 12 4. The degree of student satisfaction in terms of the Eddy principles not related to institu- tional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 5. The level of general student satisfaction is related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. The hypothesis will be stated in the null form for the purpose of statistical analysis in Chapter III of this study. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS moral behavioral training and guidance 1. College and university provision of a set of ethical/religious and social/civil principles governing the operation of the institution and the conduct of students. democratic education 2. The current socially heterogenous condition of the student body, drawing from all social strata, as contrasted with the classist nature of early higher education in the United States. vocationalism 3. The belief in and espousal of the inclusion of applied curricula in higher education, particularly science, engineering, business, and agriculture. 13 university ideal 4. The belief that the primary functions of higher education are the discovery of fundamental and applied knowledge, and the training of future scholars. student 5. For the purposes of this study, persons studying at the undergraduate level. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Because of the historical precedents and what might be considered a backward or conservative outlook, this study is limited by the lack of contemporary supporting theoretical or empirical research upon which it might otherwise depend for support and guidance. These factors, combined with the usual survey difficulties, i.e., cooperation of subjects, internal survey consistency, and external interpretation, mitigate against the possibility of drawing definitive conclusions. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The study of the public higher educational institution’s role in the moral developmental education of students is presented in five chapters. 14 Chapter I consists of the Statement of the Problem, the Purpose, Need, and Significance of the Study, the Statement of the Hypothesis, Definitions of Terms, Statements concerning the Study’s Scope and Limitations, and a overview of the Organization of the Study. Chapter II presents a review of related literature. the first section reviews the historical development of public higher education and established the bases of the current conception of institutional responsibility for moral behavioral training and guidance. The second section considers specific modern literature dealing with the general topic of school/student relations. The third section consists of a review of recent literature directly concerned with the moral behavioral needs of students. Chapter III describes the research methodology, the study design, questionnaire development, and data collection and analysis. Chapter IV is a presentation of the data and an explanation of the data analysis. Chapter V consists of a summary of the study, presentations of research conclusions, and recommendations for further research. Chapter II Review of the Literature This chapter is devoted to a review of literature related to the historical development of the relationship between student and the university, modern literature dealing with the relations between school and student, and to recent literature directly concerned with students’ moral behavioral needs and institutional reactions to those needs. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT During colonial and immediate post-colonial times, educational thought was settled and accepted. Publications were relatively simplistic, dealing either with proper pedagogical methods or recounting the histories of particular institutions. Brubacher & Rudy1 and Rudolph? have provided in their survey histories glimpses of higher education in those times. Of especial interest is the unanimity of thought concerning the purposes of higher education. The goal of America’s 1John S. Brubacher and Willis Rudy, Higher Education in Transition: 1636—1956 (New York: Harper and Row, 1958) 2Rudolph, Chap. 1. 15 16 colleges was the successful production of morally mature graduates. As the graduates of the system were meant to provide the ministry and secular governance for the colonies and for the new nation, this view had a contemporary validity. Certainly, the founders of Harvard quoted in Morrison3 were very clear in the statement of their colony’s educational needs circa 1650. Their belief in the necessity of an enlightened leadership was shared as the years passed in the other colonies although there is evidence that there was a tendency to establish colleges for prestige reasons in colonies whose sense of mission was not so clearly developed as was that of the Puritans of Massachusetts. Motives did vary as did results but there was agreement that the graduate was the purpose of the educational enterprise and that the method of classical pedagogy established at Oxford and Cambridge was the proper mode of operation. Rudolph points out that the definitions governing higher education were re-written during the nineteenth century. The traditional goals and purposes of higher education were assailed by the dynamic and intertwined 3Samuel Eliot Morrison, Harv r olle e i the Seventeent Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936), II, pp 534-537. l7 tenets of democracy, the industrial revolution, and the German university.‘ Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy took issue with the traditional belief in a natural elite. According to Rudolph, in the new democracy, every man had the right to rise and take any place for which his desires and aptitudes might suit him. The effect of this profound doctrinal change in values was not readily apparent in terms of the higher education system, although logically if everyone was to have a right to achieve then education must provide appropriate training for all who would aspire and, just as important, provide a type of training that would be of lasting value to those who might not achieve their primary goals. The essential connection between personal aspiration and educational relevance was to be provided by the changes taking place in the young nation’s economy.5 The industrial revolution was beginning to put great pressure upon the supply of trained technical personnel. In Rudolph’s view, the colleges were not producing effective citizens, at least from the perspective of the country’s manufacturers and entrepreneurs. The ‘Rudolph, Chaps. 10-13 5Rudolph, Chap. 10. 18 traditional classical curriculum did not produce mechanics and engineers. The new materialistic society did not require elites but vast numbers of technical operatives. Herein lay the solution to the quandary posed by nascent democracy. The majority need not hew to the old educational line with predestined failure the lot of most, but could instead be trained in satisfying and self- improving ways for the benefit of the nation.6 As part of a movement that included a wholesale expansion of the public high school system, demands were made for the reconstitution of the curricula, the increase of available places, and outright establishment of colleges dedicated to technical and applied education. Acceptance of the vocational view was signalled by the passage of the Morrill Act and consequent establishment of land-grant colleges throughout the nation.7 What is important for the purposes of our review is that the generalized vision of higher education had been expanded beyond the traditional concept to include material and technical accomplishment. Vocationalism in no way signalled an abandonment of the social tenets of traditional education. Rudolph 6Rudolph, Chaps. 11—12. 7IBID 19 points out that vocationalism did not bring about an abridgment of the perceived institutional responsibility for moral training and guidance but only a redefinition of the secular curriculum in those colleges where vocationalism was embraced. In fact, the curricular change coincided with a long period of religious revival. Viewed in a general societal context, the moral atmosphere in colleges during the second half of the nineteenth century quite closely approximated the increasingly rigid social structures embodied in Victorianism.8 Rudolph traces the implantation of the German university model in the United States. American educators travelling in Europe were attracted to the modern universities being developed in Germany. These new universities were dedicated to the furtherance of knowledge. Education was not viewed as the goal of the university but rather a means to further the expansion of knowledge through the production of university scholars. This concept ran counter to both traditional and vocational education, not to mention causing consternation among religious conservatives and apprehension in those who felt that moral training was the prime duty of higher 8Rudolph, Chap. 4. 20 education. Opposition to the university movement was immediate, strong and sustained.9 In the years before the Civil War, the efforts of Benjamin Silliman, Philip Tappan, and Francis Wayland to install the new concept were largely ineffectual in the face of concerted antipathy from traditionalists.lo These initial defeats were not important when viewed against the emotional inroads made by the concept. The university became the ideal for the majority, no matter how seemingly impossible the chance that the new idea might be implemented at their particular institutions might seem. It was enough that a new direction had been indicated. The great industrial-commercial expansion occasioned by the Civil War provided the impetus and the means for the proliferation of the university concept. Industrialists and other men of material vision, according to Rudolph, realizing that the United States must invest in the future to protect its new found commercial prominence, and endowed with the capital necessary for that investment, stepped beyond the vocational viewpoint to embrace the university as the means to insure technical progress. Where the pioneers had failed, in the years 9Rudolph, Chap. 12. loRudolph, Chap. 11. 21 following the Civil War, Andrew D. White, Daniel Coit Gilman, and their fellows succeeded with the help of capital and support offered by industrial and commercial interests.11 In the last decade of the nineteenth century, the great causative factors coalesced with momentous effect. Faced with a multiplicity of needs and constrained by obvious physical/temporal limits, higher education made a consensual decision to de-emphasize its historical responsibility for student character development. The new needs were more attractive, offering vistas of a new way. As had been the case throughout the previous fifty years, desires were not matched by reality. The years stretching from the beginning of the twentieth century until the outbreak of World War II, a period of alternating material prosperity and deep depression, were punctuated by a strong and active debate over the new ideas. Rudolph feels that the short shrift being given student moral behavioral development in the new schema was a particular concern. Critics pointed to the moral neutral tendencies of the universities and wondered what had happened to the eternal verities that had in an earlier day governed conduct and developed 11Rudolph, Chap. 12. 22 maturity. In 1913, Theodore Roosevelt, giving voice to the feeling of many, said, "What we need is to turn out of our colleges young men with ardent convictions on the side of right...[In our colleges] there is no effort to instill sincerity and intensity of conviction." Roosevelt’s views were supported in thought and action at the many small colleges which, faced with the improbability of ever emulating the university ideal, due mainly to fiscal constraints, saw their best hope in proclaiming their allegiance to the traditional ways.12 At the universities, there was a more specific reaction to the practices which were leading students away from traditional methods and curricula. Irving Babbitt (1908) warned against scientific materialism and the tendency to assume that the inherent goodness of humanity would compensate for the character training now missing from the curricula. Babbitt and his compatriots pointed to the extreme goal orientation of the contemporary student, comparing it unfavorably with the more contemplative and relaxed Oxbridge ideal in which the 12Rudolph, Chap. 21. 23 complete person was the goal.13 Even more specific was Robert Maynard Hutchins (1936) who argued forcefully against the aridity of the modern university curriculum and called for a return to the study of those works which had long served as the bases of traditional education. He argued that thousands of years of human artifice had produced a body of thought of immutable truth that need not and should not be jettisoned, questioned, or re- invented.14 While of immediate attraction to conservatives and doubters, it is Rudolph’s belief that the ideas of Babbitt, Hutchins, and their compatriots were backward looking and held little attraction for those most closely connected with the operation of higher education - the faculties and administrations. Further, their points of view were diminished in the eyes of students who, confronted with the uncertainties of the Great Depression and the apparent failure of traditional values and institutions, were in no mood to take part in a reaffirmation of the old and discredited. Far more attractive were the intellectual vistas presented by John 13Irving Babbitt, Literature and the American College: Essays in Defense of the Humanities (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1908), Chaps. 1-3. 1“Robert Maynard Hutchins, The Higher Learning in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936)_ 24 Dewey (1916), offering faculties and students opportunities to redefine the uses, values, and combinations of knowledge. The immediate future seemed to demand new methods. Dewey seemed to offer those methods.15 The pre-World War II period witnessed a number of more prosaic changes in higher education that reflected the change in the student’s relation to the school. The impersonalism of the university caused a meteoric growth in the extracurriculum. Students instinctively filled the socio-emotional void with activities of their own, some of serious intent, many frivolous, but all necessary to a sense of social being and place. Rudolph states, that when faced with a real loss of control over their charges and alarmed by the excesses of the extracurriculum, university administrations sought to fill the void with student personnel staff. There was no attempt to re— install the entirety of traditional controls.16 In Mueller’s view (1961), student personnel implied and still does imply modification and mitigation of negative forces and activities, not ethical training or 15Rudolph, Chap. 22, and John Dewey, Democracy and.Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: MacMillan, 1916) 16Rudolph, Chap. 22. 25 leadership. Moreover, given the minor role assigned to student personnel staff in the collegiate hierarchy and the consequent limitations placed upon their scope and power, an historical fact still much lamented by student personnel practitioners, the modest outcomes of their activities is understandable.17 American higher education was radically transformed in the twenty years following World War II. Of the factors affecting this transformation, some stemmed from the great socio-political forces unleashed by the war while others, of earlier origination, found fruition in the general ferment of the time. The most striking change in higher education was the democratization and expansion of the student body. The rhetoric of the Allies had for four years alluded to the equality of humankind. It was perhaps therefore inevitable that one of the bonuses granted American veterans should be subsidized higher education. Morse (1960) relates how the colleges were inundated by almost four million veterans eager to take advantage of the GI- Bill of Rights and the chance to improve their futures. The influx of this heterogeneous mass precipitated an 1"Kate Hevner Mueller, Student Personnel Work in Higher Education (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1961) Chap. 22. 26 acceleration in the movement away from traditional practices. The veterans did not share the social values of their predecessors, values personified in the old ways, and were moreover preoccupied with the attainment of useable skills.18 College was not the only goal of the veterans. Marriages deferred by the war were at last consummated. The result, while not immediately relevant, was the post- war baby boom. By the mid-1960’s, the trails blazed by their fathers were followed by the children of the boom, the majority of whom were imbued with the same indifference to tradition and vocational-materialism of their parents. By 1975, 10,880,000 students were enrolled in colleges and universities.” The mushrooming numbers of students strained the physical capacities of the system to the breaking point. Campuses were expanded, new schools were established where none had before existed. The size of the student body accentuated the impersonality of the university, both in sheer physical imperatives and through the reaction of administrators. 18Bradford Morse, "The Veteran and His Education," Higher Education, XVI (1960), No. 3—6,7, pp. 16-19. 19United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, "Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1975", (Washington D.C., Department of Commerce, 1984) p. 149. 27 Rudolph states that university administrators, with few exceptions, were preoccupied with expansion and inter- institutional competition. In the clash of priorities, these preoccupations led to a further diminution in concern for student welfare.20 Another factor affecting the school/student relationship was the entry of the federal government into the higher education area. The flight of Sputnik in 1957 resulted in a vast, federally financed research effort. Harris (1960) relates that, for many, competition for federal funds became an obsession, an obsession with noticeable effects upon the internally perceived responsibilities of faculty and administrators. Increasingly, they turned outward, away from the campus and toward the research opportunities they craved and the federal money that might finance that research.21 One final factor was to have a powerful effect upon the school/student relationship. The combination of a continuing concern for civil rights and individual freedoms and the Viet Nam troubles led to a significant reduction in institutional control over students. Already 20Rudolph, Chap. 22. 21Seymour Harris, ed., Higher Education.in the United States: The Economic Problems (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960) 28 predisposed to relative disinterest in student welfare, university administrations, with varying degrees of reluctance, relinquished much of what remained of their social prerogatives when challenged by civil rights activism and mass unrest. When confronted by the excesses of the Viet Nam years, university administrations reacted with a caution so obvious that public confidence in the higher education system was severely damaged. Daniel Bell and Irving Kristol (1968, in gpprrgprgprgpr__1hg_§ppg§pp Rebellion and the Universities, pointed critically to what they considered the generally weak and ineffective administrative responses to student outrage.22 In one hundred and fifty years, higher education progressed from a tiny establishment, homogeneous in thought and outlook and preoccupied with the production of superior men, to a vast industry encompassing many goals in which students were but one of the products. The imposition of new goals necessarily entailed a reduction in the time and effort expended on the student body. Perhaps inevitably, those features of the old system that did correlate closely with the new drives were retained, while those that did not, particularly the moral ‘nDaniel Bell and Irving Kristol, Confrontation: The Student Rebellion and the Universities (New York: Basic Books, 1968 29 behavioral training and guidance of students, were relegated to an uncertain limbo. MODERN LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL AND STUDENT The study of literature pertaining to the relationship between colleges and universities and their students reveals a coincidental conjunction of great importance to our study. The amalgamation of traditional educational theory with modern socio—psychological concepts and statistical methods that first appeared during the interwar years was promulgated by university researchers who accepted the school/student relationship as defined by the German university model. Thus, the body of literature that is considered valid in the modern arena from its inception assumed a condition that did not reach fruition until the 1960’s. It may be said that the hope presaged the goal. In a very real way, this premonitory literature has apparently paved the way for the desired condition. The consistent assumption of the desired outcome in an ever growing body of literature over the years has produced a cumulative legitimization of the university definition of the relationship between school and student. 30 The acceptance of the university by researchers manifested itself through its absence from the forum of investigation and analysis. The university concept has become so widely accepted as not to need further explanation or justification. Not surprisingly, the first instances of modern research into the collegiate experience emerged from the growing student personnel movement. Mueller (1961) and Johnson (1970) both relate that, while genuinely concerned about the welfare of students, the student personnel pioneers were also attempting to find an important and influential place for their infant discipline in the collegiate firmament.23 William Cowley was the pioneer in this process, being able to develop a significant study in 1932 based upon his extensive collection and interpretation of student data at Ohio State University.24 Other notable institutional analyses were published by Theodore Newcomb, based upon ‘nMueller, Chaps. 3-4. See also, Walter F. Johnson, "Student Personnel Work in Higher Education: Philosophy and Framework," in.Laurine E.1Fitzgeraldq Walter F. Johnson" Wila Norris, College Student Personnel: Readings and Bibliographies ( Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1970) Chap. 1. 2"William H. Cowley, The Personnel Bibliographical Index (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1932) 31 his research at Bennington College in 194325 and , after World War II, by Nevitt Sanford at Vassar in 1956.26 These established the general model that would be followed up until the present day. Within the conjectural bounds dictated by the university definition, a comprehensive range of student activities, interests, and outcomes have been investigated and analyzed. After World War II, the precedent set by the institutional analysts was maintained by an ever growing multitude of educational theorists and investigators. The exponential growth of interest in higher education quickly forced researchers away from general analysis toward the study of ever more fractional parts of the whole. Review of noteworthy leading modern studies concerning students and their relationship to the university reveals a diversity of approach and interpretation but, with few exceptions, a uniformity of basic outlook. Undergraduate students are perceived to be unfinished adults coming from diverse backgrounds who interact with the institutional process for four years and 25Theodore Newcomb, Personality and Social Change: Attitude Formation in a Student Community (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1943) 26Nevitt Sanford, ed., "Personality Development During the College Years", Journal of Social Issues XII, no. 4, (1956) 32 are extruded at graduation as productive and superior adults. The studies, from Jocob (1957)27 to Astin and Holland (1961)28 to Sanford (1962)29 and Lehmann and Dressel (1963)”, accept the generalized outcome as satisfactory and concentrate on the educational—mechanical process with great emphasis on small scale detail. Within context, their findings are often valuable. Recent literature, written in an environment of almost universal acceptance of the university ideal, re- asserts the precedent set by earlier research. The basic structure is unchallenged and research and any resulting controversy exist within the acceptable milieu. Perusal of Feldman and Newcomb’s exhaustive The Impact of College on students (1969) exposes the full range of original research and reactive criticism, and reinforces the conclusion that the university ideal, as it applies to the 27Philip E. Jacob, Changing Valueg in College (New York: Harpers, 1957) 28Alexander Astin and John L. Holland, "The Environmental Assessment Technique: A Way to Measure College Environments", Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, (1961) 29Nevitt Sanford, The American College (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962) 30Irving J. Lehman and Paul L. Dressel, "Changes in Critical Thinking'.Abilityy .Attitudes, and. Values .Associated. with College.Attendance", Final Report, U.S. Department.of Health, Education and Welfare Cooperative Research Project N. 1646 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, 1963) 33 school/student relationship, remains generally unchallenged.31 The unrest and anarchy that invaded the campus during the Viet Nam war did not materially affect the outlook or attitude of educational researchers. The papers and books examining the ferment of those times tend to stress description and process while minimizing proscription and judgement. Typical are the studies of Baird (1970) and Kerpelman (1972) that focus on the social origins and attitudes of the protestors but say little about their actions or ethics.32 Durward and Long (1970) and the "Report of the President’s Commission on Campus Unrest" (1970) exhibit a neutrality that is common throughout the literature and that is modified only when the authors contemplate the dangers of student demands for greater participation in university governance.33 Bell and Kristol’s study (1968) of the unrest at Columbia is an exception, heaping ridicule upon what they considered ill- 31Feldman, and Newcomb, Vol. I. 32Leonard L. Baird "Who Protests: A Study of Student Activists", in Julian Foster and Durward Long, Protests (New York: William Morrow, 1970) and Larry C. Kerpelman, Acpivists and Non-Activists: A Psychological Studv of American college Students (New York: Behavioral Publications, 1972) 33Durward and Long and "The President’s Commission on Campus Unrest" (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970) 34 conceived and ineffective administrative reaction to student excesses on that campus.“ The research patterns established in the years from 1900 through the 1950’s have remained in operation to the present day. Researchers apparently continue to be preoccupied in the main with the minutiae of the collegiate experience and to refrain from value judgements venturing beyond technical processes, student personnel policies, student demographics, and the curricula. MODERN LITERATURE PERTAINING TO THE MORAL/BEHAVIORAL NEEDS OF STUDENTS AND INSTITUTIONAL REACTIONS TO THOSE NEEDS The recent scarcity of literature concerned with the school/student relationship, as demonstrated in the previous section, is even more pronounced when literature pertaining to the moral behavioral needs of university students is perused. The university ideal, democratization, and secularization have combined to render minuscule contemporary interest in the moral behavioral needs of students. At the modern public university, morals, ethics, and maturation are factors that lie firmly within 3“‘Bell and Kristol 35 the student’s sphere of responsibility. As such, there seems to be little scholastic concern for a subject that is by definition beyond the control of faculty and administration. Before commenting upon the literature that does exist, it would be constructive to examine quickly those areas wherein quite a large body of literature exists concerning the moral behavioral needs of the young. In recent years, a sizeable body of polemical literature has been published by fundamentalist Christian sects. While inclusion of this literature in this study is not appropriate, it is worth noting its existence as a reflection of a growing public concern about the state of contemporary society and of a perceived failure of public agencies to provide proper moral and ethical training for youth at the public school and collegiate levels. The aversion to consideration of moral/ethical factors at the collegiate level is evident although not as prevalent at the public school level. The combined efforts of Piaget, Russel, Dewey, Spock, and their ilk have not quite stilled those educators who see a place for moral behavioral training at the public school level. A particularly thoughtful example is A. J. Watt’s rigorous 36 treatise (1976) on the place of moral/ethical training in the modern public education system.35 In a more general way, child and adolescent psychologists concede that as environmental influence on personal development is so pervasive, it is important that children receive constructive inputs. However, they have been preoccupied with process, popularly labelled "values clarification". The views of child and adolescent psychologists and sociologists provide further tangential sidelights that, while not immediately germane, demonstrate the extent to which the contemporary view of institutional responsibility for moral behavioral development is accepted. The assumption of modern adolescence as an intrinsic part of modern social psychology as promulgated by Berzonsky (1981) and Hopkins (1983) in their widely used textbooks, and the failure to question that assumption, shows how pervasive is the doctrine of individualism and self-development. The proposition, common in the literature, that university students constitute a distinct post-adolescent class adequately served in the collegiate environment, lends significant weight to the current view, coming as it does from ”A” J} Watt, Rational Moral Education (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1976) 37 ostensibly external sources.36 Further, studies of the effect of home environment upon the educational success of children and adolescents reveals a research orientation of great significance. Education success is very narrowly defined to encompass only the formal curriculum and societal expectations. Many studies, relying on this definition, have shown that neurotic students are most successful in school. Musgrove’s excellent survey (1966) of literature in this field clearly demonstrates the extent to which researchers have become preoccupied with the mechanical and the measurable.37 The most concise and useful literature concerning the moral behavioral training and guidance of university students is Edward D. Eddy Jr.’s The College Influence on Student Character, published in 1959. Eddy argued that character development was a collegiate responsibility. "The American college must be concerned with both competence and conscience in order to meet its special respon— sibilities. The two are requisites for effective leadership. Allegiance 36Michael D. Berzonsky, Adolescent Development (New York: MacMillans, 1981), and J. Hopkins, Adolescence: The Transitional Years (New York: Academic Press, 1983) 3"’F. Musgrove, The Family. Education and Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966) 38 to one without proper attention to the other may result in the half educated man."38 Written before the storms of the 1960’s and 1970’s, Eddy’s discourse is largely cautionary, discerning wisdom in what remains of historical tradition and pointing to the need to maintain those remnants in the face of increasing moral nihilism. Surveying twenty colleges and universities of varying size and type, Eddy’s most profound finding was that the level of character development depended directly upon institutional expectations. Students were willing to satisfy established moral behavioral standards as long as those standards were honestly and thoroughly applied. He found that expectations that lacked real and universal institutional support were often worse than no expectations at all. Support stemmed from various sources, specifically; I) pedagogical style, 2) the curriculum, 3) the level of student involvement and responsibility in collegiate governance, 4) the acceptance and promotion of religious thought and practice, and 5) the general tone of the 38Edward D. Eddy, The College Influence on Student Character (Washington D.C.: American Council on Education, 1959) p. 182. 39 environment. To be really effective, all of these supportive factors had to be aligned with the developmental expectations. Misaligned factors, in this case any factors that were lax or at odds with other factors, tended to dilute the process in a retrograde manner. The obvious corollary to Eddy’s principle was that a reduction in expectations would naturally produce a matching change in the conduct and development of affected students. Students were quite willing to live down to a set of minimal standards.39 After Eddy, the literature is generally scanty and at best tangentially applicable to our purpose. A number of studies and essays address the need for values education but are unwilling to challenge the value-neutral status quo. The resulting attempts to prescribe educational methods conducive to the internal formation of values without any concrete definitions of desired outcomes are conjectural and optimistic. Collier, Tomlinson, and Wilson’s Values and Moral Development in Higher Education (1974) is an example of this sub-genre.“0 After expending considerable effort attempting to define the necessary educational schema, the authors present in their 39Eddy, Chaps. 2-7. “Gerald Collier, Peter Tomlinson, John Wilson, eds., Values and Moral Development in Higher Education (London: Croom Helm, 1974) 4O penultimate chapter a description of a student personnel system implemented at an English polytechnic which is nothing more than a transplantation of the now traditional American system into a British environment. It is interesting that the author of that chapter, Dennis Coe, Dean of Students at North East London Polytechnic, sees his Student Services department not as the fruition of the theoretical rhetoric in the earlier chapters of the book but simply as affirmation that "...the polytechnic is a caring community.”1 Parenthetically, it should be noted that a relatively disproportionate amount of such literature is British in origin. This may be caused by the greater rate of change in the British system and the shock effect of that change upon educators. Relative weight does not, however, signal a stronger grasp of the situation for the British seem even more firmly wedded to the operational principle than do their American counterparts. In 1974, Max Lerner published his Value in Education: Notes Toward a Values Philosophy. Values in Education is a general, wide-ranging essay not directly related to the subject of this study but Lerner does make a number of ‘uDennis Coe, "The Role of Student Services in Student Development-A Polytechnic View", in Collier, Tomlinson, and Wilson, Chap. 17. 41 points relevant to our discussion. He catalogs basic human emotional needs as seven in number: 1) growth, 2) security, 3) identity, 4) belonging, 5) meaning, 6) interactive feeling, and 7) believing. Modern educational commentators have concentrated upon growth, identity, meaning, and interactive feeling at the expense of security, belonging, and believing. These attributes call for levels of active prescription and proscription that are not currently popular.42 Lerner also describes without comment the view that educational efforts should be designed so as to, "... educate for social cohesiveness and not exclusively for individual gratification and fulfillment. A strong case can be made for such an aim. It follows from the modern versions of the "social contract" theories of law and the state: that in order to get their protection from the state of nature, whose vileness and brutality Hobbes described in his classic passage in Leviathan, we give enough of our freedoms to make law possible. Since laws in themselves have not proved capable of maintaining a social order, it follows that they will be enforceable only if a climate of social cohesiveness (sometimes called "civility") can be achieved. In such a climate -- what Robert Nisbet calls the "social bond" is strengthened, and the old social contract takes on new meaning."43 42Max Lerner, Values in Education: Notes Toward a values Philosophy (Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa, 1976) pp. 30-35 43Lerner, p. 80. 42 In his final word, Lerner espouses his belief that teachers must care about their students’values, no matter what the nature of the particular subject matter: "... [If the teacher] can use the student’s own life situation and the experience of the culture as case histories in the winnowing and critical examination of values, he will be playing the magic role of the values catalyst. If he can see through some of his own values [,] cast, and present confidently to the student the values that have survived his own scrutiny, there can be a values dialogue and a values exchange between them. In the end, education is nothing more than such a values dialogue. Out of these values encounters will come in time something closer than we have today to a values elite - one that takes the lead in both the change and continuity of values and becomes a force for contagion in spreading them, in a larger dialogue with the people themselves. Thus out of chaos - in Nietzsche’s phrase - the teacher and the student together can fashion a dancing star."“ It is instructive to contrast the theoretical literature discussed above with James R. Davis’ Going to College: The Study of Students and the Student Erperience, published in 1977.45 Davis, observing that "...scholars have been eager to put students into boxes with various labels ...". decided to attempt to describe “Lerner, pp. 126-127. “James R. Davis, Going to College: The Study of Students and the Students Experience (Boulder, Col: Westview Press, 1977) 43 t:he student experience in its totality. Viewed from the student standpoint, the college experience is not a series of statistical abstractions but a very full and sometimes treacherous trial of passage. Davis based his work on extensive conversations with students at the University of Denver, supported by review of extent literature on the subject. He formulated a fictional set of characters and led them through a four year narrative experience. The drafts of his chronicle were critiqued repeatedly until a consensus was reached that a realistic result had been achieved. The four year odyssey of his students is poignant and all too realistic. The dominant feeling is loneliness. In the midst of thousands of their peers, the characters struggle through life with little to support them save a very small group of friends every bit as vulnerable and unsure as themselves. That they do, in the main, prevail in their endeavors seems to be providential. After carefully describing contemporary campus life, Davis begs the question as to whether the travail to which his composite charges are subjected is effective or right. He sees waste but he is not sure whether the effectiveness 44 of the present system does not justify the psychic and physical expenditure. In his summary, Davis contrasts the thoughts of "... those who would argue that the genius of the American university is its relatively open, unstructured nature, and that the potency of the undergraduate collegiate experience is a direct outcome of the freedom provided to each individual to make of it whatever he or she will" against those "... who argue that the collegiate experience as presently constituted is outrageously wasteful, the whole enterprise ... [being based] on the dubious assumption that what professors teach is what students learn, when in fact points of congruence are few and far between."46 The minutes of two symposia devoted to a discussion of "The Educated Person in the Contemporary World" were published in 1980 as What is an Educated Person: The Decades Ahead.“7 The discussions ranged far beyond the limits of this study but as the participants were willing to challenge the most basic precepts of modern higher education, a number of valuable and concrete conclusions were reached in what was otherwise a rather theoretical disputation. “Davis, p. 239. "Martin Kaplan, ed., What is an Educated Person? The Decades Ahead (New York: Praeger, 1980) 45 In reflecting upon her undergraduate experience, Diana Trilling states, "My Harvard (Radcliffe it was then) education was not all that wonderful, I might interpose; but it did give me pride and it did give me discipline and surely - most important of all — it gave me a sense of having a natural place in the tradition of learning."48 Carl Schorske of Princeton University provides a lucid description of current institutional environment: "What is the table of values of the productive, professionally engaged scholar? The professional ethos of all of us educators arises not out of our service ethic, but out of our scholarly production and how it is used by our peers at home ad abroad. And the particular thing that research model of the educated person drives home to me is that it leads to an institutionalization of the life of reason on the narrower frame of a specialized, professionalized society. Consequently we sense ourselves as being at our best when we are in communication and conformity with that rationalized subgroup in our culture that is our professional community. I see this as an enormous influence and, indeed, as an enormous danger in unseating from the universities and the schools the other cultural functions that are not related to what our professional peers hold to be important. Worst of all, inside our universities this model has become accepted by our administrators. the way a department gets the good man is to go outside, to the other people in the field, and ask their opinions. That means that the tendency for conformity with the external criteria and norms that the professional association provides intrudes into the university, cripples its flexibility, and reduces its potential for a self-definition that will transcend the guild and association matrix. To me this seems a critical problem that the primacy of 48Diana Trilling, in Kaplan, p. 59. 46 wertfrei wissenschaft has brought into our educational scene. We now have a scientific community that has replaced the republic of letters. It is not preoccupied, essentially, with the transmission or creation of values, but with the rational understanding of those values. We have permitted, in a way that I think belies the actual nature of our institutions, the academic man to stand at the very top of everybody’s code of ethics. That filters down, even with all the plurality in our educational system, to the pecking order among lower schools. The culture of our scholarly community is a homogenized, scientific culture in desperate need of the recognition, somewhere, of its value functions — functions that its institutional organization has enabled it to avoid. The fall of the religious attitude from the center of our culture in the last century has acquired a special meaning for our universities and centers of learning. It changes their function drastically. In the course of the 19th century, one field of human activity after another proclaimed its autonomy from any central referent of a moral or metaphysical character. And this is encapsulated in phrases familiar to all of us: "Business is business" and "That’s politics." The second expression isn’t quite parallel to the first, but it says the same thing - politics has its ethic, its logic, that is self-enclosed, autonomous. "L’art pour l’art" is another; the artist is defined not in relation to some larger social or philosophical or religious value system, but according to art’s own law. The University has recently become the place where the most deadly conflicts in the society are being fought out. This is occurring at precisely the time when the people who run the universities - the faculty members - are least disposed by modern development to come to grips with the demands made on the university as though it were something other than an intellectual institution. 47 Wertfrei wissenschaft is the common denominator that in some sense rules our ethic. We are being made to feel exactly as the church was made to seem at the end of the Middle Ages in terms of social conflicts in the society. The task of the church was to lead people to salvation; ours certainly is not. But we inherited that function when reason won over religion. The university won over the church, and it has become the central institution of the rational society that makes the norms of intellectual progress: The scholar’s model becomes the model for every citizen. Our secular Western society hopes that every person can protect himself or herself under the aspect of reason. Now are "paying the piper" for that; the cultural conflicts that dissolved into the variety of pluralism, and the claims for perfection that issue from the sources of feeling rather than of mind, are placing their demands inside the university. They are asking not merely for recognition but also for perfection, for power, for all kinds of things that our truly intellectual function is not capable of providing."49 Richard Loewenthal expanded on the role of education in modern society: "Socialization is mainly spoken of negatively - as the process of teaching discipline, performance, and obedience. I want to suggest that socialization is extremely worthwhile. No society can exist without people relying on the other fellow’s following certain rules. These rules are linked to certain common values of a society. And socialization is really the teaching not only of these rules but also of those values. This process is all the more important in times of social change, when - to maintain values - the rules have to be changed. I would say in passing that it is not true that there is not societal agreement on values. I would maintain that within our civilization there is, and has been through the centuries, a great deal of agreement on basic values. this is true even among 49Carl Schorske, in Kaplan, pp. 101—102, 103-104. 48 opposing political movements, philosophies, churches, and organized interests. This agreement distinguishes us from other civilizations, and needs to be included in the socialization of every individual. A great part of the elementary need for socialization was traditionally achieved partly by the family and partly by the church. Those have become less effective in performance - the family owing to its breakdown in many parts of the civilized world, I suppose, and the church owing to the process of secularization. Because of that the load on formal education to achieve socialization has increased."50 Writing in the January/February, 1983 edition of Change, Warren Bryan Martin made the following comments about values education and institutional responsibility. "Despite the presence of moral problems in every human relationship, the idea that a college should promote attention to them cuts against the grain of contemporary values. American society has rejected traditional authority in favor of the experts and celebrities of the culture of no-context interpreting the history of no-history. On the grid of 200 million, moral conflicts are resolved by the expanding coterie of control, that coalition of authorities from the multinational corporations and federal-state government. And on the grid of the individual, the solitary person thinks for himself or thinks he thinks for himself. At the surface and in the moment, he appears to take responsibility for his actions while actually deferring to the experts. Is every attempt to probe the substance of moral and ethical dilemmas doomed to failure, at least in this culture with its commitment to pluralism? It does appear, in truth, that when dealing with moral issues we tend either to dig a few deep holes in a few selected places, take our stand, and thus get positioned at that specified location, becoming fixed or sectarian; or we throw everything together, insisting that we are all alike, continuing our mistake until hell freezes over and we find ourselves SORichard Loewenthal, in Kaplan, pp. 105-106. 49 skating on thin ice, circling around without a sense of center or the circumference. Nevertheless, difficulties in efforts to formulate an ethic for a college of character are no greater than the dangers in our present situation. We need not believe the skeptic’s contention that nothing can be known for certain (Nothing except the skeptic’s premise that nothing can be known). We need not acquiesce to the transcendentalist who insists that the only help worth having comes from outside ourselves, more specifically, from somewhere up above. We need not collapse into a sauna of bile nor try to build a ladder to the sky. Help comes from beneath our feet, as Renford Bambrough has said, from this world and human experience, at least for those persons who will pick up their spade and get to work. The quest for moral certitudes yields progress slowly, partially because it is poorly understood. It proceeds step by step, from one point of reference to another... We move from the known to unknown territory, thus progressing not toward moral certainty but moral certitudes. In searching for a definition in a dictionary, you will be most effective if you have experience with words, some range in your vocabulary. You must know something about what you want in order to learn more about what you want to know. As progress can be made in defining words by persistent use of a dictionary, so progress can be made in formulating standards for a college. Teaching is about how to make choices. The ethical impulse in teaching is to tell about how to go about acquiring the material and then building the edifice of a belief. As the ancients said, good teaching is a sculpting process. To that, we ad, a sculpting process using the stuff of earth and man to an end that transcends the basic material yet does not forsake this world. Bartlett Giamatti, president of Yale University: ‘ "The teacher chooses. The teacher chooses how to structure choice. The teacher’s power and responsibility lie in choosing where everyone will begin and how, from the beginning, the end 50 will be shaped. The choice of that final form lies in the teacher’s initial act." Giamatti does not believe that amid all this sorting and choosing a teacher should sculpt the contours of another’s mind. I see no way to avoid that effect. A teacher who will not run the risk of shaping the contours of a student’s mind, doing that shaping as carefully as possible, is, to change the image, as floundering but dangerous as a shark without fins. The teacher is the leader in making choices that influence the development of the student’s skill in making choices - and probably affects the choices the student makes."51 Reacting to the economic/technical tenor of the "Nation at Risk" report, Jeffrey R. Holland, president of Brigham Young University made the following comments in the course of an extensive article in the June, 1984 issue of American Education. "As evidenced by their conspicuous and wholesale absence from virtually every one of these reports and proposals, we have obviously relegated all the moral and civic (read "civilizing") values of education to the very back seat of the big yellow bus - if indeed they are still being allowed to ride at all - while prominently seated up front are the real necessities, those which give primacy to our economic needs, our escalating technological needs; in short those that are unabashedly utilitarian. As professor Douglas Sloan has said, "First a living, then art and morality; first survival for our financially beleaguered colleges and universities, then a philosophy of higher education." Well, if our number one priority in this country is education devoted to economic growth, national defense, and increased productivity, important as they are, then God in His Heaven 51Warren Bryan Martin, "Education for Character, Career, and Society" Change, XV, No. 1 (1983), pp. 38—40. 51 cannot help us out of the severe straits we are in. No wonder Amitai Etzioni speaks of the 1980’s as "the hollowing of America." As a nation we lost sight of "the basic purposes of schooling," but so, it seems to me, have far too many of our educators ... Where are the Thoreauvian men and women who will strike at the root of our educational - and national - problem rather than hacking forever at the branches? ... Too many in our profession have forgotten what Socrates said in those original and purer groves of academe: "For the argument," he said to his students, "is not about just any question but about the way one should live." Losing the significant sense of that notion has put our nation at risk. It is the greatest crisis in American education, for the "rising tide of mediocrity" is in morality and manners far more than in mathematics and manufacturing." President Holland in closing offered some suggestions that he felt might help to correct the problems he perceives: "For one thing we can all talk about and expect more and indeed demand more virtue in our lives and in our schools. The remarkable Barbara Tuchman once wrote, "Standards of ... morality need continued reaffirmation to stay alive, as liberty needs eternal vigilance ... To recognize and to proclaim the difference between the good and the shoddy, the true and the fake, as well as between right and wrong is the obligation of persons who presume to lead or are thrust into leadership or hold positions of authority." We can have exactly what we want in this patter of morality. SAT scores in mathematics have finally improved after 19 years of decline - due largely, I think, to the fact that enough people talked about it and expected it and demanded it. We can do the same regarding the civilizing of our children’s minds if we want it badly enough. Schools, and especially universities, have to again be keepers of what Chase calls the group memory, remembering the unity, continuity, and values which have marked the teaching of the liberal arts 52 for nearly 2500 years."52 In this chapter, the historical development of the place of moral behavioral training and guidance in modern public universities has been presented. The contemporary conception of institutional responsibility for moral/ethical training and discipline has been shown to be the product of great forces working both within and without the educational system. The historical review demonstrates that the university ideal has attained a dominant theoretical and practical position at the expense of the traditional concern for the education of complete and socially mature humanity. The small amount of truly relevant modern literature concerned either generally with the school/student relationship or specifically with institutional responsibility for moral behavioral training and guidance is an indication of the power of the university ideal. The majority of existing literature attempts to square perceived needs for rational value formation with the university’s constitutional aversion to participation in the process. Only a very small number of authors have been willing to examine critically the university’s 52Jeffrey R. Holland, "A Notion at Risk: The Greater Crisis in American Education" American Education XX No. 5 (1984) 53 governing doctrines and the effect those doctrines have upon students and upon the larger society. The following chapter presents the methodology used to design the study, gather the data, and analyze the data. Chapter III Methods In this chapter, the research methodology. study design, questionnaire development, and data collection and analysis are presented and explained. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study examines the proposition that students do react directly and favorably to the level of moral behavioral direction they experience during their college educations. The study had five main goals: 1. 1260 public and private four year colleges and universities were categorized according to the level of moral behavioral training suggested in each institution’s published mission or purpose statement. This categorization was used to generate state, regional, and national distributions illustrating geographical tendencies in terms of institutional and enrollment frequencies. A survey instrument was utilized to compare student perceptions concerning the level of moral behavioral training with those generated in the systematic categorization. 54 55 2. Students’ original motives for attending their particular institutions and the degree to which the respondents’ original motives were satisfied were ascertained and the relationship between those findings and the school categories established in number 1 above was examined both without and with regard to institutional reputation. 3. The guidelines established by Eddy1 were used to generate an instrument scale gauging the extent to which the respondents felt that their institutions conformed to those guidelines. 4. A further question set examined the relationship between perceptions of institutional conformity to the Eddy guidelines and student satisfaction with institutional performance vis-a-vis the Eddy guidelines. The relationships between student perceptions of institutional conformity to the Eddy guidelines and student satisfaction with institutional performance and the categories established in number 1 above were examined. 5. The level of general student satisfaction was measured and the relationship of these measures and the 1See Chapter II, pp. 34-35. 56 categories established in number one above were correlated. This chapter will describe the hypothesis to be tested, the target population, the survey instrument and its development, survey data collection, and the methods employed in analysis of the data. HYPOTHESES The hypothesis was stated in Chapter I. For the purposes of statistical analysis it is here stated as a null hypothesis: Undergraduate students do not react directly and favorably to the level of moral behavioral direction provided by higher education institutions. The nulls of the sub—hypotheses are stated as follows: 1. Students’ original motives for attendance at particular institutions are not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 57 2. The degree to which students’ original motives for attendance are satisfied is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 3. Institutional conformity to the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 4. The degree of student satisfaction in terms of the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 5. The level of general student satisfaction is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. THE INSTITUTIONAL SAMPLE The institutional sample was drawn from public and private four year schools with undergraduate programs that submitted alumni fund collection data to the Council for Financial Aid to Education and that were rated in the 58 Gourman Report.2 Of the 1345 institutions listed in both Voluntary Support of Education and the Gourman Report, 1260 had catalogs available for review and constituted the institutional sample. The undergraduate catalogs of the 1260 schools were reviewed to establish each institution’s policy concerning moral behavioral training and control of students. The schools’ mission or purpose statements were examined utilizing consistent content and language parameters. If the initial catalog statement was not clear in its intent, the catalog was reviewed to the depth necessary to insure a valid classification. Many institutions published superficially strong and intrusive policies which were found to be neutralized in subsequent rhetoric or by rules which did not support the purported policies. While the review process was necessarily complicated and protracted, nonetheless the validity of the process was proven at the .88 level through successful replication of the process by suitably prepared and trained test 2Council for Financial Aid to Education, Jointly sponsored by the Council for.Advancement and Support of Education and the National Association of Independent Schools, Voluntary Supporp of Education (New York: 1984) pp. 36-45, and Jack Gourman, The Gourman Report: A Rating of Undergraduate Programs in American and International Universities, fourth edition, revised (Los Angeles: National Educational Standards, 1983) pp. 160-178. 59 reviewers who reviewed a statistically reliable random institutional sample of college and university catalogs encompassing the three institutional types. On the basis of the review, the schools were arrayed into three categories: 1) University ideal - universal knowledge, value neutral, no direction, with students expected to forge their own personal sets of values; 2) Moderate guidance - the school has a definite moral view with a directed knowledge base but does not demand adherence by dissenting students; and, 3) Strong guidance - definite moral behavioral view and a strong expectation that all students will believe and adhere. The category 1 schools are typified by the AAU institutions, the state college systems, and the old undergraduate schools of the Ivy League. The largest single type of category 2 schools are urban sectarian (mainly Catholic) schools forced by market forces to court non-believer students. The remainder of the category 2 schools are chiefly rural, mid-western Presbyterian and Methodist schools suffering the same fate as the city schools. Category 3 is made up of the service academies, small and medium sectarian schools, and a few large, religiously affiliated universities. 60 The categories were used to compute geographical frequency and mean distributions at state, regional, and national level that illustrate the distribution of the three institutional policy types in terms of institutional and undergraduate enrollment frequencies. THE SURVEY SAMPLE A stratified matrix was constructed based upon the institutional policy categories and total institutional enrollment. Total institutional enrollment, rather than undergraduate enrollment, was used so as to better reflect the institutional ambiance and environment. The division of institutions at a population level of + 2,000 was utilized to reflect the organizational and environmental differences of "small" and "large" schools. It is expected that the natural connection between organizational size and anomie or alienation will exhibit an inverse relationship between size and satisfaction within institutional policy categories. Each of the MBD category/size cells was stratified on the basis of the geographical location of the institution to insure regional inclusion in the study. Location was based upon 9 regions defined in the National Geographic Atlas of Our Fifty States.3 3National Geographic Society: Washington, D.C. 1978, pp. 61 The total student population in each cell was accumulated and twelve clusters (schools) were chosen from each cell utilizing P.P.S. (Probability Proportional to Size) procedures and systematic sampling techniques. Each of the 72 institutions selected were sent 25 survey questionnaires to be distributed to 25 randomly selected seniors for completion. Schools which refused to participate were replaced by institutions from the same cell and geographical zones that had been selected in two reserve random cluster selections. THE SURVEY INSTRUMENT The survey instrument for this study was constructed to accurately gauge the subjects’ perceptions and feelings of satisfaction resulting from their educational experience. Fourth year students were chosen as subjects so as preclude post-graduate factors from having an effect upon the results. The instrument was reviewed by faculty, administrators, and a member of the Research Consultation staff of the College of Education. Their comments were incorporated into the instrument. 62 The survey instrument was constructed to include five scales, each depending upon certain combinations of the 33 survey questions. Specific questions are used in one or more scales. The five scales were: 1. Original motive for attendance. 2. Satisfaction of original motive for attendance. 3. Student perception of institutional conformity to Eddy guidelines. 4. Student satisfaction with the degree of institutional conformity to Eddy guidelines. 5. General student satisfaction. Frequency distributions of each of the scales in terms of the institutional policy categories were constructed to illustrate the motivational and perceptual tendencies of students attending particular types of institutions of higher education. It was assumed that the various satisfaction scales would correlate directly with the institutional category groups: i.e., that students would be more satisfied at institutions with higher levels of moral behavioral training and smaller institutional size. 63 Of the 1800 individuals receiving a questionnaire 711, or 39.5 percent, responded to the survey. ALUMNI SOLICITATION TEST In a supplementary survey, the institutional policy categories were related with institutional alumni solicitation success rates calculated from the Council for Financial Aid to Education data.4 Two solicitation success rates were utilized; a raw score based upon dollars per solicitation and a refined score based upon dollars per solicitation equalized for external institutional reputation. SCALING The initial scale measures priority of five possible motives for attendance at specific institutions. There is no specific relative value between responses. The priority ratings requested are not germane to the immediate study. Likert—Type, summated rating scales were chosen as appropriate for the rest of the scales. Four degrees of response were selected with those responses 4Ibid., p. 52. 64 reflecting the most positive or strongest perceptions receiving the highest score. Values from four to one were assigned to each response. A value of four was assigned to responses with the most positive or strongest value, the value of three to a moderate positive value, and a value of two to minimal positive value. A value of one indicated the lowest value. Care was taken to ensure that each option represented a realistic and non-overlapping response. Item and scale means were computed for use in the statistical analyses. FIELD TEST The instrument was administered at six institutions of higher education. Of the students surveyed, 55 or 45.8% responded to the questionnaire. In order to allow for modification and improvement of the instrument, a frequency and percentage of response table was computed from the pilot data. 65 RELIABILITY The reliability of each of the four summated rating scales was estimated utilizing Cronbach’s Alpha in S.A.S. Original Motivation Satisfaction 0.552016 Eddy Guideline Conformance 0.760511 Eddy Guideline Satisfaction 0.811693 General Student Satisfaction 0.885848 The results are acceptable, considering scale size(s) and the unrefined nature of the data. VALIDITY The finalized instrument was validated through content analysis by three professors and four graduate students from the Michigan State University College of Education who understood the purpose and underlying argumentation of the study. A systematic review by these individuals led them to conclude that the instrument would elicit realistic and usable responses. Face validity is also claimed for the instrument. Respondents in the pilot study agreed that the instrument was an effective measure of institutional policies and practices affecting moral 66 behavioral development of students and the resulting level of student satisfaction. Further support for the validity of the study was provided by the numerous faculty, staff and students who reviewed the questionnaire and contributed to its final form. ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENT The instrument and an explanatory cover letter were distributed to the cluster schools during November and December of 1988. Replacement packets were sent to nine alternate schools because of institutional non- participation. Eight weeks after the first mailing, 532 or 29.6 percent had returned completed questionnaires. A reminder letter was sent to schools from which surveys had not been received resulting in the return of a further 171 questionnaires for a total of 704 or 39 percent by May 1, 1989. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Individual responses and institutional non-instrument data were transferred to a computer-readable format for statistical manipulation. 67 Descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and means were computed for use in the preliminary analysis. The effects of institutional moral behavioral policy and size in terms of the various scales were tested at the 95% confidence interval for each of the six previously determined cells in the matrix reflecting institutional size and moral behavioral policy categories. In a supporting comparison, a two-way analysis of variance was used to test the relationship between policy and size and alumni solicitation success scores at the 95% confidence interval. Computations were made using version 5.16 of S.A.S. on an IBM 3090 mainframe computer. S.A.S. procedures used were FREQ, ANOVA, and GLM. Statistical computation was followed by a descriptive analysis of the findings. Chapter IV presents a analysis of the data. Chapter IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS In this chapter a report of the analysis of the data and a discussion of the results are presented. The analysis is organized into two sections. In the first section, the geographical distribution of the subject schools by size and moral behavioral development levels is examined and illustrated. In the second section, the data collected via the survey questionnaire are examined. This data is analyzed through the use of statistical hypotheses corresponding to each research hypothesis formulated in null and operational forms. The analysis sections are followed by a summary discussion in which the geographical and survey results are combined in order to add dimension and depth to the study. GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS The 1260 schools subject to categorization are distributed geographically as detailed in Table 1. The 68 69 regional names used in Table 1 were defined by and derived from the National Geographic Picture Atlas of Our Fifty States.1 These terms will be used in subsequent discussion. The states included in each region are defined in Map 1. TABLE/MAP 1 - REGIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION The geographical distribution of the schools closely parallels general regional population distributions, albeit with a slight bias toward the east occasioned by the greater number of established and smaller colleges and universities east of the Mississippi. The highly populated Pacific Coast is numerically underrepresented due to the tendency of the younger, public institutions prevalent in the region to be larger rather than smaller. Table 1 Regional Geographical Institutional Frequency Distribution Cumulative Region Frequency % Frequency % 1 New England 116 9.2 116 9.2 2 Mid Atlantic 245 19.5 361 28.7 3 Appalachian 150 11.9 511 40.5 4 Southeast 153 12.1 664 52.7 5 Great Lakes 211 16.7 875 69.4 6 Heartland 143 11.3 1018 80.7 7 Southwest 89 7.1 1107 87.8 8 Mountain 43 3.4 1150 91.2 9 Pacific 110 8.8 1260 100.0 1National Geographic Society: Washington D.C. 1978, pp. 4—5 70 )\ ...“./a. m: JAM Swm/ P (Jim‘s ...... r ., ... g n L 2.2.2:»... .838 to 8:39sz .mcoamm. F 922’ 71 TABLE/MAP 2 - REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS OP LESS THAN 2.000 STUDENTS The regional frequency distribution of the schools of less that 2,000 students is presented in Table and Map 2. the bias in small schools east of the Mississippi is a reflection of the historical progression in the development of higher education in the United States. The majority of colleges founded before the emergence of public higher education were located in the eastern and older regions of the nation and were quite usually small in size. Many of these schools have remained small by design or chance. As the need for higher education in the west became manifest, this factor intersected with the nationwide growth in public higher education thereby providing necessary capacity in public schools which in modern time grew large in response to demand and public policies. Table 2 Regional Geographic Frequency Distribution of Institution of less than 2,000 Students Cumulative % of Region Frequency % Frequency % Total 1 New England 47 8.5 47 9.2 3.7 2 Mid Atlantic 88 15.8 135 28.7 7.0 3 Appalachian 84 15.1 219 40.5 6.7 4 Southeast 62 11.2 281 52.7 4.9 5 Great Lakes 104 18.2 385 69.4 8.3 6 Heartland 82 14.7 467 80.7 6.5 7 Southwest 37 6.7 504 87.8 2.9 8 Mountain 13 2.3 517 91.2 1.0 9 Pacific 39 7.0 556 100.0 3.1 72 cm W mm 2:. mm . be M 953...... Sea :2. $2 to mm MP 23.3%... 3 8:33.25 .223... .14. ans. 73 TABLE/MAP 3 - REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS OP MORE THAN 2,000 STUDENTS The regional distribution of institutions of more than 2,000 students is presented in Table and Map 3. The slight westward bias as compared to the geographical distribution of the small schools is a reflection of the dearth of smaller institutions West of the Mississippi and the complementary tendency of public institutions to be larger than private schools of which there are few in the West. Table 3 Regional Geographic Frequency Distribution of Schools of more than 2,000 Students Cumulative % of Region Frequency % Frequency % Total 1 New England 69 9.8 69 9.8 5.5 2 Mid Atlantic 157 22.3 226 32.1 12.5 3 Appalachians 66 9.4 292 41.5 5.2 4 Southeast 91 12.9 383 54.4 7.2 5 Great Lakes 107 15.2 490 69.4 8.5 6 Heartland 61 8.7 551 78.3 4.8 7 Southwest 52 7.4 603 85.7 4.1 8 Mountain 30 4.2 633 89.9 2.4 9 Pacific 71 10.1 704 100.0 5.6 74 A. an \- (#11 . 8 F K .fi er 7.. .. l t ’ «Ea—yam coo. N :9: 0.5:. ho 22::sz Co cos—5:35 .9562". .m nus. 75 CATEGORIZATION OF INSTITUTIONS BY MORAL BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT (MBD) LEVELS The categorization of the 1260 institutions into the three moral behavioral developmental categories resulted in the national frequency distribution described in Table 4. Table 4 National Frequency Distribution by MBD Level Cumulative Category Description Frequency % Frequency % 1 Low 791 62.8 791 62.8 2 Medium 218 17.3 1009 80.1 3 High 251 19.9 1260 100.0 The preponderance of category 1 institutions is a reflection of the dominant position of public institutions in post - World War II higher education. Of the 7,259,048 students enrolled in the 1260 schools involved in the study, 6,338,096 or 87.3% are enrolled in category 1 institutions. Institutional overrepresentation in categories 2 and 3 (38.2% of institutional sample with 12.7% of the students) is the result of many of these schools being smaller and older than their more liberal and larger counterparts in category 1. 76 While there would seem to be no logical connection between larger, public institutions and low moral behavioral development levels, examination of the category lists clearly shows a preponderance of public higher education institutions in category 1, a sign that public higher education was one of many public processes affected by the dissolution of a universal ethic and its replacement by relativistic and situational processes. CATEGORY FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION BY STATE AND REGION TABLES 5-7 AND MAPS 4-9 The state and regional distributions of each of the three MBD categories are illustrated in Tables 5, 6, and 7 and the accompanying state and regional maps. Each of the categorical groups exhibits unique tendencies. The category 1 institutions distribution shows a marked bias toward New England and the Mid Atlantic states, a thinning in the center and south, strengthening again from the high plains to the Pacific Coast. The distribution of Category 2 institutions as compared to Category 1 dips significantly in the northeast, increases modestly in the southeast then jumps 77 significantly in the Great Lakes and upper Midwest. Modest percentage increases are evident from the high plains to the Pacific Coast. The category 3 institutions exhibit the same southward and central biases as do the category 2 institutions. The reduction in the northeast is more marked than in category 2 but an interesting fact is the percentage reduction in the South East which contrasts clearly with significant increases in the Appalachian Highlands, Great Lakes, and Heartland regions. The relative dearth of category 3 institutions in the Mountain and Pacific Coast regions result in percentage reductions in these regions. The state and regional maps show clearly the highly modal regional concentration of the category 1 and category 3 institutions, contrasting vividly with the more non-specific category 2 distributions. The shading scales used for all maps in this study have been maintained at constant values to illustrate not only numerical differences but also relative intensity. Table 5 Category 1 Frequency Distribution by State and Region New England Connecticut Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire Rhode Island Vermont Mid Atlantic Delaware Maryland New Jersey New York Pennsylvania Washington D C Appalachian Highlands Kentucky North Carolina Tennessee Virginia West Virginia South East Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Louisiana Mississippi South Carolina Great Lakes Illinois Indiana Michigan Ohio Wisconsin Frequency 13 10 42 9 5 12 91 12 19 77 54 171 10 20 14 26 13 83 14 11 14 22 14 10 14 99 24 18 22 32 22 118 F‘OF4U1HIJ OO‘kONl-‘O (Dmxlth‘ltb HFJP‘NPJF‘H HKDFJNFJ ochnuww oowoooooopoo NukNNUJ mmeww 11. 21. 10. 12 (DOCDUJO 14. Cumulative Frequency 13 23 65 74 79 91 94 106 125 202 256 262 262 272 292 306 332 345 345 359 370 384 406 420 430 444 .7 444 468 486 508 540 562 562 34. 36. 38. 41. 43. 45. 46. 48. 51. 53. 54. 56. 59. 61. 64. 68. 71. pmwwmm owbqwco 11. 33. mmmmw 43. Mprmqw 56. HWWU'IN 71. 79 Table 5 Continued Category 1 Frequency Distribution by State and Region Heartland Iowa Kansas Minnesota Missouri Nebraska North Dakota South Dakota Southwest Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Texas Mountain Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada Utah Wyoming Pacific Coast Alaska California Hawaii Oregon Washington Frequency 8 7 11 21 11 6 8 72 HUIUJONUTUJ 33 mPJUJHrb 68 OOOOOH WHHO I-‘Ol-‘Nl-‘OH F‘HCDU1O ramnbnam O ‘6 OCDImeKOO \OCDOrh Hmpoomm Cumulative Frequency 570 577 588 609 620 626 634 9.1 634 637 645 659 690 7.1 690 703 708 714 717 722 723 4.1 723 727 768 771 782 791 8.6 791 72. 73. 74. 77. 78. 80. 80. 80. 81. 83. 87. 88. 89. 90. 90. 91. 91. 91. 97. 97. 98. 100. NNPOQOH (D O N oompmm \1 w pwqwmm 91.4 HOKOU'IHUJ 00.0 80 Distribution at Bank 1 . Distribution of MBD Category 1 Institutions by State Map 4 81 » Pt \. 2.‘ Ev . m a... _ \ w .... .. I .. an / e. 32:..sz F2328 on: B 8:32.26 .228". .m an: «7 r V mm am I. 82 Table 6 Category 2 Frequency Distribution by State and Region Cumulative Frequency % Frequency % New England Connecticut 4 1.8 4 1.8 Maine 1 0.5 5 2.3 Massachusetts 4 1.8 9 4.1 New Hampshire 1 0.5 10 4.6 Rhode Island 1 0.5 11 5.0 Vermont 1 0.5 12 5.5 12 5.5 12 5. Mid Atlantic Delaware 0 0.0 12 5.5 Maryland 5 2.3 17 7.8 New Jersey 4 1.8 21 9.6 New York 11 5.0 76 14.7 Pennsylvania 17 7.8 49 22.5 Washington D C 3 1.4 52 23.9 40 18.3 52 23. Appalachian Highlands Kentucky 4 1.8 56 25.7 North Carolina 9 4.1 65 29.8 Tennessee 5 2.3 70 32.1 Virginia 6 2.8 32 34.8 West Virginia 2 0.9 78 35.7 26 11.9 78 35. South East Alabama 5 2.3 83 38.1 Arkansas 3 1.4 86 39.4 Florida 6 2.8 92 42.2 Georgia 8 3.7 100 45.9 Louisiana 3 1.4 103 47.2 Mississippi 0 0.0 103 47.2 South Carolina 4 1.8 107 49.1 29 13.3 107 49. Great Lakes Illinois 14 6.4 121 55.5 Indiana 3 1.4 124 56.9 Michigan 6 2.8 130 59.6 Ohio 13 6.0 143 65.6 Wisconsin 5 2.3 148 67.9 41 18.8 148 67. 83 Table 6 Continued Category 2 Frequency Distribution by State and Region Heartland Iowa Kansas Minnesota Missouri Nebraska North Dakota South Dakota Southwest Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Texas Mountain Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada Utah Wyoming Pacific Coast Alaska California Hawaii Oregon Washington Frequency 12 4 10 mPJF‘H HCDF‘w 000NON OWNNO 37 12 17 l—‘U'I 4 000000 05000 0000b Oi—‘OU'iO % Frequency .5 .8 .6 l-‘U'IU‘IUl U'l0U1t--| 000K300 opmmo Cumulative 160 164 174 183 184 184 185 17.0 185 186 187 188 197 5.5 197 199 199 201 201 201 201 1.8 201 201 213 215 218 218 7.8 218 73 79.8 83. 84. 84. 84. 85. 85. 86. 90. 91. 91. 92. 92. 92. 92. 92. 97. 98. 100. 100. .4 \OrD-tkko 84.9 ##wa 90.4 NNNNNN 92.2 I-‘OOO‘QN 00.0 84 5&— 32m .3 225:5... m 3828 on: to 5:39.65 .6 ans. 85 mco=3=m£ N >39me mm: 3 8:33:55 3:28.". s 82 ’.J Table 7 86 Category 3 Frequency Distribution by State and Region New England Connecticut Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire Rhode Island Vermont Mid Atlantic Delaware Maryland New Jersey New York Pennsylvania Washington D C Appalachian Highlands Kentucky North Carolina Tennessee Virginia West Virginia South East Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Louisiana Mississippi South Carolina Great Lakes Illinois Indiana Michigan Ohio Wisconsin NNHmi-‘H 13 ommtbpo 34 15 12 NU‘I 41 (DU'INUJI—‘Nib 25 17 10 52 Frequency 0001900 mmhthtbrb WNOHOOH ONt-me OQNI-‘l-‘O NOONODDCDGN prmp common Cumulative Frequency owwmmo 13. (DOCDOCD 16. 10. 20. meoomi—I Hi4 17 21 29 47 47 54 69 81 86 88 92 94 95 98 100 105 113 113 125 142 150 160 165 165 21. 27. 32. 34. 35. 36. 37. 37. 39. 39. 41. 45. 49. 56. 59. 63. 65. whmwootb (1)00.th 18. wamm 35. OQWOCDU'IQ 45. qqmmm 65. 87 Table 7 Continued Category 3 Frequency Distribution by State and Region Heartland Iowa Kansas Minnesota Missouri Nebraska North Dakota South Dakota Southwest Arizona New Mexico Oklahoma Texas Mountain Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada Utah Wyoming Pacific Coast Alaska California Hawaii Oregon Washington Frequency UNMQ 34 wanJH 21 CDF‘OFJF‘N mel-‘U'IO 25 #N ‘6 thic- .8 U'INOO 00000!!-I 0.50th NHOO’NO rbNOGOO HOHN NGDNCD Ntbubtb Cumulative Frequency 171 182 184 191 194 196 199 13.5 199 200 201 207 220 8.4 220 223 224 225 225 226 226 2.4 226 226 241 242 245 251 10.0 251 73.3 76. 77. 78. 79. 79. 80. 82. 87. 88. 89. 89. 89. 90. 90. 90. 96. 96. 97. 100. WHUH 79.3 ONU'll-‘Q 87.6 oommtooo HOQFOO 00.0 88 9.0— m .-m _ a is”. .o 8:333 .U U I I 2.2m 3 22.3sz m 3828 am: to 5:355 .m 85. 89 r . mu «m «a» o m:o:3:mc. m 20980 cm: to 5:32.26 3:28: .m 8.2 90 STATE AND REGIONAL MBD MEANS When the MBD ratings of the subject institutions in each state are averaged, the resulting value reflects the MBD orientation of each state’s higher education system as represented by the institutional sample. Maps 10 and 11 illustrate, through shading, the concentrations of low, medium and high MBD orientation. This corroborates the information contained in the MBD category detail maps 4-9. While there are a number of anomalies, low state MBD means occur in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states and then increase strikingly through the South, Midwest and Southwest until low populations and a preponderance of public institutions in the rockies bring a sharp reduction in state averages. The state values in the Pacific Coast states reflect generally the norms found to the east of the mountains. As noted on the maps, the computed national mean is 1.571, indicating that if MBD levels can be considered continuous, the institutions surveyed offer students a selection of schools that collectively might be considered neutral in terms of the levels of moral behavioral development operating. In truth, the national, regional, and state MBD means mask polar extremes. In view of the 91 Km; :32 _mco=mz 83 U 6033.— H— awn—4m”..— mm~..-m$._ I $2-83 I 5.53233: xcnm 22m .3 onflm>< 93mm .mco:3:m:_ ems. 359200 .3 ans. 92 Km: 502 .3982 a \/ (I can. . . F ...: .0 - \USV. w SUN—i...) . f ham. .—. W th F )_ :23: 3 3222 9:3. .mco:3:mc_ om: uoSano. 5 nos. o5... 93 fact that category 1 is defined as a contextual maximum and category 3 is defined by a minimum, with category 2 filling the intervening doctrinal space, both extremely low and extremely high MBD level schools are subsumed within each category. It is expected that these extremes would tend to cancel each other out in computation if the categories were increased. WEIGHTED STATE AND REGIONAL MBD MEANS The State and Regional MBD Means discussed in the section above effectively demonstrate the distribution of institutions offering levels of moral behavioral development as defined in this study. By factoring in the actual undergraduate population of each subject school into the state and regional mean computations, the means are weighted to show where students go to school in terms of MBD levels. The effects of this recomputation are illustrated in Maps 12 and 13. Because of the concentration of population in large category 1 schools, there is significant reduction and flattening of the state and regional means as shown in Maps 10 and 11. Nowhere is this change more prominent than in the Great Lakes, Heartland, and Pacific Coast 94 a. 83-08.— B 22-83 D 23.8: 23.82 I o: I 55223.3 2.2925 °\ 22m 3 8222 62.2". .223sz ems. 82225 .2 .122 9S 44.... coaom >3 «832 6221 3:25:62 am: 822...; .3 .122 SF... 96 regions. The effect is less pronounced in the Northeast where the unweighted MBD means are low to begin with and in the trans-Appalachian states where significant proportions of the student population attend category 2 and 3 schools. Noteworthy exceptions in various regions include high weighted means in Pennsylvania and Iowa, a low value in Louisiana and a weighted mean higher than the simple mean in Utah where high - MBD Brigham Young enrolls a high proportion of the state’s students. A comparison of the simple and weighted mean regional maps (10 and 12) reveals a leveling of regional values when weighted. The values for New England and the Mid- Atlantic regions lay closer to thelnational weighted average than did those regions’ simple means to the simple national average. The Heartland, Great Lakes, Southeast, Southwest, and Pacific Coast regional weighted means dip significantly reflecting the small size of category 2 and 3 schools in the regions and the dependence by a majority of students upon the large state colleges and universities. 97 The Rocky Mountain average is maintained by the obvious influence of high - MBD Brigham Young and the Air Force Academy in an otherwise sparsely populated region. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SURVEY DATA The information collected in the survey questionnaire was used in five scalar analyses. Because of unequal sample sizes within blocks, the General Linear Model (GLM) is used instead of the ANOVA procedure throughout the analyses. In aid of the general thesis which contends that undergraduates react directly and favorably to the level of moral behavioral direction provided by higher education institutions, five sub-hypotheses were formulated. Scale 1 - Original Motive for Attendance Sub—hypotheses 1 is directly related to the data collected for use in Scale 1. In its null form, the sub— hypothesis is stated as follows: Students’ original motives for attendance at particular institutions are not related to institutional policies concerning moral/behavioral direction. 98 In the first question in the survey, respondents were asked to rank five reasons for original attendance with values from 1 to 5 without value duplication. In cases where the same numerical value was applied to more than one motive, all entries were discarded. Further, no attempt was made to deduce the relative value of blanks even if only one motive was not rated. Motive responses are illustrated and correlated in Tables 8-12 with accompanying figures. INSTITUTIONAL REPUTATION "Your institution’s national academic reputation." This motive was scored by respondents as illustrated in Table 8. The distribution was strongest at values 2-3 but fell markedly at the lower values of 4-5. Table 8 Cumulative Value Frequency % Frequency % 1 147 21.5 147 21.5 2 199 29.1 346 50.6 3 170 24.9 516 75.4 4 103 15.1 619 90.5 5 65 9.3 684 100.0 Frequency Missing = 20 The responses rating institutional reputation were analyzed using GLM to examine the effect of size, MBD category and size/MBD interaction upon the result, and are displayed in Figure 1. 99 Figure 1 Source S.S DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 56.40946154 5 11.281189231 7.69 0.0001 R-square = 0.053664 Mean =2.261988304 Size 2.06666083 1 2.06666083 1.41 0.2357 MBD 36.90731054 2 18.45365527 12.58 0.0001 Size/MBD 17.43549018 2 8.71774509 5.94 0.0028 Error 994.76012910 678 1.4671983 MBD category and Size/MBD are both significant. Size is not significant. The null hypothesis is rejected in terms of this motive. While the R-square of 0.053664 is quite small, MBD had an effect twice as powerful as the Size/MBD interaction, inferring that institutional size while not significant in itself, is inversely related to the relative strength of the MBD variable. Figure 2 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size —2000 2.10 2.57 3.09 +2000 2.53 2.42 2.67 The means demonstrate that this motive was strongest (2.10) at small secular schools and least important (3.09) 100 at small institutions in the high MBD category, reflecting the fact that reputation is much more important at specular institutions than at high MBD schools. SPECIFIC CURRICULA "Your institution offered specific professional/ vocational training that you desired and could find nowhere else." The frequency distribution for motive 2 is very even across scores. 177 respondents chose this motive as primary, the greatest number for any of the five motives (Table 9). Table 9 Cumulative Value Frequency % Frequency % 1 177 26.1 177 26.1 2 104 15.3 281 41.4 3 119 17.5 400 58.9 4 132 19.4 532 78.4 5 147 21.6 679 100.0 Frequency Missing = 25 The GLM analysis of responses for the specific curricula motive produced the results in Figure 3. Figure 3 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 60.04856424 5 12.00971285 5.50 0.0001 R-square = 0.039235 Mean = 2.95287187 Size 33.28489262 1 33.28489262 15.23 0.0001 MBD 17.52172776 2 8.76086388 4.01 0.0186 Size/MBD 9.24194386 2 4.62097193 2.11 0.1214 Error 1470.44333562 673 2.18490837 101 Institutional size and MBD category are significant. The Size/MBD interaction are not significant. The null hypothesis is rejected for this motive. As in the calculations for the academic reputation motive, the R-square of 0.039235 shows that Size and MBD were of little effect in an attendance decision based upon specific curricula offered. In this case, Size proved to be almost twice as effective as MBD category, signalling the fact that students seeking specific curricula are apt to find desired programs of study at larger institutions with national curricular reputations. Figure 4 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 3.30 2.98 3.37 +2000 2.52 2.79 2.84 Consistent with the calculated predominance of the Size factor, the cell means for larger schools are consistently lower than those of the small schools within each MBD category. ENVIRONMENT ATHLETICS 102 "Social environment/athletic reputation". The frequency distribution appearing in Table 10 is noteworthy in illustrating the lack of importance of this motive to respondents, the 51 value 1 responses being far below the value 1 totals of the other four motives. Table 10 Cumulative Value Frequency % Frequency % 1 51 7.6 51 7.6 2 114 16.9 165 24.4 3 151 22.4 316 46.8 4 154 22.8 470 69.6 5 205 30.4 675 100.0 Frequency Missing = 29 Analysis of the responses to the Environment/ Athletics Motive produced the following results. Figure 5 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 23.87861713 5 4.77572343 2.93 0.0125 R-square = 0.021462 Mean 3.51555556 Size 19.37735607 1 9.37735607 11.91 0.0006 MBD 0.88859103 2 0.44429552 0.27 0.7612 Size/MBD 3.61267002 2 1.80633501 1.11 0.3302 Error 1088.70804954 669 1.62736629 103 Size is significant in determination of high values for Environment/Athletics Motive. MBD category and the Size/MBD interaction are not significant. The null hypothesis is not rejected for this motive. With an R-square of 0.021462, the social environment/ athletic reputation of particular schools is found to explain only a little more than 2% of the decision process. Given this stricture, the significance of Size is interesting, especially as the cell means in Figure 6 show that this was a strong attendance motive at small, low MBD institutions, but not very powerful in other Size/MBD categories. Figure 6 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 3.19 3.42 3.36 +2000 3.61 3.57 3.85 The low mean in the -2000/Low cell MBD categories has already been noted. While not particularly powerful, the relatively low mean in the -2000/High cell is interesting. Moral Behavioral Development "The character of your institution’s total ethical/ religious program and the basic principles upon which that 104 program is based". This motive is central to the efficacy of the sub-hypothesis. The frequency distribution of the responses for motive 4 appears in Table 11. Table 11 Cumulative Value Frequency % Frequency % 1 147 21.7 173 21.7 2 113 16.7 260 38.3 3 122 18.0 382 56.3 4 157 23.2 539 79.5 5 139 20.5 678 100.0 Frequency Missing = 26 GLM analysis for the Moral Behavioral Development Policy motive appears below: Figure 7 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 228.3233480 5 45.6646696 25.91 0.0001 R-square = 0.161606 Mean = 3.04129794 Size 26.2168015 1 26.2168015 14.87 0.0001 MBD 192.9679572 2 96.4839786 54.74 0.0001 Size/MBD 9.1385893 2 4.5692947 2.59 0.0756 Error 1184.5203098 672 1.7626790 Both size and MBD category are significant in the choice of the moral behavioral motive as the primary consideration for enrollment at particular institutions. The Size/MBD interaction is not significant. The null hypothesis is rejected for this motive. 105 In comparison to other motives, moral behavioral development plays a important part in the decision to attend a particular institution, generating an R-square value of 0.161606. MBD has 7 1/2 times the effect of Size which is nonetheless significant in the decision process. Figure 8 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 3.30 3.16 2.16 +2000 3.92 3.27 2.73 The low means in the four medium and high MBD cells signals the connection between effective MBD and the decision to attend particular schools. The effect is also stronger at smaller schools. Educational Value "Best Education for the money". The frequency distribution of educational value motive scores is very even. The relatively high value 1 total of 165 is noteworthy. 106 Table 12 Cumulative Value Frequency % Frequency % l 166 24.4 166 24.4 2 147 21.6 313 46.0 3 120 17.6 433 63.6 4 131 19.2 564 82.8 5 117 17.2 681 100.0 Frequency Missing = 23 The analysis of the Educational Value responses provides the following result: Figure 9 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr Model 39.57229122 5 7.91445824 3.95 0.0015 R-square = 0.028451 Mean = 2.8325912 Size 5.80122423 1 5.80122433 2.90 0.0892 MBD 16.49666092 2 8.24833046 4.12 0.0167 Size/MBD 17.27440597 2 8.63720299 4.31 0.0137 Error 1351.34400834 675 2.00199112 MBD, and Size/MBD interaction are significant in determining the outcome for this motive. Size is not significant. The null hypothesis is rejected for this motive. As in the first three motives, as compared with the MBD motive calculation, the R-square for the "best value for the money" motive is quite small at 0.028451. The 107 predominant significance of the Size/MBD interaction reflects the positive connection where both Size and MBD are considered. Figure 10 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 3.09 2.85 3.00 +2000 2.34 2.93 2.90 The low mean in the +2000/Low cell signals the importance of the public institutions for students concerned withh educational costs. The relatively low mean in the +2000/High cell reflects the effect of the responses from the Air Force Academcy and the U.S. Military Academy, both high MBD schools with very high responses to this attendance motive. Scale 2 - Satisfaction of Motive for Attendance Scale 2 tests the validity of the second sub- hypothesis, stated in its null form as follows: The degree to which students’ original motive for attendance are satisfied is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 1 Table 13 08 Cross Tabulation of Motive and Question Scores Response Value 1 19%) 04%) 11%) .97%) Motive 1 2(2. 2 2(2. 3 6(4. 4 6(3 5 11(9 .73%) 2 3( 3. 10(10. 36(24. 23(15. 31(27. 30%) 20%) 66%) 23%) 43%) 3 2( 2. 42(42. 62(42. 92(60. 48(42. 19%) 86%) 47%) 93%) 48%) 4 84(92. 44(44. 42(28. 30(19. 23(20. Summarization of the forgoing data into negative positive responses percentage categories produces the following result: Table 14 Cross Tabulation of Motive and Negative/Positive Question Responses Response Motive U'lithH Negative 5 12. 28. 19. 37. .49% 24% 77% 20% 16% Positive 94 87. 71 80. 62. .51% 76% .23% 80% 84% Academic reputation and fulfillment of vocation/ educational objectives had the greatest percentages of satisfactory scores followed by the MBD motive. Social/athletic reputation has a significantly lower positive score rate. satisfaction score rate. Value for money had the lowest high 109 These outcomes are consistent with the information generated in the analysis of Scale 1 information above, and relates positively, in a logical sense, with the demonstrated importance of the school and with the respondents’ class standing. Utilizing the General Linear Model, the relationship between satisfaction of the original motive for attendance and pertinent independent variables was examined. In this analysis, the actual school attended is introduced as an independent variable. Figure 11 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 900.6683545 53 16.9937425 3.46 0.0001 R-square = 0.220033 Mean = 15.3053977 Size 2.0508174 1 2.0508174 0.42 0.5184 MBD 183.9832250 2 91.9916125 18.73 0.0001 Institution 714.6343121 50 14.2926862 2.91 0.0001 Error 3192.6711342 650 4.9118017 The analysis showed that both MBD category and Institution were significant. Size was insignificant. The null hypothesis was rejected. 110 As might be expected, the actual institution chosen had almost four times the effect of the MBD categories. It is reasonable to assume that the non—institutional motives for attendance are in many cases subsumed within the Institution. Figure 12 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size —2000 15.13 14.74 15.93 +2000 14.80 15.10 16.08 The relatively uniform means illustrate the insignificance of size in the relation between satisfaction with the experience and the original motive for attendance. The higher means in the the high MBD categories reflects that factor’s significance. Scale 3 - Conformance with Eddy Guidelines Scale 3 measured student perceptions of their school’s conformance with the principles for enlightened institutional policies as set forth by Edward D. Eddy in The College Influence on Student Character. (see chapter 2, page 34-35) 111 The nine questions were formulated to relate to Eddy’s five principles and to gauge the depth of institutional commitment to those precepts. Analysis of scale 3 data was performed to test the third sub-hypotheses, here stated in its null form: Institutional conformity to the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral/behavioral direction. The General Linear Model was utilized with Size, MBD category and school defined as independent variables. The results appear as follows: Figure 13 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 5866.136887 53 110.681828 7.29 0.0001 R-square = 0.372785 Mean = 35.6193182 Size 730.991704 1 730.991704 48.14 0.0001 MBD 1308.856472 2 654.428236 43.10 0.0001 Institution 3826.288710 50 76.525774 5.04 0.0001 Error 9869.840386 650 15.184370 School, MBD and Size were all significant. The null hypothesis was rejected. 112 Size, MBD category, and actual institution proved to be quite important in the determination of conformance to the Eddy guidelines, generating an R-square of 0.372785. Once again the actual institution attended had the greatest effect with a ratio of 39-12-8 (Institution - MBD-Size). Figure 14 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 36.85 35.88 37.93 +2000 32.09 35.35 35.96 The relatively high means in the -2000 schools in the medium and high MBD categories are understandable given the propensity for the Eddy guidelines to be operative at smaller schools with specific ethical/moral policies. Scale 4 - Satisfaction with Eddy Guideline Conformance The ten questions of scale 4 were designed to gauge the respondents’ levels of satisfaction with those facets of their institutions encompassed in Eddy’s five principals. In scale 3, respondents were asked to report on the extent to which their institutions adhered to the Eddy principles. In this scale, they are asked to report on the degree to which that adherence to the principles is 113 satisfying. Analysis of scale 4 data was performed to test the fourth sub-hypothesis, here stated in its null form: The degree of student satisfaction in terms of the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral/behavioral direction. The General Linear Model was utilized with Size, MBD category and school defined as independent variables. The results appear in Figure 15. Figure 15 Source S.S. DF M.S. F—value Pr F Model 4253.536606 53 80.255408 4.24 0.0001 R-square = 0.256713 Mean = 30.5625000 Size 439.345326 1 439.345326 23.19 0.0001 MBD 619.541855 2 309.770927 16.35 0.0001 Institution 3194.649425 50 63.892989 3.37 0.0001 Error 12315.713394 650 18.947251 Each of the independent variables proved to be statistically significant. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected. In the determination of the degree to which satisfaction with the Eddy guidelines is affected by institutional MBD policies, the MBD category had an effect 114 41% greater than institutional size but only 1/5 as strong as actual institution. As in the previous scale, the actual institution has a strong determining effect, signalling a connection between strong survey responses and allegiance to the school. Figure 16 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 31.85 30.70 32.21 +2000 28.15 30.03 30.98 Higher means in the -2000 cells reflect the prevalence of smaller schools to successfully operate within the Eddy guidelines. Scale 5 - General Satisfaction Scale 5 compiled all survey responses reflecting student satisfaction with their educational experiences in order to test the final sub-hypothesis, here stated in its null form: The level of general student satisfaction is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. The General Linear Model was utilized with size, MBD category, and school defined as independent variables. The results appear in Figure 17. 115 Figure 17 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 15465.28021 53 291.79774 4.33 0.0001 R-square = 0.261044 Mean = 65.5142045 Size 970.02160 1 970.02160 14.40 0.0002 MBD 2221.22509 2 1110.61255 16.49 0.0001 Institution 12274.03351 50 245.48067 3.64 0.0001 Error 43778.57775 650 67.35166 Size, MBD category and school were all significant in the determination of total satisfaction scores. MBD category was significant the null hypothesis is rejected. As in the previous scale, the effect of Size, and Institution explained about 26% of variation in general student satifaction with the undergraduate experience (R-square = 0.261044). Institution again As the MBD, proved to be the most effective having 12.7 times the effect of size and 5.5 time the effect of MBD category. This result is consistent with the high number of respondents who picked institution - bound motives for attendance (reputation, specific currcula, best value for money). 116 Figure 18 Tabulated Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD LOW MEDIUM HIGH Size -2000 67.34 65.48 68.38 +2000 61.23 64.77 66.66 The general upward tendency in the means from Low MBD to High in both population segments reflects the effect of moral behavioral development and training in the general student population, irrespective of institutional size. ALUMNI SOLICITATION TEST In this test, institutional MBD and size categories were related to calculated institutional alumni solicitation success rates derived from data collected by the Council for Financial Aid to Education. Two success rates were utilized. The first rate was a raw score based upon dollars collected per solicitation. The second rate used the raw score equalized for external institutional reputation by dividing the Gourman rating of each institution into the raw score. Because of incomplete financial data, 824 schools out of the total of 1260 were used in this test. 117 The raw score values were analyzed using GLM and appear in Figure 19. Figure 19 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 731633023.5167230 3 243877674.5055740 4.58 0.0035 R-square = 0.016468 Mean = 4935.16868932 Size 565736206.3187880 1 565736206.3187880 10.62 0.0012 MBD 165896817.1979340 2 82948408.5989670 1.56 0.2115 Error43695888466.0355000 820 53287668.8610189 In this analysis, the error was very large. Size was found to be significant. MBD proved not to be significant. In the second analysis, size and MBD were related to the equalized score. The results appear in Figure 20. Figure 20 Source S.S. DF M.S. F-value Pr F Model 14810.79612069 3 4936.93204023 11.84 0.0001 R-square = 0.041513 Mean = 15.12272946 Size 13469.67067080 1 13469.67067080 32.30 0.0001 MBD 1341.12544989 2 670.56272495 1.61 0.2009 Error 341961.07685100 820 417.02570348 In this analysis, institutional size was found to be significant in determining alumni contribution success. MBD category was not significant. 118 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The categorization of schools according to operative levels of moral behavioral development control quite clearly illuminated the national distribution of the three categories of school. It is interesting that from the standpoint of institutional frequency, the reported "Bible Belt" is located west and north of its popularly perceived location in the Appalachians and deep South. The numbers and percentages of middle and high MBD level schools in the Great Lakes and Heartland regions is striking. When the affected student populations are factored into the analysis, the "Bible Belt" retreats back to the expected location in the east and south, signalling the relatively lesser importance of public institutions in the mid and deep South. The data clearly points to the predominance of the university ideal, with its value-neutral environment, in American higher education. 62% of the institutional sample is made up of category 1 (low MBD) schools. These schools enroll 87.3% of the students attending the 1260 institutions. In view of the predominance of large publicly-supported institutions, it is noteworthy that the analysis of the survey data shows the MBD factor having a 119 significant and positive effect upon student appreciation of the educational experience. In the first part of the survey, the respondents were asked to rate the importance of five pre-determined motives for attendance. Of the five motives four, institutional reputation, specific curricula, the character of ethical/moral environment programs, and educational value, were found to be significantly affected by the schools’ MBD category. Only in one case; social climate/athletic reputation, was the motive not affected by the institutional MBD category. Scale 2 correlated students’ attendance motives and their ratings of their schools’ success in satisfying these motives with the schools’ MBD categories, size, and the actual school itself. The school showed itself to be a very significant factor but so also did the MBD category. The third scale measured student’s perceptions of the extent to which their respective schools adhered to the principles set forth by Edward D. Eddy in his treatise on progressive higher education. The analysis attempted to measure the connection between conformance to the Eddy principles and the MBD category. The analysis showed that 120 size, school, and MBD were all significant in the determination of conformance to the Eddy principles. Assuming that the six Eddy principles provide a reasonable and wise basis for a good and satisfying college education, in the fourth scale student satisfaction in terms of the Eddy principles was analyzed with size, school, and MBD category once again the independent variables. Once again, all independent variables proved to be significant. In the fifth scale, an expanded set of responses measuring student satisfaction was analyzed. Again, the size, school, and MBD category variables proved to be significant. In the final analysis, institutional alumni contribution success was related in two forms to MBD category and size. The school variable was deleted because the Gourman factor was already institutional in nature. While size was significant, MBD category was not significant in accounting for variation in alumni contribution tendencies. In four of the five primary motives and in all of the subsequent four survey scales, the MBD category of the 121 school showed itself to be a significant factor in determining students’ perceptions of their schools and of their satisfaction with their educational experiences. In the next chapter, conclusions based upon the readings and the survey statistical research will be drawn, and possible avenues for further inquiry will be discussed. Chapter V Summary and Discussion This chapter contains a summary of the study, presentation of the conclusions, a discussion of the findings, and implications for future research. SUMMARY OF THE PROBLEM AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance and extent of moral behavioral development in higher education, and to gauge whether students react positively and directly to the inclusion of moral behavioral controls and training in the collegiate environment. The bases for the study lay in the writer’s interest in the evolution, if not impending dissolution, of the previously reasonably homogeneous American society as it cascaded into the "era of the individual". Intimate awareness of the realities of contemporary campus life and a full recollection of the standards obtaining thirty years ago led to a preliminary survey of learned thought on the subject. As stated in an earlier chapter, it became immediately apparent that the subject of moral behavioral standards and controls was not being 122 123 considered. In short, the dissolution of in loco parentis and the disappearance of coherent institutional moral and behavioral standards received nothing more than narrative descriptions in general histories of higher education. Modern studies of higher education trends and practices simply accepted the moral-neutral present as the normal state, never questioning nor examining the effects of that reality on higher education or the larger society. The realization that the subject was not being considered led to a desire to examine higher education’s residual connection to moral behavioral training both in terms of frequency and of its affective influence on student satisfaction with the higher educational experience. The first step in the study involved the review of 1260 college and university catalogs available on microfiche and rated in the Gourman Report to determine each institution’s relative adherence to moral precepts and behavioral controls. The schools were placed in one of three groups corresponding to low, medium and high levels of moral behavioral practice. 124 While the schools surveyed and categorized were not methodically chosen from the population, the arbitrary selection by disinterested organizations and the very large size of the sample helped to provide an accurate and valid picture of the geographical distribution and strength of moral behavioral development in four year colleges and universities throughout the United States. The accuracy of the institutional survey depends upon the correlation between the rhetoric of collegiate catalog statements and the reality on the campuses. This correlation is functionally impossible to calculate as it would entail experiencing the environment at each school. A factor that serves to mitigate this inability is the consistency, or more frankly the lack of originality, of the institutional self-descriptions. There is a perceptible textual model that is used by schools within each of the three moral/behavioral development categories. There are, of course, exceptions, most notably the service academies where a strict secular doctrine replaces the usual religious orientation. In some cases, the location or reputation of the school appeared to be at odds with the image projected in the mission statement. In these cases, documentation of institutional regulations was reviewed and a decision made as to the proper categorization based upon all available evidence. 125 While the categorization of institutions and the resultant geographical distribution of these schools and categories was necessarily limited, it nonetheless was rigorous and consistent, complicated only by occasional overblown text. Following this work, the survey instrument was formulated, tested, modified, and mailed to subjects. SURVEY DATA In February of 1989, packets containing 25 survey questionnaires were mailed to seventy-two colleges and universities which had been selected from a double stratified size/moral/behavioral development/geographical matrix utilizing Probability Proportional to Size (P.P.S.) and systematic sampling techniques to insure random selection. By June 1, 1989, 704 of 1800 or 39% of the questionnaires had been returned. In terms of institutional size and geographical distribution, the return was very well balanced. The return from schools with low moral behavioral development levels was somewhat less than the returns from medium and high moral behavioral development level institutions (189-264-251). 126 Because of this factor and because the matrix naturally included unequal sizes within blocks, the General Linear Model (G.L.M.) was utilized rather than the more common A.N.O.V.A. procedure. Table 15 Geographical Distribution of Returned Questionnaires Region New England Mid Atlantic Appalachian Southeast Great Lakes Heartland Southwest Mountain Pacific Coast \OCDQONU'IrbUJNl-J Frequency 26 127 41 99 149 114 49 26 73 18. 14. 21. 16. 10. #QONNHQOQ Cumulativ Frequency 26 153 194 293 442 556 605 631 704 e 9 21. 27. 41. 62. 79. 85. 89. 100. The returned surveys arrayed by MBD category and size appear in Table 9. Totals 373 338 Table 16 Institutional Size and MBD Category of Returned Questionnaires MBD 1 2 3 +2000 128 144 102 -2000 61 120 149 Totals 189 264 251 704 omxoooomqul 127 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Before proceeding to comments on the various sub- hypotheses and accompanying scales, it would be enlightening to relate some non-statistical observations made while scoring the questionnaires. The statistics effectively mask some very polar responses coming from the same institutions. This phenomenon was most noticeable in high moral behavioral development schools where the majority of responses would be quite positive but would be accompanied by one or more very negative responses. It would appear that some subjects found themselves trapped in a high moral behavioral development school and could not, for whatever reason, move on to a happier personal environment. This polarization was not as apparent at medium or low moral behavioral development schools. At these schools the positives were not as strong and the negatives seemed to reflect indifference rather than antipathy. Public school students did not seem to expect much from their institutions and were only quietly disappointed that their expectations were realized. A special and thought provoking set of data was submitted by students from the U.S. Military Academy and the Air Force Academy. 12 of 128 the 25 responses submitted by West Point cadets marked attendance motive 5, "best education for the money", with the highest value, reflecting the fact that tuition is free at the Military Academy. While this response may be understandable, it shatters the preconception that cadets attend the Point because they want to serve in the Army as commissioned officers. This divergence between traditional belief and reality gains credibility when the West Point scores on cooperation and friendliness are examined. The cadets who reported that they attended West Point because of the cost savings were alienated from their peers and hated the system in which they found themselves. While it is possible to sympathize or to disregard these peoples’ plight, what seems most serious is that 48% of the institutional sample entered the Academy for financial reasons and hate the situation and, by extension, the obligation to which they have pledged themselves. This would seem not to bode well for the health of the officer corps of the Army. The same phenomenon manifested itself in the Air Force Academy return with 3 of the 12 responses connecting the economic motive with evidence of alienation and over- 129 competitiveness. The lower incidence may well reflect the more technical and less physical nature of the educational and operational environment of the Air Force Academy. 130 Presentation of the Conclusions MORAL BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT CATEGORIZATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION In order to gain some sense as to the prevalence or absence of moral behavioral training in contemporary American higher education, a methodical analysis of 1,260 college and university mission statements was undertaken. Each school was placed in one of three categories depending upon the strength of moral-behavioral training evident in the schools’ policies and practices. This analysis confirmed the primacy of the moral-neutral university philosophy in modern higher education. It also showed that the stronger philosophical position has by no means disappeared. While the value neutral schools enrolled 87.3% of the under-graduates attending the 1,260 institutions, 37.2% of the institutions did, in fact, include moral behavioral training and development in their philosophies and practices. An interesting sidelight to the rating methodology was an insight into the ongoing transformation of higher education in this century. Many sectarian schools, 131 especially in urban areas, seem to have had to moderate the force and volume of their moral behavioral training in order to attract the non-believing students the schools need to remain in operation. The rhetorical skill which their mission statement writers utilized to slide from the hardrock religious base to the relativistic present proved to be quite variable. The ratings, when viewed in geographical and population terms, provided few surprises. The north-east, home of the Ivy League and the liberal educational principle, proved to have only a small percentage of its institutions or places dedicated to moral-behavioral training. Somewhat surprising was the north-central position of the Bible Belt. Viewed in the institutional context, many more high moral behavioral development schools operate in the Great Lakes and Heartland areas than appear in the Appalachian, Southeastern, or Southwest regions. It should be noted that many of the northern schools were rated at the middle rather than the high moral behavioral development level. Many of the middle level schools are rural Protestant in nature, products of the college - building years of the nineteenth century. 132 When institutional populations were factored into the process, the Bible Belt re-formed in a quite narrow band stretching from the Middle Atlantic region through the Appalachians to the Heartland region of the upper Midwest. It should be emphasized that this shift away from the Great Lakes and the southern regions is truly relative. The calculated factors in all regions fell when population became a factor: the values in the Middle Atlantic, Appalachian Highland and Heartland regions fell less precipitously than in the other regions. The high value in the Middle Atlantic region is of great interest. It signals the existence of a number of large urban sectarian schools as well as the Naval and Military Academies. The fading values in the Southeast and Southwest reflect the primacy of the public sector in these geographically expansive areas. In each of these regions, the calculated factor was negatively affected by very low state values in Florida in the east and Arizona and New Mexico in the west. STATISTICAL INVESTIGATION The statistical investigation of the general thesis that undergraduates react directly and favorably to the level of moral behavioral direction was based upon five 133 sub-hypotheses. Sub-hypothesis 1 In its null form, the sub-hypothesis states: Students’ original motives for attendance are not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. The respondents were asked to rate the five reasons for original attendance with values from 1 to 5 without value duplication. The five reasons were: 1. Your institution’s national academic reputation. 2. Your institution offered specific progressional/vocational training that you desired and could find nowhere else. 3. Social environment/athletic reputation 4. The character of your institution’s total ethical/religious program and the basic principles upon which that program is based. 5. Best education for the money. The accumulated data when subjected to analysis showed that institutional moral behavioral direction was a significant factor for students who chose academic 134 reputation, specific curricula, moral behavioral climate and educational value as the highest priorities in original institutional selection. Moral behavioral climate, which related to students’ desires/needs for a school with specific ethical/religious orientation, was clearly significant in terms of institutional moral behavioral development status. This correlation is intuitively correct in that students embracing this motive would necessarily have to choose a school with a discernible moral behavioral policy. Student responses to the other four motives for original attendance merit comment. Academic reputation, was more important as a secondary or tertiary motive than as the primary motive, and generated a very small lowest value (5) total indicating that while not of primary importance, institutional reputation had a very high secondary or tertiary relevance. The existence of desired professional/vocational training at a specific institution had the highest primary value total of all the motives of attendance. There is nothing particularly surprising about this result. It demonstrated that 24.9% (175/704) of the respondents had a 135 very specific future in mind at the time of matriculation for which there was a very restricted supply of schools. Social environment/athletic reputation, produced the smallest primary motive score and the largest lowest priority score, underscoring the relative seriousness which young people and their parents attach to the decision of whichever college or university to attend. This was the only motive where moral behavioral development was not significant. Students viewed the motive, best education for the money, as very important. The highest value motive score was the second highest of the five motives. The lesser scores were biased toward the higher end but very evenly distributed. Sub-hypothesis 2 In its null form, sub-hypothesis 2 states: The degree to which students’ original motives for attendance are satisfied is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. Respondents were asked to rate their satisfaction with their educational experience. As seniors, they had at least four years experience upon which to draw. The resulting ratings, on a score from 4 to 1 were then 136 related to each student’s value 1 attendance motive and the results tabulated. At the most general level, students were very satisfied with their experience. 79.85% of respondents marked one of either of the two positive responses. It is not difficult to expect that there may be long-term rationalization occurring in these responses. It is natural that after four years investment in an institutional environment, seniors on the eve of graduation would positively rationalize the experience and move the response in a positive direction. It is interesting that the highest satisfaction rates were reported by respondents preoccupied with institutional reputation and then specific courses of study. In clear contrast, those who "bought" a school based upon value for money were the most disappointed. The result may signal that those most motivated by economics were more apt to critically view the final outcome of their experiences. Technically, the very low aggregate scores reported by respondents at the Air Force Academy and West Point may have driven the total motive/satisfaction score down out of proportion to their numerical weight. 137 The third highest satisfaction rate was reported by students whose attendance was predicated in the moral behavioral environment at their institutions. Moral behavioral development/satisfaction had the second lowest total of highest satisfaction scores and very much the highest total of middle positive ratings. With the data at hand, it is impossible to ascertain the reasons for this phenomenon. Perhaps, students had religious/emotional aspirations that were unrealistic because their colleges and universities could not, in the real world, begin to provide the desired outcomes. Although the smallest number of respondents chose "social environment/athletic reputation" as their primary motive, their satisfaction scores were reasonably positive. Like the satisfaction scores for the moral behavioral development motive, the scores were highest at the secondary positive level rather than at the highest value. Statistical analysis showed that moral behavioral development category was significant in determining level of satisfaction of original motive for attendance. In this analysis, the actual institution was introduced as an independent variable and proved to be very significant. This result is naturally expected, since students selected 138 their schools based upon their personal hierarchy of motives and responded positively - 79.85% versus 20.15% negative responses. Sub-hypothesis 3 Sub-hypothesis 3 is stated in its null form as follows: Institutional conformity to the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral/behavioral direction. The respondent were asked to score questions that reflected their respective institutions’ adherence to the five principles Edward D. Eddy used to gauge enlightened institutional policies. Eddy’s principles encompassed the honest and wise implementation of institutional performance and expectations measured in five areas: 1. pedagogical style, 2. the curriculum, 3. the level of student involvement and responsibility in collegiate government, 4. the acceptance and promotion of religious thought and practice, and 5. the general tone of the environment 139 Each item couched Eddy’s principles in terms of the respondent’s institution’s enlightened approach to operational policies. Statistical analysis showed that institutional moral behavioral development category was a significant factor in the respondents’ views concerning their institutions’ adherence to the Eddy principles. Sub-hypothesis 4 In its null form, sub-hypothesis 4 states: The degree of student satisfaction in terms of the Eddy principles is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. In this test, respondents reported on their satisfaction with the extent to which their institutions adhered to the Eddy principles. Given that there could well be an inverse relationship between high - Eddy principle adherence and the satisfaction of those who did not report moral behavioral development as primary motive for attendance, the statistical analysis did report a positive correlation between Eddy adherence and personal satisfaction. 140 The analysis also reported that the moral behavioral development category was significant in this relationship, an understandable result in light of the fact that those whose primary motive was moral behavioral development would be apt to be very satisfied with their institutions’ predispositions to emphasize religious thought and practice. The actual institution attended was also significant. This outcome is also predictable because students who reported institutional reputation as primary motive for attendance would attend schools with strong internal policies which might or might not include religious training. Many of the finest purely secular institutions are known for their particular environments, many of which measure quite strongly in terms of the Eddy principles, minus the religious tenet. Such students, therefore, knowing what they were accepting at matriculation, would tend to be satisfied with those same conditions four years later. Sub-hypothesis 5 The 5th sub-hypothesis states in null form: The level of general student satisfaction is not related to institutional policies concerning moral behavioral direction. 141 In this analysis, all survey responses reflecting student satisfaction were compiled and subjected to statistical analysis. The moral behavioral development category was found to be significant as were institutional size and the particular institution. The significance of the moral behavioral development category was expected. The particular institution is understandable in light of the majority of respondents who reported reputation and specialized training as primary motives for attendance. Having chosen particular institutions, these respondents’ satisfaction is almost given. It is interesting that satisfaction is higher at smaller schools than larger. This is probably a reflection of the fact that moral behavioral training is more prevalent at many of the smaller colleges and largely absent from the large public universities. ALUMNI SOLICITATION TEST In an independent analysis, the rates of alumni giving by institution were related to institutional size and moral behavioral development category. The hypothesis for this test lay in the notion that the higher the moral behavioral development category and concomitant satisfaction, as indicated by the previous analyses, the higher would be the alumni contribution. In the event, 142 the analysis did find a significant correlation between size and the level of alumni contribution calculated as dollars collected per solicitation. Moral behavioral development category was not significant. These results are consistent with common sense analysis. As this analysis did not take into account institutional reputation, which would appear to be the most powerful determinant of alumni giving, the results are expected. A second test, which equalized the alumni contribution score by dividing the value for each school by the institution’s Gourman rating, again found the moral behavioral development category to not be significant. Size was found to be significant. As high Gourman ratings tend to attach to large research universities, this outcome is not surprising. The original intent of the hypothesis was borne out by the statistical analysis of the data provided by the institutional respondents. In all but one subsection of five tests, moral behavioral development category was found to have statistical significance in the measure of student satisfaction with their chosen schools. That moral behavioral training and orientation was not the dominant determinant in attendance at specific institutions, and consequent relative realization of 143 goals, is less a measure of the importance of moral behavioral training as a reflection of the generally secular nature of contemporary society. In the current environment, it is not surprising that the majority of the respondents had motives and drives that did not encompass moral behavioral development. In fact, it is reasonable to be surprised that so many did actually view moral behavioral development as either the primary or secondary motive for attendance. FURTHER DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The importance of moral behavioral development in the modern environment is noteworthy. While higher education has largely abandoned moral behavioral development and its traditional appurtenances such as in loco parentis, a significant subset of the student population feels that it has real moral behavioral development needs not met by the majority of institutions. At the beginning of this study, review of the literature showed a general disinclination to research or discuss this particular segment of the higher education environment. In the intervening years, there is no evidence that this condition has changed. 144 As a result of the ongoing degeneration of communal and family values in American society, moral behavioral development has become a very popular subject in learned, journalistic, and political circles. "Family values" have become in the course of time both the basis for serious discussion and a code word used by politicians to signal their personal adherence to a set of undefined and generally backward-looking social principles. In a more constructive sphere, citizens are, with help from government, establishing a plethora of principle-driven private K-12 schools. At the same time, politicians are skeptically examining many of the effusions of the "great society" of the 1960’s - 80’s in order to ascertain whether these programs, once so well meant, are by their very processes wrecking the institutions they were meant to protect and encourage. During the same time that society has been seriously examining the continuing problem of declining values and striving to find ways to stem the tide, higher education has chosen to largely leave the field of general discussion to polemicists and politicians and to forge its own peculiar reality on the campus, a reality neither shared nor accepted by general society. 145 The failure of higher education to attack the problem is hard to understand especially in a micro-society made up entirely of "experts". Conjecture points toward two factors that may serve to partly explain the situation. The establishment and rapid growth of private, principle- driven schools invites comparison with a value-neutral, public education system that is painfully the product of the doctrines espoused by college and university schools of education. It is easy to understand that the faculties would be reluctant to objectively discuss the place of values in public education when these same people labored so long to remove these very values from the system. It would be less than satisfying to partake of an examination destined to prove oneself wrong. At the socio-political level, the education establishment, from college to school to NBA, has a need to defensively protect itself in the face of unremitting criticism and competition. The higher education contribution to this defense is generally quiet. The lack of volume may again be ascribed to embarrassment and futility. The sad fact is that public K-12 education has degenerated as a result of the need to deal with (integrative and behavioral problems at the expense of real teaching and because of the legacy of liberal education which has actually made the K-12 system receptive to the 146 imposition of tasks beyond the purview of traditional education. How could schools refuse to assume responsibilities for personal/social training after years of esteem building and socialization? A system free of these doctrines could well have refused to accept distractive responsibilities thrust upon it by abdicating parents and society. Higher education has chosen to go its own way, refusing to address the problems afflicting K-12 education and the resultant dissolutive effects that carry over from the lower levels of the educational process. Instead, higher education has been preoccupied with the implementation of a superficially reconfigured affirmative action policy. At a time when affirmative action, as developed in the twenty-five years since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, was coming under increasing attack because of alleged reverse discrimination and because it actually appeared to be itself racist, higher education became aware of the changes that were occurring in ethnic birthrate demography which predicted that by the turn of the century the majority of graduating high school seniors would be non-white. In A NATION AT RISK?.and in 1United States. National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Narion at Risk: The Imperative for Educapignal Refgrm: A report to phe Nation and the Secretary of Edpcapion, Unipeg States Department of Education (Washington, D.C. : The Commission: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.P. 147 the many demographic monographs published by people such as Harold Hodgkinson,2 the spectre of a majority of high school seniors being non-white drove higher education to seriously consider its position and image. In order to compete successfully for the new audience, colleges and universities, with the continued efficacy of affirmative action an open question, needed a new strategy that would prove to minority students that the institutions had these students’ best interests at heart, interests defined by the students themselves and by their communities. The key to the new strategy was a repackaging of affirmative action in combination with an old collegial chestnut, "The well rounded student body". The new policy, labelled diversity, posited the notion that optimal quality of experience can be achieved by configuring the student body, faculty, and support personnel such that the institutional ethnic/gender makeup mirrors exactly the proportions found in the environment in which each institution is physically located. In modern times, colleges and universities have espoused the notion and, in many cases, aggressively Distributor, 1983) 2Hodgkinson, Harold L., Guess Who’s Coming to College: Your Student in 1290: (Washington, D.C., National Institute of Independent Colleges and Universities, 1983) 148 promoted a policy of diversification of their student bodies, recruiting students from other states and countries so as to provide students experience with the habits and mores of different regions and nations. This intercourse was traditionally viewed as intercultural, and only coincidentally inter-racial. One of most problematical aspects of the affirmative action policies of the last thirty years has been the principle of proportionalism. Simply put, the original prohibition embodied in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 against ethnic and gender discrimination in public affairs and employment has been transformed into a process based upon the notion that the minimally acceptable condition is a sharing of meaningful societal places such that ethnic minorities and women hold the same percentage of positions as is represented by each group’s percentage of the general relevant population. By grafting the universally acceptable principle of intercultural intercourse on to the increasingly vulnerable proposition of ethnic/gender proportionality, affirmative action was effectively transformed through disguise, and became diversity. It should be noted that the effectiveness of the transformation is directly related to the viewpoint and attitude of the beholder. 149 Naturally, those with a stake in the continuation of proportional affirmative action are most accepting of the overall proposition and have combined to promulgate the rectitude and wisdom of the diversity construct. Diversity is based upon the desired goal of proportional affirmative action and generates an environment bound to be viewed as positive, if not friendly, by the ethnic minorities it is meant to attract. Apart from arguments as to the efficacy of the principle of environmental proportionality (whether the environmental proportions mirror in any meaningful way the actual demand for educational services or employment in the various ethnic/gender segments), diversity suffers most from the fact that many do not accept the principle at the intellectual level. In a world of ideas, the theory that ethnic/gender mixture is more important than intellectual quality is anathema to the university ideal. Critics also point to the uni-directional fallacy implicit in the practice if not the principle of diversity. The process only works to increase minority/female inclusion. It does not posit increasing white male participation in environments preponderantly populated by ethnic minorities and women. Such venues are regularly described as providing "havens" for the disadvantaged, places to be protected and nurtured. 150 The subordination of quality to share and the hypocrisy of the one-way street render diversity an empty yet very formidable monolith. Eminently politically correct yet silently rejected by many, diversity is in fact the only general societal ethic embraced by higher education. While higher education’s preoccupation with diversity has left little room for discussion of the need for general ethics and behavioral training, colleges and universities have been forced by current circumstances to address a subject they strive so thoroughly to avoid. Of most immediate concern is the disintegrating level of civility on the campus. In a climate that descries the paramountcy of any set of ethic/behavioral principles as being ethnocentric or Eurocentric, and glorifies the relativistic and the individual, the most common reaction strangely has been authoritarian and anti-intellectual. Institutions have attempted to impose codes of conduct and speech based not upon manners and "old fashioned" notions of civility but upon the content of speech and writing with the "acceptable" based upon the principle of diversity and the "unacceptable" being "non-PC" or antagonistic to diversity. In so doing, colleges and universities have confused form with content, a failure 151 not lost on the courts which have found consistently that such campus speech/behavior codes quite clearly abridge constitutional freedoms.3 In searching for a less antagonistic environment, higher education has chosen a tactic based upon the control of thought and word instead of striving to re-instill levels of civility and social intercourse within which real intellectual diversity might thrive. Notwithstanding higher education’s inability to confront and recognize the genuine means to provide a general solution to civil disintegration, a number of academic disciplines have found it necessary to provide ethical training for their students. Faced with a student body who bring little real moral underpinnings to the educational task, schools of medicine, law, and business have initiated courses in ethics to instill in students the attitudes and morals necessary for the successful and constructive continuation of these professions. The individualism and moral relativism of the current society when combined with the social Darwinism implicit in transcendent capitalism has produced a generation of young people many of whom are imbued with the notion that 3Doe V. University of Michigan: (EDMich, 721 FSupp 852, 1989) 152 anything that furthers their goals short of being caught is appropriate. In medicine, the lure of magnificent incomes has replaced, in many hearts, the desire to serve and protect life. The geometric expansion of medical technology has only increased the material possibilities. In a wide- ranging attempt to stem the tide and re-orient medicine back toward the patient and society, many medical schools have established mandatory ethics curricula. Currently, there are almost 60 medical schools operating such programs.‘ In the law, competition for business by an overabundance of lawyers in a litigious society has bred the "Rambo" lawyer undeterred by any standards, so intent are they upon victory. Law schools and state bar associations have established courses and standards to redress the problem.5 Nowhere have the deleterious effects of the moral vacuum been more visible than in commerce. The 1980’s was the decade of the junk bond kings and the corporate ‘The Hastings Center "Graduate Programs in Bio-Ethics, Briarcliff Maner, (New York, 1996) 5US News and World Report "The American Uncivil Wars", (New York, April 22, 1996) pp.69-70 153 raiders. Most noteworthy was the popular reaction to the apprehension and conviction of people such as Bernard Cornfeld, Robert Vesco, Michael Milken, and Charles Keating. The tendency among many of the younger people in business was to lionize these people rather than to revile them. In the popular view, these malefactors’ problem was that they had been caught, not that they had acted unethically and illegally. While the tempo and tenor in business has cooled in this decade, many schools of business have initiated ethics courses to further influence the current generation toward a more socially acceptable and ethical frame of mind. Higher education has chosen not to confront the ethical vacuum currently pervading general society and the campus alike. Rather than attack the problem with the tools that were so effective in the past but are now momentarily discredited by popular myths and particularist antipathies, colleges and universities have attempted generally clumsy tactical solutions to local behavioral problems while furthering affirmative proportionality and projecting a favorable image to the upcoming freshman intake. This study has shown that ethics and social/religious rules are important factors in the determination of the 154 level of student satisfaction with the educational experience. In an environment increasingly involved with Continuous Quality Improvement programs and their ilk, and jostled by increasing competition for freshman, higher education’s continuing refusal to re-establish a higher general level of moral behavioral controls and training when such policies promote student satisfaction seems at least shortsighted. The reestablishment of a greater measure of institutional controls and training offers a number of advantages. Student satisfaction will increase and so presumably will retention. The social climate of the campus should improve once the new policies are accepted. And, the place of higher education in society will be rejuvenated and the campus will be once again seen as a place of higher thought and action. 155 IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY As the effect of moral behavioral training upon students’ higher education experiences remains a fertile field almost completely unplowed by either learned or lay commentators and researchers, there is much that can be done to explicate and illuminate students’ true societal and emotional needs. While the data and conclusions arrived at in this study are valid from a methodological standpoint and because the condition that prompted the initiation of the study has actually worsened in the intervening years, it is clear that much more exhaustive and comprehensive study and evaluation of the subject could be undertaken. In particular, it is probable that more intensive, on-site study of particular institutions could add depth and weight to deductions first presented here. On-site study would aid in validation of the geographical analysis in terms of the particular MBD values assigned in this study to particular institutions through review of college and university catalogs. Comparisons of campus realities with catalog rhetoric would of necessity be anecdotal in nature, unless we were to contemplate visiting all 1260 schools surveyed, but it 156 could prove the validity of the data so far collected or point to the need for wholesale review of the methodology. The implementation of more rigorous and comprehensive personal questionnaires could provide valuable insight into the interplay of student expectations and institutional policies concerning moral/behavioral training and the resulting outcomes. Most valuable would be an attempt to guage the temporal effect as students progress from the freshman year to graduation. The present study relied upon randomly selected seniors without regard to antecedent conditioning, attitudes, or environment. By factoring in these variables it would seem probable that a much more refined summary statistic could be achieved. In the present climate of serious discussion and review of the various social trends of the past forty years which many feel have brought us to our present contentious and dangerous state of affairs, it would seem to be a most propitious time for higher education to rationally and intellectually consider its own emotional and civic condition. Higher education has a very strong tendency to self- define itself with great precision and power and then sit 157 back and view subsequent contrary or critical views with condescension and a smug and uncommunicative passivity. The "outside world" or the "real world" is generally considered neither intellectually nor morally fit to intrude or comment upon affairs of the campus. Currently, higher education feels very much insulated from the popular ferment over the need for a revitalization of public manners, morals, and ethics. So powerful is its commitment to its own program of proportional diversity and affirmative action that higher education does not allow or even tolerate even-handed and open discussion of the subject. There is great danger in this attitude. Unlike other aspects of higher education which can be viewed quite reasonably as being unique to the educational environment, moral behavioral training is ubiquitous, having great effect on both sides of the boundary wall. To a great extent, the moral/behavioral tone in colleges and universities is dictated by the attitudes and beliefs that students bring with them when they matriculate. In fact, the homogeneity of thought and purpose embraced by higher education is a hollow myth, sustained only by student passivity and disinterest on the one hand 158 and by the dangerous and the anti-intellectual proscription of "political correctness" on the other. If students were to speak openly and powerfully, and wisely, about their beliefs and needs, and if the faculties were able to freely discuss school policies concerning moral behavioral controls, affirmative action, and proportional diversity, there is good reason to believe that current policies could well be changed rapidly and radically. Even if students and faculties do not intervene, and there is no reason to believe they will in the immediate future, there is nonetheless great peril if higher education fails to join the general discussion. The discussion is ongoing. Affirmative action is under attack in the media, the government and the courts. The failure of morality and the need for civil rejuvenation everyday gains new champions and, if higher education does not become an active participant in the dialogue, it may find that lay society, after coming to conclusions and formulating a new civil design, will exercise its power prerogative and impose a solution upon the campus in which higher education has had little input or effect. Appendix I SURVEY QUESTIONNAI RE QUESTIONNAIRE My name is Dugald McMillan, Assistant Registrar at Michigan State University. As part of the research for my doctoral dissertation, I am conducting a comprehensive national survey of the state of contemporary student/school relations. You are being asked to complete the following questionnaire. It should take 10-15 minutes to complete. You may be assured that your answers will be treated confidentially. In order to insure anonymity, do not enter your name on any page of the questionnaire. Your return of the completed questionnaire constitutes your voluntary consent to participate. 1. Please rank the following statements in order of their importance to your decision to attend your college or university (1 - most important, 5 - least important). DO NOT USE THE SAME NUMBER MORE THAN ONCE. -- Your institution’s national academic reputation. -- Your institution offered specific professional/vocational training that you desired and could find nowhere else. -- The character of your institution’s total ethical/religious program and the basic principles upon which that program is based. -- Best education for the money. PLEASE CHOOSE THE RESPONSE THAT MOST ACCURATELY REFLECTS YOUR APPRECIATION OF CONDITIONS AT YOUR INSTITUTION -- CIRCLE ONLY ONE LETTER. 2. Your institution’s faculty is: a. distant and preoccupied with other activities. b. going through the motions, but friendly. c. interested in student academic success. d. really interested and involved in your growth as a person. 160 Questionnaire Page 2 3. Do you feel that your institution’s commitment to the production of comprehensively educated, mature graduates is: a. b. c. d. non-existent. moderate, but technical expertise takes precedence. energetic, but liberal arts program is not well coordinated. well defined and supported by positive policies. 4. How would you rate the faculty’s concern for your emotional and ethical development? DJOU'SD non-existent. low. moderate. high. 5. Please characterize your institution;s efforts to provide for your integration into the campus community. a. ineffectual or non-existent. b. superficial -- left to resident adviser or 0:0 6. Your dormitory staff. not pushed aggressively, but an accepted task. an intrinsic and obvious part of the educational process. undergraduate curriculum: is completely vocational in orientation and is not concerned at all with liberal arts education. is vocationally oriented but offers a few liberal arts courses. is vocationally oriented but offers many liberal arts courses. is oriented toward the liberal arts but offers sufficient vocational training. 161 Questionnaire Page 3 10. Your institution’s commitment to the encouragement of student responsibility and participation in school governance is: QJOU‘DJ non-existent. superficial. real, but not very coherent. part of a concerted and active policy. How would you characterize your institution’s code of student conduct? a. b. does not operate. given lip service but sanctions are weak or non-existent. is generally known and applied but students see the code as administrative rules imposed upon them by the institution. is universally accepted as an actual and positive code of conduct by almost all students. Your institution’s attitude toward the encouragement of religious thought and practice is: a. b. c d very negative. quietly negative. quietly positive. actively positive. How would you describe your campus in a physical sense? a. ill-maintained, needs work. b. neat but old-fashioned. c. the school expends a lot of effort maintaining new facilities but students have little or no input into decision making. the campus community is committed to maintenance of our physical surroundings and we all strive to improve our environment. 162 Questionnaire Page 4 11. 12. How would you rate other students at your institution? a. friendly, supportive. b. reasonable but distant. c. indifferent, unhelpful d. themselves. overly competitive, everyone is out for In a general sense, how would you characterize your institution’s attitude toward you? indifferent. 040C701 caring, concerned. Question 13 through 33 purposefully cold and impersonal. friendly but unconcerned. Indicate your degree of satisfaction with the following institutional characteristics: 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. VERY SATISFIED national academic reputation 4 3 2 1 training in your major. social environment and athletic reputation. institutional ethical/ religious viewpoints and policies. value of your education in dollar terms. 163 4 SOMEWHAT SATISFIED 3 SOMEWHAT DISSATISFIED 2 VERY DISSATISFIED 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 Questionnaire Page 5 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. faculty commitment to the fostering of close and constructive relationship with students. the extent to which you have been happy at school. institutional commitment to the production of comprehensively educated, mature graduates. policies to integrate you into the campus community. amount and quality of vocational training. faculty concern for your emotional and ethical development. amount and quality of liberal arts training. encouragement of your VERY SATISFIED assumption of responsibility for, and participation in, campus governance . written code of student conduct. institutional encouragement of religion. 164 4 SOMEWHAT SATISFIED 3 SOMEWHAT DISSATISFIED 2 VERY DISSATISFIED 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 Questionnaire Page 6 28. campus physical environment. 29. the attitude of other students. 30. your school’s general attitude toward you. 31. the value of your college experience. 32. the extent to which you liked college. 33. your relations with administrative offices and staff. 165 VERY SATISFIED 4 SOMEWHAT SATISFIED 3 SOMEWHAT DISSATISFIED 2 VERY DISSATISFIED 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 l 4 3 2 1 Appendix II Survey Question Sets in Each Scale Survey Question Sets in Each Scale questions Original Motive for Attendance ............... 1 Satisfaction of Motive for Attendance ........ 13-17 Conformance with Eddy Guidelines ............. 2-12 Satisfaction with Eddy Guidelines ............ 18-27 General Satisfaction ......................... 13-33 167 Appendix III Tabulated Question Means by Institutional Group Cell Tabulated Question Means by Institutional Group Cell MBD Low Medium High -2000 +2000 -2000 +2000 -2000 +2000 Questions 1. Motive 1 2.10 2.53 2.57 2.42 3.09 2.67 2 3.31 2.52 2.98 2.79 3.37 2.84 3 3.19 3.61 3.42 3.58 3.36 3.85 4 3.30 3.92 3.16 3.27 2.16 2.73 5 3.09 2.34 2.85 2.93 3.00 2.90 2. 3.57 2.90 3.46 3.31 3.57 3.46 3. 3.72 2.90 3.43 3.36 3.56 3.43 4. 3.20 2.87 3.24 3.13 3.50 3.39 5. 2.98 2.60 2.94 2.73 3.16 3.07 6. 3.87 2.98 3.63 3.57 3.65 3.36 7. 3.33 2.80 2.98 2.84 3.17 3.16 8. 3.20 3.14 3.12 3.10 3.15 3.31 9. 3.08 2.89 3.13 3.30 3.73 3.55 10. 2.87 2.93 2.89 3.21 3.15 3.13 11. 3.46 3.44 3.68 3.48 3.77 3.14 12. 3.72 3.03 3.57 3.44 3.72 3.39 13. 3.18 3.08 3.17 3.17 3.12 3.37 14. 3.41 3.25 3.15 3.32 3.37 3.29 15. 2.75 2.78 2.60 2.83 2.95 2.94 16. 2.80 2.77 2.98 3.10 3.38 3.17 17. 3.03 3.03 2.88 2.74 3.18 3.37 18. 3.41 2.80 3.41 3.17 3.45 3.31 19. 3.59 3.04 3.31 3.25 3.47 3.14 20 3.31 2.87 3.25 3.17 3.32 3.21 21 2.89 2.59 2.89 2.69 3.04 2.87 22 2.88 2.99 2.87 2.93 3.09 3.06 23 3.15 2.72 3.15 3.03 3.42 3.11 24 3.69 3.11 3.47 3.52 3.57 3.29 25 3.05 2.67 2.75 2.65 2.81 2.89 26 3.03 2.92 2.78 2.75 2.93 3.08 27 3.00 2.72 3.06 3.06 3.43 3.18 28 3.21 3.06 3.14 3.42 3.34 3.56 29. 2.90 3.02 3.18 2.93 3.14 2.99 30. 3.38 2.75 3.26 3.08 3.38 3.19 31. 3.72 3.33 3.61 3.54 3.60 3.74 32. 3.62 3.32 3.57 3.52 3.59 3.30 33 3.52 2.83 3.26 3.15 3.44 3.13 H m KO Appendix IV Alphabetical List of Survey Institutions Arkansas College Augsburg College Aurora College Avila College Baylor University Belmont College Bethel College Bluefield College Brenau College Butler University Cabrini College California State University at Los Angeles Calvin College Cedar Crest College Chapman College City University of New York Batesville Minneapolis Aurora Kansas City Waco Nashville Saint Paul Bluefield Gainesville Indianapolis Radnor Los Angeles Grand Rapids Allentown Orange New York John Jay College of Criminal Justice Columbia College Davidson College Denison University Eastern Oregon State College Emmanuel College Gannon University Georgia College Greenville College Grinnell College Gustavus Adolphus College Hamilton College Immaculata College Kentucky Wesleyan King’s College Lake Forest College Le Moyne-Owen College Linfield College Loyala University of Chicago Mary Hardin-Baylor College Mercer University Morningside College Mundelein College Northwestern College Oberlin College Ohio Northern University Pace University New York Campus *returned questionnaires Columbia Davidson Granville La Grande Boston Erie Milledgeville Greenville Grinnell Saint Peter Clinton Immaculata Owensboro Wilkes-Barre Lake Forest Memphis McMinnville Chicago Belton Atlanta Sioux City Chicago Orange City Oberlin Ada New York 171 IL MO TX TN VA GA IN PA MI PA CA MO NC OH OR PA GA IL IA PA KY PA IL OR IL TX GA IA IL IA OH OH * *It* »a+* *d-*:+# » 36*!!- II-II-I-I-I- Pacific Lutheran University Pepperdine University Regis College Rivier College Edwards University Josephs College Michael’s College Sarah Lawrence College School of the Ozarks Siena College Spring Hill College St John’s University St Francis College St Cloud State Texas A & M University Texas Wesleyan College U.S. Military Academy U.S. Air Force Academy Unity College University at Montevallo University of Portland University of Richmond University of North Carolina at Greensboro University of Washington Warren Wilson College Western Maryland College Westfield State College William Jewell College Wofford College Xavier University *returned questionnaires 172 Tacoma Malibu Denver Nashua Austin North Windham Winooski Bronxville Point Lookout Loudonville Mobile Jamaica Fort Wayne Saint Cloud College Station Forth Worth West Point Colorado Springs Unity Montevallo Portland Richmond Greensboro Seattle Swannanoa Westminster Westfield Liberty Spartanburg Cincinnati *3!- sae» *a-w I'd-II"!- BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Bert N., The American Family: A Sociological Interpretation, Chicago: Markham Publishing Company, 1971. 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