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EFFECTS OF SELECTED MENTAL PRACTICE TECHNIQUES ON
PERFORMANCE RATINGS, SELF-EFFICACY, AND STATE ANXIETY
OF COMPETITIVE FIGURE SKATERS

presented by

DEBORAH LYNN GARZA

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

MASTER OF SCIENCE (legrce inPHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND EXERCISE SCIENCE

 

 

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EFFECTS OF SELECTED MENTAL PRACTICE TECHNIQUES ON
PERFORMANCE RATINGS, SELF-EFFICACY, AND STATE ANXIETY
OF COMPETITIVE FIGURE SKATERS

BY

Deborah Lynn Garza

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF EDUCATION

Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science

1996

 

ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF SELECTED MENTAL PRACTICE TECHNIQUES ON
PERFORMANCE RATINGS, SELFgEFFICACY, AND STATE ANXIETY
OF COMPETITIVE FIGURE SKATERS

BY
Deborah Lynn Garza

This study examined the effectiveness of mental

practice techniques for improving figure skating

performance, self-efficacy, and state anxiety. Two

interventions, paper freestyle drawing (PFD) and walk

through on floor (WTF), were compared to a stretching

control group. Subjects (N=27) were members of the United

States Figure Skating Association and were randomly assigned

to one of the two interventions or the control group. The

study included procedural reliability checks such as pre and
post manipulation checks; structured seminars; and homework

workbooks. Results indicated that the two mental practice

treatment groups significantly improved in their performance

in jumps, spins, and connecting moves compared to the

stretching control group. Results also indicated that the

WTF mental practice group increased their spinning self-

efficacy beliefs compared to the PFD mental practice

treatment and the stretching control group. Furthermore,

the two mental practice groups improved their self-

confidence as measured by the CSAI-Z (Martens, Vealey, &

Burton, 1990). However, state anxiety and somatic anxiety

did not significantly improve with the use of this

intervention.

@ Copyright 1996
by: Deborah Lynn Garza

DEDICATION

This Masters Thesis is dedicated to the memory of my

dearly departed father Ronald David Garza. I know that you

will be unable to read this. Although for all who do I

would like them to know that without your teachings of

drive, desire, determination, responsibility, and

organization I could never have come this far. You have

taught me more than I will ever learn in college. I

couldn’t have done it without you. You are in my thoughts

always.

IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the efforts of a number of
people who provided me with their expertise, encouragement,
love and support during the development and completion of my

Masters degree and this Masters thesis.

To my mother Elizabeth and sister Sandy.
Your love,

Thank you for

always being their when I needed you both.

support and words of encouragement have been of great help

to me.
I would like to thank Dr. Deborah Feltz, my Masters

advisor and Thesis committee chair. Thank you for the last

two years of assistance, guidance, and time. I would also

like to express my gratitude to the other members of my

committee for their knowledge, support, and time. They are

professors Dr. Richard Albrecht, and Dr. Lynette Overby.

I would also like to mention the direct and indirect

contributions of my many friends at MSU. I will always be

grateful of your interest, assistance, and support in my

pursuit of higher education. Especially for all the love

and support of my dear friends Allison, Claudia, Judy,

Charlie, and Doug. Thank you for making the last two years

ones to happily remember.
To Dr. Judy Walters, you have made a definite impact on

my life, thanks for believing in me, and giving me the

courage to believe in myself to pursue my dreams. I'll

never forget you.

My education could not have been complete without the
teaching, guidance and encouragement of three important past

professors. They are: Anne Bowers Jr., Dr. Peggy Foss, and

Dr. Robert Hymes. You are all greatly appreciated and will

always be remembered.
I would be remise if I did not acknowledge B2 without

your encouragement of higher education I would have never

gone to college. Although we will not share the future, we

will always share the past.
I would also like to thank all of the Garden City
Figure Skating Club coaches and skaters who participated in

this study. Including the GCFSC president Mike Fearon.

May all of those listed above, find others who support

their dreams as they have supported mine. God Bless.

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

CHAPTER Page
LIST OF TABLES ......................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................ XI
I. INTRODUCTION ........................................ 1
Statement of the Problem ........................... 1
Nature of the Problem. .............................. 1
Hypotheses ......................................... 7
Delimitations ...................................... 7
Definitions ........................................ 8
Basic.Assumptions .................................. 12
Limitations ........................................ 12

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................ 14
Introduction ....................................... 14
Research on Anxiety in Sport ....................... 14
Research on Self-Efficacy in Sport ................. 19
Research on Mental Practice in Sport ............... 21

Comparison of Palmer’s and Martin’s Mental

Practice‘Techniques ........................... 24

Summary ............................................ 28

III} METHOD ............................................. 30
Subjects ........................................... 30
Design ............................................. 31
Measures ........................................... 31
Skaters performance evaluation ................... 31
Self-efficacy .................................... 32

State anxiety .................................... 33
Off-ice skating training ......................... 35
Intervention.effectiveness questionaire .......... 36
Workbooks ........................................ 37
Experimental treatment ............................. 37
Paper freestyle drawing .......................... 38
Original compulsory figure method ............. 33
Adaptation for freestyle skating .............. 39

Walk through on the floor ........................ 40
Original compulsory figure method ............. 41
Adaptation for freestyle skating .............. 41
Stretching ....................................... 42
Procedure .......................................... 42

45

Treatment of the Data ..............................
VII

Page

CHAPTER
IV . RESULTS .............................................

Preliminary Analyses ...............................
Descriptive Statistics .............................
Skaters' Performance Ratings .......................
Skaters' Self-Efficacy .............................
Skaters’ State Anxiety .............................
Comparison of WTF and PFD ..........................

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ...........................

Discussion .........................................

Conclusions ........................................
Suggestions for Future Research ....................

APPENDICES
. Skaters perceived performance rating

A
evaluation form ......................................
B. Skating skill evaluation forms .......................
CL Michigan competition.questionnaire ...................
D. Off-ice skating training questionnaire ...............
E. Intervention Effectiveness Questionnaire .............
F Paper freestyle drawing homework

assignment workbook ..................................
G. Walk though on the floor homework

assignment workbook ..................................
H. Stretching homework assignment workbook ..............
I. Paper freestyle drawing intervention seminar .........
J. Walk through on the floor intervention seminar .......
K Stretching Seminar - Control Group ...................
L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

. UCRIHS approval ......................................
Coach's first letter of information and

consent form .........................................
Parent’s first letter of information and
consent form .........................................
. Phone Transcriptions .................................
Parents second letter of information and

consent form .........................................
Coaches second letter of information and

consent form .........................................

. Summary Table of ANOVAs ..............................
Pre-Test and Post-Test Pearson Correlations

. Between Performance, Self-Efficacy and

State Anxiety ........................................
Dr. Garry Martin's letter of consent and

letter of approval ...................................
U. Code Book ............................................
V. Raw Data .............................................

T.

LIST OF REFERENCES ......................................
VIII

47

47
55
56
62
63
65

67

67
71
72

74
78
80
82
83

85
91
97
102
109
116
119
120

123
126

127
128
129
132
134
136
140

145

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Exp
1. Pre and Post Means and Standard Deviations

for Dependent Variables .............................. 48
2. Pre and Post Means and Standard Deviations

for Off-Ice Skating Training Questionnaire ........... 51
3. Means, Standard Deviations and Frequencies for

Intervention.Effectiveness Questionnaire ............. 53
4. Summary Table of Repeated Measure ANOVAs for

Dependent Variables (3x2) (Group x Pre/Post) ......... 58
5. Summary Table of ANOVAs for Pretreatment

Comparisons .......................................... 129
6. Summary Table of Repeated Measure ANOVAs for

Off-Ice Skating Training Questionnaire (3X2) ......... 130
7. One—Way ANOVAs For Intervention Effectiveness

Questionaire ......................................... 131
8. Pearson Correlation Between Performance,

Self-efficacy, and State.Anxiety Pre-Test ............ 132
9. Pearson Correlation Between Performance,

133

Self-Efficacy, and State.Anxiety Post-Test ...........

IX

 

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page
1. Mean Performance Jump Scores ......................... 59
2. Mean Performance Spin Scores ......................... 60
3. Mean Performance Move Scores ......................... 61
4. Mean Self-Efficacy Spin Scores ....................... 64
5. Mean CSAI-Z Confidence Scores ........................ 66

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

W

This study was designed to investigate the effects of
two selected mental practice techniques compared to a
stretching control group on performance ratings, self-
efficacy, and state anxiety of competitive figure skaters.
The selected practice techniques consisted of paper
freestyle drawing (PFD), and walk through on the floor
(WTF).

The WTF and PFD interventions were adaptations of
Palmer's (1992, 1993b) and Martin’s (1993) prior mental
rehearsal techniques used on compulsory figures. As of May,
1995 compulsory figures were no longer a mandatory
requirement for the sport of competitive figure skating.
Therefore, this study adapted both the WTF and the PFD for
freestyle skating routines. Review of the literature
indicated that there was a point of contention between
Martin and Palmer regarding the efficacy of their methods.
(Palmer 1993a, Martin 1993). The point of contention
centered on whether there was treatment integrity in place

when Palmer (1992) compared the two methods.

Wm
Martin (1992) developed a behavioral intervention
Program for figure skaters to improve their compulsory

1

2
figures. The skaters in Martin’s intervention had a choice
of using the following two types of "walk-out" techniques:
(a) walking out the figure pattern on the floor or (b)
mentally going through the movements of the figure in a
stationary position.
The original Martin method was as follows:
1. Skaters were asked to determine key words to help them
concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.
2. During the on-ice practice, the skaters used the keywords
while performing the figures.
3. They performed a "walk out" activity on the floor three
times per week as if they were skating in a test situation
(three tracings per figure).
4. While doing this, the skaters said keywords out loud and
were also asked to try to "feel" and imagine the correct
response as they were walking the figures.
5. Following each session of the Martin self-talk and walk-
out technique, the skaters had a witness sign a sheet. The
signature sheet was submitted at the end of the 4-week
period to verify the subject’s compliance with the
intervention.

Palmer (1992) conducted a study to compare the Martin
self—talk and walk-out technique (Martin, 1992) to another
mental practice technique which she developed. Palmer's
technique consisted of drawing out one’s figures on a piece

of paper, on top of a figure eight or serpentine diagram.

3

The "paper patch" was designed as off-ice training to
practice one's figures. The layout papers that were
originally provided to the subjects aided them in practicing
exactly what their figure should look like on the ice - long
and short axis, line up of the sides of the circles, and
perfectly round circles.
The original Palmer method was as follows:
1. Skaters were given paper patch workbooks containing
outlines of figures they were currently practicing.
2. Skaters were asked to determine keywords to help them
concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.
3. Skaters traced the figure on paper over the outline in
their workbooks while saying keywords out loud and timing
the rehearsal so that it took approximately the same time as
actually skating the figure.
4. They performed this activity three times per week as if
they were skating in a test situation(three tracings per
figure).
5. The skaters were also asked to try to “feel" and imagine
the correct response as they were drawing the figures.
6. At the end of the 4-week session, the skaters handed in
their workbooks to verify their compliance with the
intervention.

Palmer (1992) compared the Martin technique, paper—
patch technique and a no treatment control group on the

performance of compulsory figures. The subjects (E = 12)

4
were randomly assigned to either the paper patch test,
Martin technique, or a control group. The results indicated
that the paper patch test, (trace a figure on a piece of
paper while saying key words outloud) was an effective
strategy which significantly improved performance; whereas,
the Martin technique, (performing "walkouts" of the figure
on the floor, or in a stationary position, while timing it
correctly, simulating the judges being on the ice with you,
and "feeling" the correct movements) was no more effective
than the control group in improving performance.

However, Martin (1993) criticized Palmer’s (1992)
methodology. Specifically, he stated that Palmer (a) did
not use all of the components of his technique and (b) that
her study lacked procedural reliability assessments.
Procedural reliability involves the representation of the
treatment as it is typically practiced or as it appears in
the treatment manual (Martin 1993). For mental practice,
procedural reliability ensures treatment integrity by
including procedures for checking both the quality and
quantity of imagery, cognition, and affect that subjects
experience during mental practice sessions (Hazen,
Johnstone, Martin, & Srikameswaran, 1990; McCaffrey &
Orlick, 1989). Such procedures in this study included
having skaters write down one words that they used in their
skating routines, and having them keep notebooks which were

later assessed for treatment integrity. Although, Palmer

 

S
(1993a) claimed that all Martin’s components were
incorporated, procedural reliability assessments were, in
fact, lacking.

One of the difficulties in comparing the Martin
technique to any other mental practice technique is that
Martin (1992) did not distinguish between "walk-out" the
movements verses mentally performing them in a stationary
position. These are two different strategies and one cannot
determine if one strategy is better than the other from his
design or Palmer's test of his technique. The walk—out
strategy would appear to be more directly related to the
skater’s performance than merely mentally practicing the
technique. Therefore, a better test of the two
interventions would be to compare Palmer’s paper-drawing
technique to Martin's walk-out technique.

In addition to the need for methodological improvements
in order to compare these two mental rehearsal techniques,
dependent measures other than skating performance are also
important to assess. For instance, athletes often have to
deal with numerous sources of potentially severe stress
especially in competition. Competitive figure skating, in
particular has the potential for eliciting a great deal of
stress because it is an individual sport that is also
subjectively scored. These two factors create evaluation
apprehension among athletes (Martens, Vealey, & Burton,

1990). Mental practice techniques have the potential to

6
reduce athletes' anxiety levels, because they help ensure
psychological readiness (Vealey, 1988). Which mental
practice technique is most effective at reducing anxiety is
uncertain.

Self-efficacy or self-confidence is another dependent
variable that should benefit from mental practice
techniques. In terms of self-efficacy or self-confidence
factors, results from various studies have generally shown
positive correlations between an individual's efficacy
expectations and sport performance (Feltz, 1988b; George,
1994; Kane, Marks, Zaccavo & Blair, 1996; Lee, 1988; Martin
& Gill, 1991; Treasure, Monsom & Lox 1996; Weiss, Wiese &
Klint, 1989). Feltz and Weiss (1982) outlined the
importance of self-efficacy strategies that coaches and
teachers could use to strengthen self-efficacy. These
investigators recommended imagery (visualizing performance
success), as one way to improve self-efficacy.

Although the proposed research was not an exact
replication of Martin’s and Palmer’s compulsory figure
methods, this study used their procedures adapted to
freestyle skating routines. The original works of Palmer
(1992) and Ming (1992) examined only performance improvement
in compulsory figures. This study examined mental rehearsal
training effects on performance, self-efficacy, and state

anxiety. An attempt was also made to resolve the

7
controversy between the two researcher’s prior

discrepancies.

We
To fulfill the purposes of this research, three hypotheses

were formulated:

1. The mental practice treatments improve the performance of
figure skaters compared to a no mental practice control
group.

2. The mental practice treatments improve the self-efficacy
of figure skaters compared to a no mental practice control
group.

3. The mental practice treatments improve the state anxiety
of figure skaters compared to a no mental practice control
group.

4. Their is no difference between the two mental practice

treatments on performance, self-efficacy, or state anxiety.

We

The subjects in this study were limited to female subjects.
All of the subjects voluntarily participated in this study.
Furthermore, the subjects were limited to competitive
athletes who belong to the United States Figure Skating
Association (USFSA) skating levels pre-preliminary,
preliminary, pre-juvenile, juvenile, intermediate, or

novice. Due to the ability level of the research

8
participants, results from this research cannot be
generalized to those athletes performing at the elite or
junior or senior skating levels. Generalizability of the
results obtained in this study are, therefore, limited to
the specific level of the subject population employed.
Also, due to the fact that figure skating is an individual,
self-paced sport, generalization of results to team, or

reactive, sports would be inappropriate.

Definitions

The following operational definitions apply to this study:
Concentration -- is to focus on the task at hand. The
skater’s total involvement in the present moment is
essential to taking control of the situation.

Consistency -- is a repetition of the same movements, a
transfer of perfect routines during practice sessions to the
competitive situation.

Cognitive anxiety -- score on the cognitive anxiety subscale
of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2;
Martens, et al., 1990).

Intermediate Free Skating Ability -— As outlined in the 1995
USFSA Official Rulebook, this level of skating involves a 2
1/2 minute program demonstrating command of the following
required elements: Jumps: (a) single loop, flip and lutz;
(b) axel; (c) one double jump: double salchow or double toe

loop; (d) one jump combination consisting of two single

9
jumps; (e) one jump combination consisting of either one
single and one double jump or consisting of two double jumps
(no turn or change of foot between jumps). Spins: (a) sit
spin to change foot sit spin (four revolutions on each foot
in position); (b) camel spin to backward camel spin (four
revolutions on each foot in position); (c) spin combination
consisting of one change of foot and one change of positions
(four revolutions on each foot). Steps: connecting moves
incorporating spirals, spread eagles, etc., strong edges,
fairly good use of music, and full utilization of the ice
surface.
Juvenile Free Skating Ability -- As outlined in the 1995
USFSA Official Rulebook, this level of skating involves a 2
mdnute program demonstrating command of the following
required elements: Jumps: (a) three single jumps, one of
which must be an axel; (b) One jump from the following:
split jump, stag jump, falling leaf, half loop jump; (c) One
jump combination incorporating two single jumps (no turn or
change of foot between jumps). Spins: (a) forward sit spin
(four revolutions); (b) forward camel spin (four
revolutions); (c) one combination spin and one change of
foot (four revolutions each foot) - camel, sit, or attitude
positions. Steps: connecting moves incorporating spirals,
strong edges, fair use of music and full utilization of ice

surface.

10
Novice Free Skating Ability -- As outlined in the 1995
Official USFSA Rulebook, this level of skating involves a 2-
2 1/2 mdnute program.demonstrating command of the following
required elements: Jumps: (a) axel; (b) double salchow; (c)
double toe loop; (d) double Loop; (e) two jump combinations
consisting of two double jumps (no turn or change of foot
between jumps). Spins: (a) lay back or attitude (six
revolutions); (b) flying camel (four revolutions); (c) two
spin combinations consisting of one change of foot and one
change of position (four revolutions on each foot). Steps:
connecting moves incorporating mohawks and three turns,
spirals, spread eagles, etc., strong edges, good use of
music, and full utilization of the ice surface.
Paper freestyle drawing -— An intervention package designed
to have skaters listen to their skating music while drawing
out their routine on paper, and imagining they are at an
actual competition.
Performance -- in this study, performance was measured
before and after intervention by one's own coach. The
emphasis was on how well the individual performs according
to her current level of ability.
Preliminary Free Skating Ability —- As outlined in the 1995
USFSA Official Rulebook, this level of skating involves a 1
1/2 minute program demonstrating command of the following
required elements: Jumps: (a) waltz jump; (b) salchow; (c)

100p; (d) flip; (e) one jump combination - waltz jump, toe

11
loop (no turn or change of foot between jumps). Spins: (a)
one foot upright spin, optional free foot, (three
revolutions); (b) one foot back spin - entry optional (three
revolutions); (c) sit spin - in recognizable sit position
(three revolutions). Steps: connecting moves and steps
should be demonstrated throughout the program.
Pre-Juvenile Free Skating Ability -- As outlined in the 1995
USFSA Official Rulebook, this level of skating involves a 2
mdnute program demonstrating command of the following
required elements: Jumps: (a) loop; (b) flip; (c) lutz; (d)
one jump combination - choice of above with a loop lump (no
turn or change of foot between jumps). Spins: (a) one camel
spin (three revolutions); (b) one attitude or layback spin
(three revolutions in position); (c) one combination spin:
camel spin to sitspin. No change of foot (six revolutions in
positions); (d) front scratch to back scratch - exit on
spinning foot (four revolutions on each foot). Steps:
connecting moves and steps should be demonstrated throughout
the program.
Self-confidence —- scores on the self-confidence subscales
of the CSAI-2.
Self-efficacy -- one’s belief in one's ability to perform a
task. The cognitive scenarios one generates is affected by
one’s beliefs concerning one’s efficacy (Bandura, 1977;

Sarason, 1975)

12
State anxiety -- anxiety that is evoked by a particular
situation. Much depends on how the individual actually
interprets a particular situation. One’s interpretation is
influenced by many factors like past experiences, ability,
and the training in the management of stress. (Davies,

1989; Vealey, 1990).

Somatic anxiety -- score on the somatic anxiety subscale of
the CSAI-Z.
walk through on the floor -- an intervention package

designed to have skaters listen to their skating music and
walking out their routine on the floor, while imagining that

they are at an actual competition.

B . E .
Despite the fact that performance was assessed, the
self-report instruments used in this experiment have all of
the assumption as all self-report measures. Such as the
assumption that subjects were honest about their self-
reports. It was also assumed that stratified randomized
assignment would result in equal groups prior to
intervention. Finally, it was assumed that subjects

accurately completed their homework assignments.

lig'! In
Having a randomly assigned experiment within a skating

club may lead to contamination of my subjects. The

13
researcher instructed the Skaters' not to discuss with or
show to anyone but their parents or guardians their homework

workbooks. Also, a manipulation check questionnaire called

Q:f;Ige_Skating_II§ininS was assessed at the beginning and

end of this experiment to see if contamination had taken

place.

Chapter II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction
Research in the field of sport psychology has

supported consistently the relationships among self-
efficacy, state anxiety, and sport performance (Feltz,
1988a; LaGuardia & Labbe, 1993; Lox, 1992; Martin & Gill,
1991). Research has also shown that imagery has been one of
the most effective techniques used to control one's self-
efficacy, state anxiety, and ultimately sport performance.

This chapter is divided into three reviews of pertinent
literature associated with the areas of (a) research on
anxiety in sport, (b) research on self-efficacy in sport,

and (c) research on mental practice in sport.

R r ' i r

Competitive anxiety deals with an individual’s
perceptions of competitive situations as threatening
(Martens, 1977). Anxiety has been presumed to have two
major components: state and trait. State anxiety (A-state)
is anxiety that is evoked by particular situations. Trait
anxiety (A-trait) is a tendency to perceive certain
situations as threatening and to react to these situations
with varying levels of A-state (Spielberger, 1966). One’s

interpretation of anxiety is influenced by many factors such

14

15
as past experiences, ability, and the training in the
management of stress. (Davies, 1989). Regardless of one's
trait anxiety tendencies, highly stressful situations will
cause increases in everyone’s level of state anxiety.
Therefore state anxiety is the variable that athletes need
to keep under control. Within sport, state anxiety has been
typically measured using the Competitive State Anxiety
Inventory-2 (CSAI-Z) (Martens, et al., 1990).

Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, and Smith (1990)
developed the CSAI-2 to assess sport-specific somatic A-
state, cognitive A-state and state self-confidence. The
CSAI-z is a multidimensional questionnaire consisting of 36
questions, representing three factors: somatic anxiety,
cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence. Somatic A-state
consists of the physiological elements of the anxiety ordeal
that develop directly from autonomic arousal. Some symptoms
of somatic A-state are clammy hands, tense muscles, and
rapid heart rate. Cognitive A-state is a negative
expectation and cognitive regard about oneself, the
situation at hand and possible consequences. Some examples
of cognitive A—state are negative thoughts, and/or
dieturbing visual images. State self-confidence deals with
one’s confidence level just prior to competition.

Numerous studies have confirmed the test-retest
reliability, internal consistency, and construct validity of

this instrument (Burton 1988; Krane 1994; Lacey 1984).

16
Swain, Jones, and Cale (1990) examined whether the
relationship between the cognitive and somatic anxiety
subscale scores of the CSAI-Z changed as a function of the
proximity of competition. On five separate occasions they
found intercorrelations between somatic and cognitive
anxiety which suggested a progressive increase in the
magnitude of the relationship between cognitive and somatic
anxiety as the event approached. These findings support the
hypothesis that as the event approached there was a
progressive increase in the magnitude of the relationship
between cognitive and somatic anxiety.

Barnes, Sime, Dienstbier, and Plake (1986) investigated
the validity of the three components of the CSAI-2 in
predicting athletic performance. This instrument was
administered to 14 male college swimmers prior to their
event. The results of this study indicated that cognitive
anxiety, but not somatic anxiety, was a significant
prediCtor of performance.

Although past research on the relationship between
anxiety and motor performance is ambiguous, evidence seems
to support the inverted-U hypothesis (Martens, 1974; Raglin,
& Turner, 1993; Sonstroem, & Bernardo, 1982). The
inverted-U hypothesis states that performance will improve
as arousal increases up to an optimal level, after which
further increases in arousal decrease performance (Martens,

et al., 1990). An optimal level of anxiety is associated

17

with maximum performance. Both high levels of anxiety and
low levels of anxiety are associated with relatively poor
standards of performance. High levels of anxiety are
generally associated with feelings of insecurity, with over-
caution and with indecision. Why performance deteriorates
when athletes reach high levels of A-state is uncertain.
Weinberg (1978) suggests that the increased muscular tension
(somatic A-state) causes performance deterioration. Whereas
Wine (1980) believes that it is self-doubts or turning
attention inward rather than on the task at hand (cognitive
A—state), that causes performance deterioration.

State anxiety is associated with insufficient self—
confidence and lack of preparation (Nideffer, 1976).
Mental rehearsal is proported to help one to perform under
high anxiety conditions (Karolczak-Biernacka, 1986).
Anxiety is also reduced by teaching individuals to modify
their appraisals of threat that are based on irrational
beliefs (i.e., I can’t do it, I am going to fall) (Ellis,
1962). If individuals are taught how to monitor their
thoughts, then they can identify, analyze and challenge
those beliefs, thus controlling one’s irrational beliefs
(Ellis, 1962; Karolczak-Biernacka, 1986).

Burton (1988) used the CSAI-2 to measure the
relationship between anxiety and performance in anxious
swimmers. The results confirmed the original hypotheses:

(a) cognitive anxiety was strongly related to performance;

18
(b) somatic anxiety demonstrated an inverted-U relationship
with performance; and (c) somatic anxiety and performance
depended on the duration and complexity, of events. The
shorter the duration and higher the complexity the stronger
the relationship between somatic anxiety and performance.
The results confirmed the original hypotheses and provided
additional construct validity for the CSAI-Z.
Numerous research has positively linked imagery with
the control of one’s anxiety. Highlen and Bennett (1983),
in a study of elite divers and wrestlers, compared the
difference in anxiety between open and closed skill
athletes. They hypothesized that imagery use would
differentiate between qualifying and nonqualifying divers
and wrestlers. In both diving and wrestling, nonqualifiers
reported having higher levels of anxiety during competition.
Savoy (1993) implemented a mental training program
which included imagery, centering, focusing, and energizing
on one NCAA Division I female basketball player across a
season of play. The results showed that the mental training
decreased pregame anxiety, improved game performance
statistics, practice performance, and the coach's overall
evaluation of the athlete. Research by Meyers, Schleser,
Cooks, & Cuvillier (1979); Tremayne and Barry (1990); and
Weinberg, Seavourne, & Jackson (1981) also found that

imagery can have a positive effect on anxiety control, and

19
may be considered an effective alternative to an actual

competitive situation.

E l S JE-EEE' . S

Self-efficacy is defined as the extent to which an
individual believes he or she can execute the behaviors
(e.g. double axel) needed to produce a certain outcome (e.g.
satisfaction with performance) (Bandura, 1977, 1986).
Bandura’s theory suggests that efficacy expectations are
obtained from four informational sources: performance
accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion,
and physiological states. Of these four, past performance
accomplishments have been considered as the most dependable
sources of efficacy information because they is based on
one's personal mastery experiences. According to Bandura
(1986), efficacy expectations predict thought patterns,
behavior, and emotional reactions. How one perceives the
difficulty of the task, the amount of effort expended and
the tangible patterns of success and failure all effect
one's efficacy expectations. In addition, self-efficacy is
a significant determinant of behavior only when proper
incentives and skills are present (Bandura, 1986).

The cognitive scenarios one generates are affected by
one's beliefs concerning one’s efficacy. Individuals who
have a strong sense of efficacy envision success scenarios

that foster a problem-solving approach to different

20
situations they may encounter. On the other hand,
individuals who are plagued by self-doubts tend to dwell on
their personal deficiencies and envision failure scenarios
that bring about adverse consequences. Such intrusive
thinking undermines effective use of capabilities by
devoting attention from how best to master problems to
concerns over personal deficiencies and possible adversity.
(Sarason, 1975).

In sport, self-efficacy is partly a reflection of one's
own prior competitive experience. Positive experiences
contribute significantly to an athletes' self-confidence.
Whereas, negative experiences contribute significantly to an
athletes’ lack of self-confidence. Also, less experienced
athletes are often less confident than more experienced ones
(Weiss, Wiese, & Klint 1989).

In the past 15 years there have been over 50 studies
published on the topic of self-efficacy in sport and
physical activity. Positive relationships between self-
efficacy expectations and performance have been reported in
numerous motor activities. These include leg endurance
(Feltz & Riessinger, 1990; Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg 1981;
Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson., 1979; 1980; 1981), reaction
time and motor coordination (Ryckman, Robbin, Thornton &
Cantell, 1982), and handgrip strength (Kavanagh & Hausfeld,
1986). Regarding sports, Feltz (1988b), in her review of

research on self-confidence and sports performance, found

21
that in every sport situation studied, there is clear
evidence of the direct relationship between self-confidence

(self-efficacy) and performance.

E 1 H J E I' . S I

Mental practice is a symbolic representation and
reinforcement of learning new or previously learned motor
skills. Mental practice consists of all the thinking and
practicing of specific skills, and is concerned with the
process rather than the end results (Biddle, 1985).

Fuson (1979) postulates that mental practice is a type
of verbal rehearsal that serves to selectively focus one's
attention on only the task appropriate cues and on
remembering what to do. Thomas (1980) hypothesized that
motor acquisition and performance requires the individual to
attend to instructional input in order to plan the correct
movement, monitor and assess performance, and then make the
necessary changes for the next performance. He also found
that verbal repetition, verbal labeling and verbal self-
instruction can help young children in their attempts to
recall and perform motor skills. Although Sage (1984)
postulates that unless attention is cued on important and
specific aspects of the task, the learners will be unable
and perhaps unwilling to change what they are doing.

The research on mental practice/imagery training for

athletes has generally shown that it improves performance.

22
Feltz and Landers, (1983) performed a comprehensive meta-
analysis of existing research which support that mentally
practicing a motor skill influences performance only
somewhat better than no practice at all. Other researchers
support the research findings that imagery training for
athletes has generally shown that it improves performance.
(Corbin, 1972; Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Hecker & Kaczor,
1988; Li-Wei, Qi—Wei, Orlick & Zitzelsberger, 1992; Murphy,
Woolfolk, & Budney, 1988; Onestak, 1991). Rodgers, Hall, &
Buckolz (1991) investigated the effects of an imagery
training program on imagery ability, imagery use, and figure
skating performance. Rodgers and his colleagues also
examined the influence that imagery training had on skating
performance compared to verbalization training. The results
showed that the imagery group improved more than the
verbalization group and showed several changes in imagery
use (e.g., use of before and after skating practice,
visualize parts of their jumps more easily, see themselves
winning competitions more often, and kinetic "feeling" of
their skating performance). In addition to improving
performance, mental practice is used to boost one's
confidence. Mental practice can change a person’s attitude
by raising self-efficacy, persistence, and a willingness to
accept more instruction and new challenges (Asaronow &

Meichenbaum, 1979; Winne, 1985).

23

Regarding the mental practice/self-efficacy
relationship, Rushall (1988), in a single-sample study of an
elite wrestler, found that covert modeling was a viable
method of eliminating fear, a loss of confidence, and
negative self-appraisal in athletes. Martin and Hall (1995)
found similar results with beginner golfers who were first
taught to putt a golf ball, and then taught an imagery
program designed for the golf putting task. They found that
the subjects who used imagery had a higher level of self-
confidence than the control group. Meyers, Schleser, &
Okwumabus (1982) taught coping, progressive relaxation and
self-instruction strategies to two female collegiate
basketball players who were experiencing anxiety during
games and concentration problems. The results of their
study indicated that as a result of these strategies
performance improved, anxiety was reduced, and self-efficacy
was raised.

Coaches, as well as athletes, report that imagery is
one of the most utilized mental skills techniques and that
it improves performance (Hall & Rodgers, 1989). However
athletes in different sports and at different levels use it
and benefit from it differently (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr,
1990). Hall et a1. (1990) administered a 37-item imagery
questionnaire aimed at examining differences in the use of
imagery among individual and team sports as well as

competitive and recreational athletes. The cross sectional

24
study was investigated with 381 male and female elite and
non-elite athletes. Results showed that athletes in
individual sports (e.g., gymnastics and figure skating)
could feel themselves performing more than athletes in team
sports (e.g, ice hockey, squash, soccer and football). The
study also showed that a major focus of competitive athletes
is having a high motivation goal of winning, imagining
themselves achieving that goal, which made them feel more
confident. Whereas, in recreational sports, however, the
athletes played for fun and fitness, not setting the goal on
winning. Competitive athletes found it fairly easy to
visualize and feel themselves performing their skills. They
also preferred internal kinesthetic imagery, and were likely
to use imagery before going to sleep. Recreational

athletes, on the other have, very rarely used imagery.

r‘ P m.r’ M i ’ M n r ic
Mime.

Martin (1992) developed a behavioral intervention
program for figure skaters to improve their compulsory
figures. This intervention consisted of walking out the
figure pattern on the floor or mentally going through the
movements of the figure in a stationary position.

The original Martin method was as follows:
1. Skaters were asked to determine key words to help them

concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.

25
2. During the on-ice practice, the skaters used the keywords
while performing the figures.
3. They performed a "walk out" activity on the floor three
times per week as if they were skating in a test situation
(three tracings per figure).
4. While doing this, the skaters said keywords outloud and
were also asked to try to "feel" and imagine the correct
response as they were walking the figures.
5. Following each session of the Martin self-talk and walk-
out technique, the skaters had a witness sign a sheet. The
signature sheet was submitted at the end of the 4-week
period to verify the subject’s participation.

Palmer (1992) conducted a study to compare the Martin
self-talk and walk—out technique (Martin, 1992) to another
mental practice technique which she developed. Palmer's
technique consisted of drawing out one's figures on a piece
of paper, overtop of a figure eight or serpentine diagram.
The “paper patch" was designed as off-ice training to
practice one's figures. The layout papers that were
originally provided to the subjects aided them to practice
exactly what their figure should look like on the ice - long
and short axis, line up of the sides of the circles, and
perfectly round circles.

The original Palmer method was as follows:
1. Skaters were given paper patch workbooks containing

outlines of figures they were currently practicing.

26

2. Skaters were asked to determine keywords to help them
concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.
3. Skaters traced the figure on paper over the outline in
their workbooks while saying keywords outloud and timing the
rehearsal so that it took approximately the same time as
actually skating the figure.
4. They performed this activity three times per week as if
they were skating in a test situation(three tracings per
figure).
5. The skaters were also asked to try to "feel" and imagine
the correct response as they were drawing the figures.
6. At the end of the 4-week session, the skaters handed in
their workbooks to verify their participation.

Palmer (1992) compared the mental practice techniques
of Martin’s and her paper patch test to help pre-novice
level 12 to 17 years old competitive figure skaters improve
performance of compulsory figures. The subjects were
randomly assigned to either the paper patch test, Martin
technique, or a control group. The results indicated that
the paper patch test, (trace a figure on a piece of paper
while saying key words out loud) was an effective strategy;
whereas the Martin technique, (performing "walkouts" of the
figure on the floor, or in a stationary position, while
timing it correctly, simulating the judges being on the ice
with you, and "feeling“ the correct movements) was no more

effective than the control group. Martin (1993), in the

27
comment section of Ih§_§pggt_2§yghglggist, accused Palmer of
not implementing the intervention correctly because she had
left out three important components. Martin (1993) felt
that Palmer did not include procedures for checking both the
quantity and quality of imagery, cognitions, and affect that
subjects experienced during mental practice sessions.
Palmer, (1993a) defended her position in saying that these
components were included.

Martin's technique consists of keywords or self-talk to
cue correct performance while skating a compulsory figure.
Off—ice rehearsal consists of three components: (a) timing
of the practice so that the time matches as closely as
possible the actual skating time of the figure on the ice;

(b) making the simulation as vivid as possible by having
skaters visualize that they are at a competition, that
judges are standing nearby, and so on; and (c) encouraging
skaters to "feel" the precise movements when they say the
key words (Martin, 1992). This package has been shown to be
useful in terms of self-report measurements from skaters
(Martin, 1989b) and in a multiple-baseline design across
four subjects (Ming, 1992).

Ming (1992) used Martin's self-talk technique in a
multiple-baseline design across four subjects. The purpose
of her study was to determine if the self-talk package would
more effectively improve performance of compulsory figures

than would regular physical practice. Her subjects

28

consisted of four pre-novice or novice level skaters ranging
in age from 11 to 13. The self-talk package was the same
as Martin's (1992) self-talk techniques listed in the
preceding paragraph, except viewing Part I of the videotape
"Sport Psyching for Figure Skaters" (Martin, 1989a) was
added as the first component of the intervention. Subjects
were trained to use the self-talk and walk—out package for
one figure while performing one other figure with only usual
on-ice practice with no cue words. The results indicated
that the Martin self-talk package figure increased
performance levels of all four subjects. While performance
on the "untreated" figure, using only regular on-ice

practice and no cue words remained the same.

SEEEQIE

The information presented in this review of literature
supports a relationship between anxiety, self-efficacy, and
mental practice. This research shows that mental imagery
practice can influence one’s anxiety, and self-efficacy
levels. Figure skating is a sport that depends on mental
concentration and precise movement. Both of these areas, as
well as, one's perceptions to stressors can lead to anxiety.
This anxiety can then decrease one's self-efficacy, and
decline in optimal performance. Therefore, the research
above has shown that mental practice can assist in the

control of anxiety, self-efficacy, and performance.

29
The research also shows that mental practice may help
individuals pay closer attention to the relevant features of

the skill, to plan performances more carefully and

thoughtfully, to self-analyze results, and to feel more

responsible for their own learning, which in turn, may

elevate self-efficacy. An athlete’s feelings of confidence

can have an important impact on his or her performance.
Therefore, it is important that sport psychologists keep

studying confidence enhancement so athletes can maximize

their athletic performance.

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Subjects

The subjects in this study were 27 female competitive
figure skaters who were members of the United States Figure
Skating Association (USFSA). The subjects’ ages ranged from
10 to 18 years of age. The mean age of the subjects who
participated in this experiment was 12.37, (52:2.19). There
were seven participants who were 10 years of age, four
participants who were 11 years of age, six participants who
were 12 years of age, two participants who were 13 years of
age, one participant who was 14 years of age, six
participants who were 15 years of age, and one participant
who was 18 years of age. The mean age per group was 12.33
(S2 = 1.80) for stretching, 12.22 (SQ = 2.68) for walk-
through on the floor (WTF), and 12.56 (SQ = 2.24) for paper
freestyle drawing (PFD).

The subjects' skating ability levels ranged from USFSA
pre—preliminary through novice. There were six pre-
preliminary subjects, six preliminary subjects, three pre-
juvenile subjects, three juvenile subjects, six intermediate
subjects, and three novice subjects. Multiple levels of
ability were comparable in this study because the
questionnaires were developed using an individualized

approach.

30

31
All of the subjects participated in the Garden City
Figure Skating Clubs Annual Competition which was
approximately 1 month after the start of this experiment.
There were nine coaches who coached the 27 participants.

Eight of the coaches were women and one was a man.

Design

This study employed a 3 X 2 (Group x Pre/Post)
factorial design with repeated measures on the last factor.
A stratified random assignment was used. Specifically,
skaters were randomly assigned, within each ability level,
to the PFD intervention, the WTF intervention, or the
stretching practice control group. Measures were
administered before and after the interventions. The
dependent variables included coaches’ ratings of skaters’
performance, skaters’ self-efficacy, and skaters’ state

anxiety.

Measures
W The performance ratings

consisted of three separate measures. Skaters performances
were determined by their coaches’/instructors' subjective
ratings. The skaters’ performances were measured both pre
and post intervention and consisted of quantitative measures
based on jumps, spins and step/connecting moves. These

three measures comprise every skating program regardless of

32

skating level. Each skill was scored as follows: 1 - never
completed successfully, 2 -inferior ability, 3 -below
average ability, 4 — average ability, 5 — above average
ability, and 6 - exceptional ability. For skills that
skaters never tried before, the coaches marked "not
applicable." (See Appendix A for a copy of the Skaters;
Performange_fizalu§tign forms). Performance ratings were
analyzed by averaging the scores on each of the performance
measures of jumps, spins, and steps/connecting moves. The
Skaters' competitive placement in the competition were not
used as a measure of performance for various reasons such
as, USFSA judges score subjectively, skaters’ compete
against different competitors at each competition, and the
fact that skaters can perform to their greatest ability and
still not place.

Self;e§figagyy, The present study also employed three
separate self-efficacy measures. Individualized, program-
specific measures of self-efficacy were constructed using
Bandura’s (1977) microanalytic approach and an
individualized approach to assessing self-efficacy (Miller,
McCrady, Abrams, & Labouvie, 1994). A questionnaire called
the Skatigg_§k;;l_§y§;g§;ign, was developed to emphasize the
skaters’ own current skating level of ability in the areas
of jumps, spins, and steps/connecting moves. The self-
efficacy questionnaire contained items regarding jumps,

spins, and steps/connecting moves because these moves

33

comprise a skaters’ skating routine no matter what level of
skating ability. Specifically, subjects were asked "what is
the most difficult jump or combination jump, spin or spin
combination, and step/connecting move in your skating
routine?" Skaters were then asked to indicate, the
strength of their belief in correctly performing this skill
from at least 1 out of 10 times to 10 out of 10 times. Each
efficacy rating was made on an 11-point probability scale
ranging from O (I am certain I can;§ do this), to 10 (I am
very certain I can do this). Efficacy scores were analyzed
by summing each of the items within a category (jumps,
spins, steps/connecting moves) and averaging across those 10
items. (See Appendix B for a copy of the Skating_§kill
ExaluatignL a task-specific measure of self-efficacy.)
This questionnaire was used both as a pre and post-test
measure.

State_anxiegzg The CSAI-2 (Martens, et al., 1990) was
used in the present study to analyze cognitive anxiety,
somatic anxiety, and confidence of the subjects. Cognitive
state anxiety indicated what the competitor was thinking
regarding negative feelings. The cognitive anxiety subscale
contained 9 items. The somatic anxiety scale dealt with the
body-function changes perceived at the time of subscale
testing and contained 9 items. The state of self-confidence

subscale reflected the athlete’s positive feelings toward a

competitive situation and also contained 9 items. Each item

34
on the CSAI-2 was scored on a 4-point Likert scale from 1
(not at all) to 4 (very much so).

For the purpose of this study, the instructions were
modified from "Read each statement and then circle the
appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate
how you feel right now--at this moment... choose the answer
which describes your feelings right now," to the following:
"Try to imagine that you are to compete in a competition in
one week. Close your eyes and try to visualize yourself as
clearly as possible while preparing to skate in that
particular environment and condition. Once you can vividly
imagine yourself at that competition, open your eyes and

read each statement and then circle the appropriate number

to the right of the statement to indicate LQE_XQB_£§§L_£ighL
new." The CSAI-z was titled the Mishisan_somnetitixe

Questionnnine for purposes of concealing the true name of

the questionnaire. (See Appendix C for a copy of the

Mighisss_Canetitixe_9ussti9nnaire).
Manipulahigg_§h§23§l This area consisted of three
measures; (a) fo—Ige Skating Training questionnaire, (b)

Interxention_Effestixensss_9uestignnaire. and (C) workb00k8~

The three manipulation checks that were designed for this
experiment were used to help assure treatment integrity.
Greenspan and Feltz (1989) believe that individuals
experience various interventions differently. For this

reason, there is a need for manipulation checks in sport

35

psychology intervention research. Yet Greenspan and Feltz
indicated that only 20% of the studies they reviewed had a
manipulation check that they considered adequate. According
to Greenspan and Feltz, an adequate manipulation check is
one that involves an assessment of how much subjects are
affected by each component of the intervention. The
procedural checks in the present study evaluated how much
the subject accurately used the intervention.

W This
questionnaire was administered pre and post-treatment. The
pretreatment assessment was used to determine the extent to
which individuals already perform the skills used in the
interventions. The posttreatment assessment was used to see
if subjects used the treatment techniques provided for their
group. This questionnaire included nine different off-ice
skating training items such as psychological training,
physical training, and types of classes that assist with
skating (e.g., dance training). A working definition was
used beside words that subjects may not have known (e.g.
muscle relaxation - tensing and relaxing specific body
parts). Subjects were asked how many times in a typical
week they usually performed the training item» Each item
was rated on a 5-point scale from.1 (Never) to 5 (7 or more
times). Items 4 "walking out your entire routine on the
floor" and 6 "drawing out your entire skating routine on

Paper" were the only answers of interest during the pre-

36
intervention assessment for they pertained to the
interventions that were implemented. The other eight
measures were used as filler items. If the subjects had a
score of four or higher (5 or more times per week) on Item 4
or 6 they were not used as a subject in this study. Two
skaters were eliminated from the study as a result of this

assessment. (See Appendix D for a copy of the fo;1ge

51 . I . . : . . ).
The W questionnaire was

adapted for the sport of skating. This questionnaire
consisted of seven questions, divided into three sections

(a) imagery practice (one item), (b) imagery effectiveness
(five items), and (c) intervention helpfulness (one item).
Item one of this questionnaire was designed to assess the
skaters’ use of their workbooks. Questions two through six
were designed to assess the skaters imagery effectiveness.
Ratings for this section of the questionnaire were made on a
0 - 6 point scale. Ratings for this part of the
questionnaire were done using a seven point scale, with a
rating of 0 being used for rarely used imagery, and a rating
of 6 being used if one used imagery often. Analyses for
this part of the questionnaire consisted of the five items
being summed to provide a single score. The Cronbach alpha
for internal consistency was .99. Question seven of this
questionnaire consisted of a four point scale in which

skaters assessed the helpfulness of intervention. (See

37

Appendix E for a copy of the 1nLe;yen§ign_§ffeg§iyeness
questionnaire).

The stretching, PFD, and WTF workbooks were designed as
a procedural check to see how often the skater performed the
intervention in which she was randomly assigned. The PFD
workbook is detailed in Appendix F, the WTF workbook is
detailed in Appendix G and the workbook for the stretching
group is detailed in Appendix H. Parents were asked to sign
and date their child’s workbook to show completion of this
work being done. These were handed in at the second

intervention meeting.

W

Interventions PFD and WTF were originally developed for
compulsory figures. However, as of May 1995 compulsory
figures are not mandatory in order to skate freestyle as was
in the past. Therefore, this study modified Palmer's and
Martin’s ideas to freestyle skating.

Both the originals (paper patch, and Martin technique)
and this study’s adaptations (paper freestyle drawing, and
walk through on the floor) contained three components of
off-ice rehearsal that were consistent with widely accepted
guidelines for imagery rehearsal (Orlick, 1986: Smith,
1987). These components/guidelines were (a) that the off-
ice practice last the same duration of time as the actual

performance, (b) that the subject try to imagine the actual

38
competitive setting in which the skills were being
performed, and (c) that the subject try to "feel" the skills
being performed.

RFD; The PFD intervention came from Palmer’s (1992,
1993b) paper patch intervention which consisted of mental
practice for compulsory figures. It included drawing out
one’s figures on a piece of paper overtop of a figure eight
or serpentine diagram. The paper patch was designed as off-
ice training to practice one’s figures. The layout papers
that were originally provided to the subjects aided them to
practice exactly what their figure should look like on the
ice (i.e., long and short axis, line up of the sides of the
circles, and perfectly round circles).

Original compulsory figure method was as follows

1. Skaters were given paper patch workbooks containing
outlines of figures they were currently practicing.

2. Skaters were asked to determine key words to help them
concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.
3. Skaters traced the figure on paper over the outline in
their workbooks while saying keywords out loud, and timing
the rehearsal so that it took approximately the same time as
actually skating the figure.

4. They performed this activity three times per week as if
they were skating in a test situation (three tracings per
figure).

5. The skaters were also asked to try to imagine feeling and

39
seeing the correct response as they were drawing the
figures.
6. At the end of the 4-week session, the skaters handed in
their workbooks to verify their participation.
Adaptation of Pabner’s technique for freestyle skating (PFD)
1. Skaters were asked to list all the elements of their
figure skating program out on paper.
2. Skaters were asked to develop cue words (Palmer 1993b).
The cue words were designed to help increase attention and
concentration and help avoid the skater from being
distracted. Cue words are phrases that can be repeated to
oneself while skating, help prompt correct positioning and
movement (e.g. slow, push, hold, etc.). They also helped
the skater concentrate on each specific element of each
move, spin, or jump.
3. This simulation needed to be as real as possible, so
skaters needed to visualize themselves as if they were at a
real competitive setting. They needed to see themselves on
the ice, see their own coach at the skating door, see
themselves in their own skating costume, and see the judging
panel before them. They needed to "feel" themselves skating
their own routine to the best of their ability. After
skaters had visualized this, they were asked to play their
skating music and draw their own routine in the workbook
provided, while saying their cue words outloud. Skaters

were instructed to be sure to place the moves, jumps, and

40
spins in their proper placement in the workbook as on the
ice surface. The skaters’ were asked to play their skating
music on a tape recorder while doing this exercise. This
helped the skaters’ keep the time of their drawing off-ice
to the same time or speed that it takes to do it on-ice.
4. After completing their assignment, the skaters dated and
signed each worksheet, as well as had their parent or
guardian sign and date it. The workbooks were handed in at
the second meeting as proof of homework completion.
5. The skaters’ were asked to perform their exercise once a
day for four weeks. This was to be done in a quiet area of
one’s home, and was to be performed just before going to
sleep.
6. Before going on the ice to compete, the skaters’ were
asked to perform their assignment one last time. This would
help the skater to automatically move towards their
performance and serve to relax and improve concentration.
This was also an easy way to decrease distraction from their
performance to come. (Palmer, 1993b). (See Appendix I for

a complete outline of this seminar).

WIE‘ The WTF intervention was originally called Martin
self-talk (stimulus cueing) technique (Palmer 1992, 1993a;
Ming 1992; Martin 1993). It was designed to improve skill
development on compulsory figures and to produce

generalization from practice to competition of compulsory

41
figures. It consisted of the skater walking out their
figure pattern on the floor or going through the movements
of the figure in a stationary position.
Original compulsory figure method was as follows
1. Skaters were asked to determine keywords to help them
concentrate on the correct specific elements of each figure.
2. During the on-ice practice the skaters used the keywords
while performing the figures.
3. They performed this activity "walk out" three times per
week as if they were skating in a test situation (three
tracings per figure). 2
4. While doing this the skaters said keywords outloud and
were also asked to try to imagine feeling and seeing the
correct response as they were drawing the figures.
5. Following each Martin self-talk technique session, the
skaters had a witness sign a sheet. The signature sheet was
submitted at the end of the 4-week period to verify the
subject’s participation.
Adaptation of Martin’s technique for freestyle skating (WTF)
Steps 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 were the same as the adaptation of
PFD. Only Step 3 was uniquely different as follows:
3. Instead of playing their skating music and drawing their
own routine, skaters in the WTF were asked to play their own
skating music and walk through their routine on the floor
while saying their cue words outloud. Skaters were

instructed to be sure to attempt all their moves, jumps, and

 

42
spins. (See Appendix J for a complete outline of this

seminar).

Stretching

The stretching or control group for this study did not
include mental training. Skaters were taught in a 1 hour
seminar the benefits of stretching, proper warm-up, and
stretching techniques. Subjects were instructed to perform
their stretches once each evening, and to have their parents
sign their workbooks upon completion of their homework.
(See Appendix K for a complete outline of the stretching

seminar).

Ersssdnre

Prior to the collection of data, approval was obtained
from the Michigan State University Committee of Research
Involving Human Subjects (See Appendix L). Prior to this
study both the participating figure skating club received
complete details of this experiment. The GCFSC provided
the researcher with a list of names, skating test levels,
addresses, and phone numbers of their clubs skating members.
This list helped compose the subject sample for this
experiment.

Skating coaches/instructors were mailed permission
slips and a brief explanation of the purpose of the study

and what they and their students would be doing. (See

 

 

43
Appendix M for a copy of the coaches’ first letter of
information and consent). The coaches/instructors then
signed their permission slip and returned it to the
researcher via self addressed stamped envelope (SASE).

Because the subjects were minors, consent forms were
mailed to parents or guardians of the skaters. The parent
or guardian and the subject signed the forms, and the
subjects completed the fo;1ge_§ka§ing_1rnining
questionnaire enclosed with their consent forms. (See
Appendix N for a copy of the parents’ first letter of
information and consent). Both of these were mailed back to
the researcher via SASE.

To participate in this study one needed to do three
things: (a) have at least one prior competitive experience;
(b) be competing in the Garden City Figure Skating Club's
Annual Competition which was March 8, 9, 10, 1996; and (c)
not score more than a 4 on a 7-more point scale in any of
the intervention areas on the Qffi;1;e_§knting_11nining
questionnaire. A score higher than a 4 indicated that the
subject had prior experience with the intervention and was
eliminated from this study because she could possibly skew
the results. The subjects were eliminated through this
process. The subjects who were remaining were placed in
piles according to their skating level. To ensure
confidentiality, subjects were assigned a name/number

combination. Only the subject, parent or guardian and

 

 

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44
principle researcher had access to this information. The
subjects were then stratified randomly assigned to one of
the three interventions.

Prior to the intervention, coaches were mailed Sknnens
2g;§g:mnnne_§ynlnn;inn§. These evaluations consisted of
their skating students’ current skating ability relating to
other skaters’ their own age and skating level. These were
completed and mailed to the researcher prior to the
intervention seminar. Athletes were mailed another letter
explaining in detail the location and time for their
intervention seminar. Each intervention had its own
separate meeting time. All of the interventions were given
at the Log Cabin Community Center in Garden City, Michigan.

When the subjects arrived at the seminar, they were

instructed to complete the Mignigan anpetitive
Questiennaire and WW They then

partook in one of the intervention semdnars. These seminars
lasted for approximately 90 minutes. At the end of the
seminar, subjects were instructed to take their workbooks
home with them and to perform their given intervention every
evening before going to sleep for 1 month. This took
approximately 2 to 5 minutes each night depending on the
skater’s ability level. Also, to control for contamination,
the researcher instructed the subjects not to discuss their
seminar and/or show their workbook to anyone except their

parent or guardian.

 

 

J.

. e .— 1P.“ C WM .Iis vi) PA h.

45

The subjects were telephoned on February 10 which was 2
weeks after their seminar and 2 weeks before their skating
competition. All of the subjects were asked the same
questions pertaining to their workbook progress. (See
Appendix 0 for a transcription of the phone questions).
Skaters were mailed a second letter of information regarding
meeting time and place for second session. (See Appendix P
for a copy of the skaters second letter of information).

On March 8, 9, and 10, the participants competed at the
GCFSC competition. The following day, the coaches were
mailed a second package with their students’ EEQLQIE
Perfgzmnnne_fiynlnn;ign forms. (See Appendix Q for a copy of
the coaches second letter of information). These were
completed and mailed back to the researcher.

The subjects then returned to their first meeting place

on March 19. At that time the subjects handed in their
workbooks. completed the W Lek ting

W W and
W The subjects were

than debriefed regarding the purpose of this study.

W123

As a method of checking for individual variation, pre-
intervention scores were assessed. Pre-intervention
differences among groups were examined through separate one-

way analyses of variance (ANOVA) for each dependent

 

 

 

46
variable. No pretreatment differences occurred among the
groups on any of the dependent measures. To test the
hypotheses a 3 x 2 (Group x pre/post) ANOVA was conducted on
each dependent measure. All analyses employed an alpha

level of .05.

 

 

RESULTS

The purpose of this research was to investigate the
effects that selected mental practice techniques had on
performance ratings, self-efficacy, and state anxiety in
competitive figure skaters. The results of this study have
been organized into preliminary and descriptive analyses,
performance ratings results, self-efficacy results, and
finally state anxiety results. Post hoc analyses, in the
event of a significant treatment effect or interaction were
conducted using a Tukey WSD procedure (Winer, 1971). All of
the results in this chapter are reported at the .05 level of

significance.

W

A preliminary analysis of the treatment groups was
conducted to determine whether there were any significant
differences among the pretreatment dependent variables of
the groups. One-way ANOVAs were conducted for each of the
nine dependent measures. Results indicated no significant
differences among the groups for any of the dependent
measures. Summary ANOVA tables are contained in Appendix

R. The means and standard deviations for all measures, pre

and post are contained in Table 1.

47

48

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1
;go ’e; g*.:_ - age“ ;_ge.'__e I‘ ;._ 'e e e .‘O‘nO‘! ; ;_o
8853 POST“
W PFD wrs smnrcn PFD m: 5112ng
We:
Jumps M 3.67 3.86 3.87 4.22 4.42 3.90
5n 1.64 1.24 1.77 1.34 1.15 1.77
Spins M 3.82 3.88 3.78 4.00 4.22 3.67
,sn 1.29 1.11 1.77 .94 .86 .85
Moves M 3.31 3.38 3.27 4.29 4.50 4.00
SQ .88 .86 .77 1.43 1.19 1.63
We:
Jumps M 42.67 44.89 46.78 54.89 63.67 59.00
SQ 17.84 19.44 19.72 19.67 15.87 30.35
Spins M 66.67 53.44 60.78 69.33 72.33 63.33
SQ 23.10 22.81 28.24 18.55 18.89 28.03
Moves M 58.56 51.78 53.67 61.89 60.11 54.11
5n 28.76 30.02 33.69 31.39 25.12 33.77
CSAI-Z
Cognitive M 20.44 20.89 24.11 16.89 16.56 21.56
an 6.93 7.88 4.91 5.11 5.41 8.50
Somatic M 21.22 22.22 22.78 17.78 17.33 21.00
an 6.76 6.72 8.03 5.74 3.77 7.87
Confidence M 21.44 22.56 20.56 25.56 28.00 21.00
an 6.54 4.72 8.19 6.79 4.06 6.63

 

39 = 9 for each group.

49

There were three manipulation checks designed for this
study. The manipulation checks consisted of (a)
determining, with the fo;1ge_§ka§ing_1raining
questionnaire, whether or not skaters were already using the
intervention techniques prior to treatment and that skaters
only used the techniques they were taught; (b) determining,
with the WW how often
skaters practiced imagery, used imagery, and how helpful
they thought their intervention was; and (c) a procedural
reliability check of faithfulness to their homework
assignments.

The first manipulation check, using the Qffi;ine_skn;ing
trnining_gng§;ignnni;g, was designed as both a pre and post
treatment measure. This questionnaire included six
different off-ice skating training items which were goal
setting, stretching, dance class, walking—out skating
routine, muscle relaxation, and drawing skating routine.
Skaters rated how often they engaged in these skills. The
pretreatment scores for walk-out skating routine and drawing
skating routine were examined to determine whether any
skaters used either mental practice technique five or more
times per week. Two of the skaters did so. Of the
remaining skaters, the highest response reported was 3 to 4
times per week. Seven skaters reported using WTF 3 to 4
times per week and two skaters reported using PFD 3 to 4

times per week.

 

50

To determine whether skaters used only the technique
they were taught, a separate score was computed for
stretching, walking—out routine, and paper freestyle drawing
and analyzed separately within a 3 X 2 (Group x Pre/Post)
ANOVA with repeated measure on the last factor. Also, means
and standard deviations were calculated for the entire
questionnaire, and are located in Table 2.

The ANOVA results for each of the three intervention
area of skills indicated significant effects for group,
pre/post, and group by pre/post interactions. A summary
table of these ANOVA analyses on the fo;1ge_§knning
I:nining_Qng§;innn§i;g are contained in Appendix R.

Post hoc analyses for the question on, stretching,
indicated that only the stretching group significantly
increased their use of stretching practice training and also
used stretching techniques significantly more than the other
two groups at post test. Post hoc analyses for the question
on, walking out routine, indicated that only the WTF group
significantly increased their use of WTF practice training
and also used WTF techniques significantly more than the
other two groups at post test. Post hoc analyses for the
item on, drawing out routine, indicated that only the PFD
group significantly increased their use of PFD practice
training and also used PFD techniques significantly more
than the other two groups at post test. These results

insured that treatment integrity was considered present.

\Vnu— A. M.

R5

I). v.

51

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2
P,i a1! '0: u‘ao= 220 £104.! J‘Vfa 'onf ,or Of - ‘ .a Tn- .; nin-
: . .
P353 POSTa
Eflliflhlfifie .PED, WTF STRETCH PFD WTF STREIQM
Goal Setting M 1.33 1.89 1.00 1.67 2.11 1.67
fig .87 1.36 1.00 1.22 1.54 1.41
Stretching M, 1.33 1.44 1.11 1.56 2.00 3.89
an 1.41 1.33 1.27 1.51 1.50 .33
Dance Class M .56 .78 .33 .56 .67 .44
5;; .73 .67 .50 .73 .71 .53
Walking out M .89 1.33 .89 .89 4.00 1.00
routine $2 .60 .71 .78 .60 .00 .71
Muscle Relax M 1.00 1.11 .56 1.11 1.22 .44
3n 1.41 1.54 .88 1.36 1.56 .73
Drawing out M .22 .56 .67 4.00 .56 .67
routine fig .44 .53 1.00 .00 .53 .87

 

‘n = 9 for each group.

52

The W consisted
of seven questions, divided into three sections (a) imagery
practice (one item), (b) imagery effectiveness (five items),
and (c) intervention helpfulness (one item). This
questionnaire was designed to assess the skaters’ use of
their workbooks, imagery, and helpfulness of intervention.
(See Appendix E for a copy of the In;eryen;ign_fiffenniygn§§n
W )

A separate score was computed for each of the three
sections of this questionnaire which were analyzed
separately within a one—way ANOVA. The ANOVA summary table
is contained in Appendix R. Means and standard deviations
are contained in Table 3.

The first section of this questionnaire consisted of
one question which dealt with the skaters’ imagery practice.
The question specifically asked the skater "How many times
did you practice your imagery during your skating homework
assignment?" ANOVA results indicated a significant main
effect for group. Post hoc analysis indicated that the PFD
and WTF groups were significantly higher than the stretching
group in use of imagery practice. In fact, none of the

stretching skaters indicated that they practiced imagery.
The second section of this questionnaire consisted of

five questions that measured the effectiveness of the

skaters’ imagery. These questions were scored on a 7-point

Likert scale of 1 (rarely used imagery) to 7 (used imagery

 

 

53

 

Table 3

ya: an 410.: 0 "V. 01: o -vn1-g _ f 1Vfl‘”f 01 7' io.nnir
W LFD' w'rsa STRETCH‘

Imagery M 29.56 28.33 .001

Practice fig .88 2.18 .001

Imagery M 27.33 27.11 .001
Effectiveness SQ 2.29 2.20 .001
Intervention M 4.00 3.78 3.56

Helpfulness fig .01 .44 .53

 

“n = 9 for each group.

 

54
often) and summed for a single score. ANOVA results
indicated a significant main effect for group. Again, none
of the stretching skaters indicated use of imagery.

The third area of this questionnaire consisted of one
question which dealt with the interventions effectiveness,
rated on a 4-point Likert scale of 1 (not at all helpful) to
4 (very helpful). This question specifically asked the
subject "How would you rate the helpfulness of your
intervention to your skating routine?" ANOVA results
revealed only a trend toward significance (p < .08). The
PFD group thought their treatment was slightly more
effective than what the stretching group thought. In fact,
there was no variance in responses among the PFD group. All
skaters in this group reported that they thought the
intervention was very helpful.

WW were designed as
a procedural check to see how often the skaters performed
the intervention to which they were randomly assigned.
Procedural reliability appeared intact. Skaters were called
2 weeks after the start of this experiment and all reported
they were doing their homework. Parents were also asked to
Sign and date their child’s workbook daily to show
completion of this work being done daily. Furthermore, an
examination of the submitted workbooks showed that all were

completed.

9"

In

In

55

In examining the pretreatment subjective performance
ratings, contained in Table 1, coaches rated skaters as
slightly above average. Coaches rated skaters highest for
spins, and lowest for connecting moves. (Mean scores for
groups ranged from 3.27 to 3.88).

Pretreatment self-efficacy scores show that the skaters
had moderate self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was highest for
spins and lowest for jumps.

For pretreatment cognitive state anxiety scores, the
skaters’ cognitive state anxiety and confidence appeared to
be average, and their somatic anxiety appeared to be high,
compared to the published norms for the CSAI-2 which are M =
21.61 (S2 = 6.77) for cognitive anxiety, M = 18.92 (S2 =
5.97) for somatic anxiety, and M = 22.50 (52 = 5.51) for
confidence (Martens, et al., 1990).

Pearson Correlations were analyzed for both pre and
post intervention training to see if correlations existed
between performance, self-efficacy, and state anxiety.

These are contained in Appendix S. All three performance
scores correlated significantly with each other with jumps
and spins correlating the highest. The correlation between
jump performance and spin performance was ;=.86 (p=.001) for
the pre test and n=.85 (p=.001) for the post test. All
three self-efficacy scores correlated significantly with

each other with moves and spins correlating the highest.

56
The correlation between spin self-efficacy and move self-
efficacy was 1:.82 (p=.001) for pretest and r=.80 (p=.001)
for posttest.

Strangely, only spin self-efficacy and spin performance
significantly correlated ;=.51 (p=.007) with each other on
pretest and jump self—efficacy and spin self—efficacy
correlated ;=.59 (p=.001) with their respective performance
measures on posttest.

Two of the CSAI-2 state anxiety scores correlated
negatively with each other on both pre and post, and
cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety correlated very high.
The correlation between somatic anxiety and cognitive
anxiety was ;=.73 (p=.001) for the pre test and ;=.79
(p=.001) for the post test. Cognitive anxiety and
confidence showed a correlation of r=-.47 (p=.014) for the
pretest and r=-.63 (p=.001) for the post test. The
correlation between somatic anxiety and confidence was

£= -.66 (p=.000) for pretest and ;=-.55 (p=.003) for

posttest .

k ’ P n R 'n

The first hypothesis stated that the mental practice
treatments improve the subjective ratings of figure skaters’
performance compared to a no mental practice control group.

The subjective ratings of performance were determined by the

skaters’ coaches/instructors. (See Appendix A for a copy of

57
the SkanersL_Eerfgrmange_£yalnn§ign forms). Performance
ratings were computed for each of the performance areas of
jumps, spins, and steps/connecting moves and were each
analyzed separately within a 3 X 2 (Group X Pre/Post) ANOVA
with repeated measures on the last factor. (These are
contained in Table 4).

The ANOVA results for jumping, spinning, and connecting
move performance all indicated a significant effect for
pre/post differences and for group by pre/post interactions.
Skaters' performance in their jumping, spinning, and
connecting moves significantly increased across the 4 weeks.

Post hoc analyses indicated that the PFD and WTF groups
significantly improved their jumping performance compared to
the stretching group over the course of the treatment. This
interaction is illustrated in Figure 1. The two mental
practice treatment groups also significantly improved in
their spinning performance. This interaction is illustrated
in Figure 2.

Although all three groups significantly improved in
their connecting move performances, the PFD (ES = 1.11) and
WTF (ES = 1.30) groups showed greater improvement than the
stretching group (fig = .95). This interaction is
illustrated in Figure 3. Therefore, the results supported
the first hypothesis. A summary table of all ANOVA analyses

on skaters’ performance are contained in Appendix R.

 

58

 

 

DEPENDENT VARIABLES df MS F p
Intervent 2 85.91 .07 .928
Pre/Post 1 498.07 33.78 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 107.02 7.26 .003
Within cells error 24 14.75
Perfgrmnnge Spin
Intervent 2 43.85 .12 .891
Pre/Post 1 249.19 74.04 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 20.52 6.10 .007
Within cells error 24 3.37
Intervent 2 10.91 .31 .734
Pre/Post 1 140.17 67.88 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 7.39 3.58 .044
Within cells error 24 2.06
Self-Effigngy Qnmp
Intervent 2 147.24 .20 .824
Pre/Post 1 2812.24 21.86 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 64.46 50 .611
Within cells error 24 128.18
Intervent 2 186.46 .18 .837
Pre/Post 1 872.02 12.36 .002
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 397.46 5.64 .010
Within cells error 24 70.52
Self-Effigngy Mgve
Intervent 2 187.91 .10 .903
Pre/Post 1 220.02 5.73 .025
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 71.69 1.87 .177
Within cells error 24 38.42
CSAI-Z gggnitive
Intervent 2 102.80 1.33 .283
Pre/Post 1 163.63 16.15 .001
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 3.57 .35 .706
Within cells error 24 10.13
W
Intervent 2 30.72 .38 .688
Pre/Post 1 153.35 21.36 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 10.91 1.52 .239
Within cells error 24 7.18
A -
Intervent 2 92.46 1.29 .293
Pre/Post 1 150.00 18.98 .000
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 30.17 3.82 .036
Within cells error 24 7.90

g

 

'1‘1\

1
\
\

 

5 9
Figure 1

WTF
PFD
fl STRETCH

 

 

 

d)-

4.9 4;-
4.8 4-
4.7

.T'-)1)-i)|+t‘llT.)la+l)ll+ -191 T.) , .+.II.!T:)I--. . . . 1 . , r t): i . .
5 4. 3 2. J 4 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3 2 l.
4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

mmmOUm 731,52

POST
INTERVENTION

 

Jumping Performance

 

PRE
INTERVENTION

 

MEAN SCORES

60

Figure 2

 

4.9 ~

4.8 .

4.7 .

4.6 ..

4.5 -

 

b:

PFD

A STRETCH

 

PRE POST
INTERVENTION INTERVENTION

Spinning Performance

MEAN SCORES

61

Figure 3

 

4.9 .

4.8 ..

4.7 -

4.6 -

4.5 -

4.4 -

4.3 «

4.2 -

4.11

 

b)

PRE
INTERVENTION

Connecting Move Performance

PFD

STRETCH

 

POST
INTERVENTION

62
Shetsrfii_§slf;fiffi§ssx_

The second hypothesis stated that the mental practice
treatments improve the self—efficacy of figure skaters
compared to a no mental practice control group. A
questionnaire called the Skgning_§kill_fiyn1nnnign was used
for skaters to assess their own current skating self-
efficacy in the areas of jumps, spins, and connecting moves
(See Appendix B for a copy of the Ska;ing_§kill_fiynlnn;ign
questionnaire). This task-specific measure of self-efficacy
asked the skater to indicate the strength of her belief in
correctly performing her most difficult jump, spin, and
connecting move. A score was computed for each of the
three areas and analyzed separately within a 3 X 2 (Group X
Pre/Post) ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor.
These are contained in Table 4.

The ANOVA results for self-efficacy jump and self—
efficacy move indicated a significant effect for pre/post
differences only. However, the WTF group had a stronger
effect size for self—efficacy in jumps (ES = .97). Spins (ES
= 83) and connecting moves (ES = .28) compared to the Belf’
efficacy of the PFD group in jumps (£5 = ~53): spins (35 =

.12) and connecting moves (ES = .12). The effect sizes for

both intervention groups are much higher (pre to post) than
the stretching control group in jumps (£5 = -52): spins (55
= .09) and connecting moves (£5 = .01).

Results for self-efficacy spin indicated significant

63
effects for pre/post differences and a group by pre/post
interaction. Post hoc analyses indicated that only the WTF
group significantly improved their spin self-efficacy
compared to the PFD and stretching groups over the course of
the treatment. This interaction is illustrated in Figure 4.
Therefore, the results partially supported the second

hypothesis.

§K§£§I3L_§L§L§_Anzifil¥

The third hypothesis stated that the mental practice
treatments improve the state anxiety of figure skaters
compared to a no mental practice control group. The CSAI-Z
(Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990) was used to measure
skaters cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and confidence.
A score was computed for each of the three areas and were
each analyzed separately within a 3 X 2 (Group x Pre/Post)
ANOVA with repeated measures on the last factor. (These are
contained in Table 4).

The ANOVA results for cognitive and somatic anxiety
indicated a significant effect for pre/post differences
only. Skaters’ cognitive and somatic anxiety significantly
decreased across the 4 weeks, although for somatic anxiety
the WTF showed a stronger effect size (33 = .73) than did
the PFD group (£5 = .51) and stretching group (ES = .22).

The ANOVA results for the confidence subscale of the

CSAI-2 also indicated a significant effect for pre/post.

MEAN SCORES

64

Figure 4

 

75
Ml
734
72‘
71.
70+
69,
6M
67T
66J
65-1
644
631
62-
mi
60.
59.
ssJ

 

PFD

STRETCH

 

- ..—....__-.._ -1
~% —-————_——___.7

 

PRE
INTERVENTION

POST
INTERVENTION

Self-Efficacy Spin

65

However, a significant Group X Pre/Post interaction
superseded this main effect. Post hoc analyses indicated
that the PFD and WTF groups significantly improved their
confidence compared to the stretching group over the course
of the treatment. Moreover the WTF group had a stronger
effect size (ES = 1.15) than the PFD group (ES = .63) and
control stretching group (ES = .05). This interaction is
illustrated in Figure 5. Because self-confidence cannot
really be considered the same concept as "non-anxiety"
(Bandura, 1986), the results do not support the third
hypothesis. 7
W

The forth hypothesis stated that there were no
differences between the WTF and PFD methods on performance,
self—efficacy and state anxiety. From the preceding
analyses, results indicated partial support for the null
hypothesis. In terms of performance and anxiety, there were
no differences between the WTF and PFD. However, in terms
of self-efficacy, the WTF was significantly more effective
than PFD in raising self-perceptions for spins.
Furthermore, even though this was the only significant
difference between the WTF and PFD, the WTF had stronger
effect sizes than the PFD in connecting move performance,
jumping, spinning, and connecting move efficacy, and self~

confidence on the CSAI-2.

MEAN SCORES

66

Figure 5

 

30

29+

28-

27«

26W

25-

24‘

21-

mi

I9-

T

PFD

 

e—1 STRETCH

_.__.._-. _-.__.1__
H H...______

 

 

PRE
INTERVENTION

CSAI-Z Confidence

POST
INTERVENTION

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND CONCDUSIONS

This chapter has been organized into three sections.
The first section presents a discussion of this study and
its findings. The second section states the conclusions of
this investigation, while the third section offers

implications and suggestions for future research.

2' .

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the
effects that the two selected mental practice groups (PFD
and WTF), and a no mental practice control group
(stretching) had on performance, self-efficacy, and state
anxiety of competitive figure skaters. Contrary to
Palmer’s (1992) findings, both mental practice techniques
"paper drawing, and walk out" showed significant
improvements compared to a stretching control on skating
performance, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Palmer
(1992) found only significant improvements for the paper
drawing intervention.

Martin (1993) criticized Palmer’s (1992) study for her
methodology. Specifically he stated that Palmer’s study (a)
did not include all of the components of his procedure and
(b) lacked procedural reliability assessments. The present

study included detailed seminar outlines to be sure that all

67

CD

a:

68
components were used correctly. Both mental practice
intervention seminars and workbooks were similar in design
and only the intervention portion was different.

The present study also contained rigorous procedural
reliability checks. Procedural reliability was evident in
the present study because (a) the investigator used
workbooks to insure the skaters were performing the
intervention in which they were randomly assigned; (b)
skaters used keywords to help them focus on the positive and
present moment; (c) the intervention practice was conducted
.with skating music to ensure correct timing and; (d) the
investigator made phone calls to skaters two weeks into this
experiment to check that homework was being completed.

These procedures help support Martin’s (1993) belief that in
order to have an effective strategy one must use the correct
procedures. Procedural reliability that was present
throughout this study added rigor to both mental practice
techniques.

This study also contained a placebo control group which
was lacking in Palmer’s (1992) study. The control group
learned proper stretching techniques. The subjects were
given a seminar, a workbook, and a flexibility sit-and-reach
test both pre and post intervention.

A.major difference between the present study and
Palmer’s 1992 study was that Palmer used compulsory figures;

whereas the present study used free skating performance.

69

Her finding, that the walk-out technique did not show
performance improvements may be due to the difference in how
the physical movements that occur in compulsory figures
(e.g., turns and loops) are felt off the ice versus on the
ice (Palmer 1992). In other words, the walk-out technique
may have used different movements than the on-ice practice.
In the present study, the WTF mental practice technique
actually showed slightly stronger effects than the PFD
mental practice technique on performance and self-efficacy.
This may be because the WTF mental practice technique used
kinesthetic movements (floor movements); whereas, the PFD
mental practice technique used a hand motor response
(drawing of ones skating routine). Therefore, the physical
movements of the WTF were more similar to, and
representative of, optimal freestyle figure skating routine.
This supports past research by Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz
(1991) who examined relationships between physical practice
and imagery in figure skating performance. They found that
skaters who could "feel" or kinesthetically imagine
themselves freestyle skating were more successful at
completing their program elements than those who did not.

Palmer’s study measured only skating performance;
whereas, the present study also measured self-efficacy and
the CSAI-2 measure of state anxiety and self-confidence.
This study supports research showing the effectiveness of

mental and physical practice on self-efficacy expectation

70
(Feltz & Riessinger, 1990; Martin & Hall 1995) and confirms
that mental practice is an effective way of improving ones
performance and self-efficacy (Feltz & Doyle, 1981; Feltz &
Weiss, 1982).

The present study showed that of the three areas
measured for self-efficacy ~jumps, spins, and connecting
moves- only self-efficacy spin had significant results. A
tentative explanation for lack of significant findings in
self-efficacy jumps and connecting moves may be that the
skaters’ past performances or experiences influenced their
self-efficacy ratings (Bandura, 1977). Regardless of type
of intervention, skaters had more opportunity to perform
jumps and connecting moves than they did spins. A typical
performance routine has only three spins compared to seven
jumps and connecting moves throughout one’s routine.
Therefore, the skaters’ belief in their capacity to execute
jumps and connecting moves were based more on physical
performance than on their intervention experience.

The present study showed that of the CSAI-2 (Martens,
et al., 1990) measures for state anxiety only self-
confidence showed in a significant interaction between
groups from pre-to-post-intervention. A possible
explanation for the lack of significant interactions for
somatic and cognitive anxiety may be that the CSAI-Z in this
experiment was not assessed just prior to skating

competitions. One’s anxiety level may not have been

71
experienced at the time that the questionnaire was issued
even through skaters were asked to imagine themselves being
just prior to competition.

Another tentative explanation for the inability to
detenmine significant differences in both cognitive and
somatic anxiety may be due to lack of power necessary for
determining significant effects. The power of a test is
determined by the probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis. Power in the present study, may have been low
due to the small cell size (n = 9). In terms of power, the
larger the sample size the smaller the sampling fluctuation
of a statistic (e.g., standard error). By increasing the
sample size, the standard error of the sampling distribution
is reduced; in addition, the power to detect significant
effects is increased. Therefore, significant experimental
effects could have been increased if the total sample size

(E = 27) was increased.

Conclusions

Based upon the findings and within the limitations of
this study, the following conclusions were reached:

1. The two mental practice treatment groups improved in
their performance of their jumps, spins, and connecting

moves compared to the stretching control group.

72
2. The WTF mental practice treatment group improved in
their spinning self-efficacy compared to the PFD mental
practice treatment and the stretching control group.
3. The two mental practice treatment groups improved in
their self-confidence as measured by the CSAI-Z compared to

the stretching control group.

W

Several suggestions concerning future research on
mental practice can be stated. Research should be conducted
using similar procedures like WTF and PFD to enhance
individual activities/sports that have predesigned routines
like figure skating. These could include gymnastics floor
and beam routines, synchronized swimming, and dance
routines.

Secondly, regarding sample size, the relatively small
number of subjects (M = 27) could have masked any
significant effects for cognitive anxiety and somatic
anxiety. Therefore, the sample size per treatment condition
should be tripled (n = 27) in order to increase power to
approximately 80% (Kramer & Thiemann, 1987).

The third recommendation would be to employ mental
practice techniques along with the use of cognitive
restructuring. This would support past researchers (Hall &
Erffmeyer 1983; Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990;

Straub, 1989; Wrisberg & Anshel, 1989,) who have found that

73
packaged mental training programs that include mental
practice and cognitive restructuring implemented with
athletes over a period of time have been known to enhance
sport performance.

The final recommendation would be to investigate the
use of these mental practice techniques on athletes who are
injured. Past research has found those who used mental
practice had remarkable recoveries from injury and quick
returns to their former skill level (Asken & Goodling, 1986;

Lazarus, 1979; Moss, 1979; Romero & Silvestri, 1990).

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

In

PLEASE EIBSHE_QELX_QEE_£E§!EB

Howgnxxiis

 

skating level.

Skaters current competitive level:

 

M Mr
Tried
Before
Halt: Jump n/a
Salcbow n/a
Loop n/a
Flip n/a
waltz-toe loop n/a
Lutz n/a
Combination n/a
Jump with loop
Axel n/a
Split Jump, stag, n/a
half-loop, or
falling leaf
Combination two n/a
single jumps
Double Salchow n/a
Combination one n/a
single/double jump
Double toe loop n/a
Double loop n/a
Double Flip n/a
Double Lutz n/a
SPIRS: Hover
Tried
Before
1 foot upright spin n/a
1 foot back spin n/a
Sit spin n/a
Camel n/a

Layback or attitude n/a

Camel - sit
(same foot)

n/a

Change foot upright n/a

Camel-sit
(Change foot)

n/a

Preliminary
Intermediate

lever Inferior
Completed Ability
Successfully

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2
u'v.r Inferior
Completed Ability
Successfully

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

CO

'74

Pre-Juvenile

Novice

skating performance compared to others of the same age and

Juvenile

Below Average .Above Exceptional

Average Ability
Ability

3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4

Average Ability
Ability

5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6

3.19" Average Above IIOCPF1°“‘1

‘wrm Ability
Ability

3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4
3 4

Average Ability

Ability
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 6

75

Never Never Inferior below Average Above heeptiomal

Tried queted Ability Average Ability Average Ability

Before Successfully Ability Ability
Sit-change sit n/a 1 2 3 4 5 6
Camel-change camel n/a 1 2 3 4 S 6

ect' oves:

Forward Spiral n/a 1 2 3 4 S 6
Footwork n/ a 1 2 3 4 S 6
Backward Spiral n/a 1 2 3 4 S 6
Inside spread eagle n/a 1 2 3 4 S 6

Outside spread eagle n/a 1 2 3 4 S 6

76
Attached you will find explanations of the terminology for the

Please use it as a guide to
help you fill out your students’ questionnaires.

Jump:

1. Never Completed Successfully - never landed on one foot
2. Inferior Ability - Fully rotated, lands about 2 of 10
3. Below Average Ability - lands about 4 of 10

4. Average - lands about 6 of 10

5. Above Average Ability - lands about 8 of 10

6. Exceptional Ability - lands about 10 of 10

Sizing

1. Never Completed. Successfully - not in correct. body
position, no timing to spin, rotates only one or two times.

2. Inferior Ability - not in correct body position, holds for
two or three times, out of control.

3. Below Average.Ability'- sometimes in.correct.body position,
but traveling, and only two or three rotations.

4. Average Ability - Majority of the time in correct body
position, in control, centered and holds for students skating
levels correct number of rotations.

5. Above Average Ability - good speed throughout spin, in
control of body positions, centered and holds for longer than
skating levels, correct number of rotations.

' ' ° ' lways
6. Exceptional Ability - great speed throughout spin, a
in control of body positions, centered and holds for a long

time, and good edge qualitY-

77
W

1. Never Completed Successfully - not in correct body
position, holds for very short period of time, out of control.

2. Inferior Ability - coming closer to correct body
positioning sometimes, no speed, holds for short period of
time.

3. Below Average Ability - correct body position, but slow in
speed, and does not hold for very long.

4. Average Ability - majority of the time in control, holds
for long period of time, correct body positioning.

5. Above Average Ability - good speed, holds for correct
length of time for levels expectations, good body peeitioning,
and in control.

6. Exceptional Ability - great speed, edge guality, holds for
extensive period of time, great body pOSitioning, and always
in control.

APPENDIX B

‘5 ° ' e ' number rega

rding the skill above . PLEASE CIRCLE

x

 
    

I. What is the most difficult jump or combination jump in your skating routine?
Fill in element

 

Regarding the skill above, how confident are you that you will be able to perform
this element correctly --

I'm certain I'm moderately I'm very
I QQQLE do this certain I can certain

do this I £31 do this

1. at 1555; 1 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. at t 2 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. at at 3 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
4. at 1535; 4 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
5. at 1355; 5 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
6. at e 6 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7. at east 7 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8. at st 8 of 10 attempts? O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9. at east 9 of 10 attempts? O 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

10.at 1east 10 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

II. What is the most difficult spin or combination spin in your skating routine?
Fill in element

 

Regarding the skill above, how confident are you that you will be able to perform
this element correctly --

I'm certain I'm moderately I'm very
I can’t do this certain I can certain.
do this I can do this
1- m 1 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 a 9 10
2- m 2 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10

3- m; 3 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 s 6 7 a 9 10

o
4- m 4 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

9 10
5- é£_l2§§£ S of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8 9 10
5- m 6 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 s 6 7

8 9 10
7. at east 7 of 10 attempts? 0 l 2 3 4 S 6 7

8 9 10
8. at east 8 of 10 attempts? o i 2 3 4 s 6 7

7 a 9 10
9- we; 9 of 10 attempts? o 1 2 3 4 s 6

7 8 9 10
lo-é£_L2§§§ 10 of 10 attempts? O 1 2 3 4 5 6

78

79

III. What is the most difficult connecting move in your skating routine? Some
examples could be: spread eagle, bauer, forward spiral, or footwork.
Fill in element

 

Regarding the skill above, how confident are you that you will be able to perform
this element correctly --

I'm certain I'm moderate1y I'm very
I can't do this certain I can certain
do this I an do this

1. at e t l of 10 attempts? 0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. a ast 2 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. at east 3 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
4. at least 4 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

S. m 5 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

6. at ca 6 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
7. at e t 7 of 10 attempts? O l 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10
8. m 8 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9. at east 9 of 10 attempts? 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10

10.at least 10 of 10 attempts? 0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 

APPENDIX C

oflUst e s a a

MICHIGAN COIPITITION QUIBTIOHNAIRI

Try to imagine that you are to compete in a competition next week. Close
your eyes and try to visualize yourself as clearly as possible while
preparing to skate in that particular environment and condition. Once you
can vividly imagine yourself at that competition, open your eyes and read
each statement and then circle the appropriate number to the right of the
statement to indicate ng__ygg_§e§l_;1gh;_gg_w. There are no right or wrong
answers. Do 39; spend too much time on any one statement, but chose the
answer which describes your feelings a;_§ha§_§yme.

PLEASE CIRCLE Iflfi NQMQEB -- DQ NQT MARK BETWEEN THE NgflgERs
Not At Moderately Very
All Somewhat So Mich So

1. I am concerned about

this competition 1 2 3 4
2. I feel nervous 1 2 3 4
3. I feel at ease 1 2 3 4
4. I have self-doubts 1 2 3 4
5. I feel jittery 1 2 3 4
6. I feel comfortable 1 2 3 4

7. I am concerned that
I may not do as well
in that competition

as I could have 1 2 3 4
8. My body feels tense 1 2 3 4
9. I feel self-confident 1 2 3 4
10. I am concerned about 4
losing 1 2 3
11. I feel tense in my 4
stomach I 2 3
12. I feel secure 1 2 3 4
13. I am concerned about 3 4
choking under pressure 1 2
4
14. My body feels relaxed 1 2 3
15. I'm confident I 3 4
could meet the challenge 1 2
16. I'm concerned about 3 4
performing poorly 1 2
4
17. My heart is racing 1 2 3

80

Somewhat

Moderately
So

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

I'm confident about
performing well

I'm concerned about
reaching my goal

I feel my stomach
sinking

I feel mentally relaxed

I'm concerned that
others would be
disappointed

with my performance

My hands are clammy

I'm confident because
I mentally pictured
myself reaching my goal

I'm concerned that I
would not be able to
concentrate

My body feel tight
I'm confident of

coming through under
pressure

APPENDIX D

DEE-I S! I' I . .

In a typical week, how many times a week do you usually perform the

following:

PLEASE W

1. Goal Setting

Never 1-2 3-4 5-6

2. Stretching at home for approximately 20 minutes

Never 1-2 3-4 5-6

3. Attend an off ice dance class

Never 1-2 3-4 5-6

4. Walking out your entire skating routine on the floor

Never 1—2 3-4 5-6

5. Muscle Relaxation (tensing and relaxing specific body parts)

Never 1-2 3-4 5-6

6. Drawing out your engige skating routine on paper

Never 1-2 3-4 5-5

82

7-more

7-more

7-more

7-more

7—more

7-more

APPENDIX E

I .::.v ,,

You were to perform your homework 30 times. For question #1 answer
from 1 - 30 how'many times you perfommed the following questions.
Please write the number on the line below the question.

1. How many times did you practice your imagery during your skating
homework assignment?

times

For questions 2 - 7 circle the answer that best applies to you when
you are imaging your skating routine.

2. When imaging, I am able to break down each skill into its
component parts.

Rarely Often
able to able to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. I imagined the actual competitive setting (e.g. costume, panel
of judges, crowd, etc.)?

Rarel Often
did y did
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

4 . During my homework assignment for my intervention, I could "feel"
myself skating my routine?

Often
Rarely

could- could
0 1 2 3 4 s 6

5. When imaging, I see my skating abilities improving (e.g.,
becoming consistent in my jumps and spins).

Often
Rarely

can can

0 1 2 3 4 5 5

83

84

6. I image myself appearing self ~confident in front of my audience.

Rarely Often
can can
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. How would you rate the helpfulness of your intervention to your
skating routine?

Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very
Helpful Helpful Helpful Helpful

1 2 3 4

APPENDIX F

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - PAPER FREESTYLE DRAWING
INTRODUCTION
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research
project. I hope that this sport psychology intervention can
help you improve your state anxiety, self-efficacy, and

freestyle skating performance.

Things you will need:

A copy of your skating music.
A tape recorder

Preferably a quiet place
Your workbook

Pen or Pencil

Guidelines to follow:
1. This exercise is to be done once a day preferably just

before you go to bed.

2. I want you to make this-simulation as real as possible,
so I want you to visualize yourself as if you are in a
competitive setting. See only yourself on the ice, see your
coach at the skating door, see yourself in your skating
costume, and see the judging panel before you. Try to
"feel" yourself skating your routine to the best of your
ability. Play your skating music and draw your routine in

the workbook while saying the cue words outloud, be sure to

85

86
place the moves, jumps, and spins in their proper placement
in the workbook as on the ice surface. I want you to play
your skating music on a tape recorder while you are doing
this so you can keep the time of your walkout off-ice to the

same time or speed that it takes to do it on-ice.

3. Sign and date each worksheet, as well as have your parent
or guardian sign and date it. You will be handing these

workbooks in to me as proof of your homework completion.

4. Before going on the ice to compete, I would like you to
perform this assignment one last time. It will help you
move automatically towards your performance and serve to
relax and improve your concentration. It is also an easy
way to decrease your distraction from your performance to
come (Palmer, 1993 p. 44-45.) Please label this worksheet

competition.

87
W

Key words help increase your attention and
concentration and help you avoid being distracted. Key
words are phrases that you can repeat to yourself while
skating that prompt correct positioning and movement (e.g.,
slow, push, hold, etc.) They help you concentrate on each
specific element of each move, spin, or jump (Palmer, 1993,
p29).

There are three types of key words: (a) placement type
words or words that tell you what to look at, such as
"double flip in center of ice" to remind you to utilize the
entire ice surface and spread items throughout; (b) ”body
tension," or body control, or tempo type words such as "slow
and graceful" or "control" to remind you to skate while
relaxed rather than all tensed up; and (c) technique type
words which pertain to specific movements such as "explode"
or "check" on take off or landing of jumps. Key words will
help you concentrate on one thing at a time, and are known

to help with nervousness (Martin, 1992; Ming, 1992).

88
W
1. List out all of the elements of your figure skating

program on the next page.

2. You may have already developed key words for your
program, if so list them beside the element. If you have
not developed them do so. Be sure that the key words are
positive and remind you about what you're supposed to do,
rather than negative and what you're up; supposed to do.

Examples are listed below.

EEQQEAM_ELEMENI§ KEY w
Sit Spin Throw the ball and
catch

Thighs tight
Double Toe L00p Right Leg
Spiral Back flat - Stretch and

hold

 

89

 

Skating Routine

KW

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"sumo "cowoum30\ucmumm

 

 

 

 

"@94Q umzdz

UZH3¢KO mdwfimmmmm mmm<m : WO<MU<Q BZHZZUHmmd XMOZWEOI mgmzdm

APPENDIX G

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - WALK THROUGH ON THE FLOOR
INTRODUCTION
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research
project. I hope that this sport psychology intervention can
help you improve your state anxiety, self-efficacy, and

freestyle skating performance.

Things you will need:

A copy of your skating music.
A tape recorder

Preferably a quiet place
Your workbook

Pen or Pencil

Guidelines to follow:
1. This exercise is to be done once a day preferably just

before you go to bed.

2. I want you to make this simulation as real as possible,
so I want you to visualize yourself as if you are in a
Competitive setting. See only yourself on the ice, see your
coach at the skating door, see yourself in your skating
costume, and see the judging panel before you. Try to
"feel" yourself skating your routine to the best of your
ability. Play your skating music and walk though your

routine on the floor while saying the cue words outloud, be

91

92
sure to attempt the moves, jumps, and spins. I want you to
play your skating music on a tape recorder while you are
doing this so you can keep the time of your walkout off-ice

to the same time or speed that it takes to do it on-ice.

3. Sign and date each worksheet, as well as have your parent
or guardian sign and date it. You will be handing in these

workbooks to me as proof of your homework completion.

4. Before going on the ice to compete, I would like you to
perform this assignment one last time. It will help you
move automatically towards your performance and serve to
relax and improve your concentration. It is also an easy
way to decrease your distraction from your performance to

come (Palmer, 1993 p. 44-45.) Please label this worksheet

competition.

93
W

Key words help increase your attention and
concentration and help you avoid being distracted. Key
words are phrases that you can repeat to yourself while
skating that prompt correct positioning and movement (e.g.,
slow, push, hold, etc.) They help you concentrate on each
specific element of each move, spin, or jump (Palmer, 1993,
p29).

There are three types of key words: (a) placement type
words or words that tell you what to look at, such as
"double flip in center of ice" to remind you to utilize the
entire ice surface and spread items throughout; (b) "body
tension," or body control, or tempo type words such as "slow
and graceful" or "control" to remind you to skate while
relaxed rather than all tensed up; and (c) technique type
words which pertain to specific movements such as "explode"
or "check" on take off or landing of jumps. Key words will
help you concentrate on one thing at a time, and are known

to help with nervousness (Martin, 1992; Ming, 1992).

94
W
1. List out all of the elements of your figure skating

program on the next page.

2. You may have already developed key words for your
program, if so list them beside the element. If you have
not developed them do so. Be sure that the key words are
positive and remind you about what you're supposed to do,
rather than negative and what you're not supposed to do.

Examples are listed below.

REQGEAM_ELEMEEI§ EEX_KQEE§
Sit Spin Throw the ball and
catch

Thighs tight
Double Toe Loop Right Leg
Spiral Back flat - Stretch and

hold

95

 

Skating Routine

W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

96
HOMEWORK.ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - WALK THROUGH ON FLOOR

NAME:

 

DATE:

 

Parent/Guardian:

 

Date:

 

APPENDIX H

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - FIGURE SKATING STRETCHES
* Note the attached set of stretching instructions and

photographs are used with permission from Bob & Jean

Anderson. What copyright 1982 from

Stretching_lng1_figster. For a free catalog of publications,
contact Stretching Inc., P.O. Box 767 Palmer Lake CO

80133-0767, 1-800-333-1307.
INTRODUCTION
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research
project. I hope that this sport psychology intervention can
help you improve your flexibility and freestyle skating

performance.

Things you will need:
Your workbook
A watch with a second hand or a digital watch

Pen or Pencil

Guidelines to follow:

1. This exercise is to be done every evening just before you

go to bed.

2. I want you to make sure you are using proper diaphragm

breathing (in through your nose, out through your mouth).

So I want you to begin by taking 10 deep breaths and holding

them. and then exhaling. Then begin the attached 16

97

98
stretches. Be sure that you do not bounce. Stretch to
where you feel a slight pain then hold for 20 - 30 seconds.
You should feel the slight pain decrease. Be sure to relax
and concentrate on the area being stretched. Your breathing

should be slow, deep and rhythmical.

3. Sign and date each worksheet, as well as have your parent
or guardian sign and date it. You will be handing in these

workbooks to me as proof of your homework completion.

4. Before going on the ice to compete, I would like you to
perform this assignment one last time. It will help you
automatically move towards your performance and serve to

relax and improve your concentration.

99

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - FIGURE SKATING STRETCHES

 

 

5 SEQ 8:

While standing, interlock your finger above
your head. Now, with your palms facing
upward, push your arms slightly back and up.
Peel the stretch in arms, shoulders, and upper
back. Hold stretch for 15 seconds. Do not
hold your breath.

With arms overhead, hold the elbow of one arm
with the hand of the other arm. Keeping knees
slightly bent about 1 inch: gently pull your
elbow behind your head as you bend from you
hips to the side. Repeat opposite side.

Interlock your fingers behind your back.
Slowly rotate your elbows inward while
elevating your arms upward. Be sure to keep
your back straight.

 

NECK my ECK :

Bend your leg, and with your opposite hand,
pull the bent knee up and over your other leg
as shown above. Turn your head to look toward
the Knee that is bent. Try to keep both your
shoulders flat on the floor. Repeat with
opposite leg.

 

Laying on your back. Straighten your arms and
legs while pointing your fingers and toes.
Stretch and then relax.

 

Parent/Guardian:

 

Date:

 

100

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - FIGURE SKATING STRETCHES

GS IPS:

Hold on to the outside of your ankle with one
hand, with your other hand and forearm around
your bent knee. Gently pull the leg as one
unit toward your chest until you feel an easy
stretch in the back of your upper leg. Repeat
with other leg.

Sit in a V position, then bend your right knee
and place your right foot on side of your left
knee. Lean slightly forward from the hips and
try to place your forehead on your left knee.
Repeat with other leg.

With your feet shoulder width apart and
pointed out to about 15 degree angle. Bend
your knees and squat down while keeping your
heels on the floor.

Move your right leg forward until your knee is
straight with your toes. Keep your left leg
straight behind you with your heal off the
ground. Repeat with other leg.

 

Sit with your legs spread in a V position.
Slowly lean forward from the hips. Keep your
hands out in front of you for balance and
stability. Do not strain.

Remaining in the V position. Slowly lean
towards your left side, hold. Then repeat on
your right side.

 

Place the soles of your feet together with
your heels a comfortable distance from your
groin. Place your hands around your feet and
slowly pull yourself forward until you feel an
easy stretch in the groin. Be sure to bend
from the hips not your shoulders. Keeping
your elbows on the outside of your lower legs
will give you greater stability during the
stretch.

 

While sitting, straighten your right leg.
Bend your left leg, and cross your left foot
over the and rest it on the outside of your
upper left thigh, just above your knee. With
your left hand resting behind you. slowly
rotate your head to look over your left
shoulder. and at the same time turn you upper
body toward your left hand and arm. Repeat
with the other side.

 

101

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT PACKAGE - FIGURE SKATING STRETCHES

CONTINUED

Stand a little ways from a solid support and
lean on it with your forearms, your head
resting on your hands.

Bend one leg and place our foot on the ground
in front of you leaving the other leg
straight. behind you. Slowly move your hips
forward until you feel a stretch in the calf
of your straight leg. Be sure to keep the
heel of your foot on the ground with your toes
pointed straight ahead of you. Repeat with
your other leg.

Now, bend your back knee slightly downward i; F

while keeping the foot flat on the ground.

2'
While standing. Place your right leg up
beside parallel to you. Face your upper body '
in the same direction and turn your left hip ' ‘
slightly to the inside. Slowly bend sideways M
with your right shoulder going towards your

knee. Repeat with your other leg.

   

While standing. Grab your opposite left foot
with your opposite right hand. Gently pull
your heel toward your buttocks. Repeat with
your other leg.

 

APPENDIX I

PAPER FREESTYLE DRAWING SEMINAR
Introduction - This introduction was designed using Rushall,
1979.
1. Who knows what it is like to feel afraid? EXAMPLES -
PICTURE
Throw up, sweat, shake, don't want to skate --
2. There are two types of fear. They are emotional fear,
and physical fear of being injured.
3. Can anyone give me an example of a physical fear in
skating? Fear of falling.
4. Can anyone give me an example of an emotional fear in
skating? Fear of losing.
5. How many of you have ever been afraid while performing in
practice?
6. How many of you have ever been afraid before or during a
competition?
7. Which one are you more afraid of? Practice? Competition?
8. As you can see practice makes one physically afraid where
the competition environment makes one emotionally afraid.
9. Who knows why you become emotionally afraid in
competition? You are not doing anything you haven't done
before. You become emotionally afraid at competition
because of skating all alone, wanting to win, everyone is

watching and judging your ability, etc.

102

103
10. Unfortunately many athletes never learn to control their
fears and either drop out of skating, or do not perform well
in competition usually resulting in a near last place
finish.
11. Today I am going to teach you one way to control your
fears of competing. So that you can skate as well in
competition as you have been in practice.
12. How many of you would like to be able to do that?
13. How many of you have heard of mental rehearsal? (show of
hands) Who can tell me what mental rehearsal is? (show of
hands) Mental rehearsal is a way of simulating or
blueprinting an image in you mind.
14. Who can give me an example of "mental rehearsal"
(hands). An example of this would be before you call
your friends on the phone, you rehearse in you mind, the
important things you are going to say.
15. Who knows why mental rehearsal is good for your skating?
BecauSe it organizes your thoughts, and movements inside
your head so you can have a consistent skating program.
16. Similarly, before you take a test in school, you often
mentally rehearse possible test questions.
17. These same principles can be applied to practice skills
associated with the sport of figure skating.
18. It is a fact that athletes who do physical practice and
mental practice perform better than athletes that just

Physically practice -- picture.

104
19. This is because practicing your skill gives you physical
ability and mental practice give you your belief in your
ability because you picture yourself succeeding.
20. Mentally training off the ice is known as simulation
training. This is to reproduce your skating program over
and over either by a. visualizing it in your mind, b.
walking it out on the floor, or c. by drawing it out on
paper. Many of you have at one time or another probably
done one of these mental rehearsal techniques for your
skating program.or at least bits and pieces of your program.
21. When you mentally rehearse, your body is recording its
thought pattern, so when you go to reproduce these thoughts
your body reacts to the preprogrammed thoughts. An EXAMPLE
would be words to songs. Can anyone here sing me a line or
two from a song? Maybe specify a popular song.
PICTURE
CONSISTENCY ----------- CONFIDENCE ----------- GOOD
PERFORMANCE
22. Think back to when you learned how to ride your two
wheel bike. You were probably pushed by someone. They let
go and you fell. You got up and tried again which is the
CONSISTENCY part, the more you tried and succeeded the more
confident you got, then you performed without falling and

thought it was a lot of fun.

105
23. Simulation training can improve the consistency in your
sport, your confidence will improve, thus effecting your
performance.
24. Mentally rehearsing prepares the mind and body to work
together as one unit. When you are mentally rehearsing be
sure that you are rehearsing things accurately, and imagine
your whole skating program from beginning to end, not just

bits and pieces.

INTERVENTION

1. What I would like you to do now is list all the elements
of your figure skating program out on paper.

2. We are now going to watch Martin video tape (only part
two on ice skating cue word portion).

3. Who knows what one words are? Cue words are phrases that
you can repeat to yourself while skating that prompt correct
positioning and movement (e.g. slow, push, hold, etc.).

4. What I want you to do now is to develop your own one
words for your skating elements.

5. Why do we use cue words? they help us concentrate on each
part of our program, and help us avoid distraction.

6. What I want you to do now is to turn to the page that is
labeled trial 1 in your workbooks. (Walk around and be sure
everyone is on the correct page). On this diagram I want
you to draw out your skating program. Be sure to place the

elements in their proper order and where they are done on

106
the ice. Do everything including turns into and out of
spins and jumps.
7. What I want you to do now is to turn to the next page
which is labeled trial 2 in your workbooks. On this diagram
I want you to draw out your skating program again. Although
this time as you draw I want you to say the cue words that
you have assigned to your elements. Once again be sure to
place the elements where they belong on the ice and in the
order you normally perform them.in.
8. Would everyone please turn to the next page labeled trial
3 in your workbooks. What I want you to do now is to do
this one last time today. I want you to make this simulation
as real as possible, so before you start drawing I want you
to close your eyes and visualize yourself as if you are in a
competitive setting. See only yourself on the ice, see your
coach at the skating door, see yourself in your skating
costume, and see the judging panel before you. Now open
your eyes. Play your skating music. When you are drawing
say the cue words and try to "feel" yourself skating your
routine to the best of your ability.
9. (About the homework workbooks) I want you to perform
this exercise once a day for one month. I prefer that you
do it in a quiet area of your home, and that it is performed
just before you go to sleep.
10. When you are at home doing this exercise I want you to

play your skating music and draw your routine in the

107
workbook provided, while saying the cue words out loud, be
sure to place the moves, jumps, and spins in their proper
placement in the workbook as on the ice surface. The reason
I need you to play your skating music on a tape recorder
while you are doing this so you can keep the time of your
drawing off-ice to the same time or speed that it takes to
do it on-ice.
11. Be sure to date and sign each worksheet, as well as have
your parent or guardian sign and date it. You will be
handing in these workbooks to me as proof of your homework
completion
12. Before going on the ice to compete at the Garden City
competition, I would like you to perform this assignment one
last time. This should help you relax and concentrate on
your performance to come.

13. Are their any questions?

Closing

1. It is important that just like you practice physically on
the ice that you practice mentally off ice.

2. Therefore this exercise must be repeated everyday.

3. Be sure to follow all of the directions in your
workbooks.

4. Remember successful athletes both mentally and physically
practice their skating skills.

5. Thank you for coming. I hope that coming here today will

108
help you perform better in practice and competition. Good
luck to all of you, and I look forward to seeing you after

the competition.

APPENDIX J

WALK THOUGH ON THE FLOOR SEMINAR
Introduction - This introduction was designed using Rushall,
1979.
1. Who knows what it is like to feel afraid? EXAMPLES -
PICTURE
Throw up, sweat, shake, don't want to skate --
2. There are two types of fear; They are emotional fear,
and physical fear of being injured.
3. Can anyone give me an example of a physical fear in
skating? Fear of falling.
4. Can anyone give me an example of an emotional fear in
skating? Fear of losing.
5. How many of you have ever been afraid while performing in
practice?
6. How many of you have ever been afraid before or during a
competition?
7. Which one are you more afraid of? Practice? Competition?
8. As you can see the competition environment has made you
afraid where the competition environment makes one
emotionally afraid.
9. Who knows why you become emotionally afraid in
competition? You are not doing anything you haven't done
before. You become emotionally afraid at competition
because of skating all alone, wanting to win, everyone is

watching and judging your ability, etc.

109

110
10. Unfortunately many athletes never learn to control their
fears and either drop out of skating, or do not perform well
in competition usually resulting in a near last place
finish.
11. Today I am going to teach you one way to control your
fears of competing. So that you can skate as well in
competition as you have been in practice.
12. How many of you would like to be able to do that?
13. How many of you have heard of "mental rehearsal?" (show
of hands) Who can tell me what mental rehearsal is? (show of
hands). Mental rehearsal is a way of simulating or
blueprinting an image in you mind.
14. Who can give me an example of mental rehearsal? An
example of this would be before you call your friends on the
phone, you rehearse in you mind, the important things you
are going to say.
15. Who knows why mental rehearsal is good for your skating?
Because it organizes your thoughts, and movements inside
your head so you can have a consistent skating program.
16. Similarly, before you take a test in school, you often
mentally rehearse possible test questions.
17. These same principles can be applied to practice skills
associated with the sport of figure skating.
18. It is a fact that athletes who do physical practice and
mental practice perform better than athletes that just

physically practice -— picture.

111
19. This is because practicing your skill gives you physical
ability and mental practice give you your belief in your
ability because you picture yourself succeeding.
20. Mentally training off the ice is known as simulation
training. This is to reproduce your skating program over
and over either by a. visualizing it in your mind, b.
walking it out on the floor, or c. by drawing it out on
paper. Many of you have at one time or another probably
done one of these mental rehearsal techniques for your
skating program or at least bits and pieces of your program.
21. When you mentally rehearse, your body is recording its
thought pattern, so when you go to reproduce these thoughts
your body reacts to the preprogrammed thoughts. An EXAMPLE
would be words to songs. Can anyone here sing me a line or
two from a song? Maybe specify a popular song.
PICTURE
CONSISTENCY ----------- CONFIDENCE ----------- GOOD
PERFORMANCE
22. Think back to when you learned how to ride your two
wheel bike. You were probably pushed by someone they let go
and you fell. You got up and tried again which is the
CONSISTENCY part, the more you tried and succeeded the more
confident you got, then you performed without falling and

thought it was a lot of fun.

112
23. Simulation training can improve the consistency in your
sport, your confidence will improve, thus effecting your
performance.
24. Mentally rehearsing prepares the mind and body to work
together as one unit. When you are mentally rehearsing be
sure that you are rehearsing things accurately, and imagine
your whole skating program.from beginning to end, not just

bits and pieces.

INTERVENTION

1. What I would like you to do now is list all the elements
of your figure skating program out on paper.

2. We are now going to watch Martin video tape (part two cue
words, both demonstration off-ice and on ice). (See
Appendix S for a letter of permission from Martin).

3. Who knows what cue words are? Cue words are phrases that
you can repeat to yourself while skating that prompt correct
positioning and movement (e.g. slow, push, hold, etc.).

4. What I want you to do now is to develop your own one
words for your skating elements.

5. Why do we use cue words? they help us concentrate on each
Part of our program, and help us avoid distraction.

6. What I want you to do now is to turn to the page that is
labeled trial 1 in your workbooks. (Walk around and be sure
everyone is on the correct page). I want you to stand up

and walk out your skating program. Be sure to place the

113
elements in their proper order. Do everything including
turns into and out of spins and jumps. Sign and date the
page.
7. What I want you to do now is to turn to the next page
which is labeled trial 2 in your workbooks. I want you to
stand up and walk out your skating program again. Although
this time as you do it I want you to say the cue words that
you have assigned to your elements. Once again be sure to
perform all the elements in the order you normally perform
them in your program. Sign and date the page.
8. Would everyone please turn to the next page labeled trial
3 in your workbooks. What I want you to do now is to do
this one last time today. I want you to make this
simulation as real as possible, so before you start I want
you to close your eyes and visualize yourself as if you are
in a competitive setting. See only yourself on the ice, see
your coach at the skating door, see yourself in your skating
costume, and see the judging panel before you. Now open
your eyes. Play your skating music, and when you are
walking out your program say the cue words and try to "feel“
yourself skating your routine to the best of your ability.
Sign and date the page.
9. (About the homework workbooks) I want you to perform
this exercise once a day for one month. I prefer that you
do it in a quiet area of your home, and that it is performed

just before you go to bed.

114
10. Although when you are at home doing this exercise I want
you to play your skating music while you walk out your
routine. The reason I need you to play your skating music
on a tape recorder while you are doing this is so you can
keep the time of your walk out off-ice to the same time or
speed that it takes to do it on-ice.
11. Be sure to date and sign each worksheet, as well as have
your parent or guardian sign and date it. You will be
handing in these workbooks to me as proof of your homework
completion
12. Before going on the ice to compete at the Garden City
competition, I would like you to perform this assignment one
last time. This should help you relax and concentrate on
your performance to come.

13. Are their any questions?

Closing

1. It is important that just like you practice physically on
the ice that you practice mentally off ice.

2. Therefore this exercise must be repeated everyday.

3. Be sure to follow all of the directions in your
workbooks.

4. Remember successful athletes both mentally and physically
practice their skating skills.

5. Thank you for coming. I hope that coming here today will

help you perform better in practice and competition. Good

115
luck to all of you, and I look forward to seeing you after

the competition.

APPENDIX K

STRETCEING SEMINAR - CONTROL GROUP
Introduction
1. How many of you would like to have high spirals, beautifully
positioned spread eagles and Ina bauers, and lunges? PICTURE
2. How many of you would like to come off the ice and your
muscles not ache?
3. Who knows why we stretch? To increase our flexibility in our
joint and muscles.
4. Why do we want our joints and muscles to be more flexible? To
prevent injury to these areas.
5. What I want you to do now is to take the piece of taffy in
front of you and pull it. What happens? It breaks in two.
6. New I want you to roll the taffy in your hand for about 30
seconds and then pull it. What happens? It stretches.
7. Well your muscles are a lot like the taffy. If you stretch a
cold muscles without warming it up you can tear the muscle
resulting in injury. But if you heat up your muscles and then
stretch your muscles will stretch and prevent injury because they
are now more flexible.
8. So why is it important to warm up and then stretch? To
increase your core body temperature, since muscles stretch better
and resist injury better when warm.
9. Who knows what a static stretch is? It is a stretch that is
held.
10. How long do we hold a stretch for? For approximately 20' 30

seconds.

11. When you stretch how should it feel - a lot of tension/Pain.

minimal tension/pain, or no tension/pain? Minimal tension/pain

116

117
should be felt and should diminish throughout the 20 - 30 seconds
that the stretch is held.
12. How often should you stretch? Everyday
13. What will happen if you do not stretch everyday? Your muscles
will decrease in their mobility.
14. How many of you stretch everyday off the ice?
15. Today I am going to teach you how to become more flexible so
you can have better mobility on the ice. Especially for flexible
moves like spirals, spread eagles, bauers, and lunges.
Intervention
1. Everyone is to stand up and march in place for one minute.
Then do 20 jumping jacks. This is to get ones core body
temperature up.
2. Turn to page three in your workbooks. Exercises one through
four are for the arm and shoulder areas. Perform these together,
hold for 20-30 seconds. Explain to them using a poster of the
human body which muscles they are stretching.
3. Continue on to the neck and back area stretches on page
three and four of their workbooks. Perform these together,
hold for 20-30 seconds. Explain to them which muscles they are
stretching.
4. Continue on to the leg and hip area stretches on page four of
the workbook. Perform these together, hold for 20-30 seconds.
Explain to them which muscles they are stretching-

5. (About the homework workbooks) I want you to perform these

stretches once a day for one month. I prefer that you do it in a

quiet area of your home, and that it is performed just before you

90 to bed.

118
6. Be sure to date and sign each worksheet, as well as have your
parent or guardian sign and date it. You will be banding in
these workbooks to me as proof of your homework completion
7. Before going on the ice to compete at the Garden City
competition, I would like you to perform this assignment one last
time. This should help you relax and concentrate on your
performance to come.

8. Are their any questions?

Closing

1. Remember it is important to stretch both on and off the ice.
2. Therefore this exercise must be repeated everyday.

3. Be sure to follow all of the directions in your workbooks.

4. Thank you for coming. I hope that coming here today will help
You perform better in practice and competition. Good luck to all

Of you, and I look forward to seeing you after the competition.

 

OFFICE OF
RESEARCH
IIIIII
GRADUATE
ISIIJIIIEIB

Assistant Vice President
Io: news:

MICRIQJR SZZZE Universfly
232 Assume-am: Sunmnc
:as: my; .'-.I:cmoan
45524.1046

:1‘255-2130
FAX 5'7232-1171
“5U rs an 2.7::raave-aam

”memmmmmm

  

MICHIGAN STATE

UNIVERSITY

 

February 2, 1996

TO: Deborah L. Garza
215 Arbor Glen Drive “201
E. Lansing, MI 48823

RE: IRB#: 95-612
TITLE: THE EFFECTS THAT SELECTED MENTAL PRACTICE
TECHNIQUES HAVE ON SELF-EFFICACY, STATE ANXIETY.
AND PERFORMANCE IN COMPETITIVE FIGURE SKATERS
REVISION REQUESTED: N/A
CATEGORY: l'AlB
APPROVAL DATE: 02/02/96

The University Committee on Research Involv1ng Human Subjects'(UCRIHS)
review of this project is complete.. I am pleased to adVise that the
rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately
protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate.
Therefore, the UCRIHS approved this project and any reVisions listed
above.

RENEWAL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with
the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to
continue a project be and one year must use the green renewal
form (enclosed with t e original approval letter or when a.
project is renewed) to seek update certification. -There_is a
maximum of four such expedited renewals possible. investigators
wishinc to continue a project beyond that time need to submit it
again for complete reView.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human
subjects, rior to initiation of t e change. If this is done a:
the time o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To
revise an approved protocol at anv other time during the year,
send your written request to the_UCRIHS Chair, requesting reVisec
approval and referencing the preject's IRB # and title._ Include
ih your request a description of the change and any reVised
instruments, consent forms or advertisements that are applicable

PROBLEMS/ . ‘ - . ’

CHANGES: Should either of the following arise during the cou-se of the
work, investigators must notir UCRIHS promptly: (1) roblems
(unexpeCted Slde effects, comp aints, etc.) involv1ng uman
subjeccs or (2) changes in the research enVironment or new
information indicating greater risk to the human sub ects than
existed when the protocol was prev1ously rev1ewed an approved.

If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to contact us
a: (31;)355-2186 or FAX (517)432-1171.

Sincerely,

David E. Wright, P
UCRIHS Chair

DEW:bed

cc: Deborah L. Feltz

119

APPENDIX L

APPENDIX M

First Letter of Infomnation
Dear Parents:

On February 10,1996 from 11:30 a. m.. - 12: 30 p. m. at the log
cabin which is next to the Garden City ice arena. Deborah
Garza will be implementing a sport psychology seminar. Your
child as a member of the Garden City figure skating club, is
invited to participate in a study to determine if the use of
mental techniques are instrumental in improving self-
confidence, state anxiety, and performance in competitive
figure skaters. Your child will be randomly assigned to
one of three different intervention groups.

Previous research using this technique has had neutral or
positive effects.

To participate requires very little effort and hopefully
will have positive effects on your child's skating in both
practice and competition.

If you choose to participate in the study you are asked to:

1. Give permission for your child to take part in the study
by signing the attached permission slip.

2. Have your child attend the first sport psychology seminar
on February 10.

3. Have your child enter and compete in the Garden City
figure skating competition, which is one March 7 - 10,1996.

4. Have your child attend the second sport psychology
seminar on March 16.

5. Have your child fill out the enclosed ff— 1

Wing
L;aining_gu§§;igngaire, and have them and yourself sign the

permission slip.

Your child will be assigned a number so that they are
assured complete confidentiality. Only the parent, child
and the principal researcher will have access to the
name/number combinations. Your child will be given a
workbook in which they will be instructed how to use it.
Their sport psychology homework will only require your
Signature showing that they did complete it. Their homework
will not take more than 5 minutes each evening.

The general results (no individual data) of this study will
be used in a Michigan State University Master thesis. They
will also be made available to your figure skating club,
participating skaters, coaches, and parents.

123

124

Please be aware that your child’s skating coach is fully
aware and supports your child's participation in this
seminar. Please mail the signed permission slip, and the
off-ice skating training questionnaire back to me by January
25 in the self addressed stamped envelope enclosed.

I thank you for your cooperation and look forward to the
possibility of working with your child in this study.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this please
call me at (517) 333-3833, or Dr. Deborah Feltz (Academic
Advisor) at (517) 355-4732.

Sincerely,
Deborah Garza

MSU graduate student
Member GCFSC

125

Permission for participating in sport psychology
intervention

My child Hams ASE fig;

 

is (are) allowed to participate in the study to determine if
a technique being proposed will be instrumental in improving
self-efficacy, state anxiety, and performance in competitive
figure skaters. I understand that the results will be used
in a Michigan State University masters thesis and will be
made available to the figure skating club, participating

skaters, coaches, and parents.

 

Parents Signature

 

Child's Signiture

 

Date

APPENDIX 0

 

EI :11: I' 51'

Hello, (Subjects flame) , how is your skating practice
going? W. How is your competition skating
routine going? W Have you been doing your
homework workbook every night? 3W Are you
having your parents sign the forms? WM Do you
find that this intervention is helping you? W

Do you have any questions or problems with your workbooks?

W Please be sure not to discuss your workbook

with the other skaters. Good luck at the competition.

126

APPENDIX P

Second Letter of Information

Dear Parents :

I will be implementing the second half of my sport
psychology intervention. On Sunday, March 17, 1996 from
12:00 - 1:30 p.mi at the log cabin located next to the

Garden City Ice Arena.

I thank all of you that have participated in the first half
of my sport psychology seminar. I am hoping all of your
children that have taken part in the first half will be able
to take part in the second half. At this time they will
learn the other two interventions that were not taught to
them, as well as how to think more positively about thier

skating.

If you choose to continue your participation in this study
please have your child bring their workbooks with them to

the second session.

The general results (not individual) will be sent directly
to you if you check the line below and hand this paper in to
me at the second intervention session.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this seminar
please call me at (517) 333-3833, or Dr. Deborah Feltz
(Academic Advisor) at (517) 355-4732.

I thank you for your cooperation and look forward to seeing
you at the second half of this seminar.

Sincerely,

Deborah Garza
MSU graduate student
Member GCFSC

Name :

 

Please check here if you would like the general results
sent to you.

 

127

APPENDIX Q

Second Letter of Information

Dear Coach:

Thank you for allowing your students to participate in my
sport psychology seminars. Please fill out the enclosed
coaches performance evaluations and return them to me no

later than March 24, 1996.

The general results (not individual) will be sent directly
to you if you check the line below and return this paper
with your coaches performance evaluations.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this seminar
please call me at (517) 333-3833 or Dr. Deborah Feltz

(Academic Advisor)
(517) 355-4732.

I thank you for all of your cooperation and help in this
study.

Sincerely,

Deborah Garza
MSU graduate student
Member GCFSC

Name :

 

Check here if you would like a copy of the general
results sent to you.

128

APPENDIX R

Table 5

 

V r m
W F (224) Smf F
Performance

Jumps 0.05 .95
Spins 0.01 .99
Moves 0.04 .96
f-
Jumps 0.11 .90
Spins 0.64 .54
Moves 0.12 .89
£§AI;2.
Cognitive 0.81 .46
Somatic 0.11 .90
Confidence 0.21 .82

 

129

130

 

 

Table 6
mu; 1 _:_.o . ‘ o 1 - 9 , 0V;.‘ 7.__ . .ge . 'nin.
Q l' . I3 I 21
DEPENDENT VARIABLES df MS F p
Intervent 2 5.39 1.97 .161
Pre/Post 1 18.96 31.03 .001
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 8.69 14.21 .001
Within cells error 4 .61
- 'n

Intervent 2 18.39 27.21 .001
Pre/Post 1 11.57 113.64 .001
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 10.24 100.55 .001
Within cells error 4 .10

i n 6 - Dr win
Intervent 2 13.56 26.62 -001
Pre/Post 1 21.41 66.06 .001
Intervent by Pre/Post 2 21.41 66.06 .001
Within cells error 4 .32

 

 

131

 

 

Table 7

- V r I ' n 'v n i
DEPENDBNT VARIABLES df MS F p
Imagery.
Between Groups 2 2516.70 1365.85 .001
Within Groups 24 .84
Total 26
Imagggy

' n

Between Groups 2 22.26 659.65 .001
Within Groups 24 .37
Total 26
Interventign
fislpiulnsss
Between Groups 2 .44 2.83 .08
Within Groups 24 .16

Total 26

 

 

APPENDIX S

 

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APPENDIX T

 

53L part/s Co/ége
University 0/ Manitoéa
430 23,4”: Poul, WWW, marble, Canals 337 2M6

(204) 4 74-8589 FAX: (204) 275-5421

Ms Debra Lynn Garza

215 Arbor Glen Drive, #201
East Lansing, MI

USA 48823

Dear Debra:

Thank you for your kind comments oonceming my work on sport psychology with figure
skaters. I am happy to grant you permission to use the videorape, Sport psyching for figure
skaters, as part of your intervention seminars. I will definitely look forward to receiving a
copy of the final write-up describing the procedures and results.

I believe I sent you a copy of a study that one of my students completed concerning a

combination of walk-outs and positive self-talk for improving performance of figures. You
might find the details of our procedure to be helpful in planning the various components of

your intervention strategies.
Best wishes.

Sincerely yours,
(I. 71% Tat/wig

W L. Martin, Ph.D., C. Psych.
’. Professor of Psychology

GLM/clm

134

135

DEBORAH LYNN’GARZA
215 Arbor Glen #201
East Lansing; MI 48823

September 1, 1995

Dr. Garry L. Martin
43 Bright Oaks Bay
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R2M 2L9

Dear Dr. Martin,

First off I would like to extend my appreciation to your
extensive interest in the sport of figure skating. I feel
that your sport psychology interventions for figure skating
have been very helpful to many skaters. Being a former
competitive figure skater, and having a hard time dealing
with all of the mental pressures of the sport has lead me to

pursue a career in sport psychology.

I am currently working of my thesis at Michigan State

University under the guidance of Dr. Deborah Feltz, and Dr.
Richard Albrecht. This thesis is entitled __e_ef_egts_t_at
:- - —o m- -7 - 1.1 -- .v- on =lf- f i -.

v-.i- a_o 9-_f- .n e in cm: i iV' fi-rr- —k. - . I
will be teaching and measuring the effects of three
different interventions on three separate subject groups.
The first intervention is the paper freestyle drawing, which
is a modification of your paper patch test. The second
intervention is the walk through on the floor, which is much

like the second section of your video tape Sport_p§yghing
r The third intervention is a positive

self-talk exercise.

I am writing to ask for your permission to use the second

portion of your video tape W

as part of my intervention seminars.

The results that I will be looking for are comparisons
between the three different interventions, their effects on

state anxiety, self-efficacy, and performance, and which one
works best for which skating level.

Once the data has been collected and analyzed I would be
happy to send you a copy.

Thank you

Deborah Lynn Garza
MSU graduate student

APPENDIX U

THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED MENTAL PRACTICE TECHNIQUES ON
STATE ANXIETY, SELF-EFFICACY, AND PERFORMANCE

IN COMPETITIVE FIGURE SKATERS

CODE BOOK
W W
ID ID number
COACH Skating Coach
AGE Subjects Age
LEVEL Competitive Level
INTERVEN Intervention
OISTWTF Pre-Off Ice - WTF
OISTPFD Pre-Off Ice - PFD
CASICOG Pre-CSAI Cognitive
CSAISOM Pre-CSAI Somatic
CSAICONF Pre-CSAI Confidence
SEJUMP Pre-Jump Self-Efficacy
SESPIN Pre-Spin Self—Efficacy
SEMOVES Pre—Connect Moves S-E
PERFJUMP Pre—Jump Performance

136

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Pre—Off Ice - Muscle Relax

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