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thesis entitled

THE EFFECTS OF ROMANCE IN YOUNG ADULT FICTION ON
PRE-ADOLESCENT AFRICAN-AMERICAN FEMALES

presented by
Lynn A. Rampoldi Hnilo
has been accepted towards fulfillment

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._._,.__fi. __.___———_.—_

THE EFFECTS OF ROMANCE IN YOUNG ADULT FICTION ON
PRE-ADOLESCENT AFRICAN-AMERICAN FEMALES

By

Lynn A. Rampoldi Hnilo

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Telecommunication

1 996

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTS OF ROMANCE IN YOUNG ADULT FICTION ON
PRE-ADOLESCENT AFRICAN-AMERICAN FEMALES

By

Lynn A. Rampoldi Hnilo

Young adult romance novels are written in a formulaic style that promote
repetitive themes about romance socialization topics. These prevalent themes will be
drawn from category/contemporary romance novels and researched in the context of
Bandura's Social Learning Theory to determine the effects of these love stories on young
African-American women. Findings indicate that romance themes transcend cultural
boundaries. Frequency of romance reading and perceived reality of characters and
contents in romance novels were significantly related to many of the romance themes.
Perceived reality was a mediator for themes that were confronted with opposite
socialization information. Themes that were in accordance with basic social norms
disseminated by other social agents were generally predicted by romance reading and
perceived reality was not a necessary component. This study provides additional support
for the use of social learning theory as a predictor of adolescent's adoption of attitudes and

beliefs due to exposure of content.

Copyright by
Lynn A. Rampoldi Hnilo
1996

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my principal
advisor, Dr. Bradley S. Greenberg, for his guidance, comments, and support throughout
the course of this work. I would also like to thank the members of my committee, Dr.
Charles K. Atkin and Dr. Thomas A. Muth for their interest and helpfirl suggestions. In
addition, my sincere gratitude to Dr. Frank J. Boster for his patience and advise in last
minute consultations. Furthermore, I thank Phyllis Kacos for her assistance and support.

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my
husband, Justin Jay Hnilo, for his assistance, patience, and love throughout my anxiety,
frustration, and joy of completing this degree. To my family, I send my heartfilled thanks
for they have truly inspired me by their strength, faith, and motivation to learn, as well as
their generous nature. Lastly, I would like to thank all my fiiends for providing me with a

wonderfirl supportive network and great memories.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
History ............................................................................................................. 2
CHAPTER TWO
PREVIOUS STUDIES ................................................................................................ 8
Sample of Category Romance Novels ............................................................... 8
Romance Themes ........................................................................................... 10
Character Traits .................................................................................. 10
Love ..................................................................................................... 11
Marriage ............................................................................................... 12
Sexual Portrayals .................................................................................. 13
Transformation ..................................................................................... 1 5
Beautification ....................................................................................... 1 5
Fashion Consciousness ......................................................................... 17
Jealousy ................................................................................................ 17
Traditional Woman (Education/Work/Home) ........................................ l8
Purchases on Date ................................................................................ 19
Heterosexual Practice ........................................................................... 19
Theme Summary .............................................................................................. 20
Theoretical Approaches .................................................................................... 20
Social Learning Theory .................................................................................... 22
Attentional Processes ............................................................................ 23
Retention Processes .............................................................................. 24
Motor Reproduction Processes ............................................................. 24
Motivational Processes ......................................................................... 25
Integration of Theory and Themes .................................................................... 26
CHAPTER THREE
METHODS ................................................................................................................. 29
Scale Analysis .................................................................................................. 30
Variables and Indices ........................................................................................ 31
Antecedent Variables ............................................................................ 31
Independent Variables .......................................................................... 31
Dependent Variables ............................................................................. 33

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 38
Sample Descriptors .......................................................................................... 38
Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................................ 38
Linearity Rationale ........................................................................................... 4O
Corrected Correlations ..................................................................................... 41
Romance Reading Findings .............................................................................. 41
Perceived Reality Findings ................................................................................ 43
Multiple Regression Findings ............................................................................ 45
Perceived Reality as 3 Mediator ........................................................................ 47

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 49
Independent Variable Interpretations ................................................................ 49
Multiple Regression Interpretations .................................................................. 54
Mediator Interpretations ................................................................................... 54
Further Analysis of Data ................................................................................... 54
Limitations of Study ......................................................................................... 55
Future Research ............................................................................................... 56
Implications of Research .................................................................................. 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 58

TABLES ..................................................................................................................... 62

FIGURES .................................................................................................................... 70

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 71
Appendix A ...................................................................................................... 71
Appendix B ...................................................................................................... 72
Appendix C ...................................................................................................... 74
Appendix D ...................................................................................................... 76

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Young Adult Romance Novels from Christian-Smith's Period HI Sample ....... 62

Table 2: Young Adult Romance Novels from Mid— 19808 to 1995 .............................. 62
Table 3: Scales and Indices: Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranges ........................ 63
Table 4: Standardized Reliability Coeflicients for All Scales ........................................ 64

Table 5: Uncorrected and Corrected Correlations for Romance Reading with
Dependent Scales ......................................................................................................... 65

Table 6: Uncorrected and Corrected Correlations for Perceived Reality with
Dependent Scales ......................................................................................................... 66

Table 7: Multiple Regression Coefficients (R), Standardized Regression
Coefficients ([3), and Uncorrected Correlation Coefficients (r) for each Dependent

Scales .......................................................................................................................... 67

Table 8: Uncorrected Standardized Correlation Coefiicients of Romance Reading
with Dependent Scales while Low and High Perceived Reality Mediates ...................... 69

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Bandura's Social Learning Theory. Adapted from Bandura, 1977. ............... 7O

viii

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Sofi languid kisses, hot passionate embraces, gentle caresses, and light strokes stir
a flame of desire that can only be quenched by turning the next page to see what fate has
in store for the hero and heroine. Romance is very prominent in American culture, as
illustrated through our movies, television programs, and novels. Youth consume a
majority of this entertainment and, as predicted by many theories, society mimics or is
influenced by the amount and type of media exposure received. Although researchers
have done numerous studies about the influences of film and television on many different
age groups and cultures, little has been determined about the effects of romance novels.

Not any love story can be considered a romance novel. Many mystery, adventure,
and western novels contain romantic themes, but because it is usually a secondary plot, the
novel is not categorized as a romance. For purposes of this analysis, Kristen Ramsdell's
(1987) definition of a romance novel will be used: "A love story in which the central
focus is the development of the love relationship between the two main characters, written
in such a way as to provide the reader with some degree of vicarious emotional
participation in the courtship process" (p. 4). A book should not solely describe a
romance relationship, it should allow the reader to become emotionally involved in it as
well. This philosophy becomes apparent in the actual writing of a romance. Former
executive editor of Candlelight Ecstasy, Anne Gisonny, provided advice on writing about
the hero (F alk, 1990). She suggested that successful romance novelists write about the

qualities a woman wants most in a man. "For in writing a romance, your aim is not merely

to make your heroine fall in love with your hero--heck, that's the easy part--but to make
your reader fall in love with him" (p. 192).
HISTORY

Love stories have been popular in society for centuries. Greek mythology, based
on an oral history, contained numerous stories about the woes and triumphs of love. The
power of love was shown aptly in the story of Helen of Troy, in which her abduction
facilitated the Trojan War.

The Middle Ages also generated many love and adventure stories. These stories
were originally written in Latin and then translated into the vernacular languages that were
developing (Spanish, French, and Italian, known today as the romance languages).
Subsequently the books themselves became known as romances (Ramsdell, 1987). It is
important to note that these novels were not the same as the romances widely read today.
The former stories contained the component of love; however, the romantic theme was
usually not central to the plot.

Samuel Richardson's epistolary novel Lamela: Or Virtue Rewarded, written in

 

1740, is considered to be the direct antecedent of today's romances (Mussell, 1984;
Ramsdell, 1987 ). The story was one of seduction, a young woman who resisted the
overtures of a rake, thus earning her his love and an offer in marriage. Richardson's

second novel, Clarissa Harlowe (1747) was similar to the first; however, the woman in

 

this story succumbed to the man's advances (yielded her virtue without a wedding ring on
her finger) and consequently died. The first romantic novel to become p0pular in America
was Charlotte Temple: A Tale of Truth, written by Susanna Haswell Rowson in 1791.
These three seduction novels spawned many imitations and are precursors to current
romance novels.

The Gothic genre also was born in the eighteenth century by writers such as
Horace Walpole, Monk Lewis, and Anne Radclifl‘e. Gothics of this time period depended

on surprise, fear, and "villains who manipulate 'actual' or apparent supernatural terror to

seduce or threaten innocent young heroines" (Mussell, 1984, p. 9). Modern Gothic
novelists include Victoria Holt, Phyllis A. Whitney, and Barbara Michaels. Although
Gothics are fundamentally the same as today's romance genre, there are some slight
differences in the twentieth century counterpart. Today such a novel would be described
as a romantic mystery with a surprise ending (Small, 1981).

At the same time as the Gothic novels gained popularity, the historical romance
appeared. Historicals have the past settings, suspense, adventure, and surprise qualities of
a gothic; however, "they do not have those elements that seem to be against the laws of
nature" (Cofl'man; cited in F alk, 1990, p. 303). While it is often difficult to tell the
difl‘erence between the Gothic and the historical romance, Beatrice Small (1981) provided

the following explanation:

By their covers you shall know them. A historical romance usually has the
heroine in some sort of an embrace before a castle; the Gothic has the
heroine in her nightgown running away from the castle, which usually has
one light in an upper window (p. 28).

The popularity of both genres has been somewhat cyclical, often reflecting the
predominant social viewpoints during the respective time frames.

Although early 20th century was dominated by the historical romance, a newcomer
was in the making - the contemporary romance. These novels dealt with the more
contemporary, domestic themes of present day lifestyles. Some of the novels from this
time period, Lucy Maud Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables series (1908) and E_rnily
series (1923) and Jean Webster's Daddy Long Legs (1912), addressed teenage issues of
falling in love and growing up (Ramsdell, 1987). These novels were originally written for
the adult market but are now read primarily by young adults.

The revival of the historical romance took place in the 193 Os and 19405 when
readers demanded escape reading from the trying times of the Great Depression and
World War H (Ramsdell, 1987). The 19603 were characterized by a decreased interest in

romances; social awareness and the feminist movement took hold. However, The Flame

ml the Flower. written by Kathleen E. Woodwiss in April 1972, was a turning point for
the romance industry (Small, 1981) as it introduced a new subgenre: the sensual historical
(Falk & Kolb, 1981).

In 1958, Harlequin, today's largest romance publisher, began regularly importing
and publishing reprints of the British Mills and Boon light romances (Jensen, 1984). This
was a major evolution for the romance industry in that Harlequin soon after established
strict guidelines for their new books "to give readers what they want" (p.37). The
company's rigid format and high standards began the era of the formula romance (i.e.
categorized series which include most contemporary romances). These romances are
different from the traditional novels in that they are composed of light, innocent text
written from a "tip sheet" (formula) designated by the publisher. These "tip sheets"
include the guidelines for the length of the story, characteristics and acceptable behaviors
fi'om the hero and heroine, and plot boundaries. An excerpt taken from a Harlequin Tip
Sheet stated, "We believe that the so-called formula is only the beginning, and that
originality, imagination and individuality are the most important qualities in a romance
writer" (Falk, 1990, p. 16). F alk (1990) explains that the current category romance series
are becoming confined to two types of stories: (1) light, charming, fim, and sensuous; (2)
hot, steamy, and perhaps issue oriented. The General Editorial Guidelines for Worldwide
Libra_ry Super Romances of 1982, were created to help writers understand the components

of the process of formula romance fiction (Rabine, 1985). The steps are as follows:

Introduction of hero and heroine, their meeting;

Initial attraction or conflict between them;

Romantic conflicts or heroine's qualms about hero;

Counterbalance to developing romance (i.e., sensual scenes, getting to
know each other, growth of love vs. conflicts);

Hero's role in creating conflict;

0 Resolution of conflicts and happy ending, leading to marriage; and

o The development of the romance should be the primary concern of the
author , with other story elements integrated into the romance (p.182).

Due to Harlequin's popularity and the numerous publishing houses that have
imitated their brand name marketing strategy and book style, it is important to elaborate
on this Canadian publishing house's success. Originally, Harlequin Enterprises were not
solely a romance novel publisher and distributor, but they also published westerns (Al
Cody), mysteries (Agatha Christie), thrillers, and non-fiction. Harlequin was sold to
Richard and Mary Bonnycastle in 1958, who in a ten year time span changed the
company's name to Harlequin Enterprises, moved the corporate headquarters to Toronto,
converted the company to a public corporation, and became an exclusive romance
publisher (Jensen, 1984).

The company has expanded by adding many new series of romances that focus on
different segments of the female market. Many of these decisions were based on audience
research. Harlequin believes that research is pertinent to the growth of the company and
for a company to grow it must give its readers what they want. The original Harlequins
were very simple and innocent in both addressing social problems and sexual relations;
whereas, afier audience research, the company created other romance series that were
conducive to what women expressed interest in reading. Currently, these second-
generation series include Harlequin Presents, more sensual and issue oriented; Harlequin
SuperRomances, which are longer versions of the Presents storyline thus enabling more
character and plot development; Harlequin Temptations, the most sensuous with strong
heroes and heroines focusing on issues in the 19905; Harlequin American Romances, in
which 80% of the plot must be set in the United States; and Harlequin Intrigue, where the
backdrop of the story is set in adventure and suspense.

Harlequin's "love conquers all" philosophy certainly has rung true with their rapid
international expansion during the 1970s to include publishing in 12 languages and selling
books in 98 countries (Jensen, 1984, p. 34). Continuing with this trend, they currently
publish in 26 languages and 108 countries ("Her Passion," 1993). Fred Kemer, one of the

company's editors, divulged that in 1980, Harlequin made sales of 188 million copies of its

books world wide (Dahlia, 1981). During 1965 to 1982 book sales revenue dramatically
increased from $6 million to $218 million. In a nine-year period, from 1971 to 1980, net
revenues increased from approximately $8 million to $265 million and net earning vaulted
fi'om less than $5 million to nearly $26 million (Jensen, 1984). Needless to say, imitators
soon emerged for a piece of the romance pie. Publishing companies such as Dell, Pocket
(Silhouette series), and Bantam are hoping to achieve sales close to those of Harlequin. In
1990, the Harlequin corporation made $300 million in sales and $49 million in operating
profits ("In Her Arms," 1991). By 1992, sales had already risen to $346 million ("Her
Passion," 1993).

Nearly all readers of romance novels are female (Jensen, 1984). It was reported
that the total number of books sold annually in the United States exceeded 575 million,
while romance novels accounted for 40% of this total (Hubbard, 1985). The profitability
of Harlequin and the fact that many teens were reading these light romances identified in
one of Harlequin's research studies prompted publishing houses to start young adult series.
Young adult fiction was met with immediate popularity. From the near beginning in 1981,
"more that 2.25 million copies sold in less than two years for one publisher (Scholastic)
and a whopping l-million copies shipped in one month for another (Bantam)" (Smith,
1981, p.56). There still has been a large market in the 19905.

Teen romances are written similarly to the Harlequin contemporary style. The
story is generally between 40,000-50,000 words in length, where the heroine is 15-17
years old and the boy is slightly older (Smith, 1981). Smith (1981) points out other
features of the young adult romance: the story is often told from the girl's point of view,
where romance is the main plot with a few other adolescent problems also brought forth;
the setting is usually in a suburb or small town; there is no explicit sex or profanity; and

of course the ending is usually happy.

Most YA literature attempts to be a vehicle by which readers will gain new
insights and perspectives and grow to better understand themselves, others,
and the world around them. In keeping with this, YA literature is often
contemporary in setting and generally concerns itself with the problems,
feelings, relationships, and other aspects of the lives of teenagers. Because
dating, crushes and falling in love, and sex are all important parts of
adolescent life, it is only natural that much of YA literature, especially the
YA Romance, should deal with those topics (Ramsdell, 1987, p. 209).

Young adult romance readers identified good romances as having the following
characteristics: "a happy ending, does not drag , is easy to read, is one where the heroine
and hero are cute, popular, nice, and have money, one where girls are strong and get the
best of boys" (Christian-Smith, 1990, p. 107). Adult women readers indicated that a good
romance consists of a "happy ending, a slowly but consistently developing love between
hero and heroine, some detail about heroine and hero after they've gotten together, lots of
love scenes with some explicit sexual description" (Radway, 1991, p.67).

Few romance novels include characters with an ethnic background and if there is a
character that is not of European descent, then he or she is usually a fiiend of the main
character and/or plays a role in a secondary plot. In some of the more recent series, there
has been more attention to having African-American and Hispanic heroines and heroes.
The summer of 1994 has been deemed "the birth of the Afiican-American romance novel",
whereby there are more than 30 black authors writing these novels as well as books being
released in greater frequency per month (Bradley, 1994, p. 34). There is one new young
adult Afiican-American series entitled 18 Pine St., which follows very similar romantic
plots as the other love series.

Due to the prolific nature and repetitiveness in the category/contemporary genre in
both adult and in young adult romance fiction, these types of novels will be the focus for
the ensuing analysis. Prevalent themes will be drawn from these books and then
researched within the context of social learning theory to determine the efl‘ects of these

romance novels on young Afiican-American women.

CHAPTER TWO

Previous Studies

A preliminary study in Gibraltar, Michigan with Caucasian-American high school
sophomores showed that a majority of girls and some boys start to read young adult books
with heavy themes of girlfriend and boyfriend relationship development by 3rd and 4th
grades. Over halfthe group (32/55) said that they were reading romance novels.

One of the most cited reasons young and adult women declare for why they read
romance novels is escape (Radway, 1991; Christian-Smith, 1990). The top 4 reasons
adult women gave for reading romance novels were: "for simple relaxation; because
reading is just for me, it is my time; to learn about faraway places and times; and to escape
my daily problems" (Radway, 1991, p.61). Christian-Smith (1990) reported the following

responses to why young women read these novels:

Escape, a way to get away from problems at home and school;
Better reading than dreary textbooks;

Enjoyment and pleasure; and

To learn what romance and dating are about (p. 105).

Along with escapism, both studies indicated that respondents use these books for learning
purposes, relaxation, pleasure and fantasy.
SAIVfl’LE OF CATEGORY ROMANCE NOVELS

Themes have been identified from both a literature examination and this author's
own reading and synthesis of romance novels. Contemporary young and adult romance
novels used for theme analysis in this thesis were chosen by consulting with librarians as to
which series were being frequently checked out by young adolescents and by randomly

selecting novels fi'om those series that were available in the East Lansing Public Library.

Table 1 and 2 indicate the two samples of young adult romance novels utilized in
this study. Table l, composed of novels from 1980 to 1982, was excerpted from
Christian-Smith's (1990) Period IH critique. To update her selection, Table 2 indicates
additional novels chosen predominantly from the mid-1980s to 1995 for theme analysis.

The identification of themes in the romance literature has been the primary analysis
for many critiques and critical studies' researchers. "Romances are primarily concerned
with the process of mate selection and, secondarily, with those domestic activities -
nurturing and homemaking-traditionally assigned women in Western culture" (Mussell,
1984, p.6). Love can transform a plain heroine into a shining, beautiful woman was one
theme Hubbard (1985) identified using the fantasy theme analysis of the relationship styles
in popular romance novels from 1950 to 1983. A perceived reality analysis of "problem
concerns" in romance books compared to the problems in more realistic fiction found that
romance novels present more problem concerns that can be identified by young adults than
the more contemporary realistic fiction books relating to these same problems (Kundin,
1985). Examples of problem concerns are: "Concern about early or late development of
sexual characteristics" [Personal] , "Embarrassment because of family members who
deviate from norm" [Intrafamily], and " Striving to be part of the peer group"
[Interpersonal] (p.363).

A critical expose' of the love comic formula identified many of the same romance
themes common in today's romance novels (Perebinossoff, 1974). "The stories emphasize
that love is an overwhelming passion, but the passion never becomes overtly sexu " (p.
827). Janice Radway (1984) has identified many themes fiom adult romance novels and
the relationship between adult women and reading romances. She has determined
characteristics that women like to read about in relationships between heroes and heroines.
The most important ingredients in a romance novel rated by the Snrithton women were:

(1) a happy ending, (2) a slowly but consistently developing love between hero and

10

heroine (3) some detail about heroine and hero after they've gotten together (4) lots of
love scenes with some explicit sexual description (p. 67).

Christian-Smith's (1990) BecomingLWm Through Romamze specifically
pertained to young adult literature. For purposes of this thesis, her work has provided an
excellent template for identifying common themes which will be extrapolated into
independent variables and scales. Three themes that recurred throughout all romance
novels that are central components of femininity are romance, sexuality and beautification.

Her sample suggested the following components as necessary for a good romance novel:

. easy to read;

0 does not drag;

0 one where the heroine and hero are cute, popular, nice, and have
money;
has a happy ending; and

o where girls are strong and get the best of boys (p. 107).

ROMANCE THEMES
Character Traits

Characters in romance novels utilize gender specific language and non-verbal cues
to express themselves in a relationship. "The feminine terms involve fidelity and devotion,
which are exchanged for the support and prestige one has as the girlfiiend of a popular
boy. Getting a boyfiiend confers status on heroines and gives them special privileges"
(Christian-Smith, 1990, p. 18).

"The ideal teen-age girl is physically attractive, firn to be with, and firlly dedicated
to being a good wife to the man she loves" (Perebinossofl‘, 1974, p.825). The more recent
young adult romance novels will portray a girl's mother as being a fully dedicated good
wife to the man she loves; whereas, the girl is struggling to define herself as a woman, but
it may not be of the same form as prior generations. Physical attractiveness and a great
personality are usually characteristics of the heroine in any genre and time period, while

the man is strong and protective.

11

Radway's female sample described their favorite heroines as embodying the
following characteristics: "extremely intelligent, spunky, independent, and unique"
(Radway, 1991, p. 101). The top five qualities that were wanted in a hero were
intelligence, tenderness, sense of humor, protectiveness, and strength.

Christian-Smith (1990) interviewed 29 heavy romance reading teenagers who

identified the following characteristics for an ideal heroine:

smart/intelligent;

fimny/humorous;

pretty: most pretty girls get the best boys;
popular; and

resourceful (p. 108).

These same young women also identified the following characteristics as those which

create the ideal hero:

cute;

funny;

strong (courage, initiative, protectiveness);
nice;

has money; and

comes from a good home.

A major part of the plot development in a romance story is tied up with
descriptions of the characters. As note previously, one author stated the purpose of this
description. Authors want readers "to fall in love" with the hero as well as the heroine.
This is an important aspect because readers strive for emotional involvement in romance
plots. The more detail given to sensory information, the easier it is for a reader to become
engaged.

Love

Love is the central component to YA novels. All actions and behaviors are based

on love or the lack thereof, which helps explain the motives and emotional displays of the

characters. Love is true and pure and a very strong force to be reckoned. There are no

12

loveless marriages at the end of a romance story. These novels portray the love of a

couple as yielding such strength that anything can be overcome, especially over time.

..... her hopes and dreams shattered. So much for love, she thought bitterly.
That sure as hell didn't last long. But no, that was wrong. The love would
go on in her heart, hurting, aching, and would never truly die until she did
(Wentworth, 1990, p135).

Love conquers all, yet the female characters cannot overcome a broken relationship once
succumbing to the power of love.
Marriage

Adult romance novels usually end in marriage. Sometimes the ceremony is
planned to take place in the future or will occur soon afier the book ends, but many times
the marriage itself takes place at some point in the story. Young adult novels present the
parents of the young characters as married. The social norm that one will eventually get
married someday is accepted by young couples, but is not an immediate concern since
most characters and readers are still in high school. Even characters in their late teens and
early twenties are not expected to get married as soon as possible. Such portrayals
reflects society's acceptance of women marrying later in life. The following excerpt is

taken from a contemporary adult novel.

"If I many at all, it will be to please myself. "

Stella's voice was firm as she answered him.

"If you marry?"

She shrugged offhandedly. "Marriage isn't the be-all and end-all for
women that it used to be. It's perfectly possible nowadays for a woman to
have a completely satisfying life without taking on a husband and fanrily."
"But a lonely life and hardly a fulfilling one, " Lennox commented.

"Why not? She needn't be lonely." Stella's chin came up challenging.
"Why is it any different for a woman than a man? After all, you're not
married. But I bet you enjoy your life. Do you ever feel lonely and
unfulfilled?"

For a long moment he didn't answer, his gaze introspective, but then
Lennox said, "Yes," as if the word were torn from him. Then a cold mask
of withdrawal tightened his features. (W entworth, 1990, p. 106).

13

Young adult books do not focus on marriage for the teen. Many times there are
references that this might be a man one might want to marry in the future. In other words,
marriage is still an end goal, but not portrayed as necessary to a young woman's identity.
There is no urgency to get married (unless part of the plot) for purposes of security and
children. Even in historical settings where woman did get married at younger ages, most
marriage issues are portrayed through parental interactions. The subsequent excerpt is
from a historical young adult novel, but shows the change in societal norms in that women

can make decisions on whether to get married or not.

Was this the moment she had waited for? She swallowed hard. Was she
ready to be Dylan's wife? Was she ready to be anyone's wife? That would
be a big responsibility (Schurfianz, 1986, p. 54).

Sexual Portrayals

As previously discussed, romance in the form of sexual expression is carefirlly
manipulated. Most young adult love series only portray chaste kisses and hugs. Radway
found that her adult readers were very sensitive to how sexual intimacies evolved and that
rape and sexual aggressiveness were vehemently disliked. Novels can manipulate sexual
portrayals toward a non-genital form of sexual expression. Romance "promotes sexuality
as something magical, mystical, and loving that happens to girls" (Christian-Smith, 1990,
p. 30). Christian-Smith has identified a code of sexuality in young adult romance novels.

It follows:

. Romance is the only proper context for sexuality.
Genital sexuality is mostly reserved for adults.

. Girls respond to boys' sexual overtures but do not initiate any of their
own.

- Resistance to genital practices is encouraged.

0 Sexual definitions reside within a network of power based in romance
and the family (p.32).

Teens usually do not have sex in these contemporary novels and prior to the mid

19805 many characters were "punished" if they engaged in sexual practices by getting

14

pregnant. Some of the more recent young adult romances may include a secondary
character who previously lost her virginity. The lead character is usually still a virgin, but
it is not considered non-normative if an individual has yielded her virtue. "Well she's not a
virgin, Emma thought to herself. And I really admire her confidence... her whole attitude.
This is one cool person" (Bennett, 1994, p. 45).

Traditionally romance novels portrayed men as taking the romantic lead. For
example, a male character would be the one to instigate a kiss. These ideas follow closely
behind societal norms. Times are changing and more assertive, sexually confident woman

are portrayed more frequently than in the past.

"You look f-fantastic, " he said softly, a note of awe in his deep voice.
"So do you." I stood on tiptoe and kissed his cheek (Singleton, 1994, p.
168)

Psychological aspects are frequently presented instead of physical sexual
experiences. Examples noted by Christian-Smith (1990) are: "my heart began to hammer,
something deep within me stirred and a throbbing warmth surged through my whole body
until the very tips of my fingers tingled, his touch created a tiny tingle of electricity that
reached the insides of my heart "(p. 34).

Gently he lifted her chin and bent to kiss her. She leaned against him,
loving his neamess. His scent of snow and cedar filled her senses. Closing
her eyes, Julie felt almost dizzy as his fingers trailed down her cheek.

"Ah, my sweet colleen," he whispered. "You're the only girl for me."
(Schurfi'anz, 1986, p. 52).

Dylan enfolded her in his arms. His blue eyes were bright with unshed,
sparkling tears. He kissed her and she could feel his heart beat. At last she
was where she belonged. (p. 206).

The first kiss begins the transformation phase of a girl to womanhood (Christian-
Srrrith, 1990). Sexual intercourse is not given this status in young adult novels; however,
the first kiss is replaced by first sexual experience in adult romance novels. Parents always

promote the traditional aspects of romance that ruled their era of behavior. Therefore,

15

boys should make the first move and no sexual behavior is acceptable until marriage. In
adult romance novels, the sexual union is the transition phase from young woman to a
"knowledgeable" woman.
Transformation

As previously alluded, the first kiss or sexual experience is a major turning point in
these novels. For characters, this romantic transforming experience brings focus to one's
life and opens one's mind and soul to a new way of looking at life. "Romance is not only
credited with their maturation, but it is the single experience that gives their lives meaning"
(Christian-Smith, 1990, p.25). It opens up new vistas, feelings, and provides experiences
that make heroines feel more alive, with newly acquired strength and purpose.

There are numerous ways that the transforrnative powers of romance can emerge.

Some of the most prevalent portrayals are:

. After transformation, character changes a major trait (e. g. looks, personality,
behavior);

Heroine is more confident, desirable, and beautifirl as a girlfiiend;

Prince charming is responsible for the transformations;

Weak heroine changes into a strong heroine;

Girl becomes popular when with the "right guy";

Heroine emerges with greater self-esteem and assertiveness; and

First love greatly influences a young woman's perspectives on life's path.

Transformation themes can be either positive, such as growing up to be a more
responsible individual, or negative, like trying to be someone that one really isn't or
changing for the worst. Most negative transformations are rectified by the end of the
novel, whereby the hero really liked the heroine better before she changed herself.
Following is one instance where the girl plans to change for the love of her hero, but later

in the novel misunderstandings will be cleared and no one will have to change drastically.

I shook my head sadly. "No. Jake wants me to share his life, but he doesn't
want to share mine. I thought I could change him from an outsider to an
insider, but he's made it pretty clear that he doesn't want to change." I
sighed. "So, I guess I'll have to." (Singleton, 1994, p.136).

l6

Beautification

Romance novels are filled with beautifirl people, who have perfect figures and
flawless features. The public's eye is not of concern, but whether the romantic partner
finds the individual attractive. However, most characters are perceived by the public as
also being beautiful or handsome.

Many times the main female character is striving for beauty. For example, "Tall,
beautifirl girls like Regina seemed to have it all. What I wouldn't give to have a few inches
of her height and a little respect?" (Singleton, 1994, p.11). Numerous books have focused
on a makeover theme (Vernon, 1981; Conford, 1982) as well as one series whose main
focus is modeling (Ford Supermodels of the World). However, it should be noted for all
the makeup and fashion, heroines are for the most part naturally pretty even if they have
not realized it yet (this is usually part of the transformation process: awareness of one's
own desirability). Their efforts of enhancing their beauty are acknowledged by the lead
male character. "You look great," he said standing back to gaze at me" (Calhoun, 1995,
p. 75).

More recent romance books are addressing these beautification issues by directly
addressing the status-quo ideology of what is beautifirl. Here are a few passages taken
from Sunset Sensation, whereby some of the main characters are discussing the issue of
being overweight. Keep in mind most female characters are portrayed as slender usually

wearing a perfect size six.

"She's cute," Emma whispered to Sam, " in her own way."

"No way, " Sam disagreed, "she's fat."

"Yeah," Emma said, not disputing what Sam had said, "but she looks great
anyway" (Bennett, 1994, p.25).

"And what if she's happy the way she is?" Carrie asked. "I mean society
says we have this certain standard of beauty based on being thin. But at
the turn of the century, society had a totally different standard. Erin would
have been considered perfect and everyone would be saying you weren't
trying hard enough to gain weigh ." Carrie told Sam (p. 144).

17

Now why is it that we think we 're worth more if guys think we 're good
looking? It's completely crazy! (p. 147).

Lastly, beauty can also be used to obtain end goals, such as strength, influence,
power, and security (Christian-Smith, 1990). Many beautifirl heroines attain great wealth
and influence by marrying the hero. However, this is more of an adult theme. In young
adult novels, popularity and self-assurance are the rewards for dating the "right guy or
gir ".

Fashion Consciousness

"Clothing is central to one's body image, achieving its effect through its ability to
define or camouflage body parts" (p. 45). For women, waist, hips, legs, and busts are
emphasized by certain clothing and accessories. Whereas for men, chests and legs are
clothed for the optimal male mental image. Fashion is described in great detail for nearly

every new scene.

As always, he looked wonderful. His wavy blond hair just touched his
shoulders, and his blue eyes were shining as usual. He was wearing a pair
of stylish baggy brown corduroy pants with a tan wool turtleneck, and
thick brown work boots. One of the things I like so much about Carl is the
way he dresses. (Calhoun, 1995, p.8).

"You're always so color-coordinated," Natasha said with another sigh. "I
wish I had half your fashion sense. "Believe me, it doesn't come naturally."
I confessed as we entered the store. "Sometimes I think it would be nice to
relax and not worry about what I wear, but if I did, people would think I
wasn't cool" (Singleton, 1994, p.31).

Jealousy

Jealousy is portrayed frequently in both adult and young adult romance novels.
Until love has been declared by each side, there is a sense of uncertainty by one or both of
the characters which can lead to displays of jealousy. It is considered normal within a
relationship as long as it is not too oppressive or powerful. If jealousy is portrayed in
terms of "eating one up", then it may become a central issue that may be addressed in a

negative way. For example:

18

He ducked that one, but said, "He's keen on you. "

"That's no excuse. I can't stand possessive men."

A moped, its engine so noisy that it grated on the ears, finally went by and
they were able to join the main road.

"When people are in love they tend to get jealous and possessive, " Lennox
remarked.

"Which is very likely the reason that their love isn't returned," Stella
answered without thinking. (Wentworth, 1990, p. 114)

Traditional Woman (Education/Work/Home)

High fiequency romance readers are aware of societal issues of today regarding
parenting, marriage, careers, and household duties. Many teens envision themselves
working and do not see themselves as firll-time housewives and child-minders that were at
one time prevalent societal norms (Christian-Smith, 1990). Christian-Smith found that
girls see themselves marrying, having children, obtaining some higher schooling, and
working for pay.

Domestic themes persist, but not all roles are traditionally presented. The
traditional woman is usually presented in the mother figure role. Young females are in
training. Rarely does one encounter young males doing domestic chores, such as setting

the table.

"You know," their father said, laughing, "I've never been able to teach your
mother how to do justice to a salad. That woman has a master's degree,
and she still can't mix a decent dressing. "

"My master's was in design." Alice Wakefield called from the door. "You'd
be surprised how few salad courses we had to take."

She breezed into the kitchen and walked to the oven. Afier pulling the
roast out, she walked over to Steven and gave him a hug (William, 1985,

p. 10).
This scene is interesting due to its non-traditional as well as traditional portrayals of the
wife. Although Mrs. Wakefield has a higher education, it is obvious that she is still
responsible for cooking and maintaining the traditional female role in the family. Other
themes identified by Christian-Smith (1990) are:

19

. girls do the housework if their mother isn't around;
0 men appreciate the domestic skills women possess; and
. women do not often complain about their household duties.

Educational status and careers of a woman vary considerably in both adult and
young adult novels. Some women work to help make ends meet, while others work part-
tirne to bring in extra cash not necessary for survival, and still others are homemakers.
Education ranges from barely finishing high school to higher college degrees. Most YA
novels portray the mother figure having at least finished high school. Due to the evolution
of societal norms regarding women, themes can be traditional such as giving up one's
career once married and then having children, or more non-traditional, as in being a
"supermom" who never complains. These terms are used loosely, because it is diflicult to
pinpoint what has been considered traditional or non-traditional since the 19705.
Purchases on Date

Males still do most of the purchasing on a date. In general, they still buy the

tickets for the movie, dinner and drinks, and other recreational needs.

Samuel, however, didn't seem to mind. Taking her arm, he said good-
naturedly, "Afier such a good lunch, Julie, the least I can do is buy you a
sarsaparilla." (Schurfi'anz, 1986, p.34-35).

"That was a wonderfirl meal. Thank you."

Kynan inclined his head. "Not at all. It was worth it for the pleasure of
your company." He finished his coffee and asked, "More for you?"
Briar shook her head.

He paid the bill and took her arm as they left the restaurant. (Clair, 1994,

p.37).
Heterosexual Practice

Although sexual orientation will not be pursued as a theme in this study, romance
is considered a heterosexual practice (Radway, 1991, Christian-Smith, 1990).
Homosexual characters are usually portrayed in a manner that the reader would not want

to identify with, let alone model.

20

THEME SUMMARY

Category romance novels consist of many repetitive themes due to the formulaic
construction. This study focuses on the following recurring romantic themes that are
portrayed in young adult contemporary romance fiction: true love and love within a
relationship, marriage, sexual portrayals as chaste, transformation, beautification, fashion
consciousness, jealousy, the traditional woman, and purchases on dates by males.
Characteristics that will be further analyzed with respect to the heroine include:
intelligence, humor, beauty, strength, aggressiveness, independence, wealth, popularity,
personality traits (fiiendly, honest, caring), and virginal status. Hero characteristics that
will be addressed are intelligence, strength, protectiveness, humor, physical attractiveness,
independence, wealth, confidence, bravery, gentleness, and tenderness.
THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Feminist theory has been the most popular way to assess the content of romantic
materials and culturally defined female target media with which teenage girls might
identify. Peirce (1990) has discovered through a content analysis that the magazine
Seventeen promotes traditional male-female relations with major focus on issues such as
beauty, fashion, romance, dating, and household activities. She found that even though
these topics decreased in coverage during the Feminist movement in the late sixties and
early seventies, they have now returned to the same representation as in the early sixties.

Radway (1984) interpreted adult romance novels as promoting heroines as being
nurture-deprived, as well as the readers themselves vicariously seeking to firlfill their own
deprivation. The male hero, in a patriarchal society, can adopt some feminine
characteristics, such as caring and nurturing the heroine. As a result, readers often derive

satisfaction from such portrayals.

In summary, when the act of romance reading is viewed as it is by the
readers themselves, from within a belief system that accepts as given the
institutions of heterosexuality and monogamous marriage, it can be

21

conceived as an activity of mild protest and longing for reform necessitated
by those institutions' failure to satisfy the emotional needs of women (p.
213)

Nonetheless, when viewed from the feminist perspective, romance reading is considered
a counter activity to the promotion of real social and institutional structural change from
the traditional male-dominated society (Radway, 1991).

However, some critics believe that these books are not only about a woman who
has lost her mother figure in search of a penile substitute for power in her world. As
Marilyn Kaye (1981) suggested, "the heroine's struggles with common adolescent
problems, her romantic fantasies as opposed to the realities, and her desire to define
herself" (p. 43). Radway (1991) firrther explored this by indicating that romance readers
view the act of reading as both combative and compensatory. While in some instances
readers escape their own patriarchal world by escaping into a novel, they also are
identifying with women in similar patriarchal situations which in turn may promote the

reader's behavior to perpetuate these gender stereotypical behaviors.

Therefore, while the act of romance reading is used by women as a means
of partial protest against the role prescribed for them by the culture, the
discourse itself actively insists on the desirability, naturalness, and benefits
of that role by portraying it not as the imposed necessity that it is but as a
fieely designed, personally controlled, individual choice (p. 208).

Although the feminist theory presents interesting perspectives and analysis of the
romance literature, the arguments may be circular. Everything is placed in traditional
gender role definitions and discussions of topics are portrayed in the stereotypical norms
of society, yet women readers have their own frame of reference which is within this
sociocultural structure. Because much of fenrinist literature is based on Freudian concepts
and his psychoanalytic theory, this theory will not be used for the present analysis due to
its decontextualization of the subjects (readers) fiom their own perceptions of the world.
The tenet of feminism that a person embodies, creates much subjectivity for the

interpretation process. For example:

22

A liberal feminist believes that liberation for women is the freedom to
determine their own social role and to compete with men on terms that are
as equal as possible. The radical feminist believes that control over
women's reproductive systems is the root of women's oppression and that a
biological revolution such as test-tube babies and sperm banks is necessary
(Peirce, 1990, p.492-493).

The feminist approach is very powerful and has been used to study romance
literature in great detail (Crane, 1994; Peirce, 1990; Radway, 1991). Additionally, other
critical perspectives have been used in the analysis of romantic literature, such as, fantasy
theme analysis (Hubbard, 1985), perceived reality analysis (Kundin, 1985), and a critical
expose’ (Perebinossofi‘, 1974). From these critical perspectives, many themes have been
identified from the romance trade.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The current study analyzes readers of romantic novels in terms of social learning
theory to add more depth to this subject matter. It is important to determine if the themes
portrayed in these novels are being learned and modeled by the young women in modern
society. It is essential to note that individuals "are not born with attitudes, beliefs,
knowledge, or a repertoire of behaviors"; rather, one must learn them (Tan, 1986, p. 243).
Bandura's (1977) social learning theory provides a relevant framework to study mass
communication because "the portrayal or description of social life is a frequent subject in
media conten " (DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989) which may be learned and incorporated
into an individual's belief system.

Stimulus-Response (SR) and behaviorist theories, often referred to as learning
theories, assume that learning occurs by directly experiencing an effect which corresponds
to some stimuli that the individual had performed. Bandura expands on traditional
learning theories by explaining that individuals learn from observation or modeling as well
as from direct experience. Social learning theory is comprehensive in that it takes into
account the environment, cognitive factors, stimuli, response, and the thought processes

of the individual. Observational learning is governed by four subfirnctions: attentional

23

processes, retention processes, reproduction processes, and motivational processes.
Bandura's theoretical model of social learning theory is shown in Figure 1.

Attentional Processes

Attentional processes determine what is selectively observed in the
profusion of modeling influences and what information is extracted from
ongoing modeled events (Bandura, 1994, p. 67-68).

Each person will have distinct observational experiences because individuals will
attend to difl‘erent events and be exposed to stimuli in various quantities. Factors such as
observers' characteristics, features of the modeled activities, and structural arrangement of
human interactions will regulate learning experiences (Bandura, 1977). Learning is an
observational event that can occur either directly (daily activity) or indirectly (TV
program) (Tan, 1986). One assumption is that for one to learn, one must pay attention to
the event. Thus, the first step of the process is for the modeling stimuli (event) to get the
attention of the viewers. Bandura's (1977, 1994; Tan, 1986) model incorporates the
following characteristics of an event which are most likely to promote a modeling
behavior. Distinctive and Simple events will draw attention and be more likely to be
modeled. Repeated observations (prevalence of an event) will give individuals a greater
opportunity to learn an event and thus model it. Affective valence, events that elicit
positive responses, will be attended. These events can be salient, reinforcing (by fulfilling
a need), and attractive.

Observer attributes also determine attention. Bandura defines these in terms of
perceptual set, cognitive capabilities, cognitive preconceptions, arousal level, and acquired
preferences. A person's perception influences what he/she will observe from an event. It
is determined by moods, past knowledge, needs, and values. Cognitive capabilities will be
afl‘ected by age and a person's learning ability. The more aroused an individual - such as

anger, fear, or excitement - the more attentive that person is to the stimuli.

24

Retention Processes

Retention involves an active process of transforming and restructuring
information about events from memory representation in the form of rules
and conceptions (Bandura, 1994, p. 68).

Simply stated, a person cannot model a given behavior if he/ she cannot remember
it. According to Bandura, individuals represent the modeled event in two systems -
irnaginal and verbal. Some things are remembered via visual imagery (imaginal), (i.e., a
person's face), while other things are stored in memory in a text form (i.e., a phone
number). Optimal remembrance occurs if a whole event is stored (symbolically coded) in
both a visual and verbal manner. Rehearsal of an observed event is extremely important if
an individual is to really remember and model a behavior. "The observer must not only
represent the event in verbal and visual forms so that it can be stored in memory, he or she
must also be able to 'mentally rehearse' the act before enacting it overtly" (Tan, 1986, p.
247). Children are a perfect example of rehearsing what they see and hear. There have
been numerous instances when a child has been heard singing his or her favorite
commercial and then later asking a parent for the item in the advertisement. (Robertson,
Ward, Gatignon, & Klees, 1989).

Motor Reproduction Processes

Symbolic conceptions are translated into appropriate courses of action by a
conception-matching process in which conceptions guide the construction
and execution of behavior patterns and the adequacy of the action is
compared against the conceptual model (Bandura, 1994, p. 68).

Bandura (1977) has categorized behavioral enactment into the following
successive steps: cognitive organization of responses, the initiation, monitoring, and
refinement on the basis of informative feedback. The cognitive representation must first
be remembered and then organized in an individual's mind so that he or she has a model
for reenactment of the event. The enacted event will differ between people, because

organization of the event will difi‘er upon what an individual selected for reenactment and

25

his or her cognitive skills. People also have difi‘erent motor skill capabilities. Thus, even if
a person can remember and knows what action to perform, he or she may not be able to

do so physically. Reproduction of an event usually requires an experimentation phase to
actually be able to perform the specific action, as well as practice to become efficient at

the modeled event. "Feedback is therefore important because it allows us to correct for
discrepancies between the observed act our modeling of it" (Tan, 1986). Sports and
music require observation, retention, cognitive organization, trial and error, and, most
importantly, practice of the event.

Motivational Processes

Social learning theory distinguishes between acquisition and performance
because people do not perform everything they learn (Bandura, 1994, p.
68-69).

Three incentive motivators identified by Bandura are direct/external reinforcement,
vicarious reinforcement, and self-produced reinforcement. These motivators influence
individuals to perform observationally learned behaviors. Reinforcement is usually a
consequence of reward, in that some pleasurable experience or lack of negative feedback
is provided for performing the behavior as a response to the stimuli. People are likely to
model a behavior in which they believe they will be receiving a reward.

External reinforcements are rewards that exist outside the individual who knows or
expects to be rewarded for a certain behavior. Examples would be a child doing a chore
for his/her allowance or a person who stops smoking so that his or her health insurance
premiums will go down and social approval will rise.

Vicarious reinforcements result when one person observes a modeled behavior by
another getting rewarded. Thus, people are more likely to imitate a behavior due to the
reinforcement that was observed than if no reward was given. Models who appear and
behave realistically will more likely be observed. "Thus models who fail occasionally are

more effective than those who encounter no difficulties or setbacks in their learning

26

process" (McAlister, Ramirez, Galavotti, & Gallion, 1989; cited in Rice & Atkin, 1989).
Young adult novels are riddled with these types of romance "setbacks", thus making it
more realistic to the reader who already knows that romantic relationships can be tricky.

Self-reinforcements are reinforcements that people give themselves for enacting
certain behaviors. Hobbies, exercise, and other self-fulfilling actions generate rewards
within, such as self-satisfaction, inner peace, content, and joy. The majority of young
adult romance novels are written at a low reading level. Some teens who have trouble
reading choose these books for reading assignments because they can master the reading
and the content is of interest. This is a self-reinforcing activity.

Learning by observation is prevalent in our society because it would be very
difficult to learn everything by trial and error in a direct fashion. Romance novels present
an ideal "model" because they reconstruct social activities and behaviors with
reinforcement given to the individuals who enact the behaviors. Due to the repetitive
storyline of these novels, it is easy to see how it can facilitate the learning of attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors heavily portrayed in romance books.

INTEGRATION OF THEORY AND THEMES

A prediction based on social learning theory would be that the more an individual
is exposed and attends to specific attitudes and behaviors, the more likely one will encode
such beliefs into one's own conceptual knowledge. Therefore, an individual who reads
romance novels frequently will be more likely to express one's self in the direction of the
themes presented in these novels. The following predictions are derived from basic social
learning principles.

I: More romance reading will be related to the belief that:

Hla: ...there is a concept called 'true love';

Hlb: ...love is an integral part of romantic relationships;

ch: ...romantic relationships should culminate in marriage;

Hld: ...traditional chaste and non-genital sexuality are part of teen romantic
relationships;

27

H1 e: ...romance has transformative powers;

H 1f: ...beauty makes one more attractive to the opposite sex

H] g: ...dressing in fashion makes one more attractive to the opposite sex;

th: ...jealousy exists in romantic relationships;

Hli: ...men should make purchases on dates;

H] j: ...the following heroine characteristics are more important to a female
character in a romance novel: smart, firnny, friendly, caring, beautiful,
independent, popular, virginal;

Hlk: ...the following hero characteristics are more important to a male character in
a romance novel: smart, gentle, protective, strong, honest, firnny, friendly,
good looking, independent, rich, aggressive, confident, tender, and brave.

H11: ...that women should be traditional in their role in society

According to social learning theory, the more an individual identifies with a presented
attitude, belief, or behavior, the more likely that person will model that which was
portrayed.

The concept of perceived reality (Atkin, Greenberg, & McDermott, 1983;
Gerbner, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1986, 1995; Potter, 1988) integrates smoothly into social
learning terminology. The more realistic something is presented, the easier it would be to
model and perhaps receive positive reinforcement. Therefore, an individual's perceived
reality of the characters and issues presented in the romance books will be correlated to
the themes presented in these books. However, one should be cautious in making
sweeping statements; for teenagers know the difference between real life and the world of
novels. Most teen girls use novels to escape and construct a 'make believe' reality that is
different from their own present lives (Christian-Smith, 1990).

II. The greater the perceived reality of the content (characters, problems,

behaviors), the stronger is the belief that:

H2a: ...there is a concept called 'true love';

H2b: ...love is an integral part of romantic relationships;

H2c: ...romantic relationships should culminate in marriage;

H2d: ...traditional chaste and non-genital sexuality are part of teen romantic
relationships;

H2c: ...romance has transformative powers;

H2f: ...beauty makes one more attractive to the opposite sex;

H2g: ...dressing in fashion makes one more attractive to the opposite sex;

H2h: ...jealousy exists in romantic relationships;

28

H2i: ...men should make purchases on dates;

H2j: ...the following heroine characteristics are more important to a female
character in a romance novel: smart, funny, friendly, caring, beautifirl,
independent, popular, virginal;

H2k: ...the following hero characteristics are more important to a male character
in a romance novel: smart, gentle, protective, strong, honest, funny,
fiiendly, good looking, independent, rich, aggressive, confident, tender, and
brave.

H21: ...that women should be traditional in their role in society

Thus, both romance reading and perceived reality of the content are expected to
have similar influences on the acceptance of major romance novel themes. A survey will
be designed to examine these hypotheses and research questions. Scales will be developed
to measure each of the prevalent romance themes, frequency of reading and perceived

reality.

CHAPTER THREE
Methods

Questionnaire administration was supervised in classroom settings by female
master's students in May of 1995 and March of 1996. Students were given one class
period (approximately 50 minutes) to complete the survey in their English class.
Participation was voluntary and anonymous. There were two versions of the
questionnaire, one for females and the other for males. The male survey was a dummy
questionnaire to keep the male occupants busy for the same amount of time as the female
students. It did not contain any questions about romance novels, but focused on television
instead. These surveys will not be used in this study. Only the female questionnaires will
be analyzed.

The superintendent of the Southfield school district acted in 'loco parentis', so
permission slips were not necessary. A draft of a permission slip was presented to both
the Superintendent and UCRIHS; which can be found in Appendix A.

A pretest of the questionnaire was administered to two middle school classes
(N=18) in the same school district as the final data collection. Discussion followed to see
if the adolescents understood the wording, comprehended the questions, liked the verbal
format, and if they had enough time to complete the survey. The data from the pre-test
were statistically processed to see if there were any ceiling or basement effects and to
ensure enough response categories for usable distributions. As it turns out, most of the
students enjoyed taking the survey that asked them their opinions on love, marriage,
dating, and romance. The girls were especially enthusiastic, while the boys were a little

more reserved.

29

3O

Respondents were from Southfield, a large, middle class, Detroit suburban school
district. Questionnaires were administered in two middle schools. The original sample
included 124 pre-adolescents girls between the ages of 11 and 12. The sample was
predominantly African-American. After excluding the students that were not of Afiican-
American heritage, the sample yielded 82 sixth-grade females. Because this sample did not
contain as many high frequency romance readers as necessary for statistical processing,
the next year's group of students at the same schools were surveyed. The two groups of
sixth grade students were combined due to their similarities in demographics. The mean
age for this group was 11.6, with a total of 163 students. This composite sample will be
the main focus of this analysis. See Appendix B for footnote 1 on original sample and
questionnaire content.

SCALE ANALYSIS

Scale validation and construction was assessed by using confirmatory factor
analysis (Boster, 1995, 1996; and Hunter & Gerbing, 1982). This analytic technique was
used to determine if items were measuring a given construct predictably. Items were
derived theoretically to measure the various romantic theme factors and are specified to
the program for analysis. Factors were examined by (l) checking for face validity or item
content homogeneity of the indicators (for all scales) (2) using the internal consistency
theorem to determine the extent to which data from one item is similar to all other items
measuring the same construct (for all scales) (3) employing the parallelism test to
determine if items measuring one construct correlate predictably and evenly across items
of a different cluster (only multi-dimensional scales). Items were thrown out if they did
not meet these criterion. Standardized coefficient alphas were computed for scales that
were internally consistent and parallel. Factor loadings are presented for each scale. Note
that even though some of the loadings may seem low, they are pertinent to the face
validity of the factor and did not induce error terms that were not predicted by the

consistency theorem. Appendix C contains the items and scales that were dropped.

31

Alpha scores are reported for original scales. In most instances the original alpha
was derived from adult samples, unless otherwise noted. The majority of scales were
constructed for this thesis project. Sometimes a item from another individual's work was
extrapolated and more items were generated to create a scale. These instances will be
addressed. The rating scales were simplified for the understanding of sixth-grade students.
Below are detailed descriptions of the scales and variables. Appendix D contains the
complete female questionnaire.

VARIABLES AND INDICES
Antecedent Variables

The antecedent variables and scales are: demographics, ownership of home,

disposable income, parental structure, parent work level, and parent reading preference.

Demographics. Respondents were asked for their age, ethnicity, and gender.

 

Ownership SES. Ownership was measured by determining if the place the
individual lives is rented or owned.

Disposable Income. This index measures how much spending money a respondent
receives as an allowance and/or from work. This summated score increases as
respondents report higher allowances and money earned outside the house. Six response
categories ranging from $1 to over $20 were used for weekly allowance. There were five
response groups for money earned by work: $5-$25, $26-$50, $51-$75, $76-$100, Over
$100.

Parent Structure. Respondents were asked to circle if they lived with their:

 

mother, step mother, or female guardian. Likewise, they also were asked if they lived with
the male counterparts.
Regent Wfl Level. Students were asked if each parent worked outside the home.
There were four response categories: firll-time, part-time, not work, and don't know.
Parent Reading Preference. Respondents were asked what each parent reads the

most: books, magazines, newspaper, doesn't read a lot.

32

Independent Variables

The independent variables and scales consist of frequency of young adult romance
reading and perceived reality of romance novels.

Frequency of romflce reflipg. Respondents were asked how often they read or
have read the following 13 young adult series, which had four response categories (never
= 1, very often = 4). Ifmore the 90% of the respondents indicated that they perv—er read a
particular series, then that series was dropped from the scale. The W_ilcmr_e, Windswept,
and gm series were dropped on the basis of this reading criteria. The remaining series'

scores are summed so that higher scores correspond to frequent readers. The young adult

romance series that met the criterion include:

 

 

 

Romance Reading Scale (Alpha = .79) Factor Loadings
Sweet Valley High .40
Sweet Dreams .55
Silhouette's First Love .33
Wishing Star .42
Younwve .69
Sunset Island .72
Sunfire .63
Wild Rose Inn .61
Signet/Vista Romances .58
18 Pine St. .35

Perceived reality. This is a seven item, four-point summated scale that measures
the respondents perceived reality of romance plots and characters to that of real life. The
response categories are very often (4), often (3), sometimes (2), and never (1). One item

was dropped: How often do you think the things happening in romances happen in real

life?
Perceived Reality Scale (Alpha = .73) Factor Loadings
1. How often do you think the characters in romances are like .38

people you meet in real life?

2. Are the boys in the romance books like boys you know? .68

 

33

3. Are the girls in the romance books like the girls you know? .58
4. Are the problems in the romance books like the problems you have? .50
5. How often are the situations that happen in the romance novels realistic? .44

6. How often does the main girl character do the same things that you .63
would like to do on a date?

7. How often do the boys that you know act the same way the main male .53
character does on a date?

Dependent Variables

The dependent variables and scales consist of items relating to characteristics, love,
marriage, sexual portrayals, transformation, beautification, fashion consciousness,
jealousy, traditional woman, and gender purchases on a date. The response categories
were strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), agree (3), strongly agree (4) for all of the scales.
There were occasionally other variables with different response categories to eliminate
response biases as well as provide descriptive information.

Em. A seven item, four-point ratings scale was summed to create two indices
about the influence of love. The larger the summed score, the more adolescents believe
that (1) love is an integral part of a romantic relationship and (2) there is a "true love".

Gagrron's love scale (1973) provided some of the questions related to the true love

concept.
True Love Scale (Alpha = .58) Factor Loadings
1. True love leads to almost perfect happiness. .59
2. True love lasts forever. .65
3. There is only one "true love" for a person. .46

Relationship Love Scale (Alpha = .63)
4. Love makes a person feel complete .63

5. Two people should not get married unless they are in love. .57

34

6. Ifa couple loves one another, then they should be able to always
work out their problems. .45

7. Love is the most important part of a relationship. .55
Marriage. A three item, four-point summated scale measures adolescents'
perceptions that people want to get married. The larger the score, the more that marriage

is viewed as a goal in the firture.

Marriage Scale (Alpha = .69) Factor Loadings
1. Most girls want to get married. .61
2. Most boys want to get married. .75
3. Most people want to get married some day. .61

Chaste Sexuality This four item, four-point summated scale measures the
perceived attitudes of adolescents about initial romantic contact in the form of hugging
and kissing. This scale was created for the sixth-grade students to determine their
attitudes on initiation into non-genital romantic activities. Higher scores indicate that

traditional forms of kissing and hugging are acceptable.

Chaste Sexuality Scale (Alpha = .47) Factor Loadings
1. Boys and girls should only kiss and hug when they are dating. .40

2. A girl should always kiss a boy goodnight if he takes her out on a date. .43

3. Boys should always be the first person to start a kiss. .62
Transformation This seven item, four-point rating scale is summed to create an

index about the transformation of females to more confident women in a romantic

relationship. Higher scores indicate that respondents believe that romance/love have

transformative powers.

Transformation Scale (Alpha = .52) Factor Loadings
1. Romance changes a person's life forever. .41

2. When an unhappy person enters a romantic relationship,
he or she becomes happy. .39

35

3. A girl feels more confident and desirable when she has a boyfriend. .50
4. A girl becomes prettier when she is dating. .21

5. A girl's life changes forever when she starts dating. .61

Beautification. A five item, four-point rating scale measures adolescents' attitude
toward beauty. Higher scores indicate the belief in the attribute that beauty makes one

more attractive to the opposite sex.

Beauty Scale (Alpha = .55) Factor Loadings
1. It is easier to date if you are pretty. .25
2. Wearing make-up will attract more boys. .46
3. Beautiful people can date anyone they want. .25
4. Boys will only want to date you if they like how you look. .65
5. Boys are attracted to pretty girls. .66

Fashion Conscioum This three item, four-point summated rating scale
originates from a fashion consciousness six item five-point scale (Lumpkin & Darden,
1982). The scale measures the importance of being dressed in the latest fashion. The
original scale's alpha was . 71. This scale has kept two of the original items and added

two. A high score indicates high fashion consciousness, with scores ranging from 3 to 9.

Fashion Consciousness Scale (Alpha = .61). Factor Loadings
1. A person should try to dress in style. .70
2. It is important to me that my clothes be the newest style. .64
3. Girls get more boyfiiends if they dress in the latest fashion. .44

Jealousy. This is a three item, four-point summated index which is linked to love,
but specifically addresses the role of jealousy in relationships. The higher the score, the
more jealousy is an acceptable emotion to express when a person is in a love relationship.

Jealousy Scale (Alpha = .40) Factor Loadings

36

1. You should never be jealous of the person you love. (R) .29

2. Jealousy is part of all romantic relationships. .59

3. When your partner is acting jealous, then you know that
your partner loves you. .43

Gender purchases on a date. This four item, four-point summated scale measures
attitudes of which gender should purchase goods on a date. The higher the score, the .

more the belief that males should purchase items or have money on a date.

Date Purchases Scale (Alpha = .81) Factor Loadings

1. If my boyfiiend takes me out on a date, he should pay for my food. .76

2. The boy that I date should have money. .61
3. If a boy takes me out on a date, he should pay for my movie ticket. .88
4. A girl shouldn't have to spend any money if she is out on a date. .63

Hero fld Heroine Chmcteristics. Respondents were asked how important
different characteristics are in the girl that you are reading about; they could respond very
important, important, so-so, not important. Female characteristics were: smart, firnny,
strong, fiiendly, honest, caring, beautiful, rich, aggressive, independent, popular, single,
and virgin. Likewise, respondents also addressed 14 characteristics important in a boy
that one is reading about. Male characteristics were smart, gentle, protective, strong,
honest, funny, fiiendly, good looking, independent, rich, aggressive, confident, tender, and
brave. These characteristics will generate two scales, one female and the other male. The
larger the summated score for characteristics, the more the respondent identifies with the
traits portrayed by romance characters.

Female Characteristics Scale (Alpha = .61 ) Factor Loadings
Smart .62

Funny .43

37

Caring .65
Beautifirl .35
Independent .58
Virgin .15
Male Characteristics Scale (Alpha = .83) Factor Loadings
Smart .57
Gentle .60
Protective .59
Physically Strong .64
Honest .53
Funny .47
Friendly .72
Good Looking .31
Independent .58
Aggressive .32
Confident .66
Brave .56

Traditional Woman Eight items were created to measure adolescents' beliefs of a

woman's traditional role in the household and other career and family issues. Items were:
Traditional Woman Scale (Alpha = .54) Factor Loadings

1. A wife should keep the home clean and cook the meals for her family. .46

2. Girls should help their mothers with household chores. .50

3. A woman should raise her family before she thinks about a career. .60

4. The most important thing in a woman's life is taking care of her children. .37

CHAPTER FOUR

Results

SAMPLE DESCRIPTORS

This sample consisted of 163 Afiican-American pre-adolescent females. Ages
ranged from 11 to 13 years, with a mean age of 11.6. Ninety-six percent of the
respondents reported living with their mother and 60 percent reported living with their
father. An additional 10 percent reported living with a step father. F ifty-seven percent of
the respondents live with both original parents.

The majority of parents of these respondents work. Mothers were reported to
work outside the home in the following categories: firll-time (72%), part-time (18%), not
work (8%), and don't know (3%). Likewise, reports on fathers working outside the home
were: full-time (80%), part-time (12%), not work (3%), and don't know (6%).

Participants were asked to identify the type of materials their parents read most
fiequently. Mothers' read: books (39%), magazines (33%), newspapers (18%), doesn't
read a lot (10%). F athers' read: books (18%), magazines (10%), newspapers (64%),
doesn't read a lot (9%).

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Means, standard deviations and possible and actual ranges for the confirmed scales
and indexes are in Table 3. The nridpoints from the possible ranges (PR) of the scales
were used to compare the mean scores to determine if the respondents were agreeing or
disagreeing or scoring high or low on the scales.

As Table 3 shows, the girls in this sample were not heavy readers of young adult

romance books (i = 13.8, PR = 10-40). This scale was skewed in the positive direction

38

39

(skew of 2.0) because approximately 30% percent of the sample never read or only read
one of the series once in a while. They also did not perceive that the content (characters,
problems, behaviors) in romance books was likely to occur 'often' in real life (it = 14.2, PR
= 7-28). This scale was normally distributed.

Respondents were unsure of the concept of true love (at = 7.4, PR = 3-12), half
agreed and the other halfdisagreed. The sample did consider love to be an integral part of
a romantic relationships (2 = 12.9, PR = 4-16) and that most individuals do want to get
married some day (i = 8.7, PR = 3-12).

Participants decidedly split down the middle of whether romantic relationships
should be strictly chaste and non-genital (x = 7.2, PR = 3-12), halfagreed and the others
disagreed. Respondents were divided about the idea that romance has transformative
powers (it = 12.1, PR = 5-20), with a tendency toward disagreement.

Beauty was divided, with slightly more agreement that it is helpful in attracting the
opposite sex (x = 12.9, PR = 5-20). Being fashion conscious (ii = 8.3, PR = 3-12)
definitely makes one more attractive.

Respondents disagreed that jealousy should exist in romantic relationships (3'; =
6.5, PR = 3-12).

Half agreed and the others disagreed with the traditional woman concept or =
10.0, PR = 4-16), while ironically respondents still believed that boys should pay for
purchases on dates (x = 12.4, PR = 4-16).

Respondents agreed that both girl and boy characteristics presented in the novels
that they were reading were of importance (3': = 16.1, PR = 6-24 and 2 = 38.2, PR = 12-
48) respectively.

Outliers were assessed by analysis of univariate plots, bivariate scatterplots, and
Mahalanobis and Cook's Distance parameters. One outlier was found; however, deletion
did not influence correlation coefficients significantly. Therefore, this case was not

dropped from presented results. Restriction of range, measurement error, and

4O

multicolinearity have been assessed and addressed if influential to a significant degree.
Only two dependent variables (female and male characteristics) seemed sufliciently
redundant to collapse into one variable (r = .63, p< .01). However, this was not done due

to the face validity of the scales and to allow for analysis of the predicted hypotheses.

LINEARITY RATIONALE

 

To engage in correlational analysis, it must be determined that the data are
consistent with the definition of a linear function. This can be assessed by looking at
bivariate scatterplots of an independent variable with a dependent variable, slopes, y-
intercepts, and histograms of graphed error terms.

Due to a positive skew in the independent variable, frequency of reading young
adult romance books, linear relationships are not as clearly defined due to restriction of
range. However, by further analysis of the slopes and y-intercepts it can be determined
that the majority of bivariate relationships are linear. All scales, except for the
transformation index, appeared to have a linear relationship with frequency of romance
reading by inspection of bivariate plots, y-intercepts, and slopes. The histograms of the
graphed error terms were normally distributed, ceteris paribus, thus providing additional
support that a linear firnctional analysis may ensue. The skew in the independent variable
data does create restriction of range problems that will attenuate correlation values.
Therefore, relationship magnitude will most likely be underrepresented. It also should be
noted that if another scale has the opposite skew, for example a negative skew of similar
magnitude, then a low correlation approximating zero will be the result.

The independent variable scale of Perceived Reality is normally distributed with an
insignificant skew. Bivariate scatterplots, y—intercepts, and slopes indicate that the
independent variable, Perceived Reality, relates linearly with most of the dependent
variables. Beauty, Fashion Consciousness, and Jealousy form no determinable

relationships with Perceived Reality. However, all scales have normally distributed

41

residual plots which give added support that linear analyses may be applied. Correlational
techniques will be used with this independent variable.
CORRECTED CORRELATIONS

Reliability coefficients indicate how consistent a scale or measure assesses other
variables. Table 4 reports the standardized coefficient alphas for internal consistency as
presented from confirmatory factor analysis aforementioned in Chapter 3. When reliability
coemcients are not precise (equal to 1.00), correlation coeflicients can be corrected due to
error of measurement. Because error of measurement attenuates correlations, it is
valuable to determine if relationships may actually be stronger than first shown. The
corrected correlation coeflicients are presented in Table 5 and 6 along with the
uncorrected coefficients for the respective independent measures. Reliability coefficients
that are of extremely low values, will produce a corrected correlation that is virtually
uninterpretable by analysis of confidence intervals. Any reliability coefficient that
produces a square root score below .7, will not be reported. Based on this criterion, the
Chaste Sexuality and Jealousy scales will not be used in correcting correlation coefl'rcients.
Standard error does increase when making such corrections; therefore it is important to
use reliable scales. See Appendix B, footnote 2 for correction equation.
ROMANCE READING FINDINGS

Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coeflicients (r) enable one to assess
direction and strength of linear associations. Standardized correlation coefficients and
corrected coefficients are presented in Table 5 for the independent variable of romance
reading. Corrected correlations are only presented if a relationship becomes significant or
increases in level of significance.

Hypothesis 1a predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief in the concept of 'true love'. This relationship was found to be
statistically significant (r = .18, p<.05). Upon correction, it becomes significant at a more

stringent probability (r = .27, p<.01).

42

Hypothesis lb: predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that love is an integral part of romantic relationships. No
statistically significant relationship was determined (r = .15). After correction for
measurement error, this relationship become significant (r = .21, p<.05).

Hypothesis 1c predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that romantic relationships should culminate in marriage. This
relationship was supported at a significant level (r = .16, p<.05).

Hypothesis 1d predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that traditional chaste and non-genital sexuality are part of teen
romantic relationships. This relationship was statistically significant (r = .17, p<.05).

Hypothesis 1e predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that romance has transformative powers. No statistically
significant relationship was determined (r = .02).

Hypothesis 1f predicted that reading romance books would be positively correlated
with one's belief that beauty makes one more attractive to the opposite sex. This
relationship was not statistically significant (r = .14). This relationship becomes significant
after correction for measurement error (r = .21, p<.05).

Hypothesis 1 g predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that dressing in fashion makes one more attractive to the
opposite sex. No statistically significant relationship was found (r = .06).

Hypothesis 1h predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with the belief that jealousy exists in romantic relationships. This relationship
was statistically significant (r = .26, p<01).

Hypothesis 1i predicted that reading romance books would be positively correlated
with one's belief that men should make purchases on dates. This relationship was not
statistically significant (r = .06).

43

Hypothesis 1 j predicted that reading romance books would be positively correlated
with one's belief that the following heroine characteristics are more important to a female
character in a romance novel: smart, funny, caring, beautiful, independent, virginal. This
relationship was found to be statistically significant (r = .23, p<.01).

Hypothesis 1k predicted that reading romance books would be positively
correlated with one's belief that the following hero characteristics are more important to a
male character in a romance novel: smart, gentle, protective, strong, honest, funny,
fiiendly, good looking, independent, aggressive, confident, and brave. This was a
statistically significant relationship (r = .16, p<.05).

Hypothesis 11 predicted that reading romance books would be positively correlated
with one's belief that women are traditional in their role in society. A statistically
significant relationship was determined (r = .18, p<.05) and became even stronger after
correction (r = .28, p<.01).

Romance reading was a significant predictor of the following scales: true love,
marriage, chaste sexuality, jealousy, traditional woman, female characteristics and male
characteristics. Upon correction, it becomes a significant predictor for relationship love
and beauty. It was not a significant predictor of transformation, fashion consciousness or

purchases by gender.

PERCEIVED REALITY FINDINGS
Table 6 shows correlation coefficients of perceived reality with the dependent
scales. Also shown are correlations corrected for measurement error (Boster, 1994), as
assessed by the standardized reliability coemcients. Corrected correlations are only
presented if a relationship becomes significant or increases in level of significance.
Hypothesis 2a predicted a positive relationship between perceived reality and true
love. This relationship was not found to be significantly different than sampling error, but

was in the positive direction (r =.10).

44

Hypothesis 2b predicted the greater the perceived reality of the content, the
stronger is the belief that love is an integral part of romantic relationships. The results
indicated that this relationship was positively and significantly correlated (r =.19, p<.05).
Correction for attenuation increased the significance level (r = .28, p<.01).

Hypothesis 2c predicted a positive relationship between perceived reality and that
romantic relationships should culminate in marriage. This was found to be positively and
significantly correlated (r =.16, p<.05). Upon correction, the correlation became
significant at a higher probability level (r = .23, p<.01).

Hypothesis 2d predicted that traditional chaste and non-genital sexuality are part of
teen romantic relationships will be positively correlated with perceived reality. A positive
relationship was indicated, but was not significant (r =.14).

Hypothesis 2e predicted a positive relationship between perceived reality and the
transformative powers of romance. This relationship was positive, but not statistically
significant (r =. 12). The relationship becomes significant upon correction for
measurement error (r = .19, p<.05).

Hypothesis 2f predicted that the greater the perceived reality of the content, the
stronger the belief that beauty makes one more attractive to the opposite sex. This
relationship was insignificant (r =.03).

Hypothesis 2g predicted that dressing in fashion would be positively related to
perceived reality. No significant relationship was found (r = -.02).

Hypothesis 2h predicted that perceived reality would be positively correlated with
the jealousy that exists in romantic relationships. No linear association of significance was
found (r =03).

Hypothesis 2i predicted that perceived reality would be positively correlated with
the theme that men should make purchases on dates. Statistical significance was not
achieved for this relationship (r =.13). However, upon correction, it does become

statistically significant (r = .18, p<.05).

45

Hypothesis 2j predicted that perceived reality of the content would correlate with a
stronger belief the following heroine characteristics are more important to a female
character in a romance novel: smart, funny, caring, beautiful, independent, and virginal.
The zero order correlation was positive, large, and statistically significant (r =. l 7, p<.05).
This relationship becomes significant at a more stringent probability level after correction
(r = .26, p<.01).

Hypothesis 2h predicted that perceived reality would be positively correlated to the
belief that the following male characteristics are more important to a male character in a
romance novel: smart, gentle, protective, strong, honest, firnny, fiiendly, good looking,
independent, aggressive, confident, and brave. This relationship was statistically
significant (r =.29, p<.01).

Hypothesis 21 predicted that perceived reality would be positively correlated with
one's belief that women are traditional in their role in society. A significant relationship
was found (r =.17, p<.05). Significance can be maintained at a more critical probability
level after correction (r = .27, p<.01).

Perceived reality was a significant predictor of relationship love, marriage, the
traditional woman, female characteristics, and male characteristics. After correction for
measurement error, perceived reality becomes a significant predictor for transformation
and purchases. It was not related to true love, chaste sexuality, beauty, fashion
consciousness, and jealousy.

MULTIPLE REGRESSION FINDINGS

Multiple regression coefficients (R) enable one to assess the impact of multiple
predictors on a dependent variable. It describes the spread around the regression plane,
given that the variance of the predictor variables are constant. The standardized
regression coefficients ([3) allow one to determine the strength of each predictor on the

criterion while controlling for the effect of all other predictor variables. Table 7 presents

46

multiple regression coefficients, standardized regression coefficients and standardized
correlation coefficients.

Multiple correlation coefficients can become falsely inflated when the number of
predictors increases relative to the sample size (Boster, 1992). This usually becomes a
problem with more than two predictors, and is not critical in this two-predictor case.

This analysis is a natural extension fiom the original hypotheses. Do these two
independent measures predict romance theme acceptance better than either one alone? Do
they supplement, complement, or parallel each other? The significant findings are
reported in detail below.

Romance reading is a stronger predictor (B = .16, p<.05) than perceived reality for
the dependent variable, true love; the two together do no better than the simple correlation
of romance reading with true love.

Relationship love is predicted significantly by perceived reality (B = .16, p<.05) but
not by romance reading. The two predictors supplement each other significantly in the
multiple regression equation (R = .21, p<.05).

Although neither independent variable predicts better than the other, together they
significantly predict marriage (R = .19, p<.05) by each providing a similar strength effect
and having parallel correlations with the marriage scale.

Jealousy is strongly predicted by romance reading (B = .29, p<.01). Although the
two-predictor influence is significant on jealousy (R = .27, p<.05), all of the effect size is
with regards to romance reading, which is slightly attenuated by the low and negative
influence of perceived reality (B = -.07).

Romance reading (B = .19, p<.05) is a stronger and significant predictor of female
characteristics than perceived reality. Combined they supplement each other and predict
female characteristics significantly (R = .25, p<.05).

Interestingly, the strength of predictor reverses for male characteristics. Perceived

reality (B = .27, p<.01) is a stronger and significant predictor of male characteristics than

47

romance reading. The two predictors together predict male characteristics significantly (R
= .30, p<.01); however the majority of this strength is derived fiom the perceived reality
predictor, whose simple correlation is equivalent to the multiple regression coefficient.

Equal in size, neither predictor is stronger than the other in prediction of the
traditional woman. However, they supplement each other in that a significant multiple
regression coefficient is predicted (R = .21, p<.05).

PERCEIVED REALITY AS A MEDIATOR

An additional, exploratory analysis was performed to determine the influence of
high and low perceived reality as a mediator between reading romance books and the
other dependent scales. If perceived reality is a mediator between romance reading with
romance themes, then one would predict a stronger correlation among those with high
perceived reality.

Perceived reality was dichotomized by using all cases above and below the
midpoint of the scale. Thirty-five respondents recorded high on perceived reality and 128
scored low on the scale based on the above criterion. Table 8 reports the standardized
correlation coefficients of romance reading with all dependent scales with perceived reality
as the mediating variable. Only significant findings are reported.

Jealousy forms a much stronger relationship with romance reading that is mediated
by high perceived reality (r = .39, p <.05) than with low perceived reality (r = .18, p <
.05). Female characteristics relate more strongly to romance reading with the high
mediator (r = .38, p <.05) than the low mediator (r = .17). True love forms a stronger
relationship with romance reading when the mediator perceived reality is high (r = .24)
than when it is low (r =.15).

Marriage is related more strongly to romance reading when perceived reality is low
(r = .17, p < .05) than high (r = .06). Beauty forms a stronger relationship to romance
reading when the mediator is low (r = .18, p < .05) than high. Fashion consciousness

relates more strongly to romance reading with low perceived reality (r = .17) than high

48

perceived reality (r = -.07). Traditional woman also form a stronger relationship to
romance reading with low perceived reality (r = .15) than low (r = .01).

All other scales for both conditions were not found to be significant with romance
reading and/or did not appear to be significantly different between mediating conditions.
As previously discussed, one would expect stronger correlations between romance reading
and themes for high perceived reality than for low perceived reality. For only three
variables (true love, jealousy, and female characteristics); the expected pattern is found;
for an equal number of variables (marriage, beauty, fashion consciousness, and traditional
woman) the opposite is found. Thus, perceived reality is not a consistent mediator of the

relationship between romance reading and themes.

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion

This study was designed to examine whether pre-adolescent Afiican-American
girl's reading of young adult romance novels and the perceived reality of the content in
these books was related to prevalent themes present in such novels. Themes identified
from ad hoc content analysis and literature examination were: true love, relationship love,
marriage, chaste sexuality, transformation, beauty, fashion consciousness, jealousy,
purchases by gender, girl characteristics, boy characteristics, and traditional woman.

Relationship predictions were based on the theoretical framework of Social
Learning Theory. This theory posits that individuals can learn attitudes, behaviors, and
beliefs via exposure to content that has been presented by a model who receives positive
reinforcement for some action or attitude expressed. This effect can be enhanced if the
observer can identify with the model, which has been assumed to occur with readers of
romance. Furthermore, the more similar the portrayal of content to real life events, the
more likely an individual can identify and become involved with the content, thus creating
an ideal environment to learn. Therefore, frequency of romance reading and perceived
reality of content fi'om young adult romance novels should influence a young individual's
perceptions about prevalent themes portrayed in such books.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE INTERPRETATIONS

Frequency of romance reading was correlated positively with nine of 12 dependent
measures: true love, relationship love, marriage, chaste sexuality, beauty, jealousy,
purchases by gender, female characteristics, male characteristics, and traditional woman.

It was not significantly related to two themes: transformation and fashion consciousness.

49

50

Perceived reality of content and characters was correlated positively to seven of 12
dependent measures: relationship love, marriage, transformation, male purchases on dates,
female characteristics, male characteristics, and the traditional woman. It was not
significantly related to true love, chaste sexuality, beauty, fashion consciousness, and
jealousy.

Love is a central theme in all types of romance novels. Both the notion of there
being a true love for every individual (Hla) and that love is part of romantic relationships
(Hlb) was significantly related to reading of romance novels. Love conquers all,
especially in the minds of frequent romance readers, has been embedded in our society.
True love has a stronger relationship with reading than relationship love, due to its
prevalence in novels. Perceived reality was related to the belief that love was an integral
part in a relationship (HZb), but not to true love (112a). In other words, the greater the
perceived reality, the more belief in relationship love. These findings indicate that
individuals are more likely to consider love within relationships if the portrayal of love in
relationships is frequent and depicted realistically. Furthermore, true love is influenced by
reading frequency. Both of these themes are central to romance books, where plots focus
on the trials and tribulations of the love process, usually with a happy ending that leads to
marriage.

Wedding bells are still the traditional culmination of a serious love relationship.
Marriage was significantly related to the reading of romance novels (I-Ilc) and agreed with
by the majority of respondents as something that most people in general want. Over half
of the participants reported that the age range of 23 to 26 years was the best time for
when a girl should get married. Perceived reality of content and characters in romance
books also was strongly related to the theme that love relationships culminate in marriage
(HZc). Marriage was the culmination of all adult romance books and some young adult

romance books; wherein, the majority of parents are married. Divorce was rarely

51

presented in these young adult novels which may mislead adolescents about the finality,
seriousness, and difliculty of marriage.

Chaste, non-genital sexuality was related significantly to romance reading (Hld),
but not to perceived reality (HZd). The portrayal that young adult relationships can
revolve around hugs and brief kisses may empower young women to feel less pressured to
engage in more advanced coital relations. Respondents were split as to agreement and
disagreement of non-genital sexual behavior, thus indicating the strong pressures of other
socialization agents regarding this issue. Reality interferes and conflicts with book
portrayals of sexual encounters, thus potentially nullifying that effect. Teens are
confi'onted early on with genital and non-genital sexual options, with books only
representing one side.

The perceived reality of information within romance books was related to the
theme that romance transforms an individual into something more beautiful and valuable
than before (HZe). Interestingly, the perception of reality in romance books was necessary
to form a significant relationship with transformation, beyond that of the other
independent variable (Hle). Transformation must be a more complex conceptual theme
that requires strong perception of romance content to be realistic and not fantasy oriented.

The majority of characters in romance books are beautifirl. Healthy, shiny hair,
svelte figures, engaging eyes, and clean features are depicted for both men and women.
Does romance reading influence this notion that beautifirl people are more attractive to the
opposite sex? According to this study, the relationship between romance reading and
beauty being an ideal trait has been found to be significant (Hlf). These books are another
source that promotes beauty as a means to a love relationship. This finding is independent
of perceived reality (HZf), for which beauty has been portrayed as much in cartoon
characters and advertisements (not as realistic) as to real life people.

Jealousy has been addressed both positively and negatively by society. This

emotion can evoke both reassurance to a loved one that an individual still cares or it can

52

also annoy or anger an individual to its smothering nature. Romance novels generally
employ the first scenario. Romance reading has been found to be a strong predictor that
jealousy displays are okay in relationships (th). This finding denotes the powerful social
learning tool that these books may contain, especially by over-riding beliefs that jealousy is
not an acceptable emotion form. Perceived reality was not found to be an strong predictor
in this theme (HZh), jealousy theme acceptance was not dependent on the reality
component.

Purchases should be made by males on a date (H2i) was related to perceived
reality, but not to romance reading (Hli). This theme requires the perception of content
and characters to be portrayed realistically. Because this theme specifically explicates the
role of males in purchases on dates, it was important that readers perceived the romance
content and character portrayals to be genuine. Furthermore, the purchases by males on a
date scale has a negative skew, which renders the romance reading correlation to a small
value approaching zero due to the positive skew of the reading scale. The means show
that most girls do believe that men should make purchases on dates and have money,
although this can not be linked to romance reading itself.

The most common traits portrayed in romance novels by both male and female
characters were identified. Important female character traits were found to be smart,
funny, fiiendly, beautiful, independent, and virginal. These traits were summed to create
an index that represented heroine characteristics that were important to a female character
in a romance novel. The relationship between reading romances and importance of these
character traits was statistically significant (Hl j), as well as perceived reality was a
significant predictor (H2j). In fact, both formed strong relationships, indicating that
female readers find these characteristics very important in their romance reading. Both
quantity and perceived reality are good predictors of reader's afiinity to these

characteristics.

53

Likewise, male characteristics (smart, gentle, protective, strong, honest, firnny,
good looking, independent, aggressive, confident, and brave) were influenced by romance
reading (I-Ilk), as well as perceived reality (H2k). Furthermore, perceived reality formed
a significantly stronger relationship with male characteristics than did frequency of
romance reading. Real portrayals of characters in romances influence the perception of
importance of these character traits.

Women roles have become more modern with regards to work, education,
children, and home duties; however these books promote traditional roles. Based on
social learning theory, one would predict that exposure to these materials with which one
strongly identifies would promote a traditional viewpoint of women's roles. A significant
relationship was found (H11). Additionally, perceived reality was significantly related to
traditional roles of women. The greater the perception that romance content and
characters are true to real life, the more expressed was the theme that women's roles
should be traditional in nature. This study provides support for previous feminist studies
that have argued that these books influence young girls toward more household and child-
rearing-type-roles.

Of equal importance was the finding that true love, chaste sexuality, beauty,
fashion consciousness, and jealousy were not significantly related to perceived reality.
True love and chaste sexuality were nearing significance and may be predicted by
perceived reality; however there may be other underlying processes. True love has been
considered a fancifirl thought, thus reality may not be necessary for entertainment of such
a theme. Additionally, there was absolutely no relationship between beauty, fashion
consciousness, and jealousy (r's near zero) with perceived reality. These are themes that
students have first hand experience with; therefore, other predictors aside from perceived
reality are influencing readers about these themes.

Romance reading predicted more significant relationships with the romance

themes; however, perceived reality related to an additional two themes not previously

54

correlated with reading frequency. Perhaps, transformation and purchases by gender only
become significant if there needs to be a perception of reality. In other words, for these
concepts to be adopted or identified with, they require more engagement by the reader.
MULTIPLE REGRESSION INTERPRETATIONS

Romance reading was the stronger predictor for true love, jealousy, and female
characteristics, while perceived reality was a more significant predictor of relationship love
and male characteristics. Themes that are more strongly predicted by reading alone may
also be promoted more in society and other media, thus are easier to assimilate. Whereas,
themes that are better predicted by perceived reality must need reinforcement via
suspending fantasy.

Do these two independent variables predict romance themes better together than
either one alone? Yes, the combined effect has provided significant prediction of
relationship love, marriage, female characteristics, and traditional woman. Although not
all scales need both predictors to yield significant results, it is apparent that they are not
consistently overlapping each other in prediction. Each independent variable contributes
to the overall analysis, as well as together they add new insights.

MEDIATOR INT ERPRETATIONS

Does perceived reality mediate the relationship between romance reading with
romance themes? This study indicates that perceived reality is not a consistent mediator
between reading fi'equency and themes. Jealousy, true love, and female characteristics
exhibit the expected pattern, whereas, marriage, beauty, fashion consciousness, and
traditional woman show the opposite pattern.

FURTHER ANALYSIS OF DATA

Television programs promote many of the same themes identified in romance
novels. Both rely heavily on traditional portrayals of societal norms regarding
relationships, love, attractiveness, and home life. Therefore, it would be of interest to

analyze these data with hierarchical regression techniques. What additional influence does

55

television wield? Or perhaps both are being driven by a common cause for which partial
correlational analysis should be implemented. Multiple regression would be useful in
identifying if romance books do account for some of the variance not associated with
television viewing. Because there are a greater proportion of African-American television
programs than there are Afiican-American romance books, one may be able to determine
the influence of exposure to "models" that one may identify with more so than Caucasian
models.

LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

Several limitations are present in this study. First, the sample was not randomly
chosen, but conveniently 50. Consequently, generalizations to the larger population of 6th
grade African-American girls should be done cautiously. It would be necessary to
determine if a suburb of Detroit provides a similar environment as to other pre-
adolescent's living situations.

Second, this study was originally designed for a Caucasian sample. Although, one
may believe that love transcends cultural boundaries, it was questionable if Afiican-
American girls would accept Caucasian characters to be their socialization models. Based
on the results, there seems to be evidence to support that relationship issues do transcend
ethnic differences.

Third, an experiment was not performed to force individuals into different reading
frequency categories; therefore, students self-selected themselves by exposure to the
content. As previously mentioned, many more respondents did not read or read
infrequently so as to create a positive skew. This restriction in range attenuates
correlations. Thus, effect size may be significantly larger than those presented in this
study.

Fourth, numerous other socialization agents such as parents, peers, religion, and

education were not controlled for effect on the dependent measures. Additionally, only

56

one other media agent, television, was assessed. To be able to conclusively determine the
influence of romance reading, it would be imperative to control for these variables.

Fifth, Christian-Smith's (1990) study suggested that reading level was a significant
predictor of reading romance novels. Therefore, it would be interesting to have had
information on student's reading level to determine if low level readers are more drawn to
these books because they are easier to read. Or if all pre—adolescents are interested in this
material regardless of reading comprehension abilities because the subject matter was
interesting.

Sixth, scale and item development could be improved by including more response
categories to eliminate ceiling and basement efl‘ects. Scales that generated low reliability
should also be reassessed and constructed with additional new items. Frequency reports
should be estimated by respondent, thus encouraging them to think and not just circle a
response that may influence their perception of what they think others might do. On the
other hand, contextual effects such as response bias and recency effects were not apparent.
Even though the survey was long (15 pages), students were reading the content and not
randomly circling responses.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Research in this field should continue to combine qualitative and quantitative
techniques to understand the influence of this body of literature. The most immediate
research should be a follow-up study that compares the Caucasian community and other
minority groups (e. g. Latinos) with Afiican-Americans. This would provide useful
information as to the influence of such novels on promotion of prevalent socialization
themes. Additionally, it could determine if these types of themes do transcend cultural
barriers, thus supporting the use of social learning theory.

A study that incorporates other socialization agents such as parent influence, peers,
school, church, should also be implemented. It is important to determine how influential

these books are in shaping young people's conceptions about these socialization themes.

57

IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH

Given the significant findings between the relationships of reading romance novels
and the perceived reality of these novels with themes identified fi'om the romance books,
should individuals be concerned with the ideas and character traits presented and possibly
assimilated by our youth? The presentation of most of the material is conservative and
normative with regard to most social standards, thus it would appear that this form of
media, romance books, would not teach them anything different than what already has
been disseminated. On the other hand, this medium appears to do an excellent job of
transmitting cultural themes from which respondents can learn. Depending on one's
orientation of what our youth should be learning, would most likely be the criterion for
determining if exposure has positive or negative efi‘ects.

Readers of romance novels are able to distinguish content portrayed in these books
from real life. These young women are selective readers, not passive. They read because
of interest in the content, escapism, and relaxation. They wish to gain insight into
socialization themes. On a positive note, it also increases their reading skills and
vocabulary; whereas, watching these same themes on television does not have as much
educational value to the individual.

The predictions based on social learning theory have been for the most part,
significant. This theory provides an excellent framework for the study of effects of
romance novels on adolescents. In addition, it complements the majority of work that has
been completed within the feminist perspective. Young adult romance novels do present
models to which readers can identify with, as well as with non-negative reinforced
situations that can be perceived as similar to reality. These books can significantly
influence these pre-adolescents, which has been indicated by the relationship of accepting
romance theme beliefs that corresponds to more reading and greater perceived reality.
Social learning theory has been a strong predictor of the effects of these materials on

young adolescents beliefs and attitudes toward romance themes.

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62

Table l: Youag Adult Romance Novels fi'om Christian-Smith's Period 1H Sample

Series
Archway

Sweet Dreams
Sweet Dreams
Sweet Dreams
Sweet Dreams
Atlantic

Table 2: Yourfldult Romance Novels from Mid- 1980s to 1995

Series

Sweet Dreams

18 Pine Street
Harlequin Presents
Sweet Valley High
Sunfire

Sunset Island
Sunfire

Sweet Dreams

18 Pine St.

Silhouette Special Ed.

Sunset Island
Ford Supermodels
of the World
Harlequin Presents
Sweet Valley High

Title

Cute is a F our-Letter 1980

Word

PS I Love You
Princess Amy
California Girl

The Popularity Plan

Seven Day to a Brand 1982

New Me

m

Deep in my Heart
Fashion by Tasha
Reasons of the Heart
Bitter Rivals
Rachel

Sunset Kiss

Julie

Cowboy Kisses
Sky Man

Play it Again
Sunset Sensation
High Style

Infamous Bargain
Runaway

Date

1981
1981
1981
1981

Die
1994
1993
1988
1986
1986
1991
1986
1993
1993
1983
1994
1995

1994
1985

Author
Stella Pevsner

Barbara Conklin
M. Pollowitz
Janet Quin-Harkin
R. Vernon

Ellen Conford

Author

Linda Joy Singleton
Walther Dean Myers
Susan Napier

Kate William
Vivian Schurfranz
Cherie Bennett
Vivian Schurfranz
Diane M. Crawford
Walter Dean Myers
Eleni Carr

Cherie Bennett
B.B. Calhoun

Daphne Clair
Kate William

63

Table 3: Scales and Indices: Means. Staadard Deviations. and Ranges

Possible Actual

 

Variable Mean _S_I_) Range Range
Independent Variables

1. YA. Romance Book Frequency 13.8 4.1 10 - 4O 10 - 34
2. Perceived Reality 14.2 3.7 7 - 28 7 - 24
Dependent Variables

3. True Love 7.4 2.0 3 - 12 3 - 12
4. Relationship Love 12.9 2.1 4 - 16 4 - 16
5. Marriage 8.7 1.6 3 - 12 3 - 12
6. Chaste Sexuality 7.2 1.8 3 - 12 3 - 12
6. Transformation 12.1 2.2 5 - 20 5 - 20
8. Beauty 12.9 2.3 5 - 20 5 - 19
9. Fashion Consciousness 8.3 1.7 3 - 12 3 - 12
10. Jealousy 6.5 1.7 3 - 12 3 -11
11. Purchases on Date 12.4 2.4 4 - 16 4 - 16
12. Female Characteristics 16.1 3.7 6 - 24 6 - 24
13. Male Characteristics 38.2 6.4 12 - 48 12 - 48
14. Traditional Woman 10.0 2.1 4 - 16 4 - 16
N=163

Note: All scales had four-point response categories. Categories shown below:

 

Variable Number Response Categories
1, 2, Never, Sometimes, Often, Very Often
3 - 12 Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree

13, 14 Not Important, So-So, Important, Very Important

64

Table 4: Standardized Relirmilifi Coefficients for All Sca1as

 

Scales Alpha
Romance Reading .79
Perceived Reality .73
True Love .58
Relationship Love .63
Marriage .69
Chaste Sexuality .47
Transformation .52
Beauty .55
Fashion Consciousness .61
Jealousy .40
Purchases by Gender .81
Female Characteristics .61
Male Characteristics .83

Traditional Woman .54

65

Table 5: Uncorrected and Corrected Correlations for Romance Reading with Dependent

Scales

Variable

True Love
Relationship Love
Marriage

Chaste Sexuality
Transformation
Beauty

Fashion Consciousness
Jealousy

Purchases by Gender
Female Characteristics
Male Characteristics
Traditional Woman

*p<.05
**p<.01

Romance Reading

Uncorrected Corrected
Correlation Correlation
.18* .27”

.15 .21*

.16* 22*

.17*

.02 .03

.14 .21*

.06 .09

.26**

.06 .08

.23“ .33"
.16* 20*

.18* .28**

66

Table 6: Uncorrected and Corrected Correlations for Perceived Reality with Dependent

Scales

Variable

True Love
Relationship Love
Marriage

Chaste Sexuality
Transformation
Beauty

Fashion Consciousness
Jealousy

Purchases by Gender
Female Characteristics
Male Characteristics
Traditional Woman

*p<.05
**p<.01

Perceived Reality
Uncorrected Corrected
Correlation Correlation
.10 . 15
.19* .28**
.16* .23**

.14

.12 .19*
.03 .05
-.02 -.03
.03

.13 .18*
.17* .26"
.29" .37**
.17"‘ .27”

67

Table 7: Multiple Regression Coefficients (R). Standardized Regpession Coefficients 1 B),
and Uncorrected Correlation Coefficients (r) for each Depenaent Scales

Variable Coefficients
True Love r
B
R
Relationship Love r
B
R
Marriage r
B
R
Chaste Sexuality r
B
R
Transformation r
B
R
Beauty r
B
R
Fashion Consciousness r
B
R
Jealousy r
B
R
Purchases by Gender r
B

Romance Perceived
Reading Reality
.18* .10
.16* .05

.18
.15 .19*
.09 .16*

.21*

.16* .16*
.11 .12
.19*

.17* .14
.14 .09
.19
.02 .12
-.03 .13
.12
.14 .03
.14 -.02
.14
.06 -.02
.07 -.05
.07
.26** .03
.29** -.O7
.27*

.06 .13
.01 .13
.13

68

Table 7 (cont'd)

Romance Perceived

Variable Coefficients Reading Reality
Female Characteristics r .23 ** . 17*

B .19* .10

R .25**
Male Characteristics r . 16* .29**

B .06 .27**

R .30**
Traditional Woman r . 18* . 17*

B .14 l l

R .21*
* p < .05
** p < .01

r = standardized correlation coefficient
B: standardize regression coefficient
R = multiple correlation coefficient

69

Table 8: Uncorrected Standardized Correlamrn Coefficients of Romance Readinawith
Dependent Scales while Low and High Perceived Retaity Mediatas

Variable

True Love
Relationship Love
Marriage

Chaste Sexuality
Transformation
Beauty

Fashion Consciousness
Jealousy

Purchases by Gender
Female Characteristics
Male Characteristics
Traditional Woman

Perceived Reality
m High
.15 .24
.11 .12
.17* .06
.12 .16
-.01 .04
.18* .07
.17 -.07
.18* .39*
.08 .01
.17 .38*
.12 .17
.15 .08

70

Figure 1: Bandura's Social Learning Theogy. Adapted from Bandura, 1977.

Modeled
Events 9
Performance

Attentional Retention
Processes Processes
Modeling stimuli Symbolic coding
Distinctiveness Cognitive organization
Affective valence Symbolic rehearsal
Complexity Motor rehearsal
Prevalence
Functional value 9 '9
Observer

Characteristics

Sensory capacities
Arousal level
Perceptual set
Past reinforcement

Motor Motivational
Reproduction Processes
Processes

Physical External
capabilities reinforcement

Availability of Vicarious

component reinforcement
responses
Self-observation Self-
of reproductions reinforcement
Accuracy feedback
Matching

9 Performance

APPENDIX A

May 1, 1995

Dear Parent,

I am requesting permission for your child to participate in a Michigan State
University research project about the themes found in young adult romance novels (e.g.
Sweet Valley High, Sweet Dreams, 18th Pine St., Harlequins, etc). Students will be
given the questionnaire during their English class. It will be voluntary and anonymous. A
student does not have to answer any question that he or she does not want to.

The questions will ask about the adolescent's leisure reading habits, perceived
reality of romance novels , their attitudes towards gender stereotypes, beauty, love,
marriage, dating, and sexuality. Students are not asked about personal behaviors, only a
few background questions, such as how many books they read, how old they were when
they first started reading, etc.

If you have any questions regarding your child's participation in this projects,
please call Dr. Karen Roth at 810-746-8580, or Lynn Rampoldi at 517-347-5629.

If your child may participate in this study, please sign your name below and have your
child return it to his or her teacher as soon as possible. Thank you very much for
considering the participation of your child in this project.

Sincerely,

Principal

I give my consent that my child may participate in this study.

 

 

 

Child's Name (print) Parent's Signature Date

71

APPENDIX B

Footnote 1: Originally, there were four versions of the questionnaire. Two high schools
also were surveyed and asked additional questions that comprised a sexuality scale and an
alcohol-based scale. There were also separate versions for high school women and men.
The initial sample included 122 adolescent females in their sophomore year of high school
who were in the 15 to 16 year-old-age-range. After excluding students that were not of
Afiican-American heritage, 89 sophomore females remained. This group was not
resampled because the first sample indicated that these young women did not read

romance books at all; therefore, they were dropped fiom firrther analysis.

Sexuahty Scala consisted of the following items with a strongly disagree to strongly agree
four-point rating scale.

Sex before marriage is wrong.

There is nothing wrong with sex before marriage if two people love each other.
People who have sex with many peOple do not have good morals.

It is worse for a girl to have sex before marriage than it is for a male.

Someone who decides to have sex before marriage should tell their parents.

I wouldn't look down on my friends if they decided to have sex before marriage.
Most people my age who have sex do it because of pressure from their partner.
Most people my age who have sex do it because of pressure from their fiiends.

WNQMPP‘N?‘

.0

How old do you think a person should be before he or she has sex? (Responses were)
12-14 15-17 18-21 22-26 27 and older

Alcohol Scale consisted of the following items with a four-point rating scale of strongly
disagree to strongly agree:

1. Having a drink of alcohol is a good way to relax after a long day at work.

2. A good place to meet people is at the bars.
3. Talking with your partner over a glass of wine or beer is romantic.

72

73

Appendix B (Cont'd)

Footnote 2: The corrected correlation equation used in the study was:

r(xy)' = r(xy)
“r(XX) “r(yy)

r(xy)' = corrected correlation coefficient
r(xy) = uncorrected correlation coefficient
r(xx) = reliability coefficient for variable x

r(yy) = reliability coefficient for variable y

APPENDIX C

Dropped Items from scales presented in Chapter 3.

Reading Romance Sca_le

1. Wildfire

2. Windswept

3. Caprice

Perceived Reality Scal_e_

 

1. How often do you think the things happening in romances happen in real life?
True Love Scala
1. People can fall in love at first sight.

2. Boys fall in love faster than girls.
3. If a girl's heart races or beats really fast, then she knows that she is in love.

Marriage Scale

1. Girls get married at younger ages than boys.

2. Marriage is the most important part of a person's life.

3. Marriage is a turning point in one's life.

4. A person's life changes once he or she gets married.

5. A couple should not live together unless they are married.
6. A person is not completely happy until he or she is married.

Iaansformation Scafi

1. An unpopular girl can become popular if she dates the right guy.
2. An unpopular boy can become popular if he dates the right girl.

Chaste Sexuality

1. Boys should always be the first person to start a kiss.

74

75

Appendix C (Cont'd)

flrahion Consciousness Scale

1. A boy thinks that you are cute if you wear clothes that he likes.
Traditional Woman Scale

1 A woman should be a great mom and have a job.

2 A woman should not work while there are children still at home.

3. Most women need to work to help support their families.

4 Many educated women do not work so that they can take care of the children.

Femala Characteristics Sca_la

Strong
Friendly
Honest
Rich
Aggressive
Popular
Single

$999919?"

ale Characteristics Scfi

1. Rich
2. Tender

 

Due to format requirements for this thesis, the questionnaire is not exactly laid out as was

APPENDIX D

given to respondents. However, all the content, response categories, and order is

identical.

Reading Romances

1. How often do you read or have read these teen romance books? (CIRCLE YOUR

ANSWER)

Wildfire NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Sweet Valley

High NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Sweet Dreams NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Silhouette's

First Love NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Wishing Star NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Windswept NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Caprice NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Young Love NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Sunset Island NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Sunfire NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Wild Rose Inn NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Signet/Vista

Romances NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
18 Pine St. NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN

2. NOW GO BACK TO QUESTION 1 AND CIRCLE THE ROMANCE SERIES
THAT YOU STILL READ.

76

77

3. At what age did you first begin reading teen romance books? (CIRCLE ANSWER)

NEVERREAD 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

4. At what age did you stop reading romance books? (CIRCLE ANSWER)

NEVERREAD 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 STILL
READ
THEM

5. How many romance books for teens do you usually read in a month? (CIRCLE
ANSWER)

O l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MORE

6. How often do you read these romance books? (CIRCLE YOUR ANSWER)

Harlequin NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Silhouettes NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
Regency NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
(e. g. Barbara Cartland)

historical

romances NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
contemporary NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
(e. g. Danielle Steel)

suspense/gothics NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
family sagas NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN
mystery romances NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN

6A. How many of the romance books in QUESTION 6 do you usually read in a month?
NONE l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MORE

68. At what age did you first begin reading the romance books in question 6? (CIRCLE
ANSWER)

NEVERREAD 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

78

6C. At what age did you stop reading the romance books in question 6? (CIRCLE
ANSWER)

NEVER READ 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 STILL

READ
THEM
7. How many romance books (teen or adult) did you read in the last four weeks?
(CIRCLE )
NONE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MORE

8. Where do you most often read romance novels? (CIRCLE the ONE place you most
often read)

IN CLASS AT HOME DO NOT READ
ROMANCES
DURING LUNCH WHILE BABY-SITTING DURING STUDY
HOUR HALL

9. How many books other than romances do you read each week for fun, not including
school books?

NONE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MORE

10. When do you have free time to read the books that you like to read?
(CIRCLE ONLY ONE TIME WHEN YOU READ THE MOST)

SUMMER SCHOOL YEAR SCHOOL YEAR
HOLIDAYS (WEEK DAYS) (WEEK ENDS)

11. How often do you watch soap operas on television?

EACH DAY 2-4 TIMES ONCE NOT AT ALL
A WEEK A WEEK

12. What influences you the most when you choose a romance? (CIRCLE ONE)

Author Back Cover Summary
Cover Illustration Publisher or Series Name
Price Title

Someone Recommended It To Me

79

13. Does your mother or female guardian read romances?

NEVER SOMETIMES OFTEN VERY OFTEN DO NOT
KNOW

14. Do your fiiends read romances?

NEVER SOMETIIVIES OFTEN VERY OFTEN DO NOT
KNOW

15. Does your sister(s) read romances? (CIRCLE) DO NOT HAVE A SISTER(S)

NEVER SOMETHVIES OFTEN VERY OFTEN DO NOT
KNOW

16. How often do you discuss romance books with other people?
VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
17. With whom do you discuss romance novels the most?
Mother/Female Guardian Sister(s) Teacher(s) Friend(s) No One

18. How often do you watch these TV shows? (CIRCLE)

Mad About

You VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Melrose Place VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Friends VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Roseanne VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
90210 VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Home

Improvement VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Fresh Prince VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Ellen VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Martin VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER
Living Single VERY OFTEN OFTEN SOMETIMES NEVER

What things do you like in your romance stories?
1. How important are these characteristics in a girl that you are reading about?
Smart Very Important Important So-So Not Important

Funny Very Important Important So-So Not Important

Physically

Strong
Friendly
Honest
Caring
Beautiful

Rich

Aggressive

Independent

Popular
Single

Virgin

Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important

Very Important

80

Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important

Important

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

So-So

Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Irnportant
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important

Not Important

2. How important are these characteristics in a boy that you are reading about?

Smart
Gentle

Protective

Physically
Strong

Honest

Funny
Friendly
Good Looking
Independent
Rich

Aggressive

Very Important
Very Important

Very Important

Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important
Very Important

Important
Important

Important

Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important
Important

Important

So-So
So-So
So-So

So-So
So-So
So-So
So-So
So-So
So-So
So—So
So-So

Not Important
Not Important

Not Important

Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important

Not Important

Confident Very Important
Tender Very Important
Brave Very Important

3. Which parts of the romance story are important to you?

Happy Ending Very Important
Easy to Read Very Important
Fast Moving Story Very Important
Lots of Love Scenes Very Important

Exciting Story Very Important

8]

Important
Important

Important

Important
Important
Important
Important

Important

How close are the romance books to real life?
1. How often do you think the characters in romances are like people you meet in real

life?

Very Often Often

Sometimes

So-So
So—So
So-So

So-So

So-So

So-SO

So-So

So-So

Not Important
Not Important

Not Important

Not Important
Not Important
Not Important
Not Important

Not Important

2. How often do you think the things happening in romances happen in real life?

Very Often Often

3. Are the boys in the romance books like boys you know?

Very Often Often

Sometimes

Sometimes

4. Are the girls in the romance books like the girls you know?

Very Often Often

5. Are the problems in the romance books like the problems you have?

Very Often Often

Sometimes

Sometimes

6. How often are the situations that happen in the romance novels realistic?

Very Often Often

Sometimes

82

7. How often does the main girl character do the same things that you would like to do on
a date?

Very Often Often Sometimes Never

8. How often do the boys that you know act the same way the main male character does
on a date?

Very Often Often Sometimes Never

9. CIRCLE the most important reason why you read romances?

To Relax To Forget To Learn About Because I wish I had a
My Problems New Things Romance Like in the
Books

How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements concerning
romantic relationships between boys and girls? (CIRCLE)
1. People can fall in love at first sight.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Boys fall in love faster than girls.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. True love leads to almost perfect happiness.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. True love lasts forever.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. There is only one "true love" for a person.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

6. You should never be jealous of the person you love.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

83

7. Love makes a person feel complete.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
8. Two people should not get married unless they are in love.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

9. If a couple loves one another, then they should be able to always work out their
problems.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
10. Jealousy is part of all romantic relationships.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
11. When your partner is acting jealous, then you know that your partner loves you.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
12. Love is the most important part of a relationship.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
What do you think about marriage?
1. Most girls want to get married.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Most boys want to get married.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. Girls get married at younger ages than boys.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. Marriage is the most important part of a person's life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

84

5. Marriage is a turning point in one's life.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
6. A person's life changes once he or she gets married.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
7. A couple should not live together unless they are married.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
8. A person is not completely happy until he or she is married.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
9. Most people want to get married some day.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
10. How old do you think a girl should be when she gets married?
13-15 16-18 19-22 23-26 27 and older
What do you think about boy and girl relationships?
1. Most girls like to get to know a guy as a fiiend before they date him.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Girls learn a lot about relationships from the boys they date.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. A girl should do what she wants to do, not what her boyfiiend wants her to do .
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. Boys have more experience than girls when it comes to romance relationships.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

85

5. When dating, a boy should take care of his girlfiiend by not letting anything bad happen
to her.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

6. Girls usually can pick between a couple of different guys they want to date.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

7. Boys usually can pick between a couple of different girls they want to date.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Do you think romance changes a person?
1. Romance changes a person's life forever.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. When an unhappy person enters a romantic relationship, he or she becomes happy.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. A girl feels more confident and desirable when she has a boyfriend.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. A girl becomes prettier when she is dating.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. A girl's life changes forever when she starts dating.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
6. An unpopular girl can become popular if she dates the right guy.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
7. An unpopular boy can become popular if he dates the right girl.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

86

What are your feelings about these statements?
1. Boys and girls should only kiss and bug when they are dating.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. A girl should always kiss a boy goodnight if he takes her out on a date.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. Boys should always be the first person to start a kiss.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. A girl should never make the first move.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. If a girl's heart races or beats really fast, then she knows that she is in love.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Beauty
1. It is easier to date if you are pretty.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Wearing make-up will attract more boys.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. A person should try to dress in style.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. It is important to me that my clothes be the newest style.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
5. Girls get more boyfriends if they dress in the latest fashion.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
6. A boy thinks that you are cute if you wear clothes that he likes.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

87

7. Beautiful people can date anyone they want.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
8. Boys will only want to date you if they like how you look.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
9. Boys are attracted to pretty girls.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
10. What size of jeans would a girl with a perfect figure wear?
1/2 3/4 5/6 7/8 9/10 11/12 13/14
Education/Work/Home What do you think about these parts of a person's life?
1. A wife should keep the home clean and cook the meals for her family.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Girls should help their mothers with household chores.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. A woman should raise her family before she thinks about a career.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

4. A woman should be a great mom and have a job.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

5. A woman should not work while there are children still at home.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

6. The most important thing in a woman's life is taking care of her children.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

88

7. Most women need to work to help support their families.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

8. Many educated women do not work so that they can take care of the children.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Who should buy? How important are these things to you?
1. If my boyfriend takes me out on a date, he should pay for my food.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. The boy that I date should have money.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
3. If a boy takes me out on a date, he should pay for my movie ticket.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
4. A girl shouldn't have to spend any money if she is out on a date.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Uses of Books

We want to find out why people read books for fun. We want to know how much
each reason is LIKE YOU. Please tell us if each reason is A LOT like you, A
LITTLE like you, NOT MUCH like you or NOT AT ALL like you.

1. Reading books gives me something to do when I haven't got anything to do.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
2. I read books to get away from others in my family.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
3. Reading books teaches me things I don't learn at school.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
4. I read books to learn how I'm supposed to act in different situations and places.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL

 

89

5. Reading books relaxes me.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
6. Reading is exciting to me.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
7. Reading fills up time.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
8. Reading helps me forget my problems.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
9. I can learn how to do things I have never done before.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
10. I can learn from the mistakes of others.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
11. Reading is a pleasant way to rest.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
12. I read when I want to forget about school and homework

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
13. I read so that I can learn what could happen to me.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL
14. Reading takes me into another world.

A LOT A LITTLE NOT MUCH NOT AT ALL

We would like to know a little more about you!
1. How old are you?

2. Are you? MALE FEMALE

3. Are you (Circle all that apply) Black/Afiican-American Asian-American
White/Caucasian Native-American/Indian
Hispanic/Latino Chaldean
Other

90

I
4. Do you live with your: MOTHER STEP MOTHER FEMALE GUARDIAN
5. Do you live with your: FATHER STEP FATHER MALE GUARDIAN

6. Does your Mother (or Female Guardian) work outside the home? If so does she work:
FULL-TIME PART-TIME NOT WORK DON‘T KNOW

7. Does your Father (or Male Guardian) work outside the home? If so does he work:
FULL-TIME PART-TIME NOT WORK DON'T KNOW

8. What does your Mother (or Female Guardian) read the most?

BOOKS MAGAZINES NEWSPAPER DOESN'T READ A LOT

9. What does your Father (or male Guardian) read the most?

BOOKS MAGAZINES NEWSPAPER DOESN'T READ A LOT
10. Do you live in a: HOUSE APARTMENT CONDO MOBILE
HOME

11. Do you know if the place you live in is rented or owned?
OWN RENT DON'T KNOW

12. Do you get an allowance (in money) each week? YES NO
(If YES), How much is it each week?

$l-$5 $6-$10 $11-$15 $16-$20 $21-$25 Over $25

13. Do you work for money? YES NO
(If YES), How much do you earn each week?

$5-$25 $26-$50 $51-$75 $76-$100 Over $100

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME!

 

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