LIBRARY Michigan State Universlty PLACE IN REFURN BOX to move thb chockou! from your record. TO AVOID FINES Mum on Of baton date duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE usu IsAn Nflmatlvo Action/Equal Oppomnuy Imwon W’s-v.1 THE COMMUNITY SERVICE MISSION OF THE PRIVATE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE: A STUDY AT ALBION COLLEGE BY Mark Allen Lelle A'DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Resource Development 1996 ABSTRACT THE COMMUNITY SERVICE MISSION OF THE PRIVATE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE: A STUDY AT ALBION COLLEGE BY Mark Allen Lelle This study addresses the community service mission of the private liberal arts college in three ways: A review of literature about the history of the service mission; a review of the Albion College literature; and a survey of Albion College faculty and administrators (N=250) tn) determine their' attitudes toward. a community service mission. The review of literature demonstrates that private liberal arts colleges have always provided a decidedly public service by educating citizens for a democracy. They have also provided valuable services to the communities in which they are located. Many' private liberal arts colleges have lost sight of their "service" origins and now focus on providing a classical education for young people. Thus, what was once "means" is now "end." The Albion College survey revealed variability among respondents regarding their attitudes toward the community service mission. Marital status, children in public schools, type of position and seniority at Albion College, charitable giving, and perceptions of the community influenced respondents' attitudes toward the community service mission. Respondents who were more "connected" to the community (i.e., who were married, had children in the public schools, and gave money to local charitable organizations) were more likely to support a community service mission. Home ownership, residence in the community, and volunteer service did not affect respondents’ attitudes. Administrators were more positive about the contributions of faculty and students than were facultyn However, faculty and.respondents with four to twelve years of seniority were more supportive of allowing community access to college facilities, as were respondents who believed, the community was an adequate or supportive environment for the college . The implications include: 1) It is possible to "build" a .faculty that is more supportive of a community service mission; 2) colleges can expose staff to the community service traditions of their institutions; 3) colleges need staff with community development expertise; 4) a community service mission can be an effective recruitment tool; 5) service-learning practitioners need knowledge of the principles of community development; and 6) research is need to identify the full range of potential community service activities available to private liberal arts colleges. Copyright by MARK ALLEN LELLE 1996 This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my Mother, Doris Lelle, who never lost her love of learning. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been blessed with a faculty advisor, Frank Fear, who is ‘as much a friend as he is a mentor and a critic. Had I not met Frank when I did, I would not have graduated from Michigan State University. To the rest of my dissertation committee--George Rowan, Lorilee Sandmann, and Jim Votruba--I am indebted for the delicate balance of freedom and guidance they provided. I want to thank Ricardo Millett, Director of Evaluation at the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, for giving me the flexibility to write my dissertation while serving as a consultant to the Foundation. To Floyd Gallegos and Jorge Hidalgo, I extend my appreciation for the assistance they provided in analyzing my data. To Joe Kotrlik,- my faculty advisor at Louisiana State University, I extend a heartfelt thank you for making me realize that research can and should be fun. I believe that many of the opportunities with which I have been blessed over the past ten years are the result of having conducted research under his tutelage. To the administration of Albion College I owe my gratitude for the opportunity to practice what I learned in my community development doctoral program at Michigan State University. Serving as Director of the Albion Civic Life Project strengthened my belief in community service, and made me realize the importance of college involvement in the community. To the people of Albion I owe my apology for the mistakes I made along the way, and my appreciation for letting me learn from my mistakes. To the faculty members and vi administrators who provided me with guidance and "grist" for my dissertation "mill," I extend my appreciation. I want to thank the employees of Beloit College, and especially Bob Black, Associate Dean, for assisting me with the pre- test. To the W.K. Kellogg Foundation and the Indiana University Center on Philanthropy, I extend my gratitude for the funding that .made this study possible. To»my parents, Clark and.Doris Lelle, I owe my sense of self- worth, my belief in the importance of service, and the curiosity that made me want to study community service in the first place. They nurtured me in ways too numerous to mention, not least of which by putting their encyclopedias on the lowest shelf where I could reach them. The places I "visited" thanks to WOrld.Book took me a long way from our Wisconsin farm. To my wife, Dianne Guenin-Lelle, I am indebted for her love and for her unbounded confidence in my ability to succeed, especially during those times when the evidence does not warrant her confidence. Every day I am thankful that Louisiana State University had the good sense to place Agricultural Education and French graduate student offices on the same floor, and that I had the good sense--after six months of agonizing--to finally ask her name. To my children, Hannah and Austin, I owe the pure joy I get from watching them grow each day; While I have had some wonderful teachers in my life, no one has taught me as much as they have about what it means to make a difference in the world. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION Significance of the Topic Debate About Relevance of Higher Education Emergence of Service- -Learning Albion College. The Research Setting Reasons for Selecting Albion College Description of the Study Setting Problem Statement . Research Questions Why the Topic is of Interest Key Definitions . Defining the Private Liberal Arts College Defining Service . . . . . . . . . Overview of the Research Methodology Overview of the Dissertation CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE: THE COMMUNITY SERVICE MISSION OF THE PRIVATE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE Institutional Mission The Community Service Tradition Motivations for a Community Service Mission Earlham: Service as Religious Conviction Wellesley: Service as Activism . Kalamazoo. Service in Times of Crisis Sarah Lawrence: Service as Education Service as Legitimate Self—Interest Service as Corporate Citizenship viii xii xiv (Dxlxl 10 10 12 12 16 18 19 20 21 24 27 28 31 36 38 41 42 Factors Influencing the Community Service Mission Ethical Relativism and Secularization Quest for Prestige Concern for Financial Viability The Faculty and Institutional Mission Growing Faculty Role in Governance A Changing Faculty . . Faculty Support for a Service Mission The College President and Institutional Mission .CHAPTER III: REVIEW OF LITERATURE: ALBION COLLEGE History of Albion College The Albion College Community Service Mission Student Involvement in Community Service Extent of Student Involvement Vehicles for Student Involvement Community Service and Student Recruitment Faculty Involvement in Community Service Vehicles for Faculty Involvement . Faculty Involvement in Community Service Institutional Involvement in Community Service Albion Civic Life Project Greater Albion Alliance 2000 . . . City of Albion/ Albion College Partnership Issues in the Albion College Service Mission Community as Environment for Albion College Community Service as Student Development Contradictions in Rhetoric and Practice Faculty Role in Shaping the Service Mission CHAPTER IV: METHODOLOGY Rationale for a Written Questionnaire Research Involving Use of Human Subjects Population and Sample Study Funding Questionnaire Development . . External Assistance in the Design Process Instrument Construction Questionnaire Pre-Test Reliability Validity ix 42 44 46 47 48 49 49 51 52 55 56 57 61 62 63 67 68 69 7O 71 72 75 76 78 78 80 81 82 85 85 86 87 88 88 88 89 92 93 94 Questionnaire Administration Problems with Questionnaire Administration Response Rate Data Cleaning Data Analysis . Factor Analysis .of Attitudinal Question Factor Loadings and Factor Reliability Statistical Analyses . . . Limitations of the Quantitative Study CHAPTER v: SURVEY FINDINGS Frequency Distributions Demographic Variables . . Employment- -Related Variables Community Service and Charitable Giving Perceptions of Community . . Albion College' 8 Role in the Community ANOVA of Attitudes by Independent Variables Demographic Variables . . . . . . Employment- -Related Variables Community Service and Charitable Giving Perceptions of Community Summary of Major Findings CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION Conclusions The Historical Service Mission Faculty Support for a Service Mission Implications For Private Liberal Arts Colleges For Albion College . For Service- -Learning Practitioners For Community Development Practitioners For Scholars Epilogue APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Albion College Policy on Research Involving Human Subjects . . . . APPENDIX B: UCRIHS Letter APPENDIX C: Albion College Administrative Organization Chart . . . . . . . . . 95 97 98 98 99 99 100 101 103 104 104 105 108 109 111 111 118 118 119 121 123 124 126 126 126 131 135 137 139 141 141 142 143 145 146 147 APPENDIX ACLP and APPENDIX D: Statement of Agreement Between RD-MSU E: Indiana University Center on Philanthropy Grant Letter APPENDIX APPENDIX Postcard APPENDIX Letter APPENDIX APPENDIX Item Type APPENDIX Question APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY F: Albion College Survey Cover Letter G: Albion College Survey Reminder H: Albion College Survey Reminder I: Albion College Questionnaire J: Missing Data by Respondent and K: Rotated Factor Pattern for 10 L: Factor Variances M: Factor Statistics N: Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests xi 148 149 151 152 153 154 172 177 178 179 185 190 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. LIST OF TABLES Percent of Students Involved in Community Service Before College and During College, by Michigan College Objectives Considered to be Essential or Very Important by First Year Albion College Students . . . . . . . Demographic Variables Frequency Responses Employment- -Related Variables Frequency Responses . . . . . . . . . . . Volunteerism and Charitable Giving Variables Frequency Responses Community Environment Variable Frequency Responses College’s Role Item Frequency Responses ANOVA of Demographic Variables by Factor Scores . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of Employment-Related Variables by Factor Scores . . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of Service and Charitable Giving by Factor Scores . . . . . . . . ANOVA of Community Environment by Factor Scores Missing Data by Respondent and Item Type Rotated Factor Pattern for Question 10 (Varimax Rotation) Factor Variances Statistics for Factor 1 Statistics for Factor 2 Statistics for Factor 3 Statistics for Factor 4 xii 63 68 106 109 110 111 117 119 121 122 123 172 177 178 179 180 181 182 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Statistics for Factor 5 Statistics for Factor 6 Statistics for Factor 7 Duncan's Multiple Range Test: by Marital Status Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by Children in School Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by College Position Duncan's Multiple Range Test: by College Position Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by Seniority Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by Donations to College Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by Donations in County Duncan’s Multiple Range Test: by Donations out of County Duncan's Multiple Range Test: by Community Environment xiii Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor Factor 183 184 184 185 185 186 186 187 187 188 188 189 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Institutional Motivations for a Service Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Figure 2. Individual Factors Related to Support for a Service Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 xiv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This is a dissertation.about the community service mission of the private liberal arts college. The study addresses the role community service can play, and has played, in the institutional mission of the private liberal arts college. It also focuses on one institution in particular to answer questions about the extent to which faculty today support a community service mission. This dissertation is designed to demonstrate that a better understanding of the community service mission can contribute in a constructive way to the debate about the relevance of private, higher education. Significance of the Topic This dissertation is timely and relevant for two key reasons: 1) Current concerns about the unwillingness and/or inability of higher education to address societal problems (Kupiec, 1992), and 2) the emergence of community service and service-learning in the undergraduate curriculum (Kendall, 1990; Layton, 1987; Magat, 1989) . While each reason will be addressed separately in the two sections below, they are none-the-less interconnected. Debate About Relevance of Higher Education In recent years there has been an emerging debate about the relevance of higher education (Boyer & Hechinger, 1981; Checkoway, 1991; Greenleaf, 1978; Jeavons, 1991). This debate has been 2 especially intense among critics and proponents of land-grant universities, other public universities, and community colleges, due in part to their legislated and historical community service functions and also to their dependence on tax dollars for funding. This debate has focused on the mix of teaching, research, and service that should be appropriate for publicly supported ‘institutions of higher education. In other words, it is a debate about w. Tamar Kupiec, writing in the newsletter of the national student volunteer organization, Campus Compact (1992), states, Critics of the American university’are voicing their dissatisfaction with the estrangement of teaching and research from public service. This intellectual fragmentation, compounded by departmental and disciplinary divisions, has caused the university to stray from its educational aims and insulate itself from the. hunger, unemployment and illness that riddle soc1ety. Ira Harkavy, Vice Dean in the School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Pennsylvania and Director of the Penn Program for Public Service, echoes this call for a re-evaluation of the mission of higher education (Kupiec, 1992) . Harkavy believes it is time for ". . . a radical reorientation of American universities, involving a serious turn toward helping to solve concrete, immediate real world problems." ,In essence, Harkavy sees community service in combination with academics as a means of refocusing the university. Keeton (1971) argues "The burden of making the transformation needed in American higher education cannot and should not all be borne by public institutions." McCoy (1972) believes that the potentialities of the private liberal arts college, especially those that are church-related, ". . . may prove instructive for all American higher education, from small private colleges to large Vii a... '\ VI hfis .- uh. Vs hbx 3 universities." McCoy believes the problems and possibilities of private institutions reflect--in.magnified form--crucial dilemmas faced by higher learning as a whole. However, in sharp contrast to the attention given to tflme mission of public higher education and to larger, private research universities, little public debate has occurred about the mission of the private liberal arts college (Reeves, 1932; McCoy, 1972). While administrators and some faculty members of private liberal arts colleges are deeply concerned about the missions of their institutions, this debate has not received much notice beyond the scholarly literature. The primary reason for this apparent lack of debate is that private liberal arts colleges view themselves as teaching institutions the purpose of which is to prepare young people for productive lives by' providing them. with. a broad, classical education. This emphasis on teaching is a source of pride among private liberal arts colleges. It is also a characteristic that is touted in recruitment literature as something that distinguishes private liberal arts colleges from large public institutions, with their research and service foci. In fact, it was this emphasis on classical education, to the exclusion of research and service, that caused public support for higher education aimed.at "the masses" to emerge in the first place (Hannah, 1980). A second reason for the lack of debate about the mission of private liberal arts colleges is limited resources by which to conduct community service or other innovative activities--even if private institutions desired to do so (Keeton, 1971). Lacking the public financial support that characterizes public institutions, private liberal arts colleges rely on tuition.and.private giving to 4 support their institutions. A limited base of financial support has caused many private liberal arts colleges to face uncertain economic futures, thus causing the energies of administrators and trustees to be focused on supporting that aspect of the mission of the private liberal arts college which ensures the greatest stability for the institution--teaching. A third reason for the lack of debate about the community service mission of private liberal arts colleges is that, unlike state universities and community colleges that are chartered to serve defined, distinct, and known geographic areas, the geographic service area of private liberal arts colleges is self—determined. Private liberal arts colleges are often sponsored by a specific religious denomination, although in many cases the predominant religion among students is different from the denomination with which the college is formally affiliated (Cooperative Institutional Research Program, 1985). There is also variability among private liberal arts colleges in the geographic areas from which most students are drawn. Some colleges draw the majority of their students from a particular locality (e.g., Olivet College), some from a particular state or region (e.g. , Albion College), and a few highly prestigious colleges draw their students from around the nation (e.g., Oberlin College)--with as few as eight percent of their students coming from the state in which the college is located (Boroff, 1965; Anderson, Bowman, and Tinto, 1972; Straughn & Straughn, 1992; American Universities and.Colleges, 1992). Even if a private liberal arts college desires to practice a community service mission, it is a challenging and debate-provoking process to determine the geographic bounds within which that service would occur; Drawing from Christianity, which views all human beings as 5 brothers and sisters, it would be difficult to claim that disenfranchised citizens living within sight of the campus are more deserving of assistance than people living on.the other side of the planet, or vice versa. A fourth reason for the lack of debate about the community service mission is the growing secularization of private higher education, and the quest for financial stability and prestige (Wicke, 1964; Ringenberg, 1984). Many of today's institutions are no longer content to serve the needs of a particular region or religious denomination, and are instead modeling themselves after colleges that have achieved national prominence. Emergence of Service-Learning Another reason for studying the community service mission of the private liberal arts college is the emergence in recent years of service-learning in undergraduate higher education in the United States. Across the higher education spectrum, undergraduates in vocational-technical schools, community colleges, land-grant and other public universities, private research universities, and private liberal arts colleges are volunteering in record numbers (Conlisk, 1996; Kendall, 1990). This increase in student volunteerism is reflected in the grant-making of government agencies and private philanthropic foundations, who have responded with funding for the creation of centers and institutes devoted to the study and practice of philanthropy and. volunteerism; classes about the history' of volunteerism; and the establishment of local, state, and national student volunteer centers and.organizations (Layton, 1987; Payton, 1988). Institutions of higher education, and the faculty who work 6 there, have responded with books and articles in putiessional publications; the establishment of student volunteer groups; and even requirements that compel students to complete a specified number of hours of community service prior to graduation (Magat, 1989; Payton, 1988). Community service is viewed by many faculty and administrators as an effective means of linking social theory with practice (Conrad & Hedin, 1990). Levison (1990) writes, "Community service is a means for students to ’see:a different slice of life,’ the lives of people who are ’1ess fortunate.’" Boyer (1990) believes service helps students "see a connection between what they learn and how they live." Other educators believe community service is an effective means of educating the "whole student," thought by many to be a fundamental mission of higher education (Courtice, 1992). Thomas Courtice, President of West Virginia Wesleyan, states, The maze of verbiage referred, to as "the mission statement" frequently introduces most college catalogs in our attempt totdefine our institution to others. For many'of us in independent colleges, we take pride in our efforts to educate the ’whole' student, but frequently we struggle to say clearly what that is or how we do it. Seldom is there much ’fuzziness’ about the course offerings, the general education requirements, or the academic program designed to foster intellectual growth for our studentsw More difficult to explain is the path to social, emotional, spiritual and ‘value—centered development that so many of us claim in our purpose. Courtice believes volunteer work provides a clear example of growth and development, and he is convinced that students who volunteer are exposed to life-changing encounters that truly educate the whole person. Q.‘ ‘5‘ 7 Albion College: The Research Setting A case study can.be an effective way of developing a thorough understanding of a complex institution. Clark (1970) believes that a case study approach focusing on private liberal arts colleges allows a researcher to ". . . ask specific organizational and educational questions; from them we attempt to gain insight and generalizations that may apply in other places, to other colleges, and even to some other kinds of organizations." Studying the community service mission of a private liberal arts college presents an opportunity to gain in-depth understanding of the process by which service is debated, practiced, and.becomes institutionalized.within the context.of a single college/community' setting (Keeton & Hilberry, 1969; Keeton, 1971). The ideal case study setting is one where many factors exist that give rise to a community service mission: 1) a religious affiliation that provides a moral justification for community service; 2) location in an economically; politically, socially, or culturally' distressed community that provides a problematic environment for the college and thus a practical reason for community involvement; 3) a history of community service on the part of students, faculty, or the institution itself; 4) recent efforts to wrestle with the institutional mission and related issues; and 5) the existence of a rich literature to undergird further analysis. Reasongifor Selectinq Albion College Albion College was selected for this study because it meets each of these criteria and offers a unique opportunity to watch an institution wrestle with broadening its traditional teaching mission to include community service. First, Albion College is affiliated 8 with the United Methodist Church and points quite proudly to its role in producing students who are interested in improving the human condition (Albion College, 1995; Albion College, 1992). Second, Albion College is located in the City of Albion, a community that is economically distressed (Melcher & Labovitz, 1992). Third, Albion College has acquired a national reputation not only for volunteer activities performed by its students, but for the engagement of the college in several major community development initiatives in the hope of improving the community (Albion College, 1993). Fourth, Albion College recently revised its mission statement and completed a strategic planning process that is designed to prepare the institution for the next century (The Pleiad, 1992) . Finally, Albion College has a rich literature that provides ample material upon which to base a study that addresses the community service mission of the institution. It is also important to note that the author of this dissertation directed one of the community development initiatives administered by the college, his wife is currently on the faculty at the college, and the author and his family reside in the City of Albion. Hopefully any loss of objectivity will be compensated by a rich understanding of Albion College and its host community. Description of the Study Settinq Albion College, a private liberal arts college founded in 1835 and affiliated with the United Methodist Church, is a coeducational institution with an enrollment of 1 , 650 , equally divided between men and women. Albion College grants the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Fine Arts (visual arts) degrees. The college is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the 9 University Senate of the united Methodist Church, the American Association of University Women, the American Chemical Society, and the National Association of Schools of Music. Albion College has been identified by U.S. News & World Report as one of the top eighty private liberal arts colleges in the nation (Albion College, 1995) . Albion College is also a founding member of Michigan Campus Compact, an organization dedicated to fostering community service among college and university students. Albion College is located in.Albion, Michigan, approximately ninety miles west of Detroit and one hundred seventy-five miles east of Chicago. The City of Albion, although a small community of 10,000 inhabitants, has been described as a post-industrial city (Albion College, 1987) . Its declining industrial base, and its high unemployment rate in comparison to other Michigan cities of its size, have caused rather severe economic distress. Its ethnic makeup is approximately thirty percent African American, six percent Hispanic-American, and sixty-four percent European American. While at times the Albion community’ 5 racial and ethnic diversity has been a fountain of strength and pride, more often than not it has been a source of division (Melcher & Labovitz, 1992). Problem Statement To date, the limited discussions about the community service mission of the private liberal arts college have focused primarily on community service by students, service-learning in the curriculum, and.the moral and educational benefits of volunteerism to students (Long, 1992; Maguire, 1982). 'n: a lesser extent, community service has also been discussed as one potential way to improve "town and gown" relations (Long, 1992) . Conversely, little 10 is known.about the extent to which.the attention.devoted.to student community service has been paralleled by a discussion about the community service mission of the institution and its faculty. Research Questions The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the role of community service in the mission of the private liberal arts college. Specifically, the questions addressed in this dissertation are: 1. To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a community service mission? 2. To what extent do faculty support a community service mission for the private liberal arts college? Why the Topic is of Interest There are several reasons why this dissertation should be of interest to private liberal arts colleges, service-learning practitioners, community development practitioners, and scholars. First, many private liberal arts colleges are affiliated with national religious denominations--primarily Christian churches--that have service to fellow human beings as an important function (Wicke, 1964; Ringenberg, 1984). If one goal of Christianity is to serve and if Christian churches sponsor private liberal arts colleges, it is arguably within the purpose of the private liberal arts college to have a community service mission (National Commission on.United Methodist Higher Education, 1976). Private liberal arts colleges and their faculty need to have a better understanding of the role :u Rh IV. R. . \ A\~ 11 that community service has traditionally played so that their institutions can remain true to their historical missions. Second, the goal of private liberal arts colleges--as touted in recruitment and promotional material--is to develop the "whole" student. While definitions of what it means to be "whole" are likely to vary among institutions, concern for others and a willingness to serve permeate many definitions found in the institutional missions of private liberal arts colleges (Courtice, 1992) . If these qualities in students can be enhanced by effective role modeling, faculty members and their institutions can show students how to become involved in community service (Pollack, 1988; Kendall et al. , 1990; Sigmon, 1990) . A better understanding of the community service mission of the private liberal arts college will allow institutions to produce students who more closely fit the "ideal" touted in the recruitment literature. Third, many private liberal arts colleges are located in or near economically distressed communities (Lynd, 1945; Long, 1992). At,a time when high.school enrollments are dropping and.oompetition for qualified students is increasing, the condition of the community in which the college is located can have an impact on recruitment. The same can be said of faculty recruitment, and perhaps even of private philanthropic support. Institutions that are able to»make their host communities more appealing to prospective students, faculty, and donors will be more likely to survive over the long- term (McCoy, 1972). Conversely, private liberal arts colleges possess human, financial, educational, and scholarly resources that can be utilized by community development practitioners (Long, 1992; Scheie & Mayer, 1990). 12 Key Definitions Two terms, that are frequently'used.in.this dissertation, are private liberal arts college and community; service mission. A brief discussion.of how these terms are used in this work will assist the reader in understanding the author's goals for this research. ‘Defining the Private Liberal Arts College Arriving at a common definition of the private liberal arts college is no easy task. Greenleaf (1991) believes that "Liberal education suffers, in these times, for want of a contemporary definition. " Schmidt (1957) argues that educational content, target audience, and other quantitative measures vary so much among institutions that we must accept the fact that ". . . there is nothing sacred about the American four-year college; it is not an. eternal verity but a historic accident." The National Commission on United Methodist Higher Education (1976) states that private liberal arts colleges have been, and continue to be, quite diverse in purpose. Some have served particular ethnic groups, some have striven.to be centers of academic excellence, and.still others have been dedicated to service. The quest for a common definition is complicated by the fact that estimates of the number of private liberal arts colleges in the United States vary considerably, depending upon the criteria used to define them and the date chosen for the "snapshot" (Wicke, 1964) . Many' private institutions who call themselves "liberal arts colleges" might have that label challenged by other institutions or by independent bodies that study or accredit such institutions. Wicke (1964) argues that it is impossible to understand the history of American higher education without knowing the history of 13 church—related. colleges. Ik> help ‘narrow the focus of this dissertation, and to provide an accurate description of the type of institution.addressed in the study, this dissertation focuses much of its attention on one particular type of private liberal arts college--the four-year, Protestant, church—related college. According to Patton (1940), "A church-related college is an institution which has a definite relationship, either legal, affiliated, or sympathetic, to an established religious body or to some unit of such.aibodyu" Patton’s definition is an adaptation.of a definition developed by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Pattillo and Mackenzie (1965) state that there is no single model or definition of a Christian college that is appropriate for all such institutions. However, in their report commissioned by the Danforth Foundation, Pattillo and Mackenzie do believe that many church—related, private liberal arts colleges share the following characteristics: 1. They are private in control and essentially private in su ort; 2. They are typically colleges of the liberal arts and sciences or are built around a core of the liberal arts; 3. They have a religious or churchlv dimension. This definition, while helpful, is also problematic in that it is confusing to people who are unfamiliar with the history of education in the United States. First, while these institutions are privately controlled and receive private support, many private institutions have at one time or another received sponsorship or public support from state governments (National Commission on United Methodist Higher Education, 1976; Schmidt, 1965). Snavely (1955) 14 has identified a surprising number of institutions that arose out of church-related institutions, but whose ownership and control was later transferred to state governments. Some of these institutions include Alabama Polytechnic Institute begun by the Methodist Episcopal Church; Alabama State Teachers College, formerly La Grange College, established by the Tennessee and Mississippi Conferences ‘of the Methodist Church; Henderson State Teachers College, formerly Henderson-Brown College--a Southern Methodist Church college; the University of California, formerly the College of California, which was an outgrowth of Contra Costa Academy, founded at a joint meeting of the Presbytery of San Francisco and the Congregational Association of California; and the Colorado School of Mines, formerly Episcopal University. Other state institutions with church roots include the ‘University' of Delaware, the University' of Kentucky, Morgan State University, Jackson State University, Rutgers University, the University’ of Akron, and the University of Tennessee. There were even three state-founded institutions whose control was transferred to churches: Centenary College of Louisiana, formerly the College of Louisiana; Mississippi College, formerly Hampstead Academy; and Tulane University, formerly the University of Louisiana. Today, private institutions are typically classified by governmental regulating authorities as charitable, nonprofit organizations and, as such, these institutions must serve the public function of providing education to retain these classifications (Jeavons, 1991). Many private institutions also receive public funding via student aid and scholarship programs. Conversely, public universities often receive private support and can serve distinctly private functions, such as providing assistance to for- profit corporations. Thus, the terms "private" and "public" best V. a“ H. .s\ 15 describe how these institutions are governed--not how they are supported or who they serve. Second, many private liberal arts colleges that began as church-related institutions and that still retain informal relationships or cultural ties with their former sponsors, are now classified as independent colleges (Straughn 8: Straughn, 1992; American Council on Education, 1992). Some of these institutions (e.g. , Wellesley, Grinnell, Kalamazoo, and Oberlin) are included in this dissertation because they are arguably "sympathetic" to a particular church--a.qualifier in Patton’s definition--even though they do not fit the Danforth Commission’s definition of a "church— related institution." Third, many institutions that began as liberal arts colleges have transformed themselves into universities. According to Leslie (1992), this trend.was so strong in the beginning of the twentieth century that many people proclaimed the demise of the private liberal arts college. Today, Harvard, Yale, Bucknell, and Princeton--while privately controlled-~have as much.in common.with large, state institutions, such as the University of Wisconsin and the University of California, as they do with Wellesley, Grinnell, Kalamazoo, and Oberlin (Margolis, 1969; Schmidt, 1957). Private universities, while sometimes difficult to distinguish from colleges (Schmidt, 1957), are arguably more complex institutions and thus more difficult to study than colleges (Wicke, 1964). Thus, private universities are not addressed in this dissertation. Finally, even church-related private liberal arts colleges are diverse (Boroff, 1961; Wicke, 1964). Keeton (1971) believes one of the strongest distinctions among private liberal arts colleges is between those that are Protestant and those that are Roman Catholic. 16 Because the institution studied most closely in this dissertation is a Protestant college--Albion College-—this review of literature primarily focuses on other Protestant institutions. However, much of the literature about church-related colleges applies equally well to both Protestant and Roman Catholic institutions, as well as to independent colleges that evolved from church-related institutions . Defining Service Service conducted by institutions of higher education comes in a variety of forms and has been a topic of much discussion and debate (Stanton, 1990; Edens et al., 1992). Terms frequently used to describe service include service-learning, extension, ppplig service, and outreach. For reasons explained.below, the author of this dissertation was quite intentional in using the term wig service to describe the service activities of private liberal arts colleges. Stanton (1990) defines service-learning as a form of experiential learning that has a " . . . profound emphasis on service to others." While service-learning may provide benefits to those being served, its intent is to develop students who can participate in public affairs according to democratic and ethical principles (Newmann, 1990). Extension is a form of service that geographically extends the educational resources of an institution to persons otherwise unable to take advantage of such resources (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 1980). Godfrey and Franklin (1992) claim that the extension of a.cxfllege’s or university’s educational resources allows the institution "To reach the hard-to-reach. . ." O» n ‘1» a, 5\ 17 Checkoway (1991) defines ppplig_§g;yigg as ". . . work that develops knowledge for the welfare of society." Checkoway draws a clear distinction between public service that benefits society, and professional and university service that benefit professional associations, academic disciplines, and institutions of higher education. A report issued by The Provost’s Committee on University Outreach (1993) at Michigan State University considers outreach to be ". . . a form of scholarship that cuts across teaching, research, and service. It involves generating, transmitting, applying, and preserving knowledge for the direct benefit of external audiences in ways that are consistent with university and unit missions." These definitions, and the forms of service they represent, can be classified as educational (service-learning and extension) or scholarly (public service and outreach). However, under these definitions faculty volunteerisntwith.local organizations, college investments in local economic development, and community access to college facilities would not be considered "service" activities, even though many private liberal arts colleges consider them as such. Thus, it was necessary for the author to develop a definition of service appropriate for the broad range of service activities practiced and rewarded by private liberal arts colleges. For the purposes of this dissertation, community service includes activities conducted. by students, faculty, and the institution that address social issues in the community, and that contribute to the well-being of community residents, especially the economically and socially disadvantaged. Under this definition, service-learning, extension, public service, and outreach are all considered to be community service activities as long as they 18 address social issues in the community and contribute to the general well-being of the people who live there. This definition also includes activities of benefit to students, faculty, and the institution (e.g. , service-learning, a sense of personal fulfillment, financial return.on investment), as long as community residents are also beneficiaries. Many institutions of higher education consider membership on college committees, participation in personnel searches, and advising student organization as service activities in promotion and tenure decisions (Boyer, 1990b). Because these service activities take place on campus, are of benefit to the institution, and do not address social issues, they are not considered in this dissertation. To learn more about the terminology of service in higher education, readers are urged to refer to Checkoway (1991), Crosson (1983), Kendall et al. (1990), Lynton (1995), and the Provost’s Committee on University Outreach (1993). Overview of the Research Methodology The two research.questions stated.ear1ier in this chapter are addressed in three ways. First, a review of literature about the history and evolution of the community service mission at private liberal arts colleges, in general--and at church-related institutions, in particular--was conducted. This was done to determine the extent to which colleges view themselves as having a community service mission. Second, a review of the literature about Albion College was undertaken. The purpose was to gain a better understanding of the extent to which a community service function is practiced at this particular institution. Third, a survey of faculty at Albion College was conducted to ascertain faculty an 56 «\b ‘t.. 19 attitudes toward community service as a component of the Albion College mission. Overview of the Dissertation Because institutional mission and community service undergird the research conducted for this dissertation, Chapter II contains a thorough review of the literature in these areas as they pertain to private liberal arts colleges. Specifically, Chapter II provides an answer to the first research question for private liberal arts colleges, in general: To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a community service mission? Chapter III addresses the same question for Albion College, in particular. Chapters II and III lay the groundwork for a survey of faculty attitudes regarding the community service mission at Albion College . The purpose of this survey is to provide an answer to the second research question: To what extent do faculty support a community service mission for the private liberal arts college? Chapter IV includes the research methodology that was used to gather information to answer this question. The research findings from the survey at Albion College are presented in Chapter V. Chapter VI includes a summary of the research findings, conclusions from the study, and recommendations for research and application. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE: THE COMMUNITY SERVICE MISSION OF THE PRIVATE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE Cooper (1984) argues that reviews of literature involve inferences as central to the validity of knowledge as the inferences involved in primary data interpretation. In other words, researchers need to pay as much attention to planning and conducting a review of literature as they do to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of primary data. While a literature review shares many characteristics in common with primary data collection--such as a priori definition of a research problem--a thorough review also allows the researcher to discover information not initially considered as relevant but later found to be essential to the study (Cooper, 1984). The review of literature presented in this chapter addresses institutional mission and the role of community service at private liberal arts colleges, in general, and at church-related private liberal arts colleges, in particular. This review answers the first research question of the dissertation: To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a community service mission? The author of this dissertation referred to four broad sources of information for this review: an ERIC search of related references; the Albion College Library, which maintains an excellent collection related to private higher education; the Michigan State 20 21 University Library; and books, newsletters, and other works sponsored or published by organizations concerned with service- learning and the service mission of higher education. Institutional Mission According to Pfeiffer (1991), effective mission statements answer three questions: 1) What function does the organization perform; 2) for whom does the organization perform this function; and 3) how does the organization go about filling this function? Pfeiffer adds that some organizations include a fourth question: Why does this organization exist? It is difficult to determine from the literature when private liberal arts colleges first began to be concerned about "mission. " As far back as the 19305, scholars were conducting research to determine the aims of private liberal arts colleges, as well as the extent to which institutions practiced their stated ideals. Reeves et a1. (1932) state that an institution of higher learning exists for certain more or less definite purposes, and that an educational institution should have a clear and adequate statement of its objectives. They believe that this statement should serve at least two functions: 1) It should introduce the ideals of the institutions to both the students and the public; and 2) it should be the basis of the educational program that the institution provides . According to Reeves et al. , the statement of aims should not be phrased merely in general terms applicable to all institutions of higher education, but should apply specifically to the individual college, differentiating it clearly from other institutions, even among those of the same general type. Additionally, a satisfactory statement of aims should meet the following requirements: 1) It should set up 0'1 1 p: ‘e y- c“ 22 in terms of an institutional clientele, taking into account the social groups that the college attempts to serve; and 2) it should stress the relationship of the particular aims to the organization of the curriculum offerings. In the late 1930s, Patton (1940) conducted.a content analysis of catalog statements about institutional purpose and a survey of college presidents. Since that time, many other authors have provided thought-provoking treatises on the role of private liberal arts colleges, especially on those institutions identifying themselves as church-related (Miller, 1960; Wicke, 1964; National Commission on United Methodist Higher Education, 1976; Ringenberg, 1984). There is little doubt that many scholars of the private liberal arts college are deeply concerned about mission (McCoy, 1972; Great Lakes Colleges Association, 1994) . Reeves et al. (1932) note that, in some colleges, the purposes of the institution have been clearly formulated, but in others there has never been set up any definite statement of aims. Of thirty-five colleges included in their study (one of which was Albion College), fifteen had published.their aims, eighteen had prepared.statements of.aims that were not yet published, and two were unable to provide any statement concerning their aims and purposes. At those colleges that had published aims, Reeves et al. found that stated aims were sometimes in conflict with college practices. Pattillo and Mackenzie write (1965), We might say that careful definition of purpose and the organization of the educational program in terms of a clear purpose are the hallmarks of a well-administered institution of higher learning. Unless a college makes every effort to accomplish what it purports to accomplish, it cannot be regarded as an effective institution. Definition of purpose is the first step toward systematic evaluation” However, the point to be 9'- ‘be. ~n flfl ‘ ‘V¢.~I "Wt-“A Vi.‘u . Q 111 u.‘ "v. 23 noted here is that a carefully-defined institutional purpose is, in the very nature of things, a restriction on freedom. It molds the institution. In effect it precludes some courses of action. As we have seen, it demands that certain things be done. At least, this is true if the institution is to be rationally managed, and a college, of all organizations, would be rational. Those who have written about the mission of private liberal arts colleges, especially those institutions that are church- related, are disturbed by what they have found. Wicke (1964) writes "The question of purpose is always fundamental in.educationn It is a particularly difficult question for colleges and universities because of the so-called 'explosion of knowledge’ . " Wicke believes that "All educational institutions should examine their purposes with modesty and skepticism. Nevertheless the church-related college, at least as a group, have not adequately kept their purposes clear." Moseley (1980), in the annual meeting issue of Liberal Education devoted to institutional mission, writes "Today there is more talk about mission than in the past, but there is also increasing confusion about the meaning of mission and about the value of restating that mission." The National Commission on United.Methodist Higher Education (1976) believes that "Colleges should analyze policies and missions in terms of the underlying values. Understandably, some institutions place high value on the issue of survival without much thought to appropriate means or the consequences of the actions. ." McCoy (1972) states that church-related colleges are facing a crisis of identity, caught between a sectarian past and a public present. McCoy believes the church-related college must " . . .' act responsibly in terms of this publiijresent if it is to fulfill its Christian heritage and survive as a meaningful part of American higher education." at b. I‘- ‘U .A '1! b\ A! ‘N ‘1 s.‘ “.J 1): 24 The Community Service Tradition It is now a commonly accepted notion that public institutions of higher education, especially land-grant universities, have a responsibility to engage in service, in addition to the teaching and research functions (Boyer, 1987; Dressel, 1987). But does the increased attention now being devoted to the service mission of public universities have any relevance to private colleges? Margolis (1969) believes that it does. He claims that the distinction between universities and colleges has become increasingly obscure, and that ".... most of the pressures bearing on the university are also felt in their wholly undergraduate counterparts. The university's problems are often those of the college, writ large. " While Margolis provides evidence that private liberal arts colleges face many of the same pressures to serve society that public universities face, is this pressure justified? What role, if any, should community service play in the mission of the private liberal arts college? According to Miller (1960), an analysis of private liberal arts colleges over the past thirty years would cause one to question whether many of these institutions have exercised a tradition of community service. A Report by the National Commission on United Methodist Higher Education (1976) states that many private liberal arts colleges are based on the idea of a "retreat from society," truly becoming a distinct learning community where education can take place unencumbered by the cares of society; This report also states that the "retreat approach" continues to be appropriate for some institutions. Margolis (1969), however, challenges this assumption. Ike argues that ". .. the college enjoys no such aloof withdrawal from 25 contemporary affairs." Rudolph (1961) agrees with Margolis, and goes one step further by arguing that private liberal arts colleges have always been cloaked with a public purpose. Ringenberg (1984) also states that private institutions, especially church-related colleges, have always had a Christian service ideal, and that social service is an older form of religious emphasis. Ringenberg believes 'that recent historical research shows that early colleges served local needs as much as they served denominational or ethnic needs. Wicke (1964) states that during their long history, church colleges have not served religious purposes only; they have also contributed significantly to the making of a democratic society. McCoy (1972) believes that the early church-related, private liberal arts colleges should more appropriately be labeled as "public Christian colleges, " since "They were founded for the public interest as then conceived, to serve the common good, and to provide civic leaders capable of coping with the societal problems of the time." McCoy believes that the public Christian colleges of the colonial period ". . . were shaped by their utility for the community that founded them, " and that they were ". . . founded for the public interest, served the common good of the larger community, and were involved with society and its problems." Research by Reeves et al. (1932) and Patton (1940) in the 1930s showed that the development of citizenship, social responsibility, and social and community leadership was consistently found in recruitment literature and in the statements of college presidents. Patton found that these aims were present in 65% of the private liberal arts colleges studied. Reeves et al. found that training for citizenship and the development of a Christian Character (including social responsibility) were actually ranked by AR by. 01 ('T ". ‘y‘ B“‘ ‘ .l : ~‘Vu‘ ‘. lfl 26 college presidents ahead of the development of scholarly attitudes and habits. Pattillo and Mackenzie (1965) write "It would be entirely in keeping with the long tradition of both liberal education and the Christian religion if church-sponsored colleges and universities stressed the importance of public affairs throughout their program. " 'Snavely (1955) states that, in.addition.to training clergy; most of the early' churches also’ slanted. their' curriculum ‘toward. the education of those interested in becoming leaders in affairs of state. He writes, To sum up, the main mission of the church-related college would be to turn out men and women who would live the more abundant, the more cheerful and richer life; to educate those who will become leaders, imbued with the spirit of the Golden Rule, in all professions and activities, in a word those who would put ’service above self' ; to inspire all who pass through its portals to become active citizens in local, state, national, and international politics." Hill (1984) , in the introduction to an issue of Liberal Education that was devoted to the social responsibilities of the liberal arts, writes "The question of the social responsibilities of higher education is an enduring legacy of the liberal arts. . ." Curtis (1982), in an issue of Liberal Education that was devoted to civic education, states that "Throughout most of Western history, to have called the liberal arts ’the civic arts’ would have been a tautology." In the same issue, Maguire (1982) emphasizes that ". . liberal learning is not liberal learning without civic purpose. " The twelve colleges of the Great Lakes Colleges Association (1994) recognize service- -along with teaching and research-—as one of their three aims. I11 (1 (I) (I) ’1’ 27 Motivations for a Community Service Mission The literature demonstrates that many people believe the private liberal arts college has always possessed a community service role that meshes well with its traditions. This section uses vignettes, a method Keeton (1971) used for studying and understanding colleges, to look at four institutions that have been especially effective at fulfilling their community service role. The purpose of this section is to develop an understanding, not only of the types of community service activities in which private liberal arts colleges have engaged, but of their motivations for doing so. The four institutions include Earlham College, Wellesley College, Kalamazoo College, and Sarah Lawrence College. This section also discusses two alternative motivations for implementing a service mission that have not gained much exposure in the literature: service as legitimate self—interest and service as corporate citizenship. According to Brinton (1949), "Nothing less than a complete philosophy of life is required to define education's purpose." Brinton--a. Quaker-~effectively' sums In) the community' service philosophy of Earlham College, a Quaker Institution. Earlham College has gained.a reputation.for putting intijractice--through its community service mission--its deeply held religious convictions of building a strong sense of community, consensus decision making, simplicity, equality, nonviolence, and social justice. The community service missitmlof Wellesley College appears to spring from a deep commitment to religious and social activism and reform inculcated by its founder, Henry Fowle Durant (Hawk, 1975; Taylor & Glasscock, 1975) . Unlike Earlham College, the contemporary community service mission of Wellesley College is no longer based 28 on religious conviction, but rather on a commitment to social activism (Hawk, 1975). The involvement of Kalamazoo College in the local community first occurs in the 1930s during the depths of the Great Depression, and is the result of a deliberate study of the college’s aims (Mulder, 1958). Community service in response to national crisis 'is not unique to Kalamazoo College, and even Wellesley College and Sarah Lawrence College altered their services to meet the growing needs of impoverished citizens (Taylor & Glasscock, 1975; Lynd, 1945). Sarah Lawrence College first ventured into community service because of the institution’s belief in the educational value of field work (Lynd, 1945). Both Kalamazoo College and Wellesley College, while initially developing a community service mission for different reasons, also noted the educational benefits of community service for their students (Taylor & Glasscock, 1975; Mulder, 1958) . This small sampling of institutions is meant to be illustrative, not exhaustive. It simply demonstrates that the community service mission can have multiple sources and justifications, that the motivations for engaging in community service can change over time, and that these prestigious liberal arts colleges have, at one time or another, engaged in a community service mission. The following sections look at each of these institutions in more detail. Earlham: Service as Religious Conviction Wicke (1964) believes that a major reason for founding educational institutions is apparent in the nature of the church itself. He writes, "At its best the church is a servant to society, bp- bio— (I, ( ) . urn is... - Iv‘ . m!“ RA“ Nu... ~I- b..c ‘ "A Qt.‘ N. f U “s 29 and its schools, hospitals, homes, and social agencies are testimony that the servant motive has been real and effective." Few private liberal arts colleges exemplify a community service mission based on religious conviction as well as does Earlham College, founded in 1847 in Richmond, Indiana, by the Society of Friends (Kuh et al. , 1991) . According to Brinton (1949) , "The clear-cut philosophy of education worked out by the Society of Friends was based solidly on its religious faith and practice. " Kuh et al. (1991) claim that "To understand the Quaker tradition is to understand the mission of Earlham College; the Quaker ethos runs deep in the life of the college." Brinton (1949) also emphasizes that "Quaker schools should either exhibit something of the unique character of their predecessors or admit that they no longer represent The Society'of Friends." Perhaps this explains Earlham’s continuing adherence to its religious tenets. Kuh et al. (1991) believe that Earlham College " . challenges the prevailing Western ethic of competition with an ethic of collaborathan' The principles that guide the institution include a strong sense of community, consensus decision making, simplicity, equality, nonviolence, and social justice. The college’ s statement of purpose claims that "In such a community, the teaching and learning roles are merged, and the curricular and experiential are combined. Earlham is both a sanctuary for reflection and a stimulus to practical action." Kuh et al. (1991) emphasize that, unlike many religious denominations, "Quakers traditionally' have been skeptical of learning for its own sake; knowledge must be applied to be of value. Students not only read about the causes of illiteracy, for example, but are also urged to identify ways to eliminate this problem." 3O Earlham College makes it clear that the institution believes in the responsibility of the individual in a global community, which results in an emphasis on social action. Especially noticeable at Earlham College is an emphasis not just on volunteerism, but on public policy changes that attack the root causes of social problems. Earlham College is a charter member of Campus Compact and Campus Outreach Opportunity League (Kuh et al., 1991). Earlham College has an Office of Co-curricular Studies that helps students to integrate in-class and out-of-class experiences. Earlham College also has a very active Service Learning Program--established in 1987--that provides outreach to the Richmond community. The Service Learning Prograulhas an advisory'board.composed.of 40% faculty, 20% students, 30% community representatives, and 10% administrators (Kendall and Associates, 1990) . The program is staffed by 2.5 FTE. Each year, the Service Learning Progranlplaces approximately 650 of Earlham College’ 5 1, 100 students in volunteer experiences with over seventy agencies and community projects in the Richmond area. Through the Service Learning Program, students are able to receive academic credit toward their major or general education requirements. Approximately 15% of the faculty are actively involved in the program. Kuh et al. (1991) believe that the Service Learning Program is an effective vehicle for putting the institution’s mission into practice. The Earlham Volunteer Exchange, an organization that links students with volunteer opportunities, existed prior to the founding of the Service Learning Program, and continues to exist today. In 1986 Richard Wood, Earlham College president, applied for and received a federal government ACTION Grant to provide funding for (ll n1 I" r ‘1) .e ' 1 1“- ‘— .1. 5“ (U H) t a I In ._ 31 a director. The newly hired director expanded the Earlham Volunteer Exchange by emphasizing service learning. The Earlham Volunteer Exchange publishes a newsletter called volunteer voice (Earlham Volunteer Exchange, 1994) . Each term, the Earlham Volunteer Exchange places approximately 300 Earlham College students in volunteer activities such as tutoring in the public schools, Habitat for Humanity, Great Hunger Cleanup, cultural programming at the Townsend Community Center, and visits to the elderly through the Pet Therapy program (Earlham Volunteer Exchange, 1994). According to Kuh et al. (1991), Earlham College is able to attract faculty who are willing to invest themselves in the institution's mission because the faculty reward systenlemphasizes involvement. The authors state that ". . . Earlham remains a teaching college with no pretense or interest in becoming known for research. " However, the authors believe that—-even at institutions like Earlham College--tenured faculty' are more committed to involvement with. undergraduates than are younger faculty or cosmopolitan scholars. The Faculty Research Committee has been exploring the possibility of requiring community service of all students. According to Nancy Wood, Director of the Service Learning Program, the program has been so popular among alumni that donations to Earlham College’s capital campaign have increased (Kendall and Associates, 1990). Wellesley: Service as Activism Taylor and Glasscock (1975) claim that the founders of the colleges in the Seven College Conference--Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Radcliffe, Bryn Mawr, and Barnard--all shared a GEEK: 1 m P .‘fl ' Eels. 5U . b: s ‘33,“. "Uuaa. T ‘4 Tp;hr~ I"V~::T (7 l' f 7 .l (I) '(5 (1!) 01 m r- :1 'r) :1 3w (1 (TD) 32 commitment to high educational standards combined with moral and religious idealism. Perhaps nowhere was this moral idealism played out more effectively than at Wellesley College, whose motto is.an Ministrari sed.Ministrare—-in English, "not to be ministered unto but to minister. " The call for Christian charity was so strong that a Missionary Society was the first organization founded at Wellesley ’ (Hawk, 1975) . Henry Fowle Durant, the founder of Wellesley College, stated that higher education for women was a means to " . . . prepare herself for great conflicts, for vast reforms in social life, for noblest usefulness. " He strove to make Wellesley College affordable to poor women so that it would not become the domain of wealthy students only. In the early 19005, Wellesley became synonymous with social reform and involvement in the local and surrounding communities, as well as in their missions throughout the United States and abroad. Hawk (1975) writes, When jubilant bells ushered in the twentieth century, they accompanied a hopeful spirit and a steady rise in the Progressives’ influence as reformers. Colleges tended to carry over from the 18903 their zeal for social betterment; the radical students stood "only a little left of center" and "the liberals not far away"-- a description applicable to Wellesley. There, social action progressed at a reasonable pace. . . Social work continued into the new century at such institutions as Denison House, where the "philanthropic angle" was partly replaced by "genuine democratic contacts," most notably through the founding of the Circolo Italiano- Americano. (Italians had replaced Irish as the neighbors closest to Denison House.) The Circolo, whose president was Miss Scudder, spread its enterprises throughout the city, and its spring and summer fiestas at Wellesley were favorite schemes for breaking down barriers. According to Hawk (1975), the freshmen’s establishment of a Service Council in 1922-23 stands out as a particularly effective means for developing social consciousness. Senior students served A" I ‘RAOA ivy-v 33 as counselors for the organization” ‘These students ". . ..not only followed the traditional lines of work in Boston settlement houses and the Wellesley Convalescent Home for Children but branched out into the North Bennet Industrial School, the Institute for the Blind, Boston dispensaries, and-—to learn about case work--the Boston Society for the Care of Girls." Wellesley faculty members were instrumental in the development of settlement houses and trade unions. In the early 19005, Wellesley College was heavily involved in the causes of Native Americans, African Americans, immigrant and migrant communities, and missions abroad. According to Hawk (1975) , The medical profession appeared on the lists in various contexts: for example, the International Grenfell Mission, the Chinese Mission of New England, a Mission to the Lepers (devoted to the discovery of a cure), a local Community Health Association. Among educational institutions given allotments, many were becoming obligations, if they were not so already: Piedmont College, Atlanta University (for blacks only), settlement schools (Hindman and Pine Mountain, for example), the Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in Industry, a girls’ school in Spain and an International Institute for Girls (the only place in Spain offering college education to women)-—and so on around the world. In the 19205, an offshoot of the Christian Association at Wellesley College evolved into the Intercollegiate Community Service Organization, that eventually spread to eighteen Eastern women’s colleges. Wellesley students worked especially closely with teachers and social workers in settlement houses. During the depression, Wellesley students and faculty volunteered for community service in campus organizations, " . . . accepting leadership however burdensome it might be. And in trying to find the best means of turning thought into action, they ’re-invigorated their social thinking'." In 1932—33, Wellesley College formed an unemployment 34 relief committee. They provided relief in a number of communities, but especially Lawrence and Millville. In Millville, Wellesley College furnished a clinic, school meals, and vegetable gardens, and also tried.to meet individual needs that the student committee and two faculty advisors discovered on visits well into the 19405. As social activism on campus increased from the 19205 to the 19405, there was a corresponding decline in evangelism that, according to Hawk (1975), did not weaken ". . . the religious life of the College." In 1947 the President of Wellesley College recommended the establishment of the Wellesley College Community Chapel and the Service Organization, that were to be administered by a joint board of faculty and students. She stated, The thought is that each of these agencies shall be the official body' for' organizing those aspects of the community which will have to do with worship and with social service so that the College will function institutionally without obligating individuals to commit themselves to creedal statements in the area of Christian worship. Both organizations were established in 1948-49 . The following year, these conclusions were offered in a fermative evaluation report: This has been the first complete year of the Community Chapel and of the Service Organization. The latter has flourished, having a clear-cut program of action. The former has gone through tribulations in efforts to define itself and to develop areas in which its influence could be manifest, and there is some concern lest the separation of the two functions will make less evident on this campus the religious motivation from which have stemmed most acts of brotherhood throughout history. In the 19505 Wellesley College began to de-emphasize the Protestant Christian tradition even more. The Community Chapel effectively ceased to exist by the 19705. 35 The Service Organization provided the principal focus for the philanthropic and community service interests of students from the time it was established in 1948 until the mid—19605. It absorbed the Service Fund’ 5 role of raising money for charitable purposes and disbursing it wisely. The Service Organization also arranged opportunities for volunteers. Wellesley College has a tradition of not only paying for physical improvements to schools around the world, it also pays Wellesley faculty to serve as visiting professors (Hawk, 1975). Wellesley College also founded the Wellesley Community Child Care Center, Inc., that continues to serve faculty as well as working mothers in the town (Glasscock, 1975). The bylaws of Wellesley College have been amended several times regarding the religious background of faculty members. In 1885 the bylaws stated that every trustee, teacher, and officer "shall be a member of an Evangelical Church." In 1898 the bylaws were amended to state that trustees, teachers, and officers should be "of decided Christian character and influence, and in manifest sympathy with the religious spirit and aim with which the College was founded." In 1954 the bylaws read "The members of the faculty shall be selected with a view to maintaining the Christian purpose of the College." In 1967 the bylaws were again changed, stating ". members of the faculty shall be selected with a view to maintaining the highest ideals of education. " These changes in the bylaws reflect a steady shift on the part of faculty away from "religion" and.its ideals, community service among'them, and.toward "education" and its ideals, including research. While the motto of the college emphasizes the importance of community service, and while students, faculty, and the institution itself have been 36 involved in community service, nothing is stated about the role of community service in faculty life. Teaching and research--but not community service--are criteria in promotion and tenure . (Glasscock, 1975). Kalamazoo: Service in Times of Crisis Kalamazoo College, along with Albion College and ten other institutions, is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association, a consortiumlof private liberal arts colleges in Indiana” Michigan, and Ohio. It is similar in many respects to Albion College, not least of which because it draws most of its students from the state of Michigan. Kalamazoo College offers an interesting comparison with Wellesley College because its community service mission took root at least forty'years after Wellesley’s initial efforts, during the depths of the Great Depression (Mulder, 1958). Originally associated with the American Baptist Church, today Kalamazoo College is considered an independent institution (Straughn & Straughn, 1992). Like Wellesley, Kalamazoo College faculty have long been involved in the local community, and Kalamazoo College claims that its course offerings have always been geared to the needs of the community. However, the focus of much of the community service Kalamazoo College has engaged in appears to have originated during the Great Depression. H In 1933, the head of the sociology department at Kalamazoo College assumed the position of Kalamazoo County Relief Administrator in President Roosevelt’s emergency relief program. Shortly thereafter, in 1935, Kalamazoo College engaged in an analysis of the college’s objectives. Mulder claims that Kalamazoo 37 College became heavily engaged in a community service mission as a direct result of this analysis. He writes, The Faculty in 1935 was engaging in a study of its objectives, embodied in a "Statement of Aims and Objectives for Kalamazoo College." It was at this time, too, that a step was taken which later proved to be one of the forerunners of a policy of integrating the College offerings more closely with community interest and services. This step taken under the direction of the Political Science Department proved to be of more than ordinary importance in the light of subsequent college history. It was the creation of the Bureau of Municipal Research. At the time, the establishment of the Bureau of Municipal Research had the appearance of a minor addition to the educational techniques of the college. According to Mulder (1958), however, "Through the years it has not only proved its worth in itself, it has also served as a pattern for other pedagogical devices that were added during the years that followedu" The fundamental idea of the Bureau of Municipal Research was cooperation between the college and the community, an idea that has been applied increasingly to all the other academic disciplines at Kalamazoo College. At the time the Bureau was a functional arm of the college and.of the city jointly; of the college, through the training and education of certain social science majors; of the city, in its capacity as a fact-finding research organization and a twaining ground for future public servants. Legally, however, the Bureau was part of city government. In 1955, Kalamazoo College established the Industrial Relations Center in conjunction with a similar center at the University of Chicago. The Center offered short—courses to business and.community leaders. 1311955, Kalamazoo College also»established the Institute of Government. This Institute was based on the idea that ". . . the world is a laboratory in which.both the College and the community can work out their common problems." The announced 38 purpose of the Institute was ". . . to make Kalamazoo College eventually’the1Number'0ne center'in.the:nation for training in, and service to, local government at the grassroots level. " During this time the Sociology Department also made extensive use of fieldwork with local social service organizations. In 1958, Mulder writes, The College, it may be expected, will become increasingly conscious of the community and will endeavor more and more to become an expression of that communityu This clearly defined curve extends its line far into the future. It may be expected that a half century hence the curve will be so clear that it cannot escape the notice of even the least perspective. While the ivory tower has always had its place at Kalamazoo College, as it must on any campus devoted to disinterested scholarship, the prediction may be hazarded.that the College of the future will not reflect the tower light alone but will be conscious of the sorrows and joys of the world it lives in. Despite the extent to which. Kalamazoo College provided valuable service to the City of Kalamazoo and southwest Michigan, the institution made it clear that its students were to be the primary beneficiaries. Mulder (1958) writes, But all branches of study, both those that are community-centered and others whose center of gravity inheres largely in campus activity, have always had one main purpose--education for the students. Other values- -to the community, to the teaching personnel, to administrative process--have always been incidental. The student has always been, and remains, the key- figure. Mulder emphasizes that "A school does not easily change its spots; these spots are not in the skin but in the genes, and they could not be changed without killing the organism." Sarah Lawrence: Service as Education Sarah Lawrence College has been a national leader in the use of field.work for students. Lynd (1945) claims that this approach I I!) (u (I) - . (I) h 9%,: U‘ "4 I A‘ a VV .‘C .. Iv- LJE A 5 sea“; y“ . St‘flmg “ ("C “s “L g. A 1 ~V ..‘N "y 39 is based on the belief that there are certain common ways of life and common values that are important for all students in a democratic society, and.that ".... the seedbed of democracy is the local community. " According to Lynd, "Liberal education and liberal living demand the cultivation of all the powers of the individual in responsible social relations." She claims, The use of field work focuses many of the issues which face contemporary education. Field work. . .is an accepted and essential part of education in both elementary and professional schools. The American undergraduate college, has, however, neglected this sort of experience. It has relied too heavily on books and too little on direct experience with people and materials. The use of field.work sharpens the question of what liberal education is today. The use of field work by Sarah Lawrence College dates back at least to the 19305, when a field class for freshmen students was created called "Development of a Community." This class used a neighboring community as a living laboratory. Also developed during this time was a class "Living in the Community." The college had little trouble finding areas in which to work since there were some areas of severe poverty within a five-mile radius of the campus (Lynd, 1945). While field work formed the basis of the initial community service efforts of the college, the good relations that developed as a result of this early work paved the way for even greater College involvement in the community. Sarah Lawrence College helped the community conduct housing surveys, and implement nursery school teaching and adult education. Faculty, in addition to assisting students get involved, served as members of the Board of Directors of the Y.W.C.A., the Family Welfare Society, Social Planning Council, and many other activities. Lynd (1945) claims, 40 In a number of cases these activities would have been carried on regardless of the teacher's connection with the college. But in many instances the work has been undertaken. as a. means of laying a foundation. for community work in connection with particular courses. This point is important because it cannot be overemphasized that relationship with the community has been a matter of slow growth, careful cultivation, frequently oblique methods, and endless time. During the college’s early involvement, many students considered sections of New York City, and especially the South Westchester area where Sarah Lawrence students were involved, as their "social science laboratory. " Increasingly, the college began to think of these communities not merely as places for students to learn, ". .. but were increasingly recognized.as comprising groups of people wanting student and faculty services." As a result, requests from these communities began to pour in. Communities also recognized the special role the college could.play, and.as a result strategically targeted their requests toward those aspects of the college that possessed special resources. New York papers praised Sarah Lawrence College’ 5 involvement . The Yonkers Herald Statesman ran an editorial in the 19405 that states "The faculty at the college, trained in community problems, is performing a neighborly service in taking as its workshop Yonkers, Mount Vernon and Eastchester, all communities with large foreign elements. The outcome of the series should be of mutual gain both to the college and the residents of these communities who have been given a leading role at the series." Sarah Lawrence College also recognized the mutuality of its involvement. Lynd (1945) states "In a very real sense, the community clinic would constitute a two-way passage. We should be shouldering our responsibility as educational leaders, sharing, with the rank and.file of the democratic community, the special insights 41 and understandings we have been able to accumulate: bringing to bear on the problems of the present certain types of longer-range perspective, acquired from our study of the immediate and distant past." Service as Le itimate Self-Interest There is a growing recognition among major universities that it is in their best interest to enhance the quality of their host communities. The Ohio State University (Heinlen, 1995) , the University of Pennsylvania (Harkavy & Puckett, 1992) , and Marquette University (Mangan, 1991) are but three examples of universities that have pledged millions of dollars to improve local neighborhoods by helping to reduce crime, increase employment, improve housing, and eliminate pollution. However, there is very little information in the literature about the efforts of private liberal arts colleges to do likewise. The only citation in the literature that referred to an attempt by a private liberal arts college to improve its host community-~and thus its own viability--was McCoy (1972). While McCoy does not provide information about the identify of the college or community; he claims that, . one college, faced with the possibility of having to move to another city because of an economic depression in the area where it was located, decided instead to involve itself with social policy; it worked closely'with local industry and.civic leaders to develop ideas and resources for economic recovery. The effort was successful and the college grew along with the rejuvenated community, receiving from its involved and grateful leaders more acceptance and support than ever before. 42 Service as Copporate Citizenship Service provided out of legitimate self-interest implies that communities--especially those that are economically distressed--can pose problems for colleges and universities. Service provided out of corporate citizenship recognizes the reciprocal nature of this relationship, and.acknowledges the challenges that institutions of higher education.ppg§ent to communities. ‘These challenges include increased traffic, improper student behavior, and.increased.demand for public utilities (Long, 1992). Long (1992) argues that institutions of higher education.have obligations "as neighbor and citizen" to conduct their own affairs ". . . in ways that exemplify good neighborliness and the service of human needs." While Long recognizes that colleges and universities do not have the resources to solve all of society’s ills, ". . . they can seek to minimize the disruptions they bring to the communities in which they are located and they can (through both institutional policies and the voluntary activities of their personnel) help to catalyze the efforts of other groups to remedy community problems." As with service that springs from legitimate self-interest, however; the literature reveals little information.about the extent to which.private liberal arts colleges engage in community service as a result of their obligations as corporate citizens. Factors Influencing the Community Service Mission McCoy (1972) states that "There is much talk today of the church as servant. It is talked about more than it is practiced, and nowhere is this disjunction more apparent than among the church- related colleges." 43 Wicke (1964) claims that, No purpose is more difficult to achieve than the development of a community ethos in which intellectual adventure is possible in an atmosphere of moral concern and commitment. Studies which have attempted to measure the changing value structures of college students show no evidence that church-related colleges are any more effective generally on this point than other types of institution. According to McCoy (1972), private liberal arts colleges, especially those that are church-related, have undergone considerable change during the past several decades. He writes, The painful fact is that church-related colleges of all denominations have been undergoing important but inadequately'noted.changes in.their internal structure, in their constituencies, in their patterns of funding, and in the purposes for which they are operated. The basic rethinking of the nature and meaning that these changes make necessary has not been taking place among the leadership of most of these institutions. For the denominational college the purposes it finds itself serving today and the roles it is committed to fulfill are often in conflict precisely because of the disparity between the commitments that informed its past and the demands of its present. Those colleges that have not resolved these tensions in some relatively satisfactory manner are undergoing a crisis of identity. Pattillo and Mackenzie (1965) also recognize this movement away from the roots of the church-related, private liberal arts college. They write, One point at which the church institutions are weak, on the basis of information obtained from our visits, is the involvement of the faculty and students in the public issues of the day. While most colleges sponsor occasional lectures and student interest in particular issues (such as civil rights) runs high at times, preparation.for assuming the normal responsibilities of citizenship is rather limited on most campuses. This is part of a broader need in American higher education to involve students more concretely in the affairs of their age. The literature suggests that several factors have caused private liberal arts colleges to move away from their historical 44 community service tradition. Chief among these factors are: Ethical relativism and the secularization of institutions; a quest for prestige; concern over financial survival; and the growing influence of facplty on institutional mission. These factors are explored below. ‘Ethical Relativism and Secularization McGrath (circa 1975) believes that two inter-related forces have had a considerable impact on private liberal arts colleges: ethical relativism and secularization. He states "It must be admitted that since the dominant philosophy in the graduate schools has cultivated in the minds of future teachers that values are none of their proper concern there is now a great deal of misunderstanding and confusion about how value considerations are to be reintroduced into the teaching process." McGrath believes that many contemporary faculty members appear unable to see the difference between indoctrinating students with.one inflexible set of rules of conduct and ethical judgement, and the examination of various alternative systems of values and evaluating their human consequences. While Keeton and Hilberry (1969) claim that the secularization of institutions does not necessarily mean a decrease in social activism, Delve et al. (1990) believe that "Faculty have retreated from incorporating social values into the classroom setting and curriculum because of a concern that education might thereby move from enlightenment to indoctrination." May (1982) also believes that the twentieth century has been a period when value questions have largely disappeared from American higher education. 45 Recent research (Mooney, 1991) supports these concerns. A 1991 survey conducted at 392 colleges and universities found that 76.1% of faculty believed that the intellectual development of students was a priority at their institutions, while only 47.4% believed that helping students examine and understand their personal values was a priority. Near the bottom of institutional priorities was facilitating student involvement in community service projects (23 . 3%) and helping to solve major social and environmental problems (26 .3%) . Even at institutions where service-learning is a priority, Magat (1989) believes that research on community service has focused on cognitive rationality and has not adequately addressed the moral and spiritual aspects of service. Parsonage et al. (1978) note that many, if not most, church— related institutions no longer require faculty to be members of the denomination with which the college is affiliated, or even to be Christians. According to Ringenberg (1984), the result of this transition is that secular modes of thought dominate over Christian worldview even.at most church—related colleges. He believes that, while the process of secularization has not proceeded at a uniform pace in all institutions, it is still possible to chart the general course of the secularization process. Thus, Ringenberg believes that faculty at many church-related institutions are no longer as interested in the moral and social issues that have traditionally undergirded Christian higher education. This is consistent with research by Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1990) that shows a relationship between church affiliation and engagement in philanthropic activities. 46 uest for Presti e It is an unfortunate fact that the involvement of private liberal arts colleges in community service and social issues is often equated with.a diminution of academic standards, even though there is evidence to suggest that faculty who score high.in service also score high in research publications and student evaluations of teaching (Marver & Patton, 1976; Patton & Marver, 1979) . Concerning Oberlin College’s involvement in providing education for African Americans, Schmidt (1957) noted that many academicians early in this century believed that Oberlin College was ". . . debasing intellectual standards and sacrificing solid scholarship to emotional orgies. . ." Reeves et al. (1932) advised colleges to proceed cautiously with the development of service programs. They write "The strongest colleges of this group have not attempted to develop extension work, a fact that should, in itself, be an adequate warning to the weaker colleges." This concern is not without some merit. According to the National Commission on United Methodist Higher Education (1976), colleges ". . . sometimes try to carry almost every social responsibility any student, faculty member, supporter, or administrator suggest." Miller (1960) also admits that the social involvement of faculty reduces the amount of time they have for scholarly work. Of his own involvement he states " . . . we were at least prepared without twinge of conscience to consider scholarly accomplishment a prize well lost for more important causes." Wicke (1964), however, is clearly disturbed.by this quest for "academic excellence." He writes "It will be a sad day if all private colleges decide that prestige is what they seek. The 47 imperative here is that the college determine its mission, do its best tOvmeet it, and study very carefully the results of its work." Concern for Financial Viability In the twentieth century, private liberal arts colleges have become increasingly concerned (and for good reason) with economic survival (Keeton, 1971). McGrath (circa 1975) notes that since 1970, seventy-two privately supported institutions have closed, merged with other institutions, or have turned over their assets to public control. Reeves et al. (1932) are concerned about the impact of financial concerns on college mission. They claim, Too often the continuation of the individual institution is considered more important than the kind and amount of service rendered. The great majority of those connected with a college--the constituency, students, faculty members, administrative officers, and trustees--are so immersed with the problems of the individual institution that they fail to give thought to the program of higher education.as a whole. There is need for clear vision on this point, not only on the part of a few educational leaders in the country, but by the rank and file of those who serve in colleges and universities. Wicke (1964) argues that church-related colleges of the past served.many children of limited education and limited means. From the 19405 onward, however, as a way to ensure their financial existence, colleges have increasingly turned to a new clientele. "As a consequence, the character of the colleges has altered. . ." Today, Wicke believes that, Far too many church-related institutions are now heavily dependent on student fees, and to the degree that this is true the college is handicapped in establishing and realizing any unique goals. Thus colleges which were founded to provide education for the poor may in the near future, if not already, find themselves able to educate only the privileged. 48 Bowen (1980) and Paulsen (1990) believe that a cxfllege’s dependence upon tuition--and the associated lack of philanthropic sources of income--is associated with its tendency to adjust its curriculum to match student consumer preferences. anister and Finkelstein (1984) claim that ". . . the major threat to the freestanding liberal arts college would lie, then, not in.a hostile environment but rather in the institutions themselves--a loss of a sense of their historic mission in the process of knee-jerk accommodation to the apparent requirements of the moment." As Boyer and Hechinger (1981) state, "Survival without.a sense oflmission is hardly preferable to extinction; indeed, it may be the forerunner of extinction." The National Commission on United.Methodist Higher Education (1976) believes that it is understandable, although unfortunate, for colleges to place high value on the issue of survival without much thought to appropriate means or the consequences of the actions. Leslie (1992) attributes much of this movement toward elitism on the fact that colleges helped form the new upper and middle classes, that, in turn, were willing to ". . . support elite colleges in a style to which they wanted to grow accustomed." Leslie notes that it was at this time that many colleges began to beautify their campuses in an effort to be more attractive to wealthy students, parents, and donors. The Faculty and Institutional Mission Faculty members, individually and as a group, can have a substantial impact on a college’s mission (Ringenberg, 1984) . This is especially true given the growing faculty role in college governance, the changing nature of faculties as a whole (e.g., the 49 decreased emphasis on hiring faculty who are members of the religious denomination that sponsors the college), and the limited support among faculty for an institutional mission that includes anything except teaching and research. A. Growing Faculty Role in Governance Wicke (1964) observes that as faculties grow more effective and distinguished, they demand more self-government and will submit less to autocratic rule. This is especially true concerning the authorship of college mission statements, where faculty are taking an increasing role. As far back as 1932, Reeves et al. claimed that "The faculty only is equipped to prepare this statement. In many of the institutions included.in this group it would be desirable if the faculty would engage in a redefinition of the institution’s purposes. Such activity would do much to give staff members a sympathetic understanding of the purposes of the institution.and.to revitalize faculty adherence to these purposes." Reeves et al. (1932) further claim that almission statement ". . . should include only aims which are understood.and shared by facultyx" The authors contend that an institution in which the aims as viewed by the faculty differ from those of the administration or the board of trustees is not in a satisfactory situation. They conclude "Within the scope of the general aims established and announced by a board of trustees the particular statement of educational aims is a: function of the faculty." B. A Changing Faculty The role of faculty at a private liberal arts college cannot be overestimated. Lynd (1945) claims that "Faculty-student we? luv a “flu . a“ Q.‘ r. ‘1 ‘L 50 interaction is the mainspring of a college concerned with individual education." Snavely (1955) writes, "Whether the student leaves his alma mater with ideals predominantly materialistic rather than spiritual will depend to a great extent upon the faculty. The faculty will be largely responsible if the alumnus goes forth educated to think and act with honesty, with precision, with justice, with charity." There is evidence that faculty hiring can have a profound effect on an institution (Ringenberg, 1984) . Reeves et al. (1932) claim, "In general, the administrative officers of the colleges studied, within the limits of the resources at their command, have exercised good judgement in their selection of individual faculty members. There is much evidence, however, which indicates a grave lack of attention in many colleges to the larger problem of building the teaching staff as a whole." As was noted earlier, church—related institutions no longer place the emphasis they once did on hiring faculty who can speak to Christian concerns of social and moral welfare, and this can have an impact on the degree to which faculty support community service (Parsonage et al. ,-1978; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990) . While this may be appropriate given the increasingly diverse student population served by private liberal arts colleges, it has nonetheless resulted in a changed mission for these institutions. Other factors that have been associated with community service and philanthropy include marriage, children, and age (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990). In other words, faculty who are older, who are married, and who have children are more likely to support community service and charitable giving. It is possible that private liberal arts colleges with younger, unmarried faculty will have less support 51 for a community service mission. Keeton and Hilberry (1969) also believe that faculty members are more mobile than they once were. This leads to less allegiance to an institution and its host community, and exerts an influence on institutional mission. C. Faculty Support for a Service Mission While neither Boyer (1987) nor Dressel (1987) are speaking specifically of the private liberal arts college, they claim that public service is not a popular activity with faculties today. Boyer writes "For the faculty, there exists the triad of responsibilities: teaching, research, and service. Almost every college we visited recited these functions almost as ritual. And yet, we found that service is often shortchanged in favor of the other two. Even when the obligation is acknowledged, service is often defined in narrow, uninspired ways." He continues, "We believe the quality of campus life would be enriched if faculty service became more than a catchword." A 1991 survey conducted at 392 cmdleges and universities (Mooney, 1991) found that only 43.4% of faculty believed that providing services to the community was an essential or very important professional goal. Being a good teacher (98.2%), being a.good.colleague (80.0%), and.engaging in.re5earch (58.5%) were alli ranked ahead of community service. Boyer (1987) believes that, if service is to become a vital part of the educational experience of every student, faculty must help lead the program. Dressel (1987) indicates that financial support for service activities would lead to increased interest among faculty. He writes "Although there are other factors involved in rendering public service somewhat attractive to faculty members, 52 if continuous support were made available, there can be no doubt that institutions--land-grant or otherwise--would find rationales for accepting such funds. Commitment to the land-grant mission is essential to its success; but the availability of funds would attract many other institutions, not solely colleges and universities." There exists very little information in the literature about the extent to which private liberal arts college faculty, in particular, support a: community service mdssion. What little information does exist is not very encouraging. Reeves et al. (1932) argue that service ". .. absorbs a large amount of time and energy of faculty'members which.could.be better devoted to the main business of the college--campus teaching." They are especially concerned that community service is generally taken on as an extra burden and is given on the margins of the instructor’s time, and they believe that the only satisfactory basis for the organization of extension work is to consider such teaching as a part of the regular load of the instructor. The College President and Institutional Mission Despite the increasing faculty role in college governance, decision-making at private liberal arts colleges tends to be more centralized than at other institutions (Keeton, 1971), and more likely to be influenced by a college president (Wicke, 1964). According to Kuh et al. (1991), the president plays a key role at "Involving Colleges." They believe that "The president provides symbolic leadership by communicating the institutional mission.and priorities and a vision for the institution to different constituents, including students." Effective presidents are able 53 to.articulate--at the institutional level--how'institutional.history and traditions underscore the importance of participation in community service , and other extracurricular activities , to learning and personal development. Given that many faculty appear to dismiss the importance of community service as a function of higher education, the way in which the college president goes about articulating and implementing a community service mission is likely to determine whether it becomes fully embedded in the institution’ 5 organizational culture. Clark (1970) provides insights into the efforts of Dexter Merriam Keezer, President of Reed College from 1935 to 1943, who wanted to increase the involvement of the college in the local community. According to Clark (1970), Keezer believed that intellectual development was not the sole interest of the college. In order to bridge the gap between the college classroom and the real world, and to extend the college into the region, Keezer proposed a course of study focusing on the Bonneville development that would enlist students, faculty members from six fields of study, members of the community, managers of private and public electric power developments, engineers, and labor leaders. The course of study was never implemented. Keezer claimed that people outside of Reed College were very enthusiastic about the program, as were the college’s trustees, and that students developed more interest as they learned about its potential benefits to themselves and to the community. The faculty, according to Keezer, killed it. Keezer (Clark, 1970) stated that " . . . with a few exceptions there was an oppressive lack of professorial enthusiasm, and the course soon wasted away because of lack of support from that crucial quarter." He also stated that 54 "With it went what I remain convinced was an opportunity made to order to strike a real blow for liberal education." The faculty offered an alternative explanation. They said that the president suggested.the course, two interested.professors planned it, and the president then did nothing to implement it. A.retrospective analysis of Keezer’s actions revealed that he attempted to change Reed College immediately upon his inauguration. The rapidity of change met with resistance from the faculty, who desired.an.intellectual campus and were not concerned.about how the local community perceived the institution. It is also important to note that during Keezer's eight year reign at Reed College, he had the opportunity to appoint only one permanent faculty member. According to Keezer, "There are few more important indicators of the chances that a new president has of making a substantial educational A imprint on a college than the number of key faculty appointments he will have a chance to make relatively soon. It is an indicator, however, which I innocently overlooked." CHAPTER III REVIEW OF LITERATURE: ALBION COLLEGE The review of literature presented in Chapter II emphasizes that private liberal arts colleges are firmly rooted in a tradition of community service. Chapter II also discusses some of the factors, including faculty, that have shaped the community service mission of the private liberal arts college. While the review in Chapter II gives an overview of the community service mission and the faculty role in shaping it, it does not provide the reader with an in-depth look at how one institution has wrestled with defining and practicing its own community service mission. Chapter III provides this in-depth look at an institution that is known for its community service mission-- Albion College. Chapter III not only traces the historical underpinnings and evolution of the community service mission at Albion College, an institution that has gained a national reputation for its involvement in the local community, it also discusses the college’ 5 recent successes and struggles with implementing a service mission in the local community. By doing so, it attempts to more fully answer, for one institution, the first research questions: To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a community service mission? This review also sets the stage for a survey of faculty attitudes at Albion College to answer the second research question: 55 56 To what extent do faculty support a community service mission for the private liberal arts college? This review draws heavily on a history of Albion College written in the college’s sesquicentennial in 1985 by a former faculty member, Dr. Keith Fennimore. Entitled, The Albion College Sesquicentennial.History: 1835-1985, this work traces not only the history of the college, but its struggles with developing, refining, and.practicing an institutional mission in general and a community service mission in particular. Additional information about the college’s mission and community service activities comes from numerous Albion College publications including the student newspaper (The Pleiad), a newspaper for alumni and parents (Io Triumphe), Albion College recruitment materials, the Albion College 1990-91 Self-Study, a copy of a recently developed grant proposal, excerpts fromlmission statements, and documents related to Albion College’s recent strategic planning process. History of Albion College Albion College was chartered in 1835 as the Wesleyan Seminary by the Methodist Episcopal Church in Spring Arbor, Michigan. It was intended to be "a literary institution within the Territory of Michigan for the promotion of arts and sciences and the general instruction of youth." In 1839, the charter was amended to permit the establishment of the seminary in Albion, and classes began in 1842. As early as 1848, Wesleyan Seminary began moving toward more traditional college studies, and in 1850, the power of the trustees of Wesleyan Seminary was enlarged to permit a branch of the seminary to be known as Albion Female College Institute. This branch became known as Albion Female College in 1857, and in 1861 the charter was 57 amended to permit one institution.with the full power of a college for both men and women. It was not until 1913 that Albion College fully abandoned its preparatory or pre-college function. (Albion College, 1992; Albion College, 1990). Albion College's transition from modest beginnings to one of the country’s strongest liberal arts colleges is similar to that of many of its contemporaries: "brushes with financial disaster, slow lessening of the influence of the church, erratic movement from less than rigorous beginnings toward high academic standards, gradual modification of the traditional curriculum, a struggle for identity, to name but a few of the more obvious." However, the transition from the Wesleyan Seminary of the past to the Albion College of the present has been especially characterized by an academic program that is connected with the real world (Albion College, 1990). The Albion College Community Service Mission Albion College is an institution that prides itself on being an innovator and national leader in service-learning and service to the local community. This tradition of community service can be traced.back to the college's beginning in 1835 when it established an Indian Department for the purpose of helping Native Americans residing in the area. This tradition has waxed and waned over the years, but has re-emerged in the Albion College literature and in practice in the local communitym In 1938, Albion College President John L. Seaton asserted "In all and through all the life of the college, human service remains the reason for its existence. . ." (Fennimore, 1985). In more recent times, Albion College points to the 1977 founding of the Gerald R. Ford Institute for Public Service as 58 evidence of its commitment to community service. Albion College claims that it is ". . . the first institution in the country, to the best of our knowledge, to offer an undergraduate program for the purpose of preparing students for public service careers. . ." (Albion College, 1989). While Albion College has ". . . moved only tentatively and quite recently toward a clear statement of mission, " concern for the well-being of others has been a constant component of formal mission statements (Albion College, 1990). A mission statement from 1960 emphasized that Albion College students were to become "responsible members of the world community." A summary statement of objectives prepared for the Albion College 1979 Self-Study claimed that an Albion College education was intended, in part, to cultivate a sense of community and mutual endeavor. The 1979 Self-Study (Albion College, 1990) also stated. "A. professional management major discovers that community service with day care children is a challenge. Thus, involvement in campus and community life may become as valuable to the liberal arts student as is the intellectual environment of the classroom." A 1984 revision of the formal mission statement adopted in 1983-84, placed even greater emphasis on community service. It claimed (Albion College, 1990) that, while the classroom should.be a focal point of the educational process, "To be a residential college, however, argues for a rich relationship among students, professors, administrators, staff members, and townspeople that goes far beyond the classroom. Students learn and develop intellectually and socially from one another and from their own response to community living." 59 In 1992, Albion College again revised its mission statement. According to Dr. Jim.Diedrick, Associate Professor of English and principal author of the mission statement (Bonnett, 1992), the new mission statement is ". . . the vision that precedes the policy." It is also ".... an.affirmation.of what we believe and.a blueprint for change." Albion College President Melvin Vulgamore stated in the same article "It’ s absolutely critical in any strategic planning process to decide what you’re all about." It is significant to note that the 1992 mission statement asserts "In our view, a liberal education is an education in active citizenship and service." Several of the goals that emerged from the final report of the Strategic Planning Committee, which convened the year following the revision of the mission statement, also address the college’s community service mission (Albion College, 1993b) . Goal 2 under the broad category of "Mission/Admissions" states that a primary goal of the college will be "To enter into partnership with the City of Albion to educate for the civic arts and to assure an enhanced future for the college and town." Goal 1 under the broad category of "Student Life" states the college will attempt to "Foster an integral sense of community on campus and in the city." Albion College continues to market itself as a place where students become involved in the community. The Albion College 1992— 93 Recruitment Booklet (Albion College, 1992) states "Albion College has taken the lead among the nation’s small colleges in promoting student service, and each year, more than half of our student body participates in a service activity." The 1995 Albion College recruitment booklet (Albion College, 1995) states "Converting ideals into action has been a part of Albion’s heritage for over 160 years. We invite you to put your 6O talents to work for the benefit of others." An entire section of the booklet that addresses community service begins by saying "In keeping with our United Methodist heritage, we encourage our students to make service a habit and to take this commitment with them when they graduate." The Albion College 1992-93 Academic Catalog (Albion College, 1992) states "Historically related to the United Methodist Church and profoundly aware of its connection with Judeo-Christian thought and values, Albion provides students with many curricular and cocurricular opportunities to assess their values, to discover the origin of their beliefs, to put their convictions to work in community service and volunteer projects (over 800 students currently so participate), and to deepen and broaden the structure of values on which they may base their subsequent decisions." In the 1993 "Welcome Back Albion College" supplement to the Albion Recorder, the concept of community service is addressed by nearly every writemu Don Omahan (Omahan, 1993), Vice President and Dean of Student Affairs, writes "We are fortunate to be surrounded by a rich community in Albion and Calhoun County. The opportunities are endless for students to get involved in projects ranging from volunteering for the local ambulance service to becoming a Big Brother or Big Sister to a needy child." In the same issue, William Stoffer (Stoffer, 1993), President of Albion Machine & Tool Company and an Albion resident, Albion College graduate, and Albion College'Trustee, states "I urge all of you who are coming here for the first time to think in broader terms, and to get involved in the community. There has been a tremendous growth in volunteerism among the students at Albion 61 College, and there are numerous opportunities to do that through the Student Volunteer Bureau and the Volunteer Service Center." Sue Marcos (1993), President of the Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce and also an Albion resident and graduate of Albion College, writes "We also hope that you will become a part of the Albion College tradition and get involved in the community through the Student Volunteer Bureau or the Volunteer Service Center." Albion College is a founding member of Michigan Campus Compact, an organization dedicated to fostering a spirit of community service at Michigan’s institutions of higher education. Dr. Melvin‘Vulgamore, President of Albion College, served for many years as Co-President of Michigan Campus Compact along with John DiBiaggio, former President of Michigan State University. Albion College is also a member of the national Campus Outreach Opportunity League (Albion College, 1992). Student Involvement in Community Service Albion College student involvement in the local community has been noteworthy. As the Albion College student newspaper, The Pleiad (Warner, 1993) , put it ". . . Albion College has a reputation for being a school that emphasizes community involvement." One student interviewed for the article stated "Both my parents went here, and they said it was a school big on community service." Another recent article in The Pleiad (1993c) stated "Something is on the rise at Albion and no, it's not the tuition” It’s the number of Albion College students who volunteer their time." Fennimore (1985) claims that students’ active involvement in campus and community life "In many respects. . . resembles the ’social religion’ which Dr. Whitehouse found so attractive in the 62 early days of his ministryn It is a religion.which.adopts the Boat People, fasts for World.Hunger drives, adopts a child in Zimbabwe, and devotes spring vacations to work projects in Appalachia." Extent of Student Involvement A 1989-90 study of college student volunteerism sponsored.by Michigan Campus Compact and conducted by the Center for Survey Research at Michigan State University (Hembroff & Zonia, 1990), showed that of the ten institutions surveyed, Albion College had the highest percentage of students volunteering during their enrollment (See Table 1). The survey also found that Albion College students are most likely to volunteer for an education-related activity, with 56 . 9% of Albion College students citing their involvement in tutoring and other educational programs. Approximately 35% of Albion College students surveyed perceived inadequate education to be the greatest need facing the Albion community (Busch, 1990). In terms of attitudes toward community service, 40.3% of Albion College students believed it was important for students to spend time doing volunteer work versus 28 .6% of students from other institutions. However, the study also showed that of the fifteen possible motivators listed in the questionnaire, the single most important reason why Albion College students (58.6%) performed community service was because of a course-related requirement (Busch, 1990). 63 Table 1 Percenp pf Students Involved in Community Service Before College and During College, by Michigan College COLLEGE BEFORE COLLEGE DURING COLLEGE CURRENTLY Adrian 68.8 45.9 18.6 Albion 73.1 64.5 27.8 Alma 72.8 57.7 30.3 Hope 69.0 48.7 24.3 LCC 53.1 21.9 19.3 MSU 57.5 33.9 16.7 NMU 57.4 37.2 16.3 U of M 69.7 58.8 32.9 WSU 57.3 39.2 19.6 WMU 61.5 43.7 17.8 TOTAL (average %) 60.2 39.8 21.0 Note. From "Campus Compact survey of student volunteer activity final report: 1989—90" by L.A. Hembroff and S.C. Zonia, 1990. Vehicles for Student Involvement Many of the community service activities for students at Albion College are coordinated through an organization called the Student Volunteer Bureau (SVB). SVB serves to connect community organizations in need of volunteers and students interested in volunteering. SVB has also been proactive in developing and operating its own community service initiatives. Staff from Campus Programs and Organizations (CPO) at Albion College serve as advisors to SVB. To make students and faculty more aware of community service opportunities, CPO publishes a weekly newsletter called "What’s Up," that highlights volunteer opportunities at Adbion College and.in the community. An.enclosure in "What’s Up" is "SVB Notes," that discusses recent and upcoming work of SVB (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995). 64 Albion College has several award programs, honorary organizations, and leadership development programs dedicated to community service. The H. Morley Fraser Award is given to a member of the Sophomore class who has "demonstrated commitment to excellence, values, and service. " The Project 250 is an award given to Freshman, Sophomore, and Junior students on the basis of student contribution in the areas of leadership and community service to the campus and Albion community (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995). Alpha Omega is a service honorary that conducts many community service activities per year and involves students as well as faculty. The Sleight Leadership Program at Albion College strives to develop servant leadership among students. Its recruitment brochure states (date unknown) "Through long-term and short-term activities, the Sleight Leadership Program helps students refine their leadership skills and use those skills in specific roles on campus and in the local community." Examples of on-going student community service activities include: 1. "Best Buddies," a program operated in conjunction with the Association for Retarded Citizens of Calhoun County (ARC). Best Buddies links Albion College students with mentally retarded adults (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995). 2. "Walk for Warmth," a program operated in conjunction with the Community Action Agency of Southcentral Michigan. Walk for Warmth raises money to assist low income families with heating bills (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995; Alpha Phi Omega, 1995). 3. The Albion Chapter of Habitat for Humanity works in conjunction with Greater Albion Habitat for Humanity to build “3 ‘4 10. 11. 65 affordable housing (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995; Alpha Phi Omega, 1995). Students conduct visits to Albion Manor to participate in recreational activities with senior citizens (Campus Program and Organizations, 1995). Students perform maintenance and repair work for senior citizens through the Albion Senior Citizen Center (Campus Programs and Organizations, 1995). "Albion Phone Buddies" is a program whereby Albion College students are linked.with senior citizens in the community and telephone them at least once per week to check up on them (Student Volunteer Bureau, 1995). CPO sponsors a non-credit class entitled "Service as Leadership Seminar. " This is a component of the Sleight Leadership Program (Student Volunteer Bureau, 1995). The Empty Bowl Dinner is an event sponsored by Delta Tau Delta fraternity to raise money for charitable organizations in Albion” Past recipients have included Greater Albion.Habitat for Humanity and Albion Interfaith Ministries (Constan, 1993) . Albion College students tutor elementary students through Students and Parents Enjoying Reading Together (SPERIW. They also volunteer for the Forks Book Award Program, a reading incentive program whereby Albion College students listen to children read and ask relevant questions (The Pleiad, 1994b) . In 1994-95, seven Albion College students served as AmeriCorps Volunteers. They helped design an environmental education curriculum for Lansing area schools (Ad Leader, 1995). Albion College students take part in an annual City Service Day each fall. Started in 1993, this is designed as an 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 66 opportunity for first-year students to volunteer off-campus in the City'of.Albion (Albion.Recordery 1993). In 1994, over 125 students of the approximately 450 students in Albion College’ 5 Freshman Class participated in City Service Day (The Pleiad, 1994c; Mbrning Star, 1994). Appalachian Service Project is described in The Sleight Leadership Program brochure (date unknown) published by Albion College. iEach year, approximately 25 Albion College students travel to Appalachia.to assist with home-rebuilding and.other projects. This project is completely organized by students. "Alternative Easter'Break" conducts an.annual trip to Detroit for students interested in working in soup kitchens and homeless shelters (The Pleiad, 1994a). In 1993, approximately 50 Albion College students worked on flood relief activities over fall break in St. Louis. The trip was sponsored by SVB (The Pleiad, 1993b). Learning Is Fun Together (L.I.F.T.) is a mentoring program sponsored through SVB in which many Albion College students participate (The Pleiad, 1993b). Each year, Albion College hosts the Special Olympics for most of southern Michigan. This is the single largest volunteer event at Albion College, attracting nearly 25% of the student body as volunteers (The Pleiad, 1993d). The "Briton Bash" is an adaptation of the former Volunteer Fair. This activity is held at the beginning of each school year. According to Leverett (1993a) , "Briton Bash is a campus-wide celebration that attempts to inform students and community members alike of the wide array of activities that are available not only on the campus but in the city'as well." 67 WW Albion College’s tradition of community service is described in every recent recruitment brochure and booklet. According to Lee Williams, Director of Campus Programs and Organizations at Albion College, "If you come to Albion, there is an expectation that you will serve others" (Mbrning Star, 1993). There is some evidence to suggest that Albion College is indeed able to recruit students who have an interest in community service. 'the 1989-90 study' of college student 'volunteerism sponsored by Michigan Campus Compact, which was described earlier in this chapter (Hembroff & Zonia, 1990), showed that of the ten institutions surveyed, Albion College had the highest percentage of students volunteering before college (See Table 1 above). The recruitment aspect of community service is also supported by research data from the COOperative Institutional Research Program (1985; 1989). These data reveal a considerable increase in Albion College students’ interest in participating in community action and influencing social values between 1985 and 1989 (See Table 2). 68 Table 2 Objectives Considered to be Essential or Very Important by First Year Albion College Students STATEMENT & YEAR PERCENT DIFFERENCE Participate in community action 1985 (n=374) 23.0% 1989 (n=366) 29.5% +6.5% Influence social values 1985 (n=376) 35.6% 1989 (n=369) 46.6% +11.0% Note. From "Summary of data on entering freshmen for fall" by Cooperative Institutional Research Program, 1985 and 1989. Faculty Involvement in Community Service The formal literature on Albion College says very little about the importance of community service in faculty life other than its role in shaping the moral character of students. However, there is evidence of faculty involvement.in.the community'as individuals, in the curriculum, and in College-sponsored programs targeting the community. 7 The apex of faculty and administrator involvement may have occurred in 1896—97, when Dr. Samuel Dickie served both as Albion College President and as Mayor of the City of Albion (Fennimore, 1985). According to Fennimore, "In addition to his commitment to Prohibition.and his dedication.to.Albion.College, Dr. Dickie was an active participant in.a variety of community affairs. For years he chaired the combined town and gown committee that sponsored the annual May Festival, and he became involved in local business enterprises as well." While his reign as mayor was brief and 69 tempestuous because of his commitment to Prohibition, it reflected. his dedication to the community and community service. According tolFennimore, Dr; Dickie ". .. preached responsible citizenship to every student generation under his tutelage." Vehicles for Faculty Involvement Many faculty members continue to belong to various community service, social, and religious organizations (Albion College, 1990) . Community efforts of faculty include: 1. Albion College faculty have played a major role in environmental issues. Faculty helped establish the Recycling Center in the 19705 and resurrected it in the early 19905 (Fennimore, 1985). Many faculty serve as volunteers for the Albion Area Ambulance Service (Albion College, 1990; Io Triumphs, 1990). Albion.College faculty'serveeas committee chairs, volunteers, and donors for the annual Hospital Benefit Ball. Albion College faculty are actively involved in "Citizens to Beautify Albion," Albion Civic Foundation, Albion Volunteer Service Organization; Albion Community Theater, and Albion Historical Society. Vernon Bobbitt, then a Professor of Art at Albion College, led the drive to purchase and renovate the Society’ 5 museum in downtown Albion. Bobbitt was also responsible for having trees planted along Superior Street downtown (Sebastian, 1992; Io Triumphe, 1990). Sharon Hostetler, a support staff member in Philosophy and Religion, started a local organization called "Kids Cardiac Life Support" (KCLS). This is a program to teach children basic first aid. She replicated the program in South Africa 70 and was able to raise over $16,000 in Albion for the program in South Africa (Io Triumphs, 1993). Faculty Involvement in Community Service It is difficult to determine where faculty involvement in community service ends and Albion College involvement begins because many community service programs sponsored by Albion College are actually administered and conducted by faculty. For the purposes of this review of literature, the following discriminators were used. The first category is addressed in this section of the review of literature, while the second category is addressed in the section that addresses institutional service: 1” An activity was considered.to.be individual when it would.not have been conducted without the involvement of key faculty members, regardless of whether the activity was officially sponsored by Albion College; and 2 . An activity was considered to be institutional when the college served as the official sponsor gpg when the activity would be conducted regardless of the involvement of particular faculty members. There are many examples of Albion College-sponsored curricular and co-curricular activities that are highly dependent on particular faculty members. While these activities are being addressed in the faculty section of this review of literature, in the future it is possible that some of these activities will become institutionalized, i.e., Albion College will continue to sponsor them after the "faculty advocate" has left. An example of a faculty-initiated,.Albion.College-sponsored.activity that has made such a transition is Foreign Languages in the Elementary Schools 71 (FLES), that has thus far continued through several changes in foreign language faculty. A.curricular activity that may’make a similar transition is a class developed and taught by Dr. Myron Levine, professor and chairperson of political science at Albion College. For five consecutive years, Levine has offered, "Voluntarism, Community, and Citizenship. " This class is now a permanent offering in the Albion College curriculum (Io Triumphs, 1990). According to Levine, "We believe both faculty and students should be involved in the communityu This is one of a number of courses attempting to bridge that gap, which is sometimes too large." Dr. Levine also coordinates Operation Bentley, a government simulation for high school juniors (Albion College, 1992). In 1993, Dr. Glen Perusek, Associate Professor of Political Science, and Dr. Catherine Lamb, Associate Professor of English, designed and taught an. Albion College class entitled, "The Individual Community and Polity Project." Students enrolled in the class are required to perform at least fifteen hours of community service in the community in addition to having a traditional classroom experience. According to Perusek, "We’re trying to make the educational experience more than books and what goes on in the classroom. They’re getting a chance to look at local politics, government, and social problems first hand" (Slaughter, 1995). Institutional Involvement in Community Service For many years, Albion College has allowed community residents to participate in entertainment and cultural programs offered on campus. Recently, Albion College’s has allowed limited access to 72 its athletic and recreational facilities. Some of the activities and services offered to community residents include: 1 . Access to the Whitehouse Nature Center (Albion College, 1990) ; 2. Services offered through the Anna Howard Shaw Women’s Center (Albion College, 1993); 3. Access to athletic and recreational facilities; 4. Elementary student access to FLES, "Foreign Languages in the Elementary Schools" (Albion College, 1990; Poteet, Pace, & Yewah, 1991); 5. Ability of community residents to audit college classes at a reduced fee (Albion College, 1990); 6. Opportunity for Albion Senior High School students to enroll in college classes (Albion College, 1990; Poteet, Pace, & Yewah, 1991); and 7. Programs offered by the Albion Performing Artists and Lecture Series (APALS) . The college has focused more of its cultural programming on the community and has made it more accessible to community residents (The Pleiad, 1993s). Albion Civic Life Project In 1987, Albion College’s involvement in the local community took a significant step in different direction when it sought and received funding from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation to implement a comprehensive community development initiativeu Called the Albion Civic Life Project (ACLP), this project marked the first known attempt in the history of Albion College for the institution--not simply students and faculty--to change the quality of life in the community (Knibloe, 1992). 73 The ACLP was designed ". . . for educating citizens and leaders and for building the community of Albion" (Albion College, 1987). The original objectives of the ACLP were to (Lelle, 1993): 1. Conduct community forums to enhance "civic conversation" in the community; 2. Establish a voluntarism class at Albion College; 3. Collaborate with.the public schools to teach language arts in the elementary schools; 4. Open a volunteer center; 5. Enhance Albion College’s co-curricular service activities; 6. Establish Visiting Practitioner/Consultant Teams; and 7. Develop and enhance Albion College outreach programs. With.the exception.of community forums, these objectives were intended to survive beyond the grant. The voluntarism class at Albion College, the Albion Volunteer Service Center, the enhancement of Albion College’ 5 co-curricular service activities, and the development and enhancement of Albion College outreach programs have all been accomplished, although perhaps not to the degree originally intended. Formative and summative evaluations of the ACLP revealed a number of lessons learned about college involvement in and interaction with the local community (Melcher & Labovitz, 1992). One of the most important lessons was that the ACLP was primarily intended to benefit Albion College and its students, and secondarily to improve the community and its citizens (Melcher & Labovitz, 1992) . Other lessons learned included: 1) Many people believed the ACLP was conceived by a few individuals at Albion College and in local government , denying a broad-based community involvement in the C02 r-N‘ CV“ k) ‘A’ 5‘1- 74 conceptualization of the grant; and 2) project management was controlled by Albion College. Recommendations listed in the final evaluation report developed by Melcher and Labovitz (1992) include the following: 1. Albion College should establish a community development outreach program ‘under the management of a community development specialist; 2. Albion College should establish a course on community development and citizen participation to augment the existing course on volunteerism. According to Melcher and Labovitz, this would emphasize the commitment to "civic life" embodied in the liberal arts tradition; 3. Albion College outreach should seek to address issues of racial polarization by establishing collaborative relations and innovative programming with the diverse segments of the community; and 4. The City of Albion and Albion College should continue to collaborate on projects of mutual benefit and should provide leadership to encourage other community organization participation. Though not without it mistakes and challenges, the ACLP was indeed.an innovative experiment that has paved the way for greater involvement in the community by Albion College. Todd Warner, an .Albion College student interviewed for an article in The Pleiad (1992a), said the Civic Life Project "has provided a way for a meaningful relationship to develop between the college and the Community." According to Mark Lelle (1993), one of two persons who served as project director, 75 The Albion Civic Life Project has been a wonderful experiment in college/community collaboration. Without question the project has caused Albion College and the Albion community to draw closer together, sometimes to the discomfort of both” Community developers know that change does not occur without conflict. Sometimes it seemed that Albion College did not anticipate this conflict, was not prepared for it, and did not adequately address conflict when it arose. This is not a criticism of Albion College’s efforts to take a lead role in the community-—rather, it is a suggestion that private liberal arts colleges seek the expertise of experienced community development professionals before they engage in community development. Albion College certainly should do so before attempting to establish closer ties with the community. In summarizing the impact of the ACLP, Melcher and Labovitz (1992) state, The role of Albion College, with the support of the Kellogg Foundation, has been critical to the evolution of the ACLP and the Albion community itself. The importance of the College cannot be diminished, and as the major institution in the community, it bears a responsibility to build upon the gains of the project to further enhance the quality of life in Albion for its residents. This responsibility is not taken lightly by the College and its administration, and will require support and cooperation from the City, its public and private organizations, and its residents. Greater Albion Alliance 2000 Based on some of the lessons learned from the ACLP, and recognizing the many unresolved needs of the Albion community, in 1991 Albion College embarked on another community initiative in partnership with the Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce (Cavins, 1992). This initiative continues tolbe.known.as the Greater Albion Alliance 2000. The Alliance signals the college’s first major effort to engage in service for the benefit of the community, instead of service for the educational benefit of students. The broad purpose of the Greater Albion Alliance 2000 is to improve the quality of life in the City of Albion and surrounding 76 townships (Kingsley Hinds, 1991) . Originally, the Alliance was comprised of five design teams that addressed economic development, water quality, health care, community image, and housing. Over one hundred community and College leaders participated in the design teams. The President of Albion College, Dr. Melvin Vulgamore, has played a key role in the formation and growth of the Alliance, as have several faculty members (Morning Star, 1992) . Albion College has hosted the majority of Alliance meetings and has funded many of its activities, including a $500, 000 gift from Albion College to the City of Albion for the purpose of addressing water quality (Albion Recorder, 1992) . According to Vulgamore (Io Triumphs, 1992) , "Just as the City has received worldwide recognition via the College, so the College needs a thriving city in which to fulfill its mission. We are partners for the future." While it is still too soon to predict the total impact of the Alliance on the Albion community, early indications suggest that the Alliance has played some part in many positive developments in the community. Some of these development include the signing of a P.A. 425 agreement between the City of Albion and Sheridan Township (claimed to be the first ever in Michigan where a city returned land to a township), the purchase of additional land for the city’s industrial park, code enforcement, innovative housing programs, and the formal separation of Albion Community Hospital from the City of Albion and its partnership with Battle Creek Health Systems. City of Albion/Albion Colleqe Partnership In 1993, a group of Albion College and community representatives began drafting a proposal to fund a follow-up 77 initiative to the ACLP and a complementary initiative to the Greater Albion Alliance 2000 (Albion College, 1993a). While this draft proposal was not submitted to a funder, many of its components have been incorporated in other initiatives, such as the college’s new student center. The proposal states that Albion College ". . . is now the second largest employer in the City and finds its future inextricably linked to that of the City. This proposal links the resources of talent, training, and.program.of the College with the elected officials and management of the City in an effort to tackle this microcosm of the challenges of Urban America." The proposal discusses many'of.Albion.College’s programs that had previously made tentative steps to serve the community (i.e., the Gerald R. Ford Institute for Public Service, the Sleight Leadership Program, and the Anna Howard Shaw Women’s Center), and states "We propose to transform these programs and our internal structures which have focused almost exclusively on the development of our own students in order to turn them outward toward the community." The proposal continues "Moreover, we will set a style for service to the community throughout the institution, ranging from personnel rewards which take serious account of the involvement of faculty and staff in community service, to the Bookstore which will be rebuilt and expanded in order to offer to citizens the resources which.will support the programs themselves--for example, literacy, substance abuse, the role of women, as well as economic and community development." 78 Issues in the Albion College Service Mission The Albion College literature reveals several key issues related to the institution’s community service mission: The Albion community as an environment for Albion College, community service as a means to enhance student development, contradictions between the college’s rhetoric and practice of community service, and the faculty role in shaping the community service mission. Communitv as Environment for Albion Colleqe Like many college communities, the "town and.gown" tension in Albion is not a new one. What little is mentioned in The Albion College Sesquicentennial History: 1835—1985 (Fennimore, 1985) about college and community relations deals almost exclusively with conflict. As far back as 1892, Albion College and the City of Albion have debated the extent to which the college should grow by annexing areas adjacent to campus. The management of this tension may have been one of Dr. Samuel Dickie’s reasons for chairing the town and gown relations committee in the 18905 (Fennimore, 1985). Contemporary tensions do not have as much to do with the spread of the college as they do with determining an appropriate service role in the community. Albion College recognizes this tension” The 1990-91 Self Study (Albion College, 1990) states, ". city residents sometimes think of the College as a logical bankroll for major civic activities, while the College sometimes thinks of itself as more welcoming to the entire spectrum of city residents than it really is. The economic decline in Albion is a source of concern for both city and college, but not yet a source of common thinking about how to attack the problem." 79 Despite continuing tension, there is little question that Albion College’s efforts to become more engaged in the community have resulted in improved relations. An article in The Pdeiad (Bondi, 1993) states that although relations between the town and the college continue to leave room for improvement, they are much better than they used to be. In the article Mayor Lois McClure asserts "I see steady progress. There was very little contact between the town and the college 30 years ago. " Even Albion College students point to the improved working relationship between the college and the community. According to Ann Walsh, Wilmette, Ill. , senior and SVB’s community organizations coordinator, the cooperation.between the Albion College community and the residents of the city of Albion is what makes Student Volunteer Bureau (SVB) so successful (The Pleiad, 1993b). IiSeptember'lo, 1993 article in The Pleiad (Warner, 1993) that discusses the first annual SOAR Service Day, states that student leaders hoped the project did a lot to break down persisting stereotypes of both the town and the college students. The relationship .between .Albion. College and the .Albion community is maturing, with both sides beginning to recognize their mutual obligations and limitations. .According to the 1990-91 Self Study (Albion College, 1990), "The College-city relationship. reflects more than the accident of location. It is very much a two- way street whereby college and city responsibilities to encourage civic participation and commitment are mutually served." Jean Alexander, a former member of Albion City Council, stated in an exit interview that "The college has experts in many fields and those people should be approached for assistance, as some already are" (Slaughter, 1993) As Poteet, Pace, and Yewah assert (1991), "The 80 fit of city and college in Albion, and the prospects for fruitful educational collaboration that goes beyond practice teaching, might seem improbable at best. Albion College, after all, appears to be an island in an ocean of otherness. But, in reality, the reverse is true." Community Service as Student Development One of the primary themes running throughout the Albion College literature on community service is that, until the past three years, the college was interested in community service because of its potential benefits to students, not because of its benefits to the community. This was acknowledged by Albion College (1993) itself in its "Proposal for City of Albion/Albion College Partnership, " that refers to " . . . programs and our internal structures which have focused almost exclusively on the development of our own.students. .,"'and.says that these aspects of the college will be re-focused on the community. Less formal literature also demonstrates this emphasis on student development. In the 1993 "Welcome Back Albion College" supplement to the Albion Recorder (Omahan, 1993), Don Omahan, Vice President and Dean of Student Affairs, writes "The lessons learned from experiences such as these (volunteering) will go far as you develop your total person—-intellectual, physical, social, ethical, spiritual." In the same issue, William Stoffer (Stoffer, 1993), President of Albion Machine & Tool Company and an Albion resident, Albion College graduate, and Albion College Trustee, states "This (volunteering) is all part of a liberal arts education which will help you in whatever career you choose. " Perusek, in discussing the class he offers at Albion College, states "We’re trying to make the 81 educational experience more than books and what goes on in the classroom" (Albion Recorder, 1995) . None of these writers mentions that student service will be of benefit to the community. Still, the evidence suggests that this limited view of community service as a way to enhance the educational experiences of students or to improve the relationship between Albion College and the community, may be changing. The strongest evidence for a shift in.philosophy toward.greater community impact, and away from service-learning or relationship building, is Albion College's pronouncement to this effect (Albion College, 1993): We plan to open to the outer world our resources of analysis, education, and change in order to focus them on the community as a whole and not solely upon the College constituencies. We believe that in so doing we can provide a test case and a successful model for similar communities and educational institutions which will be the nucleus of America’s revitalization for the year 2000. As co-founder of the Michigan Campus Compact and member of the national board of Campus Compact, and with.a generation of volunteer experience in this City, we are ready to build a national model for community/campus partnership. Contradictions in Rhetoric and Practice Even with a reputation and a mission that support community service, Albion College struggles with achieving a proper balance between practicing its stated ideals on the one hand, and remaining attractive to students as an institution that is known for its traditional liberal arts education, on the other hand. This struggle received considerable attention on campus in 1994 when Albion College agreed to demonstrate support for the annual Walk For Warmth. by turning off the heat in student dormitories, and then reversed that decision after several students complained” .A Letter to the editor in the February 25, 1994, issue of The Pleiad (St. John, 1994) written by an Albion College 82 sophomore expressed disappointment in Albion College students who refused to participate and who were able to get Albion College to withdraw its support. However, the letter was especially critical of Albion College. The student stated "I am jparticularly disappointed in the administration and its recent actions against the Walk for Warmth. group. I find it appalling that the administration preaches multiculturalism, inclusion, and social responsibility, yet it practices something entirely different!" Later in the letter the student stated "Is this really the way you want to represent yourself to your student body, the Albion community and the rest of the world? What do any of the virtuous ideals that you preach.about mean.if'you.won’t back up your words?" The closing of the letter was especially interesting because it advocated, as an act of protest against Albion College, that students get involved in the community. "To my fellow students: you should be outraged at the spinelessness demonstrated by our administration! I challenge you to pick up the ball that has dropped" There are a number of ways you can. protest the administration’ 5 attitude. Go down to Albion Interfaith Ministries and let them put you to work some afternoon. Donate to the Walk for Warmth. Walk in it yourself next year." Faculty Role in Shaping the Service Mission Like other private liberal arts colleges, decision-making and governance at Albion College is more centralized.than it is at most public institutions (Keeton, 1971) . Again like other private colleges, however, faculty' members have demanded. more self- government as they have grown more effective and distinguished over the years (Wicke, 1964). 83 According to the Albion College Faculty Handbook (1990), the governance of Albion College is a collegial undertaking that involves cooperation among the faculty, the administration, and the Board of Trustees. The Faculty Handbook states that, although the college’s Charter of 1857 vests all authority in the Board, the primary responsibilities for assuring that the college fulfills its mission.are distributed among several constituencies, one of which is the faculty. In theory, faculty are the chief policy-making body for the academic program of the college and the body charged with implementing academic policy. The Board of Trustees, however, retains the power of final review and decision. The Faculty Handbook states "The Trustees also establish for the faculty the responsibility for making recommendations to the Emesident and through the President to the Board of Trustees regarding faculty personnel policy, the means of protecting academic freedom and tenure, and the authority to write a constitution delineating faculty powers and responsibilities." In the 19905, Albion College faculty have played a key and growing role in the development of the Albion College mission. Not only have faculty members been part of every major strategic planning committee, they are beginning to have greater direct contact with the Board of Trustees. It is not clear from the literature what effect the faculty will have on the college’s community service mission. Peculty meeting minutes since 1990 do not say anything about the Albion College community service mission. Informal conversations with faculty members suggest that the current interest in community service is more a product of Trustee and administration interest, 84 than of faculty desire. Many of the goals that emerged from strategic planning committees for increasing the impact of community service in promotion and tenure decisions, and for enhancing the involvement of the college in the community, have been criticized by faculty as a whole. The argument against a strong community service mission most frequently cited by faculty is that it would interfere with the college’s strong tradition in the liberal arts, and would hinder the institution’s goal of becoming one of the most prestigious private liberal arts colleges in the nation. Informal conversations with Albion College faculty, while suggestive of the general sentiment regarding a community service mission, do not represent an adequate base of evidence upon which to form meaningful conclusions. Therefore, Chapter IV discusses the methodology that was used to systematically collect information about faculty attitudes. CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY As was stated in Chapter I, two research questions are addressed in this study: 1. To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a community service mission? 2. To what extent do faculty support a community service mission for the private liberal arts college? Research Question 1 was addressed via reviews of literature in Chapters II and III. The methods necessary for conducting a study of faculty attitudes regarding a community service mission- -Research Question 2--are presented in this chapter. Rationale for a Written Questionnaire The survey data were partially funded.by, and conducted.under the auspices of, the Albion Civic Life Project (ACLP) . As described in Chapter III, the ACLP was a comprehensive community development initiative funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation and administered by Albion College. 'The author of this dissertation served first as Evaluation Coordinator and, later, as Director of the ACLP. One major component of the ACLP was an evaluation to determine the impact of the project on the Albion community, and on Albion College faculty and students. In 1989, a written survey was 85 86 conducted to gather information about the Albion community’ 5 perceptions of the community and the ACLP. The population for this study included all adult households in the City of Albion, as well as Albion and Sheridan Townships. The individual was the unit of analysis. Telephone interviews were ruled out because of the volume of questions being asked and because it would require the use of skilled interviewers. For similar reasons, oral interviews were not used” .Also, the ACLP was interested.in gathering information from several hundred people, something that would be difficult to do using oral interviews (Scheaffer, Mendenhall, & Ott, 1979). Two additional reasons for using a written questionnaire in the community were: 1) to replicate selected portions of a written community survey conducted in 1985, prior to the ACLP; and 2) to train community residents how to conduct their own research for‘ assessing community needs and progress. The author of this dissertation (as director of the project that sponsored the study) , in conjunction with ACLP Advisory Committee members from Albion College and the Albion community, decided to use a similar approach for gathering information from Albion College faculty and students because, again, the individual was the unit of analysis (Babbie, 1986). This would.allow the ACLP to replicate selected portions of the 1985 and 1989 Albion community surveys, as well as to reach the entire population of Albion College faculty and administrators, something for which a survey is ideally suited (Babbie, 1986). Research Involving Use of Human Subjects The ACLP study adhered.to.Albion College’s Policy on Research Involving Use of Human Subjects, which can be found in Appendix A. 87 On behalf of the ACLP, Joel Lichty from the Department of Resource Development at MSU applied for and received written permission to proceed with the study from MSU’ 5 "University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). A letter from the Chair of UCRIHS, dated March 19, 1991, can be found in Appendix B. Population and Sample The population for this study (5:252) consisted of all faculty and administrators, employed half-time or more, at Albion College. Unless stated otherwise, references to "Albion College faculty" or "faculty" throughout this dissertation are intended to include 12% faculty and administrators. The initial list of names was drawn from the 1990-91 Albion College roster. The Albion College definition of "administrator," taken from the Albion College Administrative Organization Chart (See Appendix C) , was used to determine which non-faculty staff would be included in the study. Dr. Daniel Poteet II, Provost of Albion College, reviewed each individual selected to make sure they were either a faculty member or administrator, were employed half-time or greater, and were still employed at Albion College. Dr. Poteet determined that one faculty member on the list had left employment at Albion College, and that the author of this dissertation (who was classified as an administrator) should not complete a questionnaire. Thus, the legitimate population and sample consisted of 250 faculty members and administrators. Non-response is a concern in self-administered questionnaires (Scheaffer, Mendenhall, & Ott, 1979). To be able to conduct non- response follow—up, and to ensure confidentiality, each faculty member was assigned an identifying number. As an additional 88 precaution to safeguard confidentiality, Albion College faculty mailed their completed questionnaires directly to the Department of Resource Development at Michigan State University, and not to the author of this dissertation. Study Funding The ACLP paid. most of the costs associated with data collection at Albion College (See Appendix D for a copy of the "Statement of General Agreement" signed between the ACLP and Michigan State University’s Department of Resource Development). A grant from the Indiana University Center on Philanthropy to the author of this dissertation, paid for costs associated with the instrument pre-test at Beloit College. The notification letter from the Indiana University Center on Philanthropy can be found in Appendix F. Questionnaire Development The final survey instrument used in this study served two purposes: 1) to collect data for use in the dissertation; and 2) to help evaluate the Albion College faculty portion of the ACLP. External Assistance in the Desiqn Process The questionnaire was designed by the author of the dissertation in cooperation with a panel of eight faculty members and administrators at Albion College, and graduate students and staff from the Department of Resource Development at Michigan State University (MSU) . The faculty and staff from Albion College included representatives from Campus Programs and Organizations; the Gerald R. Ford Institute for Public Service; Student Affairs; the “I 89 Registrar’s office; the Provost’s office; the President’s office; and the faculty. All Albion College representatives had prior experience with the ACLP or with service-learning. With the exception of the author, all Albion College panel members were included in the sample. The Department of Resource Development at MSU was hired to help administer, analyze, and write the final report for the evaluation portion of the study. These graduate students were enrolled in RD 865 Community Development Field Study: Project Design. Resource Development staff and graduate students had expertise in survey design, data collection, and data analysis. W Prior to developing the survey instrument, several institutions and organizations were contacted regarding previously developed and validated questionnaires that might be used to collect faculty’ and administrators’ attitudes toward the role of the college in the local community. These organizations included the Association of American Colleges; Michigan Campus Compact; Independent Sector; the National Society for Internships and Experiential Education; and non-profit and service-learning centers at Case Western Reserve University, Indiana University Center on Philanthropy, Yale University, Brown University, and Michigan State University. The Indiana University Center on Philanthropy indicated that it was working on a faculty and administrator questionnaire to measure attitudes toward and participation in philanthropy and volunteerism, but that the instrument had not yet been completed. A copy of an instrument developed by Michigan State University (Arthur, 1989) was secured and provided some guidance in the 90 development of the questionnaire for Albion College. However, this questionnaire focused on individual faculty involvement and did not address the institution’s community service mdssion” .Michigan Campus Compact did have a questionnaire used to measure students’ attitudes toward, and participation in, community service, but this instrument was not relevant for a faculty and administrator survey. The National Society for Internships and Experiential Education (NSIEE) mailed to the author a copy of a questionnaire used at Metropolitan State University to measure student, faculty, administrator, and staff participation in community service activities. This questionnaire measured participation in--but not attitudes toward--community service. The other institutions were not aware of any existing questionnaire that would be applicable to the Albion College study. As was mentioned earlier, selected portions from the 1985 and 1989 Albion community surveys that dealt with community residents’ perceptions of the community, were included in the faculty questionnaire. These sections of the survey allowed the ACLP evaluation to compare faculty’ and community residents’ attitudes toward the community. Three general concepts served as a framework for the development of the portion of the questionnaire that addressed faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College. These general concepts addressed the role of students, faculty, and the institution in the local community. The faculty panel at Albion College suggested that the three general concepts could.be further divided into six sub—concepts. The three general concepts, along with their sub-concepts, were: 91 1. The role of students in the local community A. Faculty attitudes toward student participation in community service. B. Faculty attitudes toward service in the curriculum. 2. The role of faculty in the local community A. Faculty attitudes regarding the importance of faculty community service. B. Faculty' attitudes regarding" the current extent of faculty participation in community service. 3. The role of the institution in the local community A. Faculty attitudes toward the role of the college in community development. B. Faculty attitudes toward community access to the college. Gable (1986) recommends writing ten or more items for each construct included in the questionnaire. In cooperation with the Department of Resource Development at MSU and the panel of faculty and administrators at Albion College, an item pool of over ninety questions related to the six sub-concepts was developed. From this pool, the faculty panel chose fifty-two items that best reflected the sub-concepts. Because the order of questions can affect how people respond (Babbie, 1986), the fifty-two items were randomly assigned in Question 10 of the questionnaire. As is explained in the data analysis section of this chapter, the purpose of the sub—concepts was to serve:as a guide in question development, i.e., to help generate questions that addressed every aspect of Albion College’s community service mission. These sub- concepts were not treated as constructs in data analysis. Rather, 92 factor analysis was conducted with the returned questionnaires to identify factors within this portion of the questionnaire. Questionnaire Pre-Test The questionnaire was pre-tested in February, 1991 at Beloit College, a private liberal arts college located in Beloit, ‘Wisconsinn Beloit was selected.as the pre-test site because it has a similar mission and faculty, and is located leii midwestern community that mirrors the economic and ethnic diversity of Albion, Michigan. The pre-test questionnaire, accompanied by a stamped, self- addressed envelope (with the address of the Department of Resource Development at MSU) and a cover letter from Dr. Parker Marden, Dean of Beloit College, were distributed to all faculty and administrators at Beloit College (151:139) . Dr. Robert Black, Associate Dean of Beloit College, distributed the questionnaire via Beloit College campus mail to faculty members and administrators he determined were employed half-time or greater. The questionnaires were not coded, and thus there was no follow-up of non—respondents. A reminder postcard was sent via Beloit College campus mail two weeks after the questionnaires were distributed. Beloit College faculty returned their completed questionnaires directly to the Department of Resource Development at Michigan State University, and not to the Albion Civic Life Project nor the author of this dissertation. Of the 139 questionnaires distributed at Beloit College, 65 completed questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 46 .8%. Sixteen questionnaires were not used for calculating reliability estimates on Question. 10 because of missing information or errors in 93 completing that portion of the questionnaire. This left 49 cases on which to base estimates of reliability related to the six sub- concepts. The pre-test had two primary purposes. The first purpose was to use Beloit College faculty to identify questions that were unclear or poorly worded, and to have them suggest alternative wording. The second purpose was to determine the appropriateness and reliability of the sub-concepts related to the role of students, faculty, and the institution in the local community. Reliability Item analysis of the Beloit College questionnaires revealed that three items in Question 10 decreased instrument reliability substantially. These items were eliminated, and reliability estimates were run again. One item was revised based on feedback from several respondents. The six sub-concepts, the revised item pairs and individual items comprising each sub-concept, and the reliability estimates of the revised sub-constructs are shown.belowu Reliability estimates were calculated using coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951). Gable (1986) prefers scales with a coefficient alpha of .70 or higher. It should be noted that sub—concepts 2.B and 3.B failed to meet Gable’s criterion. 1. The role of students in the local community A. Faculty attitudes toward student participation in community service (Items 17+28, 27): Alpha=.7946 B. Faculty attitudes toward service in the curriculum (Items 1+33, 12+44, 21+35, 37+38): Alpha=.9028 94 2. The role of faculty in the local community A. Faculty attitudes regarding the importance of faculty community' service (Items 6+24, 9+32, 10+18, 11+40, 14+41, 23+52): Alpha=.9179 18. Faculty' attitudes regarding the current extent of faculty'participation.in community service (3+36, 7+16, 45+48): Alpha=.5947 3. The role of the institution in the local community A. Faculty attitudes toward the role of the college in community development (Items 2+8, 4+13, 15+26, 25+31, 34+47): Alpha=.8544 B. Faculty attitudes toward community access to the college (5+43, 20+22, 29+46): Alpha=.5839 Validity This study addressed the issue of validity by assessing content and construct validity. According to Ary et al. (1979), content validity refers to the extent to which the content of an instrument reflects the content of interest. Content validity cannot be measured by a numerical index--it is a judgement best made by a panel of experts. Construct validity asks whether the instrument measures the traits it purports to measure, and can be determined logically and empirically. In this study, the author chose to use a panel of experts to assess both content and construct validity. This study did not assess criterion-related validity because there was no pre-existing instrument with which to make comparisons. Content and construct validity of the revised questionnaire were assessed by a panel of seventeen people who had expertise 95 related to service-learning or the service mission of higher education” The panel included representatives from the Council of Michigan Foundations; Michigan Campus Compact; National Campus Compact; campus Outreach Opportunity.Leagus; National Society for Internships and Experiential Education; MSU’s Service Learning Center; Independent Ssctorv W.K. Kellogg Foundation; Indiana University Center on Philanthropy; and the Association of American Colleges. Faculty members on the panel included representatives from MSU; Augsburg College; and the University of California at Berkeley. Several members of the panel were familiar with Albion College, the Albion community, and the Albion Civic Life Project. Questionnaire Administration The study was conducted in April, 1991, at the end of the Albion College school year: This was done to allow new faculty and administrators to become familiar with the community and acclimated to the culture of the college. As with the Beloit College pre-test questionnaire, the questionnaire was originally written in portrait format on 8%" by 11" paper. These pages were then reduced to fit side-by-side in landscape format on 11" by 8%" paper, fold once in the middle to form a booklet 8%" high and 5%" wide, and stapled twice in the middle. 'The.Albion College questionnaire in Appendix I is shown in its original format prior to being converted into booklets. The instructions printed on the inside front cover of the questionnaire stated that the questionnaire had been developed in cooperation with a panel of faculty and administrators at Albion College. Faculty were instructed that participation was strictly voluntary, that completed questionnaires would not be viewed by 96 anyone from.Albion, that all responses would be confidential, and that information returned to Albion would be summarized and would not contain names. Faculty were also instructed not to write their names on the questionnaires or place marks on the return envelope. The name and home and work telephone numbers of the author were printed in the instructions, and respondents were encouraged to call if they had questions about the study. Faculty were asked to complete the questionnaire by themselves and to answer all questions. Faculty were told that the questionnaire required approximately thirty minutes to complete. Three definitions were printed on the inside front cover of the questionnaire to provide clarity on three terms used in the questionnaire that the author and the Albion College panel believed might cause confusion among respondents. These terms and definitions were: Volunteerism: Voluntary community service. Community Service: Community service can be voluntary or required, as in court-ordered community service. Philanthropy: In.this surveyfiphilanthropy'refers only to the giving of money. In other contexts philanthropy often refers to the giving of time or money. As was mentioned earlier, each faculty member in the population was assigned a code number to ensure confidentiality and allow for non—response follow-up. Code numbers were written on the outside front cover of the questionnaire booklet. Each coded questionnaire was placed in a large manila envelope bearing the name of that specific faculty member. The packet also 97 contained a stamped, self-addressed return envelope (addressed to the Department of Resource Development at MSU), and a cover letter from Dr. Daniel Poteet II, Provost of Albion College, that provided additional information about the purpose of the study (See Appendix F). The questionnaire packets were distributed via Albion College campus mail. Neither the questionnaire instructions nor the cover letter indicated a specific return date. One week after the questionnaires were distributed reminder postcards were sent via Albion College campus mail to all faculty in the population (See Appendix G). Three weeks after the return date, the Department of Resource Development at MSU supplied the author with the names of faculty members who had not returned a completed questionnaire. The author then sent a personal reminder letter to each non-respondent (See Appendix H). Problems with Questionnaire Administration Only one problem arose regarding the administration of the questionnaire. One faculty member wrote to Provost Poteet claiming that the study could not be "anonymous" because she had received a reminder letter stating that the Department of Resource Development at MSU had not received a completed questionnaire from her. Dr. Poteet passed along her complaint to the author. The author responded by apologizing for the confusion and demonstrating that the questionnaire directions stated the questionnaire results would be "confidential," not anonymous. The author also published a more detailed explanation of the differences between "confidentiality" and "anonymity" in an Adbion College faculty newsletter in case other faculty shared similar concerns. 98 BQEEQB§§_EQES Of the 250 questionnaires distributed, 178 completed questionnaires were returned” This resulted in a response rate of 71.2%. Babbie (1986) considers response rates in excess of 70% to be very good for analysis and reporting. Comparisons between respondents and the Albion College population showed that respondents were representative in terms of gender, but that administrators were under-represented. Because population information regarding age, family income, length of employment, and.percentage of faculty at the assistant, associate, and.full professor levels was not available, it was not possible to determine how representative the respondents were in terms of these characteristics. Data Cleaninq Babbie (1986) claims that missing data can be treated in several ways. Two methods commonly used are to exclude missing cases from. the analyses or to substitute for' missing data. Simulation studies by Basilevsky et al. (1985) show that most estimators of missing data can satisfactorily substitute for up to 10% of absent responses. The first step in this study’s data cleaning was to determine patterns of non-response among the various questions. A summary of missing data by respondent can be found in Appendix J. The questionnaires of twelve respondents were eliminated from the analysis because they failed to meet Basilevsky’s criterion of lacking no more than 10% of responses. Thus, the sample used in data analysis consisted of 166 respondents. 99 Imputation using mean value replacement was conducted for the remainder of the missing data. This method is based on the fact that, for a fixed interval, the most probable values occur about the mean (Little & Rubin, 1987). In this method of imputation, each missing value is replaced by the sample mean of the corresponding variable. Data Analysis The data entry was conducted by the Department of Resource Development at MSU. The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Inc., 1984). Factor Analysis of Attitudinal Question According to Kim and Mueller (1978), exploratory factor analysis is useful in.reducing'a large number of questions or items to a smaller number of underlying "factors." In this study, exploratory factor analysis was used to identify factors within the 49-item question that addressed faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College. Age and gender were used as control variables in the factor analysis. Because the covariance matrices were homogeneous when controlling for age and gender, they were eliminated from inferential analyses and data were combined. .Almatrix of product- moment correlations was computed for the 49 items. 'This matrix*was analyzed using iterated factor analysis, with the square multiple correlation coefficient of each variable with all other variables used as an initial estimate of the communalities. Through iteration, communality stability of .001 was obtained. 100 Three different criteria were used to determine the number of factors to extract: 1) The Kaiser Criterion (sometimes called the eigenvalue greater than one criterion); 2) percentage of total variance explained by the obtained factors; and 3) the graphic plotting of variables using Cattell’s Sores-Test (Harman, 1976; Kim & Mueller, 1978). Used in combination, these criteria suggested that Question 10--faculty attitudes toward a community service mission--should have seven factors. An orthogonal (varimax) rotation.was used.in the final factor analysis (Hidalgo, 1996). According to Babbie (1986), one of the biggest challenges in factor analysis is determining the meaning of a factor based on the questions or items that load highly on it. This study used a panel of three people to study the factor loadings and name the resulting factors based upon item content. The panel considered.only those items that had factor loadings of at least .3 (absolute value) . Factor scores were computed using linear regression (Harman, 1976). Factor Loadings and Factor Reliability After factor analysis was conducted to identify factors within Question 10 (attitudinal question), reliability estimates were conducted using coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951). The factors, and their reliability estimates, are shown.below. Factor loadings are displayed in Appendix K, factor variances are displayed in Appendix L, and factor statistics can be found in Appendix M. Factor 1: Service as a criterion or requirement for students and faculty Alpha=.8696 101 Factor 2: Service as a component of the curriculum Alpha=.8752 Factor 3: College involvement in community issues Alpha=.8558 Factor 4: Student and faculty contributions to the community' Alpha=.6005 Factor 5: College investments in community development Alpha=.2225 Factor 6: Community access to college facilities Alpha=.8512 Factor 7: Service as part of a well-rounded faculty life Alpha=SINGLE ITEM Statistical Analyses There were three levels of data collected in the study (Glebocki & Lancaster, 1984) : nominal or unordered categorical data (most of the demographic and employment questions), ordinal or ordered categorical data (attitudinal scales), and ratio or numerical data (number of children, hours volunteered) . The factors in Question 10 constituted the dependent variables in the study. The independent variables included attitudes toward the community as measured in Question 9, demographic and employment-related questions, volunteer hours, and charitable giving. Frequency distributions were calculated for all variables, and medians were calculated for all variables measured at the ordinal and ratio level. The demographic variables in the study included: Age (Q-19); Sender (Q-22) ; marital status (Q-23); level of education (Q-26) ; children in the household (Q-24) ; children attending public 102 schools (Q—25); taxable household.income (Q-28); type of residence (Q-27); and location of residence (Q-4). The employment-related variables in the study included type of Albion College position (Q- 1) and seniority at Albion College (Q-20). Research Question 2 asks about faculty support for community service as a legitimate function of the private liberal arts college. This broad research question was divided into four analytic questions. These analytic questions, along with the methods of statistical analysis used to answer each question, are listed below: 1. What effects do attitudes toward the community as an environment for Albion College have on faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College? Q-6xQ-10 will be determined through ANOVA. 2. What effects do volunteer service have on faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College? Q-16xQ-10 will be determined through ANOVA. 3. What effects do philanthropic giving have on faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College? Q-17xQ-10 will be determined through ANOVA. 4. What effects do demographic and employment-related variables have on faculty attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College? CLJ” Q-4, Q-19, Q-22, Q—23, Q—24, Q-25, Q— 26, and Q-28xQ-10 will be determined through ANOVA. Post-hoc comparisons of significant items were calculated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. 103 Limitations of the Quantitative Study There were four limitations of the quantitative study that should be acknowledged prior to the presentation of the findings: 1) Low reliability' estimates on Factors 4 and 5; 2) over— representation of faculty among respondents; 3) confusion about whether missing responses on the question related to the community service involvement of faculty and administrators should be treated as a zero or as missing data; and 4) the "datedness" of the data. The reliability estimate on Factor 4 was .6005. While this is below the .7 Gable (1986) recommends, it is close. The reliability estimate on Factor 5 was .2225. This is considerably below Gable’s recommendation and is a cause for concern. ANOVA showed several significant relationships involving Factors 4 and 5. The over-representation of faculty, while not severe, may have some impact on the findings. ANOVA showed significant relationships between type of position and Factors 4 and 6. Confusion about whether missing responses (Hi the qmestion related to the community service involvement of faculty and administrators should be treated as a zero or as missing data is a cause for concern. Question 16 had a considerable amount of missing data that might be attributable to this confusion. Concerning the datedness of the data, the quantitative portion of this study was conducted in 1991. Because the data were collected for the evaluation of the Albion Civic Life Project, this dissertation treated the data as secondary data. While the author does not suggest that the findings presented in this study match the current attitudes of faculty and administrators, it is reasonable to assert that they represent faculty attitudes at a time when community service was subject to much debate at Albion College. CHAPTER V 5512st FINDINGS This chapter discusses the survey findings that address the research question: To what extent do faculty support a community service mission for the private liberal arts college? The first section.of this chapter includes descriptive statistics related to the respondents and how they completed the questionnaire. The second section.includes the results of the inferential statistical analyses (ANOVA) that were conducted. Frequency Distributions Because much of the data gathered in this study was nominal and ordinal data, most of the questions in the instrument were closed—ended questions. Respondents were asked to select the most appropriate item or range (where interval and ratio data were condensed into categories) from a list of response options. During data analysis it was necessary to further condense many of the ranges in order to have an adequate number of responses in each category. Thus, the categories presented in this section do not necessarily match the categories described in the section on inferential statistics. The dependent variables included the seven factors that resulted from the factor analysis conducted on the 49 items in Question 10. The independent variables included demographic variables, employment-related variables, community service and 104 105 charitable giving data, and faculty perceptions toward the community as an environment for Albion College. Demographig Variables Data related to demographic variables are in Teble 3. .A majority of the respondents (53.5%) was under forty-one years old. Only 4.7% of respondents were over sixty years old. The category with the most respondents was the 36-40 year old category, with 21.2% of respondents. Approximately 59% of the respondents were male and 41% were female. This is representative of the Albion College staff population. As would be expected at an institution of higher education, the respondents were well-educated. Only 5.8% of respondents had not earned a college degree, 18.6% had earned.a bachelor’s degree, 30.2% had earned a master’s degree, and 45.3% had earned a Ph.D. Of the respondents, 74.6% were married. Only 20.8% of the respondents had never been married, and 4.7% were separated, divorced, or widowed” Respondents with children and those without were almost evenly split (54.5% to 45.5%). However, people with children in the public schools constituted only 25.8% of respondents, while 74.2% did not have children in the public schools. 106 Table 3 Demographic Variables Fregpency Responses VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENT CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PERCENT A39. 21-25 13 7.6 13 7.6 26-30 20 11.8 33 19.4 31-35 22 12.9 55 32.4 36-40 36 21.2 91 53.5 41-45 21 12.4 112 65.9 46-50 15 8.8 127 74.7 51-55 19 11.2 146 85.9 56-60 16 9.4 162 95.3 61-65 7 4.1 169 99.4 65 + l 0.6 170 100.0 Missing 8 Gender Male 102 59.3 102 59.3 Female 70 40.7 172 100.0 Missing 6 Marital Status Single 36 20.8 36 20.8 Married 129 74.6 165 95.4 Separated 2 1.2 167 96.5 Divorced 5 2.9 172 99.4 Widowed l 0.6 173 100.0 Missing 5 Household Income $10,000-$19,999 16 9.9 16 9.9 $20,000-$29,999 25 15.4 41 25.3 $30,000-S39,999 25 15.4 66 40.7 $40,000-$49,999 32 19.8 98 60.5 $50,000-$69,999 44 27.2 142 87.7 $70,000 or over 20 12.3 162 100.0 Missing 16 Children No 97 54.5 97 54.5 Yes 81 45.5 178 100.0 Children in School NO 132 74.2 132 74.2 Yes 46 25.8 178 100.0 107 Table 3 (continued) Demographic Variables Fregpency Responses VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENT CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PERCENT Education No College 10 5.8 10 5.8 Bachelor 32 18.6 42 24.4 Master 52 30.2 94 54.7 Ph.D. 78 45.3 172 100.0 Missing 6 Residence Location Albion area 134 76.6 134 76.6 Other 41 23.4 175 100.0 Missing 3 Residence Type Public housing 1 0.6 1 0.6 College housing 7 4.0 8 4.6 Apartment 27 15.5 35 20.1 Rented house 13 7.5 48 27.6 Owned house 126 72.4 174 100.0 Missing 4 For a number of possible reasons-—including marital status and type of position at Albion College-~the household income of the respondents varied” .Approximately 10% of the respondents earned a family income of less than $20,000 per year. .Approximately 12% of the respondents earned an annual family income of over $70, 000 . The category with the most respondents was the $50 , GOO-$69 , 000 category, with 27.2% of respondents. Contrary to a popular belief in the Albion community, over 76% of the respondents lived in the Albion area. Only 23 .4% of respondents lived outside of the City of Albion, Albion Township, or Sheridan Township. Over 72% of respondents owned their own home. Approximately 23% of respondents lived in rental housing, while 4 . 0% 108 of respondents lived in college-owned housing. It is likely that the latter group includes residence hall coordinators. Employment-Related Variables Data concerning employment-related variables are displayed in Table 4. Approximately 56% of respondents were faculty and 44% were administrators. The ratio of faculty to administrators among respondents was nearly the opposite of the ratio of administrators to faculty among the Albion College population. One possible reason for the smaller response among administrators is that this category includes many entry-level residence hall and student life staff who might have been less inclined to respond to the survey. Nearly half (48.0%) of the respondents had been employed at Albion College less than six years. This is consistent with the Albion College population, where assistant professors and entry- level administrators predominate. Approximately 34% of respondents had been employed at Albion College from eleven to twenty years, while 18% had been employed over twenty years. Clearly; a large percentage of the;faculty’and.administrative employees did not have much.seniority'at.Albion College at the time of the study. The relative recency of such a large number of employees can have a considerable impact on the organizational culture of an institution. Analyses presented later in this chapter will determine the effect of seniority upon attitudes toward the community service mission of Albion College. 109 Table 4 Employment-Related Variables Frequency Responses VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENT CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PERCENT Colle e Position Faculty 99 55.6 99 55.6 Administrator 79 44.4 178 100.0 Years Employed 1- 5 82 48.0 82 48.0 6-10 28 16.4 110 64.3 11-15 15 8.8 125 73.1 16-20 15 8.8 140 81.9 21-25 18 10.5 158 92.4 26-30 11 6.4 169 98.8 30 + 2 1.2 171 100.0 Missing 7 Community Service and Charitable Giving Data related to community service and charitable giving are in Table 5. Nearly one-third (31.5%) of respondents indicated that they had not engaged.in.any community service activities during the previous year. Approximately 29% of respondents volunteered from one to fifty hours, and nearly 40% provided over fifty hours of service. In retrospect, this question should have been formatted as an ordinal-level question rather than as a ratio-level question; in some cases it was difficult to determine if uncompleted spaces indicated zero hours of community service or missing data. A.majority (50.6%) of respondents gave less than $50 per year to Albion College. Nearly 42% of respondents donated between $50 and $500. Only 7.6% of respondents donated over $500 to Albion College. In terms of donations to charitable organizations within Calhoun County, faculty and administrators were more generous, with 110 only 34.4% giving less than $50. Over 42% of respondents gave between $50 and $500 (which matches the percentage giving this amount of money to Albion College), while 22.9% gave over $500. Most faculty and administrators were even more generous with charitable organizations outside of Calhoun County, with only 26 .3% of respondents giving less than $50 and 53.9% giving from $50 to $500. Nearly 20% of respondents donated $500 or more to organizations outside of the county. Table 5 Volunteerism and Charitable Giving Variables Frequency Responses VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENT CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PERCENT Service Hours/Year None 56 31.5 56 31.5 1-50 51 28.7 107 60.1 50 + 71 39.9 178 100.0 Donations to College < $50 80 50.6 80 50.6 $50-$100 24 15.2 104 65.8 $100-$200 24 15.2 128 81.0 $200-$500 18 11.4 146 92.4 $500 + 12 7.6 158 100.0 Missing 20 Donations in County < $50 54 34.4 54 34.4 $50-$100 23 14.6 77 49.0 $100-$200 24 15.3 101 64.3 $200-$500 20 12.7 121 77.1 $500 + 36 22.9 157 100.0 Missing 21 Donations out of County < $50 40 26.3 40 26.3 $50-$100 19 12.5 59 38.8 $100-$200 35 23.0 94 61.8 $200-$500 28 18.4 122 80.3 $500 + 30 19.7 152 100.0 Missing 26 111 W Data related to faculty and administrator perceptions of the Albion community as an environment for Albion College are shown in Table 6 . Consistent with findings from the evaluation of the Albion Civic Life Project, a large number of respondents (47.9%) believed the Albion community posed a problematic environment for Albion College, while only 9.6% believed the community' provided a supportive environment. Nearly 43% of respondents believed the community was an acceptable environment for Albion College. Table 6 Community Environment Variable Fregpency Responses VARIABLE FREQUENCY PERCENT CUMULATIVE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PERCENT Community Environment Problematic 80 47.9 80 47.9 Acceptable 71 42.5 151 90.4 Supportive 16 9.6 167 100.0 Missing 11 Albion College’s Role in the Community Data related to faculty and administrator attitudes toward the role of Albion College in the community are shown in Table 7. As was mentioned in Chapter IV, the 49 items in Question 10 were condensed into seven factors through factor analysis. However, a review of the individual items in.Question 10 revealed interesting patterns of response. Respondents indicated disagreement with the following items in Question 10. The following list includes items where at least 30% 112 of respondents marked "strongly agree," or where "agree" or "strongly agree" were marked by at least 55% of respondents. The items are ranked from highest to lowest, according to the percent of general agreement. 1. Community service should be a graduation requirement for all students at Albion College (Item 37, strongly agree = 33.1%, agree + strongly agree = 65.7%); 2. Faculty and administrators should.not be pressured to live in the Albion community (Item 19, strongly agree = 30.9%, agree + strongly agree = 57.3%); 3. Students should not be required to perform community service for graduation (Item 38, strongly agree = 30.9%, agree + strongly agree = 64.0%); 4. A course on the history of philanthropy and volunteerism should be required for Albion College students (Item 49, strongly agree = 25.8%, agree + strongly agree = 61.8%); 5. Faculty should not feel obligated to incorporate community service activities in the courses they teach (Item 33, strongly agree = 15.7%, agree + strongly agree = 57.3%). Faculty agreement with Items 1 and 4 seems to indicate that many faculty would support a stronger curricular focus on service and philanthropy, but there were inconsistencies in faculty responses. For example, Items 1 and 3 are positively and negatively worded statements addressing the same concept: service as a graduation requirement for Albion College students. However, respondents indicated the same level of agreement with both the positive and negative statements. The agreement with Item 2 may suggest that. a considerable :number' of faculty’ oppose .Albion College’s residency requirement. 113 Respondents indicated disagreement with the following items in Question 10. This list includes items where at least 30% of respondents marked "strongly disagree," or where "disagree" or "strongly disagree" were marked by at least 80% of respondents. The items are ranked from highest to lowest, according to the percent of general disagreement. 1. Doing community service does not help students develop their personal values (Item.12,.strongly disagree = 42.7%, disagree + strongly disagree = 88.8%); 2. Community service helps students to develop their personal values (Item 43, strongly disagree = 23.6%, disagree + strongly disagree = 84.8%); 3. Faculty and administrators should not run for public office (Item 10, strongly disagree = 28.7%, disagree + strongly disagree = 83.2%); 4. Albion College students make positive contributions in the Albion community (Item 27, strongly disagree = 18.5%, disagree + strongly disagree = 83.1%); 5. Albion College has no business trying to improve the Albion Public Schools (Item 25, strongly disagree = 30.9%, disagree + strongly disagree = 80.9%); 6. The college has so many problems of its own right now that it cannot be concerned with problems in the community (Item 8, strongly disagree = 24.7%, disagree + strongly disagree = 80.3%); 7. Albion College should set aside scholarships for qualified Albion high school students who can’ t afford to attend college (Item 5, strongly disagree = 24.7%, disagree + strongly disagree = 77.5%). 114 Again, the attitudes of the faculty appear to be bipolar. Items 1 and 2 are positively and negatively worded statements addressing the same concept: the value of community service in developing the personal values of Albion College students. Respondents indicated the same level of agreement with both the positive and.negative statements, suggesting that the faculty were divided on this issue. Item 4 indicates that respondents did not believe that Albion College students made positive contributions to the community; Respondents generally supported the role of Albion College in the community-—as indicated in Items 3, 5, and 6--but they were very opposed to the college setting aside scholarships for qualified Albion High School students. Respondents indicated the lowest percentage of strong agreement with the following items in Question 10. This list includes items where 0.0% of respondents marked "strongly agree." 1” Albion. College faculty' and. administrators make positive contributions to the Albion community (Item 36, strongly agree = 0.0%); 2. Community service helps students to develop their personal values (Item 43, strongly agree = 0.0%); . 3. Faculty and administrators actively encourage students to volunteer in the community (Item 44, strongly agree = 0.0%); 4 . Faculty and administrators do not encourage students to volunteer in the community (Item 47, strongly agree = 0.0%). The findings above suggest that respondents were not convinced of the value of community service for students. Perhaps as a result of this belief, respondents did have strong beliefs regarding the extent to which faculty and administrators encourage students to volunteer. 115 Respondents indicated the lowest percentage of strong disagreement with the following items in Question 10. This list includes items where fewer than 3 . 0% of respondents marked "strongly disagree." 1. Previous community service is an important criterion to use when hiring new faculty and administrators (Item 9, strongly disagree = 2.2%); 2. Community service should be a graduation requirement for all students at Albion College (Item 37, strongly disagree = 2.2%); 3 . Albion College should offer a course on the history of philanthropy and volunteerism (Item 30, strongly disagree = 2.8%); 4. Students should not be required to perform community service for graduation (Item 38, strongly disagree = 2.8%); 5 . Faculty and administrators can easily have a well-rounded life that does not include community service (Item 40, strongly disagree = 2.8%). Respondents indicated. the Ihighest. percentage of :neutral responses with the following items in Question JIL This list includes items where more than 30.0% of respondents marked "neutral." 1. Faculty and administrators should not be encouraged to run for public office (Item 18, neutral = 47.2%); 2 . Albion College should offer a course on the history of philanthropy and volunteerism (Item 30, neutral = 44.9%); 3. Albion College should make financial investments in local economic development (Item 26, neutral = 33.7%); 116 4. Faculty and administrators actively encourage students to volunteer in the community (Item 44, neutral = 33.7%); 5. .Albion College bears its fair share of the costs of improving the Albion area (Item 4, neutral = 33.1%). The following items contained the highest percentage of missing data. Items lacking at least 5.0% of responses are included. 1. Albion College does not bear its fair share of the costs of improving the Albion area (Item 13, missing = 7.9%); 2. Albion College bears its fair share of the costs of improving the Albion area (Item 4, missing = 6.7%); 3. Faculty and administrators who want to get involved in the community have adequate opportunity and encouragement to do so (Item 16, missing = 5.1%); 4. Faculty and administrators do not encourage students to volunteer in the community (Item 47, missing = 5.1%). The amount of missing data—-and the relative neutrality of responses--appears to indicate a general lack of knowledge about the current involvement of Albion College in the community. It might also indicate a lack of awareness about what the college could do to invest in the community. 117 Table 7 College’s Role Items Fregpency Responses ITEM SA AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE SD MISSING 1 3.4 14.0 28.7 42.1 9.6 2.2 2 0.6 5.6 13.5 58.4 19.7 2.2 3 3.9 14.6 16.3 51.1 9.6 4.5 4 4.5 16.9 33.1 30.9 7.9 6.7 5 2.2 6.2 11.8 52.8 24.7 2.2 6 1.7 8.4 16.3 54.5 16.3 2.8 7 9.6 34.8 23.0 23.6 4.5 4.5 8 1.1 2.2 12.4 55.6 24.7 3.9 9 16.3 34.8 24.7 19.7 2.2 2.2 10 0.6 1.7 12.9 54.5 28.7 1.7 11 11.8 27.5 18.0 33.1 7.9 1.7 12 1.1 1.1 7.3 46.1 42.7 1.7 13 5.1 17.4 31.5 28.7 9.6 7.9 14 3.4 10.7 16.3 57.9 10.7 1.1 15 5.6 17.4 29.8 33 7 10.7 2.8 16 0.6 7.3 20.8 57.3 9.0 5.1 17 9.6 25.3 27.0 32.6 4.5 1.1 18 2.8 10.1 47.2 29.2 9.0 1.7 19 30.9 26.4 11.8 25.8 5.1 0.0 20 1.7 15.2 20.2 52.2 10.1 0.6 21 4.5 29.8 19.1 36.5 9.6 0.6 22 10.1 41.0 19.7 22.5 5.1 1.7 23 5.6 16.9 12.9 47 8 16.3 0.6 24 2.2 9.6 19.1 53 9 12.9 2.2 25 3.4 2.8 10.7 50.0 30.9 2.2 26 4.5 14.0 33.7 38.2 9.0 0.6 27 1.1 3.9 10.1 64.6 18.5 1.7 28 9.6 30.9 21.3 28 7 8.4 1.1 29 3.9 14.6 15.2 50.6 12.9 2.8 30 5.6 14.6 44.9 30.9 2.8 1.1 31 3.9 15.2 25.8 39.9 11.8 3.4 32 12.9 34.3 23.0 22.5 3.9 3.4 33 15.7 41 6 20.2 19.7 1.7 1.1 34 1.7 11.2 19.7 57 3 7.3 2.8 35 4.5 14.0 20.8 48.9 9.6 2.2 36 0.0 3.4 13.5 59.0 19.7 4.5 37 33 1 32.6 21.3 9.6 2.2 1.1 38 30 9 33.1 19.7 9.6 2.8 3.9 39 16 3 23.0 25.3 30.9 1.7 2.8 40 9 0 34.3 20.8 32.0 2.8 1.1 41 10.7 10.1 11.2 57 9 9.6 0.6 42 3.4 15.7 16.3 48.3 12.9 3.4 43 0.0 1.1 10.7 61.2 23.6 3.4 44 0.0 11.2 33.7 48.3 3.4 3.4 45 2.8 20.8 16.3 47.8 9.6 2.8 46 2.2 7.3 26.4 45.5 15.2 3.4 47 0.0 8.4 32.6 47.2 6.7 5.1 48 6.2 19.7 24.2 41.0 5.1 3.9 49 25.8 36.0 23.6 7.9 3.4 3.4 118 ANOVA of Attitudes by Independent Variables The results of the .ANOVA. revealed. that the independent variables in the study had an influence on faculty and administrator attitudes relative to the community service mission of Albion College. As mentioned earlier, age and gender were used as control variables in the factor analysis. Because the covariance matrices were homogeneous when controlling for these variables, they were eliminated from the ANOVA. ANOVA tables are in Chapter V, and Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests are in Appendix N. Demographic Variables Marital status and having children in school affected respondents’ attitudes toward the role of the college in the community. Specifically, marital status was related to Factor 3 (College involvement in community issues) and having children in school was related to Factor 5 (College investments in community development). These analyses are presented in Table 8. As shown in Tables 22 and 23 in Appendix N, Duncan’s Multiple Range Test revealed that married respondents were more likely to support Albion College involvement in community issues. This is consistent with research by Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1990) that shows a link between community service and marital status. However, respondents with children.in the public schools were less likely to support Albion College investments in community development. This result runs counter to the research of Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1990). It should be noted that Factor 5 had a coefficient alpha of only .2225, suggesting that the relationship between children in the public schools and Albion College investments in community development is not a reliable one. 119 Table 8 ANOVA of Demographic Variables by Factor Scores VARIABLE F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 Marital Status F-Values: 0.07 0.25 4.70 0.00 2.91 0.10 0.40 P-Values: 0.80 0.62 0.03* 1.00 0.09 0.75 0.53 Household Income F-Values: 0.75 2.41 0.29 0.03 1.78 1.41 0.87 P-Values: 0.52 0.07 0.84 0.99 0.15 0.24 0.46 $1113.13; F-Values: 0.12 2.03 3.21 0.09 2.82 0.20 0.87 P-Values: 0.73 0.16 0.08 0.77 0.10 0.66 0.35 Children in School F-Values: 0.34 1.02 1.53 0.10 5.28 0.09 0.32 P-Values: 0.56 0.31 0.22 0.75 0.02* 0.76 0.57 Education F-Values: 0.75 1.61 1.73 0.49 0.81 2.95 1.15 P-Values: 0.39 0.21 0.19 0.48 0.37 0.09 0.29 Residence Location F-Values: 2.16 0.30 0.49 P-Values: 0.14 0.58 0.48 .57 2.37 0.58 0.20 .45 0.13 0.45 0.65 00 Residence Type F—Values: P-Values: .18 0.46 1.26 0.99 0.07 .67 0.50 0.26 0.32 0.79 .05 .82 .07 .80 00 CO CO Employment-Related Variables The type of Albion College position (faculty or administrator) and length. of tenure (seniorityfl at Albion. College affected respondents’ attitudes toward the role of the college in the community. Specifically, the type of Albion College position was related to Factor 4 (Student and faculty contributions to the community) and Factor 6 (Community access to college facilities). 120 The seniority of respondents was related to Factor 6 . These analyses are presented in Table 9. As shown in Tables 24-26 in the Appendix N, Duncan's Multiple Range Test revealed that administrators were more likely to believe that Albion College students and faculty made positive contributions to the community. Faculty were more supportive of allowing the community to have access to Albion College facilities. Respondents with less than four years of seniority were less likely to support community access to Albion College facilities than were respondents with four to twelve years of seniority. Respondents with over twelve years of seniority were not significantly different from either group. These analyses suggest that faculty--who would not have to deal with the administrative challenges of allowing community access to Albion.College facilities-~were more supportive of doing so. (hi the other hand, administrators--whowmonitor student involvement in the community because of its student development, public relations, and recruitment value-~were more aware of the contributions made by students and facultyn The impact of seniority'is more difficult to determine. While it seems intuitive that younger faculty and administrators might not see the value in granting the community access to Albion College facilities, the same cannot be said of staff with over twelve years of seniority. Perhaps respondents with four to twelve years of seniority were more involved in the community and thus were more willing to provide access to college facilities, although the analyses presented next counter this supposition. 121 Table 9 ANOVA of Employment-Related Variables by Factor Scores VARIABLE F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 College Position F-Values: 1.08 0.45 1.13 5.39 0.02 6.17 0.93 P-Values: 0.30 0.51 0.29 0.02* 0.90 0.01**0.34 Seniority F-Values: 0.06 0.79 0.63 0.11 0.11 2.98 0.89 P-Values: 0.94 0.46 0.53 0.90 0.89 0.05* 0.41 Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. Community Service and Charitable Giving Donations to.Albion.College, donations within Calhoun County, and donations outside of Calhoun County affected respondents’ attitudes toward the role of the college in the community. The number of hours of community service per year did not have a significant impact. Charitable giving to Albion College was related to Factor 5 (College investments in community development). Charitable giving in Calhoun County was also related to Factor 5. Charitable giving outside of Calhoun County was related to Factor 7 (Service as part of a well-rounded faculty life). These analyses are presented in Table 10. As shown in Tables 27-29 in Appendix N, Duncan’s Multiple Range Test revealed that respondents who donated $50 or more per year to Albion College were more likely to support Albion College investments in community development . Respondents who donated more than $500 per year to charitable organizations in Calhoun County were also more likely to support Albion College investments in 122 community development. Respondents who donated less than $50 per year to charitable organizations outside of Calhoun County were more likely to view service as part of a well-rounded faculty life than were respondents who donated.more than $500 per year. Respondents who donated between $50 and $500 per year were not significantly different from the other two groups. These findings suggest that respondents with closer ties to Albion College and Calhoun County (as evidenced by their financial contributions), were more supportive of college and faculty involvement than were respondents who were more closely linked with.organizations outside of Calhoun County. Table 10 ANOVA of Service and Charitable Giving by Factor Scores VARIABLE F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 Service Hours/Year F-Values: 1.20 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.58 2.38 0.00 P-Values: 0.28 0.87 0.96 0.83 0.45 0.13 0.97 Donations to College F-Values: 0.22 0.33 0.90 1.03 7.09 1.39 3.00 P-Values: 0.81 0.72 0.41 0.36 0.01**0.25 0.06 Donations in County F-Values: 0.25 0.32 0.25 0.39 8.53 0.56 1.91 P-Values: 0.78 0.72 0.78 0.68 0.00**0.57 0.15 Donations out of County F-Values: 2.49 0.80 0.58 0.24 0.38 1.36 3.96 P-Values: 0.09 0.45 0.56 0.78 0.69 0.26 0.02* Note. *p<.05. **p<.01. 123 Worm—it! Respondents’ perceptions of the .Albion community’ as an environment for Albion College were related to attitudes toward Factor 6 (Community access to college facilities). These analyses are presented in Table 11. Respondents who believed the Albion community was an acceptable or supportive environment for Albion College were more supportive of granting community access to college facilities than were respondents who believed the community was a problematic environment. However, Duncan’s Multiple Range Test revealed no significant differences among the means. One possible explanation for the relationship between perceptions toward the community and attitudes toward allowing community access to college facilities, is that respondents who felt negatively toward the community wanted to keep the college isolated from community influences. Table 11 ANOVA of Community Environment by Factor Scores VARIABLE F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 Community Environment F-Values: 1.88 1.44 2.40 1.65 0.90 4.56 0.46 P-Values: 0.16 0.24 0.09 0.20 0.41 0.01**0.63 Note. **p<.01. 124 Summary of Major Findings A large number of respondents (47. 9%) believed that the Albion community posed a problematic environment for Albion College, while only 9.6% believed the community provided a supportive environment; Respondents’ attitudes regarding community' service as a requirement for Albion College students were bipolar, with 33 .1% strongly in favor of such a requirement and 30.9% strongly against it; Respondents’ attitudes regarding the impact of community service on the personal values of Albion College students were bipolar-—and contradictory--with over 80% of respondents disagreeing with both the positively worded and negatively worded items that addressed this concept; Married respondents were more likely than unmarried respondents to support Albion College involvement in community issues; Administrators were more likely than faculty to believe that Albion College students and faculty' made positive contributions to the community; Faculty were more supportive of allowing the community to have access to.Albion College facilities than.were administrators; Respondents with four to twelve years of seniority were more likely to support community access to Albion College facilities than were respondents with less than four years of seniority; Respondents’ perceptions of the .Albion community' as an environment for Albion College were related to their willingness to allow community access to college facilities 10. 11. 125 (significant ANOVA). While the means were not significantly different (according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test), respondents who believed the Albion community was an acceptable or supportive environment for Albion College were generally more supportive of granting community access to college facilities than were respondents who believed the community was a problematic environment; Respondents who donated $50 or more per year to Albion College were more likely to support Albion College investments in community development than were respondents who gave less than $50 per year; Respondents who donated.more than $500 per year to charitable organizations in Calhoun County were more likely to support Albion College investments in.community development than.were respondents who gave less than $500 per year; Respondents who donated more than $500 per year to charitable organizations outside of Calhoun County were less likely to view service as part of a well-rounded faculty life than.were respondents who donated less than $50 per year. CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION This chapter answers the two research questions proposed in Chapter I of this dissertation: 1) To what extent does the literature support the premise that private liberal arts colleges historically have had a service mission; and 2) to what extent do faculty support a service mission for the private liberal arts college? Given the answers to these two questions, this chapter also discusses implications for private liberal arts colleges and their leaders, in general; for Albion College, in particular; and for service-learning practitioners, community development practitioners, and scholars. Conclusions The conclusions are drawn from the literature, as well as from the study of faculty and administrator attitudes conducted at Albion College. The Historical Service Mission The people who founded many of our nation’s private liberal arts colleges did so because they believed these institutions could provide a unique and valuable service to American society. In the nineteenth century-~the period when most private liberal arts colleges were established-~the preparation of young people as citizens of a democracy was viewed by many people as the service our 126 127 nation most needed and that no other institution could furnish. Thus, private liberal arts colleges have provided--and continue to provide--a decidedly'public service. 'The‘United.States government acknowledges this public service by granting private liberal arts college tax-exempt status in recognition of the burden they bear that would otherwise be shouldered by government. It is important to remember, however, that service to society was the primary motivation of the founders of these institutions, and that the education of young people was the best means at the time of fulfilling that mission“ No better example of this exists than Wellesley College. Wellesley’s founder, Henry Fowle Durant, considered establishing an orphanage on the present site of the Wellesley campus before deciding that the education of poor, young women provided a service that was in greater need. Today Wellesley, like many private liberal arts colleges, seems to have lost sight of its "service" origins and instead considers the education of young people to be its primary mission. Thus, what was once "means" is now "end." There is little evidence in the literature to suggest that this situation is likely to change. The prevailing view of private liberal arts colleges as educational institutions has become so ingrained in contemporary thought and writing that a return to service as the primary mission is unlikely. For better or worse, the primary mdssion of puivate liberal arts colleges today ip, education. As the literature suggests, any private liberal arts college that considers a return to a service as its primary mission is putting its very survival in jeopardy. A.more appropriate concern for this dissertation is that many private liberal arts colleges have also lost sight of their true 128 educational tradition--civic education——and instead promote a "valueless" learning for learning's sake. This transition has been lamented for decades by scholars of the private liberal arts college, especially by those who have witnessed the gradual erosion of the church-related college. Fortunately, there is evidence that a growing number of institutions recognize this movement toward relativism and have taken steps to return to educating citizens for a democratic society. The emergence of service-learning, philanthropic studies, and centers for nonprofit administration are catalyzing this reversal, as are the volunteer activities of student themselves, who usually take the lead in community service at private liberal arts colleges. For those private liberal arts colleges that have engaged in service in addition to their educational missions, there have been a variety of motivating factors: 1) Service as religious conviction; 2) service as a means of carrying out a tradition of social activism; 3) service in response to social crisis, most notably the Great Depression; and 4) service as a means of educating students. An ancillary benefit of involvement stemming from these three motivating factors has been the improvement of town and gown relations, although the literature does not suggest that this has ever been the primary motivating factor for engaging in a service mission. The review of literature revealed very little information about two potential motivating factors for a service mission for private liberal arts colleges that have driven--in part--Albion College’s efforts in the local community: 1) Service provided out of legitimate self-interest; and 2) service provided out of corporate citizenship. This lack of attention is surprising for 129 three reasons: 1) The discussion these topics have received at other types of colleges and universities; 2) the increased competition among private liberal arts colleges for a shrinking pool of potential students; and 3) the increased scrutiny tax-exempt organizations are receiving from members of the public who question why taxpayers should bear the financial burden of providing municipal services to these institutions. At the time that this dissertation was conceived, Albion College was unique because its service efforts were motivated, in part, by legitimate self- interest, and to a lesser extent by its obligations as a corporate citizen. Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of alternative motivations for a service mission. College presidents can influence the extent to which private liberal arts colleges successfully adopt and practice a community service mission. Colleges need a president who can articulate to internal stakeholders how institutional history and traditions underscore the importance of participation in community service. The way in which the college president goes about articulating and implementing a community service mission, and the rapidity with which it is attempted, is likely to determine whether community service becomes fully embedded in the institution’s organizational culture. There is also a relationship between the number of new faculty a president hires and the extent to which a president can change an institution. There exists very little information in the literature about the extent to which private liberal arts college faculty, in particular, support a community service mission. Research conducted at colleges and universities around the nation suggests that many faculty do not embrace service as a function of higher education. 130 Figure 1 Inspipppignal Mgtivapigns for a Service Mission Social Activism ....... ....... oo u I. . .v' '. , Legitimate 5‘. Service ,4” Corporate K. Self-Interest ,5 Mission 1. Citizenship .' .o' ~. .~--..-----"‘ U-........-..-e' Educational Religious Convictio Value 131 As was stated in Chapter I, this dissertation was not intended to provide an exhaustive definition of the various types of service in which institutions of higher education can engage. However, given the moral foundations of private liberal arts colleges, community service--rather than s_e_ryi_ce_—]_.___ox_z_mua>q_:_N>-_Oz n2)»— uoenn og antennae ll._|| panamaean . >ua.unean no .:a ewau.aaan machoun <_ne vnon.no:~ «on .aan.ncn_o:e— >n9: 3.26 .o.qonaos oa >aoe.ene:n o_qen.oq .o_qonnoa ea >.c§3. a means» ao—on_o:a .>ua..nean o_non.ow .3322. o. {3.3.3 uoon_ane a.gonnoa .noaaa:_n-n.o:a >uo...e:n .muoqne .aaowasn.o: o.qoonos .vco—.oon.oaa ooa.o:os .o.qon.on ea newness”. p “econ-n.03 sop-n.03u .o_qnn.oq o. ooonoo.ono o.~onnono .>nu.o»e:n o.soonoa .ooou.-»oan .o_qan.on e. a..n a nun-no ope::.:o .naanw-p renown. o ntase:n_< (on-3n to..n_o:a. .>aaeo.e.e one: .mauoo_e»e o_qennoq e. searen.:oo .>aa_ene:n o.wonnos .>au.a-sn o.won.os .>aa.o.o:n o_wonnos .>aa.anean o_sonnoq .>aa.a.ean a.goonoa .>ua.o.-sn o.son.os p nooaa.:onoa o. 2.:oa.n< liaise .>auoo.one sqon:_nn.nuo .>auon_ene >nvpon.n a.gonnoa ‘ow roses.- moon.- .>a-oa.ene mus—en_n o.~en~ow aow sense.».:o .o.won~oa oa cos noanon. .e.qon~on o. >ac-n.n noannso .o.sennoa o. >noaaa_n noaucnon moq<.naa .o.aonnos o‘ use r_anoq< .o.sonnoa o. nawopa a. nose .au._.cno aon ecu—.n mas<.no .o_noonow o. nos. s. nonunonras r.gewo_ >qnu swooqea .3 ewo.nuu.oau. zoaeoeaoan .o.aon»oa o‘ o.‘.neatCu vsocqeau .o.nan»ow o‘ ooao.une:n a.goonoq- uoq..o.~u .o_sonnow oa nuance use. macaw r cauo:_~on.oau .>auon_ono c.snnnoa .>na.uno3n a_qannow Auva .3322. o‘ neaflca neao~< .>au_unoan a.gonnon A~v .o.w~o~ow ea nosoaa m.oaa.:n p openoaoan .>uaon.ene o.nonnow .>un.ano3~ c.non.owu .nop—ooo asap.e_: .o.qnnnoq o. nocama_.3a .>uu.unuan o_qnnnoaa .o.wonnoa o‘ m.:e:n.o_ >_a .>au.u.o3n a.goonoa .o.wnn.Oa ea zen—.7 maa<.nao .mnoa‘ zcnna .o_qen~oq ea xc.... nc—~Csn. >..o_qu .c.qnn.os o. aommna3~.e_ P..o ->mm_uneon o.ann.0n A~va l— <.na owem.noan .oq «Eugene and zeoeuoaoa~ ..snnqas— >cn.»ow 6.320.. e. ngflcZDo .o.wennow o. 0.3.:o p xomv.»a—.n< mnw<¢nou .zouv..e_.n< r nonos.:o monsoon .>am.nnu3n acmo.nu—_p< r nunow.:o xoamona .c.wan~ow o. cosmonau— .o_qnn»01 o. nonm_.nmam ooewonIOJa .>mmmu~oan o.nonnos o. means-mien .o.san~ow o. >nnoc3nman. .>nnoc:n.3c snowman .v-