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thesis entitled

COMPARISON.OF AIDS KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN URBAN
AND RURAL WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE

presented by

NICOLE WEBSTER

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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Major professor

Date 8/23/96

 

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MSU loAnAMmdtvoMIuVEmd Opportunity lrutltutlon
mm:

COMPARISON OF AIDS KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN
URBAN AND RURAL WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE

By

Nicole Sheree Webster

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE .

Department of Agricultural and Extension Education

1 996

ABSTRACT

COMPARISON OF AIDS KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN
URBAN AND RURAL WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE

By

Nicole Sheree Webster

The nature of this study was to compare AIDS knowledge between select groups
of rural and urban women in Zimbabwe. Specific variables were used to compare the
AIDS knowledge between the groups of women. Those included how religious women
perceived themselves and their highest level of education. The women were all given
urveys that asked specific questions about the AIDS virus; contracting AIDS through
sexual and non-sexual contact, contracting AIDS through blood and drug use, and general
information about the AIDS virus. The majority of the women were knowledgable about
the overall AIDS virus, but the urban women had a better understanding of how the virus
was transmitted and the long term effects the virus caused. Very religious and fairly
religious women were knowledgable about the AIDS virus along with the women whose
highest level of education was college or university level. The information gathered in this
study would be usefirl for agencies within the country of Zimbabwe to help dismmenate

nationwide information about the AIDS virus.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my my family, Clarence, Martha, Tonia, and Chris Webster
for their immense support during this venture in my life. “frthout their supportive hands
and love, this would not have been possible. Also, I would like to extend a thank you to
all my “friends” Pam, Johnetta, and Tracye at Michigan State University, who were with
me until the “11th” hour. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the professors and
faculty at Michigan State that were extemely patient and helpful during this tedious
process. And then there is Andrea Stanley, who has heard it all from miles away. She has
been a dear friend, who I will always treasure. To everyone thank you for all the support

and encouragement.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY ................................
Background ................................................................
Nature of the Problem .................................................
Purpose of the Study ...................................................
Hypothesis ..................................................................
Limitations of the Study ...............................................
Assumptions ...............................................................
Definition of Terms ........................... . ........................

11. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................
Introduction ................................................................
AIDS and the United States ........................................

Minority Populations .......................................
Drug-Users .....................................................
Heterosexual and Homosexual Population ........
Adolescents and Young Adults ........................
Women ...........................................................
Sub-Saharan Africa ....................................................
AIDS and Zimbabwe ...................................................
Women's Social Injustices in Zimbabwe ...........
Rural Women .............................. . ....................
AIDS & Women in the Rural Community ........
Urban Women ................................................
AIDS and the Urban Woman ..........................

III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .................................
Introduction .................................................................
Instrument ....................................................................
Population ....................................................................
Sample .........................................................................
The Independent and Dependent Variables ..................
Human Subjects Approval ...........................................
Null Hypothesis .........................................................

ii

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Osovuuum-hv-H-I

Limitations of the Study ................................................. 27

Vailidity ......................................................................... 27
Reliability ..................................................................... 27
Data Analysis Procedure .............................................. 27
IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ....................................... 29
Introduction .................................................................. 29
Characteristics of the Respondents ................................ 29
Level of Education Completed.............- ......................... 29
Perception of How Religious Women Perceived
Themselves ........................................................ 30
Comparison of AIDS Knowledge Between Urban and
Rural Zimbabwean Women ................................ 31
Contracting AIDS through Non-Sexual Behavior.... 35
Contracting AIDS through Sexual Behavior ............ 35
Contracting AIDS through Blood and Drug Use... 36
General Information about the AIDS
virus .......................................................... 36
AIDS and Women’s Perception of How Religious They
Perceived Themselves .......................................... 36
Contracting AIDS through Sexual Behavior ........... 41
Contracting AIDS through Blood and Drug Use ..... 41
General Information about the AIDS
virus ....................................................... 42
Level of Education and AIDS Knowledge ...................... 42
Contracting AIDS through Non-Sexual Behavior.. 42
Contracting AIDS through Blood ......................... 47
Contracting AIDS through Sexual Behavior .......... 47
General Information about the AIDS
virus ..................................................... 47
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 49
Summary .......................................................................... 49
Major Findings ................................................................. 50
Characteristics of the
Respondents ......................................................... 50
AIDS Knowledge between Urban
and Rural Zimbabwean Women .............................. 50

iii

Educational Level and AIDS Knowledge ............... 51
AIDS Knowledge and How Religious Women

Perceived Themselves ................................ 52

Conclusions ...................................................................... 53
Recommendations for Further Study .................................. 53
Observations ..................................................................... 54
APPENDICES
A. LETTER FROM THE MSU COMMITTEE

ON RESEARCH INVOLVING

HUMAN SUBJECTS ...................................... 55
B. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE .............................. 56
C. SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES ............................. 61
REFERENCES .......................................................... 75

iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page

1. Distribution of Level of Education Completed by Zimbabwean
Rural and Urban Women ............................................................ 30

2. Distribution of the Perception of Religion of Zimbabwean Rural and
Urban Women ........................................................................... 30

3. Results of the AIDS Knowledge Questionnaire between Urban and Rural
Women in Zimbabwe ............................................................. 32

4. AIDS Knowledge Correct Scores Compared with How Religious
Women Perceived Themselves ............................................... 37

5. AIDS Knowledge Compared with Educational Level Between

Urban and Rural Women in Zimbabwe ...................................... 43
6. Knowledge about AIDS-Raw Scores of Rural Women ..................... 61
7. Knowledge about AIDS-Raw Scores of Urban Women .................... 63

8. The Comparison of AIDS Knowledge Between Urban and Rural Women
and their Highest Level of Education-Raw Scores ..................... 65

9. The Comparison of AIDS Knowledge Between Urban and Rural Women
and Religiosity ............................................................................ 70

 

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Background

In the 1980's, AIDS became a disease that was of global concern to all
women, but specifiCally poor women of color in developing countries. These women were
targeted as the highest growing infected group, but in 1995, efi‘ective educational
programs has not being targeted towards this group. Specifically in Zimbabwe, the
National AIDS Campaign has undergone efl‘orts to educate the general population.
Zimbabwe recognized in 1993 that nearly 1% of the population had been afieaed by the
AIDS virus. This number reflected only the reported cases in the country. Due to the
lack of technology of AIDS testing methods, many persons in Zimbabwe were not
diagnosed as having the disease, but rather the secondary amiction associated with the
virus. Doctors basically deemed that individuals brought into hospitals for pneumonia or
another ”common” afflictions of the virus had contracted the disease.

The underreported numbers of the virus in Zimbabwe was due to many social,
political, and economic reasons. In Zimbabwe, there was the commonly held idea that
AIDS was a virus that was brought to the country to destroy the Afiican population.
Because of the strong country pride that Zimbabweans exemplified, many individuals felt
that this disease could not happen to them or that it was a Western disease. This was
projected as a primary reason that many people were in denial about the disease and did
not want to acknowledge that it existed in their country. This idea perpetuated the
attitude of many people that AIDS did not exist in the country and that if they died fiom
something else people thought it was fi'om a supernatural cause.

The government was also reluctant to report the actual number of AIDS cases
because they felt that it would hurt the tourist economy. Many foreigners frequent the
country of Zimbabwe for holiday or research and if the actual numbers were reported the

2

tourist board felt that this would deter peoples visits. The government felt that the
numbers reported to organizations such as WHO were suficient for research and
reporting efl‘orts, but they also realized that they needed to begin targeting the citizens in
their country to avoid situations such as those in Uganda where the AIDS virus destroyed
nearly 75% of the adult population in selected villages.

Groups that had been targeted had been youth, urban and rural populations of both
men and women. While much attention had been focused on these groups with literature
and workshops, the main group that had received the least amount of attention had been
the people in the rural areas, specifically women.

Literature and knowledge about AIDS was more accessible to women in urban
areas than to women in rural areas. The need to update and educate women on AIDS
issues was one step that had been taken in the HIV/AIDS arena. Ifagencies were to
educate women in Zimbabwe, there needed to be both creative and evaluative efi‘orts that
would target women in urban and rural areas.

This was especially important with the women of Zimbabwe because they were the
primary care givers of the family. Many times women provided income for the family
while the husband was working in another field. Many women were heads of their
household, and carried this responsibility in all forms of work, especially agriculture.
Women were regarded as the farmers of today. They were responsible for many small
scale labor intensive farms. It was estimated, that nearly 70% of agricultural work in
fields was done by women, but in many cases, they were not receiving any type of
assistance. Chambers points this out by stating, ”Until recently, little attention was paid to
home gardens and backyard farming, often sources of small but vital incomes for women.
Domestic technology- for processing food, cooking, cleaning, sewing, fetching firewood,
carrying water- all traditional responsibilities of rural women, is regarded as uninteresting,
a low priority." These women were provided sustainable food for their families, but

because they were not men, they did not receive very much research attention and

3

resources. The government of Zimbabwe recognized this problem, and developed efforts
through the extension service to help their needs. They recognized that they must meet
the basic needs of women in order for her to carry out these other functions. Specifically
with the uprise of AIDS in women in Zimbabwe, it was important to address these health
and nutrition issues.

Zimbabwe recognized that approximately 0.78% of the rural population ,as of
1994, (Williams and Ray) were afi‘ected by the AIDS virus. In those rural communities,
there was a strong tradition of the women providing care for the family, i.e. farming. A
problem that began to emerge was if women were caring for sick individuals they would
not have time to care for the family, which would result in hunger, unemployment, and
possibly death within the family. AIDS could ultimately take a toll on the agricultural
communities in Zimbabwe. VVrth most of the labor for commercial farms, coming fi'om the
rural populations of men and women, the government realized that they must target this

community, especially women since they were the main providers of these families.

”It is here in the rural areas that the real cost will occur.

The victim becomes too weak to make any meaningful
contribution to the farming operation let alone the daily
chores, yet adds to the burden of both.” (F user-Mackenzie)

One way the government decided to address this problem, was through the
extension service in Zimbabwe. The extension system planned to devise projects that
would educate women in the health care area, and also provide them with means to get
involved in these development projects. Zimbabwe geared this program towards women
because they realized that women have not been in the forefiont in many development
projects and wanted to ofi‘er women a collective hand.

Women in general, have taken a backseat to many research efl‘orts dealing with
common sexually transmitted diseases. According to various individuals in the health care

profession, women's issues received the lowest amount of funding and attention. These

4

concerns and attitudes prompted both men and women to increase their awareness and
efforts in women's health care issues.

Many policy makers in Zimbabwe had the attitude that AIDS was an urban
problem. They had not addressed the issues that had perpetuated the high infectious rates
(10-20%) in the rural areas, (F raser-Mackenzie). With the statistical information on AIDS
in Zimbabwe, work needed to be done in order to evaluate if the National AIDS Campaign

had been effective at targeting both the women in urban and rural populations.

Ngure of the Prgblm
There have been recent studies and research done in the area of AIDS and health,

but there had not been a comprehensive study done on how this would affect agriculture,
and its implications on the women in a third world country. Thus, there needed to be a
study done on how the extension services can become involved in the educational role of
AIDS/HIV to women both in the rural and urban areas.

In order for there to be a more complete and thorough study in this area, the
researcher looked at the present day situation of AIDS, health care, agriculture, and the
extension system in Zimbabwe. It was important to look at all Of these topics, because
they played a role in the development of an extension based program that would benefit
the women in Zimbabwe.

Women were not recognized by the government as agricultural producers and
sometimes even as citizens. ”Men controlled the means and instruments of production in
addition to being managers, supervisors of women's and children's activities."

This attitude perpetuated the problem of inequality in Zimbabwe, and needed to be
addressed and acted upon by the government.

Pu o f th
The purpose of this study was to compare AIDS knowledge between selected
urban and rural women from Zimbabwe with the idea of providing the information to
agencies, such as the Ministries of Health and Education. Variables such as AIDS

knowledge, religion, and education were examined.

Hypothesis
In order to accomplish the basis of this study, the following research

questions were developed:

Ho There are significant difi‘erences between rural women selected for this study and
urban women selected for this study in the degree to which they were informed
about AIDS.

I-Io There are significant difl‘erences between women in this study with a higher
educational level and women in this study with less educational level and the extent
to which they were infonned about AIDS.

Ho There are significant difl‘erences between women that perceived themselves to be
very religious and women that perceived themselves to be fairly religious or not
religious at all and the extent to which they were informed about AIDS.

L' 't ' f d
This study focused only on Zimbabwean women who were accessible through the
University of Zimbabwe and the Rural Women's Training Center. Therefore, results of this
study can not be generalized to the broader population of Zimbabwean women. Also, this
study only focused on the health issue of AIDS/HIV and not other sexually transmitted

diseases.

W
The following assumptions were made by the researcher when the study
was formulated:
1. The questions provided in the questionnaire were clear and understandable
to the respondents.

D fini ' n f T
In order for there to be clarity and understanding in reading this study, the

following terms were explained in more detail.

Egmsign System of Zimbabwe- A department within the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture
and Rural Resettlement that is responsible for the provision of all agricultural extension

services in the country.

Mtg- Small communities found along the outskirts of cities. They were set up
by people in the rural areas that did not want to move into the cities.

W- The population of women in Zimbabwe that do not live in the cities. These
women do about 70% of the work for the family, such as cooking, cleaning, and caring for
the sick. They usually do not have jobs in the cities and make less than SSOUS dollars a
month by selling crafts, cash crops, etc.

W- A spiritual witchdoctor found in the Zimbabwean society, that many
believe were responsible for the evil or good brought upon believers.

Women; The population of women in Zimbabwe, that live within the cities. They
usually work within the cities and have smaller families than the traditional families found
in the rural areas. These women tend to be higher educated (university level), and acquire
higher paying jobs than rural women.

fl Know as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, a virus which belongs to a group of
viruses called retroviruses which copy their genetic blueprint onto the genes of the
infected person's own cells. HIV selectively infects and destroys an integral part of the
human immune system. The white blood cells, in particular the T4+lymphocytes (CD4
cells)._ Infected cells can be passed along between people through blood or bodily fluids.

AIDS- Known as the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is a spectrum of conditions
that occur when a person's immune system is seriously damaged after being attacked by
the HIV virus.

7

STD's - Know as Sexually Transmitted Diseases, diseases passed along through sexual
contact between individuals which afi‘ects the sexual and reproductive organs. Such
diseases include, chlamydia, herpes, and gonorrhea.

CHAPTER H
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction

The World Health Organization estimates that 18 million adults and 1.5 million
children have been infected with HIV, resulting in approximately 4.5 million AIDS cases
worldwide. AIDS has been a prevalent problem in the United States since the early 1980's
when the first cases were reported to the Center for Disease Control(CDC)h. Since the
early existence of AIDS/HIV, there have been many lives affected by the disease. Many
individuals have lost their own lives as well as the lives of loved ones. Women have
becoming increasingly affected by HIV. Worldwide, the cumulative number of infected
women was expected to reach 15 million by the year 2000. By this same year, as many as
5 to 10 million children were expected to lose their mother or both parents to AIDS.
Also by the year 2000, between 30 and 40 million men, women, and children will have
been infected with HIV; over 90% of all people with HIV infection will be from
developing countries.
AESaadflejlnitesLStates

The tremendous death toll rate that AIDS has caused in the United States has been
on the rise since the early 1980's when AIDS was first reported in the US.. As of October
31, 1995, a total of 501,3 10 persons with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) had been reported to the CDC by state and territorial health departments; 311,381
(62%) had been reported as having died. (CDC, Vol.44).
The increased death rate has caused the AIDS surveillance case definition to substantially
expand during 1987 and again in 1993 in order to reflect the increased knowledge of the
natural history of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and to remain consistent with the

clinical management of HIV disease.

9

AIDS/HIV has affected individuals in all walks of life. This disease does not
distinguish between color lines, cultural differences, nor classes. From the time of 1981-
1987 and present, there have been many changes with the disease and the groups of
people that it has affected.

There has been a steady increase in the number of total AIDS cases reported in the
United States since 1981 until 1995. Ten percent of the US AIDS population (50,3 52)
was reported to have had AIDS during 1981-1987, 41% during 1988-1992, and 247,741
(49%) during 1993-October 1995. These numbers reflect the total population of the
United States, but there is critical missing information on the number of AIDS victims
fi'om specific groups within the US population such as minority groups, drug users,
heterosexual and homosexual populations and women.

W

The proportion of AIDS cases among the white population decreased from 60% to
43% during 1994, but it the proportional rate rose among blacks and Hispanics fiom 25%
to 38% and fiom 14% to 18% respectively. The rates per 100,000 population for blacks
and Hispanics in the US population (101 and 51 respectively) were substantially higher
than rates for whites (17), American Indians/Alaskan Natives (12), and Asians/Pacific
Islanders (6) during 1994. (CDC Vol. 44)

Ems-11m
There was an increase in the proportion of individuals that reported using drugs
fi'om 17% during 1981-1987 to 27% 1993-October 1995.

 

Heterosexual populations as well as the homosexual populations have been widely

afi‘ected by the AIDS epidemic as well. The proportion of cases attributed to heterosexual

10

transmission of HIV/AIDS increased fi'om 3% to 10% during 1993 -October 1995. The

number of homosexual cases decreased from 64% to 45% during this time period. '

Adoleflnts gd Young Adults
During the time from 1993-October 1995, the highest proportion of cases

occurred among adolescents and young adults (19-29) in the South and Midwest. They
occurred in small metropolitan statistical areas (50,000-499,999 population) and rural
areas (27% and 24% respectively. This is compared to 9% of the population in the
Northeast and 11% in the West. Twenty-five percent of the 8481 cases in the South and
21% of the 2870 cases in the Midwest occurred between homosexual adolescent and
young men who lived in small MSA and rural areas. Adolescent and young adults that
injected dnrgs made up 30% of 531 cases in the Midwest, 23% of 2370 cases in the
South, and 17% of 930 cases in the West. The highest cases of heterosexual transmission
occurred in the South (32% of 2842), followed by the Midwest (22% of 678) 18% of 691
in the West and 7% of 1745 in the Northeast.

Women
AIDS cases among females increased to 8% of the cases reported during 1981-

1987 to 18% during 1993-October 1995. In 1993, human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was the fourth leading cause of
death among women aged 25-44 years in the United States ;in addition, the incidence of
AIDS was increasing more rapidly among women than men . Women with AIDS reported
in 1994 represented 13% of the cumulative total of 58,448 HIV cases among women.

The median age of women reported with AIDS was 35 years. Women aged 15-44
years accounted for 84% of cases. More than three fourths (77%) of cases among women
occurred among blacks and Hispanics, and rates for black and Hispanic women were 16

and seven times higher, respectively, than those for white women.

11

In 1994, the Northeast region accounted for the largest percentage of AIDS cases
reported among women (44%), followed by the South (36%), West (9%), Midwest (7%),
and Puerto Rico and US territories (4%). In the Northeast, most cases among women
occurred in urban areas; 1.4% of women with AIDS in the Northeast resided outside
metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) compared with 10.2% of women who resided
outside MSAs in the South. Of all cases among women, 61% were reported fi'om five
states: New York (26%), Florida (13%), New Jersey (10%), California (7%), and Texas
(5%).

In 1994, 41% of women with AIDS reported injecting drug use; 38%,
heterosexual contact with a partner at risk for or known to have HIV infection or AIDS;
and 2%, receipt of contaminated blood or blood products; 19% had no specific HIV
exposure reported. Of all women with AIDS who were initially reported without risk but
who were later reclassified, most had heterosexual contact with an at-risk partner (66%)
or a history of injecting-drug use (27%) (4 ). In 1991, of the 5353 women reported with
AIDS attributed to heterosexual contact, 38% reported contact with a male partner who
was an injecting-drug user; 7%, a bisexual male; 2%, a partner who had hemophilia or had
received HIV-contaminated blood or blood products; and 53%, a partner
who had documented HIV infection or AIDS but whose risk was unspecified.

Findings from the HIV Survey in Childbearing Women , estimated 7000
HIV-infected women delivered infants in the United States during 1993. They assumed a
prenatal transmission rate of 15%-3 0%, approximately 1000-2000 infants were prenatally
infected with HIV during 1993. From 1989 through 1993, the annual prevalence of HIV
infection among childbearing women remained relatively stable (1.6-1.7 per 1000),
although prevalence varied regionally: in the Northeast, prevalence decreased from 4.1 to
3.4 per 1000; in the South, prevalence increased from 1.6 in 1989 to 2.0 in 1991 and
remained stable through 1993.

12

Heterosexual contact was the most rapidly increasing transmission category for
women. In particular, women were more likely than men to be reported initially without a
risk for HIV because both women and their care providers may not recognize or report
the risk behaviors of the woman or her partners. High rates of sexually transmitted
diseases were associated with the use of noninjecting drugs and with the exchange of
sex for drugs, money, or personal items that may account for increased heterosexual
transmission among some women . In addition, some women who had sex with other
women may be at risk for HIV infection if they inject drugs or have partners with high-risk
behaviors.

Women at highest risk for heterosexually acquired HIV infection included those
whose heterosexual partners have high-risk behaviors (e.g., injecting-drug use),
adolescents and young adults with multiple sex partners, and those with sexually
transmitted diseases. To reduce HIV transmission to women, prevention programs should
emphasize consistent condom use, the need for substance-abuse prevention and treatment
services, and counseling to support decisions by women and their partners to reduce risk
behaviors.

As can be seen, AIDS has afl‘ected a large amount of the American population.
These staggering numbers are continuing to rise and will continue to rise until there is a
cure found for the AIDS virus. Although these numbers seem astronomical, it has also
had a high death toll rate in other countries. These countries have their own assumptions
of how the disease was placed in their country. One such place is Afiica, specifically Sub—
Saharan Afiica. It is important to note that when speaking of AIDS in Afiica that it is
broken down into regions. Since the researcher has focused on Zimbabwe, the AIDS

pandemic will be looked at in Sub-Saharan Afiica and then more critically at Zimbabwe.

13
Sub-Sahflan Afiiga

Fraser and Mackenzie stated that roughly 11 million adults and up to 1 million
children in sub.Saharan Afiica have been infected with HIV since the epidemic was first
identified in the early 19808. By the year 2010, it is estimated that AIDS will have lowered
the average life expectancy from 66 to 33 years in Zambia, fi'om 70 to 40 years in
Zimbabwe, from 68 to 40 years in Kenya, and from 59 to 31 years in Uganda. In a region
that is so geographically, demographically, socially, and culturally heterogeneous, the
extent and spread of HIV varies widely fiom place to place. The most afflicted countries
were geographically concentrated in a region along east and southern Afiica stretching
fi'om Uganda and Kenya southward to include Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana.

The importance of the HIV /AIDS pandemic cannot be measured solely by the
number of infected on ill individuals. Because HIV was transmitted sexually, it mainly
struck adolescents, young adults, and people in early middle age. These were the very
people on whom society relies for production and reproduction. These were the men and
women who raised the young and cared for the old. Yet as they died of AIDS, their
elderly relatives were left without support and their children become orphans. They were
the ones who grew the crops, worked in the mines and factories, ran the schools and the
hospitals, and even governed the country. For every person with AIDS, countless more
people were afi‘ected by the impact of HIV and AIDS. Hard-won gains in child survival
were being erased. In countries that were not yet industrialized, or were in the process of

industrializing, AIDS threatened development itself such as in the country of Zimbabwe.

My:
In 1987, Zimbabwe developed a National Campaign on AIDS to educate

the public. They took ideas and suggestions from various people in the health field

14

and then headed up various campaigns to target groups of people. At the time the
campaign was started, there was a need to educate all individuals on an equal basis, but
since then, there has been a soaring increase of HIV in certain populations, such as women
and children. In Sub-Saharan Africa, women had become the leading group of new
infectious cases of HIV. This alarming rate has definitely caught the attention of
politicians and health care workers. Most of these women were in their child bearing
years (19-35). This factor contributed two important concerns for women, one efl‘ect was
their being the basic care givers of the home and the possibility of bearing HIV positive
children. Basett and Mhloyi stated , AIDS was having an important and still-evolving
efl‘ect on health, and poses a substantial threat to present and future generations.

Women in Zimbabwe and other parts of Africa were in this large group of
individuals who on the one hand were the care givers of the family, but lacked control
over the family. They were in positions to give nourishment and well being to the family,
but were unable to make decisions for the family. This attitude stemmed from traditional /
culture, the colonial mentality and the political economy (Bassett and Mhloyi). These
three situations indirectly had an affect on the control that women had over their bodies,
particularly within sexual relationships. Lack of control to make decisions about sex were
problems that were facing women in Zimbabwe, but if one were to examine the AIDS
epidemic, they would noticed that these problems were underlying other patterns of trade,
migrant labor, and STD's in Zimbabwe. (Bassett & Mhloyi). In order to get a broader
understanding of the AIDS epidemic in Zimbabwe, a closer look at these factors needed to
be done.

m ' ' In'
Women have played various roles in the Zimbabwean society. They have been
regarded as wives, daughters, sisters, homemakers, childbearers, and other names which

”fit" a woman in Zimbabwe. From the lack of depth used in describing women, it was

15

apparent that this can be traced back to the ideas and perceptions of women during the
past.

The idea of women's and men's work has been a pre-existing part of the
Zimbabwean culture. From the time children reach puberty, they were given distinct tasks
pertaining to their sex. Girls were taught the art of weaving , cooking, cleaning, and child
rearing; whereas, boys were given lessons on providing for the family in an economic
fashion. This meant finding jobs in order to maintain stability withinthe family. This
attitude of a lack of work within and around the house created distinctive gender roles.
Men had somehow embedded their idea of being taken care of by women into the boys of
the village, which continued on into a cyclical pattern. Most of these ideas were carried
over fi'om the pro-Colonial era into the Colonial era, which helped compound another set
of idea and beliefs.

Patriarchal values were very dominant during the pro-Colonial era. Marriage was
regarded as a loss to the wife's family because she was not able to participate in the labor
and reproduce for the benefit of her family. This contributed to the bride-price (libola)
compensation that men paid to his family-in-law. A man's commitment to his family was
to provide financial support for his wife and ofi‘spring (who became part of the male
lineage). (Basset & Mhloyi) Although they provided for the family, men were also
permitted to have additional wives.

"These additional wives did not displace the older
wives, who instead maintained their status as
senior wives and also could share in the labor of
more junior wives.”
The idea of multiple wives was a part of traditional culture that has been diminishing in
recent years because it bore a great financial burden on most men.
With the onset of the Colonial era, there was a new market economy began to

develop which caused the existing traditional values to be challenged. European settlers

16

introduced their own patriarchal values on Zimbabweans. European society, mixed with
traditional (Shona) culture helped to create a new set of laws and customs in Zimbabwe.

Women in society began to have more demands placed on them in terms of their
roles as caregivers for the family and being the child-bearers. This was due to the ideas of
European values. Europeans began to diminish ”traditional” Shona values by placing
women in a minority status. Although women in the traditional culture were not given the
same recognition as men, their work was still regarded as important, especially when it
dealt with the family unit. When Europeans began to move into the society, women were
stripped of property rights and even rights to their own children. They were placed in
guardianship of either their fathers or husbands, which perpetuated the idea of no control
over land, labor, and themselves.

In a society which had a history of patriarchal beliefs, the ideas of ownership of
women was abundant. Many men felt that their wife was someone that they had paid for, V
therefore, they were able to treat her any way they chose. Lack of control and respect has
left women in very controlled situations over her life. She has been unable to make
decisions concerning her body, which made her vulnerable to contracting sexual
transmitted diseases from her husband or mate. I

With the AIDS crisis in a full uproar, women should have been challenging their
mates to wear condoms, but there was a certain belief by men that they did not need to
protect themselves. "A bull is not a bull, until they can prove their scars", is a popular
saying among Zimbabwean men. (Bearer and Ray) This statement implies that a man has J”
not proven himself to be a man until he has contracted a ”curable” disease from one of his
sexual partners. They challenged women both verbally and physically on the issue of
wearing a condom because they felt that this was their wife or mate, who should be

remaining faithful. When a women suggested to her mate to use a condom she was also

suggesting that she was being promiscuous. Men believed that they could be promiscuous

17

and obtain sexual pleasures from women, but in the long run, they were creating problems

for themselves and their mates.

Rural Wumm

In 1996, over three quarters of the population lived in the rural areas in Zimbabwe.
This constituted communal lands, small-scale famrs, and agricultural c00peratives. The
main industries consisted of maize cultivation, rearing livestock, and producing cash crops.
The remaining population of the rural areas worked on commercial farms, plantations, and
estates that produced tobacco, maize, wheat, beef, fi'uit, vegetables, sugar, tea, cofi‘ee, and
timber. These various crops were the main source of income for many people in the rural
areas especially women.

The women's workforce in Zimbabwe constituted two-thirds of the working
population. This was nearly 2.52 million women that worked as farmers on communal
lands, small farms or rural cooperatives. Farm workers lived on approximately 4600
commercial farms, plantations, and estates. These rural women were in situations where
they were trying to make a better life for themselves and their children, but tradition and .
socioeconomic factors made this dimcult.

Tradition about marriage and its duties were very strong in the rural areas. Nearly
eighty percent still practiced lobola, a form of payment for the bride. (Borer and Ray)
“With this practice still in tact, many men felt that their wives were a piece of property that
they have bought and paid for; therefore it gave them the right to treat her as a piece of
property.

The rural woman on average did seventy percent of the work, including both
housework and small scale farming. Women's work in the household consisted of being a
caregiver, mother, and wife. Outside of the household, many women were labeled as
”contract" workers. These were women who worked on commercial farms that did the

same jobs as men, but received less pay because they were not hired as full time help.

18

(Williams and Ray) The fact still remains that rural women were being oppressed in the
job setting and at home due to the socio-economic factors in Zimbabwe. These factors
have left rural women with few positive options for bettering their lifestyle.

The severe drought in 1993, the high cost of living, and low prices for agricultural
products has resulted in the splitting of the rural family. Many men had migrated into
town to find work and left the family unit to the women. This placed a tremendous
burden on the wife because she is already the caretaker of the family, but as her husband
physically moved out of the house, she was the sole caregiver. As more men moved into
town, "the inevitable upsurge in extramarital sex resulted in the transfer of STD's,
including HIV, back to the wives in the rural areas.” (F user-Mackenzie)

It was said in Zimbabwe that when a rural women married, her status was reduced
to that of a minor. She was expected to obey her male partner, not to instruct or oppose
him... especially in the context of marriage. (Ulin) This attitude contributed to the lack of
control and power she had over her own life, decisions, and sexual relationships. These
factors alone contributed to the vulnerability and spread of AIDS of women in the rural

areas.

AID in h ni

The migrant labor of men into the urban areas had a direct affect on the family,
particularly the wife in the rural areas. When looking at the high spread of AIDS in rural
women, it was also important to note the high STD rate. In Zimbabwe, the Ministry of
health reported 881,926 cases of STD's in 1992. (Williams & Ray) This rate of infection
was extremely high with males because it was a common practice for men to be
promiscuous. This idea of promiscuity, coupled with the urban-rural migration and other
risk-related conditions and the prevalence of infections has led to the high HIV infection

rate.

19

When most of these men returned to their wives in the rural communities, they
brought home more added stress to the family. By contracting a STD, they were in a
higher risk group for the AIDS virus, which in turn could be given to his wife. If he was
HIV positive, the responsibility of his health care fell on the wife.

It was a common belief in the rural areas that when you were sick, you go to the
doctor because they can "work miracles”. This idea has taken a toll on many women
because when she went to the doctor with her husband, she was told to care for him at
home, because they did not have the necessary care for them in the rural clinics. With
potential savings used up by home resrnissions, the cost of an ill person and possibly an
urban funeral, the ailing man was obliged to return home at his most infectious state.
Usually the poor living conditions of the family was a direct cause of how women dealt
with the illness. Many rural women who cared for her husband were in poor health, also.

Lack of resources, support, and information on health, AIDS, and the family lefi
women in a vulnerable position. The disadvantaged state of women, especially in the rural
areas, has been combined with high unemployment, the mobility of men, and the
breakdown of pre-colonial family life in Zimbabwe. This has lead to the breakdown of
traditional values and norms of sexual behaviors, which has helped to contribute to the
widespread infection rates of HIV in rural women.

mm

Of the Zimbabwean population, twenty-seven percent was classified as urban
dwellers. (W rlliams and Ray) Over 1 million lived in the capital, Harare and 600,000 in ‘
the second main city, Bulawayo. (William and Ray) These individuals were involved in
various jobs in the formal sector, but due to the drought in 1993 and the Economic
Structure Adjustment Program, (created due to increasing debt and lack of foreign
investment) has led to widespread violations of women's rights in terms of access to health

care, education, and formal sector employment. Many women could not find work

20

because many jobs were termed as male-oriented, meaning the woman must resort to
domestic types of labor.

Women who lived and worked in the urban areas were generally there because of
employment. Women contributed to only 28% of the workforce termed as the formal
sector, 15% were skilled workers, and 11% semi-skilled labor. These women were
concentrated in a few industries such as retail, restaurants, hotels, finance, and real estate.
(Actor Alan) Of these workers, only 10% were counted as part of the labor force. This
was because the economy was only defined in capitalist growth and accumulation terms.
Meaning that the government only accounted for semi-skilled and skilled labor that would
caused the capital to grow.

Many of the jobs that were found amongst women in the rural area were knitting,
dress-making, crocheting, and fiuit and vegetable selling. Although these were economic
and profit making ventures, the market termed them as part of the informal economic
sector. The informal sector was the "lower-circuit” economic activities that were labor
intensive, had little dependence on overhead capital and ...acted as a means of livelihood
for large numbers of the urban poor.

Women who lived in the urban areas were a group of people that helped make
ends meet in the family home just as the rural women, except there was not the problem of
rural-urban migration. Many couples lived together, but these were still families that were
split because of male worked for the major industries, such as the railroad or police. This
required these women to provide for the family. Women with limited education and job
opportunities found themselves in desperate need of income which sometimes was not
obtained in a positive manner. Some women turned to prostitution because it was "quick"
money or they got assurance of support fi'om a man. This placed women in a vulnerable
situation to accept this form of lifestyle in order to survive, and also increased their risk of

contracting AIDS.

21

AIDS mg the Urbeu Women
In Zimbabwe, because many women migrated to the cities, there had been more
women entering into domestic work. Williams and Ray stated that female domestic
workers were vulnerable to sexual exploitation in the course of their work and were at risk
of HIV infection. For other women in urban areas, their risk of infection was from their
husbands, similar to that of the rural women. The conditions of employment often kept
families apart. Men were away fi'om their wives, many of them had girlfriends or
frequented prostitutes in hotels, bars, or beerhalls. (Williams and Ray) This behavior
increased the chances of men contracting AIDS and taking it home to the women in their
lives. Ifthe husband was using the money to pay for these sexual favors, his monetary
portion to his family decreased, which then placed women in akward positions. She had
to find work in order to support the family, but if she was unskilled she may have turned
to prostitution.
Prostitution as a way of spreading the AIDS disease in the urban areas was a

common stereotype of many people. Bassett and Mhloyi state,

”Although urban female migration initially was restructured

both legally and by the lack of employment prospects,

some women migrated to meet the demand for sexual

services created by the artificial settlement of men without

their families. An urban woman, particularly, one

divorced or unmarried, became almost synomous with

a prostitute. This stereotype is strong and has found its

way into the AIDS control program." v/

This attitude was one held by many men and women, but actually many women had sexual
relationships within the marriage. Few married women in Zimbabwe felt that they were in

the position to have sexual relations without a financial gain involved. (Bassett and

22

Mholyi) Urban women that were involved in prostitution found themselves engaged in the
form of single sexual encounters, domestic services, or more commonly ongoing sexual
relationships. These wide variety of descriptions made the definition of prostitution
arbitrary. Many of these women sold sex to migrant men in order to meet family financial
obligations such as school fees. The majority of the men sought these women as well as
other women who made a full-time career of prostitution. These were the women who
frequented places to find businessmen and men in higher socio-economic brackets.

All the blame for the spread of AIDS can not be placed on prostitution, but rather
on the cycle of extramarital afi‘airs and unsafe sex within these relationships. When
entering into sexual relationships, women may have felt intimidated not to ask the man to
wear a condom. In Zimbabwean society, men felt you only should wear condoms with
prostitutes, but in many instances, this was not happening. "A national survey of
Zimbabwean men found that only 35% said that they had ever used condoms. Most
viewed condom use as appropriate for prostitutes, but not within marriages or other stable
arrangements. This placed women of all types in a weak position to dictate how sex took
place." (Bassett & erolyi)

Women in Zimbabwe were not in positions where they could ask their mates to use
protection, therefore they ran a higher risk of contracting AIDS. Urban women and rural
women alike were both in positions in society where they were regarded as second class
citizens. The ability for them to speak up about their own bodies was not encouraged.
They were-willing to sacrifice their own lives in order to keep their family together. Their
position in society, socio-economic factors, and migration were reasons why the AIDS
epidemic has greatly affected women of all classes.

The researcher looked at three characteristics that would be crucial to the
development of AIDS knowledge of rural and urban women in Zimbabwe. These
characteristics along with general information about AIDS was a major reason that the

researcher felt it necessary to look at AIDS knowledge. In the growing AIDS epidemic in

23

Zimbabwe, it was necessary for women of all classes to understand how the AIDS
epidemic would affect them and their families. The more educated a woman was about
the virus, the more aware she would be about the affect that the disease would have on her
as an individual, as well as the family. The comparison of AIDS knowledge between the
urban and rural women was the major focus because these are two distinct groups of
women that had different lifestyles and issues. Knowing their level of AIDS knowledge
could be beneficial to agencies within the Zimbabwean government that are involved in
National AIDS campaign. This information could be helpful to organizations that are

providing AIDS literature to women throughout the country of Zimbabwe.

CHAPTER III
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
mm
The researcher's purpose in this study was to compare AIDS knowledge between
urban and rural women in Zimbabwe. In this chapter, the design and methodology of the

study are explained. The instrument, population, and sample are also discussed.

Instrument

Two questionnaires were used for this study. The first which consisted of 182
questions was divided into 4 sections; general background questions, AIDS knowledge,
stress factors, and contraceptive questions, and a section on Afiican American and Shona
( the second language of Zimbabwe) proverbs. Only the sections dealing with general
background and AIDS knowledge were addressed in this study. This questionnaire was
administered to the urban women at the University of Zimbabwe.

The second questionnaire consisted of 52 questions broken down into 2 sections.
The first section consisted of background information such as religion, education, and
marital status. The second section consisted of AIDS knowledge questions such as how
AIDS is contracted and how it is spread. This was administered to the women at the
Rural Women's Training Center. The 52 questions in this questionnaire was taken directly
fi'om the loner questionnaire used with the urban women fi'om the University of
Zimbabwe.

The AIDS knowledge section of the questionnaire consisted of 22 questions that
addressed topics such as: vulnerability, fears, sexual behaviors, and beliefs and AIDS.
The choice of responses were: true, false, or "don't know". There questions were taken
{tom the brochure ”Understanding AIDS," distributed internationally by the US Centers
for Disease Control (CDC, 1988).

Population

The sample population to represent urban women was randomly chosen from 650
students in the Family Study and Home Economics Faculty at the University of Zimbabwe.

The sample population of women representing rural women from the Training
Center for Rural Women were chosen fi'om 70 students participating in self-improvement

classes.

Sample
The questionnaire that was developed for this research (Appendix B) was given to

96 randomly selected students at the University of Zimbabwe (Harare) and 33 randomly
selected at the Training Center for Rural Women (Melfort). Both procedures were done
in the classroom setting. At the University of Zimbabwe there were two MIRT
researchers to every classroom setting. The researchers were to answer any questions
dealing with the questionnaire, but not to lead the participants in any type of discussion
about the survey. At the beginning of the questionnaire, the instructions were given as to
how to fill out the questionnaire, and also the purpose of the study was given. Pencils
were given to the participants to keep for answering the questionnaire.

The training Center is a meeting place for all type of courses/programs that are
specifically geared towards rural women. The women involved in this study were given
revised questionnaires based on the specific needs of AIDS knowledge and rural women.
Four of the women were in a Farm Management class, nine were in a Business Planning
and Development class, and thirty one were in an AIDS Training course for Rural
Commercial farm women. The women were given complete instructions in English and
Shona. A woman from the AIDS training class for rural farm women was the translator
for the process. In the other two classroom settings, there was a training oficer from the

center, who acted as a translator. She was fully aware of the nature of the questionnaire

26

and was able to translate any questions the women may have had into Shona. The training
oflicers were orientated to the questionnaire two days prior to the researcher doing the
initial research. Upon completion of the questionnaires, the researcher asked if there were
any questions, and told the women that they could keep the pencils as a token of

appreciation.

The Independent mu Demndmt Vau’eples

The dependent variables in this study were three demographic characteristics of
women from Zimbabwe. These characteristics were AIDS knowledge questions,
religiosity, and educational levels. The independent variable was the physical place that a

woman was fi'om in Zimbabwe, either urban or rural.

WWW
Since this research was conducted under the authority of the National Institute of
Health, the researcher was granted approval through this organization as well as through
the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects
(U CRIHS).

N 11 H h i
The following hypothesis wer changed to the null in order for analysis.

H1 There are not significant differences between rural women selected for this study and
urban women selected for this study in the degree to which they were informed about
AIDS.

H1 There are not significant differences between women in this study with a higher
educational level and women in this study with less educational level and the extent
to which they were informed about AIDS.

27

H1 There are not significant differences between women that perceived themselves to be
very religious and women that perceived themselves to be fairly religious or not
religious at all and the extent to which they were informed about AIDS.

Limitations of the Study
1. The questions provided in the questionnaire were clear and understandable to the

respondents.

Yaliditx
The researcher used the steps used by McAdoo (1991) in her study. The process
McAdoo used in validating the instrument items and establishing instrument reliability
consisted of the following steps:
1. The Center for Disease Control was used as a reference source information on
AIDS.
2. The instrument was pilot tested on Zimbabwean students at Michigan State
and reviewed by faculty and students of the Faculty of Education at the
University of Zimbabwe in order to ensure that there was sensitivity to the

topic of AIDS.

Reliebility
The reliability coeficient of the AIDS knowledge scale was scored by summing
across all correct responses. The reliability coeficients for the AIDS knowledge

questionnaire resulted in a Seaman-Brown split-half reliability coemcient of .73.

W
The data collected from the respondents' questionnaires were coded for
processing and analysis. The researcher used the We system at Michigan State
University through the Urban Affairs Statistical Research Department. The SPSS/PC+
program was used to perform the data analysis.

28

A chi-square test was performed on the data to summarize the descriptive
information as well as the percentages and numbers for other analysis on the AIDS

knowledge, religiosity, and educational levels.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Intrpdugipn
The researcher's purpose in this study was to compare AIDS knowledge between
urban and rural women in Zimbabwe and to determine if religion and education help to
shape women's knowledge about AIDS. This chapter is divided into the findings of the
study; characteristics of the Zimbabwean women who completed the questionnaire;
comparison of AIDS knowledge between urban and rural women; and the influence of

religion and education on AIDS knowledge of women in Zimbabwe.

Cl . . E l R 1
Characteristics examined in this study included: level of education; primary school,
secondary school, college, and university level; how religious women perceived

themselves; and AIDS knowledge questions.

Lev l of i n

Table 1 shows that 56% of the rural women in this study completed secondary
school, and 6% indicated that they completed college. None of the women went to
complete graduate school. Over 40% of the urban women (43%) completed a college

degree and 49% were completed the university level.

29

30

Table 1.--Dis_tribution of Level of Education Completed by Zimbabwean Rural
and Urban Women.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rural (N=3 2) Urban (N=96)

‘ Categories Number % Number %
Primary 12 37.5 0 3 .1
Secondary 18 56.3 5 5.2
College 2 6.3 41 42.7
Graduate (University) 0 O 47 49.0

[Total 32 100.0 93 100.0

 

The Bereeptipn pf pr Religious Wumen Pergivfi Themselves

The women were asked how religious they thought they were, Table 2 presents '
this information. The majority of women in this category thought that they were very
religious. Fifty-two percent of rural women and 41% of urban women responded that
they were very religious. More urban women responded that they were fairly religious

(52%) as compared to 42% of the rural women. Seven and 8% respectively, of the rural

and urban women thought that they were not religious.

 

 

 

 

 

Rural (N=32) Urban QI=96)
Catejggries Number % Number %
Very Religious 16 51.6 39 40.6
Fairly Religious 13 41.9 50 52.1
Not Religious 2 6 5 4 7.3

 

[Total 31 100.0 93 100.0

31
Comparison of AIDS Knowledge Between
Urban and Rurel Zim_bebween Women

Zimbabwean women fi'om both rural and urban areas responded to the same 22
general questions about AIDS. The questions were adapted from a brochure developed
by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC, 1988).The questions were then grouped
into five major categories based on closely related factors. The categories included:
AIDS and non-sexual and sexual behavior, contracting AIDS through blood and drug use,
and general information about the AIDS virus. Table 3 presents an overall comparison of

AIDS knowledge between urban and rural Zimbabwean women.

32

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35

Cpntracting AIDS through Non-Sexual Behavior
In general, urban women appeared more knowledgeable about contracting AIDS

through non-sexual behavior (Table 3). A significantly higher percentage of urban women
(78% versus 32%) responded correctly to the statement that one can not get AIDS by
kissing someone with AIDS, (x2=8.2, p<.01) and that AIDS cannot be contracted from a
toilet seat (76% versus 63%), with a chi square of 6.1. There was a difl‘erence between the
correct responses of urban women (96%) and rural women (84%) for the statement that

one can get AIDS by shaking hands with someone with AIDS.

C n in AIDS thr B vi r

Urban women responded more correctly to the statements about contracting AIDS
through sexual behavior. A significantly higher percentage of urban women (100% versus
94% rural women) responded correctly to the statement that a man can contract AIDS
fi'om a woman with AIDS. Similarly a significantly higher percentage of women answered
that a woman can get AIDS from a man with AIDS. Urban women (99%) correctly
responded to the statement that multiple partners increased one chances of getting AIDS

versus 90% of rural women with a chi square of 7.0.

 

36

Contracting AIDS through Blood and Drug Use

There was a significant difl'erence (p_<_.001) between urban women (100%) and
rural women (87%) responses to the statement that AIDS can be spread by sharing a
needle with a drug user who has AIDS, at a chi square of 12.95. More urban women
responded correctly (69%) to the statement that one cannot get AIDS fi'om a blood
transfirsion, (pg 001). Urban women also responded more correctly (100% versus 94%)
to the statement that a pregnant woman with AIDS can give AIDS to her unborn child, I
(x’=6.22).

 

W

A highly significant percentage of urban women (91% versus 63% rural women)
responded to the statement that there is a cure for AIDS, with a chi square of 14.0.
Urban women also responded more correctly (84% versus 50%) to the statement that you
can have the AIDS virus without being sick at a chi square of 20.7. Ninety-two percent of
the urban women and 59% of the rural women responded correctly to the statement that
you can have the AIDS virus and spread it without being sick, (x2=18.6, p501). More
urban women (81%) responded correctly to the statement that you can get AIDS when

you masturbate by yourself.

AID dWm'P tionfowReli' Th Pr'v Them lv
Zimbabwean women's perception of how religious they were had an impact on

their knowledge of AIDS. Information about how women's perception of religion affects
their knowledge about AIDS is presented in Table 4.

37

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Qontracting AIDS through Sexual Behavior

In general, women who considered themselves fairly or very religious responded
more correctly to the statements that AIDS can be contracted through sexual behavior.
There was a significantly (p501) higher correct percentage between who considered
themselves tobe not religious women (83%), fairly religious women (100%), and very
religious women (98%) and the statement that a man can contract AIDS fiom a woman
with AIDS. It was observed with a chi square of 20.7. A highly significant percentage of
women who considered themselves not religious (83%), fairly religious (98%), and very
religious (100%) responded correctly to the statement that a woman can contract AIDS
from a man with AIDS. This was observed at a p-value of .001 and with a chi square of
20.3. A higher percentage of very religious women (94%); versus 66% of the women that
were not religious and 90% of fairly religious women) responded correctly to the
statement that prostitutes have a higher chance of getting AIDS, (x2=10.1). There was a
highly significant difference (p=.0000) between the correct responses of those that were
not religious (67%), women that were fairly religious (100%) and women that were very
religious (98%) to the statement that having sex with more than one partner can raise your
chances of getting AIDS with a chi square of 40.5.

antraging ADDS through Blood and Drug Use

In general, most respondents responded correctly to the statements about
contracting AID through blood and drug use. Religious women (100% and 98% fairly
religious) responded more correctly than non-religious women (83%) to the statement that
a pregnant woman with AIDS can give AIDS to her unborn baby, (x2=9.31, p501).

42

@931 Information flout the AIDS virus

Ninety-eight percent of very religious women correctly responded to the statement
that people with AIDS will die versus 16% of women that were not religious and 87% of
fairly religious women with a chi square of 36.4 and a p-value of .0000.

There was a significant difference (p501) between very religious women (84%),
fairly religious women (86%), and women that were not religious (67%) and their correct

responses to the statement that there was a cure for AIDS with a chi square of 12.4.

Level of flggtion and AIDS Knowlfigg

in N n- eh vi r

There was a significant difference (p501) between the correct responses of
women that only completed primary school (50%), women that only completed secondary
school (82%), women that only completed college (81%), and women that completed
graduate school (72%) and the statement that there was a high chance of getting AIDS by
kissing someone on the mouth that has AIDS, (x2=20.9). A chi square of 18.3 was
observed at a significance level of (p501) between women that had only completed
primary school (3 6%), women that completed secondary school (77%), women that only
completed college (81%), and women that completed graduate school (80%) and their
correct responses to the statement that you can get AIDS fiom a toilet seat. Women that
completed graduate school (85%) correctly responded to the statement that you can get
AIDS when you masturbate by yourself versus; 58% of woman that only completed
secondary school, and 74% of women that only completed college at significance level of
.001 and a chi square of21.6.

 

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47

goggracting AIDS through Blood

There was a significant difference (p501) between the correct responses of
women that had only completed primary school (83%), women that had only completed
secondary school (100%), and women that had only completed college and graduate
school (100%) at a chi square of 18.8.

Conming AIDS through Sexual Behavior '1
There was a significant difi‘erence (pg .01) between the correct responses of

women that only completed primary school (83%) and women that only completed
secondary, college, or graduate school (100%) and the statement that AIDS can be spread

 

if a man has sex with a woman who has AIDS at a chi square of 18.8. Ninety-five percent
of women that had only completed graduate school responded higher to the statement that
prostitutes have higher chance of getting AIDS versus 64% of women that only completed
primary school, 96% of women that only completed secondary school, and 91% of women
that had only completed college at a chi square of 13.8. There was a significant difi‘erence
(p501) between the correct responses of women that only completed primary school
(75%), women that only completed college (98%), and women that only completed
college or graduate school (100%) and the statement that having sex with more than one

partner can raise your chances of getting AIDS at a chi square of 23.7.

Inf i n h S vi
A significantly (p301) higher percentage of women that only completed college
responded correctly (95%) to the statement that there was a cure for AIDS versus, 33%
of the women that only completed primary school, 83% of the women that only
completed secondary school, and 85% of the women that only completed graduate school;
at a chi square of 27.8. There was a significant difference (p_<_.01) between the women's

correct responses to the statement that you can have the AIDS virus without being sick;

48

42% of the women that only completed primary school responded correctly, 57% of the
women that only completed secondary school responded correctly, 88% of the women
that only completed college and 87% of the women that completed graduate school
responded correctly at a chi square of 24.8. A significantly higher (p301) percentage of
the women that only completed college and graduate school responded correctly (91%) to
the statement that you can have the AIDS virus and spread it without being sick versus;
50% of the women that only completed primary school and 70% of the women that only

completed secondary school.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS, AND OBSERVATIONS

Summary

Since 1992, Zimbabwe has tried to develop a Nationwide AIDS program that will
target the entire country. Since the onset of the program, omcials have understood that
there needs to be a greater focus on women and children. This came from the
understanding that women are the bloodline to the next generation and are also the main
care providers for the Zimbabwean family. Without healthy women and children the
government understood that the country would sufi‘er a great loss in the labor market.

From the Nationwide AIDS program, there has been a greater flow of information
about health issues pertaining specifically to women and children, more information about
better health care for pregnant women, and more general information being circulated
about health and the woman.

In this study, the researcher's purpose was to determine if there was a difference in
AIDS knowledge between women in the urban and rural areas of Zimbabwe. The specific

hypothesis were:

H1. There are significant differences between rural women selected for this study
and urban women selected for this study in the degree to which they were
informed about AIDS.

H, There are significant differences between women in this study with a higher
educational level and women in this study with less educational level and the extent
to which they were informed about AIDS.

H1 There are significant differences between women that perceived themselves to be
very religious and women that perceived themselves to be fairly religious or not
religious at all and the extent to which they were informed about AIDS.

49

 

50

The nature of the study was descriptive in nature. Data were collected by means
of questionnaires that were given to Zimbabwean women (N=96) at the University of
Zimbabwe in Harare and to rural women (N=3 2) at the Rural Women's Training Center.

The instrument used to collect the data for the study consisted of two sections.
The first section contained information about education, marital status, job status, family
life, and religion. The second section contained the 22 AIDS knowledge questions.

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data pertaining to the
demographic characteristics of the respondents and their knowledge on AIDS. Major
findings are summarized in the following section.

thgtm‘stics of the Respondents
Fifty-six percent of the rural women's highest education that they completed was

secondary school. Only 6% had completed a graduate level education. F orty-nine percent
of the urban women had completed a graduate level education while only 3% had only
completed primary school. Forty-one respondents (43%) had only completed college.
Thirty-nine urban women (41%) responded as being very religious while only 7%
responded that they were not religious. Sixteen rural women (52%) responded that they
were very religious, 42% responded to being fairly religious and only 7% responded that

they were not religious.

WW
We;

All the urban women (100%) that participated in the study knew that AIDS could
be spread by sharing a needle with an infected person. All of the urban women knew that
AIDS could be spread through sexual contact between a man and a woman and through a
pregnant woman to her unborn child. A high percentage of the women (99%) also knew

that having sex with multiple partners will increase ones chances of contracting AIDS.

 

51

Ninety-six percent knew that AIDS could not be spread through non-sexual contact such
as shaking hands with an infected person, or sharing a glass of water with an infected
person (85%).

A low number of urban women (70%) did not know if AIDS could be spread
through a blood transfusion. Over eighty percent of the rural women (87%) knew that
AIDS could be spread by sharing a needle with an infected person, but only 70% knew
that a person raises their chances of contracting the disease by having sex with someone
that is an intravenous drug user. Only 55% of the rural women knew that one raises their
chances of contracting AIDS by having a blood transfusion. A high number of rural
women (94%) knew that a pregnant woman can give AIDS to her unborn child. Ninety-
four percent of the women knew that AIDS could be spread through sexual contact
between a man and a woman. Sixty-one percent of the mral women responded that you
can tell if someone has AIDS by looking at them. A low number of rural women (50%)
felt that you can have the AIDS virus without being sick.

i wl

The women who's highest level of education was college had a high knowledge of
the AIDS virus. One-hundred percent knew that you could not get AIDS by shaking hands
with someone who has AIDS. They also knew (100%) that AIDS could be spread
through an IV drug user. A high percentage of the women knew that AIDS could be
spread through men and women having heterosexual sex (98%).

Women that only completed secondary school also had a high level of AIDS
knowledge. Eighty-one percent of the women knew that AIDS could not be spread
through a glass of water nor by shaking hands with someone who has AIDS (86%). One-
hundred percent of the women knew that AIDS could be spread through heterosexual sex

and through a pregnant woman to her unborn child and having multiple sex partners.

 

52

They had the highest percentage of women that knew that people will die from AIDS
(96%). Only fifty-six percent knew that you can have the AIDS virus without being sick.
Over eighty percent of the graduate and college only women knew that this was true.
College graduates and primary women seemed to be fairly knowledgeable about
AIDS. Fifty-percent of the primary only educated women and 30% of the college only
women responded that you can get AIDS by giving blood. Both groups of women had
the highest percentages of respondents that felt that AIDS could not be spread by sharing
a needle with an IV drug user (9%, 5%) as compared to 0% of the other two groups.
Eighty-three percent of the primary and college only graduates responded that people will
die from AIDS, which was a lower percentage than the other two groups. Forty-one
percent of the women that only completed primary school thought that there was a cure
for AIDS as compared to 13% of the responses for secondary and graduate women, and

2% for college women.

W

How R i 'ous Women P 'v Th lv

Very religious women knew that AIDS could be spread by a woman having sex
with a man (100%) and by a man having sex with a woman with AIDS (98%). A high
percentage knew that one could not get AIDS by shaking hands with someone who had
AIDS (95%) and that one could not get AIDS by masturbating with oneself (76%), as
compared to 33% of the women that were not religious. Fairly religious women knew
that AIDS could be spread through heterosexual sex (100%), but it could not be spread by
shaking hands with someone who has the AIDS virus (87%). All three groups of women
knew that using a condom could lower your chances of getting AIDS (83%). Women
who were not religious had the lowest percentage of knowing that AIDS could be spread
to an unborn baby through a pregnant mother (83%) as compared to 100% of the very

religious women. Women who were not religious also had the lowest knowledge about

53

AIDS being spread if a man has sex with another man, only 67% responded to this

statement as true, as compared to 93% of the very religious women.

Conclusions

From the research questions stated, the researcher can conclude the following:

1. Women fiom the urban areas are more knowledgeable about AIDS than
women fiom the rural areas.

2. Women that completed secondary school, college, and graduate school were
more knowledgeable about AIDS than women that had only completed
primary school.

3. Women that were very religious were more knowledgeable about AIDS than

women that were not religious.

R m n i f r F r
The Nationwide AIDS Educational Program in Zimbabwe is in the third year of
existence. Since it is in the early stages, they is still room for improvement. Thus, the

following recommendations are made for further study:

1. A study should be conducted to determine the success of the Nationwide AIDS

Educational program in the primary schools throughout Zimbabwe.

2. Research should be done on the amount of AIDS information being presented

in the churches in Zimbabwe.

3. A study should be done to determine how much information is being presented

to women in clinics on AIDS/HIV.
4. A study should be conducted to determine how successful are the AIDS

education programs being done on the communal lands in the rural areas.

 

54

Observations
This report has dealt with the findings of AIDS knowledge between selected urban
and rural women in Zimbabwe. The author would like to make some suggestions not
neccessarily involved with the research in this particular section.
1. Extension should take a proactive role in educating women about the AIDS virus in
both the urban and rural areas. q
2. The Ministries of Health and Education should conduct evaluative studies in order to
determine the efl‘ectiveness of their AIDS programming efforts.
3. AGRITEX (Zimbabwe’s Cooperative Extension Service) should hold nationwide
seminars and workshops to educate extension agents about AIDS/HIV prevention.
4. AGRITEX should be involved in the AIDS education programs on the commerical

farms.
5. The Ministry of Health should hold joint workshops with the Ministry of Education

and AGRITEX to educate workers abut AIDS/HIV.

 

APPENDIX

 

APPENDIX A

 

LETTER FROM THE MSU COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH
INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

 

 

517M?!”
FAX? Slim-1171

“may“
mama-m.
Warm

talcum
“WM

55

MICHIGAN STATE
0 N I R s

18 December. l995

0: Dr. Evangelos A. Petropoulos and Nicole Webster
m: David E. Wright. Chair UCRII-IS
bjechs.Webster“sMasters111esis

In a recent letter, dated November 29, 1995 you described Ms. Webster's
research as a MIRT scholar. Her research at the University of Zimbabwe on the
“Developmt of Health. Attitudes Toward HIV Infection and Health Education”
was reviewed by the IRB of the University of Zimbabwe as well as the NIH
ofiiceofOPRRThisistoinformyouthattheChairofUCRnIS hasreadand
accepts your explanation of Ms. Webster’s research as complying with the ‘
regulations protecting human subjects ofresesrch. This letter will serve as
verification of UCRIHS approval for the Graduate School when Ms. Webster
submits her Mum's Thesis.

 

APPENDIX B

 

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

 

56
RURAL WONIEN QUESTIONNAIRE

Date: I.D. #

Location Interviewer

This is a study pertinent to rural women in Zimbabwe attitudes towards AIDS prevention.
Please fill out this questionnaire. We thank you for your cooperation.

 

Dr. Harriette McAdoo Nicole Webster
1. PRIMARY EDUCATION:

Mission Day School

Mission Boarding School
Government Day School
Government Boarding School

euro-—

2. HIGHEST LEVEL OF SCHOOL

Primary
Secondary
College
University

#UJNH

3. Where did you go to Secondary School?

 

4. MARITAL STATUS
Single
Married
Separated
Divorced
Widowed

LII-hWNU-i

5. How Long?

6. Age?

 

 

7. Where did you grow up?

 

 

10.

11.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

57

Are you:
Shona __
Ndeble

Other (Specify)

~

In what country were you born?

Occupation

 

Number of years worked

 

If married, does your spouse work?
YES _
NO

”—0

What is the job?

Women always face stress and problems. What is the source of your
stress?

How religious would you say you are?

 

Not religious at all 1
Fairly religious 2
Very religious 3
What religion are you?

What domination are you?

 

How often have you gone to a traditional healer?
Never

Sometimes
Often

fl

How often have you gone to a Maprofita?
Never 1

Sometimes
Often

(AN

Who lives in your house?

 

Number of your children?

 

 

 

 

 

Number of children you are now or have ever raised?

 

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

58

What do you think you will be doing 10 years fi'om now?_

 

In the future, how do you expect things to be for you?
Get better

Stay the same
Get worse

H

 

WN

For others in your family?
Get better

Stay the same

Get worse

fl

WN

In general, how happy or satisfied would you say you are?
Satisfied 1

Neutral
Dissatisfied

 

3

Thinking about your present family situation, would you say that you are:
Satisfied

Neutral
Dissatisfied

 

1
2
3

In general, do you feel that your contact with these relatives is:
Too much

Too little
About right

 

l
2

Comment

 

How ofien do you see your relatives, your parents, and sisters and brothers?
Daily 1
Weekly

 

2
Monthly 3
Few times per year 4
Never 5

The extended family ofien helps avoid stresses in our lives. How about your
family, are they helpful to you?
Helpful

Somewhat helpfirl

Not helpful

wrou—

Comments:

 

 

 

59

AIDS Knowledge. Please answer either True, False, or Don't Know.

I F D.K.

_ _ 33. Most experts say there's a high chance of getting AIDS by
kissing someone on the mouth who has AIDS?

_ _ _ 34. There's a good chance you can get AIDS fiom a toilet seat?

_ _ __ 35. AIDS can be spread by sharing a needle with a drug user who
has AIDS?

_ _ _ 36. If a man or woman has sex with someone who shoots up
drugs, they raise their chance of getting AIDS?

_ _ _ 37. You can get AIDS by giving blood?

 

_ _ 38. There's a high chance of getting AIDS if you get a blood
transfusion?

_ _ 39. There's a high chance that AIDS can be spread by sharing a
glass of water with someone who has AIDS?

_ _ _ 40. You can get AIDS by shaking hands with someone who has
AIDS?

_ _ _ 41. AIDScanbespreadifamanhassexwithawomanwhohas
AIDS?

42. A woman can get AIDS by having sex with man who has
AIDS?

_ _ _ 43. AmScanbespreadifamanhassexwithanothermanwho
hasAIDS?

_ __ __ 44. A pregnant woman with AIDS can give AIDS to her unborn
baby?

 

_ _ __ 45. Using a condom (rubber) can lower your chance of getting
AIDS?

_ _ __ 46. Eating healthy foods can keep you from getting AIDS?

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

S4.

60
You can get AIDS when you masturbate by yourself?

You can always tell if someone has AIDS by looking at them?
Prositutes have a higher chance of getting AIDS?

Having sex with more than one partner can raise your chance
of getting AIDS?

People with AIDS will die from it?
There is a cure for AIDS?
You can have the AIDS vims without being sick from AIDS?

You can have the AIDS virus and spread it without being sick
from AIDS?

 

 

APPENDIX C

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES

 

 

61

Table 6- Knowledge about AIDS--Raw Scores of Rural Women

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Do most experts say there's a high chance of 6.9 69 24.1
getting AIDS by kissing someone on the mouth
who has AIDS?
There's a good chance you can get AIDS from a 20.0 63.3 16.7
toilet seat?
AIDS can be spread by sharing a needle with a 86.7 10.0 3.3
drug user who has AIDS?
Ifa man or woman has sex with someone who 70.0 10.0 20.0
shoots up drugs, they raise their chance of
getting AIDS?
You can get AIDS by giving blood? 32.3 54.8 12.9
There's a high chance of getting AIDS if you 55.2 31.0 13.8
get a blood transfusion?
There's a high chance that AIDS can be spread 9.7 80.6 9.7
bysharingaglassofwaterwithsomecnewho
has AIDS?
You can get AIDS by shaking hands with 3.2 83.9 12.9
someone who has AIDS?
AIDScanbespreadifamanhassexwith 93.5 3.2 3.2
a women who has AIDS?
Awomancanget AIDSby havingsexwith 93.8 3.3 3.3
a man who has AIDS?
AIDScanbespreadifamanhassexwith 80.0 3.3 16.7
another man who has AIDS?
A pregnant woman with AIDS can give AIDS to 93.5 «- 6.5
her unborn baby?
Using a condom (rubber) can lower your chance 74.2 9.7 16.1
of getting AIDS?
Eating healthy foods can keep you from getting 16.1 71.0 12.9

AIDS?

 

 

You can get ADS when you masturbate by
yourself?

You can always tell if someone has ADS by
looking at them?

Prostitutes have a higher chance of getting ADS?

Having sex with more than one partner can
raise your chance of getting ADS?

People with AIDS will die from it?
There is a cure for ADS?

You can have the ADs vinrs without
being sick from ADS?

YoucanhavetheADSvirusandspread
it without being sick from ADS?

62

9.7

29.0

83.3

90.3

93.8

25.0

50.0

59.4

67.7

61.3

6.7

3.2

62.5

34.4

21.9

22.6

9.7

10.0

6.5

6.3

12.5

15.6

18.8

 

 

63

Table 7.-- Knowledge About ADS—Raw Scores of Urban Women

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Do most experts say there's a high chance of 15.8 77.9 6.3
getting ADS by kissing someone on the mouth
who has ADS?
There's a good chance you can get ADS from a 4.9 80.9 4.3
toilet seat?
ADScanbespreadbysharinganeedlewitha 100 - -
drug user who has ADS?
Ifa man or woman has sex with someone who 73.9 6.5 19.6
shoots up drugs, they raise their chance of
getting ADS?
You can get ADS by giving blood? 24.2 70.5 5.3
There's a high chance of getting ADS if you 69.1 29.8 1.1
get a blood transfusion?
There's a high chance that ADS can be spread 6.3 85.3 8.4
bysharingaglassofwaterwithsomeonewho
has ADS?
YoucangetADSbyshakinghandswith 2.1 95.8 2.1
someone who has ADS?
ADScanbespreadifamanhassexwith 100 -- --
a women who has ADS?
AwomancangetADSbyhavingsexwitha 100 -- --
man who has ADS?
ADScanbespreadifamanhassexwithanother 93.7 1.1 5.3
man who has ADS?
A pregnant woman with ADS can give ADS to 100 -- -
her unborn baby?
Using a condom (nrbber) can lower your chance 5.1 9.6 5.3
of getting ADS?
Eating healthy foods can keep you from getting 7.4 86.3 6.3
ADS?
YoucangetADSwhenyoumasturbateby 1.1 81.1 17.9

yourself?

 

You can always tell if someone has ADS by
looking at them?

Prostitutes have a higher chance of getting ADS?

Having sex with more than one partner can
raise your chance of getting ADS?

People with ADS will die from it?
There is a cure for ADS?

You can have the ADs virus without
being sick from ADS?

YoucanhavetheADSvirusandspread
it without being sick from ADS?

15.8

93.7

98.9

87.4

7.4

87.4

91.6

71.6

2.1

1.1

6.3
90.5

6.3

3.2

12.6

4.2

6.3

2.1

6.3

5.3

65

Teble 8.-- The Qompeg'son ef ADS Knowlgge BeMeen Urban and Reral Women and
their Highest Level of Education --Rew Scores

1. Do most experts say there's a high chance of getting ADS by kissing someone on the
mouth who has ADS?

 

True False Don‘t Know
Primary --- 50.0 50.0
Secondary 9.1 81.8 9.1
College 11.6 81.4 7.0
Graduate 21.7 71.7 6.5

 

2. There's a good chance you can get ADS from a toilet seat?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 27.3 36.4 - 36.4
Secondary 18.2 77.3 4.5
College 11.6 81.4 7.0
Graduate 17.8 80.0 2.2

 

3. ADS can be spread by sharing a needle with a drug user who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 81.8 9.1 9.1
Secondary 100.0 ...-- -----
College 95.2 4.8 -...-
Graduate 100.0 -..- --...-

 

4. If a man or woman has sex with someone who shoots up drugs, they raise their chance
getting ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 90.9 «~- 9. 1
Secondary 72.7 9.1 18.2
College 73.2 9.8 17.1

Graduate 68.9 6.7 24.4

5. You can get ADS by giving blood?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 50.0 33.3 16.7
Secondary 18.2 72.7 9.1
College 30.2 62.8 7.0
Graduate 17.4 78.3 4.3

 

6. There's a high chance of getting ADS if you get a blood transfirsion?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 45.5 27 .3 27.3
Secondary 70.0 25.0 5.0
College 67.4 32.6 -...-
Graduate 40.0 28.3 2.2

 

7. There's a high chance that ADS can be spread by sharing a glass of water with
someone who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 16.7 75.0 8.3
Secondary 9.1 81.8 9.1
College 2.3 86.0 11.6
Graduate 6.5 87.0 6.5

 

8. You can get ADS by shaking hands with someone who has ADS?

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 8.3 66.7 25.0
Secondary 4.5 86.4 9.1
College --- 100.0 .....
Graduate 2.2 95.7 2.2
9. ADS canbe spreadifamanhassexwithawomanwhohasADS?

True False Don't Know
Primary 83.3 8.3 8.3
Secondary 100.0 --- ---
College 100.0 --- -----

Graduate 100.0 --..-- .....

 

67

10. A woman can get ADS by having sex with a man who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 90.9 --- 9. 1
Secondary 100.0 ..........
College 97.7 2.3 -..--
Graduate ' 100.0 -..- .....

 

11. ADS can be spread ifa man has sex with another man who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 72.7 9. 1 18.2
Secondary 86.4 --- 13.6
College 90.7 2.3 7.0
Graduate 95.7 --- 4.3

 

12. A pregnant woman with ADS can give ADS to her unborn baby?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 83.3 --- 16.7
Secondary 100.0 ...... -----
College 100.0 ....- -....
Graduate 100.0 ...- -..--

 

13. Using a condom (rubber) can lower your chance of getting ADS?

 

 

 

True . False Don't Know
Primary 58.3 16.7 25.0
Secondary 86.4 4.5 9.1
College 79.1 11.6 9.3
Graduate 91.1 6.7 2.2
14. Eating healthy foods can keep you fi'om getting ADS?

True False Don't Know
Primary 25.0 58.3 16.7
Secondary 18.2 72.7 9.1
College 4.7 88.4 7.0
Graduate 6.5 87.0 6.5

 

68

15. You can get ADS when you masturbate by yourself?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 25.0 58.3 16.7
Secondary ----- 77.3 22.7
College 2.3 74.4 23.3
Graduate --- 84.8 15.2

 

16. You can always tell if someone has ADS by looking at them?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 41.7 50.0 8.3
Secondary 18.2 - 72.7 9.1
College 7.0 76.7 16.3
Graduate 26.1 63.0 10.9

 

17. Prostitutes have a higher chance of getting ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 63 .6 9. 1 27.3
Secondary 95.5 4.5 ---
College 90.7 2.3 7 .0
Graduate 95.7 2.2 2.2

 

18. Having sex with more than one partner can raise your chance of getting ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 75.0 8.3 16.7
Secondary 100.0 ..--- -...--
College 97.7 2.3 .....
Graduate 100.0 ...- ..---

 

19. People with ADS will die from it?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 83.3 ---- 16.7
Secondary 95.7 4.3 ---
College 83.7 4.7 11.6

Graduate 91.3 6.5 2.2

 

69

20. There is a cure for ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 41.7 33.3 25.0
Secondary 13.0 82.6 4.3
College 2.3 95.3 2.3
Graduate 13.0 84.8 2.2

 

21. You can have the ADS virus without being sick fi'om ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 41.7 33.3 25.0
Secondary 56.5 34.8 8.7
College 88.4 2.3 9.3
Graduate 87.0 8.7 4.3

 

22. You can have the ADS virus and spread it without being sick from ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Primary 50.0 16.7 33.3
Secondary 69.6 21.7 8.7
College 90.7 4.3 7.0

Graduate 91.3 4.3 4.3

70

Tehle 9.- The Comparison of ADS Knowledge Between Urban and Rural Women
magnum

1. Do most experts say there's a high chance of getting ADS by kissing someone on the
mouth who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 20.0 80.0 ----
Fairly Religious 13.1 72.1 14.8
Very Refigious 14.5 78.2 7.3

 

2. There's a good chance you can get ADS from a toilet seat?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 16.7 83.3 ---
Fairly Religious 14.8 77.0 8.2
Very Religious 17.0 77.4 5.7

 

3. ADS can be spread by sharing a needle with a drug user who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 100.0 --- ---
Fairly Religious 96.7 1.7 1.7
Very Religious 96.3 3.7 ..--

 

4. Ifa man or woman has sex with someone who shoots up drugs, they raise their chance
of getting ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 83.3 --- 16.7
Fairly Religious 78.3 3.3 18.3
Ve_ry Religious 67.3 11.5 21.2

 

5. You can get ADS by giving blood?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 50.0 33.3 16.7
Fairly Religious 18.0 78.7 3 .3

Very Religious 32.7 58.2 9.1

71

6. There's a high chance of getting ADS if you get a blood transfusion?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 66.7 33.3 ----
Fairly Religious 63.3 33.3 3 .3
Very Religious 69.8 26.4 3 .8

 

7. There's a high chance that ADS can be spread by sharing a glass of water with
someone who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 16.7 83.3 ----
Fairly Religious 6.6 86.9 6.6
Very Religious 7.3 81.8 10.9

 

8. You can get ADS by shaking hands with someone who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 16.7 83.3 ---
Fairly Religious 3.3 91.8 4.9
Ve_ry Religious --- 94.5 5.5

 

9. ADScanbespreadifamanhassexwithawomanwhohasADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 83 .3 ---— 16.7
Fairly Religious 100.0 ...- -....
Very Religious 98.2 1.8 --..-

 

10. A woman can get ADS by having sex with a man who has ADS?

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 83.3 --- 16.7
Fairly Religious 98.3 1.7 -...-

 

Ve_ry Religious 100.0 ...- --..-

72

11. ADS can be spread if a man has sex with another man who has ADS?

 

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 66.7 ---- 33.3
Fairly Religious 91.8 1.6 6.6
Very Religious 92.6 ----- 7.4
12. A pregnant woman with ADS can give ADS to her unborn baby?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 83.3 --- 16.7
Fairly Religious 98.4 ---- 1.7
Very Religious 100.0 ...- --..-

 

13. Using a condom (rubber) can lower your chance of getting ADS?

 

 

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 83.3 --- 16.7
Fairly Religious 83.6 8.2 8.2
Very Religious 81.5 11.1 7.4
14. Eating healthy foods can keep you fiom getting ADS?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 33.3 66.7 ---
Fairly Religious 8.2 82.0 9.8
Very Religious 7.3 85.5 7.3
15. You can get ADS when you masturbate by yourself?

True False Don‘t Know
Not Religious 50.0 33.3 16.7
Fairly Religious 1.6 83.6 14.8
Very Religious --- 76.4 23.6

 

73
16. You can always tell if someone has ADS by looking at them?

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 33.3 50.0 16.7
Fairly Religious 18.0 68.9 13.1
Very Religious 16.4 72.7 10.9
17 . Prostitutes have a higher chance of getting ADS?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 66.7 ---- 33.3
Fairly Religious 90.2 3 .3 6.6
Very Religious - 94.4 3.7- - 1.9- -

 

18. Having sex with more than one partner can raise your chance of getting ADS?

 

 

 

 

 

True False Don‘t Know
Not Religious 66.7 --- 33.3
Fairly Religious 100.0 --- ----
Very Religious 98.2 1.8 «~-
19. People with ADS will die from it?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 16.7 33.3 50.0
Fairly Religious 87.1 4.8 8.1
ng Religious 98.2 1.8 ---
20. There is a cure for ADS?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious --- 66.7 33.3
Fairly Religious 12.9 85.5 1.6
Very Religious 10.9 83.6 5.5

 

74

21. You can have the ADS virus without being sick from ADS?

 

 

 

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 66.7 ---- 33.3
Fairly Religious 80.6 11.3 8.1
Very Religious 76.4 16.4 7.3
22. You can have the ADS virus and spread it without being sick fi'om ADS?

True False Don't Know
Not Religious 66.7 --- 33.3
Fairly Religious 83.9 8.1 8.1
Very Religious 85.5 9.1 5.5

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

Action Plan for Women in Development. Zimbabwe. 1991.

"ADS and the Family, HIV and ADS in Pregnancy." Safe Motherhood A
Newsletter of Worldwide Activity. Issue 16, Nov. 1994-Feb. 1995.

"ADS in Zimbabwe, No Myth." The Economist. 19 Mar. 1994: 47.48.

Bassett, Mary T. and Mhloyi, M. ”Women and ADS in Zimbabwe: The Making
of an Epidemic.” International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 21, No. 1
pp. 143-156. 1991.

Brewer, Merge and Sunanda Ray. Women and HIV/ADS. An International Resource
Book. London. Pandora Press. 1993. pp. 14-25, 45-49, 124, 192.

Bernard, Jane T. Ph.D., Lisnanne F. Brown, MPH, Minuku Kinzomi, MDMPH,
Matondo Mansilu and Balowa Djunghu. "ADS Knowledge in Three Sites in
Bas Zaire." ADS Education and Prevention. Vol. 3. 1992: 251-266.

Dehne, K. ”Women and ADS in a Rural District in Zimbabwe." papers presented to
to Women and ADS Support Network in Harare, in ADS an Issue for Every
Women, 1990.

Hooper, Ed. "ADS Epidemic Moves South through Afiica." New Scientist,
7 Jul. 1990:22.

Herold, Edward S. ”Contraceptive Embarrassment Scale." 1981.

75

76

Krieger, N. "Women and ADS." International Journal of Health Services. Vol. 21
No. 1: 127-30. 1991.

Lee, Sara. "Where Knowledge is the only vaccine." Zimbabwe.

Loutfi, Martha F. Rural Women: Unequal partners in Development. ILO
Switzerland. 1987. pp. 5-20.

Mackenzie, Fraser JP. "ADS and Agriculture." Zimbabwe. 1994.

Osei-Hwedie, Kwaku. "ADS, the Individual, Family and Community: Psychosocial
Issue." Journal of Social Development in Afiica. 1994: 31-43.

"600,000 children to lose both parents by year 2000." The Sunday Mail, The Herald
Zimbabwe. 6 Aug. 1995. Local News pg. 6.

"The ADS disaster in Zimbabwe." The Economist. 30 Sept. 1989. Harare.

Ulin, P.R. "Afiican Women & ADS: Negotiating Behavioral Change."
Social Science in Medicine. 1993.

"US Sticks Head in the Sand on ADS Prevention." Journal of the American
Medical Association, 14 Sept. 1994 Vol. 272 No. 10. pp.756.

Williams, Glen and Ray, Saunders. Work Against ADS- Workplace based
ADS initiatives in Zimbabwe. No. 8. Oxford, UK. 1993:pp 1-3, 13-15, 30-32.

Wilson, David, Babusi, Sibanda. L. Mboyi, S. Msimanga, and G. Dube. "A Pilot
Study for an HIV Prevention Programme Among Commercial Sex Workers in
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Social Science Medicine. Vol. 31 N. 5. 1990: 609-618.

"Women Living with HIV/ADS." WiLDAF News No. 8. 1994: 8-11.