i We. Illlll'llll llllllllllilllllll llllllllll 3 1293 01565 9281 LIBRARY Michigan State University I This is to certify that the thesis entitled PERCEPTION OF POLICE STRESSORS AND POLICE CYNICISM IN SOUTH KOREA O presented by YungHyeock Lee has been accepted towards fulfillment l of the requirements for MASTER OF ‘ SCIEN_C.E__ degree in W JUSTICE /Lcj ‘ l I % fi—N Major pgessor \/ 1 Date MAY 6. 1997 0-7 639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PLACE ll RETURN BOX to remove thin checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date duo. PERCEPTION OF POLICE STRESSORS AND POLICE CYNICISM IN SOUTH KOREA By YungHyeock Lee AN ABSTRACT OF THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Criminal Justice 1997 ABSTRACT PERCEPTION OF POLICE STRESSORS AND POLICE CYNICISM IN SOUTH KOREA By YungHyeock Lee This study attempted to discover 1) the stressors that Korean Police Oficers perceive to be the greatest in their job; 2) how these perceived stressors are related to their cynical attitude; and 3) whether the perceived stressors and police cynicism vary with their length of service and rank. The sample was an entire organization of a Police Station in South Korea. Items-in the Questionnaire section A were constructed for administrative stressors and job inherent stressors. Items in Questionnaire section B were selected to measure police cynicism. Demographic items were also used in the Questionnaire section C. The results of the data analysis revealed that 1) most oflicers rated administrative stressors as a greater source of stress than job inherent stressors; 2) there is a curvilinear relationship between the length of police service and the police cynicism and perceived stressors; 3) the level of perceived stressors and police cynicism as between Non- Executive officers and Executive officers are not statistically different; 4) the perceived stressors and police cynicism are correlated, but specified by the third variables; and 5) The administrative stressors are more strongly correlated with police cynicism than are job inherent stressors. ACIG‘IOWLEDGMENTS This thesis could not have been written without the help of many people. I am indebted to my thesis chairman, Dr. Hoffman. His warm guidance has steered me through my entire graduate education. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the other members of my committee. I would especially like to thank Dr. Horvath, who read my drafi very carefully and gave me very useful feedback. I must also thank Dr. Carter for much helpful service on my research. It is obvious that this research could not have been conducted without the cooperation of Police Officers in South Korea. My deepest appreciation also must be extended to them. I also would like to thank my sponsor, the Korean Government, for providing me with a scholarship for my study. I also want to thank my fiiends, Janice Trosty and Karen Torsky, who discussed this study with me many times. Finally, I want to thank my parents. By their encouragement, I have reached this significant milestone in my education. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. VIII LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... XI CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 I. BACKGROUND. ..................................................................................................................................... 1 II. THE PURPOSE OF STUDY ................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 2 - A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................... 7 I. A CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW OF POLICE STRESS ............................................................................ 7 .INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 7 NONSPECIFIC BIOLOGICAL SYNDROM OR SPECIFIC PSYCHOLOGICAL SYNDROM ................ 7 II. POLICE STRESSORS ............................................................................................................................ 9 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 9 CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................................... 10 III. POLICE STRESSOR AND POLICE CYNICISM ................................................................................ 11 IV. JOB INHERENT STRESSORS ........................................................................................................... 12 DANGER .............................................................................................................................................. 12 CONTACT WITH CITIZENS ............................................................................................................... l3 COURT ................................................................................................................................................. 15 SHIFT WORK ....................................................................................................................................... 15 V. ADMINISTRATIVE (ORGANIZATIONAL) STRESSORS ............................................................... 16 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 16 SUPERVISOR ...................................................................................................................................... 17 ROLE CONFLICT AND ROLE AMBIGUIT'Y ...................................................................................... 17 MADQUATE PAY AND RESOURCE ................................................................................................. 18 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND DEPARTMENT RULES ........................................................... 19 UNFAIR DISCIPLINE .......................................................................................................................... 20 EXCESSIVE PAPERWORK ................................................................................................................. 20 VI. POLICE CYNICISM ........................................................................................................................... 21 WHAT IS CYNICISM? ......................................................................................................................... 21 CYNICISM TOWARD TI-IE POLICING ENVIRONMENT .................................................................. 22 EVALUATION OF POLICE CYNICISM ............................................................................................. 23 THE PROCESS OF BECOMING CYNICAL ........................................................................................ 24 WHAT CAUSES CYNICISM? .............................................................................................................. 25 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 26 1. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................................................... 26 MODEL .................................................................................................................................................... 26 K151 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION IN THE STUDY .............................................................................. 27 HYPOTHESES ......................................................................................................................................... 28 II. OPERATIONALIZIN G THE VARIABLES .......................................................................................... 31 MEASURE OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE ................................... 31 PERCEPTION OF POLICE STRESSORS ................................................................................................. 32 POLICE CYNICISM ................................................................................................................................. 36 III. SAMPLING PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................. 37 DIFFICULTY OF POLICE RESEARCH IN SOUTH KOREA .................................................................. 37 SAMPLE ................................................................................................................................................... 37 SAMPLING PROCEDURE ....................................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER 4 - DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT .................................................................................... 42 SELECTION OF STATISTICS ................................................................................................................. 42 CHARACTERRISTICS OF DEMOGRPHIC VARIABLES ....................................................................... 43 PERCEIVED POLICE STRESSORS RANK ORDERED .......................................................................... 46 COMPARISON OF MEAN SCORES OF PERCEIVED STRESSORS AND POLICE CYNICISM BY DEMOGRPHIC VARIABLES .................................................................................................................. 48 II. TESTING OF HYPOTHESES .............................................................................................................. 54 HYPOTHESIS 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 54 HYPO'I'HESIS 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 6o HYPO'I'HESIS 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 61 HYPOTHESIS 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 66 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY ......................................................................................... 69 1. DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 69 DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION .......................................................................................... 69 II. RECOMMANDATION ........................................................................................................................ 73 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................................... 73 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................. 74 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................... 75 1. QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................................................... 75 2. QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER TO THE OFFICERS ................................................................. s4 3. CONSENT FORM FROM THE CHIEF .......... ' ...................................................................................... 8 5 BIBLOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 86 VII Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Page Maj or Independent and Dependent Variables ................................................ 32 Police Officers’ Perceived Stressors Identified in the Literature Review ........ 34 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples ( Sex, Age, Length of Police Service, and, Rank) ..................................................................................... 44 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples (Educational level ) ................. 45 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples ( Current Unit ) ........................ 45 Perceived Police Stressors Rank Ordered ...................................................... 47 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Length of Police Service ......................................................................................................... 50 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Rank ................. 51 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Age ................... 52 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Educational Level .................................................................................................................... 52 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Current Unit ...... 53 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Entire Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism ............................................................................................ 56 VIII 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Pearson Correlation Coeficients between lday through 10 years Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism ............................................................... 56 Pearson Correlation Coeflicients between over 10 years Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism ......................................................................... 57 Pearson Correlation Coeficients between Entire Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors .............................................................................. 58 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between 1 day through 10 years Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors ................................................. 59 Pearson Correlation Coeficients between over 10 years Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors ........................................................... 59 T-test for Total Perceived Stressors: Non-Executive ofiicers vs Executive officers .......................................................................................................... 60 T-test for Police Cynicism: Non-Executive oficers vs Executive oficers ...... 6O Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level ............................................................................................................. 62 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank I ................................................................ 63 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank 11 ............................................................... 63 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank HI .............................................................. 64 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Length of Service I ....................... _. ..................... 65 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by the Length of Service II ................................................................... 65 T-test for Police Cynicism: Oflicers who perceived more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors vs Officers who did not perceive more administrative stressor than job inherent stressors .......................................... 67 Pearson Correlation Coeflicients between Perceived Administrative Stressors and Police Cynicism ...................................................................................... 67 28. Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Perceived Administrative Stressors and Police Cynicism ...................................................................................... 67 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Model of the Police Stressors and Police Cynicism ....................................... 27 2. Police Cynicism by Length of Service ........................................................... 56 3. Officers’ Total Perceived Stressors by Length of Service .............................. 58 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION I. Background Police work is highly stressful, since it is one of the few occupations where an employee is asked continually to face physical dangers and to put his / her life on the line at any time. Ironically, many researchers have found that organizational and administrative factors represent more significant sources of stress than task related stressors such as exposure to violence, cruelty, and aggression ( Violanti and Aron, 1993: 903 ). Concerns over equitable treatment in assignments and promotion, self-protective behavior by supervisors, ambiguous rules, and fear of internal investigation comprise “a web of organizational stress” ( Crank & Caldero, 1991: 347 ). According to Garner’s ( 1995: 222 ) book, the police leader must be a recipient and processor of employee grievances and as a supervisor, the leader must resolve the grievances as quickly as possible. Paradoxically, among police ofiicers’ the most frequently selected administrative stressor is the superior officers’ group, the administration itself. According to Crank and Caldero’s findings ( 1991: 347 ), upper-management personnel were perceived to be out of touch with street activity and were selected most frequently as the single source of administrative stress. Ofiicers viewed upper management personnel to be stagnant and unsympathetic to every-day problems of the rank-and-file. The negative consequence of stress for individual officers creates a threat not only to them but to the public. The consequences of this stress may produce negative outputs and low-quality police service. In other words, the potential negative consequences of officers’ stress affects society in general, more than stress fiom most other occupational groups ( Grencik,l975: 172 ). Thus, it is a worthwhile effort to attempt to identify correlation between police stressors and police attitudes, views, and behavior. Although there is controversy about whether the nature and kind of police stress is the same as other occupations, many researchers have found police work to be an occupation that has more stress than any other. A police recruit is, normally, above average in intelligence, physical ability, and general health. However, it is clear that something about their work as police officers is debilitating because they appear to suffer an incidence of health problems at least as great as the normal population. This study will discover what stressor police officers perceive to be the greatest. Many studies were conducted to test hypotheses such as; 1) police officers, as a result of the nature of their job, experience a significantly greater degree of stress than members of other occupational groups; and 2) the high stress associated with police job precipitates a disproportionately high incidence of family disruption. It is true that there are many studies on the results of police stress such as police suicide, police divorces, health problem, and psychological strain. However, very little research has touched on how stress affects the police attitude toward the police department and the public. This study will attempt to find a positive relationship between police stressors and police cynicism toward their employment. The study conducted by Kroes, Margolis, Hurrell ( 1974: 152-154 ) stated that police officer’s professionalism became threatened or damaged by police stressors such as courts, administration, equipment and community relations. Police stressors tend to hurt officers’ feelings of professionalism. Niederhoffer also posited that there is an inverse relation between police professionalism and cynicism. The less the police officer possesses a feeling of professionalism, the more the officer’s attitude become cynical. Thus, we can infer that the source of police stress is positively correlated to a police officer’s cynical attitude. However, there is no empirical study so far known, establishing the relationship between the perception of police stress and police cynicism by police themselves . According to Arthur Niederhoffer, police officers’ attitudes and behavior moves from professionalism or commitment to cynicism and anomie. He stated that the process leading to cynicism and anomie may be viewed as a continuum stretching fiom professionalism or commitment at one end to anomie at the other, with cynicism around the opposite pole. Police officers begin with an idealistic perspective toward their careers and the world in which they live. They are less cynical than the more experienced officers. However, typically they succumb to cynicism over time as they experience failure and /or fi'ustrations on the job. Frustration leads to disenchantment which in turn deteriorates into a cynical frame of mind. Then, aggressive cynicism, develops. In this stage, they can return to commitment or succumb to a downward spiral which may lead to corruption, abuse of authority, and several other group-supported norms of police misconduct. Finally, in the last few years of a police career, resigned cynicism may replace the former, more blatant type. Almost as a habit, they accept and come to terms with the flaws of the system. The assertion in this study is that the degree of officers’ cynical attitudes in these stages will be closely related to the degree of officers’ stress. In other words, if the level of police stress appears to be of a high degree in a particular range of the length of police service, the level of police cynicism would also be high in that stage. Violanti and Aron ( 1995: 291 ) found that the highest organizational and inherent stressor mean scores fall between six and ten years of police service and Neiderhofer( 1967: 231 ) found that police cynicism reached it’s maximum at between five and ten years. Violanti and Aron ( 1995: 291 ) also found that the lowest mean scores of officers’ perceived organizational stressors and job inherent stressors are between the last stage of twenty and twenty five years of police service. Neidehofer( 1967 ) also found that the lowest cynicism score falls between the last stage of fifteen to twenty years after officers experienced a couple of years of police work. The highest degree of officers’ perception of police stressors and the highest degree of police cynicism occurred at the length of police service between six to ten years. Likewise, the lowest degree of officers’ perception of police stressors and the lowest degree of police cynicism occurred at the last stage of police length of service. The samples in Violanti and Aron’s study had the last stage of police service between twenty and twenty five years, whereas the samples in Neidehofer’ study had the last stage of police service between fifteen and twenty years. Clearly, according to these two studies, this assertion holds. II. The Purpose of Study The first purpose is to find a whether or not there is positive relationship between police stressors and police cynicism as its’ maladaptation which dominates police subculture. In other word, this study will attempt to discover that the degree of police stress is positively associated with police cynicism. Sometimes cynicism might be usefully employed for doing investigative activity, so it has value when used appropriately. However, cynicism needs to be regulated since, in non-confrontational contacts, police officers may project an “evil intention”, or mindset ( Pitter, 1994: 54 ). Police officers’ cynical attitude may not contribute to producing a high quality of police service in the current society. Through determining what events cause officers to perceive ' stress and analyzing the relationship between police stress and police cynicism, the cause of officers’ cynical attitude can be revealed. The second purpose is to provide empirical grounds for reducing police stressors as much as possible by identifying whether police officers in Korea would perceive administrative stressors as being more significant than job inherent stressors. If officers perceive more administrative stress than job inherent stress, the Korean police administration would do well to consider a reform effort of the entire department. Although the bothersome daily events, such as exposure to danger or misery, cannot be eliminated as an inherent job aspect, the administrative events such as excessive paperwork or inappropriate discipline can be reduced by organizational development. The third purpose is to determine whether officers’ stress and cynicism varies with rank, length of service. Officers in Korea may have a different perception of stressors and different perspectives toward the policing environment because they did not enter police work at the same level. Some officer groups start at a management level and other officer groups start at a patrol officer level. Therein may lie a substantial difference in perception of stressors and attitude toward policing environment. CHAPTER 2 A REVIEW OF LITERATURE I. A Conceptual Overview of Police Stress Introduction Although there is continuing contradictory and controversial information regarding whether police work constitutes a uniquely high-stress occupation, the study of police stress has significance in that the potential negative consequences of police stress can afi‘ect society in general more than stress from most other occupational groups ( Grencik, 1975:172 ). Webb and Smith noted ( 1980: 256 )2 Police officers unable to cope with the stress of their job pose a threat to themselves, other ofiicers, and the public. Thus, whether they sufi‘er more or less stress than others is a specious issue. At issue are the sources and consequences of stress among the police and how these might be prevented or alleviated. While law enforcement is likely a stressfiil occupation, it is probably stressful for reasons quite different from those typically presented in the literature. The literature review in this study tends to focus on sources of police stress and its influence on the cynical attitudes of pofice. NonspecifiQiological syndrome or specific psychological syndrome Technically, stress refers to the state of an individual reacting to some problematic event or demand, while those factors that produce the state of stress are referred to as stressor. Hans Selye ( 1973: 692 ) defines stress as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. The stress was termed as “general adaptation syndrome” This biological stress syndrome is characterized by a three-stage reaction to any major stressor; 1) alarm stage referring to the state of body which recognize the stressor and prepares itself through the production of arousal hormones necessary for fight or flight; 2) resistance stage refening to the state of body repairs the damage caused by arousal. But if the stressor does not go away, the body must attempt to remain alert and maintain its defenses, and thus stress continues; 3) exhaustion refening to bodily functions which is significantly slowed or cease altogether. While Selye’s belief that stress and a variety of diseases are related is widely accepted, their is growing evidence that the stress response is more specific than claimed by Selye and that the stressors may be primarily psychological rather than biological or physiological. Regardless of whether stress is nonspecific or whether it is more likely associated with psychological than physiological phenomena, it is safe to say that stress results from an imbalance between the demands of the environment and the individuals ability to adjust to those demands. The reason is that there are individual difference in occurring of stress because of demographic attributes including age, sex, and social status, and individual attributes including momentary states of arousal, preparedness, social support, personality characteristics. II. Police Stressors Introduction The study conducted by Storch and Panazarella( 1996: 102 ) asked questions about what one likes and dislikes about being a police officer and about one’s current assignment, and how often one thinks of the possibility of injuries while working. The number one dislike about being a police officer was a poor work schedule. Second was public blame and tied for third were inadequate pay, administrators, politicians, and courts and lawyers. Combining administrators and police department policies into one item would give third place among the dislikes. Assignment dislikes once more centered on poor work schedules. Bad bosses and administrators also were prominent dislikes. The result of the data regarding what respondents disliked about being police officers indicated that the dangers of the work and encounters with human misery were not among the major stressors of the work. The key stressors in police work seem to be more related to organizational factors. This study indicated that the principal sources of stress in police work are organizational variables such as work condition, conflicts with superiors, and relationships with non police such as the public and the legal system. For questions regarding what one likes about being a police officer, the most common like was the excitement of being a police officer. A second was general statements about helping people and third was job security. The study conducted by Kroes, Margolis, and Hurrell ( 1974: 147 ) identified that the following sources of stress were perceived by officers as paramount; 1) court 10 leniency; 2)administrative policies and lack of support from higher administration; 3) equipment; 4) community relations; and 5) changing of shift work. These factors are not associated with the task or street environment such as exposure to danger and violence. These findings of the studies imply that although police stress tends to be viewed directly related to inherent aspect of policing such as danger, violence and crime, the police organization is more meaningful in terms of primary police stressors. CI '1] 1' Police stressor domains identified by Crank and Caldero ( 1991: 342 ) are: 1) the organization and administration ( internal stressor ), 2) the task or street environment ( task-related stressor ), 3) the judiciary ( fi'ustration with the criminal justice system ), 4) personal and family stressors ( individual stressors ) whereas Terry( 1981: 61 ) categorized shift work into task related stressors. Crank and Coldero indicated that the shift works is determined by administrative decision, and it is thus a factor in the relation of the individual with the organization. In the present study, police stressors were classified into two domains; 1) administrative stressors; and 2) job inherent stressors. The administrative stressors included Crank and Caldero’s organization and administration stressor domains which is I described by Terry as internal stressors (1981: 61). The job inherent stressors included Crank and Caldero’s the task environment and the judiciary domain, which is described by Terry as task related stressors and external stressors respectively. 11 III. Police stressor and police cynicism The study conducted by Kroes, Margolis, Hurrell ( 1974 ) was to determine which potential stressors are perceived as significant sources of stress in police work and gave explanation how police officer’s professionalism become threatened and damaged. The study stated that the police stressor such as courts, administration, equipment and community relation affect negatively the policeman’s feeling of professionalism. Police officers take professional pride in capturing offenders. However, when the courts release offenders and impose light sentences on them, officers feel their professional efforts and the attempt to protect turn out to be in vein. Although the Officer appears in the court room in the morning after graveyard shift, judges may not treat him/her as professional. In addition, lawyers often show little respect for him/her. Thus, it is from the courts that the officer receives the strongest negative message about their professionalism. Even though officers in South Korea do not need to appear in the court room, since their testimony does not constitute evidence, officers who are involved with the investigations of criminal cases must follow the orders from the district attomey’s office. Police officers’ input is directed through the district attomey’s Office often in disregard to the police officers’ schedule or convenience. The district attorneys do not respect officers and officers receive negative input as a professional in South Korea. 12 Disrepair in equipment and needs in equipment are also perceived by the officer as an indication that others do not regard the job as important and that he is not viewed as a professional. Thus, poor quality equipment affects negatively officers professionalism. At the same time, policemen often receive negative messages fi'om a large segment of the public. The public’s apathy over, or even active interference with, his work threaten the officer’s professionalism. When the officer is not asked to participate in the decision making process that directly affects him, he also perceives that his own administration does not treat him as a professional. As Niederhoffs paradigm posited, there is an inverse relation between pOlice professionalism and cynicism. That is, the more the police officer’s professionalism is threatened, the more the officer’s attitude become cynical. Based on Niederhoffs paradigm and Kroes et a1 study, police cynicism is attributed to those factors such as court, equipment, the police administration, and the public. Thus, it can be assumed that police stressors are positively correlated to police cynicism. IV. Job inherent stressors Danger The job of a police officer involves participation in dangerous situations. There is significant psychological stress involved with dangerous events such as the upset at having to witness human tragedy, the anticipation of a potentially hazardous situation, or the fear when an officer responds to a dangerous call ( Kroes, 1985: 74 ). A large body of 13 research has placed focus on potential or real danger in the task environment as a source of police stress. In the line of duty situation, there is no danger to the officer’s life, but the psychological effects are potentially overwhelming. Line-of-duty situations include events like notification of death, having to clean up a body after an accident, being called in on a child abuse case, or exposure to communicable disease ( Kroes, 1985: 76 ). The risk of contracting AIDS or hepatitis through police activity such as collection of evidence in bloody crime scene or transportation of drug addicts is a stressful aspect of police work. After such police activity occurs, a police officer begins to worry and have a feeling of anxiety. Other crisis events which pose a threat are those such as dealing with felonies in progress, domestic Violence intervention, and high speed chase, all of which endanger the officer’s physical safety. Surprisingly, many findings ( Crank and Caledro, 1991: 347 ) indicated that potential or real danger were not perceived as a primary police stressor. These findings suggested that task-related danger was not Viewed with the same stress- producing negativity as organizational sources of stress among the departments. C | I .” 'l' Unfortunately, most people are not happy to see the police, as it is usually some sort of negative contact. Slang has developed referring to police in a derogatory way, such as the word “pig” in USA and “picker” or “sunsa” in Korea. Negative public image is indeed an uncomfortable stressor. The policeman, like any other professional, 14 wants to be respected for his work. But a police officer does not hold a high status in society and is not liked by a large segment of community ( Kroes, 1985: 65 ). The negative image of the policeman, linked with the public’s unconcem over, or even active impediment with, his work, strongly diminishes the officer’s positive professional self- image ( Kroes, Margolis, Hurrell, 1974: 154 ). Thus, police officers become uncomfortable in their job. Police officers have the fi'ustration of “trying to live up to all expectations of the public” ( Crank and Caldero, 1991: 345 ). In spite of the fact that the community shows it’s apathy and give little support for the policeman doing his job, police officers are expected to possess high levels of moral and behavioral standards. In Korea, police become the first target when the public demonstrates against public policy, then, every blame toward the government is laid on the police. All the public’s resentment toward labor issues, political issues, health and environment issues, college education and religious issues convert to blame upon the police. As Kroes ( 1985: 66 ) indicated as followings, negative public reaction to the government falls to the police. The individual policeman is simply carrying out his duty, doing what his job requires; yet he finds himself in the position of being a front-line representative of the “establishment” and must face the venom of others for something he has no control over. Other negative public reactions to police officers comes from drunks’ abusive attitudes. In addition, many times police officers are consequently sued or receive complaints from the public just for doing the job ( Kroes, Margolis, Hurrell, 1974: 150 ). 15 9mm All are concerned with the failure of the judicial system to prosecute criminals sufficiently. Many researcher have identified at least some problems with a liberal court system. Among these are a lack of consideration by the courts in scheduling policemen for court appearances and court leniency toward criminals job ( Kroes, Margolis, Hurrell, 1974: 153 ). Court practices de-emphasize an officer’s weight. He is told to be in court at a time which conflicts with his actual shift, with no special consideration for his appearance. The officer thereby receives some of the strongest negative input as a expert, from judges. In arresting offenders, the officer takes pride in doing a good job as a crime- fighting expert. When the courts set free the offender, it is typical that the policeman feels his professionalism is being threatened. Shiflmds The primary problems connected with shift work is that officers have hard time in adapting their physiological and psychological rhythms to a new and unfamiliar sleep- wakefulness cycle ( Kroes, 1985: 37 ). In addition to the problems of the individual rhythms, shift rotation, the midnight shift, a linkage between conflicting procedures and shift change, cause the disruption of family life and social life ( Crank & Coldero, 1991: 344 ). If a police officer is single, it is not easy for him to ask for a date at 5 am. when he get off work. If married, the shift worker’s wife must uphold the standard schedule for herself and children and a separate schedule or her husband ( Kroc, 1985: 38 ). Changing 16 shift schedules takes several days for the average individual who must readjust his eating, sleeping, and social habits ( Kroc, 1985: 39 ). V. Administrative ( Organizational ) stressors introduction Organizational stressors in this instance refer to those events precipitated by police administration that are bothersome to members of the police organization. Violanti and Aron ( 1993 ) conducted survey by purposive sampling of 110 full-time sworn police officers in southern New York state. This study measured and analyzed organizational or administrative factors and inherent police work factors, job attitudes, and psychological distress. Items of organizational stressors included assignment of disagreeable duties, lack of recognition for good work, disagreeable department regulations, lack of participation in job decision, and excessive inappropriate discipline. Examples of items that represent the inherent stressors are responding to felony in progress, high speed chases, dealing with crisis, physical attack upon one’s person, and the death or injury of other officers. The total effect of organizational stressors on psychological distress, including direct and indirect effects was .246 Standard Deviation, whereas that of inherent Stressor on distress was .-O46 Standard Deviance. Thus, organizational stressor had a total effect on distress of approximately 6.3 times that of inherent police stressors. Reiser( 1974 ) also stated that traditional police organizations are by nature authoritarian and foster estrangement between the line officer and management. Consequently, the officer is in an essentially l7 helpless position within the organizational system since little that he or she does impacts the management level. He also presented that the organizational structure of police department symbolizes a notable source of stress for the individual officer. Thus, it is necessary to include administrative stressors as a main police stress issue. SUDEMSQI The first most frequently selected organizational stressor is superior officers. Although the chief is the least frequently mentioned, the relative infrequency of comments about the chief is balanced by their intensity ( Crank and Caldero, 1991: 344 ). In other words, the most frequently selected single source of stress is the upper- management personnel in Police department. They are perceived to be out of touch with street environment. Namely, the supervisors are seen to be unsympathetic to the day-to- day problems of the lower-ranking officers ( Crank and Caldero, 1991: 344 ). Instead of the administration’s relieving the pressures of the officers, they produce more by their lack of support and mistrust of the rank and file ( Kroes, 1985: 15 ). The following note of Kroes indicates how officers perceive regarding their supervisor: There is an established belief among police officers that when there is praise to be given, some superior steps out of the woodwork to receive it, but when there is punishment it falls downhill to the lowest level, the filed police officer. ( 1985: 17) B I [1' I I B I I . 'l The study ( 1974 ) conducted by Kroes, Margolis, and Margolis suggests that police officers are not as bothered by field situations as they are by the working 18 conditions, role conflict, role ambiguities, and the administrative milieu within which they work. Role conflict is conceptualized as the stage of irrelevancy of expectations linked with a role. For example, “I receive incompatible requests from two or more people.” “I have to buck a rule or policy in order to carry out an assignment.” ( Aldag & Brief, 1978: 365 ). Conflicts arise between what the higher management expects and what the immediate line supervisors want. In Korea, all investigations are controlled by prosecutor. As a group, the detectives are told by supervisors to investigate in a certain way and later told by prosecutor to investigate in the opposite way. No detectives can successfully please two masters. Role ambiguity is conceptualized as the lack of clarity of role expectations associated with a role and the stage of doubtfulness about the results of one’s role performance. For example, “I do not know exactly what is expected of me.” “I do not know what my responsibilities are.” ( Aldag & Brief, 1978: 365 ) One Korean police officer revealed that one of the most stressful situations is his supervisor’s ambiguous attitude toward him. When the supervisor and officer are confronted with an uneasy situation, such as a decision about release or arrest of suspects, the supervisor is reluctant to give direct advice or order to the officer. The supervisor puts responsibility on the officer as a self-defensive tools. WW Although significant progress has been made in the area of law enforcement wages and benefits during the 1980s, inadequate pay remains a problem for law l9 enforcement officers nationwide. In performing their duties, officers believe they are performing a crucial role in the community; i.e., protecting life and property. They think their pay should reflect fair compensation for the danger and the benefit they provide. Overall, officers are simply frustrated over not being paid what they think they are worth (Kroes, 1985 : 44). Lack of proper equipment and insufficiency in manpower also plague the law enforcement profession. When the quality of one’s work and safety is fairly associated with one’s equipment, the condition of equipment takes on new significance ( Kroes, Margolis, and Hurrell, 1974: 153 ). Officers’ frustrations are apparent in the forms of complaints about lack of man power in police activity and poor maintenance of equipment or facilities. !|"ll' I" II I II Typical characteristics’ of military-style organizations is that they tend to use a “punishment-centered” philosophy in their approach toward employees. This approach assumes that rules are willfully violated and this assumption is then used to justify punishment. Thus, an individual officer is presumed guilty before being proven irmocent in the process of investigation by Internal Affairs. Reiser stated officer’s feelings as followings ( Reiser, 1974; 157 ): It is interesting that the feelings of policemen toward the internal investigative branch are somewhat analogous to the feelings of certain citizens toward the police department. This is the assumption of an antagonistic stance and the~ expectation of unfair treatment and punishment. 20 The most prevalent stress factor in a police organization is associated with the internal discipline structure. Officers often to view themselves as second-class citizens, who do not have even the same rights as the severe offenders. They are expected to maintain personal and moral standards at a level higher than would be demanded in the general community. Officers are aware that they are not only responsible criminally and civilly for an offense, but they can also encounter punishment from within the police organization for which they have worked. In addition, internal discipline can be initiated by just complaints from the public, based on the syndrome that the “where there’s smoke there’s fire”. Excessixeflaoonuork Paperwork is perceived by officers as more of an impediment than a needfulness. Excessive paperwork, often referred to as “red tape,” is one of the most often revealed sources of police stress. Overemphasis on paper and reporting forms produces problems for officers. Watson and Sterling in a 1969 International Association of Chiefs of Police survey stated as followings: The best officer is one who knows when to depart from standard operating procedure in order to get the job done. Eisenberg ( 1975 ) related that the volume of paper pushed by police officers is “incredible.” He also remarked that all too often, the need, purpose, and value of some types of paperwork is called into serious question by the officer himself. Officers are 21 fi'ustrated with having to prepare correspondence that superiors should be responsible for, the use of redundant and obsolete forms and procedures, unnecessary reports. VI. Police cynicism WI I . C . . 9 According to the dictionary ( Webster, 1994: 345 ), cynicism is an expression of “the attitudes or beliefs of a cynical person” Cynical is also defined as “believing that people are motivated in all their actions only by selfishness; denying the sincerity of people’s motives and actions, or the value of living”. Thus, cynicism is associated with an attitude of contemptuous disbelief of human nature and is reflected as an inability to recognize any sincerity in the motives of others or in the circumstances ( Regoli, Crank, Potgieter, and Powell, 1990: 133 ). Regoli noted the cynicism in the police occupation: Cynicism is the typical way of adapting to anomie in the police occupation. Like resentment, cynicism is characterized by pervasive feelings of hate, envy, hostility, revenge, and “sour grapes”. It is conceptualized as a stage of psychological latency in which the connection is established between strain toward anomie in the social structure of the police organization and the individual’s personality. It is a product of anomie, and at the same time, it is a preliminary stage for anomie. Frustration and disenchantment are variables which signal is coming. Cynics, then, acts as a defense mechanism, allowing individual police officers to maintain their self-image by reducing anxiety. Also, cynics lower the degree of their failure by depreciating the goals of the “professionals”. Occasionally, the target of this “psychological aggression is the entire police system which has allowed the situation to develop ( 1977: 7 ). Based on his notes, Cynicism has three elements: a) the dissemination of feelings of hatred and animosity; b) an incapacity to manifest these feelings toward the surrounding environment; and c) a recurring experiencing of unproductive hostility. 22 The first empirical research on police cynicism was conducted by sociologist Arthur Niederhoffer who developed a career-stage model for cynicism. With the publication of his ( 1967 ) book, “Behind the Shield”, he outlined a theory of police cynicism, in which cynicism was viewed to be epidemic to the police occupation. The theoretical setting for cynicism was derived from Merton’s theory of anomie, where anomie among police was linked to the police subculture and the policing environment. Niederhoffer and other researchers used resentment and cynicism interchangeably as one of the adaptations to anomie. Since Niederhofer’s work, cynicism has been studied in a many different research settings and has been linked to organizational size, length of service, professionalism, job assignment, rank, work alienation, and role conflict. Most studies on police cynicism were conducted during late 1960 and mid 1970. In the 19803 research on police cynicism advanced, focusing on two issues those being methodology and international applications. However, police cynicism has not been directly studied as a link to police stress. 0" I IIIEI"E' l Certain types of cynicism toward the public are omnipresent in the police organization. Cynicism toward the organization is also apparent, which is associated with bureaucratic constraints on single autonomy and discretion in the organization ( Regoli, Crank, Potgieter, and Powell, 1990: 135 ). When new officers suddenly encounter a hostile or apathetic public, a criminal justice system that shows leniency toward criminals, or offensive department policies that do not consider officers sensibilities’, the 23 visionary officers taste betrayal. They soon realize that the idealism learned in police academy and the law enforcement code of moral principles does not mirror reality. Cynical officers lose respect and concem for the ideals that led them to police service in the first place. Instead, they often regard those ideals with scorn (Graves, 1996: 17). Many of the cases they encounter also cause them to lose trust in others and develop an us-versus-them View in the process. E I I. I E I. C . . Carter ( 1994: 189 ) argued that a degree of cynicism is desirable for police officers because citizens do not want officers who are gullible or who would not question suspicious actions. As he also argued, however, police cynicism must be tempered with good judgment and a reasonable perspective of reality. The suspicion that all people have bad intentions, based on the numerous negative contacts to which the officers are exposed, predisposes toward a twisted mindset. There is the possibility that even non- confi‘ontational encounters may reveal the ‘evil intention’ mindset aspect to the officer ( Pitter, 1994: 57 ). The other problem of cynicism is that it steals the value of enthusiasm fiom the profession and it is insidious. One of the most serious problems of police officers’ cynical attitude is the fact that invariably “it creates a negative contact with a citizen or impinges upon professionalism and productivity” among the officers ( Graves, 1996: 20 ). Most of the public contacts are routine from the officers’ point of View and there is a tendency for the officer to become suspicious and insensitive to the public’s concerns. However, to the public, this contact may be the only exposure that a 24 lay person may have with the criminal justice system. Thus, “the communication of such cynicism” has a deleterious consequence on the image of the criminal justice systems as a whole ( Pitter, 1994: 59 ). A sound human relationship between the police and the public, characterized by mutual trust and respect, can not be made in the presence police cynicism ( Pitter, 1994: 59 ). IIE IE 'C'I Through evolution, from the rookie stage to the cynic stage, police officers come to recognize that the system does not work. This is based on their numerous experiences with the system’s weakness and loopholes which result in failures. Police officers also constantly deal with negativity. They take crime reports, accident reports, help the sick and injured, and investigate homicide scenes. All too often, citizens who police officers thought needed help, have turned out to be unappreciative of that help. One aspect of this negativity is displayed in the lack of trust they show for others ( Conroy, 1992: 97). For a time during the cynical stage, police officers may drop their creed in such core values as truthfulness and fairness. Many police officers tend to stop considering the system and decide quietly to dispense with the official administration and courts. Cynical officers view those who look on the bright side and the people who believe in the intrinsic value of life as naive. What further adds to their cynicism is the way. officers are treated by their own organization. Police officers are bound to answer claims of misbehavior during an internal affairs investigations or confront surrendering their jobs. Every citizen has the ‘right to remain silent’ except police officers. Police officer’s 25 alleged mistakes can become news that helps sell papers at the expense of their careers ( Conroy, 1992: 100). After police officers have progressed through the cynical stage, they begin to manage the negativity in a more positive way and to find rewards. Before this stage is reached, many other dues must be paid ( Conroy, 1992: 104 ). lllll E" 7 Police officers tend to be cynics. But what causes police officers’ cynicism? It is a result of numerous distorted accounts of police events public apathy, the policemen’s negative image, bureaucratic administrative policies, unfavorable court decisions, outdated equipment, a perceived lack of appreciation, the adverse effects of shift work on the lifestyle of the officer and his family, and work overloads. In other words, all police stressors contribute to a growing sense of cynicism ( Pitter, 1994: 57 ). Police officers as a group also tend not to cope well with stress and often turn to maladaptive coping strategies ( Violanti, 1993: 41 ). Violanti( 1993: 41 ) found that police officers fundamentally resorted to two types of coping mechanisms when faced with stress: “escape avoidance” and “distancing”. These are maladaptive copying strategies to stress. “Escape avoidance” involves avoidance of people and the use of alcohol or drugs. “Distancing” involves emotional escape from the situation. Cynicism has a closer association to distancing which may lead to depersonalization. Thus, officers’ cynicism trait is contracted for over the years of police service as a maladption to police stressors. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY I. Research Hypothesis Model In an efl'ort to graphically present research hypotheses in the present study, the following model was developed (Figure l ). H la indicates hypothesis 1a) that there is a curvilinear relationship between length of police service and police cynicism. H 1b indicates hypothesis lb) that there is a curvilinear relationship between length of service and oficers’ perceived stressors. H 2 indicates hypothesis 2) that the Executive ofiicers group is less stressed and is less cynical than the Non- Executive omcers group. H 3 signifies hypothesis 3) that there is a positive relationship between officers perceived stresors and cynicism. H 4 signifies hypothesis 4) that administrative stressors is more strongly correlated with police cynicism. 26 27 Hlb,H2 H1a,H2 Bolioostrssors H 3 > Egljgg QXDISZISm { administrative stressors, H 4 job inherent stressors} Figure 1 Model of the Police Stressors and Police Cynicism (T; “HIT.” II 1) Police stress means the perceived imbalance between occupational demands of police work and officers’ ability to effectively adjust, under conditions where failure always has important consequences. 2) Stressors mean the factors that produce the state of stress. 3) Administrative stressors mean events that are bothersome to police officers due to the police department administration. 4) Job inherent stressors mean events that are offensive to police officers due to the police work itself. 5) Police cynicism means police officers’ impotent hostility and skeptical attitude toward the persons or social structure of the police organization. 28 6) Executive officers group means police officers who have rank of higher than sergeant in the police station. 7) Non-Executive officers group means police officers who have rank of sergeant and lower than sergeant in the police station. Extremism 1) a. There is a curvilinear relationship between length of police service and police cynicism. b. There is a curvilinear relationship between length of police service and police stress. Rationale-- Niederhoffer found that the length of police service was curvilinearly related to police cynicism, with cynicism being the minimum at the recruit stage, reaching its maximum during the seven to ten years of stage, and gradually declining until retirement. However, Niederhoffer’s curvilinearity was not significantly apparent in other data such as Braithwaite and Sonnad’s western Europe military police study ( 1984: 435 ) and Regoli and his colleagues’ assessment of Taiwan police cynicism ( 1983: 3 ). These findings imply that although the form of cynicism might have appeared in different research settings, situations which affect cynicism are culturally specific. About the perception of police officers’ stressors, Violanti and Aron found that the degree of officers’ stress varies with length of police service. Thuithjistudy attempts to test the above hypothesis in a Korean police research setting. 4 29 2) The Executive officers group will be less stressed and be less cynical than the Non- Executive officers group. Rationale-- In terms of the selection process, educational level, and decision making authority in the police station, in Korea there are two distinct police groups. The superior officers group undergo a higher level selection test than that of the non- superiors group. They are able to start as lieutenants, whereas those in the non-superior group must start from the bottom of the hierarchy. The superior group members usually have college diplomas whereas the non-superior group usually have only a high school diploma. While officers are conducting investigative activity, only the superior group has legal authority to apply for a warrant. It is needless to say that the superior group has more power in the decision making process. Thus, it can be hypothesized that superiors will perceive less stress and be less cynical than patrol officers. 3) There is a positive relationship between police officers’ perceived stress and police cynicism. Rationale-- Violnti and Aron ( 1995: 290 ) found that police officers with six to ten years of police service reported higher organizational and inherent stressor mean scores than any other officers groups and that officers with twenty one to twenty five years of police service had the lowest mean scores. This finding is comparable with Niedehoffer finding of officers’ cynical attitude in terms of the length of police service. He found that police cynicism reached it’s maximum at some point between five and ten years of police service and leveled off for the last stage of fifteen to twenty years. When police officers’ stress level was high, officers’ cynicism level was also high. Thus, it can 30 be hypothesized that the degree of police stress is positively correlated to the degree of police cynicism. 4) Police officers who perceive more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors are more likely to have a cynical attitude than officers who perceive less administrative stressors than job inherent stressors. Rationale-- Many researchers have found that administrative stressors such as inadequate support of the department and supervisors, excessive discipline, and excessive paperwork are more stressfirl than job inherent stressors such factors as danger or violence. Violanti and Aron ( 1993: 903 ) found that the total effect of organizational stressors on distress was about 6.3 times as great as that of inherent stressors. In other words, the study indicated that organizational stressors increased distress more than job inherent stressors did. Distress is a consequence of exposure to adverse surroundings (Brown & Campbell, 1994: 19 ). As Neiderhoffer stated, a cynical attitude is also a consequence of failure or frustration in police work. Thus, it can be hypothesized that organizational stressors result in more officers cynical attitude than do job inherent stressors. 31 II. Operationalizing the Variables perception regarding bothersome events occurring in their police activity. The measure of dependent variables is officers’ cynical attitudes toward their policing environment. Table 1 shows outline of major variables in this study. Seventeen items in section A were constructed for administrative stressors which are composed of three factors such as superior ( Items 11, 21, 26, and 31 ), resource (Items 6, 9, 18, 22, and 29 ), and department (Items 8, 13, 15, 17, 19, 24, 27, and 34). Another seventeen items in section A were constructed for job inherent stresssors which are composed of three factors such as criminal justice system ( Items 1, 5, 10, and 12 ), public (Items 4, 7, 14, 16, and 32 ), and danger or misery ( Items 2, 3, 20, 23, 25, 28, 30, and 33 ). Twenty Items in section B were selected to measure Police Cynicism and nineteen items of them were taken from Regoli’s (1977 : 125-126) modified version of Niederhoffer’s police cynicism scale. Item number 20 in section B was constructed by the researcher and all Items were modified to be completed with cynical response on a Likert scale. In addition to the police stress inventory in Section A and the police cynicism scale in Section B, demographic items were used. It included items‘about age, rank, the length of police service, educational level, gender, entry level, and work unit. For the Korean version, initially prepared items in English, then translated them into Korean and finally translated them back into English. 32 Table 1 Major Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable Adminisnafiyesmssors Police Cynicism Superior Resource Police Station Policies lolLInhoLanStrossors Criminal Justice System Public Danger E |' [El' 5! The stressors in this study was clustered into; 1) administrative stressors such as poor supervision, poor equipment and pay, and offensive department policies; 2) police inherent stressors such as frustration with the criminal justice system, negative public image, and exposure to danger and the miseries of life. Not all stressors fit neatly into one or the other categories. For instance, Terry ( 1981: 61 ) classified ‘shiit work’ as a task- related stressor whereas Crank & Caldero(199l: 342) classified it with the organization and administration stressors. However, for these purposes, the distinction is being made between those stressors that police work has in common with other occupations 33 ( administrative stressors ), and those unique to policing (police inherent stressors ). Thus, this study includes ‘shilt work’ ( item number 3 ) within the category of job inherent stressors. Comparing to majority of other jobs, night shift work is unique to the police profession in Korea. Many American researchers have identified numerous sources of police stress such as the use of plea bargaining, second jobs, racial conflicts, high speed chases, court appearances, and domestic violence. These events are not associated with the Korean policing environment. Clearly, there are some differences between the working environment in Seoul, Korea and cities in the United States. There is no plea bargaining in the Korean criminal law process. Korea is a homogeneous society and police officers are not legally allowed to work a second job. It is impossible to imagine a high speed chase in Seoul because of constant traffic jams. According to criminal procedure law in Korea, police officers’ testimony has no legal power in terms of constructing evidence. Thus, police officers do not need to appear in the court. In addition, Korean women are reluctant to report domestic violence to the police department. In the case of domestic violence, the degree of danger in intervening is not as serious as that of the United States since the public is not allowed to possess guns. Due to the above reasons, the review of literature identified twenty six police stressors that are likely to be present stressful events in Korea. They are the followings; 34 Table 2 Police Officers’ Perceived Stressors Identified in the Literature Review POLICE STRESSORS REFERENCE Excessive paperwork Besner, 1984 Night shift work Lawrence, 1984 Experiencing insult from the public Lawrence, 1984 Court leniency with criminals Violanti, 1982 Inadequate support by superior Kroes et a1, 1974 Ineffective correction of criminals Kirkham, 1974 Negative press coverage Meadows, 198 l Excessive inappropriate discipline Violanti, 1982 Public apathy toward police Lawrence, 1984 Recall when off duty Alexander et a1, 1993 Dealing with drunken Burgin, 1978 Inadequate salary Besner, 1984 Exposure to homicide scenes Burgin, 1978 Performance evaluation quotas Crank & Caldero, 1991 Possibility of physical injury Lawrence, 1984 Promotion system Crank & Caldero, 1991 Response progress in felony Soural, 1981 Inadequate supervision Lawrence, 1984 Work overload Kroes, 1985 Inactivity Kroes, 1985 Fellow officer killed in the line of duty Panyard, 1986 Poor quality equipment Kroes, 1985 Court decision unduly restricting police Panyard, 1986 Pressure for result Alexander et a1, 1995 Public criticism of police Meadows, 1981 Exposure to a child abuse Kroes, 1985 35 In addition, based on author’s six years observation of Korean police department, eight events which are peculiar to the Korean policing environment were identified. These are as follows: 1) ‘proactive investigation by internal affairs’ 2) ‘assigned to nocturnal work for responding emergency or for checking police sub-stations’ 3) ‘confrontation with aggressive demonstrators’ 4) ‘relationship with district attorney’ 5) ‘supervisor’s self protective behavior’ 6) ‘departrnent’s sudden ordering of extra crime preventive work without overtime pay’ 7) ‘insufficient manpower’ 8) ‘political pressure within the police station or from outside’ Thus, a total of thirty four items appeared on the police stress inventory. Police officers were asked to indicate how much they perceived each item fi‘om ‘slightly stressful’ to ‘very strongly stressfiil’ in a Likert type scale. It was scored very strongly stressfirl=5, strongly stressul=4, moderately stressful=3, slightly stressful=2, little stressful=l. The range of total score for officers’ perception of police stressors is 34 to 170. In the same vein, the range of scores for officers’ perception of administrative stressors is 17 to 85 and the range of scores for officers’ perception of job inherent stressors was 17 to 85. 36 E I. C . . Cynicism was measured by Regoli’s ( 1976: 125-126 ) modified version of Niederhoffer’s index ( 1967 ). In Regoli’s index, however, the scoring of items was determined by whether the statement is completed with a cynical response or professional response. For example, if respondents answer to the question: ‘the average police superior is very interested in the welfare of his subordinates.’ as ‘strongly disagree’, the score was counted as five points; if respondents answered the question ‘the average departmental complaint is a result of the pressure on superiors from higher authority to give out complaints.’ as ‘strongly disagree’, the score was reversed and counted as one point. In this study, all items were modified to be completed with cynical response. Thus, the scoring for the police cynicism index was measured on a five point Likert type scale ranging from “ strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” and it will be scored: strongly agree=5, agree=4, undecided=3, disagree=2, strongly disagree=l. A higher score indicated a greater degree of police cynicism. Regoli’s question number twenty ‘When testifying in court, police officers are treated fairly’ was excluded since police officers in Korea do not testify in court. Instead, the question, ‘ When doing police work in the criminal justice system, police officers are treated fairly’ was included. Thus, the range of score for the cynicism index was 20 to 100. 37 III. Sampling Procedure D'ffl l| [El' 8 l' S III; The Korean National Police organization maintains a tall structure and a centralized system which emphasizes a Confucian hierarchical subordination. Yoon’s explanations are as follows (1992: 95): Subscribing to those values, the central government alone provides leadership and executes police authority. All of the Korean National Police Forces work along with executive ideas. Provincial Police Directors supervise and control the police stations in their jurisdiction, but the Provincial Police Directors cannot move or assign duties to the police chiefs. Subsequently, the police are controlled by the central government. Thus, all of the police officials are centralized by a pyramid structure, with rigid superior-subordinate relationships divided by eleven ranks from the Director General down to the patrolman ( 1992: 95 ). Thus, a majority of the police officers in South Korea are reluctant to respond to a Questionnaire until they know the researcher has received official approval from the Police Stations. Most Police Chiefs resist any attempt to infiltrate and analyze police attitudes, police practice, and police policy in an effort to prevent public scrutiny. They think, during of their tenure as a Police Chief, it is not advisable to take the unnecessary risk of unexpected or unfavorable outcomes of a study by opening Police Station to researchers. For these reasons, there are a little number of police researches in South Korea. Sample The research for this study was conducted in the police station of a large city in South Korea, with a settled residential population of about 26,300 and a transient 38 population of about 2,500,000 within the police station’s jurisdiction. The jurisdiction in this police station is a “white collar” area with most of the population employed in professional or service occupations. There are 185 banks, 13 hotels, 11 subway stations, 4 colleges, 12 movie theaters, 2 stadiums, and many commercial offices and shops within the jurisdiction. The sample was an entire organization of Police Station in South Korea. In other words, the sample consisted of all full-time police officers in one police station employed by the Seoul Police Department in South Korea. South Korea maintains a National Police organization. The head of the National Police is Commissioner General of National Police Agency who is appointed by the President of South Korea. The National Police organization in the country is divided into eleven Metropolitan Police Agency. Each Commissioner General of Metropolitan Agency is appointed by Commissioner General of National Police Agency. The Police Division in the sample comes under the jurisdiction of the Chief of Police Station who is appointed by the Commissioner General of the Metropolitan Police Agency. The Chiefs rank is Senior Superintendent . Under the chief of police station are the Bureau of Police Administration, Crime Prevention, Criminal Affairs, Criminal Investigations, Intelligence, National Security, Public Security, and Traffic. Each is headed by Superintendent and its organization in the police station is as follows. The Police Administration bureau consists of the following units. 1. Personnel and Training 2. Equipment 3. Budgeting 4. Internal affairs 39 The Crime Prevention bureau consists of the following units and activities 1. Prevention Planning 2. Prevention Guidance 3. Juvenile 4. Police box Prevention Guidance unit is responsible for dealing with a violation of public morals, controlling firearms and explosive, and applying for a summary trial. The juvenile unit is responsible for preventing and investigating juvenile delinquency. Police boxes have their own jurisdiction within a police station’s jurisdiction, being responsible for patrolling in its own area, controlling crime and doing community policing. The Violent Criminal Investigation bureau consists of the following units and activities. 1. Administration 2. Eight Squad The Administration unit is responsible for reviewing cases and assigning officers, keeping criminal records, and sending investigative documents to the prosecutor’s office. Squads is responsible for apprehending criminals. The White Collar Criminal Investigation bureau consists of the following units and activities. 1. Interrogative I 2. Interrogative H Interrogative unit I is responsible for investigating cases of fi'aud, embezzlement, misappropriation, adultery, perjury, counterfeiting, and defamation. Interrogative unit 11 is responsible for investigating cases of violation of administrative law which includes criminal sanctions. The Intelligence bureau consists of following units and activities. 1. Intelligence I 2. Intelligence 11 Intelligence unit I is responsible for analyzing and coordinating information which is related to the public peace. Intelligence unit H is 40 responsible for collecting information which is related to the public peace. The National Security bureau consists of the following units and activities. 1. National Security 2. Foreign Affairs National Security unit is responsible for collecting information about leftist-groups and spy activities from north Korea and for apprehending them. Foreign Affairs is responsible for dealing with foreign criminals and collecting information about international crime organizations. The Public Security bureau consists of the following units and activities. 1. Public security 2. Dispatch 3. Auxiliary police Public security unit is responsible for dealing with crowds in events, for demonstration, for securing government buildings and planning for a national emergency. The Dispatch unit is responsible for responding to citizens’ calls by dispatching patrol cars. Auxiliary police unit is responsible for coordinating Auxiliary police who are supposed to deal with demonstrations. The Traffic bureau consists of the following units 1. Planning 2. Traffic Safety Thus, 479 officers in the Police Station represented eight ranks, major eight work units , age, length of service, and educational level. Among the total of 479 police officers, 312 cases were collected. However, 7 insincere cases which were answered the same number continuously were excluded fiom the analysis. 41 mung—Ema Survey was administered at a monthly group session in which all police officers are required to participate to discuss their current policing project. Before the meeting was over, the announcement was made to the officers that officers who want to respond the questionnaire voluntarily may remain. Then the researcher read the cover letter to them and explained the way to complete the questionnaire. The researcher indicated in the cover letter that participation is voluntary, not mandatory. The researcher also explained that officers can refuse to fill in the questionnaire at any time. Although the officers were informed that the study was authorized by the police station and police chief in an attempt to increase cooperation between the researcher and the officers, it was emphasized to the officers by the police station and police chief that they were not required to participate individually. The officers were also given assurance by the researcher that participation was completely voluntary and anonymous. For confidentiality, the questionnaire were directly distributed and collected, not by the police officers, but by the researchers in the monthly meeting room. Thus, anonymity and confidentiality were guaranteed. Personal identifying information was not requested and officers were assured that the responses would be reviewed only by the researcher. The questionnaires were collected by the researchers before the group session ended. By this process officers were asked to indicate the degree of their perception of police stressors and the degree of cynicism. CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT I. Analysis Selection of Statistics This chapter largely consists of two parts. The first part is the; 1) analysis of the relationship between the demographic variables and an officers’ perceived stressors; and 2) analysis of the relationship between the demographic variables and police cynicism. The second part is the test of research hypotheses. Thus, in the first part, descriptive statistics were obtained on all variables in this study. They served to give an overall picture of the data. In order to probe the rank order of officers’ perceived stressors, the mean scores of officers’ perceived stressors were compared. Analysis of Variance was selected to examine the differences of the degree of perceived stressors and cynicism among the officer groups using all the demographic variables in this study. A statistically significant F ratio indicates only that at least one of the groups differ from the rest. It does not suggest which groups are different from each other. Thus, to pinpoint exactly where the differences are, a multiple comparison procedure ( Bonferroni test) were also employed. In the second part, Pearson’s correlation analysis, a T-test, and Chi-Square and Gamma were used to test the hypothesis respectively. 42 43 Pearson’s correlation analysis was selected to measure the association; 1) between the length of service and police cynicism; and 2) between the length of service and an officers’ perceived total stressors; 3) between an officers’ perceived administrative stressors and police cynicism; and 4) between an officers’ perceived job inherent stressors and police cynicism. A T-test was conducted in order to examine whether or not; 1) the Executive officers group and Non-executive officer group have different levels of perceived stressors and cynicism; and 2) the officers who perceive more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors and the officers who perceive more job inherent stressors than administrative stressors have different levels of police cynicism. Chi-Square was used to examine whether or not police cynicism is dependent on an officers’ perceived stressors even in controlling for third variables. Gamma was also used to reflect the degree and the direction of association between these two variables. CI 1 . I. I D I . . I I Table 3 shows a description of demographics for the sample used in this study. The sample is predominantly male and appears to consist primarily of middle aged police officers, the majority ( 59.3% of the sample ) being between thirty-one and fifty years of age. 42.1% of these samples have less than eleven years of police experience and 57.9% of the sample have the eleven or more years of police experience. The executive group of police officers, which has legal and administrative authority in the Korean police 44 organization, represents 8.7% of the sample. The non-executive group of police officers represents 90.6% of the sample. With respect to rank, the structure is bottom heavy. Table 3 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples ( Sex, Age, Length of Police Service, and, Rank) Sex N % Male 293 98 Female 6 2 N=299 Age N % 21-30 43 15.5 31-40 90 29.5 41-50 91 29.8 51-60 54 17.7 N=278 Length of Police Service N % 1 day- 3 yrs 31 10.9 4 yrs - 6 yrs 46 16.1 7 yrs -10 yrs 43 15.1 11 yrs -15 yrs 27 9.5 16 yrs -20 yrs 61 21.4 Over 20 yrs 77 27.0 N=285 Rank N % Policeman 83 29.0 Senior Policeman 89 31.1 Sergeant 87 30.4 Lieutenant 22 7.7 Captain 3 1.0 Superintendent 2 0.7 N=286 ( Different Ns represent missing values ) ( The age and the length of service were categorized by nearest year. ) 45 Table 4 shows that only 16.4% of the respondents have a college diploma and only 0.7% of respondents have Master’s degrees. The majority ( 70.7% ) have high school diplomas. Regarding the length of police service, more than halfof respondents ( 57.9% ) experienced more than ten years of police service. Table 4 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples ( Educational level) Education level N % High school 203 70.7 Junior college 34 11.8 College 47 16.4 Graduate school 2 0.7 N=286 Table 5 displays that more than half of the respondents ( 56.3% ) are currently assigned to police boxes. The respondents in typical inside jobs, such as Administration Unit, Prevention Unit, and White collar crime Unit, represent only 11.5% of the sample. This means that most of respondents’ current assigned duty is closely related to the “street environment”. Table 5 Demographic Characteristics of the Samples ( Current Unit) Current Unit N % Police Box 166 56.3 Administration 6 2.0 Prevention 13 4.4 Intelligence 24 8. 1 National Security 23 7.8 White collar crime Investi. 15 5.1 Violent crime Investi. 19 6.4 Public Security 16 5.4 Traffic 13 4.4 =295 46 Perceived Police Stressors Rank Ordered The perceived stressors’ rank order is depicted in Table 6. Table lists the mean scores of police stressors ranked in descending order. Mean scores ranged from a high of 4.63 ( fellow omcers killed in the line of duty ) to a low of 3. 12 ( response to felony in progress). Of the top eight ranked stressors, five are administrative stressors whereas of the bottom eight ranked stressors, six are job inherent stressors. The highest ranked administrative stressor is proactive investigation by internal affairs, followed by excessive discipline, recall when off-duty, pressure for results, and work overload. The lowest ranked job inherent stressor is response to felony in progress, followed by court leniency, relationship with district attorney, physical injury, and ineffective judicial system. 47 Table 6 Perceived Police Stressors Rank Ordered Administrative stressors Mean score Standard deviation Proactive by internal affairs 4.62 .69 Excessive discipline 4.47 .72 Recall when off duty 4.45 .88 Pressure for result 4.28 .84 Work overload 4.19 .82 Political pressure 3.97 1.04 Superior’s self-defensive 3.96 .99 Inadquate supervising 3.94 1.01 Excessive paperwork 3.90 1.00 Evaluation quotas 3.87 1.07 Poor equipment 3.84 .98 Promotion system 3.83 1.12 Inadequate salary 3.75 1.04 Sudden order for prevention 3.75 1.11 Insufficient manpower 3.65 1.05 Inadequate support 3.63 1.07 Assigned to Nocturnal 3.62 1.14 Job inherent stressors Mean score Standard deviation Fellow officer killed 4.63 .67 Insult from the public 4.31 .81 Child abuse 4.26 .87 Negative press coverage 4.14 .90 Night shift 4.12 .92 Dealing with drunken 4.04 .93 Violent demonstration 4.01 .99 Public criticism 4.00 .91 Court decision restricting 3.92 .96 Inactivity 3.79 1.13 Homicide scene 3.77 1.07 Public apathy 3.69 .98 Ineffective correction 3.45 1.04 Physical injury 3.44 1.1 1 Relationship with BA 3.44 1.11 Court leniency 3.38 1.05 Felony in progress 3.12 1.12 N=272 48 tin-Ion. Ir-r .0: 0 : = :0 ‘ 05-.“ ' D I . l I . I I Rank, length of service, age, gender, education level and current unit may affect the perception of what factors are most stressful and may affect the level of cynicism. Table 7 - Table 12 provides the mean scores of these perceptual variations of police stressors and police cynicism by the demographic variables. These Tables also provides descriptive evidence that officers’ perceived administrative stressors is greater than job inherent stressors except for five officer groups; 1) superintendent group; 2) 51-60 years old officer group; 3) female officer group; 4) Masters’ degree group; and 5) Prevention Unit group. An analysis of variance was performed to test the mean difference among the groups in this study. Significant F-ratios were found at .05 level between length of service in administrative stressors, job inherent stressors, total stressors, and cynicism. Significant F-ratios were also found at .05 level between age in administrative stressors and cynicism. Significant F-ratio was found at .05 level between current unit in administrative stressors and total stressors. However, the rest of the demographic variables did not affect the officers’ perceived stressors or officers’ cynical attitudes in terms of statistical significance. our-gout uni 0‘ 0 " ' no 9‘ Hrs-UN ' nuo mart E I. S . Table 7 indicates that those respondents with seven to ten years of service have both higher administrative and job inherent stressors than the other groups of this 49 variable. This seven to ten years of service group also has a higher cynicism level than any other group in this variable whereas the ‘rookie’ officer group ( one day to three years of service ) has the lowest perceived police stressors and police cynicism. Those with four to six years of service Show the greatest difference between administrative stressors and job inherent stressors. The table also illustrates that cynicism peaks at the seven to ten year service point and levels off into the last stage of police service. It is noteworthy that officers with seven to ten years of service have more administrative, job inherent, and total perceived stressor than any other officer group. A statistically significant F ratio in the table indicates that at least one group with different length of service differs fi'om the rest in the degree of perceived administrative stressors, job inherent stressors, total stressors, and police cynicism. To pinpoint exactly where the differences are, a multiple comparison procedure ( Bonferroni test ) was employed. A significant difference in administrative stressors, job inherent stressors, total stressors, and cynicism was found at the .05 level between officers with one day to three years and seven years to ten years of service. In other words, as to the all category of administrative stressors, job inherent stressors, total stressors, and cynicism, officers with 1 day- 3 years differed from officers with 7- 10 years of service. A significant difference in job inherent stressors was also found at .05 level between officers with 1 day- 3 years and over 20 years. A significant difference in total stressor was also found at .05 level between officers with 1 day-3 years and 11-15 years. With respect to cynicirn, a significant difference was found between officers with 1 day- 3 years and the rest of other groups respectively except for the group of over 21 50 years service. Within the category of this cynicism, a significant difference was also found between officers with 7 years- 10 years and over 21 years. Table 7 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Length of Police Service Length of Mmsooroaofloolioostressoraandmoism police service administrative job inherent total cynicism 1 day- 3 yrs 62.4 60.4 122.6 59.8 4 yrs- 6 yrs 68.3 64.0 131.8 66.3 7 yrs-10 yrs 71.8 68.5 140.3 71.7 11 yrs-15 yrs 70.7 67.3 138.1 68.7 16yrs-20 yrs 66.4 65.3 132.1 67.7 Over 21 yrs 68.2 67.0 134.9 65.2 F-ratio 3.27 3.45 3.36 7.35 Sig. .007 .0049 .0059 .0000 N 270 265 257 274 ( Different Ns represent missing values) our-.1 or o uni o ‘ o ‘ ‘ ‘0 9‘ or- ...H o ' ‘ n ‘m - kt... In terms of rank, senior policeman appeared to experience the greatest mean scores for administrative and total stressors and to have the highest cynicism, while superintendents reported the lowest mean score of perceived police stressors and police cynicism . Although the descriptive data support low ranking officers have higher cynicism scores than do superior officers, the difference is not statistically different at .05 level. 51 Table 8 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Rank Rank Mommremfoolioutressoraandmioism administrative job inherent total cynicism policeman 67.0 64.4 131.1 65.5 senior policeman 69.5 66.3 135.4 68.5 sergeant 67.5 66.1 133.9 65.4 lieutenant 66.0 66.0 131.7 65.9 captain 64.5 66.5 132.0 66.0 superintendent 56.0 56.0 112.0 59.0 F-ratio 1.09 .16 .37 1.11 Sig. .3372 .8530 .6922 .3298 N 269 266 256 274 ( Different NS represent missing values. ) our-.1000 Uni 0‘ 0 " ' ‘J !' Ols-JQ'O‘ HHI a" It appears that age follows along with the length of service variable, with the thirty one to forty year old group reporting administrative stressors as the most intense and reflecting the greatest disparity between the administrative stressors and job inherent stressors. This thirty one to forty year old group has the highest total perceived mean score and the highest cynicism mean score in this variable. A statistically significant F ratio ( F=2.95, P= .0334 and F=7.23, P= .0001 ) in the table 9 indicates that at least one age group differs from the rest in the degree of perceived administrative stressors and police cynicism. To pinpoint exactly where the differences are, a multiple comparison procedure was ( Bonerroni test) employed. A significant difference in administrative stressors and cynicism was found at the .05 level between officers with 21-30 years old officers and 31-40 years old officers. A significant 52 difference in cynicism was also found between officers 21-30 years old and 41-50 years old officers. Table 9 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Age Age Momscoreaofloohoutrossoraandflmorsm administrative job inherent total cynicism 21-30 64.1 63.0 126.4 61.3 31-40 70.2 65.9 136.0 68.6 41-50 68.1 66.8 135.1 67.7 51-60 66.6 66.3 132.4 64.5 F-ratio 2.95 1.57 2.33 7.23 Sig. .0334 .1975 .0749 .0001 N 262 259 250 266 ( Different NS represent missing values. ) out-cu- UH: 0‘ o " ' ‘i I.‘ Hun 0' nun .9 290!- Lexel Table 11 displays that, among those beyond a high school level of education, the more police stressors are perceived, the more cynical attitudes are apparent. However, this is not statistically significant at .05 level. Table 10 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Educational Level Education level Mommfoolicostressoraandflnioism administrative job inherent total cynicism high school 68.0 65.8 133.7 67.0 junior college 64.9 64.8 129.8 65.4 college 69.2 65.4 134.2 65.3 53 Table 10 (cont’d). graduate school 66.5 71.0 137.5 60.0 F-ratio .99 .35 .42 .86 Sig. .3990 .7906 .7363 .4641 N 269 266 256 274 ( Different Ns represent missing values. ) ”H”. H . U-.. ._ . _-_A. I- w ,.. ._ n. . u . I.-. . Table 12 indicates that those respondents in the Administration Unit have both higher administrative and job inherent stressors than the other groups of this variable. This Administration Unit also has a higher cynicism level than any other group in this variable whereas Public Security Unit has the lowest perceived police stressors and the second lowest police cynicism. The Administration Unit and White collar Crime Unit Show the greatest difference between administrative stressors and job inherent stressors. A statistically significant F ratio ( F=2.43, P= .0152 and F=2.14, P= .0323 ) in the table indicates that at least one unit differs from the rest in the degree of perceived administrative stressors and perceived total stressors. To pinpoint exactly where the differences are, multiple comparison procedures ( Bonerroni test) was employed. A significant difference in administrative stressors was found at .05 level between White collar Crime Unit and Public Safety Unit. Table 11 Comparisons of Means Scores of Perceived Administrative Stressors, Job inherent Stressors, Total Stressors, and Police Cynicism by Current Unit Current Moanscomfpohcastressmandmmm Unit administrative job inherent total cynicism Police Box 67.8 65.4 133.0 66.7 54 Table 11 (cont’d) Administration 75.8 70.5 146.3 73.0 Prevention 65.2 67.6 132.8 67.9 Intelligence 65.0 64.1 129.5 66.3 Nat’l Security 70.8 68.5 139.3 63.6 White collar 73.7 68.4 142.0 65.5 Inv Violent cri Inv 68.2 63.5 130.1 66.9 Traffic 70.1 68.8 138.5 70.5 Pub Security 59.5 59.3 118.8 63.9 F-ratio 2.43 1.86 2.14 1.17 Sig. .0152 .0661 .0323 .3151 N 277 274 263 284 ( Different Ns represent missing values. ) II. Testing of Hypotheses lzlxoothesialr a. There is a curvilinear relationship between length of police service and police cynicism. b. There is a curvilinear relationship between length of police service and police stress. Figure 2 shows the relationship between length of police service and police cynicism. Y axis represents mean scores of police cynicism and X represents length of police service. The police I group ( 1 day-3 years) had a mean cynicism score of 59.8; officers in group II ( 4-6 years ) scored 66.3; officers in group III ( 7-10 years) averaged 71.7; officers in group IV (11-15 years) scored 68.7; officers in group V ( 16-20 years ) 55 scored 67.7; and officers in group VI ( over 20 years ) had a mean cynicism score of 65.2. As the length of service increased from I ( 1 day-3 years ) to 111 ( 7- 10 years ), police cynicism scores increased. However, as the length of service increased beyond IH ( 7-10 years ), police cynicism scores decreased. Table 13 shows that, when Pearson’r is calculated for the entire length of police service and police cynicism, its value is near 0 ( I: .007 ). This does not necessarily mean that these two variables are not related. This may be related in a nonlinear way. When Pearson’r is calculated for l) the length of one day through ten years and police cynicism; 2) the length of over ten years and police cynicism, its value is . 475 and - .158 respectively ( Table 14 and Table 15 ). This result has statistical significance at the .05 level that police cynicism increased until the seven to ten years of police service and then gradually decreased. Thus, it appears that the length of police service and police cynicism have curvilinear relationship. The hypothesis 1a was supported. 56 T I I I ICyncham I u m N V VI l-o-3 yrs, "-4 -6yrs. III-7-10yrs lVI11-15yra. V-16-20yrs. VI-ovcr 20w: Figure 2 Police Cynicism by Length of Service Table 12 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Entire Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism Pearson’ r Cynicism Length of service Sig. of t Cynicism l .000 .007 .451 Length of service .007 1.000 .451 N=275 Table 13 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between 1 day through 10 years Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism Pearson’ r Cynicism Length ( 1 day - 10 years ) Sig. of t Cynicism l .000 .475 .000 57 Table 13 ( cont’d ). Length (1 day - 10 years) .475 1.000 .000 N=115 Table 14 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between over 10 years Length of Police Service and Police Cynicism Pearson’ r Cynicism Length ( over 10 years ) Sig. of t Cynicism 1.000 - . 158 .023 Length ( over 10 years) - .158 1.000 .023 N=159 Figure 3 shows what the relationship between length of police service and officers’ total perceived stressors is. Y axis represents mean scores of total perceived stressors and X represents length of police service. The police I group ( l day-3 years ) had a mean total perceived stressors score of 122.6; officers in group II ( 4-6 years ) scored 131.8; officers in group III ( 7-10 years) averaged 140.3; officers in group IV ( ll- 15 years ) scored 138.1; officers in group V ( 16-20 years) scored 132.1; and officers in group VI ( over 20 years ) had a mean cynicism score of 134.9. As the length of service increased from I ( 1 day-3 years ) to III ( 7- 10 years ), total perceived stressors scores increased. However, as the length of service increased beyond 111 ( 7-10 years ), total perceived stressors scores decreased. Table 16 shows that, when Pearson’r is calculated for the entire length of police service and total perceived stressors, its value is near 0 ( r= .099 ). This does not 58 necessarily mean that these two variables are not related. This may be related in a nonlinear way. When Pearson’r is calculated for l) the length of one day through ten years and total perceived stressors; 2) the length of over ten years and total perceived stressors, its value is .356 ( p= .000 ) and - .0275 ( p= .74 ) respectively ( Table 17 and Table 18). Although officers’ total perceived stressors increased until seven to ten years of police service at the significance level of .05, a gradual decrease beyond the length of seven to ten years service existed in the chart is not statistically significant. In other words, until the seven to ten year period there is a linear relationship between length of police service and officers’ total perceived stressors, beyond the seven to ten years there is no relationship between these two variables at level of .05. Thus, it appears that the length of police service and an officers’ total perceived stressors have a curvilinear relationship. The hypothesis lb was also supported. 145 135 130 125 115 110 I II III N V VI I-o-3yrs, ll=4-6yrs, III=1-1 Oyrs. WI1 1 -1 5yrs, v-1 6-20yrs, VI-ovor 20yrs Figure 3 Officers’ Total Perceived Stressors by Length of Service 59 Table 15 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Entire Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors Pearson’r Total perceived stressors Length of service Sig. of t Total perceived stressors 1.000 .099 .057 Length of service .099 1.000 .057 N=258 Table 16 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between 1 day through 10 years Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors Pearson’ r Total perceived stressors Length (1 day-10 years) Sig. of t Total perceived stressors 1.000 .356 .000 Length ( lday-10years ) .356 1.000 .000 N=106 Table 17 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between over 10 years Length of Police Service and Total Perceived Stressors Pearson’ r Total perceived stressors Length ( over 10 years) Sig. of t Total perceived stressors 1.000 - .028 .369 Length ( over 10 years ) - .028 1.000 .369 N=151 60 Hypothesiaz. The police superiors group will be less stressed and be less cynical than the non-superiors group. Group I refers to police officers who have little legal and administrative authority in doing their police activity and Group II refers to police officers who have much legal and administrative authority in carrying out their police activity Table 19 and Table 20 shows that the mean scores of both total perceived stressors and police cynicism in Group I is larger than those scores in Group H. However, this difference is not statistically significant at the .05 level. Thus, the hypothesis was not supported. Table 18 T-test for Total Perceived Stressors: Non-Executive officers vs. Executive officers Group Number of cases Mean scores of total perceived stressors I ( Non-Executive officers ) 233 133.58 II ( Executive officers ) 23 130.00 T-value ( Equal ) .84 (F= .861 P= .354 ) Sig. .399 N=256 Table 19 T-test for Police Cynicism: Non-Executive officers vs. Executive officers Group Number of cases Mean scores of Police Cynicism I (Non-Executive officers ) 248 66.52 II (Executive officers ) 26 65.35 T-value ( Equal ) .61 (F= .318 P= .573 ) Sig. .542 =274 61 W 1) There is a direct relationship between police officers’ perceived stress and police cynicism. The possible officers’ perceived stressors score had a range of 34 to 170. The study sample’s range of scores was 69 to 170, with a mean of 133. For the purpose of the following data analysis, those respondents who scored 69 through 133 are defined as low- stressed officers, and those who 134 through 170 are defined as high-stressed officers. The possible police cynicism score had a range of 20 to 100 and the sample’s range had a score of 40 to 94, with a mean of 66. Thus, those respondents who scored 40 through 66 on the police cynicism scale are defined as low-cynical officers, and those who 67 through 94 are defined as high-cynical officers. The contingency Table 21 shows that 1) 57.5% of police officers who perceive low levels of stress have low cynicism, whereas 42.1% of police officers who perceive high levels of stress have low cynicism; and 2) 42.5% of officers who perceive low levels of stress have high cynicism, whereas 57.9% of police officers who perceive high levels of stress have high cynicism. The table also shows that the observed significance level for Pearson chi-square value of 6.27 is 0.0123. This p-value is less than 0.05. Thus, it is apparent that police cynicism is dependent on an officers’ total perceived stressors. The computed value of Gamma of 0.30 indicates that these two variables are moderately related. 62 Table 20 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level Count Low-stressed Hi gh-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 73 59 132 57.5 42.1 49.4 High cynical 54 81 135 officers 42.5 57.9 50.6 Column 127 140 267 Total 47.6 52.4 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig. Gamma 6.26675 1 .01230 .30 N=267 Rank I refers to the officer group which is below sergeant, Rank 11 indicates sergeant, and Rank III is the officer group which is above sergeant. The table 22, 23, and 24 elaborated by rank display that perceived police stressors and police cynicism are not statistically related for all categories. These two variables are statistically related only for the rank below sergeant and these two variables are not statistically related for sergeant or above. Thus, this finding can be described as specification / interaction. Police rank interacts with the officers’ total perceived stressors to influence police cynicism. In the first category, A gamma of 0.36 means that there is a moderate, positive association between these two variables. By comparing the original outcome ( Table 21 ), the degree of association increased in the category controlling for Rank 1. However, in the second and third categories ( Table 23 and Table 24 ), there is no relationship between the two variables. In the rank of sergeant and above sergeant, perceived police officers’ stressors did not significantly affect their cynical attitude, although there were replicating effects in the low rank (below sergeant). Thus, the relationship between police stress and 63 police cynicism is specified by the third variable, officers’ rank. In other words, the influence of an officers’ total perceived stressors on police cynicism is dependent on the rank of the officer. Table 21 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank I Count Low-stressed High-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 40 32 72 57.1 38.6 47.1 High cynical 30 51 81 officers 42.9 61.4 52.9 Column 70 83 153 Total 45.8 54.2 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig. Gamma 5.26678 1 .02174 .36 N=1 53 Table 22 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank 11 Count Low-stressed High-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 21 22 43 56.8 57.9 57.3 High cynical 16 16 32 officers 43.2 42.1 42.7 Column 37 38 75 Total 49.3 50.7 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig. Gamma .00992 1 .92065 -.02326 N=75 Table 23 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Rank HI Count Low-stressed High-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 7 3 10 58.3 27.3 43.5 High cynical 5 8 13 officers 41.5 72.7 56.5 Column 12 1 1 23 Total 52.2 47.8 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig. Gamma 2.25 1 .13335 .58 N=23 Length of service I refers to officer group which has experienced police service from one day to ten years’ period, Length of service H is the officer group which has experienced police service over a ten year period. The table 24 and 25 elaborated by Length of service indicate that perceived police stressors and police cynicism are not statistically related for all categories. Officers’ perceived stressors and police cynicism are statistically related only for the officers with one day thorough ten years of service and these two variables are not statistically related for the officers with over ten years of police service. Thus, this finding can be described as specification / interaction. Police length of service interacts with officers’ perceived stressors to influence police cynicism. In the first category, A gamma of 0.44 shows that there is a moderate, positive association between these two variables. By comparing the original outcome ( Table 21 ), the degree of association increased in this category controlling for Length of service 1. However, in the second ( Table 26 ), there is no relationship between the two variables. In the over ten 65 years’ police service, perceived police officers’ stressors did not significantly affect their cynical attitude, although there were replicating effects in the length of one day through ten years’ police service. Thus, the relationship between police stress and police cynicism is specified by the third variable, officers’ length of service. In other words, the influence of officers’ perceived stressors on police cynicism is dependent on the officers length of service. Table 24 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by controlling for the Length of Service I Count Low-stressed Hi gh-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 32 19 5 1 60.4 37.3 49.0 High cynical 21 32 53 officers 39.6 62.7 51.0 Column 53 51 104 Total 51.0 49.0 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig Gamma 5.56 1 .01837 .44 N=104 Table 25 Crosstabulation of the Total Perceived Stressors Level and Police Cynicism Level by the Length of Service H Count Low-stressed Hi gh-stressed Row Col % officers officers Total Low cynical officers 35 36 71 52.8 43.4 48.0 High cynical 30 47 77 officers 46.2 56.6 52.0 66 (Table 25 cont’d) Column 65 83 148 Total 43.9 56.1 100.0 Chi-Square D.F Sig. Gamma 1.60 1 .20564 .21 N=148 hypothesisA. Police officers who perceive more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors are more likely to have a cynical attitude than officers who perceive less administrative stressors than job inherent stressors. Group I is the police officers who perceive more job inherent stressors than administrative stressors and Group H is the police officers who perceive more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors. Table 27 shows that the number of police officers in Group H is larger than the number of police officers in Group I. Table 27 also shows that cynicism mean scores of Group II is statistically different from Group I at the .05 level. Thus, it is apparent that Group H is more cynical than Group I. The hypothesis was also clearly supported by looking at Table 28 and Table 29 . These Tables displays that the p-value( .000 ) is less than .05 and the value of Peason’s r is .44 and .26 respectively. In other words, the correlation between perceived administrative stressors and police cynicism is existed at r= .44, whereas the correlation between perceived job inherent stressors and police cynicism is existed at r= .26. This data suggest that an officers’ perceived administrative stressors is more strongly correlated to police cynicism than is an officers’ job inherent stress. 67 Table 26 T-test for Police Cynicism: Officers who perceived more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors vs. Officers who did not perceive more administrative stressor than job inherent stressors Group Number of cases Cynicism mean scores I (perceived more job 102 63.4 inherent stressors ) H (perceived more 165 68.9 administrative stressors ) T-value (Unequal ) - 4.64 (F=8.757 P= .003 ) Sig. .000 =267 Table 27 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Perceived Administrative Stressors and Police Cynicism Pearson’r Perceived Administrative Cynicism Sig. t Stressors Perceived Administrative 1.000 .442 Stressors .000 Cynicism .442 1.000 .000 N=280 ( Likewise Deletion of Missing Data) Table 28 Pearson Correlation Coefficients between Perceived Administrative Stressors and Police Cynicism Pearson’r Perceived Job Inherent Cynicism Sig. t Stressors Perceived Job Inherent 1.000 .256 Stressors .000 Cynicism .256 1 .000 .000 N=276 ( Likewise Deletion of Missing Data) CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION and SUMMARY I. Discussion Discussion and Policy Implication l. The data supported the hypothesis that an officers’ perceived administrative stressors is more strongly correlated to police cynicism than an oficers’ job inherent stress is. Table 6 showed that of the top eight ranked stresors, six are administrative stressors whereas of the bottom eight ranked stressors, six are job inherent stressors. Table 7- Table 11 also showed that the majority of police oficers perceived more administrative stressors than job inherent stressors. The highest ranked administrative stressor is proactive investigation by internal afl‘airs, followed by excessive discipline, recall when off-duty, pressure for results, and work overload. This data implies that the Police Station in South Korea tends to use a “punishment-centered” philos0phy in its approach toward ofiicers. This approach fits well into the assumption of management X theory that officers are lazy and unfaithfirl in their job performance , and this assumption is then used to justify punishment. Executive officers in high ranks ignore the dimculties oflicers have in doing police activity. Instead, executive officers in high ranks press officers to produce quantitative results as much they can, with a proactive internal afi‘airs 68 69 process to reprimand them when they fail to handle the job in a manner agreeable with any departmental polices. For Korean officers, there is less concern for danger or fear of personal injury than there is for administrative stressors. The lowest ranked job inherent stressor was response to felony in progress, followed by court leniency, relationship with district attorney, physical injury, and ineffective judicial system. This data suggests that perceptions of danger in the task environment were not especially intense and officers are not as bothered by the Criminal Justice system in South Korea. Thus, it is not surprising, that the hypothesis was supported, that an officers’ perception of administrative stressor is more strongly correlated to police cynicism than is an officers’ job inherent stress. 2. The data supported the hypothesis that there is a curvilinear relationship; 1) between the length of service and police cynicism; and 2) between the length of service and officers’ total perceived stressors Table 7 indicated that those respondents with seven to ten years of service had a higher degree of perceived administrative stressors, job inherent stressors, total stressors, and cynicism than the other groups of this variable, whereas the ‘rookie’ officer group ( one day to three years of service ) has the lowest degree of all of those. Officers in the ‘rookie’ stage are likely still high on idealism and professionalism. However, as they experience reality in police work, their attitude toward policing environment is eroded. Table 7 indicated that, except the ‘rookie’ officer group, those with over 21 years on the job had the lowest police cynicism mean score. It was clear that police cynicism increased until the seven to ten years of police service and then gradually decreased. The 70 length of police service and police cynicism had curvilinear relationship. This would be due to those fact that increasing years on the job helps one ‘ripen’. Only officers who have learned to cope with the stress of police work remain in their profession. The table suggested that until the seven to ten year period there is a linear relationship between length of police service and officers’ total perceived stressors at .05 level. Beyond the seven to ten years period there is a slight decrease of total perceived stressors. This decrease was not significant at level of .05. However, overall the shape of relationship was curvilinear. Thus, the hypotheses were supported. 3. The data did not support the hypothesis that the Executive officers group is less cynical and less stressed than Non-Executive officers group. Total perceived stressors was a composite scores of; 1) administrative stressor subscale measuring the extent to which officers are bothered by department administration; and 2) job inherent stressor subscale measuring the extent to which officers are bothered by unique police work. The mean score of the sample of 133.6 ( Non-Executive officers ) and of 130.0 ( Executive officers ) is fairly above the middle range of 102, indicating the total perceived stressors tested as being “strongly stressful.” In South Korea, executive officers and non-executive officers are in the same boat. They are surrounded by the same bothersome police events, thus, it is not surprising to find that rank does not explain an officers’ total perceived stressors. Likewise, the mean scores of police cynicism of the Non-Executive officers and Executive officers are 66.5 and 65.3 respectively, indicating slightly above the middle range of 60 as “moderately” cynical. Doubt is cast on Niederhoffer’s belief that superior officers experience less fi'ustration 71 and failure than lower ranking ones. Since Executive officers also hold the same bothersome policing environment with Non-Executive officer, it is not surprising to find that rank does not explain cynicism. 4. The data supported the hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between officers total perceived stressors and police cynicism. However, when controlling for rank (below sergeant and sergeant or above) and length of service ( less than 11 years and 11 years or more ), the relationship between perceived stressors and police cynicism was specified by these third variables. This data implied that the officers with less than 11 years service are easily affected by police stressors in becoming cynical, whereas the officers with 11 years or more are not easily affected by police stressors in becoming cynical. This data also implied that the officers in the lower sergeant rank are easily affected by police stressors in becoming cynical, whereas the officers of sergeant or above are not easily affected by police stressors in becoming cynical. Most of the Police force in South Korea hold the officers of lower rank of sergeant and most contact with citizens is made by them. If they become easily cynical due to the police stressors, consequently, the relationship between the police and the public can negatively be affected. Thus, it is strongly recommended that programs to reduce and cope with their stress be instituted. The following policies and programs would be helpful. Departmental welfare policies such as health care, life and disability insurance, and sick leave policies are important symbols to most officers in South Korea ( Caldwell and Dorling, 1991: 158 ), conforming to the administrative support. Informal activities such as sports teams, picnics may be also helpful. To hire nonpolice experts 72 such as psychologists and psychiatrists is would be usefirl for officers to understand what is seen to be the nature of police stressors and to help them. II. Recommendation 8 I'I..ll. There are three research limitations in this study. First, this study has a limitation that there was no measure of the frequency of actual occurrence of experienced stress. The top rated stressor by the respondents is “Fellow officer killed in the line of duty”. However, this event is rarely experienced by police officers and may influence the overall scores of perceived police stressors. Second, this study may have also included a biased sample because; 1) officers who leave the police force may possibly be under a greater stress than officers who remain; and 2) officers who did not retum the questionnaires may have a higher degree of perceived stressors or police cynicism than officers who returned the questionnaire. Third, the less intensive perception of job inherent stressors, such as danger as a source of police stress, may be explained by the fact that the research was conducted in a police station which is responsible for a less violent area. Thus, it is not certain from these findings that danger is not major issue of police stressors. It is anticipated that research findings regarding job inherent stressor would be different if this study was conducted in other more violent jurisdictions of the area. 73 RecommendationioLEutuaaesearoh There are several recommendations for future research. First, Additional control variables such as personality should be included in the analysis. Secondly, a longitudinal study might help to explain the variances in perceived stressors and police cynicism over time. The present study was only cross-sectional research. Thirdly, future research must measure the relationship between the level of perceived stressors and cynicism and job performance, as measured by the number representing performance productivity such as clearance rate and citizen’s complain rate, and absenteeism. Fourth, future inquiries should stratify sampling methods to include more Executive officers. Executive officers’ return rate in the present study was only 47%, whereas Non-Executive officers’ return rate was 64%. It would be of additional interest to research as to whether police officers have the highest rates of heart disease, stomach disorders, divorce rates among other occupations in South Korea. APPENDIX 74 APPENDIX 1 Questionnaire A. Below are some events which occur in police work. If you have ever perceived an event as stressful, WNW Please circle your answer. 1. Court decision unduly restricting police 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressfirl 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 2. Exposure to homicide scenes 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 3. night shift work 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressfirl 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 4. Experiencing insult from public 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 5. Court leniency with criminals 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 6. Work overload 1) little stressfirl 4) strongly stressful 7. Dealing with drunken 1) little stressful 4) strongly stressful 8. Excessive paperwork 1) little stressful 4) strongly stressfirl 9. Poor quality equipment 1) little stressfirl 4) strongly stressful 75 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressfirl 10. Relationship with district attorney 1) little stressful 4) strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 11. Inadequate support by superior 1) little stressful 4) strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 12. Ineffective correction of criminals 1) little stressful 4) strongly stressful 2) slightly stressful 5) very strongly stressfirl 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressfirl 76 13. Proactive investigation by internal affair 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 14. Negative press coverage 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressfirl 15. Excessive or inappropriate discipline 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 16. Public apathy toward police 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 17. Recall when off duty 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressfirl 5) very strongly stressful 18. Inadequate salary 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 19. Performance evaluation quotas 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressfirl 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressfirl 77 20. Possibility of physical injury 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 21. Superior’s self-protective behavior 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 22. Insufficient manpower 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 23. Confrontation with aggressive demonstrators 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 24. Promotion system 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 25. Response progress in felony 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 26. Inadequate supervision 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 3) moderately stressful 78 27. Political pressure within the police station or from outside 1) little stressfirl 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 28. Inactivity (waiting for something happen ) 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 29. Department’s sudden ordering of extra crime preventive work without overtime pay 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 30. Fellow officer killed in the line of duty 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressfirl 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 31. Pressure for result 1) little stressfirl 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 32. Public criticism of police 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressful 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 33. Exposure to a child abuse case 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressfirl 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressful 79 34. nocturnal work for responding emergency or for checking police sub-stations 1) little stressful 2) slightly stressfirl 3) moderately stressful 4) strongly stressful 5) very strongly stressfirl B. Please read each statement carefully and circle your answer. 1. The average police superior is very interested in the welfare of his subordinates. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 2. The average departmental complaint is a result of the superiors’ dedication to proper standards of efficiency. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 3. The average arrest is made because the police officer is dedicated to perform his duty properly. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 4. The best arrests are made as a result of hard work and intelligent dedication to duty. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 5. A college degree as a requirement for appointment to the police department would result in a much more efficient police department. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 6. When you get to know the department fiom the inside, you begin to feel that it is a very efficient, smoothly operating organization. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 80 7. Police Academy training of recruits does a very fine job of preparing the recruit for life in the precinct. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 8. When a police officer appears at the police department trial room he knows that he is getting a fair and impartial trial with legal safeguards. ‘ 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 9. The average police officer is dedicated to the high ideals of police service and would not hesitate to perform police duty even though he may have to work overtime. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 10. The rules and regulations of police work are fair and sensible in regulating conduct off and on duty. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 1 1. The youth problem is best handled by police officers who are trained in a social service approach. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 12. The majority of special assignments in the police department depend on merit not whom you know. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 13. The average detective has special qualifications and is superior to patrolman. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 81 14. Police department summons are issued by policemen as part of a sensible pattern of law enforcement. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 15. The public shows a lot of respect for police. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 16. The public is more apt to cooperate police work if they can, than obstruct. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 17. Policemen understand human behavior as well as psychologist and sociologist because they get so much experience in real life. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 18. The Newspaper in general try to help police departments by giving prominent coverage to items favorable to the police. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree l9. Professionalization of police work is already here for some groups of police men. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree 20. When doing police work in criminal justice system, police officer are treated fairly. 1) strongly agree 2) agree 3) undecided 4) disagree 5)strongly disagree C. Please answer the following questions 1. What is your sex? a. Male ( ) b. Female ( ) 2. What is your rank ? 82 3. How long have held this rank ? 4. How long have you been police officer ? 5. What is your current unit? 6. What is your age? 7. Which of the following diploma have you earned lastly? 1) high school 2) college 3) graduate school 4) other (please be specific) 8. Through which of the following selection process did you get placid in your first position? 1) police academy for patrolrnen 2) police academy for lieutenant 3) police college 4) other (please be specific) 83 APPENDIX 2 Questionnaire Cover Letter to the Officers School of criminal justice 518 baker hall Michigan State University East Lansing, MI, 48825, USA Tel; (517) 347-7394 Dear fellow officer: I am a lieutenant in the Seoul Police Department and currently completing a Master’s program of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University as a graduated student. While I was taking an internship in the Lansing Police Department in the United States last year, I realized some aspects of American policing environment are different from Korean’s. However, there were many common attitude among officers’ perception and perspective. The questionnaire attached to this letter is intended to 1) identify Korean officers’ stressors and their impact on officers’ attitude toward policing environment; and 2) to find direct relationship between police stressors and police cynicism. This survey will take approximately 15 minutes to complete. You are cordially expected to participate in this study voluntarily. Thus, you may refuse to answer certain questions or refuse to participate altogether. If you choose to participate the completed questionnaire will indicate your voluntary consent. Your valuable information will be analyzed to provide information sources to help design methods to reduce stress among Korean police officers. Your participation will be invaluable for understanding the situation that confront all Korean police officers and for providing empirical grounds for reducing police stressors. The data obtained through this survey shall be kept in strict confidence and anonymity, and will be only statistically analyzed and used to understand Korean officers’ stress and your perspective on policing environment. The results of this study and any findings will be made available to you upon request. I expect the published result of my work will be useful to law enforcement agencies in Korea. Thank you for your cooperation and help this important research project regarding police stress and officers’ perspective toward policing environment. Sincerely, YungHyeock Lee 84 APPENDIX 3 Consent Form from the Chief Mr. YungHyeock Lee No , The Police Department cannot cooperate with your research project. Yes , This department agrees to participate in your research project by completing and returning questionnaire. Please provide copies to: (Name) (Rank) (date) (sign) BIBLIOGRAPHY 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, David A ; Walker, Leslie G; Innes George; and Irving, Barrie L. Was mm. 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