ERS SITY LIBRARIES III III IIIIIIIIIIIII III II III III II I 3 1293 015592 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE IN JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS presented by Hiromi Cho has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.A. degree in SChQQl Qf Journalism ALMA Major professor DateDé-C- lél [77$ 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE ll RETURN BOX to remove thle checkout horn your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE OZ/OLHX /u. y.‘ 1 fil I- jl I- ; 7m MSU IeAnAflinndiveActIonEmel Oppommylw FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE IN JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS By HiIomi Cho A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS School of Journalism 1996 ABSTRACT FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERNATIONAL NEWS COVERAGE IN JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS By Hiromi Cho This study was designed to explore the impact of organizational and market factors on international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers. Five research questions were tested through a content analysis of an one-week constructed sample from 48 Japanese local newspapers during the period from January 1995 to June 1995. T-tests and multiple regression were used to test research questions. The study found that the difference of publication style influenced international news coverage, while the difference of publication cycle did not influence international news coverage. Although papers with competition had more direct influence on international news coverage than those without competition, other market factors had little influence on the international news coverage. Also, like Western wire services, news from Japanese wire services was more likely to be hard news as well as conflict-oriented news. It was concluded that the criteria of Japanese local newspapers was more content-oriented than context-oriented news selection. Copyright by HIROMI CBC 1996 To Michio, Fusako, and Jinichi Cho for their support and encouragement. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the guidance and support of the members of my committee; Dr. Stephen Lacy, Dr. Stanley Soffin, and Dr. Sue Carter. I would like to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Lacy for his careful supervision of this thesis. His comments always had three dimensions: as a scholar, as a teacher, and as a friend. I am also grateful to Dr. Soffin for his warm-heart through my stay at Michigan State University, and to Dr. Carter for her invaluable suggestions on several aspects of the research study. There is no way I can convey strongly enough the hard work and useful commentary by Masako Ueki who assisted with the editing of the thesis. Finally, my family members, Michio, Fusako, and Jinichi Cho, deserve special awards for succeeding in making my two-year stay in the United States anything but a purely academic odyssey. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables .................................................................................................... List of Figures .................................................................................................... Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 2. Theoretical Background .................................................................... Content-Oriented Approach ............................................... Context-Oriented Approach Summary ..................................................................................... 3. literature Review .................................................................................. Organizational Factors Capital ............................................................. Wire Services ................................................................ Market Factors Competition ................................................................... Political Factor ....................................... _ ..... Economic Factor .......................................................... Cultural Factor ............................................................. Conflict-Oriented ..................................................................... Morning and Evening .............................................................. Story Topic ...................................... ___- -..__..... Story Type - - ....... Research Questions ................................................................ Rationales .................................................................................. 4. Method .................................................................................................... Content Analysis Sampling Newspaper ................................................. Sampling Week ............................................................. Content Coding ....................................................................... Categorization ............................................................. 10 11 13 18 18 21 23 26 27 29 31 34 35 35 36 37 46 46 48 50 5 l S. 6. Appendices A. B. C. {HF-7 HEP!“ Coding Process ............................................................. 54 Coder Reliability ....................................................................... 56 Validity ......................................................................................... 59 Use of Existing Data Organizational Factors .............................................. 61 Market Factors ............................................................. 63 Path Analysis ............................................................................. 66 Statistical Analysis ................................................................. 68 Results .................................................................................................... 74 Validity Concerns .................................................................... 74 Findings ...................................................................................... 75 Research Question 1 .................................................. 77 Research Question 2 .................................................. 79 Research Question 3 .................................................. 82 Research Question 4 .................................................. 92 Research Question 5 .................................................. 99 Conclusions ........................................................................................... 102 Limitation of the Study .......................................................... 103 Publication Cycle ...................................................................... 103 Publication Style ....................................................................... 104 Capital ......................................................................................... 107 Wire Services ............................................................................ 108 Competition ............................................................................... 110 Political Ties ............................................................................... 1 1 1 Economic Ties .......................................................................... 112 Cultural Ties ............................................................................... 1 13 Conflict-Oriented News .......................................................... 113 Summary ..................................................................................... 114 Newspaper Coding Procedures ......................................... 119 Descriptive Statistics, Raw Data ........................................ 127 Descriptive Statistics, ............................ 129 Adjusted Independent Variables Sampled Japanese Local Newspapers ............................. 130 International News Coverage in Japanese Local Newspapers ............................... 136 Data from Regression Analysis ......................................... 146 Sister-city Relationships Figure ........................................... 1 58 Value of Exports and Imports Figures ............................ 161 Registered Foreigners Figures ............................................ 164 vii Bibliography viii Bibliography viii Bibliography viii Table LIST OF TABLES Page Categorization of Newspapers .................................................... 47 Space Measurement Reliability Results ..................................... 57 Coder Item Agreement (First Time) ............................................ 58 Coder Item Agreement (Second Time) ...................................... 59 T-test for Two-Daily Editions and One-Daily Edition ............. 78 T-test for Morning Paper and Evening Paper ........................... 80 Correlation Matrix ............................................................................. 83 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: Total International News ................................ 86 2. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Political News ........................... 87 3 Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Social News ............................... 89 4. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Sports News ............................. 91 5. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Hard News ................................. 93 6. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Soft News .................................. 95 7. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Analysis News .......................... 96 8. Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Conflict-Oriented News ........ 97 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The development of technology has brought about revolutionary changes in communication among nations. The communication revolution appears to increasingly lead to the creation of what McLuhan and Fiore termed “a global village, ”1 with regional and intercontinental links. New communication technology has improved the capacity to disseminate news and information across national boundaries with amazing speed. Markham observed the phenomenon that mass communication has made it possible, within the present generation, for people to become widely aware of world societies and the larger complex of which they are a part.” What occurs in one country may have repercussions in other countries. It is partly because of the interdependence of countries and the global dimensions of developments in different nations that the mass media of each country devote some proportion of their coverage to news and information about occurrences elsewhere in the world. However, a paradox in the present rapid transmission of international news and information is an ever-growing concern over the images that one group in the world community receives of another via its mass media. The industrialized countries complain about the quantity and quality aspects of the news flow. Their claim represents the serious imbalance of the news flow, which results in an ignorance of the political and cultural traditions of their countries. This concern was 2 mirrored at the several conferences and meetings sponsored by United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Third World nations, and private organizations. Participants discussed a “new world information order” and reconsidered the concept of free flow of world information.3 The Declaration on Mass Media, which was adopted in November 1978 by the UNESCO General Conference in Paris stressed the contribution of the mass media to a “well-balanced transmission of information” and comprehension of international issues among the general public in nations of the world. What are the main reasons for the “imbalanced international information flow?” To answer this question, one must first understand the journalists’ work. One of the jobs of journalists is collecting, reporting, and commenting on news and current affairs for publication in newspapers.4 However, is it possible for journalists to cover all the events in the world? Stanley Walker of the New York Herald-Tribune defined news as “... more unpredictable than the winds. Some times it is the repetition with new characters of tales as old as the pyramids, and again, it may be almost outside the common experience.“ As Walker said, covering all the events in the world is impossible because news is unpredictable. Reporters have to decide everyday what events to cover, and editors have to select, from all the news that reporters gather, what to publish in the newspaper. If there were enough reporters in a newspaper company to cover events all over the world, and if space in a newspaper was unlimited, imbalanced international information flow may not occur, because journalists and editors would not need to select news. In the selectibn process of news, imbalanced international information flow may occur. The most predominant determinants that 3 affect the news flow may be journalists themselves, but publishing a newspaper is a joint project. Journalists work in an organization, and organizational factors may cause an imbalanced flow of international information. Three primary organizational factors influencing international news are 1) capital, 2) the number of wire services a newspaper company subscribes to and 3) percentage of stories that come from wire services. These factors affect international coverage in a variety of ways. For example, some newspapers lack adequate capital to operate their organization. Most do not have enough staff members to cover events all over the world. Still other newspapers lack access to wire services. As a result, each newspaper agency’s ability to collect and transmit news is affected by the availabflity of resources. Market factors also may influence an imbalanced international information flow, because newspaper companies are privately owned organizations. Udell viewed the relationship between marketing concept and newspaper organization as “the distribution and sale of goods; marketing was seen as a final operation -- what happens between the last station on an assembly line and the ultimate sale of the product to a customer. In this sense, newspapers have been marketing for as long as they have existed.”6 As long as newspaper companies are business companies, they have to make a profit. Shoemaker and Reese stated that media workers try to anticipate what the desired target audience wants.7 The process through which a journalist is socialized to the norms and routines of an advertiser- funded medium should draw the journalist’s attention toward the audience he or she is writing for.8 The content of the news is influenced 4 by market factors such as competition, political, economic, and cultural ties. As I have stated, I assume that an imbalanced international information flow is caused mainly by two factors: organizational factors and market factors. Understanding the two factors will help to fulfill the UNESCO’s goal of balanced transmission of information among nations and to aid mutual understanding among nations by the mass media. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of organizational factors and market factors on international news flow in Japanese daily local newspapers. Little published research exists about this topic in Japan. The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association has researched media and international news coverage in Japanese newspapers.9 However, those studies presented data related only to the number and length of international news stories. The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association did not examine the influence of organizational and market factors on international news coverage. Nihon Hoso Kyokai (NHK, Japan Broadcasting Corporation) also initiated and completed research in the area of Japanese media. Research by NHK is limited, because of its solely descriptive nature, which failed to look critically at organizational and market factors that affect international news coverage. NHK’s research was also restricted because it focused on one special interest news topic at a time. NHK collected all data on this topic rather than considering all of the factors that influence coverage and presentation of international news as well as the affect of these factors on the amount of international news coverage a paper is able to report. Both of these agencies have made 5 important contributions to Japanese media-focused scholarship. However, their research was limited to length and numbers. In the 19703, media scholarship began to shift its focus to the importance of influential factors on international news coverage, e.g., newsworthiness or resources. Contemporary work in this field has moved even farther by expanding its focus to synthesize the factors of international news coverage, which were identified in previous studies. Nowadays, most researchers in advanced counties, like the United States, examine factors of international news coverage from two aspects, context and content, and then attempt to synthesize them. Following this tendency, this study also looked at international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers using these two approaches: the context-oriented approach, the leading approach; and content- oriented approach. The main reasons were these: 1) The tendency of international news coverage study is moving toward synthesizing the data of content and context; 2) Mass communication in Japan has been growing rapidly since World War II, but there is little research in this area of study in Japan; 3) This study makes it possible for future studies to compare the data from Japan to that of other countries. This study focused on local newspapers because those newspapers have been forced to change their style in modern society. Local newspapers in Japan have not experienced “competition” since they were established. During World War H, all media in Japan were strictly controlled by government. In this media controlled process, the Japanese government issued a regulation on July 24, 1942, that allowed only one local paper in each province.10 Therefore, local newspapers did not have any competition in their province. Even though there have been five national newspapers in Japan, national papers did not have a 6 highly sophisticated distribution system. In other words, they did not have local offices for printing.11 National papers had to transport newspapers published at their main offices to local areas. Most local readers felt that news in national papers was not as current as the news in local papers because of the extra distribution time; therefore, local newspapers had a stronger influence in the competition between the two in each province, especially in rural areas. However, the competition between local papers and national papers has gotten more intense because national papers have built local printing and distribution offices and have focused their efforts on expanding local news coverage. Today, national papers have begun to invade local newspapers’ territory by adding local news sections. Reacting to the competition, local newspapers have changed their publication style in a variety of ways, such as using more color. For these reasons, this study examined local newspapers in Japan. In doing so, this study tested several propositions about organizational and market factors that influenced international news flow. To measure news flow, the organizational factors were capital, the number of wire services a newspaper company subscribes to, and percentage of stories that come from wire services. The market factors were competition, political, economic, and cultural ties among nations. This study used a content analysis of a stratified random sample of newspapers. In Chapter 2, the theoretical research and history of international news coverage study are explored. Theories from two types of approaches, the content-oriented approach and the context-oriented approach, are described. Chapter 3 presents the findings of international news flow research and outlines the resultant research 7 questions and rationales. Chapter 4 outlines the methodology of this study. This chapter also describes the sampling procedures, definition of dependent and independent variables, coding process, reliability, validity, and the statistical tests used to address the research questions. The findings of content analysis are outlined in Chapter 5. Research results as well as post questions for further research are stated in Chapter 6. 1 Marshall H. McLuhan and Quentin Fiore, War and Peace in the Global Village (New York: Bantam Books, 1968). 2 J. W. Markham, “Investigating the Mass Communication Factor in International Behavior,” Mass Media and International Understanding (Yugoslavia: School of Sociology, 1969). 3 Kaarle Nordenstreng, “Behind the Semantics: A Strategic Design,” murnal of Communication 29.2 (1979): 195-199; UNESCO, Interim Report on Communications Problems in Modern Society (Paris: UNESCO, 1978). 4 International Labour Office, International Standard Classification of Occupations: ISCO-88 (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990) 80-81. 5 George A. Hough, News Writing, 3rd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984) 1. 6 Jon G. Udell, The Economics of the American Newspaper (New York: Hastings House, Publisher, 1978) 40. 7 Pamela J. Shoemaker, and Stephen D. Reese, Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content, 2nd ed. (Longman Publishers USA, 1996) 192. 8 Shoemaker, and Reese, Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content 192. 9 For example, The Japanese Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, “Kaiinshi no Shimen Sakusei Keikaku [Editorial Planning of Members’ Newspapersl,” Annual Report 4 (1981): 1-28; The Japanese Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, “Kokusai News no Houdou Joukyo [Report about International News Coverage],” Annual Report 6 (1984): 1-47. 1" Akihiko Haruhara, “Sensou to Journalism [War and J ournalisml,” Nihon no J ournalism j] ournalism in Japan] eds. Yoshimi Uchjkawa and Naoyuki Arai (Japan: Yuikaku Sensho, 1992) 80. 1’ Keiichi Katsura, Gendai no Shimbun [Newspapers] (Japan: Iwanami Shinsho, 1992) 122-123. Chapter 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Studies of international news coverage have found various influences on international news coverage. In the study of international news flow, many news factors have been proposed and tested regarding the coverage of international events or information flow among nations. This study identified organizational and market factors that influenced the coverage or lack of coverage of international news in Japanese local newspapers. Most of the theoretical thinking of foreign news coverage can be categorized into two categories, context- oriented versus content-oriented, with the former being the leading approach. These two approaches to the study of international news coverage differ in theoretical and operational dimensions. The context- oriented approach looks at the origin of foreign news and its relationships with contextual variables, such as political relationships, economic relationships, cultural relevance, and social distance. Meanwhile, the content-oriented approach looks at the characteristics inherent in the foreign event itself, such as the conflicting nature of events, in determining whether foreign events will be covered in the mass media. In this chapter, the constructed theories of this discipline are described. Only a few major studies in its history were introduced as prominent studies for constructing theories. Therefore, details about 10 each of the factors or other studies related to international news coverage study are stated in Chapter 3. Content-Oriented Approach Many studies have proposed theoretical predictors of international news coverage from the point of View of the content- oriented approach. Early discussions of international news coverage began in the early 19503. The International Press Institute (IPI) and the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) started a tradition of descriptive studies.1 The IPI investigated the foreign news content of the press in many countries and promoted the free exchange of accurate and non-biased news among nations.2 UNESCO’s early studies were descriptive communications surveys.3 Many researchers at this time proved national stereotypes and general images of America in mass media in other countries.4 These studies provided a descriptive look at the pattern of international news flow. In the next decades, Galtung and Ruge illuminated 12 possible factors.5 They concluded that conflict-oriented news is more often covered by the mass media. A study of the coverage of magazines showed that magazines in the United States gave the most play to conflict.6 Lent suggested that international news coverage in the United States is often crisis-oriented, although he did not examine the proposition using statistical methods.7 Masmoudi claimed that events in developing countries are distorted by the stress of crises by the mass media in developed countries.‘3 Media in industrialized countries are primarily concerned with the crises of developing countries. The results of research about Western press coverage of foreign news generally supported the 11 contention that “Third World” nations are portrayed in a negative manner. The theory proposes that international news coverage tends to be conflict-oriented and tends to emphasize its negativity. Industrialized countries’ media tend to focus on conflict and crisis as the predominant forms of newsworthiness. Context—Oriented Approach A UNESCO study showed how newspapers in 17 countries covered the global news during one week.9 Most researchers focused particularly on “imbalanced news flow” between developed and developing countries. Markham, who compared foreign news in US. newspapers to that in South American newspapers, found that the South American press covered Western Europe twice as often as US. newspapers did.10 In the 19603, Schrammll presented a more systematic analysis of international news flow. Hart looked at news flow between the United States and Canada.12 In another study, Hart suggested one standard. He found that more powerful nations deserved a larger proportion of space in less powerful nations’ newspapers than the opposite.13 Schramm and Hart identified the major variables in the study of international news process. The first real efforts to develop theoretical explanations for news flow came in the mid-19603 by Scandinavian scholars. For example, Ostgaard proposed a simple theory of some factors influencing news flow.“ He grouped the factors into political and economic and argued that the news media tended to reinforce the divisions of the world between high status nations and low status I nations.“ Galtung and Ruge proposed a theory that offered insights into the factors influencing the flow of news, although they did not 12 specify the list of factors.16 They suggested that international news flow was influenced by cultural proximity, the power of nations, the saliency of elite nations and peoples, and the negativity of events. Ten years later, Hester approached the study of international news and information flow from the international relations perspective, offering some propositions about the determinants of news and information flow among national systems}[7 Hester suggested that cultural affinities and economic association among nations were determinants of international news coverage.18 Most of the studies dealt with national systems. The largest of the studies in late 19708 was a UNESCO-funded project which looked at international news reporting across 29 countries.19 Many scholars such as Sande20 and Rosengren21 attempted to test these factors to refine the theoretical base of such studies. Rosengren suggested that factors such as gross national product and foreign trade were objective measures of a country’s eliteness and that news coverage devoted to a country might reasonably be expected to correspond to its standing in the hierarchy of elite nations.22 The approach suggested that some environmental factors other than news itself influence international news coverage. Degree of relationships among countries affect international news coverage. International relationships greatly influence international media coverage and can result in an imbalance in news flow between developing and developed countries. Integration of the Two Studies More recently, Hur assessed the first twenty years of research efforts toward an understanding of news flow.23 Noting a lack of synthesis in the field, his critique laid the ground work for a new series 13 of research efforts that would set out to re-address the fundamental theoretical issues of news flow.24 Some researchers have examined factors influencing international news coverage from the two sides simultaneously. 25 Lacy, Chang, and Ian examined 1 14 newspapers in the United States from the two aspects, and they found that the business nature of newspapers influenced foreign news coverage and content.26 Chang, Shoemaker, and Brendlinger examined the coverage of international events focusing on the conceptualizations of the construct “deviance.” Chang also examined editors’ perceptions of foreign news criteria as well as factors influencing editors’ perceptions such as the market and organizational characteristics of the media.28 Summgy In summary, the hypothesized factors influence on international news coverage in this study were based on the application of theories concerning content-oriented and context-oriented approaches. This study examined international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers with both approaches, the context-oriented and content- oriented approaches. Using the hypothesis in the content-oriented approach, this study examined whether international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers was conflict-oriented. Also, applying another hypothesis associated with context-oriented approach study, this study examined if international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers was influenced by factors other than news itself, such as national ties or market factors. Before stating hypotheses from these theories, a review of existing literature helps to clarify the relationships between each of the factors and international news coverage. Numerous studies have 14 examined international news flow from various sides applying these theories. 15 ‘ UNESCO, World Communications: Press, Film, Radio (Paris: UNESCO, 1952); International Press Institute, The Flow of the News (Zurich; International Press Institute, 1953); UNESCO, How Nations See Each Other (Paris: UNESCO, 1954). 2 Kurt Koszyk, “The Development of the International Press Institute,” International Communication: Media, Channels, Functions, eds. Heinz- Dietrich Fischer and John C. Merrill (New York: Hastings House, 1970) 230. 3 Robert P. Knight, “UNESCO’s International Communication Activities,” International Communication: Mediafihannels, Functions, eds. Heinz- Dietrich Fischer and John C. Merrill (New York: Hastings House, 1970) 220. 4 For example, John Merill, “The Image of the US. in Ten Mexican Dailies,” Journalism Quarterly 39.2 (1964): 203-209; Wayne Wolf, “Images of the United States in the Latin American Press,” Journalism Quarterly 41.1 (1965): 79-87. 5 Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers,” Journal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 64-91. 6 John A Lent, “Foreign News In American Media,” [ournal of Communication 27 (1977): 48. 7 Lent, “Foreign News in American Media” 46—5 2. 8 Mustapha Masmoudi, “The New World Information Order,” [ournal of Communication 29 (1979): 172-179. 9 Jacques Kayser, One Week’s News: Comparative Study of 17 Major Dailies for a Seven-Day Period (Paris: UNESCO, 1953). 1" J. W. Markham, “Foreign News in the United States and South American Press,” Public Opinion Qitarterly 2 5 (1961): 249. ’1 Wilbur Schramm, One Day in the World’s Press (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University, 1960). 16 ’2 Jim A. Hart, “The Flow of News between the United States and Canada,” Journalism Quarterly 40 (1963): 70-74. 13 Jim A. Hart, “Foreign News in US. and English Daily Newspapers: A Comparison,” Journalism Qparterly 43 (1966): 443. 1" Einar Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News,” [ournal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 39-63. ’5 Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News” 55. ‘6 Galtung and Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers” 6491. ‘7 Al Hester, “Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction of International Information Flow,” Gazette 19. 4 (1973): 239- 247. ’8 Hester, “Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction of International Information Flow” 2 39-247. ‘9 Annabelle Sreverny-Mohammadi and others, eds., Foreign News in the Media: international Reporting in 29 Countries (Paris: UNESCO, 1981) 10. 2° Oystein Sande, “The Perception of Foreign News,” Journal of Peace Research 8 (1971): 221-237. 21 Karl Rosengren, “International News: Intra and Extra Media Data,” Acta Sociologica, 8 (1970): 96-109; Karl Erik Rosengren and Gunnel Rikardsson, “Middle East News in Sweden,” Gazette 20 (1974): 99-116. 22 Karl E. Rosengren and Gunnel Rikardsson, “Middle East News in Sweden,” Gazette 20 (1974): 111. 23 K. Kyoon Hur, “A Critical Analysis of International News Flow Research,” Critical Studies In Mass Communication 1.4, (Dec. 1984): 365- 378. 2’ Hur, “A Critical Analysis of International News Flow Research” 365-378. 17 25 Tsan-Kuo Chang, Pamela J. Shoemaker, and Nancy Brendlinger, “Determinants of International News Coverage in the US. Media,” Communication Research 14.4 (Aug. 1987): 396-414; Pamela J. Shoemaker, Lucig H. Danielian, and Nancy Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The N ewsworthiness of World Events,” Journalism Quarterly 68.4 (Winter 1991): 781-795; Pamela J. Shoemaker, and Wlizabeth Kay Mayfield, “Building A Theory of News Content: A Synthesis of Current Approaches,” Journalism Monographs 103 (June 198 7). 26 Stephen Lacy, Tsan-Kuo Chang, and Tuen-yu Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage,” Newspaper Research Journal 10 (Fall 1989): 23-32. 27 Chang, Shoemaker, and Brendlinger, “Determinants of International News Coverage in the US. Media” 396-414. 2“ Tsan-Kuo Chang and Jae-Won Lee, “Factors Affecting Gatekeepers’ Selection of Foreign News: A National Survey of Newspaper Editors,” mumalism Quarterly 69.3 (Fall 1992): 554-561. Chapter 3 LITERATURE REVIEW To examine studies about factors influencing international news, this chapter is divided into four sections. The first looks at the effects of organizational factors on newspaper content. It reports research findings about capital and wire services. The second traces the background of market factors. The review examines how competition, political, economic, and cultural relations influence international news coverage. The third looks at whether the content of international news coverage is conflict-oriented. The last section addresses how the classification of story topics and story types in past studies have inspired a critical view of international news content. The subdivisional categorization of story topics and story types helps gain an insight into the effects of organizational and market factors. Organizational Factors Emil Most newspapers exist in an economic environment because they are profit-making organizations. Aspects of this environment determine how the newspaper company must allocate its resources to survive. The Berkowitz’s study looked at local television news selection to identity factors other than news judgment that determine story selection.l Focusing on items for 5 o’clock and 6 o’clock evening 18 19 newscasts at a network-affiliate television station in Indianapolis, he found that the news budget had an great effect on the news selection. Lacy studied the effects of intracity competition on daily newspaper content.2 He used a randomly stratified sample of 114 newspapers. Six representative variables were used as financial resources: number of reporters, percent of all newspaper space given to news and editorial material, square inches of space per reporter, percent of news section given to news copy, percent of news section given in-depth coverage, and number of wire services. In-depth coverage was included in the allocation of financial resources because it requires extra time, more reporters, and greater expertise. Factor analysis of twenty-one content measures confirmed that the budget allocation process appeared to be involved in creating newspaper content. He concluded that one of the primary factors that affected newspaper content came from the budget allocation process. Chu suggested in his qualitative report that organizational factors influence the news flow.3 Although he did not state exactly how the budget influenced the newspaper’s content, his explanation of how a news organization works implied that budget affected the content of newspapers. He said that a news organization is like a social structure having goals and hierarchy of roles. Power and status in an organization determine how much one can get of what one wants in the competitive media world. Therefore, correspondents stationed in big capitals often have greater chances of “winning” than those in less conspicuous locations. This implies that the power differences among news organizations influence newspaper coverage. Because often power is associated with money, it can be said that Chu’s study supported the effect of budget on the newspaper content. 20 Many studies have recognized budget as a factor that influences the content of news; however, this study used capital instead of budget as one of its independent variables for three major reasons. First, it was very difficult to obtain information about budgets.4 Calling several newspaper agencies in Japan to get information about their budgets, the researcher found that most newspaper companies did not have a clear categorization of budget, or they did not reveal the informationf‘ The vagueness of the categorization of budget in Japanese newspaper companies means that the Japanese newsroom can easily exceed one’s budget, while in many US. companies, the newsroom can not exceed its budget by very much, unless there is a very strong reason. Thus, the budget process in Japan becomes more vague in nature than one in the United States. The agencies’ unwillingness to reveal internal information to the public has arisen from the fact that their stock is not sold to the public. Because their stock is not sold to the public, newspaper agencies do not have to reveal their financial information. Second, lacking budget information, capital was chosen because it was positively correlated with budget. Capital is defined as an investment by stockholders to operate a business. Capital does not include visible assets such as buildings, land, cars, printing machines, etc. It is an invisible fund. If capital was large, then it was assumed that the budget was also large. Capital directly and strongly influences the jobs of the journalists, e.g., editing and reporting. Capital indicates a fundamental fund that is needed to operate a newspaper company. Lastly, it was possible to compile a list of the exact amounts of the capital of Japanese newspapers because stocks in Japanese newspaper companies are basically fixed for an important reason: “independence.” It is important for Japanese newspaper companies to 21 avoid the possibility of a few stockholders, who are not knowledgeable, serving the public and committed to being in charge of decision making. If this occurs, there is a greater chance that the neutral standpoint of newspapers will be violated by these stockholders. Afraid that this could become a reality, newspaper agencies must work to maintain their dedication to serving the public as a whole, not just focusing on the interests of a few stockholders. To maintain independence, stock is not sold to the public. The share of newspapers are unlisted and usually sold only to employees. Even media moguls like Rupert Murdoch would find it practically impossible to buy Japanese media stock. The lack of the avaflable data for Japanese newspaper budgets has resulted in this research choosing capital as one of the factors affecting international news coverage. Capital represented funds that were needed to operate a newspaper company. Capital is one of the best measurements which represents money available to journalists. With this assumption, this study examined the relationship between capital and foreign news coverage. Wire Services Newspaper companies are largely dependent on wire services for international news, although some disperse correspondents all over the world to cover events. One of the early studies by IPI found that news agencies are the paramount source for most newspapers“ McNelly, in his study of gatekeeping, reported that because most foreign news came from wire services, these news decisions were made in major bureaus of the big wire services.7 Many researchers have looked at the relationships between wire services and news coverage.8 Markham found that most newspapers rely heavily on wire services for a large 22 proportion of their stories.9 Gold and Simmons examined 24 daily newspapers in Iowa.10 Informally comparing rank orderings of Associated Press wire copy used by the dailies and the frequency of the content appearances on the AP wire, they concluded that the use of news among the dailies paralleled the AP distribution patterns. Gieber found that 16 telegraph editors in Wisconsin whose newspapers subscribed only to the Associated Press were heavily dependent on the AP budget for their selection. A study conducted by Lacy, Chang, and Lau discovered the relationship between dependence on wire copy and foreign news coverage.11 Their study using regression analysis showed a high correlation between the percentage of news space filled by wire copy and the percentage of news space allotted for foreign news. Weaver and Mullins analyzed 46 daily newspapers in 23 US. cities.12 They found the leading newspapers subscribed to an average of 3.7 news services per paper while smaller newspapers did an average of 2.6 per paper. In addition to the most-used service, Associated Press, the leading papers were more likely than the smaller newspapers to subscribe to each of the following services: United Press International, The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, the Chicago Daily News, the Dow Jones News Service, and the North American Newspaper Alliance. Danielson and Adams worked on the national study of the newspaper coverage of the 1960 presidential campaign.” They analyzed what factors could be found to be related to the completeness of campaign coverage. A sample of 90 newspapers was examined. The result showed that the number of wire services was positively correlated with the news coverage’s completeness. 23 Most of the local newspapers in Japan depend largely on the Kyodo Wire Service.14 The Kyodo Wire Service is a union wire service organized by most of the newspapers in Japan, excluding a few national newspapers, Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbun, and Mainichi Shimbun. One of Kyodo’s activities is delegating correspondents to important countries forming a network to cover international news. Because many studies revealed the newspapers’ heavy dependency on wire services for international news coverage and its influence on the news contents, this study considered wire services as one of the important determinants in newspaper coverage. The study looked at the relationship between the difference in the number of wire services a newspaper subscribes to as well as percentage of stories that come from wire services and the impact these have on foreign news coverage. Market Factors Competition Competition in Japan In Japan, competition between national papers and local papers, especially in metropolitan areas, is very high.15 Lacy defined this type of competition as “umbrella competition.” Umbrella competition exists when a daily newspaper begins circulating in a market that is the central market for another existing newspaper.16 This type of competition consists of several layers of competition." In Japan, the first layer is comprised of national daily newspapers that have national coverage. Five national newspapers, Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, Sankei Shimbun, and Nihon Keizai Shimbun are in this layer. The second layer is composed of large metropolitan daily newspapers that have regional coverage. Three metropolitan newspapers are in this 24 layer: Hokkaido Shimbun, ChunichiShimbun, and Nishi Nipppon Shimbun. The third layer is composed of suburban dailies surrounding the cities that have first and second layer newspapers. Japanese local daily newspapers are in this layer. Third layer newspapers are very local in nature. Weekly newspapers and shoppers make up the fourth layer. Rosse hypothesized that as one moves down the layers, the newspapers become more local in nature.18 Competition Rosse, who proposed a conceptual model for intercity competition, mentioned the importance of the effects of umbrella competition on newspaper content,19 but there has been little research conducted in this area. The following two studies looked at the impact of this competition on advertising and circulation but not its effect on content. Lacy examined intercity competition and its effects on metropolitan, small daily newspapers, and weekly newspapers based on Rosse’s umbrella model of inter-layer competition.20 A three-layer model instead of Rosse’s four-layer model was used. The areas of 13 large standard metropolitan statistical areas in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Arkansas, New Mexico, and Arizona were selected in his study. A survey of 30 metro executives, 29 small daily publishers, and 56 weekly publishers were collected and examined. The results showed that competition among some layers, especially between metropolitan dailies and weeklies, appeared to be more intense downward than upward as Rosse predicted. I The study of circulation patterns in the Los Angeles-Orange County newspaper market also provided support for Rosse’s umbrella theory.21 It could be concluded from this research that intercity competition has led to market consolidation and to shift in circulation and advertising. 25 Several studies cited below have examined the impact of this competition on financial commitment and content. The financial commitment theory indicates that intense competition among newspapers increases expenditures on news content.22 Lacy examined the connection between intercity competition and the content of daily newspapersfi/ He found that the intensity of intercity competition was the strongest contributing factor on newspaper content. The result showed that the penetration of competing dailies was positively associated with the percentage of space given to the newshole and news items about the home city of a newspaper. A 1990 study of the content analysis of four central city dailies in Denver and Detroit found that the penetration of metro dailies in suburbs influences the news contentIzi Pearson correlation coefficients showed the positive correlation between inches of copy devoted to stories about the suburb and metro daily and the newspaper’s penetration. In the study of 21 large circulation and prestige newspapers,25 it was determined that the increase of intensity of daily intercity competition was directly related to the decrease of the average reporter’s story production. Also, the positive relationship between the increase in intercity competition and the increase in story fairness was discovered. A recent study examined 11 newspaper groups reported in Value line Ratings and Reports26 and found that newspaper groups with a higher proportion of dailies that face daily competition within their markets commit greater financial resources to their newspapers. It pointed out that competition influences newspaper content because of the increase in the financial resources to newspapers; however, this is not necessarily related to higher quality. While it does indicate that managers spend money to respond the pressures of maintaining a 26 newspaper attractive to readers and advertisers, competition does not guarantee a high story quality. This study attempted to deal with the question of whether a relatively new concept of umbrella competition explored in the United States could be applied to the foreign news coverage of Japanese local newspapers. Political Factor Countries that have more political relationships with a particular country are considered more important for media coverage in that country than countries that have fewer ties." Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger examined the political ties in international news coverage and found that political significance was positively related to newspaper coverage.28 They concluded that events that occurred in nations of political significance to the United States were more likely to be covered in US. news. Semmel found a similar result in his research of four elite newspapers: the Chicago Tribune, The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, and The Miami Herald.29 Semmel stratified and rank- ordered all foreign nations according to their political ties to the United States. In doing so, he found that the more politically compatible foreign countries were to the United states, the more those countries received news attention. He also pointed out that more politically distant a country was to the United States, the higher the proportion of coverage about violence. ’ Ahem increased the sample size and analyzed 1,106 articles of international news coverage in three quality newspapers.3o He concluded that political relations were the most important determinant of the coverage of foreign news. 27 Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger studied the content of T_he New York Times and three major television stations.31 They found that events that had political significance to the United States were more likely to become news, in both newspaper and television coverage, than those events that did not have political significance to the United States. Although the definition of political ties vary from scholar to scholar, most researches agreed that political ties influence international news coverage. Economic Factor The amount of trade between nations has been considered a factor that influences international news coverage. Galtung and Ruge were two of the first scholars in this field to recognize the economic factor. They suggested that the selection of international news stories was influenced by elite (industrialized) nations and people.32 They focused on a nations’ eliteness to describe the factors which may affect international news coverage. Hester explored the factors of information flow among national systems and how they contributed to the volume and direction of flow in 1973. Although he did not test his research questions, he suggested that economic relationships between countries influence the flow of international news. He hypothesized that if economic relationships, such as international trade and the amount of foreign aid are strong, more information flow would be observed between nations than when only a weak economic relation prevails.33 Research done by Charles, Shore, and Todd showed the strong correlation between economic ties and international news coverage. Their multiple regression of news coverage and trade showed a fairly high correlation.34 28 Ostgaard said that the international news flow is influenced by those who control the economic life of a nation.35 Researchers who examined the relationships between news coverage and economic significance in the United States found that events which occur in nations of economic significance to the United States are more likely to be covered in the news.36 Semmel studied the content of foreign news coverage in four U.S. elite newspapers.” He found that the closer the economic relationship to the United States, the more frequently the news of those countries was covered. The measures used in this study were GNP/capita, and all nation-states were categorized into four economic classes. The developed countries were considered as those economically most approm'mate to the United States while the very underdeveloped were considered as those most economically distant from the United States. The results strongly showed that the news attention was heavily skewed. Ahem reported in his 1979 study of foreign news coverage that a country’s gross national product was most important determinant of foreign news coverage of the US. newspapers.38 He also mentioned that a nation’s economic productivity affects the size of its trade as well as the scope of its political relations with the United States. Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger analyzed the content of four major US. news organizations, newspapers and television network39 and confirmed that the stronger ties a country has to the United States, the more newsworthy events occurring in that country would be. Some researchers examined how economic factors affected international news coverage by comparing news coverage in two 29 countries.“0 Rosengren, who compared election coverage in British, East German, and Scandinavian newspapers, suggested that economic factors such as export and import can be good predictors of newspaper coverage.41 Sparkes, who examined the flow of news between Canada and the United States, found that economic factors were related to the coverage of international news.42 In summary, many scholars have examined the effect of economic factors on international news coverage from many aspects and supported that economic relationships between countries are one of the influencing factors on international news flow. Cultural Factor Several researchers examined the relationship between culture and international news that is called “psychological proximity.”43 For example, Schramm said a fight in an American city may be physically nearer than a battle in the South Pacific, but if a mother has a son in the battle, she can more easily identify herself with the distant battle than with the nearby fight.“ Hester also suggested that the relationship between individuals, like Schramm’s example, exists between nations.45 Hester examined the international news flow from the view point of cultural ties among nations, but he did not test his theory using a research method. Ostgaard suggested the importanceof cultural proximity for international news selection. He believed that the news media in any given country would tend to present a picture of the outside world affected by the ethnocentric eyes of the receiver of the news.“6 As a result, news flow would be influenced by cultural relationships. Rosengren, who was concerned with cultural relationships, introduced the importance of the influence that cultural relationships between 30 countries have on international news coverage. Kariel and Rosenvall, who studied newspapers in Canada, found that French language newspapers favor news from French culture countries, and English language newspapers favor news from the United Kingdom." They suggested a significant relationship between cultural affinity and the amount of news from the country with which there is the affinity.48 A study that examined foreign news coverage in Israeli and the US. newspapers supported the claim that international news flow and content depend on cultural relations between the countries rather than on physical distance.49 This study found that ethnocentrism is important in determining news content.50 Galtung, Ruge, Kariel, and Rosenvall examined the cultural factor from the aspect of eliteness.51 Galtung and Ruge investigated the four Norwegian newspapers to see how cultural proximity influenced the flow of foreign news.52 They found that the culturally closer the countries were to the Norway, such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Belgium, the greater the variety of news stories of the event country were covered. Kariel and Rosenvall examined Canadian daily newspapers to see whether Galtung and Ruge’s study and other studies about the notion of eliteness would provide a concept for understanding of international news flow.S3 Their study suggested that only in nations where there are close cultural ties does eliteness greatly influence of the news flow. As a result, in Canadian newspapers, the international news from the United Kingdom and France showed a strong influence of eliteness on the news coverage. Semmel explored how the relative distances of culture between the United States and other foreign nations affect the content of international news coverage.54 His examination of four U.S. elite 31 newspapers declared that the more culturally proximate another nations were to the United States, the more frequently news items of those countries were covered. In other words, the selection of foreign news coverage partially depends on familiarity and cultural similarity. Many scholars recognized that the cultural relationship rather than physical distance between two countries is one of the important influencing factors on international news flow. Conflict-Oriented In studies of the selection of international news, Ostgaard suggested that the news media tend to present the world as being more conflict-laden than it really is. The use of force is emphasized rather than more peaceful means of solving conflict.SS Galtung and Ruge also suggested that the selection of international news stories was influenced by the negativity of events.56 Research on the American media coverage of the rest of the world suggested that news about the Third World tended to be crisis-oriented and emphasized sensational events. Lent also stated that international news coverage, especially news about developing nations in the US. mass media, was often crisis- oriented.” He cited Woollacott’s report53 that explained the Western reporters’ enthusiasm to make developing society look worse by exaggeration and supported the tendency of Western reporters to focus more on the crises in such countries. Masmoudi presented exactly the same opinion in his report about the imbalance of information flow in the world.59 He said that the news in developing countries mainly focused on the Third World’s most unfavorable news, such as crises, strikes, and street demonstrations, not the news about achievement and aspirations. Charles, Shore, and Todd examined the 32 news coverage of African nations in The New York Times.60 The result indicated that African coverage had been concerned primarily with violent themes such as civil disorders, revolutions, and racial tensions. Larson looked at the coverage of the Third World in the weekday evening news broadcasts during the 1972-1976 period.61 He concluded that Third World countries received less coverage than developed countries, and that a larger proportion of crisis stories in the Third World were considered for news. Stevenson and Gaddy sought to answer the question of whether or not Western media singled out the Third World for negative coverage.62 There is a lack of explanation of how they conducted their research, but the results they reported showed that the Third World received heavier coverage of crisis-oriented news than industrialized countries. The most interesting aspect of this research was that they distinguished negative news into politically negative news and nonpolitically negative news such as natural disasters. They concluded that the bulk of world news focusing on the Third World was of a politically negative nature, whereas nonpolitical negative news was more from the industrialized countries. In addition to their own research, they also introduced the data from the Conflict and Peace Data Bank (COPDAB), which contains records on more than 500,000 events occurring from 1948 to the present.63 Events are reported in more than 70 sources, many of which are journalistic. They found from this data that the proportion of Third World events involving international conflict is about 30 times as high as it is in industrialized countries. Some studies focused on the influence of heavy dependency on wire services and the effect on the content of international coverage. 33 Weaver and Wilhoit investigated the coverage of foreign news disseminated from the four major wire services.64 They did so instead of studying the content analysis of newspapers because most foreign news coverage in newspapers depends heavily on these wire services.65 Their results found that Western news coverage of the lesser- developed countries tended to concentrate on conflicts and crises. The proportion of internal conflict that occurred in lesser-developed countries that was covered by US. regional wire services was 46.7%, while the coverage of the conflict in more-developed countries was only 13.7%. Lacy, Chang, and Lau examined the relationship between the amount of US newspaper conflict-oriented coverage of foreign events and market and organizational variables.66 They confirmed that the reason for the conflict orientation of foreign news coverage in the US. newspapers was the intense dependency on wire service. Because U.S. newspapers lack resources for their own foreign-based staff, they could not provide insightful news and information about foreign countries. Hester did not state exactly the cause and effect relationship between wire services and conflict-oriented coverage of foreign events; however, his result is similar to Lacy, Chang, and Lau’s study.” Hester studied international news being diffused by the Associated Press throughout the United States. His findings pointed out that not only was the use of news coverage about developing countries in daily newspapers relatively little, but also that what was used had an tendency to focus heavily on war news, not on social or economic development. Simultaneously, he explained that the foreign news coverage of 15 Wisconsin dailies used for this study were completely dependent upon the AP. 34 Finally, Semmel looked at the tendency of the conflict-oriented story from the perspective of ties between countries.68 Semmel in his 1977 study established a relationship between the coverage of violence and political, economic, and cultural proximity to the United States. The content analysis of four major newspaper showed that the more politically, economically and culturally distant foreign countries were from the United States, the higher the attention to the violent events of those countries. A review of the existing literature about conflict-oriented coverage of international news finds a high concentration of such news coverage about the Third World. This study examined whether there was such a tendency in international news coverage of Japanese local newspapers. Morning and Evening Little research has been done on the content difference between morning and evening newspapers. Danielson and Adams examined the presidential campaign coverage of 196069 and found that the morning papers had more complete campaign coverage than the evening papers. The conclusion that was drawn from this was that the difference of the degree of completeness of coverage is significantly related to timeliness. Lacy and Bernstein looked at a research question of whether there is a difference in the way of news and editorial allocation between morning and afternoon newspapers?0 A randomly stratified sample of 114 newspapers was subjected to content analysis. Among them, 42 were morning and all-day newspapers, and 72 were evening papers. They found that time of publication had little influence on the allocation of news coverage. The only difference that could be found between AM 3S and PM newspapers was circulation. Most morning and all-day newspapers had large circulation while evening papers usually did not. Due to this difference, morning papers allocated news the way large papers did while afternoon papers allocated news the way medium or small papers did.71 Story Topic Without looking critically at news by story topics, the biased feature of international news coverage would never be revealed. A major study about story topics was done by Wilhoit and Weaver. News was categorized by three story topics: political, military activity, and economic. They then examined the amount, nature, and quality of foreign news coverage from wire services. 72 Wilhoit and Weaver found that the bulk of the wire service coverage focused on political and military activity, not on economic matters and culture?3 Another study of international news found a high preoccupation with political and economic news." Story Type Categorizing story types into three groups, hard news, soft news, and analysis news, for examining international coverage is important because the function of the three types of story are perceived differently by journalists in terms of schedule. Although the distinction of hard news and soft news is not clear]5 Tuchman suggested that the distinction of these two types of news depends more on how the event is scheduled than on the content?6 Hard news is either “scheduled,” such as briefings and conferences, or “unscheduled, ” such as an airplane crush or natural calamity. Both demand speed, especially in gathering facts and meeting deadlines.’7 On the other hand, soft news does not need to be timely. Tuchman said that the timing and flow of 36 work required to process soft news stories are controlled by the news organization?8 This nonscheduled news helps fill in the news hole. Meanwhile, analysis news is often identified as “news analysis,” “investigative report,” or “series.” Analyzing news is considered essential when a society becomes complex. In a complex society, there are many factors which must be considered before presenting a story to the public. For example, the O. J. Simpson trial was not just related to domestic violence; race and class issues were also contributing factors. Analysis news requires deep thought into issues, time, and effort for detailed investigation?9 These three different types of news stories help better the understanding of tendencies in the contents of foreign news. A study categorizing international news by story type found that three fourths of foreign news in a newspaper was hard news.80 Another study that categorized international news by story type said that too much emphasis in foreign news was given to factual material and too little attention to interpretation.81 Adams, who also focused on story type and international news, suggested that international news tended to be more factual and straightforward than analytical.82 Research Questions Based on the findings in the literature, this study will explore five research questions: Research Question 1: Do the characteristics of international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers published in two-daily editions differ from those published only in one edition? Research Question 2: Do the characteristics of international news coverage in Japanese local morning newspapers differ from those in Japanese local evening newspapers? 37 Research Question 3: Is the percentage of stories about international economic, political, social, sport, and other events in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? Research Question 4: Is the percentage of stories about international hard news, soft news, analysis news, and other news in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? Research Question 5: Is the amount of international news conflict- oriented coverage in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? Rationales In research question 1, the nature of differences in publishing cycles was examined. The rationale was that two editions might mean greater resources for joint editions. Therefore, international news coverage in newspapers published once a day was different from that in newspapers published twice a day. Research question 2 tested the influences of differences between morning and evening newspapers on international news coverage. The rationale for research question 2 was that if there are differences between international news coverage in morning newspapers and that in evening papers, why do such differences exist? In Japan, both morning and evening papers are often published by the same companies in the same provinces. For example, the morning paper of Okinawa Times is published by the same owner at the same place as the evening paper of Okinawa Times. Therefore, their international news coverage would be the same because both morning and evening papers have the same market factors and organizational factors. 38 Research questions 3 and 4 are related to the theoretical proposition that the environment in which newspaper companies exist influences international news coverage. International news coverage was categorized into five story topics, and was also categorized into four groups by story types. In both research questions 3 and 4, the independent variables were organizational factors; capital, the number of wire services a newspaper company subscribes to, and percentage of stories that come from wire services, and market factors; competition, economic, cultural, and political relationships. Research question 5 suggested that international news coverage tends to be conflict oriented and stresses negativity. In research question 5, the independent variables were also organizational factors and market factors. 39 1 Dan Berkowitz, “Assessing Forces in the Selection of Local Television News,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (Spring 1991): 24 5- 251. 2 Stephen Lacy, “The Effects of Intracity Competition On Daily Newspaper Content,” Journalism Quarterly 64 (Autumn 1987): 281-290. 3 Leonard L. Chu, “An Organizational Perspective On International News Flow: Some Generalizations, Hypotheses, and Questions For Research,” Gazette 35 (1985): 3-18. 4 Isamu Amanomori, the director of Research Institute at the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, phone interview with the author, 4 Sep. 1996. Amanomori said, “No other agencies than my association have information about the budget, but it is confidential even though the purpose is academic use”; A member of the Ministry of Finance, phone interview with the author, 4 Sep. 1996. The author found that she had part of the information but not all that he needed for this research. 5 Asahi Shimbun, Ibaraki Shimbun, and Ise Shimbun, phone interview with the author, 19 Aug. 1996. Asahi Shimbun and Ibaraki Shimbun answered that they do not have a budget. Ise Shimbun did not reveal the information. 6 International Press Institute, The Flow of News (Zurich: International Press Institute, 1953). 7 John T. McNelly, “Intermediary Communicators in the International Flow of News,” Journalism Quarterly 36 (Winter 1959): 23-26. 8 William R. Iindley, “Gatekeepers’: Avoidance of Group Opinion Sources,” Journalism Quarterly 5 1 (1974): 724-725; B. H. Iiebes, “Decision-Making by Telegraph Editors -- AP or UPI?” Journalism Quarterly 43 (August 1966): 434-442; David (Gold and Jerry L. Simmons, “News Selection Patterns among Iowa Dailies,” Public Opinion miarterly 29 (Fall 1965): 42 5-430; James W. (Markham, “Foreign News in the United States and South American Press,” Public Opinion Quarterly 25 (1961): 2 5 1-2 54. 9 Markham, “Foreign News in the United States and South American Press” 251-2 54. 1° Gold, and Simmons, “News Selection Patterns among Iowa Dailies” 42 5-430. 1‘ Stephen Lacy, Tsan-Kuo Chang, and Tuen-yu Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage,” Newspaper Research Journal 10 (Fall 1989): 23-32. ‘2 David H. Weaver and L. E. Mullins, “Content and Format Characteristics of Competing Daily Newspapers,” Journalism Quarterly 52 (Summer 1975): 257-264. ‘3 Wayne A. Danielson and John B. Adams, “Completeness of Press Coverage of the 1960 Campaign,” Journalism Quarterly 38 (Autumn 1961): 441-452. 1“ Yoshiaki Mori, “Shimbun to Chiiki Shakai [Newspapers and Local Societyl,” Journalism wo Manabu hito no Tameni [Those who learn murmlism], eds. Norio Tamura, and Toshitaka Hayashi, (Japan: Sekai Shisou, 1995) 170-172. ‘5 Yoshiaki Mori, “Shimbun to Chiiki Shakai [Newspapers and Local Society]” 177. ’5 Stephen Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content,” diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1986. ’7 Stephen Lacy, and Todd F. Simon, The Economics and Regulation of United States Newspapers (New Jersey: Ablex, 1993) 112. 1“ James N. Rosse, “The Decline of Direct Newspaper Competition,” Journal of Communication 30 (1980): 65-71. ‘9 Stephen Lacy, “The Financial Commitment Approach to News Media Competition,” Journal of Media Economics 5.2 (Summer 1992): 5-21. 2° Stephen Lacy, “Competition Among Metropolitan Daily, Small Daily and Weekly Newspapers,” Journalism Quarterly 61 (Autumn 1984): 640-644, 742. 2‘ Diana Stover Tillinghast, “Iimits of Competition,” Newspaper Ownrshp and Competition, ed. Robert G. Picard, (New Jersey: Ablex, 1988) 71-87. 41 22 Barry R. Iitman and Janet Bridges, “An Economic Analysis of Daily Newspaper Performance,” Newspaper Research Journal 7 (Spring 1986): 9-26. 23 Stephen Lacy, “The Impact of Intercity Competition on Newspaper Content,” Journalism Quarterly 65 (Summer 1988): 399-406. 2" Stephen Lacy and Ardyth B. Sohn, “Correlations of Newspaper Content with Circulation in the Suburbs: A Case Study,” Journalism Quarterly 67.4 (Winter 1990): 785-793. 25 Stephen Lacy, Frederick Fico, and Todd Simon, “Relationships Among Economic, Newsroom, and Content Variables: A Path Model,” [ournal of Media Economics 2.2 (Fall 1989): 51-66. 2“ Stephen Lacy, Mary Alice Shaver, and Charles St. Cyr, “The Effects of Public Ownership and Newspaper Competition on the Financial Performance of Newspaper Corporations: A Replication and Extension,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 73.2 (Summer 1996): 332- 341. 27 Michael Parenti, Inventing Reality (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986). 2” Pamela J. Shoemaker, Lucig H. Danielian, and Nancy Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events,” Journalism Quarterly 68.4 (Winter 1991): 781-795. 29 Andrew K. Semmel, “The Elite Press, The Global System, and Foreign News Attention,” International Interactions: A Transnational MultidisciplinaryJournal 3 (Oct. 1977): 317-328. 3"Thomas J. Ahem, Jr., “Determinants of Foreign Coverage in U. 5. Newspapers,” Foreign News and The New World Information Order, eds. Robert L. Stevenson and Donald L. Shaw (Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1984) 217-236. 3‘ Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events” 781-795. 32 Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News,” Journal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 64-91. 42 33 Al Hester, “Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction of International Information Flow,” Gazette 19.4 (1973): 239- 247. 3" Jeff Charles, Larry Shore, and Rusty Todd, “The New York Times Coverage of Equatorial and Lower Africa,” Journal of Communication 29.2 (Spring 1979): 148-155. 35 Einar Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News,” journal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 39-63. 3" Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events” 781-795. 37 Semmel, “The Elite Press, The Global System, and Foreign News Attention” 3 1 7-3 28. 3” Thomas J. Ahern, Jr., “Determinants of Foreign Coverage in U. S. Newspapers” 2 1 7-2 3 6. 39 Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events” 781- 795. 4° For example, Karl Rosengren, “Four Types of Tables,” journal of Communication 27.1 (Winter 1977): 67-75; Vemone M. Sparkes, “The Flow of News Between Canada and the United States,” Journalism Quarterly 55 (Summer 1978): 260-268. ‘1 Rosengren, “Four Types of Tables” 67-75. ‘2 Vernone M. Sparkes, “The Flow of News Between Canada and the United States,” Journalism Quarterly 55 (Summer 1978): 260-268. ‘3 Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News” 3963; Wilbur Schramm, “The Nature of News,” Journalism Quarterly 26 (1949): 265; Shoemaker, Danielian, and Brendlinger, “Deviant Acts, Risky Business and US. Interests: The Newsworthiness of World Events” 78 1-79 5; Hester, “Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction of International Information Flow” 2 39-24 7. 4" Schramm, “The Nature of News” 265. 43 “5 Hester, “Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction of International Information Flow” 2 39-247. 4" Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News” 46. “7 Herbert G. Kariel and Lynn A. Rosenvall, “Cultural Affinity Displayed in Canadian Daily Newspapers,” Journalism Quarterly 60 (1983): 43 1-436. 4“ Kariel and Rosenvall, “Cultural Affinity Displayed in Canadian Daily Newspapers” 43 1-43 6. ‘9 Ronald G. Hicks and Avishag Gordon, “Foreign News Content in Israeli and US. Newspapers,” Journalism Quartery 51 (Winter 1974): 587-644. 5° Hicks and Gordon, “Foreign News Content in Israeli and US. Newspapers” 587-644. 5‘ Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News,” Journal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 6491; Herbert G. Kariel and Lynn A Rosenvall, “Factors Influencing International News How,” Journalism Quarterly 61 (Autumn 1984): 509-5 16. 52 Galtung and Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News” 64-91. 53 Kariel and Rosenvall, “Factors Influencing International News Flow” 509- 5 1 6. 5“ Andrew K. Semmel, “The Elite Press, The Global System, and Foreign News Attention,” International Interactions: A Transnational MultidisciplinaryJoumal 3 (Oct. 1977): 317-328. 55 Ostgaard, “Factors Influencing the Flow of News” 55. 5" Galtung and Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News” 64-91. 57 John A. Lent, “Foreign News in American Media,” journal of Communication 27.1 (Winter 1977): 46-51. 5“ Lent, “Foreign News in American Media” 465 1. 44 59 Mustapha Masmoudi, “The New World Information Order,” journal of Communication 29 (Spring 1979): 174. 6° Jeff Charles, Larry Shore, and Rusty Todd, “The New York Times Coverage of Equatorial and Lower Africa,” Journal of Communication 29 (Spring 1979): 148-155. 51 James F. Larson, “International Affairs Coverage on U. S. Network Television,” Journal of Communication 29.2 (Spring 1979): 136-14 7. 62 Robert L. Stevenson and Gary D. Gaddy, “‘Bad News’ and the Third World,” Foreign News and The New World Information Order, eds. Robert L. Stevenson and Donald L. Shaw (Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1984) 88-97. ”3 Stevenson and Gaddy, “‘Bad News’ and the Third World” 88-9 7. 6‘ David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, “Foreign News in the Western Agencies,” Foreign News and The New World Information Order, eds. Robert L. Stevenson and Donald L. Shaw (Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1984) 153-185. 65 Wilbur Schramm, “Circulation of News in the Third World,” Mass Communication Review Yearbook, eds. G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Harrold De Bock (Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications, 1980). “6 Lacy, Chang, and Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage” 23-32. 67 Al Hester, “An Analysis of News Flow From Developed and Developing Nations,” Gazette 17 (1971): 29-43. 6“ Semmel, “The Elite Press, The Global System, and Foreign News Attention” 317-328. 59 Wayne A Danielson and John B. Adams, “Completeness of Press Coverage of the 1960 Campaign,” Journalism QuarterJy 38 (Autumn 1961): 441-452. 7° Stephen Lacy and James M. Bernstein, “Daily Newspaper Content’s Relationship to Publication Cycle and Circulation Size,” Newspaper Research Journal 9.2 (Winter 1988): 49-5 7. 45 7‘ Lacy and Bernstein, “Dafly Newspaper Content’s Relationship to Publication Cycle and Circulation Size” 54. 72 G. Cleveland Wilhoit and David Weaver, “Foreign News Coverage in Two US. Wire Services: An Update,” Journal of Communication 33.2 (Spring 1983): 132-148. 73 Wilhoit and Weaver, “Foreign News Coverage in Two US. Wire Services: An Update” 132-148. 7“ Nabil Dajani and John Donohue, “Foreign News in the Arab Press,” Gazette 19 (1973): 155-170. 75 Gerald Stone, Examining Newspapers: What Research Reveals about America’s Newspapers, vol. 20 (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, Inc., 1987) 65. 7“ Gaye Tuchman, “Making News by Doing Worlc Routinizing the Unexpected,” American Journal of Sociology 79.1 (July 1973): 110-131. 77 Tuchman, “Making News by Doing Work: Routinizing the Unexpected” 1 1 0- 1 3 1. 7“ Tuchman, “Making News by Doing Work: Routinizing the Unexpected” l 19. 79 Hideo Takeichi, “Journalism no Tokucho [Characteristics of Journalisml,” Mass Communication Gairon [Introduction to Mass Communication], eds. Hideo Shimizu, Nobuo Hayashi, Hideo Takeichi, and Yasuhiro Kawanaka (Japan: Gakuyo, 1992) 62-63. 8° Jim A. Hart, “The Flow of International News into Ohio,” Journalism Quarterly 38 (Autumn 1961): 541-543. 8‘ John C. Merrill, “The Image of the United States in Ten Mexican Dailies,” Journalism Quarterly 39 (Spring 1962): 203-209. “2 John B. Adams, “A Quantitative Analysis of Domestic and Foreign News on the API‘ A Wire,” Gazette 10 (1964): 285-295. Chapter 4 METHOD This chapter introduces the method that tested the five research questions presented in Chapter 3. The data for the dependent variables were collected through content analysis. Data for the independent variables were collected from existing publications. The relationships between these two sets of data were examined by statistical analysis. Content Analysis Sampling Newspaper In the process of sampling, a key factor that determined the success of a study is how generalizable a sample is. In addition, a sample should reflect the purpose of a study. To meet both criteria, this study used a probability sampling method. Seventy local Japanese newspaper companies were registered to the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, excluding professional, business, special service dailies, sports, and foreign- language newspapers. Among them, 26 newspaper companies published both morning and evening editions; 32 newspaper companies published only morning editions; and 12 newspaper companies published only evening editions. To sample, using the four categories of strata provided by a two by two figure, a proportionate stratified sampling method was applied. This method used a sample size from a stratum that was proportional to the population size of the stratum. In 46 47 other words, the total sample size was allocated between the strata by proportionate allocation. TABLE 1 CATEGORIZATION OF NEWSPAPERS (Population: 96 newspapers) Morning Edition Evening Edition Two Editions 27.0% 27.0% a Day (26) (26) One Edition 33.5% 12.5% a Day (32) (12) Newspapers were categorized based on the categorization in the Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1996,1 which was based on newspaper editions, not newspaper companies. Thus, the population of this study was 96 newspapers, not the 70 newspaper companies. The four strata were: 1) morning newspapers whose companies publish two editions a day, 2) evening newspapers whose companies publish both morning and evening editions; 3) morning newspapers whose companies publish only a morning edition; and 4) evening newspapers whose companies publish only an evening edition. It would be possible to have this stratification with three categories instead of four, which would be newspapers that publish both morning and evening editions, newspapers that publish only a morning edition, and newspapers that publish only an evening edition. However, if this stratification was used in this study, examining the second hypothesis testing the difference between the characteristics of international news coverage in morning papers and those in evening papers in Japanese local newspaper would become difficult. Even if the newspapers that publish two editions a day were stratified into two, 48 morning and evening, keeping the same proportion of morning and evening papers in Japan, possible differences in the characteristics of the number of editions published daily could be overlooked. To examine such differences, the stratification of four categories instead of three was needed. To know the proportion of the four categories explained above, a list of distinctions among newspapers that publish both morning and evening editions and newspapers that publish only one edition a day in Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 19962 was referenced. Forty-eight papers were taken from the population of 96 newspapers. The 48 papers were divided into four strata, keeping the same proportion of four categories in population. Thus, 13 morning newspapers published from companies with two editions a day, 13 evening papers published from companies with two editions a day, 16 morning papers published from companies which only publish a morning edition, and 6 evening papers published from companies which only publish an evening edition were selected. Since the population was relatively small and the sample size was large, finite population correction was used to reflect the fact that the sample constituted a nonnegligible fraction of the entire population.3 Sampling Week A constructed week was randomly determined from January 1, 1995, to June 30, 1995. A constructed week was selected because advertiser and reader demand sets up cycles within a week. It avoids the possibility of oversampling Sundays or Saturdays, when large or small newsholes are usually published4 The major problem with any sampling is that it could create systematic bias due to the time of year.5 For instance, during the 49 summer of 1996, newspapers were full of news about the Olympic games. A certain event, accident, or trend of a certain period of time might affect the generalizability of the sample. The current year (1996) was not selected for this study because the newspapers during this period were full of stories about the rape of a Japanese elementary school girl in Okinawa by three American servicemen. With this case as a turning point, Japanese public opinion against the three US. servicemen peaked, and then extended to the existence of the US. military bases in the Okinawa prefecture (10.47% of this prefecture was occupied by the US. military).6 To avoid this abnormal intensive international news coverage, the six months before September 1995, when the Okinawa issue happened had to be chosen. As a result, the period from January 1, 1995, to June 30, 1995, was chosen. A random constructed week was selected by using a list of random numbers in The Practice of Social Research] The dates and days were selected by selecting each one of the week days during that period. For example, there were 26 Mondays during this period. Each was assigned a number from 1 to 26 from the first Monday, January 2, 1995, to the 26th Monday, June 26, 1995. One Monday was randomly selected from the 26. Dates were, therefore, automatically determined. Following this procedure seven times, seven days, one from Sunday through Saturday respectively, were selected. The selected dates and days were: Sunday, June 4; Monday, March 13; Tuesday, March 7; Wednesday, January 25; Thursday, May 18; Friday, February 24; and Saturday, March 11. 50 Content Coding (Dependent Variables) The international news coverage of Japanese local newspapers was examined. Before defining international news, the definitions of news was clarified, as follows: News was all material published in a newspaper, excluding advertising. Advertising: As articulated by Lacy, advertising was that portion of the newspaper devoted to display advertising, classified advertising, and copy identified as advertising.8 This included businesses with stories written primarily to promote business and not to provide information to readers for their own use. This also included real estate and housing stories written to promote the products of particular companies. News: News was categorized into international news and other. Other was all in the newspaper, except advertising, and international news, e.g., title of the newspaper, local news, and white space. Definition of International News International news included information about events or issues that happened outside of Japan as well as other world news regardless of the origin of the news. Therefore, it included not only news dispatched from outside of Japan but also editorials, analysis, and letters from readers, which talked about news outside of Japan. Details about the selection of these stories were explained as the following: 1) Stories sent from outside of Japan: The content or how the stories were written did not matter. If news which dealt with Japanese people was sent from outside of Japan, it was considered international news. For example, if the news about the Japanese tea ceremony held in the White House was sent from the United States, it was considered 51 international news. 2) Stories about foreign countries or events: If countries mentioned in a story did not have a direct relationship with the topic of the story, the story was not treated as international news. For example, if a story was a personal profile about the Japanese Prime Minister, and the story mentioned several countries where he had visited, the story was not considered international news. However, if the Japanese Prime Minister talked about the relationship between China and Taiwan with the US. ambassador, the story was considered international news. 3) Stories about foreign people: Only when stories focused on foreigners’ nationality were the stories treated as international news. For example, a story might be about a sporting event where a foreign player plays, but it was not treated as an international story unless the story was focusing on the foreign player’s nationality. However, even if visuals, e.g., tables, graphs, illustrations, pictures, maps, cartoons, and comments on the visuals, were related to international stories, they were not considered international news. Categorization International stories were analyzed into two major categories: topic and type. Topics of international news included political, economic, social, sports, and other news. The types of international news were hard news, soft news, news analysis news, and other news. The operationalization of these subcategories was defined as follows: Topic of International News International news story topics were categorized into five types: political news, economic news, social news, sports news, and others. If a story mentioned several topics, the story was categorized by the topic that appeared to be its main focus. If there were subtopics under a main topic, they were ignored. For example, if in a presidential 52 campaign, a candidate talked about education, then this story was categorized into political not social news. Political News: Political news was general politics, administration, policy, cabinet, legislation, budget, political party, diplomacy, foreign policy, treaty, pact, alliance, international conference, international cooperation, diplomatic relation, territory, international critics, deportation, exile, military affairs, war, invasion, coup d’ etat, revolution, guerrillas, riot, dispute, and crusade. Economic News: Economic news was general economics including finance, currency, prices of commodities, enterprise, stock, investment, international income and expenditure, economic development, and international financial aid. Also, industrial activity, labor problems, enterprise management, merger, cooperation, product, commodity, inroads into foreign markets, imports and exports, trade and expenditure, and international trade fairs. Social News: Social news was population, household, poverty, immigration, refugees, welfare, local society, communication, human rights, discrimination, traffic, disaster, natural calamity, disaster prevention, crime, graft, trial, prevention of crime, destruction, pollution, and weather. Also it included on clothing, food, housing, leisure, travel, hobbies, marriage, recreation, consumer movements, custom, fashion, health, culture, art, religion, morality, ethics, education, and science technology. Sports News: Sports news was international tournaments, sports events, and sports groups. Other: Other news was obituary, profile, and the Imperial Household. 53 Type of Story Story types about international news were categorized into four groups, hard news, soft news, analysis, and other. Hard News: Hard news was defined as serious, factual, and timely stories about important topics.9 Hard news consists of factual presentations of events. For example, hard news was the gubernatorial message to the legislature, the State of the Union Address to Congress, or the train-truck accident of a murderer.” Hard news includes conflict- oriented news (conflict-oriented stories are defined later). Trend stories, such as business trend or scientific trend, were not included unless they had a strong conflict element involved.ll Therefore, stories such as accidents, crime, police reports, fire, riots, and war were defined as hard news. Soft News: Soft news referred to feature or human interest stories. Soft news was written primarily to entertain rather than inform and appeals to its readers’ emotions more than to their intellect.” For example, soft news was a story about a big-city bus driver who offered a cheery “good morning” to every passenger on his early morning run, or a feature about a lonely female bear.” Analysis News: Analysis was usually identified by its emphasis on interpretation, which was either labeled as analysis or obvious because of the length of the story. These stories often carry terms such as “news analysis, investigative report,” or “series.” For instance, analysis news would be a story about an environmental issue, the destruction of ozone layer, and simultaneously, would tell the reasons, influence on the human body, or how to protect it. Other: Other news included all the news except hard news, soft news, and analysis news. In this study, international news in the 54 editorial section, in the letters from readers section, and in the TV and radio section were included in this category, because the content of these sections had a different viewpoint from those in the other sections. Content in these sections was written with writers’ or readers’ own interpretation and appraisal of events.“ Opinion was different from news. Pictures or maps related to international news were also considered as other news. Conflict-Oriented Stories Conflict News: Conflict news was defined using Lacy, Chang, and Lau’s 1989 study.15 According to their definition, conflict was timely stories that involved either physical or ideological conflict, disaster, or violence. Disaster was defined as conflict news because it involves man in conflict with natural forces.” Because conflict involves changes in customs and values, social unrest, and changes in the status quo, the examples of conflict included wars, invasion, coup d’ etat, revolution, guerrillas, riot, uprising, political disagreement, special interest groups that advocate social change.17 Coding Process Two coders, one being the researcher, coded the newspapers. Before coding, the coding instructions and the definitions explained above were given to the coders (see Appendix A). A verbal explanation of the project, instructions, and brief review of each definition were given to the second coder. Coding was done page by page of newspapers. The first step in the coding process was to seek information on the name, date, and page numbers of the paper. International news items which qualify for coding under the definitions were determined and each item were assigned a number. The name of the headline was also to be recorded for identification purposes. 55 Next, the topic of the story was identified. The type of story was also noted. Names of wire services a newspaper company subscribes to were also recorded. Only when the story was from a wire service the name of the wire service was recorded for the purpose of providing the independent variable data about the number of wire services a newspaper subscribes to and the percentage of stories that come from wire services. After the data for the content of the international news was collected, story length was measured in square centimeters. Headlines related to the international story were included in the measurement, but the names of sections which were not affected by story change were not included.” After calculating the total international news space on each page of the newspaper, the total space of each page of the newspaper was measured. This was done by measuring the width and length of the material on a page. The width was measured from one edge of copy to the other. The length was measured from the top of the copy to the bottom of the copy. Once the total space in a page was figured out, the square centimeters of advertising were calculated and subtracted from the total space. Then the total news space, which included both domestic and international news coverage, was figured out. This procedure was repeated for all pages of each newspaper in the constructed week. The researcher transferred figures for the news items of each page for each newspaper to a newspaper content summary sheet for each day of the week. Then, a summary sheet for the entire week was constructed. Total news space, international news space, and the space of each of the subgroups of story topic, story type, and percentage of stories that come from wire services were calculated. 56 The percentages of the total square centimeters in each category were also presented Coder Reliability Before actually conducting coding, researchers must know the extent of agreement between coders. Similar results should be expected when the same coding instructions and definitions are used by different coders on a given sample of data.” The types of reliability data that were derived from this study are space measurement reliability and category reliability. To maximize space measurement reliability, the researcher provided the same rulers to the coder to measure the space of international news coverage. rTo test the space measurement reliability, the researcher randomly chose three newspapers and he and the other coder measured the space of international news coverage in three pages in each of the newspapers, which were also randomly selected. , The coders’ measures were then compared using a Pearson product- moment correlation coefficient. The results are presented in TABLE 2. As the table shows, the resulting r is .99, which illustrates a high degree of correlation. The percentage difference between the other coder’s and the researcher’s measurement, which was calculated by dividing the absolute value of the difference by the original coder’s measurement, ranged from .23 to 2.31. Two out of three differences were below the mean difference, 1.09 percent, which showed the effect of a large difference on the mean. Differences found in the results seemed to be caused by the failure to measure arranged characters correctly. In Japanese local newspapers, the titles of news are sometimes very large and used in varieties of arranged characters to attract readers’ 57 TABLE 2 SPACE MEASUREMENT RELIABILITY RESULTS Coders’ Author’s Difference* Percent Measurement* Measurement* Difference“ 463.40 462.34 +1.06 .23 1147.34 1173.88 -26.54 2.31 1250.04 1241.06 +8.98 .72 Average percentage difference for 3 issues 1.09 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for author’s and coders’ measures 99.91% * These measurements are in square centimeters. ** Percent difference = absolute value of difference value ofcoder’s measurement attention. In such cases, it was difficult to judge which word was the longest or tallest in a line. The measurement variations between the two coders existed; however, those differences were not great and did not have an effect on the result as shown by the high degree of correlation. Therefore, it has been concluded that various measures between coders did not create systematic bias in the data. Category reliability depends on a coder’s ability to categorize which items belong to which category.” This test was done for the individual coding categories by the use of Scott’s pi. Scott’s pi is; Pi = 96 of observed agreement - 96 of expected agreement 1 - 96 of expected agreement 58 Before conducting category reliability two times at different points, the coder not only received instructions and had explanations by the author, but also had advice one by one by the author as the coder measured and categorized the news stories for the first couple of newspapers. After the coder coded the constructed weeks for two newspapers, the category reliability was conducted, (see TABLE 3). The second check was done after several more newspapers were coded, (see TABLE 4). Three randomly selected pages of three randomly selected newspapers were used for each check. TABLE 3 CODER ITEM AGREEMENT (FIRST TIME) Items Agree . Items Scott’s Pi Disagree Story Topic 32 2 91.74% Story Type 33 1 93.5496 Conflict News 32 2 83.61% Wire News 34 0 100.00% As shown in TABLE 3, Scott’s Pi in the first result ranged from 83.61 to 100 percent, which shows a high degree of agreement between the coders. In spite of the good result, the author examined the coding sheets and news stories to see why the coder categorized some stories differently. The author found that some stories seemed to be difficult to categorize. For example, there was a news story about The G7 summit. The coder categorized it as political news, but the researcher coded it as social news. Political or economical 59 relationships among countries might be discussed in the summit; however, in this case, global cooperation to stamp out poverty was a main topic of the meeting. If power relationships between or among countries were involved in a main topic, the news was considered political news. If international support for poor countries and the eradication of poverty was in a main topic, the story was considered social news. The researcher stressed the importance of accuracy to the other coder in regards to story categorization. Following the first result of category reliability, the author gave the coder one more time to read the instructions carefully and clarified story categorization. TABLE 4 CODER ITEM AGREEMENT (SECOND TIME) Items Agree Items Scott’s Pi Disagree Story Topic 29 0 100.00% Story Type 29 0 100.00% Conflict News 29 0 100.00% Wire News 29 0 100.00% TABLE 4 shows the result of second category reliability. There were no disagreements between researcher’s and the coder’s findings. It was concluded that the instrument was highly reliable. Validity The appropriateness of sampling and reliability were essential elements of this research, but not sufficient conditions for validity. 6O Validity is the degree to which researchers measure what they are suppose to measure. In other words, validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration.” In this study, the space of international news coverage was measured to determine what factors affect international news coverage. Validity questions such as whether the measurement represents the results of international news coverage were considered throughout the research. Face validity based on Holsti’s four types of validity, and the analysis of regression residuals were utilized in this research to verify the validity questions of this research. The face, or content, validity is based on the understanding that an aspects of the measurements are represented in an accurate, unquestionable manner.22 In terms of face validity, the data collected in this research seemed valid for two reasons. First, the measurement of each news space using square centimeters was valid because each item of news was assigned space by the editors. Using square centimeters instead of using the number of words was appropriate because the size of a word and the size of a title were different among newspaper companies/Second, as Lacy stated in his 1986 study, the allocation of news is a two-step process.” Subject and space are determined respectively. Editors make decisions where and how news should be reported in newspapers. Thus, it was valid that the measurement of each subject and space reflected the process of allocation of news coverage. In addition to the validity addressed above, this study looked further at residuals to analyze validity. The results of this analysis is mentioned in the beginning of Chapter 5. 61 Use of Existing Data: (Independent Variables) Independent variables are organizational factors for covering stories and market factors. Organizational factors are: capital fund, the number of wire services, and percentage of stories that come from wire services. Market factors are: competition, economic, cultural, and political relations. The measures of these variables are as follows: Organizational Factors m1 Capital was defined as investment by stockholders. Capital was money for operating a business, but unlike assets, capital did not include renting fees, cars, building, land, printing machines, or inventory. In the real world, people can buy something in two ways. One is using his own money. The other one is to borrow money from a bank. Most large companies borrow funds from a bank to do their business. A company that has a larger amount of money than another does not necessarily mean that the company has more capital. Capital is one of the best indicators for knowmg the health of companies and, consequently, the size of business. In this study, capital was defined as the “money” a company owns. Since companies are owned by stockholders, capital was defined as the total value of a company’s stocks. Therefore, the total amount of capital was the multiplication of the value of one stock by the number of stocks. It is possible to compile a list of the exact amount of the capital of Japanese newspapers, because stocks of newspaper companies in Japan are basically fixed. As stated in Chapter 3, the stock of Japanese newspapers is not sold to the public. Their capital is stable. Thus, this 62 study used this data. The capital funds used in this study were based on data in the Japanese Newspaper Annual 199 51996” published by the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association. This book has a list of the capital of each newspaper. Wire Service The number of wire services each newspaper company subscribes to could not be provided from any published source. Most Japanese newspaper companies did not reveal the number of wire services they subscribed to. Therefore, this variable was taken from the bylines in the newspaper samples. By knowmg how many wire services a newspaper company subscribes to, the relationship between the number of wire services and the foreign news coverage was examined. If many stories used the same wire service, it was counted as one wire service. If one story used multiple wire services, such as AP and Reuters, it was counted as two wire services. Once the name of a wire service was listed, the same name was not counted accumulatively. Therefore, the result would be, for instance, Shimotsuke Shimbun used three wire services: AP, Kyodo and Reuters. This study looked at how the number of wire services affected the international coverage of a newspaper. In addition to the number of wire services, this study looked at the relationship between the percentage of stories that come from wire services and international news coverage. The percentage was determined by the calculation whose denominator was all the news and whose numerator was all the stories that come from wire services. This percentage should be considered because counting only the number of wire services did not show the difference between a firm which fully used wire services and one which did not fully use them. For 63 example, a newspaper with five wire services and one with three could both use the same amount of wire material. Therefore, measuring the percentage of stories that come from wire services as well as counting the number of wire services subscribed to was important. A vast body of literature points out that international coverage depends heavily on wire services.” The assumption that the greater the number of wire services a firm subscribes to, the greater the amount of international news coverage can be made. Market Factors Competition Competition was measured by the percentage of penetration of competing papers. Penetration referred to circulation divided by the number of households in a province.” The percentage of penetration of competing papers was determined by the following procedure. First, the percentage of penetration of each of the competitive newspapers was figured out from the data taken from Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1%.” Then each percentage of the competitors’ penetration was added. The total percentage showed the percentage of penetration of the competing papers. This measurement is similar to the concept of “market share”in the field of marketing. Intercity competition is often measured by examining the market share held by a firm’s competitors, which is an interval-level measurement.” According to Lacy and Vermeer, two important points are assumed by this measure: one is that “the firms under consideration produce products that are considered substitutes by a significant number of readers or viewers.”” The other is that “increased market shares by competitors represent increased substitution of the competitor’s products for the products of the firm 64 being studied.”30 In addition, it has the advantage of having face validity because this is an interval measurement. Furthermore, since this measurement could reveal the market share of a newspaper in a province, how much a newspaper was superior or inferior to the competitors in a particular province was known. Economic Ties Economic relationships were measured by using the data of the total market value of exports and imports (in US. dollars) of all goods within a province.”1 The data shows the amount of money each province used for exports and imports, and its destination. The degree of economic ties in each province is the addition of the total value of exports and imports in the province. Fukushima prefecture, for example, had $9,430 thousand for exports and $54,100 thousand for imports. Therefore, the total degree of economic ties of Fukushima was $63,530 thousand. If the total of exports and imports in a province was large, the economic connection between the province and foreign countries was considered strong. Cultural Ties The number of foreigners registered to the Japanese government was measured as a scale of cultural ties. It was measured using Registered Foreigners 1995.32 The data provided the total number of foreigners and their nationality in each province. The data also included the number of stateless persons. The definition of a stateless persons was people who did not have their identifications or passport by December 21, 1995, when they registered themselves to the Japanese government. It also included the people who did not give their nationality. However, it did not include illegal immigrants. The number of illegal immigrants was unknown. All the 65 registered foreigners, therefore, including stateless people, but not including illegal immigrants were subject of this study. Therefore, the number of registered foreigners in each province was the measurement of cultural ties. Political Ties First, this study tried to look at political relationships by attempting to look at the relationship of the US. military in Japan. The data of the number of military officers in each provinces was desired, but the American military office in Japan did not reveal such information. The only existing data that this study could use was that of the American forces stationed in Japan published by the Japan-US. Security Treaty division in Tokyo.”3 Unfortunately, this data could not be used for this study because the data showed that only five provinces out of forty-seven had major American military bases. There was a high possibility of these provinces not being chosen for samples. If none of the provinces was selected, the relationship between political ties and the international news coverage could not be examined. Therefore, to measure political ties, the author decided to look at a different existing source. Political relationships were measured by looking at sister-city relationships between Japanese local governments and cities outside of Japan. Data about sister-city relationships was obtained at the Ministry of Home Affairs.” There was a reason why this measurement was chosen. The sister-city activities begun developing during the 19803 for the purpose of cultural exchange but gradually expanded its purpose to political and universal problems rather than just promoting cultural understandings. Nowadays, basic activities are (1) sister-city friendship and goodwill exchange; (2) events and land readjustment for the 66 purpose of a community development; (3) companies sending employees to sister-city country or accepting people from overseas and working together.” In addition to these activities, both sister-city local governments have made an effort to call attention to universal political problems. For example, one of the prefectures, Hokkaido, started its political activities with its sister-cities in 1974.” The agenda they discussed included wild animal protection, human life environmental protection, marine resources protection, and the protection of natural resources of the Arctic Circle. Another example is Kanagawa prefecture.” It has talked about the use of nuclear weapons and racism with sister-cities. One of the cities in Tochigi prefecture has just made a decision to shift the sister-city relationships from cultural perspectives to political ones.” The agenda of this year was the improvement in women’s status, and the conference was held in October 1996. The number of sister-city relationships a province has, as well as the number of cities that participate in sister-city relationships, were counted. For example, if ten cities in Tokyo had sister-city relationships with twelve foreign cities, and Tokyo had a sister-city relationship with one government entity outside of Japan, then it was determined that Tokyo had thirteen sister-city relationships. Path Analysis Path analysis was used as the appropriate statistical design for this study because the time order of the independent variables could be established. The analysis is mainly a method for identifying causal variables that could explain why the phenomenon occurs, and then for determining whether correlations among all the variables are consistent 67 with the theory.” It was introduced by Sewell Wright (192 1, 1960), and Duncan (1966) popularized it in the area of the Social Sciences.” The analysis was represented graphically by the presence of arrows referring the direction of variable association and the strength of that association through part r.41 This study used part I instead of the standardized regression coefficient for the path analysis because part r is more useful for comparing independent variables across regression equation. In this study, the diagram consists of three parts. International news that came from wire services is placed in the center of the diagrams. The rest of the independent variables are placed on the left side of that variable, and all dependent variables are placed on the right side of that variable. These variables are placed in this way in an attempt to describe the time sequence. International news that came from wire services was separated from the rest of the independent variables because the amount of international news that came from the wire services was caused by the rest of the independent variables. Since the international news that came from wire services functioned as both independent and dependent variables, it is placed between the rest of the independent variables and the dependent variables. Because some variables were not important in explaining the dependent variables, the final path diagrams included only a few of all the independent variables originally considered in the path analysis.” All equations that were not statistically significant were dropped. Thus, all the partial regression coefficients presented in the diagrams in Chapter 5 are statistically significant at p < .05 level. Although part r was presented in diagrams, part I square was used to explain the diagrams 68 since it is a better predictor of the proportion of variation in dependent variables explained by independent variables.” Statistical Analysis The data from the content analysis and existing data were collected and recorded into the SPSS software. Analysis was completed using SPSS 6.1 program. The frequency distributions, means, modes, medians, standard deviations, and skewness, were run before the data was used for testing the five research questions. All research questions were addressed by using different statistics. The first two research questions sought to determine whether there were differences between two variables: the difference between the international coverage of local newspapers that publish two editions a day and that publish only one edition a day, and the difference between the international news coverage of morning local newspapers and evening local newspapers. The t-tests were used to address these research questions. It allowed the researcher to test for statistically significant differences between treatment means and to estimate the differences between the means.“4 In order to reject the null hypothesis, the level of statistical significance which was used in this study was p < .05. The last three research questions examining the relationship between the independent variables and various categories of international news content in Japanese local newspapers were addressed using multiple regression in a path analysis. Multiple regression was used in this study because the goal was to describe the relationships between more than two variables. It is a statistical method for analyzing situations where a given dependent variable is 69 affected simultaneously by several independent variables.“5 This research also used beta weights and part correlations. There are three basic methods for entering independent variables into regression equations: simultaneous regression, stepwise regression, and hierarchical regression methods. This study used hierarchical regression which is useful when path analytic interpretations are to be made.“6 The order of entry of the independent variables were specified based on research relevance. The examination of changes in regression coefficients at each step allowed a greater understanding of the nature of interrelationships among the variables. 7O 1 The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1996 [Newspaper Guide 1996]. 2 The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1996]Newspaper Guide 1996]. 3 Amir D. Aczel, Complete Business Statistics, 3rd ed. (Chicago: Irwin, 1996) 226. 4 Daniel Riffe, Charles F. Aust, and Stephen R. Lacy, “The Effectiveness of Random, Consecutive Day and Constructed Week Sampling in Newspaper Content Analysis,” Journalism Quarterly 70 (Spring 1993): 133-139. 5 Stephen Richard Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content,” diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1986, 126. 6 Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, North American Affairs Bureau, J apan-U.S. Security Treaty Division, “Churyugun Shisetsu no Genkyo 1995 [The US. Forces in Japan 1995].” 7 Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, 6th ed. (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1992) A2 7. 8 Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content” 278. 9 Fred Fedler, Reporting for the Print Media, 5th ed. (New York: Harcourt V Brace College Publishers, 1993) 114. ” Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Realig (New York: The Free Press, 1987) 47. 1‘ Stephen Richard Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content” 279. ‘2 Fred Fedler, Reporting for the Print Media 114. ‘3 Mark Fishman, Manufacturing the News (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) 162. 71 1" Stanley P. Johnson, and Julian Harriss, The Complete Reporter: A General Text in News Writing and Editing, Complete with Exercises (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1942) 348. ” Stephen Lacy, Tsan-Kuo Chang and Tuen-Yu Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage,” Newspaper Research Journal 10 (Fall 1989): 27. ” Lacy, Chang, and Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage,” 27. ‘7 George A. Hough, News Writing, 3rd (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984) 3; The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Annual Report (1984) 30. ” Akihiko Haruhara, lecture note of Shimbunron [Journalism class] at Sophia University, Japan, 17 June 1992. He said, “Most readers in Japan do not care who wrote stories and who wrote headlines. Readers take headlines as one part of stories.” ” Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities (Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1969) 135. ” Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities 136. 2‘ Babbie, The Practice of Social Research 132. ”- David A. Aaker, V. Kumar, and George S. Day, Marketing Research, 5th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995) 277. ” Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content” 156. 2“ The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Nihon Shimbun Nenkan [Japanese Newspaper Annual 199 51996] (1996). ” For example, David H. Weaver and G. Cleveland Wilhoit, “Foreign News in the Western Agencies,” Foreign News and The New World Information Order, eds. Robert L. Stevenson and Donald L. Shaw (Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1984) 1 53-185; Wilbur Schramm, “Circulation of News in the Third World,” Mass Communication Review Yearbook, eds. G. Cleveland Wilhoit and Harrold De Bock (Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage 72 Publications, 1980); Lacy, Chang, and Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage” 23-3 2; Al Hester, “An Analysis of News Flow From Developed and Developing Nations,” Gazette 17 (1971): 29-43. ” Dominic L. Lasorsa, “Effects of Newspaper Competition on Public Opinion Diversity,” Journalism Quarterly 68.1-2 (Spring/Summer 1991): 43. 27 The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1996 [Newspaper Guide 1996]. ” Stephen Lacy and Jan P. Vermeer, “Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Operationalizing Newspaper and Television News Competition,” Theimrnal of Media Economics 8.1: 49-61. ” Lacy and Vermeer, “Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Operationalizing Newspaper and Television News Competition” 54. 3° Lacy and Vermeer, “Theoretical and Practical Considerations in Operationalizing Newspaper and Television News Competition” 54. 3‘ Bank of Japan, Research and Statistics Department, Economic Statistics Annual by Prefecture 199 5. 32 Japan, Ministry of Justice, Immigration Bureau, Registration Division, “Gaikokujin Touroku Kokusekibetsu Jin’in Chosahyo, December 3 1, 1995 [Registered Foreigners by Country, December 3 1, 1995].” 33 Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, North American Affairs Bureau, Japan-US Security Treaty Division, “Churyugun Shisetsu no Genkyo 1995 [The US. Forces in Japan 1995].” 3“ Japan, Ministry of Home Affairs, “Nihon no Shimaitoshi Ichiran [list of Sister-Cityl.” 35 Chiezo [The Asahi Encyclopedia of Current Terms] (Japan: Asahi Shimbun, 1995) 289-290. ” Hokkaido Prefectural Government, International Affairs Division, “Chihou Koukyodantai no Kokusaikyoryoku no Jirei [Examples of International Cooperation by Local Governments]. 73 37 Chiezo fl" he Asahi Encyclopedia of Current Terms] (Japan: Asahi Shimbun, 1995) 289-290. 3” Satomi Ozeki in International Affairs Division at Tochigi Prefectural Government, phone interview with the author, 5 Sept. 1996. 39 Jack R. Fraenkel, and Norman E. Wallen, How To Design and Evaluate Research In Education, 2nd ed (New Yorlc McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993) 292. 4° Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai Hull, Jean G. Jenkins, Karin Steinbrenner, and Dale H. Bent, SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975) 383-397. “1 Serena W. Stanford, “Statistical Designs in Survey Research,” Research Methods in Mass Communication, eds. Guido H. Stempel Ill and Bruce H. Westley, 2nd ed (New Jersey: Presntice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1989) 191. ‘2 Stanford 191. ‘3 Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent, SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 327. 4“ David A. Aaker, V. Kumar, and George S. Day, Marketing Research, 5th ed (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) 491. ‘5 Babbie, The Practice of Social Research 439-441. ‘” Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent, SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 344. Chapter 5 RESULTS Validity Concerns The analysis of regression residuals is an important tool for determining whether the assumptions of the multiple regression model appear to be violated1 A residual is the difference between the observed value and the value predicted by the regression equation.2 When the residuals are plotted against the predicted values in scattergrams, the resulting plots provide useful insights in learning how appropriate the regression model is for a particular data set. This study plotted residuals against each of the dependent variables. When the residuals are distributed randomly about their mean of zero, there is no major violation of the assumption and there is consistency in the data set.3 When the residuals show an increasing or decreasing pattern in which the situation is called heteroscedasticity, or a nonlinear pattern, or a trend in which the situation is called autocorrelation, the assumption is violated and there is no consistency. Overall results of each of the plotted residuals proved that the assumption was not violated since most of the scattergrams showed randomly distributed residuals around the mean of zero. Only a few problems were found in the case of international social news, soft news, and analysis news. Their residuals showed slightly increasing patterns which were referred to as heteroskedasticity. A weighted least-squares procedure could be used to correct this type of problem; 74 75 however, since most of the data showed consistency, because the results were only slightly heteroskedastic, and the problem existed in three cases did not seem to have an influence on the data when estimating the parameters of the regression model, this procedure was not used In summary, this data were appropriate because the plots of residuals proved that there were no major violations of the assumption in the data sets. Findings Of the total news space of the 48 newspapers that were sampled in this study, an average of 7.05 percent of this space was devoted to international news coverage. Among the five categories of international news topic, social news accounted for the most space in the sample -- the average of 47.12 percent of total international news space. Following social news, stories dealing with politics, sports, economics, and other international topics represented the average of 21.37 percent, 17.47 percent, 13.07 percent, and 0.96 percent of the total international news space. Among international story types, hard news, soft news, analysis news, and other type of international news accounted for the average of 57.15 percent, 19.81 percent, 9.40 percent, and 13.64 percent of the total international news space. Of the total international news space, conflict news represented 15.94 percent. More than half of the international news space, 56.78 percent, was international news space that came from wire services. It is interesting to note that no Japanese local newspapers used more than two wire services, and all 48 newspapers used Kyodo. Thirty six out of forty eight newspapers, 75 percent, used only one wire service. 76 The characteristics of independent variables were presented in Appendix B. In this frequency distribution of independent variables, the problem of outliers became evident. Outliers are cases with such extreme values on one or a combination of variables that they unduly influence the size of correlation coefficients, the average value for a group, or the variability of scores within a group.4 Outliers are also influential because such outliers determine the inclination of possible regression lines. To specify whether outliers exist, it is important to look at skewness. Skewness is a measure of the degree of asymmetry of a frequency distribution? When the distribution is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve, the skewness is zero. The more the distribution stretches to the right (left) than it does to the left (right), the positively (or negatively) greater the value of skewness becomes. Therefore, if the value of skewness is positively or negatively very large, it is possible that there are outliers in that data. On dealing with outliers, the researcher decided to manipulate extreme values to retain the data for analysis rather than dropping the outliers based on Tabachnick and Fidell’s Using Multivariate Statistics? Those scores that were larger or smaller than three standard deviations from its mean were considered to be outliers. When changing scores of variables causing outliers, one of the options, assigning the outlying case the value of three standard deviations from the mean, was chosen. Appendix C shows the adjusted data of the independent variables. A logarithmic transformation was further applied to two independent variables, trade and culture (registered foreigners), which still showed high values of skewness, 4.10 and 2.47 points. Natural logarithms, logs to base e, were used for the log transformation. 77 Logarithm is often used when the relationship between one dependent variable and one or more of the independent variables is nonlinear. Using a logarithmic transformation may help a nonlinear model to be changed to a linear model? However, the result showed that the data which used a logarithmic transformation explained less variance than the original data. The values of r-square in original data were greater than ones in the transformed data. As a result, the researcher decided to keep the original data for further analysis. Research Question 1 1) Do the characteristics of international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers published in two-dafly editions differ from those published only in one edition? The t-test was used in order to see whether there was a difference between the characteristics of international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers published in two-daily editions and those published only in one edition. The results were presented in TABLE 5. The mean value of the total international news in newspapers published in two editions a day was 8.141 percent whfle newspapers published in one edition a day had the average of 5.769 percent of total international news space at .001 statistically significance level. Since the value of the Two-Tail Significance was smaller than .05, the null hypothesis was rejected; that is, there was a difference between the total international news space of newspapers published in two-daily editions and that of newspapers published in one-dafly edition. In the section of international other type news, difference between two-daily editions and one-daily editions was recognized The mean value of two-daily editions was 10.897 percent, compared to 16.883 percent of the one-daily edition at .025 Two-Tail Significance T-TEST FOR TWO-DAILY EDITIONS AND ONE-DAILY EDITION 78 TABLE 5 Two-Daily One-Daily Two- Variable Editions Mean Edition Mean T-Value Tailed (N=26) (N=2 2) Sig. Total lntemational News 8.141% 5.769% 3.68 .001 Topic of Story International Political News 23.438% 18.914% 1.60 .118 International Economic News 13.574% 12.468% .74 .463 International Social News 46.403% 47.96 7% -.35 .729 lntemational Sports News 15.605% 19.674% -1.56 .125 lntemational Other Topic News .9 79% .9 30% -. 14 .891 Type of Story lntemational Hard News 59.786% 54.02 5% 1.50 .140 lntemational Soft News 19.861% 19.750% .03 .977 lntemational Analysis News 9.4 5 7% 9.342% .06 .95 3 lntemational Other Type News 10.897% 16.883% —2.37 .025 Conflict International Conflict- Oriented News 16.542% 15.22 5% .54 .592 Wire News lntemational News from Wire Services 60.918% 51.895% 2.17 .036 79 level. The t-test results also showed that the space of international wire news in two daily edition newspapers was different from that in one-daily edition newspapers. Two daily edition newspapers had the mean of 60.918 percent while one-daily edition newspapers had the average of 51.895 percent of international news that came from wire services at Two-Tail Significance value of .030 level Except the three categories introduced above, no statistically significant differences were found between two-daily editions and one- daily edition in other sections, international political, economic, social, sports, other topic, hard, soft, analysis, and conflict news. There were statistical differences when two daily edition newspapers and one-daily edition newspapers were compared in the sections of total international news, international other type news, and wire news, but variations in the other nine categories were not as statistically significant. Research Qpestion 2 2) Do the characteristics of international news coverage in local Japanese morning newspapers differ from those characteristics in local Japanese evening newspapers? TABLE 6 presents the t-tests used to test the second hypotheses. In the category of story topics, morning newspapers had a significantly larger percentage of international news space available for political and sports news than did evening newspapers. Morning papers had the mean value of 25.307 percent of international news given to political news and 21.188 percent given to sports news, compared to only 15.347 percent of international evening news devoted to political news and 11.795 percent of the international news space 80 TABLE 6 T-TEST FOR MORNING PAPER AND EVENING PAPER Morning Evening Paper Two- Variable Paper Mean Mean (N =1 9) T-Value Tailed (N=29) Sig. Total International News 7. 3 08% 6.66 5% . 78 .44 5 Topic of Story lntemational Political News 25.307% 15.34 7% 4.04 .001 lntemational Economic News 13.802% 11.945% 1.23 .225 lntemational Social News 38.791% 59.832% -6.26 .001 International Sports News 21.188% 11.795% 4.01 .001 lntemational Other Topic News .910% 1.02 7% -. 3 3 . 74 5 Type of Story lntemational Hard News 62.940% 48.301% 3.99 .001 lntemational Soft News 12.896% 30.363% -5.13 .001 lntemational Analysis News 12.15896 5.202% 4.09 .001 lntemational Other Type News 12.007% 16.135% -l.64 .107 Conflict lntemational Conflict- Oriented News 19.948% 9.818% 5.07 .001 Wire News lntemational News from Wire Services 61.107% 50.182% 2.49 .019 81 given to sports news in evening newspapers. Both t-tests showed the Two-Tail Significant value of .001 which means differences between morning and evening newspapers in political and sports sections were statistically significant. Evening newspapers had a statistically larger percentage of international news given to social stories than did morning papers. Only the average of 38.791 percent of international news was devoted to social news in morning newspapers, while over half of international news, an average of 59.832%, was for social news in evening newspapers. There was no significant difference between morning and evening newspapers in the total international news space, economic news space, and other topic news space. Among four news types, morning newspapers had a significantly larger percentage of international news space given to hard news and analysis news than did evening papers, but in the section of soft news, evening newspapers had a significantly larger percentage of international news space given to soft news than did morning papers. Morning papers had mean values of 62.94 percent of international news for hard news and 12.158 percent for analysis news while evening newspapers had the mean values of 48.301 percent for hard news and 5.202 percent for analysis news. The percentages of international news space that was given to soft news was only 12.896 for morning newspapers, compared to 30.363 percent for evening newspapers. In addition, international other type news did not have differences which were statistically significant. Morning newspapers had a significantly larger percentage of international news space devoted to conflict news and news that came from wire services than did evening newspapers. lntemational conflict 82 news in morning newspapers accounted for the average of 19.948 percent while 9.818 percent of the evening newspapers. Of international news space, the mean value of 61.107 percent was given to news that came from wire services in morning newspapers while 50.182 percent of the evening newspapers. Both t-tests had Two-Tail Significances which were smaller than .05 level, and it can be concluded that morning papers were different from evening papers in terms of conflict news space and wire news space. Thus, in 8 out of 12 categories statistically significant differences between morning papers and evening papers were proved. Research Qgiestion 3 3) Is the percentage of stories about international political, economic, social, sports, and other events in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? The average percentage of all international stories that were political news was 21.37 percent. The average percentage of international news space that was given to social news was 47.12 percent. Of international news space, sports news, economic news, and other topic news accounted for 17.47 percent, 13.07 percent, and 0.96 percent. These numbers indicate that about half of international news were stories related to social news, and spaces that were devoted to social, political, and sports news were larger than spaces that were given to economic and other topic news. This hypothesis was tested using a regression equation to ask about the relationship of market variables and organizational variables with international news coverage. To conduct the regression, some preliminary arrangements were made. First, because publication style in research question 2 strongly influenced the news coverage as stated .82: mo. v a 85 8 Humor—Emma fl mwN. :85 .8885 .8 828 .838888 < 8qu 8 Enigma—m oqum 9:3 no 8:852 ”Z 9582 6.8m EQoUmESE ”0 8:93 “2 6.282 838. .850 EGoDmEBE ”m 9.82 85>» RaoumEBE 3 8.382 88on EHSDSEBS ”m 382 62880-8:Eou finonmgafi ”M 9,82 888 8:282:35 ”C :82 89C. .850 Rootmgafi ”a .8382 28285 finoumfioufl ”U 2582 $9322. 8:032885 a $82 Benson 8:093th um ”.82 tom 8:098:88”: ”m 382 finoflmEBE :38. ”< 8.8 9833 85 .3 828853 83285» 8qu 25m noumuannm a. 88.5 savanna ”m 8.550 ”m coat. ”.0 55-888 ”m cottonfiou ”C H m m .C m 0 Z 2 A v— CCCA _. Hm «I CCCA _ CCH. Elm- CCCA 3 «NW. CNN. mac CCCA 0 CCC.. mmCr on N. m3; CCCA "— mCHr mCC. Cams mum. Cad- CCCA m NmC. mCm.- mom. mer wa. mums CCCA Q wove m H m. mm m.- N mm. :5. mos mvmr CCCA U Em: CVm. Ems mew. 30.- mmC. :5- Nov. CCCA m N or NCm. mCN... mom. CCC.- Enos var NH m. mm C. CCCA < a H m U m m D U m < X53242 ZOHHENMMOU \. Ema; 835 08:88:55 :- 88>U E58555 ”m 3330 a: 8:02.:- "d0 55.88% ”A. 9:589:80 ”0 .88: mo. v a 85 8 5:85:88 0 OH fivflsmflfim QUEMW v.53 HO MODESZ ”Z 585 ”2 j 0382 8:3 8:85.588: 1: 0382 85:85-85:80 8:853:85: U: 0282 8%.:- 850 8:852:85: ”a 0382 0:38:80. 8:858:85: ”Q 0382 5.8m 8:85.585: 5.. 8.8 08:8: 85 .3 8:88.58: 8:85.; 882 : mwN. :85 889% .8 858 5:88:88 .0. 882 0382 :82 8:85.585: :00 0282 0:08.:- 850 85558:: a 0382 3.:on 8:852:85: ”fl 0382 888m 8:85.585: ”0.. 0382 5:280“.— 8:8:8:8:: O... 9,82 885:8: 8:858:85: "m 0282 8:858:85: 88.:- ".0. 000.: a N8..- 000.: m 8:. mmm. 000.: a 0mm. 08. 000. 000.: d 2.0. 2:. 000. Nmm. 000.: 0 m0m. N8. 000. 00m. am. 000.: . o 8:. 0mm..- :0. :00. m2. 000. 000.: z 08.. m0~.- 8:. -- 80.1- ::.m. immora. -ilmw-ow- 000.: 2 En. m:m.- 8:..- N08 N2.- nwmc 00v. 0::. 000.: : 00w- 08.- 08.- ~:m.- 80.- 000:“... 08.- 0mm. :3. 000.: 0: 0mm. 00m. 00:. 050.0 80. mam-0 08w :0:.- 000.- ::0.- : Em.- 000.- 08.- 0:8... 02.- mmm.- ::0. 8:. mum. ~00. : :8. :00.- 0mm. 00v. 2:. m0m. 80.. 000.- 08.- 0%.- m 08.- 08.- 08.. Rm; 80.- m5- NR. 0: :. m0“. 00m. 0 $0. 08.- 0“ - 08.» m:~.- mm)? 80. R0- 80.- 0:0. n: 000.- m8. 8:. “0:. 00:. m0:. N::. $0. 08. EN. 8 08. :m0. 00m. 08. 0m0. :08. :m:.- NS.- :~m.- ~00: a 0:.- 00:.- 02.- N0:.. 000.- 000.- 02. 80.- 2m. :0m. 0 ~:m.- RN- 00m: .5..- 0::.- :3.- mmo. RN. :0. 0:. 0 02.- 8:..- 0m:..- NEW.“ 0:.- .8m... 0mm; N0:. :0“. ~08. < H m x .\-0x A 0.0 .- 2\ 2 -: v: 8.563 EMU-<2 zomhfimmmou n and»:- 85 above, this variable was treated as one of the independent variables. The publication cycle in research question 1, on the other hand, was considered to be an independent variable only in the categories where the cycle significantly influenced news coverage. Thus, in both the total international news space and in the other type news section, the cycle was added to other independent variables. Second, an independent variable was dropped to avoid multicollinearity. As presented in TABLE 7 of correlation matrix, there was a high degree of correlation between trade and culture with an r of .909. Those explanatory independent variables that are highly correlated with each other cause the problem of multicollinearity when they are included together in the regression equation.8 High correlation between trade and culture indicates that “the two variables represent very much the same direction in space,”9 or “much of the same information about dependent Y(dependent variables)” 1° which cause multicollinearity when both are in the regression equation. To avoid this problem either trade or culture, which ever had less influence on news coverage, was dropped from the regression analysis. For example, in the international total news section, the correlation between culture and total news was -.440 and trade was -.442 Because trade had a negatively stronger influence on the total international news space than culture, culture was dropped in the regression analysis. The results of a regression equation are presented in Appendix F. FIGURE 1 through FIGURE 4 are drawn from those results. Each of figures are explained below. Overall in the hierarchical regression analysis, 53.1 percent of the variability in the total international news coverage can be explained by all eight independent variables: capital, publication style, sister-city, r = -.356 l _1_ Competition Number of , .361 International Total Wire Service News that .438 ’1 lntemational comes from News Trade , -.315 I Wire Services Publication Cycle I 1‘ -.266 FIGURE 1: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: Total lntemational News number of wire service, competition, value of exports and imports, publication cycle, and international news that comes from wire services in Appendix F. FIGURE 1 explains how the total international news was significantly associated with several factors at p < .05 level. Competition, publication cycle, and international news that came from wire services were directly related to the total international news coverage. While the publication cycle had negative relationships with the total international news coverage, and only 7.1 percent of the variation in total international news is explained publication cycle, 12.7 percent is associated with the competition variable directly, which was a negative relationship with total international news. The strongest relationship was between international news that came from wire services and total international news. The part r square of the positive relationship was .192, which means 19.2 percent of the variation in total international news is explained by linear regression on international news that came from wire services. Simultaneously, the number of wire service and trade indirectly affected total international news through 87 international news that came from wire services. The indirect relationship between the number of wire services and the total international news was positive. The effect of the number of wire services on total international news is completely mediated by international news that came from wire services. Thus, 2.5 percent (part r-square .13 x .192) of the variation in total international news is indirectly related to the linear regression of the number of wire services. Trade negatively influenced total international news, and its effect on total international news was fully contained by international news that came from wire services. Therefore, it can be said that linear regression on the trade variable is indirectly related to 1.9 percent of the variation in total international news. r = -.355 F 1 Competition Numb er of .36 1 International lntemational Wire Service ‘ News that .359 3' Political comes from News Trade -.315 Wire Services ~——u Publication -.442 Style __ ' I J -.391 FIGURE 2: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: lntemational Political News FIGURE 2 presents factors that influenced international political news. Fifty-eight point four percent of the variability in international political news can be explained by the seven independent variables as 88 shown in .584 of the adjusted R squared in Appendix C. Among them, competition and publication style were negatively and strongly related to international political news. 12.6 percent and 15.3 percent of the variations in international political news are directly associated with linear regression on the competition and publication cycle respectively while international news that came from wire services was positively related to the international political news, and 12.9 percent of the variation in international political news is explained by linear regression on the international news that came from wire services. Unlike these direct relationships with international political news, there were indirect relationships between the number of wire services and international political news, trade and the international political news, and publication style and the political news coverage all mediated by international news that came from wire services. The relationship between the number of wire services and international political news was positive and 1.7 percent of the total variance in international political news was associated with the number of wire services. Trade and international political news had negative relationship. One point three percent of the variance in international political news is explained by trade. Publication style also negatively influenced international political news. Two point five percent of the total variance in international political news is indirectly related to this variable. The effects of trade and the number of wire services are wholly related to international news that came from wire services. It should also be understood that the covariation between international news that came from wire services and international political news was partly due to the dependence of international political news on international news that came from wire services, and partly due to their direct 89 sharing of a common cause, publication style, the number of wire services and trade. In addition, in terms of publication style, it had stronger influence on international political news when it followed a direct path than when it followed an indirect path. In the case of international economic news, the author did not draw the diagram because total equation was not significant. The variables being examined here were not useful in explaining the dependent variable. The data of the regression equation is included in Appendix F. r = .339 I 1 Competition | Numb er of . .36 1 International International Wire Service News that -.245 a: Social * comes from News I— Trade -.315 Wire Services Publication 5 -.442 Style |—_ ' l .586 f I -.245 5 FIGURE 3: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: lntemational Social News All the seven independent variables explain 70.8 percent of the variability in international social news in the multiple regression analysis was shown in Appendix F. FIGURE 3 shows the path diagram and part correlation coefficient of international social news based on the results of the regression analysis. Factors that were directly related to international social news were competition, trade, publication style, and 90 international news that came from wire services. A relatively strong positive relationship was between publication style and international social news. This was followed by the positive relationship between competition and international social news. Of all, 34.3 percent all the variation in international social news is explained by the publication style; 11.5 percent is associated with the competition variable. Both trade and international news that came from wire services had a directly negative relationship with international social news. Each of the variables is related to six percent of the total variance in international social news. Indirect relationships also existed in the diagram. The number of wire services had a negative relationship with international news that came from wire services. Both trade and publication style are negatively related to international news that came from wire services. The effects of these three variables on international social news were mediated by international news that came from wire services. As a result, 0.8 percent of all the variance in international social news is defined by the number of wire services; 0.6 percent and 1.2 percent were associated with trade and publication style. Trade and publication style have both direct and indirect relationships with international social news. In addition, both variables had a much stronger relationship with international social news if it was direct rather than if it was indirect. FIGURE 4 presented the path diagram and part correlation coefficient of international sport news. As can be seen, 34.6 percent of the variability in international sports news can be explained by all seven independent variables in the hierarchical regression analysis. Among them, publication style had a direct relationship with international 91 -.3 2 | Culture *‘LJ International lntemational Number of .361 News that .402 ' Sports Wire Service ‘ comes from News , Wire Services Publication -.442 Stglfi‘ r = -.429 FIGURE 4: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Sports News sports news. This relationship was negative and 18.4 percent of the total variance in international sports news is associated with publication style. Publication style also had an indirect influence on international sports news, which was negative. The effect of publication style on international sports news is mediated by international news that came from wire services and as a result, 3.2 percent of the total variation in international sports news is explained by linear regression on the publication style through the wire services variable. In addition to publication style, culture and the number of wire services were indirectly related to international sports news. Culture had a negative relationship with international sports news, and 2 percent of the variance in international sports news is associated with this variable. On the other hand, the number of wire services had positive relationship with international sports news, and 2.1 percent is related to this variable. These indirect relationships with international sports news are also explained by culture, the number of wire services, and the publication style that affect international news that came from wire services. These influencing factors were absorbed into international news that came from wire services and were sent out in a 92 direct relationship between international news that came from wire services and international sports news, whose strength is .162 of part I square. This diagram concludes that the covariation between international news that came from wire news and international sports news was partly due to the dependence of international sports news on international news that came from wire news, and partly due to a direct sharing of a variable, publication style, culture, and the number of wire services. Simultaneously, both culture and the number of wire services were related to international news that came from wire services and international sports news, but the effect of culture and the number of wire services on international sports news was completely mediated by international news that came from wire services. No factors were related to international other topic news; therefore, the researcher did not draw the diagram. The total equation of this variable was not significant as shown by .5002 of significant F which reflected a sampling error. Since there was no real impact on the dependent variable, whole variables were dropped The author included the data of the regression equation in Appendix F. In conclusion, these results for research question 3 show that percentage of stories about international political, economic, social, sports, and other events in Japanese local newspapers were related to organizational and market factors. Research Question 4 4) Is the percentage of stories about international hard news, soft news, analysis news, and other news in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? 93 Over half of international news on average, 57.15 percent, was devoted to hard news. The average percentage of international news that was given to soft news was 19.81 percent, followed by 13.64 percent of other type news, and 9.4 percent of analysis news. These numbers point out that most of the international news was hard and possibly soft, but international news space devoted to analysis stories was rare. The research question was tested using a regression equation to ask about the relationship of market variables and organizational variables with international news coverage. As in research question 3, the same preliminary arrangements were made to conduct the regression. FIGURE 5 through FIGURE 8 were the summary results of the regression equations in Appendix F. Number of .361 Wire Service ‘ lntemational International I -.315 News that .443 Hard Trade 7 comes from E News Wire Services Publication , -.442 . Style T r = -.482 FIGURE 5: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Hard News In the hierarchical regression analysis, 65.6 percent of the variability in international hard news can be explained by all seven independent variables. The path diagram and the part correlation coefficient of international hard news was exactly the same as the one 94 of international sports news explained in research question 3 except one variable. FIGURE 5 showed the causal structure among five variables. Publication style was directly related to 23.2 percent of all the variance in international hard news, which was a negative relationship. At the same time, it was also directly and negatively related to 19.5 percent of the variance in international news that came from wire services. The number of wire services and trade had no direct relationship with international hard news; however, they were directly related to international news that came from wire services. The number of wire services had a positive relationship and trade had a negative relationship with international news that came from wire services. The former is associated with 13 percent, and the latter is associated with 9.9 percent of the total variance in international news that came from wire services. lntemational news that came from wire services mediated all three powers, and was strongly and directly related to the 19.6 percent of the total variance in international hard news, which was a positive relationship. In summary, it can be strongly concluded that the covariation between international news that came from wire services and international hard news is partly due to the causal dependence of international hard news on international news that came from wire services, and partly due to their direct sharing of a common cause, publication style, and the number of wire services, and trade. At the same time, the effects of the latter two variables on international hard news were completely mediated by international news that came from wire services. In the section of international soft news, 58.7 percent of the variability can be explained by all seven independent variables in the 95 r = .345 j l L -.315 f Trade International International Number of .361 News that -.410 Soft Wire Service comes from # News Wire Services Publication -.442 Style '—_—"’ f .479 FIGURE 6: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: lntemational Soft News hierarchical regression analysis. The path diagram and the part correlation coefficient of international soft news are presented in FIGURE 6. Factors that were directly related to international soft news were trade, publication style, and international news that came from wire services. Trade had a positive relationship with international soft news, and 11.9 percent of the total variance in international soft news is explained by linear regression on the trade variable. lntemational news that came from wire services was strongly and negatively related to international soft news; 16.8 percent of the variance in international soft news is defined by this variable. The strongest positive relationship, which was shown as .229 of part r square, existed between publication style and international soft news. This means 22.9 percent of the variance in international soft news is associated with publication style. In addition to direct relationships, indirect relationships were also shown in the diagram. Trade had a positive relationship with international soft news. One point seven percent of the total variance 96 in international soft news is associated with this variable indirectly. The effect of the number of wire services on international soft news was also mediated by international news that came from wire services and as a result, 2.2 percent of the variance in international soft news is related to this variable, which was a negative relationship. Publication style had a direct relationship with international soft news as explained above as well as indirect relationship. It is a positive relationship, and is associated with 3.3 percent of total variance in international soft news. It should be noted that both trade and publication style had a stronger relationship with international soft news when it was directly related to international soft news than when mediated by international news that came from wire services. Furthermore, unlike trade and publication style, the effect of the number of wire services on international soft news was fully contained by international news that came from wire services. Number of .361 Wire Service lntemational International Trade News that Analysis comes from News Wire Services Publication Style | T = -.346 FIGURE 7: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: International Analysis News f Of all 2 1.1 percent of the variability in international analysis news can be explained by all the seven independent variables in the 9’7 regression analysis. Factors that affected international analysis news at p < .05 level were presented in FIGURE 7. Only one direct relationship existed between publication style and international analysis news. Publication style had a negative relationship and 12 percent of the total variance in international analysis news is explained by linear regression on publication style. This variable also had a direct relationship with international news that came from wire services. It is negatively related to 19.5 percent of the variance in international news that came from wire services. In addition to publication style, the number of wire services and trade also had direct relationships with international news that came from wire services as shown by .130 and .099 of part I square. All of these three powers were associated with international news that came from wire services, but there was no relationship between international analysis news and international news that came from wire services. Publication -.442 Style " - lntemational International Number of .361 News that -.382 d Other Type . . D Wire Serv1ce comes from News Wire Services Culture I -.352 r = -.145 FIGURE 8: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: lntemational Other Type News International other type news is directly as well as indirectly related to several factors. FIGURE 8 shows these relationships. Overall 98 in the regression analysis, the total eight independent variables explained 33.7 percent of the variability in international other type news as shown in Appendix F. Among them, publication style, the number of wire services, and culture had indirect relationship with international other type news at p < .05 level. Publication style was positively related to 2.8 percent of all the variance in international other type news while the number of wire services was negatively associated with 1.9 percent of the variance in international other type news. In addition, 1.8 percent of the total variance in international other type news is positively related to the linear regression on culture. Culture was also directly related to international other type news. It is negatively related to 2.1 percent variance in international other type news. A direct relationship also existed between international news that came from wire services and international other type news. The part r square shows 14.6 percent of the variance in international other type news is negatively associated with international news that came from wire services. In summary, this diagram explains that the covariation between international news that came from wire services and international other type news is partly due to the dependence of international other type news on international news that came from wire services, and partly due to their direct sharing of a common cause, culture, and publication style, and the number of wire services. Furthermore, it can be said that culture had stronger relationship with international other type news when it was directly related to international other type news than when it was mediated by international news that came from wire services. 99 Research Question 5 5) Is the amount of international news that is conflict-oriented in Japanese local newspapers related to organizational and market factors? The average percentage of all international stories that were conflict-oriented news was 15.94 percent. In the hierarchical regression analysis, 58.2 percent of the variability in international conflict news can be explained by the total seven independent variables as shown in Appendix F. r = -.438 F l Competition Numb er of lntemational International Wire Service News that .404 .- Conflict comes from News Trade Wire Services Publication Style ‘ f L i -.438 FIGURE 9: Path Diagram and Part Correlation Coefficient: lntemational Conflict News FIGURE 9 indicates the results of a regression equation related to question 5. Competition, publication style, and international news that came from wire services were significantly and directly related to international conflict news at p < .05 level. Competition and publication style, each had negatively related to 19.2 percent of the variation in international conflict news directly; 16.3 percent of the total variance in 100 international conflict news is explained by linear regression on international news that came from wire services, which had a positive relationship. Indirect relationships existed between the number of wire services and international conflict news, trade and international conflict news, and publication style and international conflict news. All these indirect relationships were mediated by international news that came from wire services. As a result, the number of wire services was positively related to 2.1 percent of the variance in international conflict news, trade was negatively related with 1.6 percent of the variance in international conflict news, and publication style was negatively related to 3.2 percent of international conflict news. It is important to note that the number of wire services and trade had no direct relationship with international conflict news; however, by being completely mediated by international news that came from wire services, they were indirectly associated with international conflict news. On the other hand, competition had only a direct relationship with international conflict news. Moreover, publication style had a stronger influence on international conflict news when they had direct relationships with international conflict news than when they had indirect relationships with conflict news. These results confirmed that the amount of conflict-oriented international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers is related to organizational and market factors except in the case of analysis news. 101 1 Marija J. Norusis, SPSS/PC+: Studentware Plus for Business (Chicago: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1991) 270. 2 David A. Aaker, V. Kumar, and George S. Day, Marketing Research, 5th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995) 562. 3 Aaker, Kumar, and Day, Marketing Research 562; Amir D. Aczel, Complete Business Statistics, 3rd ed. (Chicago: Irwin, 1996) 499-500; Marija J. Norusis, SPSS-X: Advanced Statistics Guide 24-2 5. 4 Barbara G. Tabachnick and Linda S. Fidell, Using Multivariate Statistics (New Yorlc Harper & Row publishers, 1983) 72-73. 5 Aczel, Complete Business Statistics 25. 6 Tabachnick, and Fidell, Using Multivariate Statistics 76. 7 Aczel, Complete Business Statistics 527-5 34. 8 Aczel, Complete Business Statistics 540. 9 Aczel, Complete Business Statistics 540. 1° Aczel, Complete Business Statistics 540. Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS This chapter will discuss how the various outcomes of this study fit into the theoretical framework and how existing research about the market and organizational factors are related to international news coverage. Also, the implications of this study and suggestions for future research are discussed. Before going into these topics in detail, the limitation inherent in this study is explained in an effort to understand how the results can be placed in this area of the study. One big presupposition underlying this study is that the study referred to literature and past studies conducted in Western countries, mainly in the United States, not in Japan. This is because of a lack of Japanese scholarship in this field. This inconvenience makes the results of this study difficult to place into the discourse of international news coverage research. Differences between Western and Japanese cultures, and the differences between the development of Western and Japanese media history, could influence the results of studies in which Western newspapers were mainly used and this study in which Japanese newspapers were sampled. Although the purpose of this study is not to compare the differences between Western and Japanese newspapers, comparing this study with existing literature and theoretical frameworks is essential to the conclusion of this study. Thus, to clearly analyze the results of this 102 103 study in relation to the theoretical literature, it is essential to first discuss its limitations. Limitations of the Study Three limitations have to be considered when the results are discussed. First, the research was conducted on Japanese local newspapers registered in the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association. There may be newspapers which are not registered in the association. This sample was limited to local newspapers in the association. Second, the sampling period was limited to the period between January 1995 to June 1995. Although seasonal bias and the irregular increment of international news coverage were taken into consideration, the chosen period still restricted the research; this was inevitable. Lastly, as mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, this research is aimed at Japanese newspapers. Unlike the two limitations explained above which most of researches would face, this limitation is unique in terms of a particular country and its lack of study in this area. Since most of the existing research and theoretical framework was developed primarily in Western countries, examining the results of this study should take into account the difference in the background in both Western and Japanese newspapers. Each of the factors that influenced international news coverage are examined in this study and will be discussed in the next section. The limitations and the future of this study as related to each of the factors are also mentioned. Publication Cycle Strong evidence of publication cycle influence was not found except in the categories of total international news and international other type news. The null hypothesis could not be rejected at the p < ,H_ 5_ 104 .05 level. Since there is little existing research which focuses on the comparison between the news coverage in one edition a day and two editions a day, it is difficult to explain why there is a difference between the two in terms of the total amount of international news, even though distribution within the international news was same. However, this ! result supported research that wire editors selected stories in roughly the same proportions as they were provided by the wire services.1 Both companies which publish one-daily edition and two-daily editions use only two wire services, Kyodo or The Jiji Press. Since most of local newspapers heavily depend on Kyodo specifically, it is possible that wire editors in both kinds of companies selected international stories in roughly the same proportions as they were provided by Kyodo. This could partially explain why international news coverage in Japanese one- daily edition local newspapers does not differ from that in Japanese two-daily edition publications except in the categories of total international news and international other type news. Future study needs to examine the proportion of international news from wire services and the proportion of international news in newspapers to see if wire services actually influence the news selection process. Publication Style This results showed that there were significant differences between morning papers and evening papers in terms of international news coverage. In almost all the categories, the null hypothesis could be rejected at the p < .001 level. The results differ from Lacy and Bernstein’s study in the United States, which examined media coverage in November 1984.2 Lacy and Bernstein concluded that timeliness had little influence on the allocation 105 of news coverage; however, this research of Japanese local newspapers actually found that timeliness is significantly related to news coverage. To understand this study of Japanese local newspapers concerning the conflicting previous study, the following factors should be taken into consideration: 1) The time difference between the Lacy and Bernstein study and this study. 2) The differences of main subjects between the two studies. 3) Cultural differences between the United States and Japan. The first possibility was the time difference between two studies. Lacy and Bernstein’s study was conducted in 1984, more than ten years ago. Readers’ needs and newspaper companies’ needs influence news content and change year after year. Thus, the time differences among these studies may affect the results. Second, although two studies analyzed differences between morning and evening papers, the differences in the subjects of each of the investigations may cause differences in the results. Lacy and Bernstein looked at domestic news coverage in American newspapers, while this research analyzed international coverage in Japanese local newspapers. It is not surprising that these different research materials may have caused the differences in their results. The cultural differences between the countries in which the previous research was conducted and Japan could be an influential factor to the differences in these two studies. One of the main possibilities why there are differences between morning and evening Japanese local papers could be related to the Japanese land development and commuting system. Most commuters, business people, and students use public transportation, because Japan is relatively small and its railroad network is highly sophisticated. 106 Japanese people rarely drive cars to their offices and schools unlike people in Western countries, especially, in the United States. This peculiar aspect of the Japanese lifestyle may explain the effect of timeliness on the newspaper coverage. People in Japan often read newspapers in trains since many people spend a great deal of time commuting via train. They may want information useful for business when they go to work in the morning, and may want information which does not have to be necessary for business when they go home in the evening. These readers’ timely different needs may affect the difference in the contents between morning and evening Japanese local newspapers. In fact, morning and evening newspapers tend to carry different types of international news, which supported the assumption above. Morning newspapers are more likely to have international political news, hard news, analysis news and conflict-oriented news than evening papers do. These topics or types of news may be useful for daily business work. On the other hand, evening newspapers are more likely to have social news and soft news, which may not be necessary for business. News in evening papers tends to be more entertainment. While most Japanese use trains, many people in the United States drive to work and school, which makes it impossible for them to read newspapers while commuting. This does not necessarily determine that people do not read a morning newspaper in the morning and evening newspaper in the evening, but the point is that there is not clear evidence of where, when, and in what condition people read morning and evening newspapers. Thus, this difference in lifestyle of Western countries and Japan may have influenced the different results of the two studies. 107 The following are possibilities that could affect future research on this topic: 1) Is there a difference between morning and evening papers published in cities with a highly developed mass transportation system and those in cities with a less developed mass transportation system? 2) Is it logical to think that the number of commuters in cities affect publication style and in turn, the publication style influences international news coverage? 3) How about the number of large companies or universities in a city? In a future study, the degree of the development of mass transportation systems, the number of commuters, and the number of large companies or universities in a city might be factors influencing international news coverage. M1 No connection was found between the percentage of stories about international news coverage and capital. Two main reasons could have caused this unexpected result: 1) Capital does not have the same function as budget as a factor influencing international news coverage. 2) Difference of awareness about the budget between Japanese journalists and Western journalists. The first possibility was mentioned in Chapter 3 and 4. As stated in those chapters, most previous studies recognized the budget as a factor that influences the content of news.3 Because of the lack of budget information in Japan, capital was used in this study. However, this variable might not represent the budget or might not work exactly as the budget usually does. This problem might have affected the relationship between international news and capital. The second possibility is that there may be a difference of awareness about the budget between Japanese journalists and Western journalists. The differences in the philosophy of journalists in Japan 108 and the those from other countries could have ultimately affected the existence of budgets in these two countries. For example, in the United States, whether a reporter covers news depends, in part, on the budget. The process of budget allocation plays an important role in determining newspaper content.4 Budgets as well as the will of journalists, influences the content. On the other hand, Japanese news organizations do not have the clear process of budget allocation. The lack of the budget allocation process reveals the difference in the philosophy of journalists toward news collection. According to Ichimura,S a reporter at Asahi Shimbun, Japanese news organizations believe that if the news has great importance to the society, journalists should collect the news, no matter what it costs. The value of the news is more important than how much money they spend. Wire Services This study found little evidence to suggest that the number of wire services influenced international news coverage directly. None of the results of this study showed a significant relationship between the number of wire services and international news coverage. However, this study revealed an indirect relationship between the number of wire services and international news coverage. A strong positive relationship exists between the number of wire services subscribed to and the international news that comes from wire services. The square of the coefficient of correlation between the two variables was r2 = .130 at p < .01 level. This means that it is more logical to think that the number of wire services subscribed to is a cause of both international news that comes from wire services and international news, but the effect of the number of wire services subscribed to on international news is indirect. 109 Meanwhfle, international wire news significantly influences all kinds of international news, except analysis news from the view point of story type. In most categories, wire news had a significant influence on international news. For example, 19.6 percent of international hard news is positively related to international wire news at p < .05 level; 16.8 percent of international soft news had a negative relationship with international wire news at p < .05 level, which indicates that carrying two wire services results in less soft news. These results obviously showed that international news published from wire services is more likely to be hard news than soft news or analysis news. The results here are consistent with the existing literature which suggested that international news from wire services is more likely to be hard news. 6 Other research also found that international news tended to be more factual and straightforward rather than interpretative or analytical7 In terms of topic and its amount, the findings are opposed to some previous literature about American newspapers. In this study, 47.12% of total international news was social news. lntemational political news and international economic news were 2 1.3 7% and 1 3.07% respectively. On the other hand, some past research found that most wire service coverage focused on political news, not on social news.8 There are three possible reasons for this conflict: 1) Time difference between when the previous research was conducted and when this research was conducted. 2) Cultural differences between the countries where research was held. 3) Differences between the coding categorization. The first and second possibilities are already discussed in previous factors. The third possibility could not be the cause because there is a clear distinction as to whether the news is from wire services or not, when coders examined the bylines. 110 Overall, it could be concluded that the proportion of social news in international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers is fairly large compared to Western countries. Competition This research indicated that competition has a significant influence on international news coverage, which was categorized by news topic. In total international news and in total political news, the relationships with competition were negative and r-square was .127, and .126 at p < .05 level. Only in social news, the square of the correlation coefficient showed a positive relationship, .339 at p < .05 level. In terms of conflict news, there was a significant negative relationship with competition, I = -.438 at p < .05 leveL From these results, two important findings should be discussed. First, competition is strongly related to international news content. This is consistent with previous research, one study which, for instance, found that the intensity of intercity competition was the strongest contributing factor on newspaper content.9 Second, this study indicates that the higher competition is, the less international news and conflict news tend to be in newspapers. In addition, although the total international news decreases when competition is high, the proportion of social news in international news increases. Thus, it can be said that Japanese local newspapers tend to seek human interest news rather than controversial news when competition is high. Future study may wish to examine not only international news coverage, but also domestic news coverage. Existing literature about newspapers in the United States suggests that competition only influences domestic news, not international news.10 However, competition in Japan may influence a certain type of news coverage. 111 This distinction may help to understand whether differences in competition affect international news content and help to portray Japanese local newspapers more clearly. Political Ties The research results do not support the relationship between political ties and international news coverage. This contradicts existing research that identified a relationship between political ties and an increase in international political news. It is easy to overlook the difference between Japanese and Western newspapers and/or cultures; however, if these factors are set aside, other reasons might influence the results of this study. First, the variable may not represent political ties very well. A sister-city relationship was selected in this study because local governments in sister-cities are actively involved in political problems as already stated in Chapter 4. However, other factors such as the number of servicemen or the size of military bases may be more appropriate influencing factors in this study. Unfortunately, it was impossible for the author to obtain all of this type of data.11 Second, the difference between national and provincial ties probably caused the result. Most of the existing research examined political ties at national level, between one country and another. In this study, however, political ties between one prefecture in Japan and foreign countries were used. For example, previous researchers found that a country which has a characteristic of “A” has a political relationship with another country which has “B”. While, this study examined if the same thing can be said between a country “A” and prefectures “a” “b” and “c” in a country “B”. These different unit levels may cause the differences in results because political ties between 112 countries may influence international news coverage, but political ties between national and provinces may not influence international news coverage in local newspapers. Economic Ties Results were found that economic ties have positive relationships with social and soft news with part r squared of .115 and .119 at p < .05 level respectively. Also, trade had a negative relationship with wire news with a part r squared equal to 099 at p < .05 level. The more exports and imports value a province has, the more social and soft news increased. This reason is not clear, but the fact that this study examined only local papers might be the cause, because all the national papers are published in large cities, which tend to have large exports and imports values. It seems that the explanation of relationships between large cities and newspapers was not clear enough. However, it is predictable that economic ties creates interest in social activities in other countries. Business men turn to other publications for economic news, and local papers may help satisfy their interest in social news. In almost all the categories except soft news, economic ties did not have an influence on international news coverage. Existing literature which states that if economic relationships, such as international trade and the amount of foreign aid, are strong, more information flow would be observed between nations than when only a weak economic relation prevails was not supported by this study. There may be two reasons why this research does not support previous studies. First, the difference of unit may be the cause as has already been stated. The second possibility is related to Japanese geographical reasons. Since the Japanese domain is small, and only a small number of provinces have harbors or airports, all the exports and imports are shipped via 113 provinces which have the function of connection with foreign countries. Therefore, economic ties with foreign countries in those provinces which have harbors or airports may differ from that in provinces which do not have direct connections to foreign countries. For, future study, those regions’ backgrounds will also be needed to examine economic ties. The number of airports or harbors in small domain countries like Japan may influence international news coverage. Cultural Ties No relationship, except in two cases, was found between cultural factors and international news coverage in this study. International other type news was negatively related with the cultural variable, but the relationship was very weak as the data showed .021 of part I square. The only factor that was associated with culture was international news that came from wire services. This relationship was negative and 12.4 percent of international wire service was related to cultural factor. Even though there are two categories that have relationships with cultural factors, the overall results showed that there was not enough data that showed cultural ties as an important factor related to international coverage. Therefore, previous research was not supported by this study. Possible reasons why there was no significant relationship between them are 1) the variable may not represent cultural ties very well. 2) The difference of unit probably caused the result. These two reasons have already been explained in the political ties section of this chapter. Conflict-Oriented News This research indicates that there are strong relationships between international news that came from wire services and international conflict-oriented news, and between competition and the 114 conflict-oriented news. The strength of the former relationship has a part I squared of .163, and the strength of latter relationship is a part r squared of .192. From these results, two things were revealed. First, international news that came from wire news was most likely conflict- oriented This supported theoretical prepositions that conflict orientation of foreign news coverage is intensely dependent on wire services.12 The criteria of western wire services as being too conflict— oriented could exist in Japanese wire services. Second, as the competition increases, the international conflict-oriented news decreases. This result explains that Japanese local newspaper companies try to differentiate the newspapers by decreasing international conflict-oriented news and as a result, may increase other types of news coverage when competition is high. It could be soft news because there is a negative relationship between conflict news and international soft news. It is assumed that competition and publication style lead to social news, which tends to be soft. Thus, as soft news increases, conflict news declines. Summgy Assuming that the Japanese local newspapers examined in this study are typical papers and the content between January 1 1995 and July 31 1995 is typical, the following results can be said: 1) Japanese readers may be relatively interested in international news because international news coverage in Japanese local newspapers is fairly high compared to that in Western countries. 2) Japanese may have more knowledge of general international news than Westerners do because of the high media 115 coverage of soft and social international news in Japanese local newspapers. 3) The news selection criteria of Japanese local newspapers is more content-oriented (conflict-oriented) than context-oriented (political, economic, and cultural ties). 4) Even though Japanese papers are more content-oriented, some context variables are important. These variables are economic and include publication style and competition. Afternoon Japanese papers differentiate themselves by using more social news. Competition also leads to more social news, less political news and conflict news. 5) International news coverage in a Japanese local newspaper may be quite similar to each other, because all Japanese local papers depend on only one or two wire services. In addition, in most story categories, selection of international news from wire services is little influenced by market factors other than those of competition, and publication style. This means that there is little regional difference among papers in terms of international news coverage. 6) Japanese and Western newspapers are similar in their dependence on wire services for international news, but they differ in that publication style affects Japanese international coverage but not Western papers. 7) Unlike Western newspapers, Japanese newspapers showed no connection between international coverage and political and cultural ties. However, economic ties were connected with social coverage. 116 These results produce a conclusion that the differences in national characters and cultural backgrounds, such as preference of international news or transportation use, affect the great differences of international news coverage in both quantity and the quality in each country. However, the business nature of newspapers was not affected by the cultural differences. The production of newspapers in different cultures had a lot of similarities, e.g., dependence of wire services, the relationships between competition and news coverage. Future research in the area of international news coverage should improve on this study. Direct comparison of international news coverage in newspapers in Western countries and in Japan would be more meaningful than a study in one country. Also, difference in mass transportation use as an independent variable should be given further consideration. 117 1 David M. White, “The ‘Gate Keeper’: A Case Study in the Selection of News,” Journalism Quarterly 27: (Fall 1950): 386; Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, “Structuring the Unseen Environment,” [ournal of Communication 27: 18-22. 2 Stephen Lacy and James M. Bernstein, “Daily Newspaper Content’s Relationship to Publication Cycle and Circulation Size,” Newspaper Research murnal 9.2 (Winter 1988): 54. 3 Stephen Lacy, “The Effects of Intracity Competition On Daily Newspaper Content,” Journalism Quarterly 64 (Autumn 1987): 281-290; Leonard L. Chu, “An Organizational Perspective On lntemational News Flow: Some Generalization, Hypotheses, and Questions For Research,” Gazette 35 (1985): 3-18. 4 Lacy, “The Effects of Intracity Competition on Daily Newspaper Content” 288. 5 Tomoichi Ichimura, a correspondent at New York Bureau at Asahi Shimbun, phone interview with the author, 1 1 May 1996. 6 Jim A Hart, “The Flow of International News into Ohio,” Journalism Quarterly 38 (Autumn 1961): 541-543; John C. Merrill, “The Image of the United States in Ten Mexican Dailies,” Journalism Quarterly 39 (Spring 1962): 203-209. 7 John B. Adams, “A Quantitative Analysis of Domestic and Foreign News on the APT A Wire,” Gazette 10 (1964): 285-295; John C. Merrill, “The Image of the United States in Ten Mexican Dailies” 203-209. 8 G. Cleveland Wilhoit and David Weaver, “Foreign News Coverage in Two US. Wire Services: An Update,” Journal of Communication 33.2 (Spring 1983): 132—148; Nabil Dajani and John Donohue, “Foreign News in the Arab Press,” Gazette 19 (1973): 157. 9 Stephen Lacy, “The Impact of Intercity Competition on Newspaper Content,” Journalism Oparterly 65 (Summer 1988): 399-406; Stephen Lacy, and Ardyth B. Sohn, “Correlations of Newspaper Content with Circulation in the Suburbs: A Case Study, ” Journalism Quarterly 67.4 (Winter 1990): 785-793. 118 1° Stephen Richard Lacy, “The Effects of Ownership and Competition on Daily Newspaper Content,” diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1986. ’1 Major Kevin Krejcarek at Yokota Air Base, phone interview with the author, 29 May 1996. ’2 Stephen Lacy, Tsan-Kuo Chang, and Tuen-yu Lau, “Impact of Allocation Decisions and Market Factors on Foreign News Coverage,” Newspaper Research Journal 10 (Fall 1989): 23-32; Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crisis in Four Norwegian Newspapers,” [ournal of Peace Research 2 (1965): 64-91; John A Lent, “Foreign News in American Media,” Journal of Communication 27 (1977): 48. APPENDICES APPENDIX A APPENDIX A NEWSPAPER CODING PROCEDURES CODING INSTRUCTION This is a study of the international news coverage of local daily newspapers. A constructed week of 48 local newspapers will be examined. To identify which news stories are considered international news, and which stories belong to what categories, the following definitions will be used. Advertising: Advertising is that portion of the newspaper devoted to display advertising, classified advertising, and copy identified as advertising. This includes businesses with stories written primarily to promote business and not to provide information to readers for their own use. This also includes real estate and housing stories written to promote the products of particular companies. News: News is categorized into international news, and other. Other is all in the newspaper except advertising, and international news, e.g., title of the newspaper, local news, and white space. International news: lntemational news includes information about events or issues that happened outside of Japan as well as other world news regardless of the origin of the news. Therefore, it includes not only news dispatched from outside of Japan but also editorials, analysis, and letters from readers, which talk about news outside of Japan. Details about the selection of these categories are explained as the following: 1) Stories sent from outside of Japan: The content or how the stories are written does not matter. If news which deals with Japanese people is sent from outside of Japan, it is considered international news. For example, if the news about the Japanese tea ceremony held in the White House is sent from the United States, it is considered international news. 2) Stories about, foreign countries or events: If countries mentioned in a story do not have a direct relationship with the topic of the story, the story is not treated as international news. For example, if a story is 119 120 a personal profile about the Japanese Prime Minister, and the story mentions several countries where he has been, the story is not considered international news. However, if the Japanese Prime Minister talks about the relationship between China and Taiwan with the US. ambassador, the story is considered international news. 3) Stories about foreign people: Only when stories focus on foreigners’ nationality are stories treated as international news. For example, a story may be about a sporting event where a foreign player plays, but it is not treated as an international story unless the story is focusing on the foreign player’s nationality. Even if visuals, e.g., tables, graphs, illustrations, pictures, and cartoons, and comments on the visuals, are related to international stories, they are not treated as international news. Categorization: International stories will be analyzed into two major categories, the topic and type of international news. Topics of international news include political, economic, social, sports, and other news. The types of international news were hard news, soft news, analysis news, and other news. The operationalization of these subcategories is defined as follows: Topic of Story: International news story topics are categorized into five types: “political news,” “economic news,” “social news,” “sports news,” and “others.” If a story mentions several topics, the story is categorized by the topic that appears to be its main focus. If there are subtopics under a main topic, they were ignored. For example, if in a presidential campaign, a candidate talks about education, then this story is categorized into political not social news. Political News: Political news is general politics, administration, policy, cabinet, legislation, budget, political party, diplomacy, foreign policy, treaty, pact, alliance, international conference, international cooperation, diplomatic relation, territory, international critics, deportation, exile, military affairs, war, invasion, coup d’ etat, revolution, guerrillas, riot, dispute, and crusade. Economic News: Economic news is general economics including finance, currency, prices of commodities, enterprise, stock, investment, international income and expenditure, economic development, and international financial aid. Also, industrial activity, labor problems, enterprise management, merger, cooperation, product, commodity, inroads into foreign markets, imports and exports, trade and expenditure, and international trade fairs. 121 Social News: Social news is population, household, poverty, immigration, refugees, welfare, local society, communication, human rights, discrimination, traffic, disaster, natural calamity, disaster prevention, crime, graft, trial, prevention of crime, destruction, pollution, and weather. Also, it includes on clothing, food, housing, leisure, travel, hobbies, marriage, recreation, consumer movements, custom, fashion, health, culture, art, religion, morality, ethics, education, and science technology. Sports News: Sports news is international tournaments, sports events, and sports groups. Other: Other news is obituary, profile, and the Imperial Household. Type of Story: Story types about international news will be categorized into four groups, “hard news,” “soft news,” “analysis,” and “other.” Hard News: Hard news is defined as serious, factual and timely stories about important topics. Hard news consists of “factual presentations” of occurrences. For example, hard news is the gubernatorial message to the legislature, the State of the Union Address to Congress, or the Train-truck accident of the murder. Hard news includes conflict-oriented news (conflict-oriented stories are defined later). Trend stories such as business trend or scientific trend are not included unless they have a strong conflict element involved. Therefore, stories such as accident, crime, police reports, fire, riots, and war are defined as hard news. Soft News: Soft news refers to feature or human interest stories. Soft news is written primarily to entertain rather than inform and appeals to its readers’ emotions more than to their intellect. For example, soft news is an item about a big-city bus driver who offers a cheery “good morning” to every passenger on his early morning run, or a feature about a lonely female bear. Analysis News: Analysis is usually identified by its emphasis on interpretation, which is either labeled as analysis or obvious because of the length of the story. These stories often carry terms such as “news analysis,” “investigative report,” or “series.” For instance, analysis news would be a story about an environmental issue, the destruction of ozone layer, and simultaneously, would tell the reasons, influence on the human body, or how to protect it. Other: Other news includes all the news except hard news, soft news, and analysis news. In this study, international news in the editorial section, in the letters from readers section, and in the TV and radio section are included in this category. 122 Conflict-Oriented Story: Conflict News: Conflict news is timely stories that involve either physical or ideological conflict, disaster or violence. Disaster is defined as conflict news because it involves man in conflict with natural forces. Because conflict involves changes in customs and values, social unrest, and changes in the status quo, the examples of conflict include wars, invasion, coup d’ etat, revolution, guerrillas, riot, uprising, political disagreement, special interest groups that advocate social change. PROCEDURES 1. All measurements are made in square centimeters. The measurement of international news space includes headlines, and bylines, but exclude titles of pages or titles of sections which are not affected by story change. For example, the title “The State News (title of a newspaper),” “Local and State (title of a page),” or “Today’s Headlines or Police Briefs (title of a section)” are excluded However, even if visuals such as tables, graphs, illustrations, pictures, cartoons, maps including weather maps, and comments on visuals are relate to international news stories, they are not considered international news. 2. The coder reads the first six paragraphs. Categorization of a story is based on these paragraphs. If a story has more than one topic, or both conflict and non-conflict news, space of the story is divided by the number of topics. For example, if a story has three topics, economic, social, and sports, and it has a 210-square-centimeter space, then the space of the story will be divided by three. Therefore, each of the three story topics has a 70-square-centimeter space. 3. All pages will be examined in order to know the total news space and advertising space of the newspaper. 4. The percentage of total international news space will be calculated based on international news space and the amount of all space subtracted by advertising space. 5. Three coding sheets will be provided: a) An international news content coding sheet will be used to code each page of the newspaper. b) An international news content summary sheet will be used to summarize the international news content per newspaper issue. c) The summary of international news content will be used to further summarize the international news content per issue to 123 per newspaper. There will be one summary sheet per newspaper. 6. Carry measurements to the second decimal place when measuring the newspapers. For example, the length is described as 53.16 centimeters. 7. An additional edition is often inserted in the Sunday newspaper. This features information about travel, books, health, and food. This edition will be included in this study as a part of the Sunday newspaper. 8. Do not forget to list the name of wire services. 9. International news in the editorial, the letter from readers, and TV and radio sections will be categorized as other. 124 mkquEUfiUu Qua” w momma 25 E 85% via: ~38. BimZ Imblwufic.-..d. 8 0.8. sum . ..-.| | I - | 1 Swan m3“ 5 wfimgéa mo 33m :38. umEntoEax 6me 25 “8 83m :30... ., . a 5:265 38... “8an was a. gal-En: Eco as m . 3.1.08 .IEIIg 28“ 52:3 Mo .8sz «9:. team of. 32m 2:68: 32:22 8me :52 EnoszBE n: 58m £3832 uwmm "Ban ”ufiaz 5.39.252 125 ”wougm «.83 me .8882 .5 88m 252 new .350 2322 new cam—Ema 88M EUBULEESM n81? o 22 - 82.825 8;» 6an «9:. new _ each rem Tam Bob 38F - - 88m 88m 398252 8 s. 932 3823838 I— 952 REHTU< Each 38m .80... want 6er 682 898252 "woman he 858:2 £382 A: bgmquuz 126 Summary of Newspaper for Week - I. D. Number: - Newspaper Name: - Dates: ( )January 25, 1995 ( )March 11,1995 ( )February 24, 1995 ( )March 7, 1995 - Publication Cycle ( ) Once a day - Style of Publication ( )Morning Paper ( )March 13,1995 ( )May 18, 1995 ( )June4,1995 ( ) Twice a day ( ) Evening Paper - Total News Space .................................... - Total lntemational News ......................... - International Politic News ........................ - International Economics News ............... - International Social News ......................... - lntemational Sports News ........................ - International Other News ......................... - lntemational Hard News ........................... - lntemational Soft News ............................ - lntemational Analysis News .................... - lntemational Other News ........................ - International Conflict-Oriented News.... - International Stories that come from wire services ...... - Number of Wire Service ........................... Total Total (raw number) (percentage) cm? Not available cm2 96 2 cm 96 cm2 96 cm2 96 2 cm 96 2 cm 96 2 cm % cm2 96 cm2 96 cm2 96 2 cm 96 2 cm 96 APPENDIX B 3.. mm: 3.2 R.» 3.2 3. £32 3880 Luna—GOO Encflmegs $4. 23 mm; 8.3 $8 2. £52 25 3:5 38.238qu 3.. wo. 8. $3 2.3, 2. v.52 £335. 3823888 23 cm; a: 8.2 3.2 2. 63oz :8 3883838 E. @8- mm; 3.2 2.3 3. v.52 28 3883885 3.2 om.m 2. cm; 8. 3. 63oz 39; 5:5 3853888 2... 8.- NE N; 2.5 2. «52 3.8% 3823828 mm; 3. 33 3.2 2.2. 3. 362 38m 3823828 8. S. 2. 33 8.2 a. 952 38883 WQOUMEUHE $.- 8: a: :3 km; N a. $62 388 anew—«Eva:— 2. 3.- mm. 2.3 Ba 3. 652 3:23:38— 3::- 8:33am 8882 338536 .85 3635 @3235 882 2 238$ EA. 2: an: 3.2 vmém 3. 33888332 35.33% B. 2.. new 8.2 8.2: 2. 888888 $.- 2 A no. vv. m N. H wv 32.8385 823% v.83 .8 38882 EN om.“ vmdmvdom 2.636me 8.38.292 wv 3230 23.. mm;- mo.~ 2 m2: 36m 3. £52 «.83 38238385 823885 222.82 38333 888m @3835 838835 882 2 2383 6.8888 CNN :2 mm: no.3 mmém wv 332.529: 35-88% B. 3. new $.90. 8.2: 3. 88888 3.- 2 A mo. 3. m N. 2 xv costume—m magnum 95$ .8 8:832 RON m m; oméow£o~ emémmdvvé Nvéwofiaé 3‘ 3:95 mm.~ mNA- mo.~ H m.: 3.3 wv $52 955 3:382:85 E5359 $859 $05538 8km 8.898% 8.865% :32 2 ~328> ands—«é» .HZmDZm—mmnzu Gum—Huang. .mUFE<.Hm Emma U Nun—Eng 129 APPENDIX D APPENDIX D SAMPLED JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS (Example) Q) Newspaper name. ® Province of publication. C3) Capital.1 (3 1.00=100 yen) GD Number of wire services subscrbed to. 6) Percentage of internationational news that comes from wire services. (6) Circulation size.2 ® Penetration. Competitors’ penetration in a province. Two Editions a Day (Sampled as Morning Paper)’ CD The Akita Sakigake Shimpo <2) Akita ® $1,800,000 @ 1 6) 66.58% (6) 259,440 @ 67.8% 108.48% (D Chugoku Shimbun ® Hiroshima ® $3,000,000 @ 1 6) 58.82% (6) 714,157 (D 59.6% 50.81% CD Fukushima Mimpo ® Fukushima ® $100,000 @ 2 6) 69.85% 6) 296,387 (D 45.5% 70.82% 6) Gifu Shimbun ® Gifu (3) $800,000 @ 2 6) 68.74% © 157,794 C!) 24.9% 95.03% G) Hokkoku Shimbun ® Ishikawa ® $4,980,000 @1 6) 59.61% (6) 334,730 CI) 76.6% 79.36% 6) Iwate Nippo ® Iwate 6) $2,000,000 @ 1 65) 60.31% © 231,022 (D 51.0% 52.07% 0) Kahoku Shimpo ® Miyagi ® $2,000,000 @ 2 (5) 64.57% 8) 484,702 6) 59.8% 54.98% 130 131 SAMPLED JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS (cont’d) (D Kobe Shimbun ® Hyogo 6) $6,000,000 GD 1 (5) 70.85% 6) 502,040 (7) 25.8% 131.46% 0) Kyoto Shimbun ® Kyoto (3) $6,000,000 G1) 2 6) 64.87% © 483,911 (D 43.7% ® 130.20% 0) Kumamoto Nichi—Nichi Shimbun ® Kumamoto (3‘) $ 1 56,000 @ 1 6) 65.97% (6) 380,666 (7) 60.7% 045.51% 0) Oita Godo Shimbun ® Oita (3) $100,000 6:) 1 (5) 59.76% 6) 230,522 CI) 52.3% (:9 102.12% 6) Okinawa Times ® Okinawa (3) $3,034,750 GD 1 6) 54.95% ((9 184,171 @ 44.3% 095.97% (D Yamagata Shimbun ® Yamagata C3) $1,500,000 GD 2 (5) 75.88% «9 219,322 (7) 61.1% (8) 125.91% Two Editions a Day (Sampled as Evening Paper) (D Oita Godo Shimbun ® Oita 6) $100,000 @ 1 <5) 65.19% © 230,529 @ 52.3% 102.12% 6) Fukushima Mimpo ® Fukushima (3) $100,000 @ 2 6) 88.45% 65) 10,177 CD 1.5% 114.65% 6) Iwate Nippo C2) Iwate ® $2,000,000 CD 1 (5) 43.91% 6) 231,022 6) 51.0% 52.07% (D Kahoku Shimpo ® Miyagi ($3 $2,000,000 69 2 6) 70.04% © 153,924 C!) 19.9% 94.91% C) The Kochi ® Kochi ® $980,000 @ 1 ® 54.06% © 140,660 0) 44.2% 085.55% 6) The Minami Nippon Shjmubn ® Kagoshima (9) $3,088,000 @ 1 (5) 55.77% © 28,532 (7) 4.0 081.60% Q) Niigata Nippo ® Niigata ® $1,425,000 @ 2 6) 57.97% GB) 75,818 C?) 10.0 106.04% 132 SAMPLED JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS (cont’d) 0) Sanyo Shimbun ® Okayama C3) $1,485,000 GD 1 6) 45.89% 69 71,579 0) 10.7% 116.17% 6) Shinano Mainichi Shimbun ® Nagano ® $2,000,000 @ 2 69 70.06% © 57,647 (D 8.2% ® 114.08% (D Shizuoka Shimbun ® Shizuoka ® $1,500,000 @ 2 6) 65.42% 6) 711,149 @ 59.2% 119.73% ® Tokushima Shimbun ® Tokushima ® $ 1,000 GD 1 6) 50.26% © 50,270 @ 17.9% 105.48% CD To-o Nippo (2) Aomori ® $1,800,000 @ 1 6) 44.46% 6) 254,487 (73 50.1% 100.99% CD The Ryukyu Shimpo ® Okinawa C3) $972,950 @ 1 ® 33.19% ® 181,918 @44.3% 096.96% One Edition a Day (Morning Paper) 6) Chiba Nippo ® Chiba ® $3,600,000 @ 1 6) 58.20% (6) 188,740 (7) 9.3% (8) 139.38% ®EhimeShimbun @Ehime @$1,500,000 @2 ©64.50% ©311,551 @56.0% 045.75% (D Higashi-Aichi Shimbun <2) Aichi Q) $ 1,840,000 @ 1 (5) 13.84% (6) 50,180 CD 2.2% 147.68% 0) Hokkai Times ® Hokkaido 6%) $2,714,400 @ 1 6) 65.06% © 183,655 ® 8.1% 133.40% Q) The Ibaraki Shimbun ® Ibaraki (99 $ 1,550,000 69 1 (5) 54.50% (6) 113,102 (“D 12.2% 1015.05% 6) The Jomo Shinbun ® Gunma (9) $364,800 0) 1 (5) 56.77% © 282,654 (D 44.2% 800.02% Q) Kanagawa Shimbun ® Kanagawa (3) $180,000 GD 1 6) 51.49% (6) 240,492 @ 7.6% 145.71% 133 SAMPLED JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS (cont’d) (D MiyazakiNichi-Nichi Shimbun ® Miyazaki (3) $400,000 @ 1 6) 62.72% © 223,443 6) 51.8% 34.91% 6) Nagasaki Shimbun (2) Nagasaki ® $3,500,000 @ 1 (5) 59.85% © 190,455 ® 34.6% 54.71% (D Nankai Nichi-Nichi Shimbun ® Kagoshima C3) $200,000 @ 1 (5) 54.18% ® 23,829 6) 3.3% 082.31% .0) Nara Shimbun ® Nara (3) $ 1,600,000 GD 1 6) 55.70% 65) 116,440 @ 24.9% 189.81% 0) Nihonkai Shimbun ® Tottori ® $2,400,000 @ 1 6) 68.26% ® 148,358 6) 72.4% 54.88% C) Saga Shimbun ® Saga ® $300,000 GD 1 6) 72.08% ® 133,678 6) 49.6% 062.36% 6) San-In-Chuo Shimpo ® Shimane ® $1,869,000 @ 1 6) 67.13% ((3 162,059 6) 59.2% 060.29% CD Shikoku Shimbun ® Kagawa 6) $850,000 @ 1 (5) 51.37% 6) 210,520 6) 59.3% 601.93% 0) The Yamaguchi ® Yamaguchi ® $400,000 @ 1 6) 61.08% © 79,137 @ 13.7% 115.97% One Edition a Day (Evening Paper) (D Ishinomaki Shimbun ® Miyagi ® $250,000 @ 1 6) 48.05% (6) 13,120 ® 1.7 113.03% 0) KiiMimpo ® Wakayama ® $325,000 @ 1 (5) 46.29% ® 36,043 6) 9.3% 129.41% Q) Nagoya Times ® Aichi 6) $440 @ 1 6) 27.17% © 146,137 6) 6.3% 143.51% ® Najgai Times ® Tokyo ® $1,280,000 @ 2 6) 60.21% © 296,000 0) 5.9% 192.49% 134 SAMPLED JAPANESE LOCAL NEWSPAPERS (cont’d) G) Okayama Nichi-Nichi Shimbun (2) Okayama G) $ 1,400,000 GD 1 6) 31.23% ©46,500 @ 7.0% 119.85% 6) Osaka Shimbun <2) Osaka ® $2,000,000 @ 1 6) 8.67% ©443,770 CI) 13.6% 193.74% 135 NOTES 1 The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, lapanese Newspaper Annual 1995-1996. 2 The Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Zenkoku Shimbun Guide 1996 [Newspaper Guide 19961. APPENDIX E Gadeov Gamwdov Gammdcv Gmmeov Axmndt 2502 9.53 nwémmd wduQNH NH.mmmm mm.©mm.H H wo.m©w.w HmacHHMEuEH Gmwodmv G850: Gamma HV Gawmdmv GmmoéHv 9502 H5535 HKHHHJ... mm.mmm.~ HuvémmH deNogv mm.mmw.H -5595 HancbaESaH §N©.Q G899 Gamcdv Gamode GamHH Hv 9:02 «PC. .850 mmfimm mmde .H Hum.wHo.H canned nudes; HuncHSEuunH GmoH .8 Gan H .w HV G3 m.H Hv Gamm N HV §m0.3 @502 me>Haa< om.wm~.H mm.mH~.m Hn.mm~.H w.mmm.m mVéOm Humans-:25 Gamma Hv Gfivdd Gamma: GaovH Hv GfiAWmHV 9.32 «How wodovfi. H m.mwm.~ ovdmmJ HumH ~N.~ mwdHuNH 3:322:35 GmNNND Gaon .H 9 Gmmfimov Gammdcv Gauwdt 9,52 v.83 NNH m H .H H omdmadH mwdcvfi mdmoé H Nvénwfi HanoHSEBQH Gammdv G$ ~13 Gawmdv $94.: Gam v.3 $62 each .850 mmHHH H.wmm nofiw camwm demH 3:822:35 GKQH NV Gamvé HV GSH .wmv Gamwd Hv Gamadmv 9592 3.25m m.mwm.m Nv.mom.m mnécfim acémod ©n.mnm.m 3:632:33 Gand NV Gamndmv G853; Gmmvdmv G353; $502 HmHucm H.mmv.v mmHHmd mwémosv mwdmvN mmdomd HaqoflanHnH GKmN Hv G8ch Gaw.~HV G399 Gammfiv 9.52 38.23% H H .wom.~ mm.mnw.H mvvaJ Hmécw; mwévv Encbmnuuas GavoH my GmH ®.H 9 G3de G8.va Gamma NV :52 HauEchH wwfiwfiw moévod modmw; mmdmmd mHufioHé HanoflmEuHE Gammév GamHNV G353 GENE Gacafiv mBuZ mm.~Hv.mH mdmofiH ©.O©N.HH ovHade mm.n~m.~H HanoHEEoEH H33. ofiwmfimu mméomfivm m.oom.maH nodnodHN mwémemH 8an £st H58. 55823 2:52 EEEHHHm anHHHm oxmeVHmm 330on! SEEEm PHHU «EH—Hmzxdm aHomzHHU SUH< 2E. mwgmsOU @SWZ H» H m.000.0H mH 300.0 N0.H00.0 00.5%.: 0N.mm0.0 8:389:35 $2.03 $50.03 $3.0 3 $503 3 $5003 982 03:3:0 00.5006 mm.~mm.m “$555.0 ~N.M~0.v ~0.Hu0~.~ 3:50:00 8:389:35 $00.50 $m0.m3 $H0.03 $50.3 $m5.03 .0382 89¢. .830 50.00~.H 50.mm0.H NH.05v.H m0.mv0.H H0000 8:389:35 $vm.m3 $m0.mv $~0.v3 $30.03 $m0.00 £82 338g m0.m-.~ 00.000 30.000; N0.HmH.v 0m.000.H 8:389:35 $5 0.00 $m~.v3 $00.03 $00.00 $m0.03 $.82 :80 deVH; 50.an.N NH.00V.H 5N.0H0.~ m5.HHO 8:389:35 $0m.H50 $00503 $m0.m00 $00.5 00 $0~.N50 @382 0.83 V5.mm5.HH Hm.¢50.0H 00.05m.0 00.0HN.mH 00.00~.5 8:389:35 $00.3 $N0.00 $0903 $H H.3 G833 @582 3:05. .850 mvdH m H.m m.05 00.0vm 0.NvH 8:389:35 $00.m 3 $0m.m~0 $05.03 $m~.~3 $~N.mm0 9:82 3.:ch m.~5v.m vaVmfi V0.00N.~ H5.~00.v 0.5Vm.m 8:389:35 $05.5 3 $00.33 $2.va $NV.H 3 $5.03 9:82 8800 ~.H0m.w mm.500.0 2.000.:V mm.Hv0.5 «0.0000 8:389:35 $05.03 $5H .03 $~H .m 3 $0m.03 $m~.03 382 350580 55.V0m.v vH.5Nm.H m0.5m0.~ NH.mH5.m 5~.0m0.H 8:389:35 $0903 $H0.H NV $0m.mmv $00.0 3 $3003 9:82 8338:: 03000.3V 00.306 500030 mH.N~v.0 ~0.0m0.H 8:389:35 $00.9 080.00 $3.50 $3.3 G803 $82 00.HNv.0H HH.mH0.mH 5m.05v.mH NH.0HV.- m0.050.0H 8:389:35 88:. NH.vH5.00H mm.m00.0HN 0m.0mH.00H VN.va.v- 5~.0mH.H5H 88:0 9,82 88:. 55550 532 -532 369855: 55550 396: 55550 803: 00550 38:80: 2:32 883: 6.3580 m0<¢m>00 03mg: .H3m 9.25% NQEOU a; A: N5.6:::.6 m :.m::6.6: 66666.6 6663.6 m666m.6 88:89:85 $3.5 :: $3.6: $6N.6:: $66.3: $6N.: N: 8:62 635:5 56.m::5.N 6m.55m.m 56:66.6 mN.66N.N :6.66::.m -5655 8:589:35 $3.3: $666: $N6.m :: $666:: $66.N:: $52 2:3. .850 :6.5::N.N 66.Nm6 6N.::66.N 6:68.: 66.N66.: 8558985 $66.: :: $N::.: :: 6366:: $666: $5 6.6: 8.52 59:53. 5 : .: N5.: 3666.: : 6.666.: 6N65m.: 66.66m.: Enouanb:5 $65 .3: $65 .m :: $5 :8 :: $66.6: $666: 252 tom 56.66N.N 66.N:u5.N V5.VN5.N 66.666.N 6N.555.N 63:89:25 $N5.6m: $3 .5 6: $65.5 m: $N6.66: $66.8: 85:: 98: N6.m6N.6 3.665.: : $.55 : 6: «v.6: N6: N16666: :ancUaEu:5 $N66: $: 6.:: $6:6: $6m.N: $: 66: 8:62 5.3:. .550 66.6 5:.mmm 3.66 66:66 m666: 5:589:35 $66.6: $6N.6:: $Nv.N N: $566N: $664“. N: 837: 9.836 66.:66.N 69:86.6 6: 666.6 66.:VNN.:: 6N.:mN.:: finafl~fi£5 $66.68 $66.66: $66.N::: $66.66: $66.6N: 85:: :586 666m66 3:.va6 $63.5 5N6: N6 66.36:: :a:o::m:::u:5 $66.6: $6N.5 :: $65 .N :: $66.6 :: $6N.m :: 83:: 552:8: m:.m6m.: 3666.6 6m.:¢N.N 66.:vN.N 2.66:6 finat~9§5 $Nm.5 N: $m5 6N: $56.: N: $5 6.6:: $66.6 N: 852 68:50:: 66.6mN.:: 56.36:: «66:66 66.66:.6 6N.m56.v 8:859:25 $8.6: $8.6: $8.5: $8.6: $: 6.5: @302 566666 : :6.56:V.5 : 66666.5 : 5N.66N.6: 6m .6616: 35:89:25 :58. 6N.: N6.mmN 6663.5 : N :6.6N6.mmN 66.56:.6vN 363.6: N 82:6 95oz 638. 55556 55556 E57: 55556 55:56 55556 58::me -552 5395,: 2863.3: :55. o::.:. 59:3: 2:. 95:50: WUEOU mgmz A