THESts NIVERSITY UBRARlES lllll ill. \lll hill 3 12930 \I This is to certify that the dissertation entitled THE EFFECT OF PARENT-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON THE ACQUISITION OF OBJECT—CONTROL SKILLS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WHO ARE AT-RISK presented by Michelle L. Hamilton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Physical degree in Education and Exercise Science Major professor Date é’z 5’. 7 c MSU i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0' 12771 LIBRARY Mlchlgan State Universlty PLACE N RETURN BOX to remove this checkout tram your neord. TO AVOID FINES Mum on or Moro dd. duo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE In 0 i w _fi . Willow gig MSU IoAn Affirm-1m ActionEqud Opportunlty Institution WM! THE EFFECT OF PARENT-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON THE ACQUISITION OF OBJECT-CONTROL SKILLS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WHO ARE AT-RISK BY Michelle L. Hamilton A Dissertation Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science Disseztatinn_snidance_CQmmittee Dr. John L. Haubenstricker (Chairperson) Dr. Crystal Branta Dr. Jacqueline Lerner Dr. Lynnette Overby ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF PARENT-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON THE ACQUISITION OF OBJECT-CONTROL SKILLS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WHO ARE AT-RISK BY Michelle L. Hamilton This study sought to determine the effectiveness of parental involvement on the acquisition of object-control skills of preschool children who are at risk for developmental delay or academic failure. This study used a pretest-posttest nonrandomized design. Experimental subjects (n = 15) participated in an eight-week motor skill intervention program consisting of two lessons per week, 45 minutes in length delivered by the parents. Control subjects (n = 12) participated in the regular motor skill program that consisted of movement songs along with their parents. All children were pretested and posttested on motor skill performance using the object-control subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development and on the subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. A 2 X 2 ANOVA with repeated measures ,u/EAL was applied to each of these dependent variables. Maternal perception of interactions with children was measured using the Parental Acceptance and Rejection Questionnaire. Interviews were conducted to determine the nature and number of risk factors and activity patterns experienced by children and their parents. Children in the Experimental Group significantly improved their object-control skills as a result of the intervention whereas children in the Control Group did not. Neither the Experimental nor the Control Group improved in their perceived physical competence as a result of the intervention. However, both Experimental and Control groups improved in their perceived maternal acceptance during the intervention period. No significant relationship was found between object- control skill performance and maternal acceptance or_ maternal perceptions of acceptance and rejection. Number of risk factors failed to predict variance in object- control skill performance. Qualitative analyses documented the typical risk factors and resources experienced by the families in the study. Interviews determined that few parents participated in regular physical activity either by themselves or with their children. This study documented the positive influence of parent—assisted instruction of object-control skill acquisition in young children. F “3“} . (oz-ex. ' ~ --.~ ”MTV“ corn: . ' : ~ ~» wind! as to ‘r-v ' :Wktul 2;? 21. . . Lvrd Inoighr ‘ :er. . ‘7‘ J... n . - fits} 'ruu"h ’3! " \. DEDICATION '03-) TO 1'11" Suture 56.1122 Dave: ,;1it:_" ‘ 1 an J”fay.“encouraging me to follow my dream. 1 ; ‘ I I.-"~ . .. “\1 q . W 3"; 'fltlnta :7: r- -' ‘ fwd finite .5 ea: 11.: - q; I ,. VF‘COliJA-t' , i fl '3 , , . It '- O '2 int“.- i c . ‘L‘ . . K ‘4 . . s . J ‘ - a . . . . l T i‘ y ‘3: hi'l“'~’. b, u\'2 a)” I. ' ‘13.“ l‘ f. 1’0'Hl! ”than my wJV ‘ a W 5 ”it eaters; ":r 1:. 70km Baum: ear ‘ g'b, .. , «:1, : ~ .. l.“ ‘t‘ col-Juno. for 315 when» at W31 3 I fin? N “."j .l l‘ .1 ' ~-.- a Mil . - . " +21 ' I" '7 .4 .. o I "I ‘ .7 ,‘_’ , ‘ ; _-‘_-_J_-..('-.\-. - \ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am forever grateful to the members of my committee who each contributed to my professional development as well as to the completion of my dissertation. I am thankful to Dr. Jackie Lerner who provided me guidance and insight in conducting this study within a contextual framework. It was her class that sparked my interest in research and created the desire to conduct research in future years. I am grateful for the contribution of Dr. Crystal Branta to my work. I was significantly influenced by Dr. Branta's earlier work with children who are at-risk in professional development schools. I also appreciated her assistance in making numerous contacts within the school system. I am indebted to Dr. Lynnette Overby for providing me with mentorship and support throughout my years at Michigan State University. Dr. Overby provided encouragement at the times when I most needed it. I am also extremely grateful to my friend Jackie Goodway, who has helped me many times through the process of writing the dissertation. Her numerous insights helped me to refine and evaluate my work. I am the most grateful to Dr. John Haubenstricker, the chair of my committee, for his patience and support throughout each phase of the dissertation. I am most appreciative of his willingness to explain my mistakes and to question my rationale at crucial points in the process. I know that I have grown professionally because of his contribution to my work. Finally, I would like to thank my parents who have supported and believed in me throughout my educational pursuits. I would also like to thank Dave for always encouraging me to follow my dreams wherever they may take me. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES .................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................ 1 Nature of the Problem ....................... 1 Parental Involvement ..................... 2 Developmentally Appropriate Programs ..... 4 Statement of the Problem .................... 6 Need for the Study .......................... 7 Scope of the Study .......................... 8 Hypotheses ............................... 9 Assumptions .............................. 10 Limitations .............................. 10 Delimitations ............................ 10 Definitions .............................. 11 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................... 13 Overview of Contextualism ................... 13 Multi-levels of Functioning .............. 14 Dynamic Interactionism and Plasticity .... 15 Familial Context ......................... 16 Preschool Education ......................... 18 Federal Legislation ...................... 19 Developmentally Appropriate Programs ..... 21 Parent Involvement ....................... 22 -Importance of Physical Activity .......... 23 Models of Motor Development ................. 24 Motor Skill Interventions ................ 30 Co-Twin Studies .......................... 30 Educational Interventions ................ 31 Parent Involvement ....................... 34 Social Development ....................... ... 36 Perceived Competence ..................... 36 Family Context ........................... 37 Summary of Literature ....................... 38 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ............................. Context of the Study ........................ The City ................................. Compensatory Cradle Schools .............. School Demographics ...................... Subjects .................................... Group Assignment ......................... Experimental Group Demographics .......... Control Group Demographics ............... Informed Consent Procedures .............. Research Design ......... . ................... Independent Variables .................... Dependent Variables ...................... Qualitative Measures ..................... Design ................................... Instrumentation ............................. Object-Control Skills .................... Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ........................ Perception of Parental Acceptance and Rejection ............................ Qualitative Instruments .................. Risk Factors ............................. Parent Attitudes Toward Physical Activity ................................ Child Activity Patterns .................. Motor Skill Intervention .................... Motor Skill Program ...................... Block Plan ............................... Opening Activity ......................... Stations ................................. Performance Criteria ..................... Closing Activity ......................... Lesson Plans ............................. Parent Orientation Meetings .............. Daily Meetings ........................... 50 51 53 53 55 55 55 60 60 61 61 63 63 64 65 Data Collection ............................. 65 Data Collection Procedures ............... 66 TGMD ..................................... 67 PSPCSA ................................... 68 PARQ ..................................... 69 Parent Interviews ........................ 69 Child Interviews ......................... 70 Intervention Sessions .................... 70 Quantitative Analysis ....................... 71 Hypothesis One ........................... 71 Hypothesis Two ........................... 72 Hypothesis Three ......................... 72 Hypothesis Four .......................... 72 Hypothesis Five .......................... 73 Qualitative Analysis ........................ 73 CHAPTER FOUR: QUANTITATIVE RESULTS ................ 74 Inferential Statistics ...................... 75 Hypothesis One ........................... 75 Hypothesis Two ........................... 76 Hypothesis Three ......................... 78 Hypothesis Four .......................... 79 Hypothesis Five .......................... 79 CHAPTER FIVE: QUALITATIVE RESULTS ................. 82 Nature of the Family ........................ 82 Absence of Father ........................ 84 Poverty/Low Income ....................... 88 Dangerous Neighborhood ................... 91 Frequent participators ................... 104 Occasional participators ................. 106 Infrequent and non-participators ......... 107 Discussion of Qualitative Results ........... 115 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION .......................... 119 The Effect of Parent-Assisted Instruction on Motor Skill Performance .................. 119 Implications for Educators ............... 122 The Effect of a Motor Skill Intervention on the Perceived Competence of Children Who Are At-Risk .................................. 124 Maternal Acceptance ................. ..... 124 Perceived Physical Competence ............ 128 The Relationship Between Motor Performance, Perceived Maternal Acceptance, and Perceived Physical Competence ......................... 131 Implications for Educators ............... 133 The Relationship Between Risk Factors and Object-Control Skills ................... 133 Implications for Educators ............... 136 The Relationship Between Maternal Perception of Acceptance or Rejection and Children's Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ........................... 137 Implications for Educators ............... 138 CHAPTER SEVEN: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......... 141 Summary of Findings ......................... 143 Educational Implications .................... 147 Implications for Teacher Education ....... 147 Implications for Administrators .......... 148 Implications for Policy-Makers ........... 149 Recommendations for Future Research ......... 150 APPENDICES Appendix A .................................. 164 Appendix B .................................. 166 Appendix C .................................. 172 Appendix D .................................. 174 Appendix E ................................. 176 Appendix F .......... . ....................... 180 Appendix G .................................. 186 Appendix H .................................. 188 Appendix I .................................. 190 Appendix J ............. . .................... 193 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Meeting and Enrollment Times ............. Fundamental Motor Skills Included in the Test of Gross Motor Development ........................ The Pictorial Scale for Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ......... Description of Items of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ............................... Sample Test Items of the Perception of Parental Acceptance and Rejection Questionnaire ............................ Example of a Daily Routine ............... TGMD Performance Criteria ................ Estimated Instructional Time for Object-Control Skills .................... Block Plan for Teaching Performance Criteria ................................. Orientation Schedule ..................... Schedule for Data Collection ............. Consistency Between Raters on Object-Control Skills .................... Personnel Involved in Data Collection .............................. xi Page 44 49 51 52 53 58 59 60 62 65 66 68 71 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Pre-test and Post-test Performance on the Object-Control Subscale of the GMD ........................ Pre-test, Post-test Scores of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance by Subscale .......... Relationship Between Pre-test Object-Control Standard Scores and the Perceived Maternal Acceptance and the Perceived Physical Competence Subscale Scores ..................................... Simple Regression Analysis for Pre-test Measures of Object-Control and Number of Risk Factors ................. Means and Standard Deviations for the PARQ ................................... Relationship Between PARQ and PSPCSA Subscale Scores ............................ Marital Status of the Parent Participants.. Job Status of Parent Participants .......... Persons Responsible for Child Care ......... Parents Who Participate in Physical Activity on a Regular Basis ................ Parents Who Participate in Physical Activity on an Occasional Basis ............ Means and Standard Deviations for Maternal Acceptance Reported by Study ............... Means and Standard Deviations for Physical Competence Reported by Study ................................... 76 77 78 79 80 81 85 100 105 106 126 130 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The Sequential Progression in the Achievement of Motor Proficiency ........... 28 2. The Phases of Motor Development ............ 29 3. Composition of E and C Groups .............. 43 4. Crime Statistics of the North Side of the City ................................ 92 5. Crime Statistics of the South Side of the City ................................ 93 xiii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Nature_nf_the_Erohlem Recent concern has been expressed over the health, welfare, and education of our nation's young children. The National Center for Poverty (1990) reports that one in four children under the age of six years lives in the conditions of poverty. Poor children are at—risk for impaired health, educational failure, dropping out of school, adult poverty, and developmental delays in cognitive, physical, language and speech, psychosocial, and self-help skills unless successful educational experiences and interventions occur. Interventions during early childhood may provide successful experiences for children, thereby breaking the negative cycle of failure (Hrcnir & Eisenhart, 1991). Recognizing the need for early intervention, the Federal Government has enacted legislation such as the Education for All Handicapped Children Acts (PL 94-142, 1975; PL 99-457, 1986; PL 101-476, 1990) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (PL 102-119, 1991) to encourage the availability of programs serving the needs of infants, toddlers, and preschool-aged children. The intent of PL 99-457 (1986) was to extend education services to infants and toddlers who were either developmentally delayed or at-risk for acquiring developmental delay. Developmental delay is the generic term used in the legislation to denote delays in one of the five areas of development including physical development, cognitive development, language and speech development, psycho—social development, and self-help skills. In addition, PL 99-457 reaffirmed the right of education to preschool-aged children extended under PL 94- 142 (1975). The legislation mandated that states either provide services to children who are identified as developmentally delayed or risk the loss of funding. Additionally, the legislation authorized each state to determine its own criteria for identifying children who are at-risk for developmental delay. PL 101-476 (1990) and PL 102—119 (1991) have extended the legislative mandates set forth under the provisions of PL 99-457 (1986) and, in addition, provided federal funding and grants for states that developed educational programs meeting the needs of infants and toddlers or preschool-aged children. PL 101-476 also specified that physical education is one of the services to be provided under the legislation. These provisions were additionally extended under PL 102-119 (1991). ParsntaLImLQllement The importance of including parents in the educational process is well accepted. The federal government now mandates the inclusion of parents as participants, advisors, and consumers in all phases of the Head Start Program, in the Education for All Handicapped Children Acts (PL 94-142, 1975; PL 99-457, 1986; PL 101-476, 1990), and in the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (PL 102-119, 1991). As a result, parents have become involved in early childhood programs in many different capacities. Starting at birth, parents are responsible for teaching children lessons every day. This teaching process occurs when parents teach children about their immediate surroundings, family values, and physical skills. From this standpoint, the inclusion of parents in early childhood programs makes sense. Parents become active partners in the educational process, thereby connecting the institutions of school and home. The effectiveness of parent tutors in early childhood programs has been substantiated. Parent tutors have been linked to increased reading readiness and greater language acquisition in young children (Becher, 1984; Lauer, 1994; Toomey, 1992; Vukelich, 1978). Some evidence also suggests that parents can be effective tutors in the acquisition of fundamental motor skills (Miller, 1978; Paciorek, 1983). The effectiveness of parent tutors in programs involving children who are at-risk has not been documented. Furthermore, it is recognized that part of the at-risk status of a child is due to the presence of certain environmental factors. In fact, some of the child risk factors identified by the state of Michigan may be indirectly or directly related to the attributes of the parent (e.g., parental education level, teenage pregnancy). .Although research substantiates the effectiveness of parental involvement in "mainstream" society, it is not known if the findings of such studies are generalizable to children who are at-risk. Therefore, more intervention- based research is needed to substantiate the findings of earlier studies. Specifically, research is needed to substantiate the effectiveness of parent tutors among children who are at-risk. W The provision of a developmentally appropriate curriculum is a challenge to all early childhood programs. A program that is developmentally appropriate addresses the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive needs and characteristics of young children (Bredencamp, 1987). Addressing these needs includes providing opportunities and activities that are suitable for the needs of all young children. ' The National Association for The Education of Young Children (NAYEC), in a recent position statement, stated that children need daily opportunities for large muscle and gross motor movement. Unfortunately, a common misconception of early childhood educators and parents is that motor skills emerge solely as part of the growth and maturation of the child. Although maturation may influence or limit the extent to which a child learns fundamental motor skills, few children are able to learn mature motor skill patterns without instruction (Reuschlein & Haubenstricker, 1985). Research has supported the effects of intervention on the motor skill acquisition of preschool children (Connor, 1993; Kelly, Dagger & Walkley, 1989; Miller, 1978) and children who are at-risk (Goodway, 1994). In each of these studies, planned motor skill interventions contributed to gains in the motor skills of preschool-aged children. The impetus for the current study evolved from the researcher's interest in working with young children to help them acquire motor skills. Early intervention or instruction in motor skills may provide children with the necessary skills to participate and establish lifelong activity patterns, thereby lessening the threat of health- related or chronic illness perpetuated by lack of exercise and activity. In addition, children may acquire positive attitudes and values concerning activity and exercise. Additionally, the researcher's interest in parental involvement stemmed from practical experiences in working with children and parents in early childhood motor skill programs. Many parents reported that children benefited from the parent—child motor skill program. Therefore, the researcher wanted to conduct a systematic intervention that would determine the effectiveness of parental involvement. Finally, this researcher has been significantly influenced by working with children who are at-risk for academic failure. Children who are at-risk have few opportunities for supplemental programs and extra-curricular activities. Motor skills are often viewed as a frill that children do not need. However, motor skill programs can provide opportunities for children to succeed. Positive educational interventions can help to change the cycle of failure that children who are at-risk for academic failure often experience. Early interventions can help provide successful experiences that children can use as a foundation for future successes. W The purpose of this study was to investigate, within a contextual framework, the effectiveness of parental involvement on the acquisition of fundamental motor skills in children who are at-risk of educational failure and developmental delay. Specific objectives of this study were to: (a) investigate the effects of an eight—week intervention involving parents on selected object-control skills, (b) determine the impact of changes in motor skill acquisition on the subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance, (c) investigate the relationship between motor performance and subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance, (d) determine the relationship between the number of risk factors present and motor performance, and (e) examine the relationship of maternal perceptions of acceptance or rejection to children's perceived maternal acceptance and perceived physical competence. Need_fnr_fhe_3tud¥ There is a lack of evidence regarding the effectiveness of parental involvement in the motor skill acquisition of children who are at-risk. Many early childhood educators, researchers, and policy makers advocate the involvement of parents in all aspects of early childhood programs. A research-based intervention within the public school context .is necessary to determine the effectiveness of parent tutors in a motor skill program for preschool children who are at- risk. Many of the previous studies examining the motor skill acquisition in young children have not given adequate consideration to contextual factors. Because of the potential influence of contextual factors on planned interventions, this study was conducted within a contextual framework to understand the impact of contextual factors on the motor skill acquisition of preschool-aged children in a program tutored by the parents. First, this study investigated the relationship of selected risk factors to motor development. Second, the relationship of parents' perceptions of their interactions with their children to their children's motor development was examined. Finally, this study investigated the effects of a motor skill intervention involving parents on the perceived competence and social acceptance of young children. The results of this study are beneficial to researchers, teachers, and early childhood educators who are interested in factors that influence the motor development of preschool-aged children, especially of children who are at-risk. SQQDB_QI_Lh£_$£nd¥ A pretest-posttest non-randomized design with experimental and control groups was used to determine the effect of an eight-week intervention involving parents on the motor skill acquisition of children three and four years of age. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) by Ulrich (1985) was used to assess the object-control skills of children in the study. In addition, this study sought to ascertain the perceived competence and social acceptance of young children using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA) for young children (Harter & Pike, 1984). Contextual features of this study were also investigated. Parent interviews were conducted to determine the presence of risk factors and the nature of parental attitudes toward physical activity. The Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ) developed by Rohner (1980) was administered to the parents to ascertain their perceptions of their interactions with their children. The children were also interviewed to determine their attitudes toward physical activity and their perceptions of the value of physical activity. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were investigated in this study: 1. Children in the Experimental group will demonstrate greater improvements than will children in the Control group on selected object- control skills as measured by the TGMD. Children in the Experimental group will demonstrate greater improvements than will children in the Control group on the perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance subscales of the PSPCSA. For the Experimental and Control groups, pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD will be moderately and positively correlated with pre-test scores on the perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance subscales of the PSPCSA. For the Experimental and Control groups, variance in pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD will be accounted for by the number of risk factors present. For the Experimental and Control groups, perceived maternal acceptance as measured on the pre-test PSPCSA will be moderately and positively correlated with PARQ scores. 10 W The following assumption was made for this study: 1. The two schools from which the Experimental and Control groups are drawn are similar in demographic composition. Limitatiana The following limitations were identified for this study: 1. Children's clothing could hinder their performance in the testing and implementation sessions. However, every effort was made to encourage parents to dress children appropriately for testing and activity sessions. 2. Environmental influences such as the time of day, humidity, and temperature could have influenced children's performance in the study. 3. Parents and children in this study were not randomly assigned to groups. Lack of randomization may therefore limit the generalizability of results. Dalimitatinni The following delimitations were present in this study: 1. This study included only three and four year old children who are at-risk for academic failure or developmental delay. 2. 11 The context of the family, community, and school further delimited the findings of this study. I E' 'I' The following definitions were used in this study: 1. At;risk— Biological and environmental conditions that increase the likelihood of developmental delay in one of the five areas specified by federal legislation including physical development, cognitive development, language and speech development, psychosocial development, and self-help skills. The biological and environmental risk factors contributing to developmental delay are identified by each state as specified in PL 99-457 (1986), PL 101-476 (1990), and PL 102-119 (1991). A higher number of risk factors increases the likelihood of developmental delay and school failure in preschool-aged children. Children are screened for selected risk factors upon entering the Cradle School program in an urban school district in Michigan. Barent- The parent in this study is the biological parent, caregiver, grandparent, aunt, or adult who has the primary responsibility of caring for a child. In this study the parent is defined as the person who is responsible for bringing the child to class 75% or more of the class sessions. 12 Cradle_school- A school that provides services for preschool-aged children and toddlers. Each school also mandates parental involvement on a daily basis as a condition of enrollment. Parents participate in daily lessons and meetings. Eamilial_risk_factors - Environmental factors that threaten the integrity and daily functioning of the family. These factors include: (a) poverty, (b) absence of the biological father through lack of contact, separation, divorce, or death; (c) living in a high risk community, (d) chronic or disturbed family interactions, (e) problems related to physical or mental health of parent, (f) physical and/or substance abuse, and (g) incarceration of the parent. Qbiect;control_skills— Skills which involve the manipulation, reception, or projection of an object (e.g., striking, throwing, catching, dribbling, kicking). Earen:_tutors — Parents, grandparents, aunts, or caretakers who participate as teachers in the motor skill program for children (i.e., the defined parent in this study). Chapter 2 LI TERATURE REVIEW The literature reviewed in this chapter is divided into five major sections. First, an overview of contextualism is presented. Second, the nature of preschool programs is examined with regard to legislative mandates, developmentally appropriate programming, parental involvement, and the importance of physical activity. The third section includes a brief overview of several models of motor development. The fourth section contains information regarding motor skill interventions including co-twin studies and interventions in educational settings. The final section briefly deals with the social development of children focusing on the topics of perceived competence and family context. . E ]‘ Contextualists view development as a lifelong process (Baltes, 1987; Brim & Kagan, 1980; Lerner, 1976). Researchers subscribing to contextual theory do not attempt to reduce factors related to development to a main cause or effect as do many methods of research (Lerner, 1976; Lerner & Kauffman, 1985). Rather, contextualists seek to understand relationships between variables as they pertain to the variable of interest. For instance, a researcher interested in studying the acquisition of motor skills in young children would investigate many variables thought to 13 l4 influence a child's motor skill acquisition. Consequently, a child's immediate educational context may be of interest to the researcher. Similarly, the researcher may be interested in variables related to the child such as self concept, motivation, or perceived acceptance. Contextual researchers acknowledge that it is not possible to study all variables relating to the child and to the context and, therefore, focus on variables most pertinent to the research question. MulLizLexelS_Qi_£nnctiQning Contextualists emphasize the multiple levels of functioning within the organism or individual (Greenberg & Tobach, 1984; Lerner, 1984; Schneirla, 1957). Each individual functions or operates at many different levels. A level may be thought of as a component of an individual's development. Each individual has biological, motoric, social, psychological, and cognitive levels of functioning. These levels of functioning may continually constrain or influence one another. For example, cognitive development and motor development have a reciprocal influence (Payne & Isaacs, 1991; Piaget, 1963). The cognitive development of a child influences the motor development of a child and vice versa. Individual levels of functioning are embedded within a context (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lerner, 1984). The context may also be conceived at multiple levels of functioning. A child's immediate context is comprised of home and school environments. Although the home and school contexts are 15 influential in a child's development, each context is embedded in and influenced by larger contexts such as the neighborhood and community environments. The contexts of community and neighborhood are likewise embedded within a culture. Contexts at each of these levels may influence one another. A child's school environment may be negatively or positively influenced by the neighborhood and community environments. An inner-city school is often impacted by community and neighborhood violence. Each of these contexts may also be mediated by the historical time in which they are analyzed. Individual levels of functioning (e.g., biological, social, cognitive, and psychological) and contextual levels of analysis (e.g., home, school, neighborhood, community, and culture) continually interact in a bi-directional manner (Greenberg & Tobach, 1984; Lerner, 1984). A change at any one level of analysis may affect the functioning at another level of analysis. A change at the individual's context of the school or community (e.g., availability of free lunch) can affect the functioning of an individual at the biological level (e.g., better nutrition). Each level may, in turn, cause a change at another level of functioning. Better nutrition also may lead to increased cognitive (functioning. Development is not a predetermined process (Lerner & Tubman, 1989; Schneirla, 1957). The individual levels of l6 functioning and the context continually interact. The continual interaction of all levels allows for great variability in developmental outcomes (Brim & Kagan, 1980). However, developmental outcomes are not viewed as limitless. Instead, development proceeds within developmental constraints or parameters. The preferred outcomes are referred to as probabilistic as opposed to predetermined (Gottlieb, 1991). Eamilia1_cgntext The constitution of a family is often determined by its structure. Family structure refers to the nature of the marital status of the adults in the home. A family may be composed of a single parent through choice or life circumstances. A family can also be comprised of its extended family which includes grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Moreover, the definition of family can also include kin-networks or members that are close to the family and thought of as family (Hudgins, 1992; Wilson 1989). The structure of the family often correlates with certain demographical characteristics. For instance, single parent family structures are much more common among African— American families than among Caucasian families. It is estimated that nearly 56.7% of all African-American families are headed by a female with no husband present. Whereas, it is estimated that only 18.1% of Caucasian families are headed by single parent households (Center for the Study of Social Policy, 1993). 17 Additionally, family structure is often correlated with income. Not surprisingly, families who are headed by a single parent who is female are more likely to be poor. Poverty rates for single parent households are reported at 50.6% among African—Americans and 29.8% among Caucasians (US Department of Commerce, 1991). Moreover, poverty is often related to the presence of certain demographics within the single matriarch headed family. According to the Center for the Study of Social Policy (1993) a child is more likely to be poor if born to a woman who has three or more "risk factors." The risk factors include: (a) having less than 12 years of schooling, (b) being unmarried to the child's father, or (c) being under the age of 20 at the time of the birth of the first baby. The chances for a child living in poverty are related to the number of these factors that are present. If one factor is present, the child‘s chance of living in poverty is approximately 26%. Whereas if two or three risk factors are present then the child's chances of living in poverty are 48% and 79%, respectively. The term "risk" evolved from studying the ecology of families, especially with regard to the family's development during the early childhood years (Swick, 1987; Swick & Graves, 1993). The term is meant to refer to stressors or characteristics that may cause harm to the family and ultimately the child. These stressors are especially 18 critical during the family's formative years when the family is most vulnerable (Swick, 1987; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1986). Moreover, the stressors of poverty, living in a high risk community, unemployment, and poor health may create a context of risk for many families (Caldwell, 1989; Pence, 1988; Swick, 1987). These factors in combination with other factors can ultimately degrade the functioning and integrity of the family. A family's ability to respond to the negative stressors may influence the ecology of risk for the family. Families present strengths that can counterbalance the negative stressors present in children's lives. For instance, a family that has few resources may have an extensive kin-network that buffers the effects of poverty and single parenthood. The extended family network can provide the family with resources that are needed. Additionally, parental attributes may help to buffer the negative stressors. Effective parenting can mediate the negative effects of many risk factors (Swick, 1987). EmsflzonLEducation The demand for preschools has expanded greatly over the past 30 years (Saylers, 1991; Wortham, 1994). According to Wortham, the number of children three to four years of age attending preschool has increased significantly. In 1964, approximately 10% of children in this age range attended preschool. The number of children estimated to be attending preschool now has quadrupled to 40% (Saylers, 1991). l9 Federal_Legislation The number of children attending preschool is attributed, in part, to Federal legislation. During the past two decades, legislation has been aimed at the inclusion of children with disabilities, special needs, developmental disabilities, and children who are at—risk for academic failure. Federal legislative acts that have influenced preschool education are PL 94-142 (1975), PL 99-457 (1986), PL 101-476 (1990), and PL 102-119 (1991). Together these legislative acts have been responsible for the inclusion of programs serving the needs of all children within the public schools. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94- 142), passed in 1975, recognized the need for an extended education for children with disabilities. This landmark legislation included free and appropriate education for all eligible children between the ages of 3 and 21 years. The Federal legislation encouraged public school systems to offer pre-school programs for children prior to the age of five who were determined to be eligible for services. Additionally, the provisions of PL 99-457, Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments (1986), have impacted the services extended to young children, infants, and families. Under Part B, PL 99—457 extended the programs offered under PL 94-142 to infants and toddlers. Part H of the Federal legislation stipulated that the programs would be granted funding. 20 PL 99-457 (1986) has been influential in encouraging states to identify children who are developmentally delayed or at-risk for developmental delays. Developmental delay is a term introduced by the Federal legislation that allows states to develop their own criteria for performance below acceptable standards. Developmental delays can occur in one of the five areas specified by the law: (a) cognitive, (b) physical, (c) language and speech, (d) psychosocial or emotional, and (e) self-help skills. Developmental delays are further diagnosed and confirmed by statistical criteria on two or more reliable and validated tests. Statistical criteria might include: (a) performance that is 1.5 standard deviations below the mean of peers of similar chronological age or (b) performance scores below the 30th percentile (Sherill, 1992). Moreover, provisions in the legislation allow states to identify criteria that increase a child's likelihood of acquiring a developmental delay or academic failure. In response, the state of Michigan (Michigan Department of Education, 1991) identified 26 biological and environmental risk factors. These risk factors are listed in Appendix A. PL 101-476 (1990), otherwise known as the Education For Handicapped Children Amendments Act, helped to reaffirm the rights of preschool children, infants, and toddlers guaranteed under PL 99-457 (1986). However, PL 101-476 included physical education which was not included under PL 99-457. In addition, PL 101—476 included the term 21 "disability" to replace the word "handicapped" under the law. PL 102-119 (1991), otherwise known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Amendments, was established to re-authorize and strengthen the provisions of legislation set forth under PL 99-457 (1986) and PL 101-476 (1990). However, the legislation specifically states that individuals to be served included children who are "at-risk for having substantial developmental delays if early intervention services are not provided." Early childhood education is important for children who are at-risk academically (Edmister & Ekstrand, 1987; NAEYC, 1990; Schorr, 1989). Early intervention with any kind of risk factor can help to maximize a child's opportunity to overcome obstacles that may impede a child's learning process. A developmentally appropriate preschool education program can help to minimize the possibility of school failure. Manny—WW: Preschool education can have a positive impact on the lives of children; however, this outcome is not always the case. A program that does not meet the developmental needs of young children can have negative consequences. Much of the early childhood literature warned that an "over- concentration" on academic goals can have negative consequences on the development of young children (Elkind, 1987, 1986; NAYEC, 1990; Parkins, 1988; Schweinhart & 22 Weikart, 1986; Wortham, 1994). In the long run, these programs may jeopardize a child's future academic achievement and have detrimental effects on the development of the young child. The content of a developmentally appropriate education program provides for the social, cognitive, and physical needs of young children (Bredencamp, 1987; NAEYC, 1990). Education should be geared towards meeting the needs of the whole child. Additionally, assessment strategies to determine the child's development in each of these areas should be administered. W A frequently cited indicator of quality preschool programs is the involvement of parents (Bredencamp, 1987; Day, 1988; Honig, 1982; Kostelnik, 1992; NAEYC, 1990,1991; National Association of State Boards of Education, 1991; Wortham, 1994). When parents are an integral part of a child's education, they can support the educational goals of the child. Moreover, national policy makers also have accepted the value of, and need for, including parents in the education of young children. Parent involvement is mandated in all Head Start programs (PL 99-457, 1986; PL 101-476, 1990; and PL 102—119, 1991). Research has substantiated the overall effectiveness of parents in the area of children's cognitive development (Becher, 1984; Castro & Mastropieri, 1986; Henry, 1977; Levenstein, 1970; Radin, 1972; Shonkoff & Hauser-Cram, 23 1987; White, 1985; White, Bush & Castro, 1985). In a meta- analysis, Shonkoff and Hauser-Cram (1987) concluded that parental involvement had positive effects on the cognitive development of young children. Studies with no parental involvement were reported as having a 0.3 SD effect size on cognitive development. When parents were involved, the effect size reported was 0.74 SD. Moreover, direct parental involvement in the instructional process has been advocated by policy makers, and educators (Epstein, 1990; Kroth, 1989; Lazar, 1981; McConachie, 1986; NASBE, 1991). Research has also substantiated the positive effects of direct parental involvement in the literacy development in school-aged children (Burgess, 1982; Irvine, 1979; Raim, 1980; Vukelich, 1978). Furthermore, studies have documented the effectiveness of direct parental involvement at the preschool level in the emerging literacy of children who are at-risk for academic failure (Lauer, 1994; Toomey, 1992). I | E E] . J E I' . The importance of physical activity to the health and well-being of children has been substantiated (Cresanta et al., 1986; Poest, Williams, Witt & Atwood, 1990; Sallis & MacKenzie, 1991; Taras, 1992). Helping young children to develop positive attitudes toward physical activity may help to establish a life-long pattern of participation in physical activity (Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Taras, 1992). Participation in physical activity during early childhood 24 can help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, many of which have their origins in the early childhood years. Research has shown that damage to blood vessels, a precursor to heart disease, begins in early childhood (Cresanta et al., 1986). Moreover, improving the health and fitness of young children is a national goal of the U.S. Public Health Service. A recent publication, HEalthy Children 2000 (US Public Health Service, 1990), identifies several health goals that are directed toward improving the health of the nation's children. One of the stated goals includes increasing the physical activity of children and youth. In addition, a child's ability to perform motor skills successfully may be influential in subsequent activity patterns (Dennison, Straus, Mellitis & Charney, 1988). Unfortunately, a common misconception of early childhood educators is that children automatically develop and learn motor skills. However, Reuschlein and Haubenstricker (1985) have cautioned that the development of motor skills is not determined solely by maturation. Research has suggested that carefully planned interventions can help children acquire motor skills in early childhood (Connor, 1993; Dusenberry, 1952; Goodway, 1994; Kelly, Dagger & Walkley, 1989). WWW Currently, there is little agreement among motor development researchers regarding a common theoretical base. However, two models explaining the sequential nature of 25 motor development have been cited in the literature (Gallahue, 1982; Seefeldt, 1979). Seefeldt (1979) proposed a model entitled, "Sequential Progression In the Achievement of Motor Proficiency" which consists of four levels of motor proficiency (Figure 1). In this model, the first level of proficiency is represented by reflexes and reactions present at birth or that emerge shortly thereafter. This level is referred to as the "Neonatal period." The second level of motor proficiency involves the acquisition of fundamental motor skills. Early childhood is considered to be the ideal time to acquire fundamental motor skills (Branta, Haubenstricker & Seefeldt, 1984; Seefeldt, 1979, 1994). Moreover, young children should master these skills if development of higher skills is to occur. Seefeldt (1979) warned against the negative consequences of failing to learn fundamental motor skills. Seefeldt expressed that the failure to learn the fundamental motor skills results in a proficiency barrier. The proficiency barrier is the inability of children to progress to the next level of motor development. This level, "Transitional Motor Skills", is represented by skills and activities that require a combination of two or more fundamental motor skills. The fourth level of Seefeldt's model is entitled "Specific Sports Skills and Dances." This level includes the ability to perform complex sports skills, dances, and organized games. The acquisition of the third and fourth 26 levels of achievement, generally, occur during the time of middle childhood to early adulthood. Gallahue (1982) proposed a model of development entitled, "The Phases of Motor Development" (Figure 2). This model, like Seefeldt's model, is also hierarchical in nature. Each level in Gallahue's model is referred to as a phase. The first phase of Gallahue's model is the "Reflexive Movement Phase". In this phase, involuntary movements are believed to be subcortically controlled. Gallahue divided this phase into two separate stages. In the first stage, the encoding stage, movement is controlled by the lower subcortical regions of the brain. This period is observed in the uterus and until the fourth month postnatally. The second stage, the decoding stage, occurs when movement becomes controlled by the motor area of the cerebral cortex. Reflexive movements are gradually inhibited during this stage, as movement comes under control of the higher centers of the brain. This stage begins during the fourth month postnatally. Gallahue's second phase in the model is referred to as "Rudimentary Movements." It is this phase in which the first appearance of voluntary movement is detected. Rudimentary movements are movements that are maturationally determined (e.g., prone locomotion, upright locomotion, trunk control). The rudimentary phase is also subdivided into two stages, the reflex inhibition stage and the precontrol stage. The reflex inhibition stage occurs from 27 birth to one year of age. During this stage the reflexes are further inhibited and controlled by the higher centers of the brain. The precontrol stage occurs between the ages of one and two years. During this stage, children gradually gain greater control and increase their repertoire of movements. According to Gallahue (1982), the third phase of movement is the "Fundamental Movement" phase. This phase which occurs from ages two to seven years is the time that children begin to learn fundamental motor skills. This phase is broken down into three stages (e.g., initial, elementary, mature). Each of these stages represent the progression and development of motor skill performance. Gallahue (1989) explained that the progression and development of motor skills was not due to maturational processes alone. Motor skill acquisition, according to Gallahue, is also influenced by the opportunity to practice and by the provision of instruction. The final phase of development in Gallahue's model is the "Special Movements" phase. This phase represents the ability to perform sports skills, complex dances, and activities. The ability to perform these movements appears between the ages of seven and fourteen years. The phase divided into three stages (e.g. transition stage, specific stage, and the specialized stage). ~90 ."ala/ 28 Specific Sport Skills and Dances Archery Judo Baseball Polo Canceing Rugby Diving Swimming Fencing Tennis Gymnastics Volleyball Hiking Wrestling Transitional Motor Skills Street Hockey 44/2107 9 C - hI/d/Tood/o Ada/”7 00d Backstroke Paddletennis Foursquare Rope Skipping Surface Dive Schottisce Wiffleball Newcombe Proficiency Barrier Roll Hop Run Sway Sit Swing Throw Fundamental Motor Skills 80unce ‘0 $8 Catch g Crawl Jump 0 Creep Kick Skip ED Dodge Leap Slide Trap '4: Dribble Pull Stand Turn Fall Strike Reflexes — Reactions 8 Crossed Extension Galant Magnet Placing Startle t Eyeblink Grasp Moro Plantar Tonic Neck 0? Doll's Eye McCarthy Oral Plantar Grasp Walking Parachute Figure_1. The Sequential Progression in the Achievement of Motor Proficiency. (Seefeldt, 1979). 29 14 years old and up Specialized stage as 11 to 13years old Specific stage é o as 7 to 10 years old General (transitional) .9 4° stage 3'1 0 a e 9 0 1° 0 ‘ 6. ° a 0) oh 6 to 7 years old Mature stage 06 N ‘5' 4t05yearsold Elementarystage “g o ‘g 2m3wnmom' "WWSBT i; V 3: :9 a " e 5 2. Av 1t02years old , Preoontrolsiage E Rudimentary movement 5 Birth to 1 year old phase Reflexive inhibition V saw 4 mos. to 1 year old Information admmgdmp I" uteroto4mos Reflexive movement phase lmomfion mammgwme Eigu;e_2. The Phases of Motor Development (Gallahue, 1982). 30 Gallahue explained that each of these stages represent the ability to refine, combine, and elaborate motor skills. MQIQLSkilLIntementions For several decades, the acquisition of motor skills has been a topic of interest to researchers in motor development. Researchers have conducted several intervention studies involving infants and preschool-aged children. Many of these studies have involved the provision of an enriched environment, training, or the instruction of motor skills. : -I . SI 1' Early research studies involving infants and children often used a co-twin method of investigation (Gesell & Thompson, 1929; McGraw, 1935; Minerva, 1935). In using this method, one twin received instruction while the other twin did not. Gesell and Thompson (1929) studied the effects of a six-week training program on twins "T" and "C." Starting at 46 weeks of age, Twin "T" was given practice in the skills of climbing and cube manipulation. Practice sessions were administered 10 minutes a day, six days a week, for six weeks. During this period Twin "C" did not receive any practice in these skills. At the end of the six-week period, Twin "T" demonstrated the ability to climb much faster than Twin "C." However, after only two weeks of practice, Twin "C" closely matched the skills of Twin "T." Based on these results, Gesell and Thompson concluded that 31 training does not transcend maturation, however, maturation could modify the results of training. Similarly, McGraw (1935) used the co-twin method to investigate the skill of tricycling with twins Johnny and Jimmy. In this study, McGraw gave practice to Johnny at 11 months of age. Jimmy, however, did not receive instruction until the age of 22 months. Like Gesell's finding, Johnny, the twin who received instruction learned tricyling at an earlier age than Jimmy. However, Jimmy who was the twin- control, learned tricycling more quickly and with greater ease. McGraw attributed the ease of Jimmy's learning the skill of tricycling to the maturation of the nervous system. The acquisition of other fundamental motor skills also has been investigated using the co-twin method. Minerva (1935) investigated the effects of teaching preschool-aged children the skills of throwing, rolling, and jumping. Using the co-twin method, Minerva provided four twins with four months of instruction. Four fraternal twins served as the control group. In this study, the experimental group performed better than the control group in the skills of throwing and rolling. Minerva concluded that the skill of jumping may be influenced by maturational factors. E! I' 1 I | I' The effect of guided-instruction on the skill of throwing also has been investigated among pre-school and school-aged children within an educational context (Dusenberry, 1952; Halverson, Roberton, Safrit & Roberts, 32 1977). Dusenberry (1952) investigated the effects of an instructional program on the acquisition of overhand throwing. In this study, Dusenberry provided an experimental group of 28 children, ages three to seven, with a three-week period of instruction. Children in the experimental group received six instructional sessions consisting of five practice and five recorded throws. Children in a matched control group, did not receive instruction. Dusenberry reported that the experimental group showed a significant difference at the .07 level on the distance achieved. Additionally, qualitative improvements in the children's throwing form were documented. Overall, children in the experimental group demonstrated the use of a contralateral pattern of throwing, which enabled them to achieve a greater throwing distance. Halverson et al. (1977) studied the effects of a motor skill intervention on the velocity of throwing. Forty-five children were randomly assigned by gender to either an experimental group receiving a motor skill program that included 120 minutes of throwing instruction or a control group that received a motor skill program that excluded instruction of the throw. A second control group of 24 children received neither the motor skill program nor instruction in the skill of throwing. An ANOVA, treatment by gender, determined that no significant differences were found between the groups as a result of the instructional 33 program. However, the researchers concluded that ball velocity may not have been an appropriate indicator of skill acquisition in young children. Researchers also have investigated the effects of planned motor skill programs on the acquisition of several motor skills in young children (Goodway, 1994; Kelly, Walkley & Dagger, 1989). Kelly et al. investigated the effects of a planned 12—week intervention on the motor skill acquisition of preschool-aged children using the I-Can program. The motor skill program consisted of 18 instructional periods, 45 minutes in length, delivered over a 12-week period. An experimental group consisting of 21 preschool-aged children and a control group of 26 preschool children were used in the study. The experimental group received instruction in the skills of throwing, jumping, striking, ball rolling, catching, and kicking. The motor skill program identified performance criteria for all six skills. A sequential motor skill program was planned that emphasized the development of the criteria of all six skills. The pre- and post-performance data were analyzed with a Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed ranks test. The results indicated that the experimental group made significant gains on all six skills at the .05 level of significance. However, the control group did not show significant gains in any of the skills tested. The authors concluded that sequential motor skill programs can enhance the acquisition of skills in young children. 34 More recently, Goodway (1994) investigated the effects of a motor skill intervention on the acquisition of fundamental motor skills and sustained activity levels of preschool-aged children who were identified as being at- risk. The motor skill intervention consisted of 24 lessons, 45 minutes in length, delivered over a 12-week period. The experimental group, consisting of two intact classes totaling 28 children, received instruction in object-control and locomotor skills. The control group, composed of 31 children, did not receive instruction. Goodway reported significant improvements (p=.00) for both object-control and locomotor skills. BarentJnmlzement Researchers have investigated the effect of parent involvement in the motor skill acquisition of young children (Miller, 1978; Paciorek, 1983). Miller (1978) compared the effects of parent involvement, traditional teaching, free play, and no instruction on the acquisition of fundamental motor skills of preschool-aged children. Miller contrasted free play with the traditionally taught and the parent- taught groups and reported significant differences favoring the instructed groups. However, the results of this study should be interpreted cautiously. Miller's groups involved only middle class CaucaSian children and parents. In fact, Miller reported that many of the parents involved in this study had advanced degrees. The educational level of these 35 parents may have contributed to the increased motor performance of the group receiving instruction from parents. Paciorek (1983) studied the acquisition of fundamental motor skills and fine motor skills among children who were developmentally delayed. Twenty children were randomly assigned and evenly divided into experimental and control groups. The eight-week home-based intervention program was based on a series of activities accompanying the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (1980). Pacicorek reported the experimental group improved significantly over the control group. Information on the background and context of parents was not reported. The Miller (1978) and Paciorek (1983) studies offer evidence to support the positive effects of parent involvement in the skill acqusition of children. However, no studies to date have been reported that have examined the effects of a school-based motor skill intervention program involving the parents of children who are at-risk. Moreover, the context in which the studies were conducted were given limited attention by the previous investigators. Therefore, further study is needed to investigate the effects of parent involvement in the motor skill acquisition of children who are at-risk. 36 Wt Contextual theorists maintain that a change on one level of analysis of human development can effect a change on another level of analysis (Greenberg & Tobach, 1984; Lerner, 1984; Schneirla, 1957). Moreover, there is a reciprocal influence between motor development and social development throughout the lifespan (Payne & Isaacs, 1991). Furthermore, development occurs within the contexts in which a child lives (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Lerner & Lerner, 1986). Perceivedspmnefence Empirically, research has substantiated a relationship between various aspects of social development and participation in physical activity (Gruber, 1985; Harter & Pike, 1984). Gruber (1985) conducted a meta-analysis of the effect of physical activity on the self esteem or self concept of children. Twenty-seven articles were deemed suitable for analysis. Gruber reported that 18 of the articles found that self-esteem and self-concept were positively related to participation in physical activity. Gruber reported that 66% of the children involved in directed-play or physical education experiences have a higher self-concept and self-esteem than children not involved in these experiences. Concern has been expressed about the ability of young children to perceive their abilities with accuracy (Nichols, 1978; Ruble, 1983). Nichols found that it is not until the sixth grade that children's perceptions of 37 abilities correlated with teacher's ratings of their abilities. Similarly, Ruble found that it was not until nine years of age that children could make accurate perceptions of their abilities. Contrary evidence has suggested that young children can make accurate perceptions of their abilities and the abilities of their peers (Anderson & Adams, 1985; Stipek & Hoffman, 1980). Anderson and Adams reported a significant and positive correlation between preschooler's and kindergartner's perception of their cognitive competence and their actual performance on a test of academic readiness. Stipek and Hoffman (1980) found that children as young as three years of age were able to make accurate evaluations of peers skills. Eamil¥_CQnLexL Children are socialized within the context of the family (Greendorfer & Lewko, 1978; Kenyon & McPherson, 1973). Parents can help children to develop positive attitudes towards physical activity. However, the family may also help children develop negative attitudes toward physical activity. A family that does not participate in physical activity or value physical activity is not likely to help children develop positive values towards physical activity. Ultimately, it is within the context of the family that many health-related behaviors are acquired or developed (Swick, 1987; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1986; US Department of 38 Health and Human Services, 1991). Unfortunately, many families do not participate together in physical activities that promote a healthy lifestyle. Thus, the involvement of parents and children together in directed activities may provide the impetus to begin establishing a healthy lifestyle. Summarmmirerature In summary, the importance of parental involvement in their children's education is frequently cited in the literature. The positive influence of parents in academic programs has been documented. However, there is limited evidence concerning the effects of parental involvement in motor skill programs, and none for such programs involving children who are at-risk. Legislation over the past decade has mandated parental involvement in preschool programs involving at-risk children. Thus, there is a need for research to determine the effectiveness of parental involvement in programs involving preschool children who are at-risk. Contextual theory suggests that personal and environmental factors can have powerful influences in learning and development, yet few studies have systematically examined the impact of contextual factors on the motor skill acquisition of young children. Additional research is needed to document the impact of the context in which a motor skill intervention is taking place. Chapter 3 METHODS The purpose of this study was to investigate, within a contextual framework, the effectiveness of parental involvement on the motor skill acquisition of children who are at-risk. Specific objectives of this study were to: (a) determine the effects of an eight-week intervention involving parents on selected object-control skills, (b) determine the impact of changes in motor skill acquisition on the subscales of perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance, (c) examine the relationship between motor skill performance and the subscales of perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance, (d) determine the relationship between the number of risk factors present and motor performance, and (e) investigate the relationship of maternal perceptions of acceptance or rejection to the perceived maternal acceptance and perceived physical competence of children. This study used a pretest-posttest group design. The Experimental Group (E) received a motor skill intervention consisting of sixteen 45-minute lessons delivered over an eight—week period in which parents provided the instruction. The Control Group (C) received the regular physical activity session offered by the Cradle School. All children involved in this study were enrolled in a Cradle School Program that required daily parent attendance. 39 40 ContexLoLtheJltudx A.contextual framework for this study is provided below. The context of the city and the schools involved are described to understand influences on the motor development of preschool children at-risk. W , The metropolitan area in which this study was conducted is predominantly an economically depressed area. The unemployment rate is approximately 17.2%. Moreover, 27.6% of families live below the poverty level (US Census, 1992). Approximately 30% of the families in the city are headed by females with children, with no adult male present in the home. W The schools involved in this study were two Cradle Schools. The purpose of these schools is to provide an education for preschool-aged children and toddlers who have a high risk of educational failure. Both schools were funded through block grants that were established by PL 102-119 (1991). The programs were designed to help children from birth through the age of five years to acquire skills that would allow them to be successful in pre-kindergarten and kindergarten programs. A large percentage of the children who attended the Cradle Schools subsequently attended another compensatory preschool program such as Head Start or 41 the Readiness for Four program when they reached the appropriate age. The philosophy of each Cradle School is that the parent is a child's first teacher. For this reason, parents were required to attend every session with their child. Parents participated in daily activities with their child and also attended parent education classes. SChQQl_DemQ§IaDhiCs The two Cradle Schools where this study was conducted were located in the northern part of the city. The two schools were approximately five miles apart. Cradle School A was located across the street from an elementary school. Cradle School 8 was located within the building of an elementary school. Each of the elementary school districts was similar in demographic composition. Reports of the demographics for the elementary schools are compiled annually. These demographics are discussed below. Children who attended the Cradle Schools program in the Winter of 1995 were likely to later attend an urban elementary school that faces many problems that are characteristic of urban schools. According to Nikoloff (1993), Cradle School A is located in an elementary school district in which 98.9% of the students are African- American. A reported 64.7% of the children are eligible for free or reduced rate lunches. Low educational achievement is also evident in the district. In 1993, 4.8% of the students passed the reading criterion established the 42 Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP). Another 6.5% passed the math criterion of the MEAP (Nikoloff, 1993). Children who attended Cradle School 8 faced a similar educational system. The economic background and low academic achievement of children in the elementary school district is evident. Nikoloff (1993) reported that 98.9% of the students are.African-American, and an estimated 72.6% of these children are eligible for free or reduced rate lunches. Approximately 8.3% of students were reported as passing the required reading portion of the MEAP test. A reported 6.7% passed the math portion of the MEAP test. Subjects Subjects for the E Group and the C Group were drawn from the two Cradle Schools, Cradle School A and Cradle School B. The Cradle Schools offered classes for children up to five years of age. Children from the E and C groups were drawn from classes offered for children between the ages of 3 and 4 years and their parents or caretakers. All of the parents or caretakers involved in this study were female. The majority of the adults in the study were the biological mothers of the children. Two of the caretakers in this study were the grandparents of the subjects. Groulessinnment The E Group included two intact classes from Cradle School A and one intact class from Cradle School B. The C Group consisted of one intact class from Cradle School A and 43 one intact class from Cradle School B. The composition of the E and C Groups is depicted in Figure 3. Children and their parents attended Cradle Schools two times per week. The average class size was approximately five students. Class sizes ranged from 5 to 7 children and their parents. The meeting times and class sizes are reported in Table 1. E Group C Group I intact class, Cradle School A E: intact class, Cradle School B Figure_3. Composition of E and C Groups E . | 1 3 I 1' Fifteen children participated in the E group. The group consisted of 6 girls and 9 boys. The children in the E Group ranged in age from 41 months to 50 months. The mean age for the E Group was 47.13 months with a standard deviation of 2.5 months. WM Twelve children in the Control Group participated in this study, consisting of 5 girls and 7 boys. The children 44 in this group ranged from 39 months to 55 months in age. The mean age for children in the C group was 47.5 months with a standard deviation of 3.9 months. Table 1. II I. I E 1] I I' Cradle School A Meeting Times Enrollment Group Monday evening, Friday afternoon * 5 E Tuesday afternoon, Friday morning 5 C Wednesday afternoon, Friday afternoon * 5 E Cradle School B Meeting Times Enrollment Group Monday and Tuesday morning 5 E Wednesday and Thursday morning 7 C *These classes were combined on Friday afternoons and met at the elementary school. We Informed consent was obtained from the caretaker or parent participating in the study. A letter describing the study was sent to the parents describing their child's and their involvement in the study. A copy of each of the letters is contained in Appendix B. In addition, assent was sought from each child involved in the study. Assent was obtained by asking children if they wanted to help the investigator play some games that involved striking, 45 throwing, catching, bouncing, and kicking. Verbal consent was obtained from the school principals in the school district and from the administrators involved in both of the Cradle Schools. Approval from the University Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects was obtained and is also contained in Appendix B. ResearclLDesign This study used a pretest-posttest nonrandomized group design. Experimental subjects (ns15) participated in an eight-week motor skill intervention program, consisting of two lessons per week. The attendance for the participants ranged from 31% to 100% over the entire program. Each lesson, 45 minutes in length, was taught by the parents. Parents in the E group also participated in 16 meetings, each 15 minutes in length, before each instructional period. Each meeting focused on the activities to be taught and the teaching cues that were be used for the daily lessons. The length of the motor skill intervention and parent sessions was considered an appropriate amount of time for instruction, given the amount of weekly instructional time available at the Cradle Schools. Children attended the school twice weekly for two hours of instruction per session. The intervention consumed approximately one-half of the instructional time available for an eight-week period. There is evidence to support the effectiveness of eight instructional sessions delivered over an eight-week period 46 when a performance-based curriculum is used (Van der Mars & Butterfield, 1987). Children ages three to six years were taught by pre-service teachers with little physical education teaching experience. Post-test results revealed that the experimental subjects improved on running, catching, jumping, and ladder climbing. Kelly, Dagger, and Walkley (1989) found that preschool children three and four years of age were able to make significant improvements in selected object-control skills (e.g., kicking, throwing, striking, ball rolling, and catching) when a performance based curriculum was used. Performance criteria of five selected object control-skills were identified using the I-Can project. Each instructional period was structured so that two or three of the performance criteria for two identified skills were emphasized in the lesson taught. Subjects made significant gains on the selected object—control skills at the .05 significance level. The current study also used a performance-based curriculum in which similar object control-skills were taught. The performance criteria of five object-control skills in the TGMD were used. The TGMD identifies three to four performance criteria for each of the object-control skills. Each lesson was structured so that the selected performance criteria for each identified skill were taught. 47 IndependenLMariahles The independent variable in this study was the groups (Experimental or Control). The B Group received an eight— week motor skill intervention. The C Group received the regular physical education program in the classroom. This program consisted of movement to popular children's music. Dependentlariahles The dependent variables in this study included the following: (a) object-control skills as measured by the TGMD (Ulrich,1985); (b) perceived physical physical competence, maternal acceptance, cognitive competence, and peer acceptance as measured by the PSPCSA (Harter & Pike, 1984); and (c) parental warmth/rejection as measured by the PARQ (Rohner, 1980). : ]'| I. H Qualitative data were obtained to explain the contextual features of this study through the use of parent and child interviews. A parental interview was conducted to ascertain the number and type of risk factors present in the home. Information concerning parental attitudes toward physical activity and their activity patterns was also obtained during the interviews. Finally, the attitudes of the children toward physical activity and their perceptions of the value of physical activity were obtained through interviews. 48 Design An ANOVA with repeated measures design was used to conduct this study. The B Group of children received an eight-week motor skill intervention in which the parents taught motor skills to their children, whereas the C Group received no parental instruction. The use of a pretest- posttest design was used to ascertain whether change occurred in the object-control skills and the subscales of perceived competence and social acceptance as a result of the motor skill intervention. The inclusion of the C group in the study helped to control for the effects of maturation on motor skill acquisition. Instrumentation The children in this study were administered portions of two test batteries. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) developed by Ulrich (1985) and Harter and Pike's 1984 Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA) were used in this study. In addition, the Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ) by Rohner (1980) was administered to the parent or caretaker of each child. Qualitative measures were obtained through the use of interview instruments. Each of these instruments is described in detail below. :1' |-: I 1 S] J] The TGMD (Ulrich, 1985) was used to test object-control skills. The TGMD protocol and standardized equipment needed 49 are located in Appendix C. The TGMD was deemed an appropriate assessment instrument because it provided both qualitative and quantitative measures of fundamental motor skills for children ages three to ten years. The TGMD includes seven locomotor and five object-control skills on a 12-item test. A list of the test items is provided in Table 2. The entire test battery of locomotor and object- control items takes approximately 20 to 30 minutes to administer. The time required for administering the object- control skills portion of the test is approximately 10 to 15 minutes per child. The TGMD has been standardized on a normative sample of 908 children in eight states. Content validity for the test was established by three experts. Split-half reliability coefficients of .85 and .78 have been reported for the locomotor and object-control subscales, respectively. Only the scores for the object-control subscale were used in this study. Table 2. El Illll Sl'llllll'IlTIES Motnnjexelnnment Locomotor Skills Object-Control Skills Gallop Two-hand strike Hop Bounce Leap Catch Jump Kick Skip Throw Slide 50 Eercei1ed_Cnmnetence_and_Social.Accentance The version of the PSPCSA that was used in this study is the unpublished pictorial pre-kindergarten scale for African-American children. The recording form for the PSPCSA is contained in Appendix D. The PSPCSA measures four constructs (e.g., physical competence, cognitive competence, peer acceptance, and maternal acceptance). The physical and cognitive competence subscales compose the perceived competence subscale. The peer acceptance and maternal acceptance subscales compose the perceived social acceptance subscale (Table 3). Each of these subscale scores and their component scores were used in this study. The pictorial preschool-kindergarten scale has been tested on 90 preschool children and 56 kindergarten children (Harter & Pike, 1984). The reliability coefficients for the different subscale items ranged from .65 to .89, with a reliability coefficient of r =.86 on the combined subscales. Although data on the validity of the preschool-kindergarten scale are not available, the scale is deemed valid because it is based on behavioral references. Additionally, this scale has been used successfully by Goodway (1994) with an at-risk preschool population. Examples of items for each subscale are listed in Table 4. 51 Table 3. I) E' 'JSJEE 'l:: I lS'] Acceptance Perceived Competence Perceived Social Acceptance Physical Peer Cognitive Maternal E I. E E I J E I l E . I. The Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ) by Rohner (1980) includes three versions (e.g., Mother PARQ, Child PARQ, and Adult PARQ). The Mother PARQ was used in this study. The Mother PARQ is a self-report questionnaire where the parent, usually the mother, responds to questions regarding her perceptions about how she treats her child. According to Rohner, parental acceptance and rejection together form the warmth dimension of parenting. Parental warmth is considered a bipolar dimension where rejection, or the absence of parental warmth and affection, stands at one pole of the scale in opposition to acceptance. Parents display parental acceptance both physically (e.g., kissing, hugging) and verbally (e.g., praising, complimenting). Parents display rejecting behaviors which include: (a) neglect/indifference (e.g., unavailability of parent); (b) hostile/aggressive rejection (e.g., cursing, sarcasm); 52 and (c) undifferentiated rejection (e.g., withdrawal of parent). A subscale score representing parental warmth is obtained by evaluating rejection and acceptance behaviors. The PARQ is composed of 34 items and takes approximately 20 to 30 minutes to administer. The protocol for the Mother PARQ and scoring procedures are contained in Appendix E. Sample test items are presented in Table 5. The internal consistency reliability coefficients for the PARQ ranged from .86 to .95 on each of the four constructs. Table 4. n .I. fill EE .I: I 15'] WE Perceived Competence Cognitive Physical Good at puzzles Good at swinging Gets stars on papers Good at climbing Knows colors Can tie shoes Good at counting Good at skipping Knows alphabet Good at running Knows first letter of name Good at hopping Perceived Social Acceptance Peer Maternal Has many friends to play with Mom smiles Stays overnight at friends Mom takes you places Has many friends to play games you like Has many friends to play with on Mom cooks favorite the playground foods Gets asked to play with friends Mom reads to you Eats dinner at friends' house Mom plays with you Mom talks to you 53 : ]'| I. I I I The qualitative data in this study were collected from parents and children through selected interviews. Interviews were conducted with the parent participants to identify risk factors and attitudes towards physical activity. Interviews were conducted with the children to determine their attitudes toward physical activity and their perceptions of the values of physical activity. Table 5. .ue ‘ ‘ ‘u e o- ’- ‘e e. e ’. ‘e . .‘, ‘e .e - I E . I. : I. . Scale Sample Item Warmth/Affection I like to spend time with my child. Hostility/Aggression I make fun of my child. Neglect/Indifference I avoid my child. Rejection My child is a burden for me. (Undifferentiated) RisJLEactnrs The State of Michigan generated a list of environmental and biological risk factors (Michigan Department of Education, 1991). The Office of Compensatory Education (1991) also developed a screening instrument that includes the risk factors established by the state. However, the 54 instrument developed by the state is stated in more specific terms. For instance, the state has identified the criterion of "parental education less than ninth grade" as a risk factor. The district, however, identifies the criterion "low parent or sibling educational attainment as a risk factor". Risk factors established by the school district and the State of Michigan are presented in Appendix A. The interview instrument that was used in this investigation was developed from the criteria identified by the State of Michigan and the Office of Compensatory Education in the district. Selected questions were asked to determine the presence of risk factors. The interview instrument consisted of 25 closed-ended questions. The interview questions, protocol, and recording procedures are described in detail in Appendix F. The interview was used to determine the presence of selected risk factors for children in the E and C groups. It should be noted that not all of the risk factors identified by the State or the District were included in the interview. Specifically, questions regarding the health status of the child at birth were not asked. 55 E I Ell | i T i E] . J E I. 'I An interview was conducted to ascertain the attitudes of the parents toward physical activity. Parents were asked questions regarding their current and past participation patterns in physical activity. They also were asked questions regarding the importance of physical activity. Additionally, parents were asked to report their children's current activity patterns. The qualitative data collected were analyzed by developing assertions and triangulating data. The interview instrument is contained in Appendix G. :1 1! E I. 'I E II Children's activity patterns were determined by asking children selected questions regarding activities that they currently like to participate in at home. This instrument is contained in Appendix H. Parents were asked similar questions regarding children's participation patterns to confirm the data obtained from the children. Motnr_Skill_1nteryentinn The motor skill intervention conducted over an eight-week period, consisted of 16 lessons, each 45 minutes in length. Parents in this study tutored their children on five selected motor skills (e.g., kicking, throwing, striking, bouncing, and catching). Parents attended two 45-minute orientation sessions in which the performance criteria, as described by the TGMD, for all five 56 object-control skills were identified. During the motor skill intervention, parents met 15 minutes prior to each lesson to review the daily lesson plans. These meetings took place during the regularly scheduled class period. Research has substantiated the effectiveness of motor skill interventions involving the use of performance-based curricula with young children. Van der Mars and Butterfield (1987) conducted a motor skill intervention using a performance-based curriculum over an eight-week period, consisting of eight sessions, each 50 minutes in length. Children ages three to six years were taught by pre-service teachers with little physical education teaching experience. Daily lesson plans were designed to incorporate performance criteria identified by the Ohio State SIGMA. Post—test results revealed that the experimental subjects improved on running, catching, jumping, and ladder climbing. Kelly, Dagger, and Walkley (1989) found that preschool children three and four years of age were able to make significant improvements in selected object-control skills (e.g., kicking, throwing, striking, ball rolling, and catching) when a performance-based curriculum was used. The performance criteria of five selected object-control skills were identified using the I-Can project. Each instructional period was structured so that two to three of the performance criteria of two identified skills were emphasized in the lesson taught. Subjects made significant 57 gains on selected object control-skills at the .05 significance level. The current study also used a performance-based curriculum in which similar object-control skills were taught. The performance criteria of the five object-control skills in the TGMD were used. The TGMD identifies three to four performance criteria for each of the object-control skills. Each lesson was structured so that the selected performance criteria for each identified skills were taught. This approach is suggested by Vogel and Seefeldt (1988). The total instructional time available was 720 minutes over the eight-week period. The estimated available time was 648 minutes. This time was calculated by multiplying the total time for instruction by .90. The estimate of available time allowed for transitions between stations and management tasks that were necessary to perform during the instructional period. An estimate of 40 minutes per class period was available for instruction. The classroom teacher and aide performed roll taking tasks and management tasks to minimize the loss of instructional time. They also assisted parents in the instructional process when asked. Additionally, the classroom teacher and aide in the classroom assisted the research investigator by reading to the children during the scheduled parent meetings that preceded each instructional period. A sample routine for the daily lessons is included in Table 6. During each class period, two or three motor 58 skills were emphasized using a station approach. Two motor skills were taught during all class sessions except the Friday afternoon classes. Three motor skills were taught on Friday afternoon because of the increased space and the need to combine two classes. The elementary gym was available on Fridays for the combined classes. Table 6. E J E E '1 E I. Activity Length of time Introduction 5 minutes to Motor Skills Motor Skill Station 1 10 minutes Motor Skill Station 2 10 minutes Motor Skill Station 3 10 minutes Closing Activity 5 minutes Nate; The instructional time was based on the calculation of 40 minutes per instructional period. MotnLSkilLErnnram The motor skill program in this study was based on the criteria identified by the TGMD. The performance criteria for each of the skills are listed in Table 7. 59 Table 7. IGMLEerfnrmanceJriteria Qterhandlhrnm 1. Downward arc of throwing arm to initiate wind up 2. Rotation of the hip and shoulder to a point where the non-dominant side faces an imaginary target 3. Weight is transferred by stepping with the foot opposite the throwing hand 4. Follow-through beyond ball release diagonally across body toward side opposite throwing arm Stationary bounce 1. Contacts ball with one hand at about hip height 2. Pushes ball with fingers (not a slap) 3. Ball contacts floor in front of (or to the outside of) the hand being used Catch 1. Preparation phase where elbows are flexed and hands are in front of body 2. Arms extend in preparation for ball contact 3. Ball is caught and controlled by hands only 4. Elbows bend to absorb force Kick 1. Rapid continuous approach to the ball 2. The trunk is inclined backward during ball contact 3. Forward swing of the arm opposite the kicking leg 4. Follow—through by hopping on non-kicking foot Strike 1. Dominant hand grips above non-dominant hand 2. Non-dominant side of body faces tosser (feet parallel) 3. Hip and spine rotation 4. Weight is transferred by stepping with front foot 6O Blnanlan A block plan for the 16 instructional periods was established. The total available instructional time at the skill stations was approximately 480 minutes and was divided among each of the five object-control skills. The total time available for instruction at each of the stations is presented in Table 8. Table 8. E I. I I I I I. J I' E 21° |-: I 1 51'11 Skill Time Striking 100 minutes Bouncing 80 minutes Catching 100 minutes Kicking 100 minutes Throwing 100 minutes : . E I. 'I The opening activity involved a large group activity in which parents and children participated. The large group activities involved a variety of activities (e.g., rhythmic, body awareness, spatial awareness, and fitness activities). The opening activity was taught by the research investigator who is a certified physical education teacher. A schedule of these activities is included in Appendix I. 61 Stations Each of the stations involved the instruction of a motor skill. Parents met 15 minutes prior to each instructional period to review activities. A visual demonstration of each of the motor skills and teaching cues were provided to parents prior to teaching each lesson. The researcher was careful to make sure that the visual and verbal demonstrations were understood by each of the parents. To ensure understanding the researcher asked parents to demonstrate the activities and repeat the verbal cues that were taught. W The criteria for two or three motor skills were identified for each of the daily lessons. Activities were chosen that focused on the selected performance criteria. An eight-week schedule was planned in which selected criteria were identified for each of the daily lessons. The intent of the criteria was to provide a framework for instruction. Various performance criteria were emphasized in each of the daily lesson plans. The criteria that were emphasized in each lesson are presented in Table 9. Table 9. I I J E I. I E 3 'I . Lesson No Skills Components Time One Kicking 1 15 Throwing 1 15 Two Striking 1,2 10 Bouncing *P,1 10 Catching 1 10 Three Striking 1,2 15 Catching 1,2 15 Four Throwing 1,2 10 Bouncing P,1 10 Kicking 1,2 10 Five Kicking 1,2 15 Throwing 1,2 15 Six Catching 1,2 10 Striking 1,2,4 10 Bouncing P,1 10 Seven Catching 1,2,3 15 Striking 1,2,4 15 Eight Throwing 1,2,3 10 Kicking 1,2,3 10 Bouncing P,1 10 Nine Catching 1,2,3 15 Striking 1,2,4 15 Ten Throwing 1,2,3 10 Kicking 1,2,3 10 Bouncing l 10 Eleven Kicking 1,2,3 15 Throwing 1,2,3 15 63 Table 9. Continued.. Lesson No Skills Components Time Twelve Striking 1,2,3,4 10 Catching 1,2,3,4 10 Bouncing 1,2 10 Thirteen Kicking 1,2,3,4 15 Catching 1,2 15 Fourteen Throwing 1,2,3,4 10 Striking 1,2,3,4 10 Bouncing 1,2 10 Fifteen Striking 1,2,3,4 15 Throwing 1,2,3,4 15 Sixteen Kicking 1,2,3,4 10 Catching 1,2,3,4 10 Bouncing 1,2,3 10 *The letter "P" denotes that ball control skills will be worked on as well as the identified performance criteria. :1 . E I. 'I The closing activity involved the entire group. Parents and children participated in a culminating activity approximately three minutes in length that involved a movement song. The closing activity was taught by the research investigator. The last two minutes were used to review the activities that were taught during the day. LessoLElans An outlined lesson plan for each skill taught is provided in Appendix J. The lesson plans emphasized 64 components designated in the block plan. The lesson plan includes the opening and closing activities. E I : . I I. H I. Two parent orientation meetings were held prior to the beginning of this study. The meetings were 45 minutes in length. During the session the researcher emphasized the importance of child and parent attendance. Parents were informed that it would be critical for the same parent to bring the child to the center each time. Additionally, each of the orientation meetings focused on introducing the performance criteria for each of the skills to be taught in the study as identified by the TGMD. Each of the skills was presented to the parents. In addition, parents were asked to participate in practice sessions to learn each of the skills. A question and answer session was also provided at the close of each orientation session. A schedule of the content that was discussed during orientation meetings is provided in Table 10. 65 Table 10. : . I I. S l I 1 Meeting Content First Throwing Catching Second Bouncing Striking Kicking Note; Performance criteria for each of the skills were introduced. I 'J H I. A short lS-minute meeting was conducted prior to each lesson. Each meeting focused on the activities to be conducted at each station for the day. Parents were provided with one or two teaching cues that were emphasized during the lesson. A visual and verbal demonstration was provided by the research investigator a minimum of three times for each skill to be taught. Data.£nllectinn Pre-test data for the TGMD were collected from the E Group and the C Group over a one-week period. The pre-test data for perceived competence were collected during the following week. The data collection schedule is presented Table 11. 66 Table 11. Sohedule_for_Data_Co11ection Activity Time Pre-test TGMD lst week of March Pre-test PSCPSA lst & 2nd week of March Test PARQ Intervention 3rd week of March Intervention 4th week of March Intervention lst week of April Intervention 2nd week of April Intervention 3rd week of April School Break 4th week of April Intervention lst week of May Intervention 2nd week of May Intervention 3rd week of May Post-test TGMD 4th week of May Post-test PSPCSA. 4th Week of May, lst week of June Data_Colleotion_Procedures The procedures for data collection are described below. In each case, the setting is described. The instruments and protocols are contained in the appendices reported earlier. 67 TGMD The investigator removed children individually from their regularly scheduled pre-school class time to administer the TGMD. Additionally, children and parents were asked to stay after class when necessary to complete the testing. In school A, the TGMD was administered in a large open space located adjacent to the main classroom. In School B, the TGMD was administered in an open hallway outside the classroom. A classroom aide videotaped the administration of the TGMD so that it could later be rated. Videotapes were independently rated by two raters and the researcher to eliminate experimenter bias. All three raters were familiar with the TGMD. To determine the consistency between all three raters, A proportion of agreement index (P) was used. The proportion of agreement is the recommended method to determine the consistency between all three raters on a criterion- referenced test (Looney, 1989). P represents the degree to which all three raters scored a component of the test "0" or "1." To correct for chance agreement between three raters, a modified kappa (Kq) is reported. Modified kappa represents the reliability coefficient when corrected for chance. The P score and Kq scores are reported for each skill on the pre- and post-tests in Table 12. 68 Table 12. : . I E I E I :l' |-: I 1 51'11 Skill P Kq Striking Pre .92 .89 Post .89 .85 Bouncing Pre .93 .90 Post .95 .93 Catching Pre .88 .84 Post .87 .83 Throwing Pre .95 .93 Post .92 .89 Kicking Pre .93 .90 Post .92 .89 PSPCSA The PSPCSA was individually administered. Two teachers who were familiar with the PSPCSA assisted with the test administration. Both teachers were experienced working with young children and were familiar with the PSPCSA. The PSPCSA was administered in a quiet room or hallway that was free from distractions. The instructions suggested by the PSPCSA were read to each child. Parental consent and verbal assent were obtained from each child. 69 PARQ The PARQ was administered to parents during the child's free time. The classroom teacher and teacher's aide assisted with the test administration by reading the test questions aloud. Since the PARQ is a written questionnaire, the test was administered to a large group. Parents were read the instructions that are contained in the test protocol. The PARQ took 15 to 20 minutes to complete. Parents were asked to mark their first response and not dwell on questions for any length of time. EarentJnterxieus Each parent was interviewed twice (e.g., on risk factors and on attitude towards physical activity). These interviews began after pre-test data and PARQ data were collected. These interviews were scheduled during the following times: (a) children's scheduled free time, (b) children's story time, and (c) children's snack time. Parents were also scheduled to stay after class, if permission was granted. These interviews were conducted on an individual basis in a private room to insure confidentiality. Since several of the parents felt uncomfortable being audiotaped the interviewer took extensive notes during the interviews and agreed not to tape. 7O :1 J) I I . Children were interviewed about their attitudes toward physical activity. These interviews were conducted on an individual basis and took place during the regularly scheduled class time in a quiet corner or room. The researcher again took notes on individual responses during each of the interviews. I I I. S . The investigator videotaped three of the sixteen lessons. The videotape analysis was used to document the extent to which parents had followed the lesson plans as described. Additionally, the videotape analysis of the lessons was conducted to determine whether children followed the lesson plans as taught by the parents. As mentioned previously, teachers assisted in the data collection process. A summary of the personnel involved in collecting data is provided in Table 13. 71 Table 13. E J I 1 i . I I 2 1] I. Data Personnel TGMD testing research investigator Video-recorder teacher aide PSPCSA research investigator two teachers PARQ teacher teacher's aide Parent Interviews Risk Factor research investigator Parent.Attitudes research investigator Child Interview research investigator Intervention Skill Stations parents Opening & Closing Act. research investigator Orientation research investigator Weekly-meetings research investigator I |'| I. E 1 . Data analyses were conducted on the quantitative and qualitative data that were obtained. Quantitative measures were analyzed using Pearson's Correlation, ANOVA, and simple regression procedures. The statistical procedure for each of the hypotheses is discussed below. Hmothesism Children in the E Group will demonstrate greater improvement than children in the C Group on the TGMD object- control subscale. This hypothesis was tested using a 2 X 2 72 (group by time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the standardized object-control scores. Hypothesislm Children in the E Group will demonstrate greater improvement than children in the C Group on the perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance subscales of the PSPCSA. This hypothesis was analyzed by applying separate 2 X 2 (group by time) ANOVA's with repeated measures on the subscales of perceived maternal acceptance and perceived physical competence. H¥DQLheSiS_Ihree For both the E and C groups, pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD will be moderately and positively correlated with pre-test scores on the perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance subscales of the PSPCSA. A Pearson Product Moment correlation matrix for pre-test object-control scores, perceived physical competence, and perceived maternal acceptance scores was calculated. H¥Datheais_£our For the E and C groups, variance in pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD will be accounted for by the number of risk factors present. This hypothesis was analyzed by using a simple regression procedure. Object-control score was the dependent variable and the number of risk factors the predictor variable. 73 Hmthesislile For the E and C Groups, perceived maternal acceptance as measured by the pre-test PSPCSA will be moderately and positively correlated with PARQ scores. A Pearson correlation was calculated to determine the relationship between these variables. Qualitatiye_Anal¥ais An analysis of qualitative data was undertaken in this study. The researcher developed assertions based on the data procured during the interview sessions. Data were triangulated when possible as suggested by Bogdan and Biklen (1993). Chapter 4 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of parental involvement on the motor skill acquisition of children who are at-risk. Specific objectives of this study included: (a) determining the effects of an eight-week intervention involving parents on the acquisition of selected object-control skills, (b) determining the impact of changes in motor skill performance on the subscales of perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance, (c) investigating the relationship between motor skill performance and the subscales of perceived physical and perceived maternal acceptance, (d) determining the relationship between the number of risk factors present and motor skill perfomance, and (e) investigating the relationship between maternal perceptions of acceptance or rejection and the perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance of children. This chapter will address only the quantitative results. Chapter Five will be devoted to presenting the qualitative results and the discussion of those results. The discussion of quantitative results will be presented in Chapter Six. 74 75 I E I. 1 SI I. I. Each of the hypotheses that was tested in this study is listed below. A summary of the test procedure and results are presented with each hypothesis. H¥nathesis_Qne It was hypothesized that children in the E group would demonstrate greater improvement than children in the C group on the TGMD object-control subscale. This hypothesis was tested using a 2 X 2 ANOVA (group X time) with repeated measures on the TGMD object-control subscale scores. The ANOVA with repeated measures was considered an appropriate procedure because the same subjects were measured twice on the object-control portion of the TGMD test. Table 14 provides a summary of the raw, standard, and percentile scores for both the E and C groups. Standard scores of the TGMD were used in conducting the ‘ I‘M analysis of variance with repeated measures. The standard scores were considered an appropriate measure because they are standardized on the basis of age. The results revealed significant group, 2(1, 26) = 12.55, p < .002, and time effects, £(l, 26) = 13.18, p<. 001. There was also a significant group by time interaction, E(l, 26): 24.18, p < .000. An examination of the mean scores showed that the interaction was due to the improvement in performance of the E group across the intervention period. Thus, the first hypothesis was supported. 76 Table 14. W Score Group Pre-test Post-test M SD M. SD Raw E 2.60 2.06 6.40 3.08 C 2.50 1.67 2.50 1.93 Percentile E 19.80 29.18 67.33 29.37 C 17.91 24.42 15.08 24.03 Standard E 6.53 3.31 12.06 3.49 C 5.83 3.21 5.00 3.04 Hypothesisto It was hypothesized that children in the E Group would demonstrate greater improvement than children in the C Group on the physical competence and maternal acceptance subscales of the PSPCSA. Harter and Pike (1984) clearly distuinguished the difference between the concepts of 'competence' and 'acceptance.' Therefore, separate ANOVA's were used to examine the scores for each of these subscale scores. Although only the physical competence and maternal acceptance scores are of interest in this study, the means and standard deviations for all four subscales are reported in Table 15. 77 Table 15. _ _ . . WW 'i: I lS'lE 15]] Subscale Group Pre-test Post-test M SD M. SD Cognitive E 3.42 .62 3.33 .55 C 3.52 .54 3.70 .61 Physical E 3.57 .38 3.52 .42 C 3.25 .67 3.47 .58 Peer E 3.41 .59 3.38 .65 C 3.33 .65 3.58 .57 Maternal E 3.36 .53 3.72 .49 C 3.29 .51 3.59 .57 A 2 X 2 (group by time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the subscale of maternal acceptance did not produce significant results for group, E(l, 26) = 0.72, p <.403; nor was there a significant interaction effect, Ell, 26)= .02, p < .902. However, there was a significant time effect, E (1, 26)= 7.67, p < .010. A 2 X 2 (group by time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the subscale of physical competence also failed to yield significant effects for group, E(1, 26) = 1.05, p < .309, or time, E(1, 26) = 0.94, p < .342. Therefore, the program had no apparent impact on either the perceived physical 78 competence or perceived maternal acceptance of the children involved in the program. Hypothesis two was not supported. An unexpected findng was that the maternal acceptance increased over time for both groups. Hmtheeislhnee It was hypothesized that for both the E and C groups, pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD would be moderately and positively correlated with the pre-test maternal acceptance and physical competence subscales of the PSPCSA. A Pearson Product Moment correlation matrix was established to analyze this hypothesis. The results are reported in Table 16. I Table 16. i - 00 u o e- “e ' - ‘ Ce - - e. e .00. e e - ..e e- " ‘ ‘e U- - e. i ‘e .0 a ..e '- ‘ ‘e e . We Perceived Perceived Maternal Physical Acceptance Competence Object-Control .02 .11 Scores The results showed that no relationship exists between object-control skill performance and perceived maternal acceptance, r = .02. Additionally, the results show that 79 perceived physical competence and object-control skill performance were not correlated, r = .11. Thus, the third hypothesis was not supported. Wu: It was hypothesized that for both the E and C groups, (N = 27), the variance in pre-test performance on the object-control subscale of the TGMD would be accounted for by the number of risk factors present. The E and C Groups had a combined mean of 4.5 (SD = 1.5) risk factors as determined by the interview. An analysis of this hypothesis was conducted by using a simple regression procedure. The results in Table 17 indicate that the number of risk factors to which the children in this study were exposed had little, if any, influence on their object-control skills performance as measured by the TGMD. Hypothesis four was not supported. Table 17. . . . _ WW”. I-: 151'” ill) EE'lEl R2 b beta Significance of T .068 -.551 -.260 .190 H I] . E' It was hypothesized that for both the E and C groups, perceived maternal acceptance as measured by the pre-test 80 PSPCSA would be moderately correlated with the total PARQ scores. The means and standard deviations for the total PARQ scores and for the four PARQ subscale scores are reported in Table 18. Although maternal acceptance was the variable of interest in this study, a Pearson Product Moment correlation was calculated to determine the relationship between PARQ scores and each of the four subscales of the PSPCSA. The results of this statistical procedure are reported in Table 19. Table 18. II I SI 1 i E . I. E I] EEE: Subscale Mean SD *Total PARQ 108.29 11.55 Warmth 9.93 2.35 Neglect 11.30 2.81 Reject 18.41 5.39 Hostile 39.56 7.21 *reflects reversed scoring procedure 81 Table 19. E J I. I. l I EEE: l E EIEE E l J S Cognitive Physical Maternal Peer PARQ .36 .21 .21 .17 The results above indicate no significant relationship between any of the four subscale scores of the PSPCSA and the PARQ score. Thus, the fifth hypothesis was not supported. Chapter 5 QUALITATIVE RESULTS Nature_of_the_£amil¥ Qualitative aspects go beyond explaining the results and findings of the study, they also help to capture the setting as it was experienced by the participants in the study. This chapter will be concerned with understanding the nature of the families involved in the study. Specifically, this chapter will delineate the typical familial risk factors experienced by families in the study. Secondly, the role of the extended family and kin-network will be examined. Thirdly, this chapter will focus on the activity patterns and attitudes of the parent participants in the study. Finally, this chapter will focus on the activity patterns of children and parents together. Four assertions have been made in this chapter. Each assertion is supported by evidence from selected field notes, published documents, interviews and informal conversations from parents, children, and teachers in the setting. The four assertions are presented below with the supporting evidence. The first assertion addresses the nature of familial risk factors experienced by the majority of families in this study. Many of the families in the study had risk factors that were unique to their family or children. However, the corpus of the data revealed that several familial risk 82 83 factors were present or threatening to all of the families involved in the study. Familial risk factors are defined in Chapter One as the environmental factors that threaten the integrity and daily functioning of the family. Familial risk factors include: (a) poverty, (b) absence of biological father through lack of contact, separation, divorce, or death; (c) living in a high risk community or neighborhood, (d) chronic or disturbed family relations, (e) problems related to mental and physical health of the parent, and (f) physical and/or substance abuse and/or the incarceration of a parent. The second assertion discusses the nature of assistance provided by extended family and the kin-network. The ability to cope with problems inherently faced by each of the families was also dependent upon the ability to utilize resources outside the immediate family. The extended family was often instrumental in providing housing needs, child care needs, and financial assistance for children. The third assertion addresses the activity patterns of the parents and their attitudes toward the value of physical activity. Many of the parents in the study recognized the importance and value of physical activity. However, few of the parents participated in physical activity on a regular basis to derive health benefits. Many of the parents expressed that time and health prevented them from being physically active on a consistent basis. 84 The fourth assertion addresses the nature of the activity patterns of mothers with their children. It is often within the context of the family that children learn behaviors that will promote the development of a healthy lifestyle. However, few parents participated with their children in the level of physical activity necessary to promote a healthy lifestyle. Assertion One: The typical family has familial risk factors that includb an absent father, poverty/lav income, and living in a dangerous neighborhood. AbsencemzLEather One of the common risk factors indicated by the families in the study is the absence of the child's biological father. Of the 27 families involved in this study, 19 of the mothers reported that they were single and have never been married. Five of the mothers indicated that they were presently married; two had been separated or divorced from their mate; and one parent had been widowed. Table 20 depicts the percentage of mothers who were married, single, and divorced or separated in the study. The single matriarch-headed household is more common among African-American families than European-American families. In the United States, 56.7% of all African- American families are headed by a single female, as compared to 18.1% of the European-American families Study of Social Policy, the number of infants born to unmarried women, 85 (Center for the 1992). This trend is due in part to especially among African-American women. Table 20. ll 'I 1 5| I E E I E I. . I Status n Percent Single 19 70% Married 5 19% Divorced/Separated 2 7% Widowed 1 4% Many of the single mothers in this study had sole responsibility of providing financially for their family. Parents were asked received financial mothers, only 5 of provided financial in the risk factor interview if they support from the father. Of the 19 single the mothers indicated that the fathers assistance for their child. Fourteen mothers indicated that no such support was provided for them. The mothers expressed concern over the lack of financial assistance they received from the biological father. The unavailability of the biological fathers to care for and nurture children was also a concern. 86 The vignette that follows exemplifies the absence of the biological father from planned school functions. In January, the teachers from Cradle School A planned a special program in honor of all of the African-American fathers of Cradle School. A.special invitation was sent home with each of the mothers to give to the biological fathers or other males present in the child's life. The invitation list included all 55 current attendees (0-2 year olds included) at the Cradle school and 20 past attendees. The invitation read: "Dear Father/Caretaker, Please be our guest. We would like you to attend the 2nd Annual Cradle School's Banquet in Honor of the African-American male. The Banquet will be held on Thursday, March 9th beginning at 6:00 PM and ending at 8:00 PM. There will be lots of food and games. We hope to see you there. Sincerely, Cradle School. Teachers & Staff." Special preparations were made by the Cradle School Staff. The gymnasium was decorated with brightly colored balloons and streamers. A special ceremony was planned in honor of the fathers. The event was promoted several times during Cradle School sessions. On March 9th, 15 mothers showed up with their children. Each brought a dish to pass and something to drink. Unfortunately, only three of the fathers from the Cradle School attended the program that evening. When one of the Cradle School teachers was questioned about the low 87 attendance, she replied, "We didn't have very much attendance last year either, I think only five or six dads showed up." Similarly on June 12th, parents were invited to attend graduation ceremonies from 12:00 PM to 3:00 PM. A letter was sent home with each child indicating that parents, grandparents, fathers, aunts and uncles were encouraged to attend the event. For all of the 55 preschool attendees, 75 parents and grandparents came to the ceremony. Of the 75 guests, a total of four fathers attended the ceremonies. An informal interview with a teacher from Cradle School revealed some of the possible reasons for the lack of involvement from the biological father. Researcher: Are very many of the fathers involved with the children from Cradle School? Teacher: Well that depends on what you mean. A lot of our children's dads are not around, period. Many of the mothers from Cradle School have boyfriends, but they don't marry them. They have kids together, but they don't get married. Researcher: Why do you think that happens? Teacher: Well you have to understand something about the African-American male. There just aren't jobs for a lot of our men. Sometimes they might have a kid, but it doesn't mean they can support it (the child). And too, a lot of teenagers and young women want to have babies. We have a lot of strong women in our community that end up trying to be both mommy and daddy. 88 W A second familial risk factor common among families involved in this study is poverty. Poverty guidelines, defined by the Office of Management and Budget, are based upon the poverty threshold which determines the amount an individual or family should make depending upon its size. The poverty threshold is adjusted annually at the rate of the consumer price index. Individuals and families who make 185% of their respective poverty threshold are eligible for various types of public assistance (US Census Bureau, 1990). Public assistance includes public or subsidized housing, food stamps, cash (Aid to Families with Dependent Children), and Medicaid. Of the 27 families involved in the study, 20 parents indicated that they received some type of public assistance. Parents were not asked to specify which kind of public assistance they received, only if they received public assistance. Therefore, it can be assumed that many of the families in the study were from a low income background. Moreover, the unemployment rate of parent participants was quite high. Thirteen of the parent participants in the study were unemployed. None of the participants in the study held a professional job requiring a college education. Thirteen parent participants held jobs that paid an hourly wage. One parent participant held a technical job (viz., beautician). Table 21 depicts the status of employment of the parent participants. 89 Table 21. 1] SI I E E I E I. . I Parent Name Job Type Hours Weekly Approximated) Kanita 2 Fast food jobs 50 Sheena Girl Scout Coordinator 20 Kendra Unemployed 0 Marquita Beautician 20 Darcy Unemployed 0 Keely Flower shop 25 Sharita Canning factory 30 Keesha Hospital orderly 40 Sheila Unemployed 0 Tamara Unemployed 0 Corrine Auto factory 25 Sarita Unemployed 0 Tamika Unemployed 0 Marcelle Unemployed 0 Lillie Canning factory 20 Candy Athletic Shoe Store 25 Camille Unemployed 0 Peggy Unemployed 0 Tina Clothing Store 25 Virginia Unemployed 0 Betty .Auto factory 20 Echelle Clothing Store 25 Karrie Supermarket 25 Yolanda Unemployed 0 Rashawn Laundry Attendant 20 Juanita Unemployed 0 Chantelle Unemployed 0 Note: All names have been changed to protect the identity of the parent participants. In addition, three indicators have been strongly linked to poverty (Center for the Study of Social Policy, 1993). These factors are: (a) the mother has fewer than 12 years of schooling, (b) the mother is not married to child's father, and (c) the mother was less than 20 years old when she gave 9O birth to her first child. The more of these factors that are present, the more likely a family is to be poor. Each of these factors was analyzed to determine the risk for poverty. X£a£5_af_achaaling. Twenty-six of the parent participants indicated that they received a minimum of a twelfth grade education. One participant indicated that she had a tenth grade education. Four of the participants indicated that they were currently enrolled in a junior college trying to receive a two-year associates degree. The lack of a twelfth grade education was not a risk factor for the majority of participants in this study. However, the data should also be interpreted cautiously. Parent participants were not asked to indicate whether or not their twelve grade education was obtained by a Graduate Equivalency Diploma. N9L.mannied_LQ_£aLher. As discussed previously, the majority of women in this study were not married to their child's father. Only 5 of the 27 parent participants, (18.5%) indicated that they were married. The absence of the children's fathers does appear to be a risk factor for the children in this study. .Aae_Q£_mQLhez. The age at which the mother gave birth to her first child is considered to be a predictor of poverty. Sixteen of the 27 mothers, (59%) gave birth to their first child when less than 20 years of age. 91 Additionally, two of the 27 mothers gave birth at the age of 20. The low maternal age is a risk factor for the majority of women in this study. W A third familial risk factor facing most of the families was living in a dangerous area, neighborhood, and school district. Families in the Cradle Schools faced the daily threat of violence and crime. Moreover, both Cradle Schools were at times the target of crime and violence. Cradle School A and Cradle School 8 are within three miles of each other. Both of the schools have been targets of crime. Heavy steel doors protect the entrance of both schools from possible intruders. Cradle School B has a video camera and elaborate alarm system for all visitors who enter the school. To document that the neighborhood was dangerous, crime statistics for the north side and south sides of the city were obtained from the police department for the month of February, 1996. The north side of the city is considered the most dangerous area in the community. The low cost housing and housing projects are located on the north side of the town. Most of the houses have iron bars to protect windows and entrance ways. Conversely, the south side of the city has a substantially lower crime rate. The area is predominantly a working class neighborhood. Figures 4 and 5 respectively show the difference between the north and south sides of the city. 92 Month of February 1996 Number of Crimes l Murder Rape Robbery Assault Burglary Larceny Auto Then Arson Typo of Games Eigure.1. Crime Statistics of the North Side of the City. 93 Month of February 1996 Number of Crimes 10 9 I 4 2 9 0 0 Murder Rape Robbery Assault Burglary Larceny Auto Theft Arson Type of Crime: Einnz£_5. Crime Statistics of the South Side of the City. 94 The results shown in Figures 4 and 5 portray the types of crime that were committed during the month of February. According to the department where these statistics were generated, the winter is generally the safest time in the city. There is a dramatic rise in crime as the weather improves. Furthermore, the city where this study was conducted was listed as one of the ten most dangerous cites in the United States (Updegrave, 1994). The crime rate reported was based on the number of crimes per capita and police protection as reported by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The city has a reported crime rate of 149.8 per 1000 persons (U.S. Atlas, 1993). The principal and teachers provided accounts of several acts of violence that have occurred on or near the grounds of each school. Below is an account provided by one of the teachers in Cradle School B. This story was corroborated by a police officer and two other teachers. "This neighborhood can be very dangerous. Especially the wooded park behind our school. Don't ever go walking back there by yourself. You never know what can happen. At the beginning of the year, back in September, a body was found. I guess the girl had gone for a walk in the park. The police officers found her body right before school one morning. She had been stabbed and raped several times." Teachers from Cradle School B reported random acts of violence near their school building. At a staff meeting on September 12, 1994, the teachers discussed at length the 95 problem of locking the door that faces the playground. Many teachers expressed concern that students would not be able to get into the building quickly if necessary. The discussion was prompted because of a drive-by shooting that occurred near the park that faces the playground during the spring of 1993. Teachers expressed concern that they needed to make sure all students were safe while they were at school. Crime was also a problem in each of the school buildings. Many teachers warned outsiders of the necessity to put away valuables so that they would not be the targets of crime. While conducting one of the intervention sessions this researcher had the contents from her purse stolen. Below is a vignette describing the incident that occurred on March 20th. The researcher was in the gymnasium with several parents who were participating in the study. The lunch room attendants sat in the corner talking. While the researcher was filming some of the children in the study, an unfamiliar parent came into the gymnasium. She first approached the lunch room attendants to ask a question, then came over to sit on a bench where the researcher's purse was sitting. The lunch room attendant approached the researcher quickly after the parent left the room. "She took your wallet. I saw her take your wallet. Check your purse." After confirming the lunch room attendant's story, many teachers in the building stated that the parent had stolen on at least two other occasions. Many of the teachers expressed that they suspected that the parent had a drug problem. Afterwards, several of the teachers expressed that no one could 96 be trusted in the school building, not parents, not children, not even teachers. Crimes were also committed in the elementary school buildings. On three occasions, perpetrators broke into the elementary school building of Cradle School A. On one occasion, a fax machine was stolen and glass was shattered in the main entrance way of the building. Many teachers expressed concern when they bought physical education equipment for the children. A quote from one teacher in the motor skill inquiry group expresses this concern: "The only thing bad about getting new equipment is that we are afraid that someone will break into the school and get it. We need to find a secure room so that the equipment can be stored." Two of the parents also reported criminal acts against their property during the course of the intervention. Below are both of the vignettes that occurred as the parents reported them on each occasion: On March 12th, Candy came into the school building visibly upset. She said that she had to walk to school because someone had broken the windows of her car and slashed the tires. She wasn't sure when she was going to be able to get the car fixed. On April 15th, Chandelle came into the Cradle School. She stated that someone had broken into her house and stolen her television set. She said that no one was home at the time of the incident. Crime and violence for many of the families is a part of everyday life. Moreover, many of the mothers in the study 97 expressed a deeper concern that their sons would get caught up in the violence and crime. Three of the mothers indicated that they worried about their sons becoming involved in the violence around them. Each of their comments is provided below: "I guess I am pretty tough on him. But I do it because I worry about him. The streets can be pretty tough on young black boys. I don't want him to get sucked into the violence and crime." "Our neighborhood is pretty rough. I don't want him to make the wrong decisions when he grows up." "I don't want him to fall into the mess that his older brother fell into last year. His older brother got mixed up with the wrong bunch. They went to a liquor store and held it up. He sat in the car. The only reason he is not doing time now is because he was seventeen years old. I thank God for that." In an informal conversation, one of the Cradle School teachers stated that many parents fear for their boys. She further stated that this concern was echoed in many of the parenting classes that she taught in the community. Many of the parents worry that they will "lose their sons to the street." She further stated that what was more disturbing was the attitude expressed by many young men. She explained that she overheard a group of seven or eight boys talking. The topic they were discussing is what they would do when they got out of prison. The implication was that prison was 98 going to be part of life, just as graduation or any normal life event. The qualitative results showed that many families existed without the financial or emotional support of the father. Additionally, many of the families lived in conditions of poverty or low income as evidenced by the unemployment and low paying jobs of the parent participants. Lastly, many of the families lived in a dangerous neighborhood and school district. .Aseertion Two: The extended family and kin-network‘provide financial and supportive resources that enable families to meet their needs. Many families relied on the extended family and the kin-network to meet both financial and social needs. The extended family included the aunts, mothers, sisters, and grandmothers of the parents in the study. The kin-network included friends and boyfriends of the parents involved in the study. Often, these networks were useful in helping families cope with child care, child rearing, and housing needs. The extended family and kin-network were essential for most of the parents in this study who were employed. As previously discussed, many of the women in the study had low paying jobs. For many of the women, paying for child care was not an affordable option. Instead, many of the single 99 women relied on the support of the extended family or extended family network. The child care arrangements for the working single women are described in Table 22. The extended family also helped to provide housing for several families in the study. Ten of the mothers in the study shared a residence with extended family members. Co- habitation with extended family members allowed some families to meet basic financial obligations. It also allowed some mothers to pursue an educational or career goal. For others, co-habitation with the extended family provided children with a stable environment that parents could not otherwise provide them. Three examples of women who lived with an extended family as a way of sharing costs are provided: Keesha is a 22 year old single mother. She shares a residence with her sister in a nearby apartment. Keesha prides herself on not accepting.AFDC payments or any type of governmental assistance. To make ends meet she works as a hospital orderly 40 hours per week. She and her sister take turns watching the children in their apartment. Sheena is the mother of two children ages four and eight years. She is 27 years old and single. She receives no help from either of the children's biological fathers. She works part-time as a girl scout coordinator. She shares a residence with her mother and her oldest sister who also has two children. They reside in the house where Sheena was raised. Sheena and her sister often take turns watching the children so that each of them can work. Sheena's mother also helps with child care. 100 Table 22. E E .1] E Z] 11 : Parent Name Relation Kanita Mother Sheena Mother and sister Marquita Mother Keely Mother Keesha Sister Corrine Mother Candy Mother Tina Mother Betty Mother Echelle Mother Rashawn Boyfriend Karrie Boyfriend Lillie is a 34 year old mother of three children, ages 4, 10, and 18 years. Lillie was unemployed until recently when she landed a job at a canning factory. She shares a residence with her father, his girlfriend, and their three year old child in the home where she was raised. lOl Sometimes, sharing a residence enabled a young single mother to pursue educational goals that would not otherwise be achievable. Two of the mothers in the study were trying to pursue educational goals at a local community college. Living with extended family enabled each of these young mothers to pursue an educational goal: Marquita is a 25 year old single mother. She has two children ages eight and four years. Marquita works approximately 20 hours a week as beautician at a local salon. In addition, she is taking classes at the local community college to become a respiratory therapist. Marquita shares a residence with her mother and her younger sister in their home. Echelle is 24 year old single parent. Her son is four years old. Together, they live in her parents house. Echelle works 25 hours per week at the supermarket. In addition, she is attending a local college in a medical technician program. Her mother helps her with child care so that she can go to school and earn money for herself and her child. At other times, the extended family offers a stable home life for children that the parent themselves could not otherwise provide. Below are two vignettes describing children and parents who live in a residence with extended family members: Sarita is a 33 year old single parent. She has three children ages 18, 12, and 4 years. She was forced to give up custody of her 12 year old daughter and her 4 year old daughter because of a problem with drugs. Her mother and sister each were awarded custody of one of the children. Sarita attends the Cradle Center with her child on a bi- weekly basis and lives at home with her sister even though she does not have legal custody of her daughter. 102 Trice is a 53 year old grandmother. Her daughter, Corona is 26. Her granddaughter, aged 4 years, and daughter reside with her because of Corona's drug problem. Trice feels that she can take better care of her granddaughter than her daughter can, because "she don't know what she is doing." Trice is one of the two grandmothers who came regularly to the Cradle School. Two of the older mothers in the study also had the role of being grandmothers. This dual role involved being a parent to their child and a source of support for their grandchildren. Below are two vignettes describing the dual role that these individuals played: Peg is a 39 year old mother who is married. She has four children ages 22, 19, 12, and 4. Her 22 year old daughter has two children, ages 4 and 5. Both of these children live with Peg. According to Peg, her oldest daughter is not capable of taking care of her own children. Peggy claims that her oldest daughter uses drugs frequently. Shiela is a 37 year old mother with three children, ages 4, 10, and 18. Her daughter, 18, recently had a baby. According to Shiela, both her daughter and her grandchild will continue to reside with her until she can afford a place of her own. Sheila provides child care for her oldest daughter while she is finishing school and working a part-time job. Kin:netuazk. The kin-network which included friends, neighbors, and boyfriends was also useful in helping families meet day-to-day needs. The kin-network often involved a more reciprocal relationship than the extended family. Bartering and exchanging were often used to help families make ends meet. Below is a vignette involving two 103 mothers who exchanged money to help themselves financially support each other when their money sources dwindled. On March 7th, Candy, one of the Cradle School parents told of the arrangement she had made with her best friend, who was also a Cradle School parent. She said that she and her friend had a "revolving twenty dollars." Each was a single mother with a young child. The mothers had paydays on opposite Fridays of the month. On payday, the paid mother would drop by the other mother's house and leave $20.00. Candy stated that she had no idea how this tradition had started but there were many times when the $20.00 helped her get through the week until payday. Bartering did not involve the exchange of money in the kin-network but rather the exchange of services: On March 20th, Rashawn, who was employed as a laundry attendant discussed the arrangement she had with her live-in boyfriend. She stated that she has never asked him to pay her money for rent, but instead he watches the children whenever she is at work. She states that her boyfriend has been unable to find work, but is currently looking. At other times bartering involved less substantive needs. Below is a vignette describing bartering for personal needs between two of the Cradle School parents. On May lst, Sheila stated that she really wanted to go to the beautician to get her hair done in dreadlocks but she was broke until payday. One of the mothers stated that she wasn't a beautician but she knew how to braid hair in dreadlocks. She stated she would be happy to do it for her. In return, she asked that the other mother cook her dinner. She said she wanted barbecued chicken and pie for dessert. 104 The qualitative results indicated that the extended family and kin-network played a vital role in providing needed support to families. The extended family provided child care, housing, and financial resources to families. The kin-network provided financial resources and supportive services to families in the study. Assertion Three: Although.manygparents have‘positive attitudes toward physical activity, few parents have developed activity ‘patterns that are condUcive to the long'tern‘prevention of chronic disease and illness. Most of the parent participants acknowledged the importance of physical activity and its value. However, the prevention of chronic disease and illness requires consistent participation in light to moderate daily physical activity. The majority of the parents in the study did not participate in physical activity frequently enough to meet these guidelines. The participation patterns of parents can be grouped into the following categories: (a) frequent participators, (b) occasional participators, and (c) infrequent and non-participators. Each of the categories as well as the reasons for non-participation are discussed below. E I E I. . I Overall, few parents indicated that they participated in physical activity on a consistent basis. Of the 27 105 parent participants, only 6 parents, (22%) indicated that they participated in physical activity more than 3 times per week. The type of activities that these parents participated in are reported in Table 23. Table 23. E I l I. . . ] . J I. 'I 1 basis Parent Frequency Activity Number 1 Daily Walking Daily Aerobics or walking 3 Daily Walking 4 Daily Walking 5 Daily Walking 6 Daily Walking Interestingly, three of the parents who walked daily indicated that they walked because they had no other means of transportation. Their comments reflect that walking is a activity done out of necessity, not always choice: "I walk kids to the bus stop every day, otherwise I probably wouldn't walk." "I have to walk every day, I don't have a car." "I walk because I don't have transportation." The other three parents who participated in daily activity indicated that physical activity was a choice for 106 them. Their comments seemed to indicate that they valued physical activity: "I walk daily or do some type of aerobics because I need to stay active, I believe in it. "It is really important. I walk every day to be active,its really important. "I walk every day 4 blocks. I believe it is important for my physical health." : . J E I. . I Five of 27 of the parent participants (19%) in the study indicated that they engaged in physical activity on an occasional basis. Occasional basis meant one to two times per week. These activity patterns are reported in Table 24. Table 24. . . . . . . EaIgnLa_WhQ_fagLlClpaL£_ln_Bh¥Slcal_AQ£lMlL¥ Parent Frequency Activity 1 1-2 times per Aerobics week 2 1 time per week Roller skate 3 1 time per week Walking 4 2 times per week Walking 5 2 times per week Walking 107 Many parents who participate in physical activity occasionally acknowledged the value of physical activity, but often indicated that they were too busy or that time prevented them from participating in physical activity. The comments below reflect the attitudes of parents who occasionally participate in physical activity: "I think physical activity is really important. I go to an aerobics class at the community college twice per week. I really don't have much time for anything else." "I think activity is important. I roller skate once per week and I usually go bowling. I'd like to go more, but I really don't have the time." "I walk twice per week. I know I should be more active, but I really don't have time." "I'm really busy, but I walk twice per week, it really gives me a peace of mind." One of the parents who occasionally walked one to two times per week indicated that physical activity really wasn't that important to her. Her comment indicated a lack of value concerning the benefits of physical activity: "I don't think physical activity is very important, although I do try to walk once or twice a week. Most of the time I'm busy or too tired to exercise." Inf I i H _ I. . I Most of the parents in the study seldom participated in any physical activity. Infrequent participation was defined as those parents who participated in physical activity less 108 than one time per week or did not participate at all. Sixteen of the 27 parent participants (59%) indicated that they seldom participated in physical activity of any kind. Most of the parents who seldom participated in physical activity acknowledged that it was important, but, did not participate for health reasons or for lack of time. Below are some of the comments that reflected the struggle with time that some parents felt prevented them from participating in regular physical activity: "After they canceled my class, I really haven't gotten back into it. I am busy, but I know I should go." "I know physical activity is important, but I haven't been able to find the time. I work 50 hours per week, and its hard. "I guess it is important, but I don't have the time." "I do try to walk when I get a chance. It just isn't very often." "It is important, I just don't have the time. I work a lot." "Physical activity is important, I know I should start, I just don't know if I have the time." "I don't do anything on a regular basis, but I do know it is important." "I know I should be more active. but I don't have the time." "I probably don't exercise as much as I should." Interestingly, some parents also indicated that health- related problems prevented them from participating in 109 physical activity on a regular basis. Among the problems most frequently mentioned were weight, bad knees, and respiratory-related problems. The comments below are from parents who had health-related problems that kept them from participating in physical activity on a regular basis: "I know I should exercise more, but I have bad knees." "I used to do aerobics, but I just haven't been able to get back into them. I haven't felt good lately." "I also think my weight keeps me from exercising on a regular basis. I mean I am heavy. I know it is important to stay active." I think my weight keeps me from doing anything really physical. I know physical activity is probably important. " "I have asthma, I guess it keeps me from participating in physical activity. I know I should be more active." "I have bad knees because I am heavy, I also have asthma. I guess I probably should try harder to stay active." Three of the parents indicated that they had no interest in physical activity at all. Below are the comments of parents that indicated they were not interested in pursuing anything physical, because they did not enjoy physical activity: "I try do as little as possible. I do not enjoy any type of physical activity at all.” "I don't like to participate in physical activity, it just isn't one of my priorities. Believe me, I can find a lot of other things that I would much rather be doing." 110 "I pretty much don't like anything physical. It is not important to me at all." The qualitative results indicate that very few parents participated in physical activity on a regular basis. In fact, most parents in this study seldom or never participated in physical activity. Most of the parents acknowledged that they thought physical activity was important. However, many of the parents seemed to indicate that time was a limitation in their desire to participate in physical activity. Other parents indicated that health problems such as weight and respiratory problems kept them from participating in physical activity. Three of the parents indicated that physical activity was not important at all. .Assertion Four: Fewgparents engage in physical activities with their children on a regular basis. It is often within the context of the family that health-related behaviors and patterns of activity develop. Unfortunately, few parents in the study participated with their children in physical activity. Child interviews established that 13 of the 27 mothers (48%) did not play with their children. Some of the selected comments are indicated: 111 "We do nothing together." "We don't play any games together." "Mom doesn't play with me, she works a lot." "We go to the store, but we don't play that's it, we just go to the store." "My mom don't play games." "My mom doesn't play with me, she busy." "We don't play together, but sometimes does." games, my uncle "She won't play with me, sometimes her boyfriend plays, but I don't like him." Some parents did engage in activities of a sedentary nature with their children. Ten of the 27 children (37%) indicated that they played games of a sedentary nature with their mothers. Sedentary games are games which involve little or limited amounts of physical activity. children's comments are listed below: "We play Candyland." "My "We "We "My "My "We "We mom swings me on the swings." play Ninja Turtles." play blocks together." mom plays Clue with me." mom plays Frog with me." play Power Ranger." play peek-a-boo." "She plays the bird game with me." "We play with dolls." The 112 Some of the sedentary games that parents play with their children are playful games involving both parent and child. Games such as "peek-a-boo," "the frog game," and "the bird game" involved rules that the parent and child made up together as they played. Other games such as "Ninja Turtle," and the "Power Rangers" also involves interaction between the parent and the child that is based on popular cartoon and television characters. These games involve some pretense on the part of parent and child. Games such as Candyland and Clue were commercially available board games that parent and child played together. Each of the games involved little physical activity for the parent and child. Only 4 of the 27 parents(15%) indicated that they played games of an active nature with their children: "We ride jeeps together, ride bikes, and hit balls together." "I play kickball with my mom." "We play basketball together." "We ride bikes together." The lack of involvement with their children in physical activity was also corroborated by the parents. Eleven of the 27 parents (41%) indicated that they did not engage in any physical activity with their children. Some of their comments are indicated: 113 "I don't play with my daughter, but occasionally her dad does." "Well we drive in the car together, but we don't really do anything physical together." "I guess we really don't do anything too physical together." "We really don't do anything physical, but I read her books." "I try to play with her, but I don't really get a chance. I am really busy." Additionally, 7 of the 27 parents indicated that they participated in games of a more sedentary nature with their children. Some of the comments indicated by the parents are listed: "We go bowling together every once in a while." "We play nintendo. " "Sometimes we swing outdoors together." "She likes to play a couple of board games. We sometimes play those together." "We wrestle around sometimes." "We like to wrestle. I pin her down." "We play Candyland together." The above comments indicate that many of the parents were involved in games of a more sedentary nature. Some of the activities such as wrestling were classified as sedentary because of a value judgment by the researcher. 114 Both of the parents involved were quite large. The researcher felt that this activity was more of a playful activity between parent and child. Swinging was also classified as a sedentary activity. Many children observed at this age like to be pushed on a swing. Interestingly, 9 of the 27 parents reported that they participated in some type of physical activity with their child. Five of these respondents appeared to participate in physical activity on a regular basis: "We do some type of exercise together once a week." "We walk together at least 3-4 times per week." "We go skating once a week." "We do gymnastics together at home a couple of times per week." "We play basketball, we bowl, and we play football together. I guess we try to do something a couple of times per week." Four of the parents indicated that they participated in activities with their children on a less regular basis: "We try batting together and we jump rope every once in a while." "We ride bikes together in the summer." "We play basketball every so often." "We try to play catch together every once in a while." 115 The interview data collected from the children and parents suggest that most parents do not participate in regular physical activity with their children. Moreover, when parents do participate in activity, the activities appear to be of a more sedentary nature. I' . E : ]'| I. E 1| The qualitative results in this chapter focused on (a) the nature of familial risk factors, (b) the resources provided by the extended family and kin-network, (c) the activity patterns of parents involved in the study, and (d) the activity patterns of children and adults together. These results were discussed throughout the chapter as they were presented. A more thorough discussion of these factors is presented below. Three familial risk factors were identified during the course of this study. It should be noted, however, that often it is not the number of risk factors that determines the "at-risk" status, but rather the nature of the risk factors present. For instance, the presence of certain biological risk factors (e.g., otitis media, low birthweight) may not be problematic for a child if the child has a context that is supportive (e.g., parents with resources, health insurance, education). However, biological risk factors may be exacerbated in an environment that lacks support for the child (e.g., parent in poverty, no health insurance, little education). It is the absence 116 or presence of familial risk factors that determines whether a child will thrive or fail in life. The risk factors that were identified included poverty, absence of a father, and living in a dangerous area or neighborhood. Although many of the children in this study had additional risk factors, the presence of these three risk factors is indicative of a context that may not be beneficial to positive developmental outcomes. The overall lack of the biological father's involvement in the lives of the children in this study is disturbing. Undoubtedly, children who do not have the emotional and economic support from their father are disadvantaged. However, a high percentage of single parents in the African-American population has been reported (Center for Studies of Social Policy, 1992). Moreover, the presence of poverty, low income, and high crime rates was not a surprising finding in this study. The city has an estimated 44% of its persons (including children) living in poverty. According to Statistical Profile of Children (1994), the city was ranked 197th out of 200 metropolitan areas with over 100,000 persons for the number of persons meeting poverty guidelines. Of the city's population of 42,226, it is estimated that 18,859 (44.6%) of the persons in the city meet the federal definition of poverty. Additionally, it is not surprising in a large metropolitan city with few economic opportunities and high poverty rates that crime would be high. 117 The qualitative results revealed that the extended family and kin-networks provided resources to the families in the study. This finding can be interpreted in light of the fact that 88% of the families in this study lived in the city all of their life. Many of the parents in the study expressed that they attended the same public school that their children are now attending. It appeared that many of the families in the study were not mobile. The resources provided by the extended family included child care, hOusing, and financial resources. These resources, undoubtedly, allowed some families to survive, in spite of their negative circumstances. In some cases, these resources may have counterbalanced the negative effect of risk factors. Additionally, the qualitative results revealed that few parents participated in physical activity on a regular basis that would sustain health-related benefits. The fact that 78% of the parents did not participate in any regular physical activity is an alarming finding. These data coincide with the data found in the US population as a whole. According to the Centers of Disease Control, only 22% of people age 22 and older engage in physical activity at least 5 times per week (as cited by US Department of Health and Human Services, 1990). These results did not focus on the intensity of the physical activity or its duration. However, it appears that the majority of parent 118 participants do not engage in activity that would be classified as being of light to moderate intensity. Lastly, parents do not appear to be frequently involved in physical activities with their children. Ultimately, it is within the context of the family that health-related. behaviors are learned and practiced. It does not appear that many parents are participating in behaviors that are conducive to a healthy lifestyle with their children. In conclusion, the assertions presented in this chapter reflect an understanding of the environmental context of the parents and children involved in the study. Information has been presented pertaining to the participants familial background and activity patterns. These assertions provide information that allows for a deeper understanding of the participants in the study and the context as it was interpreted by the researcher. CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of parent-assisted instruction on the acquisition of motor skills of children who were at-risk for academic failure or developmental delay. The specific objectives in this study included: (a) determining the effectiveness of an eight-week intervention involving parents on selected object-control skills, (b) determining the impact of changes in motor skill performance on the subscales of physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance, (c) investigating the relationship between motor performance and the subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance, (d) determining the relationship between risk factors and motor performance, (e) determining the relationship between maternal perception of acceptance and rejection and children's perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance. This chapter will be organized around a discussion of the findings and educational implications of each of the hypotheses generated. The primary purpose of this study was to determine the _._—-o---* effects of parent-assisted instruction on the motor skill 119 120 acquisition of children who are at-risk during the course of an eight-week intervention. The results of this study clearly show the positive effects of an eight-week motor skill intervention involving parents on the motor skill acquisition of children. Moreover, these findings corroborate the mounting evidence concerning the efficacy of motor skill interventions during early childhood (Miller, 1978; Kelly, Dagger, & Walkley, 1989; Connor, 1993; Goodway, 1994). The pre-test TGMD data revealed that both the experimental and control groups performed at or below the 20th percentile. Further analysis of the data revealed that 16 of the 27 children (59%) performed at or below the 5th percentile. The percentile scores for the E Group (M.= 19.80, SD.= 29.18) and the C Group (M,= 17.91, SD = 24.00) reflect the need for instruction, experience, and practice that many of the children lacked. The poor motor achievement of the children in this stud the baseline data for object-control skills of four and five year old children reported by Goodway (1994). Additionally, the lack of opportunities for children to engage in physical activity was corroborated by parents during an interview. Of the 27 parents interviewed, none of the parents indicated that their children participated in instructional or recreational activities other than school. The qualitative findings of this study further documented that many neighborhoods did not provide a safe context that 121 was supportive of practicing object-control skills outside the home. Several of the parents indicated that they did not allow their children to play outside because they felt the neighborhood was too dangerous for their children. A lack of opportunities for children to engage in physical activities was also supported in an earlier investigation with preschool-aged children who are at-risk (Goodway, 1994). The TGMD post-test percentile scores revealed that children in the Experimental Group (M,= 67.3, SD.= 29.37) performed substantially better after the eight-week intervention as compared to the Control Group (M,= 15.08, SD = 24.03). A further analysis of the data revealed that 10 of the 15 children in the E Group performed at or below the 5th percentile before the motor skill intervention, with two children performing at the 75th percentile. Following the intervention, ten of the children in the E Group performed at or above the 75th percentile. Additionally, a comparison of the raw mean scores obtained by the E Group on the post-test (M.= 6.40, SD.= 3HO8) to the mean score of the E Group on the pre-test (M 2.60, SD = 2.06) provides evidence of the dramatic improvements that occurred as a result of the parent- assisted intervention. In contrast, the raw mean scores for the C Group on the pre-test (M.= 2.50, SD = 1.67) showed little difference to results obtained by the C Group on the post-test (M,= 2.50, SD = 1.93). 122 It could be argued that the significant improvement of the E Group was due to the fact that the parents were spending more time with their children involved in physical activity. However, parents in the Control Group spent the same amount of time with their children involved in rhythmic and movement activities to popular musical tapes. The effects of this intervention, therefore, are attributed to the parental assistance provided in a planned motor skill program. We The findings of this study have implications for educators regarding the effectiveness of parent-assisted instruction of children who are at-risk. Federal mandates specified by Education Goals 2000 have called for an increased involvement of parents in the schools. The involvement of parents in the education of their children can help to bridge the gap between school and home-life. However, to date, none of the motor skill interventions involving young children and parents have been conducted within the schools. The results of this study show that parental participation is not only desirable, but that it can be effective. This study also underscores the philosophy that considers the parents of at—risk children as a potential resource. Often, educators view the parents of at-risk children from a deficit-model perspective. This study provides evidence that parents and educators can collaborate 123 as partners in the educational process to positively effect the outcomes of their children's educational goals. The results of this study also have implications for intervening in the future health and wellness of children who are at-risk. The relationship between poverty and low income to a sedentary lifestyle has been substantiated (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1991). Additionally, an inverse relationship between educational achievement and activity patterns also has been documented (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1991). Lastly, there is evidence to support the high mortality of coronary heart disease among African—Americans (Amler & Dull, 1987; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990). Educators who work with children who are at-risk need to understand the relationship between selected risk factors and the health and well-being of the children they teach. Moreover, well planned interventions should focus on reducing the disparities in health through education and preventative service programs involving children at-risk and their families. The qualitative findings in this study provide further testimony to the sedentary lifestyles of many of the parent participants. Moreover, Goodway (1994) documented that few parents of children who are at-risk learned the skills necessary to pursue an active and healthy lifestyle. Teaching children motor skills at an early age can provide children with opportunities to pursue an active lifestyle 124 thereby making it possible to offset the threat of chronic illnesses caused by a sedentary lifestyle. Conversely, children who do not learn motor skills may perpetuate the sedentary lifestyle that is commonly linked to chronic diseases and illnesses. A second objective of this study was to determine the effect of an eight-week motor skill intervention on the physical competence and maternal acceptance of the children involved in this study. Contextual Theory suggests that a change in one domain of behavior can potentially effect a change in another domain of behavior. The underlying assumption in this study was that a change in motor skill achievement would affect the perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance of the children in this study. Findings of the perceived maternal acceptance and perceived physical competence are discussed below. Wes-intense The intervention failed to yield statistically significant changes in perceived maternal acceptance between groups, E(1, 26)= 0.72, p < .403. No significant interaction 125 effect was reported 3(1, 26) = .02, p < .902. However, there was a significant time effect E(l, 26) = 7.67, p < .010. Certain facts emerged from the data that merit discussion. The perceived maternal acceptance of the children in this study improved for both experimental and control groups over the intervention period. An analysis of the mean scores the Experimental Group on the pre-test (M,= 3.45, SD = .53) to the post test (M = 3.72, SD = .49 reveals improvements. Similarly, the means scores for the Control Group on the pre-test (M,= 3.29, SD = 3.58) also show improvement. It is not likely that these improvements were due to the effect of the motor skill intervention. One possible explanation is that, prior to the intervention, the mothers were tested on their perceptions of acceptance or rejection towards their children. Subsequently, some of the mothers may have tried to change their behaviors toward their children in positive ways during the intervention period. The change in the perceived maternal acceptance may have been the result of some of the parents being more accepting of their children. The programmatic efforts of the Cradle school also could have contributed to the changes in perceived maternal acceptance. The direct involvement of parents in the classroom and in the physical activites of the children could have led to an increased maternal acceptance over time. Goodway (1994) reported a trend towards increased maternal acceptance over time. The increase was 126 attributed to the involvement of parents in many school- related functions. Earlier studies have reported a high perceived maternal acceptance among children who are at-risk for academic failure or developmental delay (Goodway, 1994; Overby, Branta, Goodway, & Smith, 1994). Enrthermore, it appears that children at-risk have higher perceived maternal acceptance than children predominantly from a middle class background (Harter & Pike, 1984). The means and standard deviations for each of these studies are reported in Table 25. Table 25. II ISIIII'I' E III IE I W Study Year M. SD Goodway 1994 3.44 .46 Overby et al. 1994 3.40 * Harter & Pike 1984 3.00 .85 * not reported The overall high perceived maternal acceptance of the preschool children was counter-intuitive to what the 127 researcher anticipated after being involved in the setting. Qualitative observations documented that some of the parent participants were physically punitive to their children. During the course of the intervention, some parents were observed hitting their children to punish or reprimand them. The researcher questioned the effect of this behavior on the perceived maternal acceptance of children. However, the children in this study appeared to have high maternal acceptance in spite of this behavior. The high maternal acceptance of children who are at- risk could be explained by a number of factors. One is the fact that young children in general, regardless of risk status, may not have developed the cognitive abilities to realistically determine maternal acceptance. Other researchers studying young children have suggested the inability of young children to make realistic judgments about their abilities (Stipek, 1981). Secondly, the punitive behavior observed by the researcher may have not been interpreted as punitive by the children. Children may have perceived their mothers as accepting regardless of the punishments that were bestowed upon them. Another possible reason for the high maternal acceptance scores is that children in this study have the support of many maternal figures. The qualitative data in this study showed that many aunts and grandmothers provided child care for the mothers in this study. It may be that children have high maternal acceptance because the support 128 and nurturance that is provided by the kin-network and extended family network is largely female. Lastly, many mothers may enjoy their role as mothers to their children. Many of the mothers attended parenting sessions and expressed a genuine concern for their children. The high maternal acceptance could be attributed to the satisfaction many of the mothers derived from motherhood. W The intervention failed to yield changes in perceived physical competence for group F(1,26)= 1.05, p,< .309 or time F(1,26)= 0.94, p,< .342. A comparison of the pre-test scores of perceived physical competence for children in the E Group (M,= 3.57, SD_= .38) and post test scores for children in this group (M,= 3.52, SD_= .42) revealed a slight reduction (.05) in the mean scores of perceived physical competence. However, this change is negligible and can be explained by the variation in children's answers that may be expected from giving the test on two different occasions. This finding is contrary to the results reported in an earlier study with preschool children who are at-risk for academic failure or developmental delay. Goodway (1994) reported a trend towards increased perceived physical competence for preschool aged children involved in a motor skill intervention. Perceived competence is a product of evaluative feedback from others and the reference group (Wylie, 1979). 129 The lack of change in physical competence could be that the intervention was eight weeks in length. The lack of time may not have been sufficient for children to internalize feedback from others and the reference group with respect to their skill level. Although not statistically significant, there was improvement in the raw scores of the C Group on the subscale of perceived physical competence. The post-test scores of the C Group (M.= 3.47, SD = .58) revealed improvement from the pre-test scores of C Group (M,= 3.25, SD = .67). This change (.22)suggests a positive increase in the perceived physical competence of the C Group and resulted in a mean score similar to that of the E Group. The increased in perceived physical competence of the C Group may have been due to due some of the activities experienced by this group during the intervention period. Some of the items on the test reflect activities that are often practiced outdoors by children when they are given the opportunity. Specifically, three of the items on the physical competence subscale (viz., running, climbing, and swinging) often emerge in preschool-aged children when given the opportunity to play outdoors. On three occasions, the C Group at Cradle School A, went outdoors for half of the physical education instructional period. The children were allowed to use the swings and climbers, and to run on the playground. Subsequently, the children were tested on the subscale of perceived physical competence. Potentially, 130 this may have contributed to the improvements found in perceived physical competence scores of children in the C Group. Lastly, the results of this study support the overall high perceived physical competence of young children reported in earlier studies (Goodway, 1994; Overby et al., 1994; Harter & Pike, 1984). The means and standard deviations for each of these studies are provided in Table 26. Most noteworthy is the high perceived physical competence scores of children who are at-risk reported in the Overby et al. (1994) and Goodway (1994) studies. Table 26. I! 1 SI I i I . I. E E . I E] . J W Study Year M. SD Goodway 1994 3.54 .36 Overby et al. 1994 3.70 * Harter & Pike 1984 3.33 .85 * not reported 131 W E 'lEl'] I A third objective of this study was to determine the relationship between pre-test performance on the object- control subscale of the TGMD and the perceived maternal acceptance and perceived physical competence scores for both the experimental and control groups. The results showed that there was no relationship between pre-test object- control scores as measured by the TGMD and the perceived maternal acceptance of children (r = .02). A positive relationship between perceived physical competence and performance on the object-control skills of the TGMD was expected. Stipek and Hoffman (1980) reported that preschool aged children are able to make accurate judgments about their abilities on motor tasks. Similarly, Harter & Pike (1984) reported that children are able to make some accurate judgments about their performance. However, the data obtained in this study revealed that there was no significant relationship between perceived physical competence and actual performance on the TGMD object-control subscale, r = .11. 132 A number of reasons may help to explain this finding. One possible reason is that young children in general make unrealistic judgments about their physical abilities. Children may not have developed the ability to make accurate comparisons of their abilities. This rationale was suggested by Stipek (1981). Secondly, the lack of a relationship between perceived physical competence and object-control performance may be attributable in part to the lack of variability of the preschool children in their performance on the perceived physical competence scale. The SD's of the E and C groups are (.38) and (.42), respectively. Goodway (1994) also reported little variability in children's responses on the perceived competence of children. In contrast, Harter (1984) reported a larger variation in children's responses (SD.= .85) In summary, it appears that there is no relationship between perceived maternal acceptance and the object-control skills of young children. The lack of a relationship between perceived physical competence and object-control skills raises the question of the ability of children to make accurate judgments about their performance as suggested by earlier studies (Harter & Pike, 1984; Stipek & Hoffman, 1980). Future investigations are warranted regarding this question. 133 I 1' I. E E! I The overall high perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance is a positive finding. It suggests to educators that young children start school with positive self esteem. This investigation also corroborates the results reported in earlier studies involving children who are at-risk (Overby et al., 1994; Goodway, 1994). The findings of high self-esteem of children suggest that educators may need to re-evaluate the way they perceive children and families who are atfrisk. Specifically, the "at-risk" label of young children may sometimes be a limited way of viewing children and their families. The qualitative data in this study revealed that many of the children come from backgrounds that include an extended family or kin- network. It may be that the extended family can help to buffer the ecology of riskiness. In other words, the young children in this study may have positive esteem because of the support and nurturance that the extended family provides. Educators should strive to learn more about the extended families and kin-networks in the communities that they serve. T] E J I. 1' E I E' l E I i :l' I-: I 1 51']] A fourth objective of this study was to determine the amount of variance in the pre-test object-control subscale 134 scores of the TGMD that is predicted by the number of risk factors. Using regression analysis, the number of risk factors accounted for only 6.8% of the variance among the object-control scores. There was however, a negative correlation (r,= -0.26) between the number of risk factors and object-control skills indicating an inverse relationship between these two variables. Thus, as the number of risk factors increased, performance on the object-control skills decreased. The investigation conducted by Goodway (1994) revealed that a large portion of the variance could be explained by specific risk factors. Maternal education and preschool readiness accounted for 47.42% of the variance in the performance on locomotor skills in Goodway's study. The influence of maternal education on object-control skills was not investigated in the current study because the parents were relatively homogeneous on the factor of maternal education (M.= 12.11, SD = .69)..Additionally, the factor of preschool readiness was not formally assessed by teachers in this preschool. The qualitative information obtained in this study suggests that the low scores obtained on the TGMD object- control subscale may be due to an interaction of a cluster of specific risk factors. The three most prevalent risk factors reported in this study were related to the familial and environmental context. These factors were single parenthood, poverty status, and living in a dangerous 135 context. Together, these factors may play a much more important role in the development of object-control skills than the actual number of risk factors present. The absence of the father or male caregiver places the entire burden of child care on the mothers involved in the study. Single mothers with limited resources may be busy with day-to-day survival. They may not have time to engage in recreational or instructional activities with their children. The qualitative data in this study revealed that few children engage in physical activities with their children. Secondly, poverty is stressful to the integrity of the family. Making sure the family has adequate food, shelter, and clothing are primary concerns of parents. Parents may be more concerned about the immediate needs of their family and less attentive to issues related to the future health and well-being of their children. Parents may not have the financial resources to invest in equipment that may encourage the developmentof object-control skills (e.g., balls and bats). Finally, living in a dangerous context has a direct connection to the opportunities that children may experience. Children who can not go outdoors for fear of the detrimental consequences are not engaging in lifetime skills. The dangerous context, therefore, may explain a lack of ability to perform object-control skills. 136 ImplicatinnmLEducators It appears that only a small amount of the variation that is observed in motor skill performance can be attributable to the number of risk factors that are present. However, this finding does not mean that risk factors do not impact motor skill performance. Rather, it highlights the fact that the number of risk factors alone does not appear to be of great consequence. However, these data should be interpreted with caution. It does appear that specific risk factors may influence the development of motor skill acquisition. Risk factors determined to influence the acquisition of motor skills may well be traced to the environmental and familial context. The absence of a father, poverty, and living in a dangerous context may be influential in the acquisition of motor skills. Educators should consider offering "Make and Take Workshops” for parents. These workshops could help parents construct low-cost equipment to be used at home. Equipment such as balls and bats could be made. Educators could also consider a "borrowing system" to allow parents to check equipment out for a couple of days. Lastly, educators should consider adding mother-child activity sessions to their programs. Providing a class for the mother and child together to exercise could be mutually benefical. Moreover, children who see that their mother exercises, may be more likely to adopt an active lifestyle. 137 E J I. l' I II J I . E E I E . . I 1']! , E . I : I I 3 . 1 E I The results of this study indicate that there was a low but positive correlation between the four subscales of the children's PSPCSA and the Maternal PARQ score. Therefore, there was little relationship between a mother's perception of accepting or rejecting behaviors and her child's perceived competence and social acceptance. The low relationship between self esteem and parental acceptance or rejection is contrary to an earlier investigation by Sears (1970) who found a high relationship (3 = .79) between the maternal acceptance and rejection and self esteem in elementary school aged children. The low correlation between the PSPCSA pre-test subscale scores (e.g.,physical, maternal, peer, cognitive) and PARQ scores may be attributed to the overall high self esteem of the children in this study. As discussed previously, the mean subscale scores of the PSPCSA ranged from 3.4 to 3.6. The maximum possible score is 4.0 for each of the subscales. The standard deviations ranged from .38 to .67 reflecting little variability in the perceived competence and social acceptance of children in the group. The lack of variability among the scores may have contributed to the lower correlations. 138 The low relationship between the mother's PARQ and the children's perceived maternal acceptance was perhaps the most surprising finding. It would seem reasonable to assume that a mother's perception of her own accepting or rejecting behaviors would have some relationship to a child's perception of maternal acceptance. This did not appear to be so. There was a low correlation between these two variables (r = 0.21). The low relationship found may be attributable to the fact that the young children in this study have not internalized their mothers behaviors as negative or punitive. The mean PARQ score (M_= 108.29, SD = 11.55) of the parent participants in this study was slightly lower than the mean score reported by Ohannessian, Lerner R., Lerner, J., 5 Von eye in 1995 (M_= 112.75, SD =11.01) for mothers of adolescent children. The slightly lower mean scores indicated that overall, parents in this study did perceive themselves as displaying more rejecting behaviors towards their children than parents of adolescent children in the Ohannessian et al. study. Comparison of the means above should be interpreted cautiously. Parents in the Ohannessian et a1. study were parenting adolescent children. Young children often require more attention and care than adolescent children. In addition, young children often spend a greater portion of their time with their mothers. This could in part explain 139 the slightly lower scores of perceived maternal acceptance reported by the mothers in this study. Perhaps the most interesting finding of the PARQ data was the differences that existed between the parents in their perceptions and display of warm and accepting behaviors. Qualitative observations were made of two parents who displayed extreme scores of parental acceptance and rejection. One parent who scored 80 on the PARQ did in fact display many rejecting behaviors of her child. She was frequently observed hitting her child and talking to her child in a hostile manner. A second parent who scored 134 on the PARQ displayed many warm behaviors. Although she was firm with her child, she frequently gave praise to her child on the work he completed, she smiled, and hugged her child often during the class. I 1' I. E E! I The results of this study show that there is little relationship between the maternal perception of accepting and rejecting behaviors and children's perception of acceptance. However, the data showed that there was considerable variability in the reported perceived maternal acceptance or rejection of mothers in this study. Moreover, there were differences in the ways in which parents displayed accepting and rejecting behaviors in the classroom. 140 Educators who wish to involve parents in programming efforts should be aware of possible differences in the accepting or rejecting behaviors displayed by parents, particularly if parents are involved in the classroom. These behaviors merit consideration in the instructional process. Parents who compliment and praise children may create a climate that is much more conducive to learning for the child. Conversely, parents who criticize, ridicule, or display hostile behaviors toward children may interfere with the learning process or instructional process. Future investigations of the influence of parental behaviors on the instructional process are warranted. CHAPTER 7 SUMMARX AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of parent-assisted instruction on the acquisition of motor skills of children who are at—risk for academic failure or developmental delay. The specific objectives of this study included: (a) determining the effectiveness of an eight-week intervention involving parents on selected object-control skills, (b) determining the effect of changes in motor skill performance on the subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance, (c) investigating the relationship between motor performance and subscales of perceived physical competence and maternal acceptance, (d) determining the relationship between risk factors and motor performance, and (e) investigating the relationship between maternal perceptions of acceptance and rejection and subscales of children's perceived competence. The subjects in this study were drawn from two urban compensatory Cradle Schools (i.e., Cradle School A and Cradle School B). One classroom at Cradle School A and one classroom at Cradle school were assigned to a Control Group. Two classrooms at Cradle School A and one classroom at Cradle School B were assigned to the Experimental Group. The Experimental Group was composed of 15 children, (n = 15) and the parent or caretaker who regularly attended the center. The Control Group was composed of 12 children, 141 142 (n = 12) and the parent or caretaker who attended the preschool. The mean age for children in the E Group was 47.13 (2.5) months. The mean age for children in the C Group was 47.5 (3.9) months. The parents in the study were the biological mothers or grandmothers of the children enrolled in the compensatory preschool program. All parents were expected to attend the preschool on a regular basis as a condition of children's enrollment. This study used a pretest-posttest nonrandomized design. Experimental subjects (n = 15) participated in an eight-week motor skill intervention program, consisting of two lessons per week. Each lesson, 45 minutes in length was delivered by the parents. The motor skill intervention was constructed by using a performance-based curriculum based on the elements of the TGMD criteria. Prior to each instructional period, parents were briefed on the objectives of each lesson. The children and parents in the Control Group participated in the regularly scheduled physical activities in the preschool classroom. These activities consisted of movement to popular songs and rhythmic activities. No instruction of object-control skills was provided to these children. 143 5 if I. Parent-assisted instruction had a positive influence on the acquisition of object-control skills in preschool children who are at-risk. Analysis of the pre- and post- test TGMD scores revealed that children demonstrated significant group, E(l, 26) = 12.55, p_< .002. and time effects, 2(1, 26)= 13.18, p < .001 effects. There was also a significant group by time interaction, 2(1, 26)= 24.18, p <.000. Further analysis of the standardized pre-test scores of the E Group (M.= 6.53, 52,: 5.83) compared to post-test scores of the E Group (M,= 12.06, $D_= 12.06) documented the positive effects of the intervention. In contrast,, the C Group showed a slight decline from pre—test (M.= 5.83, SD = 3.21) to post-test (M_= 5.00, SD_= 3.04). This decline was attributable to the increasing age of children when the same performance yielded a lower standard score on the TGMD. The motor skill intervention had no statistically significant effect on the perceived maternal acceptance of the children in this study. A 2 X 2 (group by time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the subscale of maternal acceptance did not produce significant results for group, E(1, 26) = 0.72, p_< .403 nor was there any significant interaction effect 2 (1, 26) = .02, p < .902. However, there was a significant time effect reported £(1, 26) = 7.67, p_< .010. An increase was reported for the mean scores of the E Group on the pre-test (M,= 3.45, SD = .53) to post-test (M,= 144 3.72, 5D,: .49). Similarly, an increase was found for the C Group on the pre-test (M,= 3.29, SD = .51) to the post-test (M = 3.58, SD = .57). The increase in maternal acceptance of the E Group and C groups is attributed to the parental involvement in both groups and not to the change in motor performance of the E Group. Additionally, the motor skill intervention had no apparent effect on the perceived physical competence of the children. A 2 X 2 (group by time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the subscale of physical competence failed to yield significant effects for group, E(1, 26) = 1.05, p < .30 or time £(l, 26)= 0.94, p < .342. There was no relationship between the subscales of perceived physical competence and perceived maternal acceptance to motor performance. Examination of the data revealed that there was no relationship between object- control skills and perceived maternal acceptance (1 = .02) or between perceived physical competence and object-control performance (r = .11). This lack of relationship between perceived physical competence and object-control skills was attributed to: (a) the lack of variability in children's responses on items of the PSPCSA, and (b) the lack of children's ability to make realistic judgments about their skills. The mean number of risk factors for the combined E and C groups (M = 27) was 4.5, (SD = 1.5) However, regression analysis showed that the risk factors accounted for only 145 6.8% of the variance in the object-control scores. Yet, the data revealed a negative correlation (r = -0.26) between risk factors and object-control skills. It was suggested that the overall low scores in object-control skills could be attributed to contextual factors related to the familial and environmental background. These factors included: (a) the absence of a father, (b) poverty, and (c) living in a dangerous neighborhood. The results of this study also indicated that there was a low, positive correlation between the four subscales of the PSPCSA and the maternal PARQ scores. The low correlation between perceived maternal acceptance and perceptions of maternal acceptance or rejection was an unexpected finding. The low correlation between the perceived maternal acceptance and maternal PARQ scores, (£.= .21) was attributed to the overall high maternal acceptance that was observed among children resulting in reduced variability among the scores. This study employed a qualitative methodology to understand the familial context and the activity patterns of children who were at-risk. Specifically, this study qualitatively documented the following information: (a) familial risk factors, (b) nature of the extended family and kin-network, (c) activity patterns and attitudes of parent participants, and (d) activity patterns of child participants and parents when together. 146 Familial risk factors prevalent among the parent participants in this study included: (a) absence of the biological father, (b) poverty or low income, and (c) living in a dangerous context. Together, these risk factors depict a common profile of many of the parent participants in this study. This study also revealed that the extended family and kin-network provided financial and supportive resources that enabled families to meet basic needs. The extended family included aunts, mothers, sisters, and grandmothers of the parent participants in the study. The kin-network included friends and boyfriends of the parents. The extended family helped the parent participants to cope with child care, child rearing, housing, and financial needs. The qualitative data documented that many parents had positive attitudes toward physical activity. Few parents, however, had developed consistent activity patterns conducive to the long term prevention of chronic diseases and illnesses. Closer analysis of the data revealed that only 6 of the 27 parents (22%) participated in physical activities 3 or more times per week and 19% engaged in physical activities 1 or 2 times per week. Over half of the 27 parent participants (59%) seldom or never participated in physical activities (e.g., less than 1 time per week). Many of the parents cited time and health reasons for the lack of participation. 147 Lastly, it was determined that few parents engage in physical activities with their children on a regular basis. Child interviews revealed that 13 of the 27 children (48%) said that their mother did not play with them at all. Additionally, 10 of the 27 children (37%) indicated that their mothers engaged in only sedentary activities with them. Only 4 of the 27 children (15%) indicated that their parents engaged in games of an active nature with them. El I. 1 I 1' I. The findings of this study have implications for teacher educators concerned with pre-service or in-service and continuing education. The findings of this study also have implications for educational administrators. Finally, this research has implications for policy makers who are concerned about the future health and well-being of young children. These implications will be discussed below. I 1' I. E I 1 E1 I. 1. Planned motor skill interventions can positively effect motor skill acquisition in young children. 2. Parents of children who are at-risk can collaborate as partners in the education of young children. 3. Planned interventions should focus on improving the future health and well-being of the children and families that they serve. 148 () Parents need to understand the beneficial effects of physical activity to motivate them to provide physical activities within the home setting. 5. Teaching children motor skills at an early age may provide children with opportunities to pursue an active lifestyle. 6. Preschool children, in general, feel good about themselves. Educators should strive to maintain this positive affect throughout the educational process. 7. Factors such as an absent father, poverty, and living in a dangerous community may have a negative influence on practicing motor skills at home or in the neighborhood. 8. Few young children at-risk participate in recreational or instructional activities that would facilitate the development of motor skills. 9. Parental involvement in educational programs may have a positive effect on the perceived maternal acceptance of young children. I 1' I. E El . . l I 1. Schools have an important role in enhancing the health and well-being of the children they serve, especially since children spend a large portion of their time in this environment. 149 2. Schools should include a physical education curriculum that is designed to emphasize the acquisition of lifetime skills that are conducive to leading a healthy lifestyle. 3. Schools should design outreach programs that foster the health and well-being of the communities they serve. Preventative programs could help to reduce the health disparities often found in economically depressed urban areas. 4. Principals should encourage parental involvement in the instructional process of children who are at-risk. 5. Principals can provide the leadership for creating a school climate that promotes good health practices among children, faculty, and the community. 6. Principals should encourage teachers to offer make-it-take-it workshops to make low cost equipment. This can help parents provide children with equipment to encourage the development of object-control skills in the home. I 1' I. E 1' _ I l. Policies and comprehensive programs are needed to support preventative health practices in urban communities that are typified by poverty and low educational achievement. 150 2. State requirements for physical education should be developed that reflect a need for quality instructional programs that focus on developing lifetime skills and positive attitudes toward physical activity. The results of this study showed that parental assistance in the classroom was effective in producing changes in motor skill acquisition. Future studies could investigate the effectiveness of different forms of parental involvement on the motor skill acquisition of children. For instance, the effects of homework on motor skill acquisition could be investigated. Additionally, older children could be the participants of such investigations. Contextual theorists would support the idea of bi- directional relationships between the parent and child. This study specifically looked at the effects of the parents' instruction on the child. Future investigations and interventions could be designed to look more closely at bi-directional relationships and the influence of interventions on the skills and activity patterns of the parent and the child. Studies that investigate the influence of parent-child interactions on the instructional process should be pursued. It became clear during the course of this study that parents 151 varied in the degree and type of interaction with their children. Some parents were excellent teachers. Others interacted harshly and reprimanded children for not performing a task correctly. It can be assumed that parental involvement may not always be positive. Future studies could more specifically delineate the relationship between parental behaviors and children's achievements and attitudes toward the activity. The rationale for teaching motor skills is that their acquisition will lead to a healthier lifestyle. However, there is no evidence to date that supports this rationale. Future investigations should examine longitudinally the effects of motor skill interventions in young children to determine if changes in motor skill acquisition at young ages promote a healthier and more active lifestyle in later life. Future studies should closely examine the relationship between specific risk factors and the health and the activity patterns of children and their families. Interventions should be designed to minimize the effects of risk factors that are determined to be detrimental to the development of a healthy lifestyle. The effects of these interventions should be documented. Lastly, a contextual theoretical perspective can be used to drive and design future research investigations. Contextual theory focuses on the interaction between the environmental context and the person. Future research 152 investigations can focus on understanding the relationships of contextual and individual factors on the development of motor skills and activity patterns. 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Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. .APPENDIX.A RISK FACTORS APPENDIX A If 1' I E El . E' l E I State Risk Factors .50.: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Concern expressed by parent, caregiver, or professional regarding a child's development, parenting style, or parent-child interaction Parent or caregiver with chronic or acute mental illness, developmental disability, or mental retardation History of family medical or genetic abnormalities Parent or caregiver with severe chronic physical illness Chronically disturbed family interactions Parent-child or primary caregiver-child separation Adolescent mother Family income up to 200% of federal guidelines Parent education is less than ninth grade Neither parent is employed Single parent Physical or social isolation and or lack of social support Lack of stable residence, homelessness, or dangerous living conditions Family has inadequate health care or no health insurance Limited prenatal care Maternal-prenatal substance abuse Severe prenatal complications Severe perinatal complications Asphyxia Very low birth weight Pulmonary dysplasia Excessive irritability Atypical or recurrent accidents Chronic otitis media Small for gestational age 164 \DCDxlOSUlowaI—l 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. E' l E I I I'E' II I E' . I Low birth weight Developmentally immature Physical and or/sexual abuse Nutritionally deficient Long-term chronic illness Diagnosed handicapped ondition Lack of stable support system or residence Parent has destructive or violent temper Substance abuse or addiction Language deficiency or immaturity Non-English or limited English speaking household Family history of delinquency Family history of diagnosed genetic or medical problems Family history of low educational achievement or dropout Low parental/sibling educational achievement or illiteracy Single parent Unemployed parent/s Low family income Family density Parental/sibling loss by death or divorce Teenage parent Chronically ill parent/ sibling Incarcerated parent Housing in rural or segregated area 165 APPENDIX B INFORMED CONSENT APPENDIX B Letter to Parents in E Group Dear Parent/Caregiver, We are writing you to tell you about some exciting things that are happening in your child's classroom. Mrs. and I will begin working together to better understand how children learn motor skills with parental involvement this winter and spring. In order to accomplish this goal, we would like to conduct a study to better understand this process. We would like to collect information from your child concerning his/her motor skills (e.g., kicking, throwing). We would also like to assess your child's perception of his/her motor skills. As part of this study, we would be interested in collecting information from you concerning your perception of working and interacting with your child. As part of this study, your child would be involved in the following activities: 1) Assessment of motor skills - We would like to observe your child performing different motor skills such as kicking, catching, and throwing. This session will be videotaped if you consent. 2) Interview- We would like to talk to your child about what he/she thinks about physical activity and his/her ability to perform activities. These talks would take place during the free time period. This session would be audiotaped if you consent. We hope that you will also be able to participate in this study. We hope that you will also consent to the following activities. For your time, you will be given a $5 certificate or gift pack for your participation in an interview on your attitudes towards physical activity. In addition, you will be offered a $5 certificate or gift pack for your time in completing the questionnaire. 1) In-olsss tutoring - We would like you to participate with your child in each motor skill session. This will involve teaching your child motor skills during class time 2) Questionnaire - We would like you to fill out a questionnaire concerning your perception of your interactions with your child. This questionnaire will take you approximately fifteen to twenty minutes to complete. 3) Interviews - We would like you to participate in two interviews. The first interview will be based on the current screening instrument for compensatory pre-kindergarten classes. During the interview, you may be asked some potentially sensitive questions. It is your right to refuse to answer any questions or withdraw from the interview at any time. The interview takes fifteen to twenty minutes to complete. You are insured of complete confidentiality. This interview will not be audiotaped. 167 Consent Form for Child and Parent Participation C Group The goals of this study and the nature of my child‘s involvement in it have been explained to me. I understand that the investigator may use the information obtained on my child and me to document the study. I understand that these data may be used in presentations or published reports about the study and in educational classes at the university. I know that neither my child or I will be identified by name in the reports or presentations. 1 also understand that any videotape in which my child or myself is recognizable will not identify our names. I also understand that any segment of a videotape in which my child or I appear. that I do not want to be used, will not be used in presentations. I have been told that I can refuse participation for my child's or my participation in any of the following activities. 1 am aware that I can withdraw or my child can withdraw participation in this study at any time without penalty. Igivepafidpafimfwmydfldwmhfiemifiabdmmdedsw. Yes D No D Assess my child's motor skills: Yes D No D - Videotape the assessment of my child's motor skills; Yes D No D Use the videotape that includes my child as long as his/her name is not identified; Yes D No D Assess my child's perceptions of his/her abilities; Yes D No D Audiotape my child‘s thoughts about his/her views on physical activity. lWfiwmmmwMfiefwMghfmfimmufieWw gum ofnry drill: Yes D No D Videotape my participation in my child's program; Yes D No D Use anyvideotapematerialsthatincludeme aslongaslamnotidentifiedbyname; Yes D No D Assess my perceptions of interactions with my child; Yes D No D Interview me about selected background information that may be sensitive in nature: and Yes D No D Interview me about my attitudes toward hysical activity. 169 APPENDIX B Children in the study will be verbally asked the following questions by the investigator to determine their assent. Children will be told that it is "ok" to tell the investigator "no". A child may refuse to participate in any of the activities below. A child will be asked only if a parent said that he/she could participate. Any child displaying non-verbal signs of not wanting to participate, will not be tested. DYes DNo I will let Ms. Hamilton watch me perform skills such as kicking, throwing, and catching. D D I will let Ms. Hamilton make a movie of me catching, throwing, and kicking. D D I will let Ms. Hamilton ask me questions about how I think I do certain things (e.g., perceived abilities). D D I will let Ms. Hamilton ask me questions about how I like to play and things I like to do (physical activity patterns). Date: Investigator's initials Parent's initials 170 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY February 17, 1995 TO: Michelle Hamilton 134 IN Circle RE: IRBI: 95-069 TITLE: THE EFFECTS OF PARENT-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION ON THE ACQUISITION OF FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS OF PRESCHOOLERS WHO ARE AT-RISK nsvrsron sequesrsn: N/a carsconr: 1-c 0 APPROVAL oars: 02/17/95 The University Committee on Research Involving Human Sub ects'(UCRIHS) review of this project is complete. I am pleased to adv se that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. 1hegecflore, the UCRIHS approved this project including any revision s a above. REHEWIL: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project be and one year must use the green renewal form (enclosed with t e original a roval letter or when a project is renewed) to seek u at certification. There is a maximum of four such expedit renewals ssible. Investigators wishing to continue a project beyond the time need to submit it again or complete rev . REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in rocedures involving human subjects, rior to in tiation of t e change. If this is done at the time o renewal, please use the green renewal form. To revise an approved protocol at an 0 her time during the year send your written request to the CRIHS Chair, requesting revised approval and referencing the project's IRB I and title. Include in our request a descr ption of the change and any revised ins ruments, consent forms or advertisements that are applicable. mm] cannons: Should either of the following arise during the course of the work, investi ators must noti UCRIHS promptly: 11) roblems (unexpected s de effects comp alnts, e c.) involv ng uman subjects or {23 changes in the research environment or new information n icating greater risk to the human sub ects than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed an approved. RESEARCH AND If we can be of any future help lease do not hesitate to contact us GRADUATE at (517)355-2180 or sax (517): 6- 171. STUDIES _ Sincere lnrversity Committee us Research Involving Human Settled: . ("WW avid s . Wright , memo” 51318 ”011.188“! 1 "CRIBS Chair 225 Administration Buildim East Lansing. Michigm DEW : pjm 48824-1046 cc : John L. Haubenstricker mumsms) FAX: 517/432-1171 USU :3 an anxnumanm 1 7 1 corn! 0000!!wa mm APPENDIX C (TGMD) APPENDIX C Protocol For the Test of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 1985) The TGMD was used to assess the object control skills of children ages 3-4. Provided that parental consent has been obtained, children will be asked to assent to each of the skills. The Child Assent Form is contained in Appendix B. I' |° | 21']! The following directions will be given to child participants: I would like to play some games with you that involve kicking, jumping, hitting a ball, bouncing a ball, and catching. Would you mind if I watch you doing these things?" If child assents then he/she will be asked the following question. Would it be possible for us to make a movie of you doing these things? W If the child responds "no" or show non-verbal signs of not wanting to participate then he/she will not be required to be tested. However, if the child assents then the testing will continue. The parent may choose to withdraw the child from testing. If this occurs, all data involving the child will be removed and not used in the data analysis. 172 Subject Number Testing Date Birthdate Score (19 Total Pts.) Score Skill/Criteria Age 60% l 'I . IWQ:HANDED_EIBLKE (60 % of all 10-year old children achieve all criteria). 1. Dominant hand grips bat above 3 non-dominant hand. 2. Non-dominant side of body faces 5 tosser. 3. Hip and spine rotation. 8 4 Weight is transferred by stepping with front footi 8 BQHNQE (60 E of all 8-year old children achieve all criteria). 1. Contacts ball with one hand at 7 about hip height. 2. Pushes ball with fingers, 6 not a slap. 3. Ball contacts floor in front of 7 (or outside of) the hand being M- QAIQH (60% of all 8-year old children achieve all criteria). 1. Preparation phase were elbows are 4 flexed and hands are in front of the body. 2. Arms extend in front of body in 4 preparation for ball contact. 3. Ball is caught and controlled by 7 hands only. 4. Elbows bend to absorb force. 7 KICK (60 % of all 10-year old children achieve all crieria) 1. Rapid continuous approach to the ball. 4 2. Trunk is inclined backward during ball 8 contact. 3. Forward siwng of arm opposite of kicking 8 leg. 4. Follow through by hopping with 10 non-kicking foot- IHBQK I60 % of all 10-year old children achieve all criteria). 1. Downward arc of arm to initiate 6 throw. 2. Rotation of shoulder to a point where non-dominant side faces an 7 imaginary target. 3. Weight is transferred by stepping with foot opposite the throwing hand. 6 4. Follow-through beyond ball release diagonally toward the opposite 8 throuinsLhansi. 173 APPENDIX D (PSPCSA) APPENDIX D Protocol for The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance For Young Children The PSPCSA is a test that is commonly administered to young children. The version that will be administered in this study has been designed for pre-kindergarten and kindergarten-aged children. The test is pictorial in nature. Each child is asked to point to the picture that best describes what he/she believes. For example, "This child is good at jumping rope, this child is not good at jumping rope." The child is then asked if this is really true or sort of true. Children in the study will be asked to assent to being tested. Child assent will be obtained by asking the child if he/she would like to help the investigator with some pictures. If the child says "no" or shows any non-verbal signs of not wanting to participate, then he/she will not be tested. If a parent chooses to withdraw the child from this portion of the study, the data will not be used in any way. The individual responses of children will not be known to anyone but the investigator. A subject number will be assigned to each child. E' I. | :I'JI The following directions will be given to the children. "I would like to watch you looking at some pictures of kids doing different things. I would like you to tell me what you think. Would it be OK for Ms. Hamilton to do this?" If the child assents, then the investigator will continue. "I would like you to point to the child that sounds most like you." Winn Data will be transported immediately from the site. All responses will be kept in a locked file drawer that is only accessible to the investigator. All references to subject numbers will be stored in a separate locked file drawer. 174 Items on the PSPCSA Date of Testing C . I. II 1 Good at puzzles 5 Gets stars on papers 9 Knows names of colors 13. Good at Counting l7. Knows Alphabet 21. Knows first letter of name Peerltems 2. Has lots of friends 6. Stays ovemight at friends 10 Has friends to play with 14. Has friends on playground 18. Gets asked to play with by others 22. Eats dinner at friends' [humanism 3. Good at swinging 7. Good at climbing 11. Can tie shoes l5. Good at skipping 19. Good at running 23. Good at hopping Maternalltms 4. Mom smiles 8. Mom takes you places 12. Mom cooks favorite foods 16. Mom reads to you 20. Mom plays with you 24. Mom talks to you 'Adapted from Susan Barter and Rabin Pike 175 Subject No. APPENDIX E (PARQ) APPENDIX E The Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner, 1980) The PARQ is a questionnaire designed to assess parental perceptions of acceptance or rejection of child behaviors. The 34-item test takes approximately 20 minutes to complete. Each subject will be assigned an ID number that is known only to the investigator. All references to subject numbers will be stored in a locked file drawer that is accessible only to the investigator. Participants will be given a $5 certificate for their efforts in filling out the questionnaire. The certificate will be granted even if a participant chooses not to complete the entire questionnaire. 2' I. E I. . I The questionnaire that you will be filling out is has 34 items. The questions contained on the questionnaire pertain to your perceptions of your interactions with your child. The entire questionnaire should take you approximately twenty to thirty minutes to complete. You have the right to refuse to answer any question, or to withdraw your questionnaire completely from the study. You may do so without any penalty to yourself or your child. You will receive a $5 certificate from Meijers whether you choose to complete the survey or withdraw your response. Your confidentiality is guaranteed. Your identity will not be revealed in the reporting of the study or its results. A subject number has been assigned to you. This number will be known only to the investigator. Do you wish to continue filling out the questionnaire? Storage_and_Iransportation_of_Data The data will be transported immediately from the site to an undisclosed location. The data will be stored in a lock file drawer that is accessible only to the investigator. All subject ID numbers will be kept in a separate location. 176 PARQ Questionnaire Place an X in the Column that best describes how you interact with your child. 10 ll. 12. Sometimes Rarely True of Me Almost Always True True I say nice things about my child. 1 nag or scold my child when helshe is bad. I discuss general daily routines with my child and listen to what helshe has to say. I complain about my child to others when helshe does not listen to me. I encourage my child to bring friends home.and I try to make things pleasant for him/her. I make fun of my child 1 make it easy for my child to confide in me. lamharshwithmychild. I make my child feel proud when helshe does well. My child is a burden for me. I punish my child when I am angry. lmakesure mychildhasthe rightkindoffoodtoeat. 177 Not True of me True Almost Never True l3. 14. 15. l6. l7. I9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. True of Me Almost Sometimes Always True True I am impatient with my child . I am too busy to answer my child's questions. I am irritable with my child. I am concerned who my child's friends are. 1 say unkind things to my child. I ignore my child when helshe asks for help. 1 ran my child an: helshe gets on my nerves. 1 pay a lot of attention to my child. I hurt my child's feelings. I forget events that my child thinks I should remember. When my child does something wrong, I threaten or frighten him/her. I like to spend time with my child. When my child misbehavss I shame him/her in front of his/her playmates. 178 Not True of me Rarely True Almost Never True 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. True of Me Almost Sometimes Always True True I avoid my child's company. I compare my child unfavorably with other children. When I make plans. I take my child into consideration. When my child misbehaves. I compare him/her unfavorably with other children. I leave my child to someone else's care (e.g.. relative or neighbor) ltrytomakemychildfeel better, when helshe is sick. I tell my child I am ashamed of him/her when helshe misbehaves. When my child misbehaves. I make him/her feel ashamed. I treat my child kindly and gently. Not True of me Rarely Almost True Never True Is there anything else you would like to tell us about your relationship with your child? 179 .APPENDIX F Risk Factor Interview APPENDIX F Parent Interview Risk Factors UCRIHS: Parent participants will be asked the questions on this page. All of the questions are closed-ended. Parents may respond with either the answers "yes or no" or the appropriate number. Parent participants will nQL be asked to elaborate on any response. The responses will be recorded on a separate sheet, that will not be attached. For additional information, please refer to Interview Protocol for Parental Risk Factors. WM 1. What is your age? 2. Are you the parent/aunt/grandmother of the child participating in this study? 3. How many children currently live in your home? 4. What are the ages of these children? 5. What is the highest level of education that you have achieved? 6. Are you currently employed? 7. Is the child's biological father currently living in the home? If yes, skip to #8. 8. Is there a male caretaker, who is not the child's biological father, living in the home? If the answer is no, skip to question 10. 9. If so, is he employed? 10. Does he provide financial assistance to your child? 11. How long have you lived in your current residence? 12. Do you currently receive public assistance? 180 Parental_Background_lnfcrmaticn 13. Do you have a history of health or chronic illnesses? 14. Is there any history of mental illness in your family? 15. Has your child lost a sibling to death? 16. Have any of your household members been incarcerated? 17. Is there any history of substance abuse in your family? 18. Is there any history of physical abuse in your family? 19. Do you carry medical insurance for your family? Child_Background_lnformatiQn 20. How much did your child weigh when he/she was born? 21. Was your child carried full term? If yes, skip to question #20. 22. How many months did you carry your child? 23. Was your child diagnosed with any impairments? 24. Has your child been subjected to any physical abuse? 25. Has your child been subjected to any sexual abuse? 26. Does your child have any history of inner ear infections? 27. Is there any history of diagnosed genetic problems in your family? 181 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Interview Response Form 182 Subject ID#__. 25. 26. 27. 183 Subject ID# __ APPENDIX F Protocol for Parental Risk Factor Interview Parental and child risk factors are routinely screened in the Flint School District. The interview questions that will be asked are based on the Readiness for Four's instrument that has been designed for the assessment of risk factors (Flint Office of Compensatory Education, 1990). However, the investigator has taken many precautions to address the sensitive nature of the these questions. An interview protocol has been established to protect the identity of the subjects involved. Additionally, parent participants will be made aware of the possible risk of discomfort due to the sensitive nature of the questions that will be asked. D' l' The following dialogue will be read to parent participants who have agreed to be interviewed. You will be read a series of questions. Some of these questions are potentially sensitive. If you feel uncomfortable answering these questions, you may decline to respond. You may also withdraw from the interview at any time without penalty to you or your child. You will not be identified in any way, except by the researcher. In addition, this interview will not be audiotaped. In order to protect your identity, the responses to the questions will be recorded on a separate response sheet. The questions you will be asked will not be identified on the response sheet. A reverse coding procedure will be used so that the response sheet cannot be directly linked to the questionnaire. Your name will also be disguised on the record sheet. This will be accomplished by assigning you a number which is known only to the researcher. Becordina_procedurea If the participant agrees to continue with the interview, the questions on the following page will be read. A copy of the response sheet is also included in this Appendix. The response sheet will not be attached in any way to the interview questions. Responses will be recorded in the reverse order. A more thorough explanation of the recording procedures and the storage of data will be provided on the following page. 184 EIJECI’ ISI'II'EI As mentioned previously, the interview questions are closed-ended. Parent participants need only to answer the question with a one or two-word response. If the parent offers additional information, it will not be recorded, nor will it be used in any form in this study. Due to the sensitive nature of the questions asked, a coding scheme has been constructed. The coding scheme will not be attached to the response sheet in the collection or the storage of data. To protect the individual responses of the parent participants, the directions explaining the coding system will be stored in a file cabinet away from the site. The file will be locked and accessible only to the researcher. Us.e_o.f_suhj_ec_t_number. A subject number will be randomly assigned to each parent participant in the study. The list of subject numbers will be kept in a locked drawer that is accessible only to the investigator. Wm. All responses will be recorded in the reverse order. The interview consists of 25 questions. The first question will be coded as the response to question #27. The second question will be coded as the response to question #26. This procedure will be used to code all responses. Individual_resnonses. The following method will be used to code yes/no responses. A "yes" response will be coded on the response sheet with the letter "R". Any question that is answered with a "no" response will be coded with the letter "S". All unanswered questions will be coded with the letter "Z." Numerical responses will be recorded as reported. Responses to question number #2 will be recorded with the letters "U" for parent, "Y" for Grandmother, and "M" for aunt. After data is collected, the data will be immediately transported in a locked briefcase away from the site by the investigator. The investigator will store the data in a locked file cabinet that is accessible only to the investigator. 185 APPENDIX G Parent Attitude Towards Physical Activity Interview 10. 11. 12. APPENDIX G Parent Interview Attitude Toward Physical Activity How important is physical activity to you? Can you explain? Have you ever participated in any sports or activities? Explain. Do you participate in physical activity now? How often? What is your favorite activity? Where do you participate in this activity? - What activites do you least like to particpate in? Do you have any health problems that may affect your ability to particpate in physical activity? Do you engage in any physical activities at home with your child. If so, what types of activities do you and your child do together? Describe a typical day for your child. Describe the activites that your child likes to particpate in? List three physical activities that your child enjoys. Does your child particpate in any physical activites outside of the home? Do you have any sports equipment in your home that your child can use? 186 Protocol for Parent Interview Attitude Towards Physical Activity The purpose of this parent interview is to ascertain the attitudes and values toward physical activity of the parent participants involved in the study. Parents will be asked the series of questions on the parent interview form. This interview may be audiotaped if parental consent is granted. Additionally, parents will be reminded that they will receive a $5 gift certificate from Meijers for their interview. E' I. I E I I would like to interview you about your attitudes toward physical activity. The responses that you give will be confidential. Your name will not be identified in anyway in the report or the results obtained in this study. I would, however, like to audiotape the interview if you consent. If you wish to withdraw your consent from this interview, you may stop at any time. There will be no penalty for you or your child if you choose to withdraw. For your effort and your time, you will receive a $5 gift certificate from Meijers or a gift pack of and equivalent value. This will be granted to you even if you choose to withdraw from the study. 187 .APPENDIX H Child Attitude Towards Physical Activity Interview APPENDIX H Child Interview Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Can you tell me about some of the games that you like to play? What types of games do you like to play outside? Does your mom or dad play with you at home? What kinds of games do you play? Do you play with your brothers and sisters? What kinds of games do you like to play? 188 Protocol for Child Interview Children will be interviewed on their attitudes toward physical activity. The interview will be very short in nature. It will not take more than ten minutes to complete. Child assent will be obtained by asking each child if he/she would like to talk to the investigator to answer some questions. If the child says "no" or shows non-verbal signs of not wanting to participate in the study, then she/he will not be required to answer questions. The child will also be asked if it is OK for the investigator to make a recording on a tape so that it can be listened to later. Child assent procedures will be followed. If a parent withdraws the child from the interview, none of the data obtained will be used. Additionally, parental consent will be obtained with a letter prior to the start of the interview. E' I. I 2] II The following directions will be given to children. "I would like to ask you some questions about the things you like to do, would this be OK? If child assents, then the following question will be asked. "Is it OK if we make a tape recording of this so that I can listen to it later?" 189 APPENDIX I Opening Activities APPENDIX I OPENING ACTIVITIES A tentative schedule of Opening activities is proposed below. Activities will emphasize locomotor skills (e.g.,galloping, running, jumping) movement concepts (e.g., body parts, level, direction, tempo) and fitness development. Lessnn_nne: Locomotor skills, tempo, body control A popular children's song will be played. Children will be asked to move around the room using various locomotor movements (e.g., running, galloping) at various tempos (fast, slow). When the music stops, children and parents will be asked to "freeze." LeSSQn_IuQ: Body parts, non—locomotor movements A popular children's record will be played. Children and parents will follow the instructor's directions to move body parts in various ways (e.g., bend, twist, sway). Lesson_1hree: Locomotor movements, body control Children will be asked to play a game of "stop and go". When the instructor gives the "go" signal, children will move in various ways (e.g., galloping, sliding, walking, running). When the instructor says the word "stop", children will stop their body as quickly as possible. Lesscn_£onr: Body parts, striking (Balloons) Children and their parents will be given balloons. When given the directions children will keep the balloon up with various body parts (e.g., head, wrist, elbow, fingers). Leasnn_Eile: Cardiovascular fitness Children and parents will discuss the importance of "staying in shape". A popular children's tape will be played. Parents and children will run around the designated cones. When music stops parents will help children to find their heart rate. 190 LESSQn_Six: Rhythm, tempo (Rhythm sticks) A popular children's tape will be played. Children and parents will tap rhythm sticks as directed by the instructor while keeping the rhythm. Lesson_3eyen: Fitness exercises (Parachute) Children and parents will be perform several fitness exercises with the parachute. The exercises to be performed include sit ups, arm pulls, reverse arm pulls, and parachute jogging. Lessonjight: Rhythm, directions (Streamers) A popular children's tape will be played. Parents and children will perform designated movement patterns with streamers as instructed. Lessan_Nine: Locomotor movements, body control (Poly spots) A popular children's tape will be played. Parents and children will each stand on a poly spot. When the music begins parents and children will move using designated locomotor movements. When the music stops, everyone will find their polyp spot as soon as possible. LeSSQn_Ien: Jumping, directions Children and their parents will be given jump ropes. When the directions are given, parents will help children to explore as many ways as possible to jump over the rope. LeSSQn_Elexen: Fitness, stretching A popular children's tape will be played. Parents an children will perform designated stretches to the music. 191 Lesson_1welle: Jumping, leaping Cones, hurdles A popular children's tape will be played. Upon directions children will begin leaping or jumping over hurdles and cones in the gym. Parents will stand in a stationary position and remind children to watch out for others as they jump and leap over the cones. Lesson_1hirteen: Stretching A popular children's tape will be played. Children and parents will perform selected stretching exercises to music. LBSSQD_EQnLLeen: Body parts A popular children's song will be played. The song will direct parents and children to touch two body parts together (e.g., touch wrist to elbow). Parents and children will touch the body parts as directed in the song. Lesson_£ifteen: Locomotor movements, movement concepts (Poly spots) Parents and children will be given poly spots. Upon direction parents and children will move using various directions (over, around) their poly spots. Directions will be given designating various locomotor movements (e.g., jumping, jogging, galloping) with the directions (e.g., over, around). Lesscn_fiixteen: Body parts, non-locomotor movements A popular children's song will be played. Children and their parents will be asked to perform various non- locomotor movements (e.g., bend, twist, sway, shake) with various body parts (e.g., arms, legs, torso). 192 Lesson Outline Kicking and Throwing [PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Skill: Kicking TGMD Performance Criteria: 1. Rapid continuous approach to ball. Skill: Throwing TGMD Performance Criteria: 1. A downward arc of the throwing arm initiates at the windup. Instructional Objectives: 1. Child will demonstrate a rapid run towards ball before kicking. 2. Child will demonstrate a sideways orientation to the wall as he/she reaches using a downward arc to initiate the throw. [OPENING ACTIVITY: (3-5 minutes) ctivity Focus: (Body Control, Tempo) A.popular children's record will be played. Children and their parents will be asked to move to music around the room in different ways (walking,jogging) and different speeds (fast,slow). When the music stops children and parents will be asked to "freeze.” 193 SKILL: KICKING (15 minutes) Power Rangers Kick DESCRIPTION Equipment: Several different sized nerf balls Large Power Rangers Poster. Several different sized balls nerf will be scattered in between two lines that are approximately five feet apart. This area will be designated as the river. DIAGRAM O O O o O O O 0 00000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOO O= Parents X= Children 0: Balls DIRECTIONS Two blue lines will be taped to designate the river area. The blue lines will be approximately five feet apart. Children will be told that they are going to help the Power Rangers and their moms clean up the river. In order to do this they will have to run as fast as they can to kick the "rocks" out of the river. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS: 1. Run as fast as you can. 2. Kick the ball towards the wall. 194 SKILL: THROWING (15 minuteS) Snowball Throw DESCRIPTION Equipment: 3-4 fleece balls for every child A large traffic cone for each child Set of footprints for each Child Several large pictures of snow persons taped to the wall. IDIRECTIONS Children will be told that they are going to grab the snowball with their favorite hand off of the large snow cone. In order to do so they are going to have to reach their arm in downward direction. Parents will then ask children to stand on the designated foot prints. Children will be directed to reach downward grabbing the snow ball and throw it at the large snow person on the wall. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS: 1. Reach downward to grab the snowball off of the snow cone. 2. Stand on the foot prints. [CLOSING ACTIVITY: (2-3 minutes) I (Activity Focus: Nonlocomotor movements, listening skills. Children and parents follow movements led by the teacher. Children are asked to perform the designated movements to "Simon Says." 195 Lesson Outline Striking, Bouncing, Catching 'PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Skill: Striking TGMD Performance Critieria: 1. Dominant hand grips bat above non-dominant hand. 2. Nondominant side of body faces the tosser. 3. Feet are in a parallel position. Skill: Bouncing TGMD Performance Criteria: 1. Children will contact ball with one hand at about hip height. Skill: Catching TGMD Performance Criteria: 1. Preparation phase where elbows are flexed and hands are in front of the body. Instructional Objectives: 1. Children will demonstrate proper positioning of their hands on the bat and the proper stance as designated by the above performance criteria. 2. Children will demonstarate the ability to bounce ball with two hands two to three consecutive times. 3. Children will demonstrate the ability to position their hands in preparation for the ball. [OPENING ACTIVITY: (2-3 minutes) 7 (Activity Focus: Body parts, nonlocomotor movements A popular Children's record will be played. Children will follow the instructor's directions to move their body parts in various ways (e.g., bend, sway, shake, twist)to a record. 196 SKILL: STRIKING (10 minutes) "Batter Up!" DESCRIPTION Equipment: 5 fat bats with small handles 5 medium-sized balls 5 large cones 5 sets of footprints 5 hand stickers large sheet with a popular catroon picture will be hung on the wall. Each parent will begin the activity by placing a sticker on top of their child's dominant hand. DIRECTIONS Parents will explain to their children that both oftheir hands should touch together when they are holding the bat. Parents will also explain that the hand with the sticker on it should stay on top. Parents will direct their children to stand sideways on the designated footprints next to the cone. A medium-sized ball will be placed on the top of each cone. Parents will then instruct children to hit the ball off the cone towards the popular cartoon character. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS 1. Hands touch together 2. Keep the hand with the sticker on top 3. Stand sideways on the designated footprints 197 [SKILL: BOUNCING (10 minutes) I "Follow-the-Leader" DESCRIPTION Equipment: One medium-sized ball for each child. IDIRECTIONS : Parent and child perform the following ball control sequence of activities together. (A poster with stick figures was placed next to the station) Sequence of activities: Sitting on floor, the ball is directed with fingertips around the body; the ball is then directed with the fingertips in the opposite direction. While in a standing position with feet together, the all is guided around the feet with the fingertips. While in a standing position, the ball is pressed with the hands around the knees. While in a standing position, the ball is pressed against the waist as it is guided by the hands around the body. Parent holds a ball waist high. Children are asked to push the ball with both hands from the parents hands so that parent releases the ball. Parent challenges the child to repeat several times. The parent repeats the above activity, while challenging the child to push the ball with only one hand. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS 1. Guide the ball Slowly with two hands around each Of the designated body parts. 2. Push the ball out Of parents hands. 198 EKILL: CATCEING (10 minutes) "Table Catching" DESCRIPTION Equipment: large tables (one per parent and child) One playground ball for parent and child DIRECTIONS Parents will explain to their children that they are going to play a catching game on top Of the table. Parents will direct children to extend both of their hands to reach for the ball as they roll it across the table. Parents will vary speed as they roll the ball across the table for children to catch. Parents may also roll the ball underneath the tables for children to catch. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS l. Extend arms and reach for the ball. BLOSING ACTIVITY: (3-4 minutes) I [Activity Focus: Song: "If you are happy and you know it". Parents and children will gather around a circle in the middle of the gym Each parent anc child will contribute a movement to the song 199 Lesson Outline Catching, Striking [PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Skill: Catching TGMD performance criteria: 1. Preparation phase where elbows are flexed and hands are in front of body. 2. Arms extend in preparation for ball contact. Skill: Striking TGMD performance criteria: 1. Dominant hand grips hand above non-dominant hand 2. Non-dominant side of body faces the direction of the target Instructional Objectives 1. Children will demonstrate extension of arms in preparation for the ball for catching. 2. Children will demonstrate ability to the catch ball with hands only. 3. Children will demonstrate ability to catch with the hands only. 4. Children will demonstrate correct hand position on striking implement. [OPENING ACTIVITY: (3-4 minutes) Activity Focus: Striking with body parts Parents and children will be given a balloon. The instructor will ask children and parents to hit the balloon with various body parts as instructed. 200 SILL: CINCM'T minutes) D ' _.___ _ _ __ T— I Catching Ethnic Dolls DESCRIPTION Equipment: Various ethnic dolls (soft) Two to three ethnic dolls will be placed next to each parent. Parents will be asked to stand 5-8 ft away from child. DIRECTIONS Parent will softly lob the doll to the child who is standing 5-8 ft away. DIGRAM X X X X X O O O O O X=parent O=child TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS 1. Extend arms 2. Use hands to catch ball 201 _ILL: _ ‘2 A T A "Ready Position" DESCRIPTION Equipment: One large traffic cone per child Container of 5-6 medium sized balls Large sheet to hang on wall Parents will place a ball on top of the cone. A large sheet will be hung for a target upon the wall. A. container of medium-sized balls will be placed next to each parent. DIRECTIONS Parents will emphasize that the non-dominant side of the body faces the sheet prior to hitting the ball. Parents will also emphasize the placement of the hands on the "neck" of the bat. Weight should be distributed slightly on the back foot. Note: The emphasis in this activity is not on striking, but rather on the placement of the body. Parents should allow children to hit the ball for motivation 1. Hands touch each other on the neck of the bat. 2. Turn Sideways. CLOSING ACVTIITY (34-m1e1nuts I 8 , , > Activity Focus: Locomotor Skills, Listening Skills Parents and children will line up on a designated line in the gymnasium. Upon the 'go' signal, children will perform the designated locomotor Skignal (e.g., gallop, skip, hop, jump, walk, run) When the 'stop' signal is given, parents and children will top moving as soon as possible. 202 Lesson Outline Throwing, Kicking, Bouncing “PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS I Skill: Throwing TGMD Performance Criteria 1. A downward arc of the throwing arm initiates the wind up 2. Rotation of the hip and shoulder to a point where the non-dominat dide faces an imaginary target. Skill: Kicking TGMD Performance Criteria 1. Rapid continuous approach to the ball 2. The trunk is inclined backward during ball contact Skill: Bouncing 1. Contact of ball is at hip height Instructional Objectives: 1. Child will demonstrate rapid approach to the ball. 2. Child will demonstrate the correct placement of the support foot in prparation to kick. 3. Child will demonstrate the ability to bounce ball with hands two to three consecutive times 4. Child will demonstrae a sideways orientation to the wall as he/She reaches using a downward arc to initiate the throw. OPENING ACTIVITY (3-4 minutes) i f > Activity Focus: Body parts, nonlocomotor movements A.popu1ar children's record will be played. Children and parents will follow the instructor's directions to move various body parts in different ways (e.g., sway, twist, bend, swing) 203 ‘THROWING (10 minutes "T" throwing Equipment: Index card with the letter "T" 15 fleece balls Each parent will discuss the shape of the letter "T" with their child. The parent will model the letter "T" with their child and ask their child to to make a body Shape with the letter "T." Parents will then ask children to stand sideways on the designated footprints. Parents will then ask their children to keep the "T" shape as they reach and grab the ball of the cone and throw it to the wall. Parents will give the following cues: 1. Keep the "T" shape with your body. 2. Stand sideways. 3. Grab the ball off the cone. 204 "Milk Jug Kicking Game" Equipment: 10-12 polyspots 10—12 milk jugs Parents will spread milk jugs on polyspots that are spread around the designated area. On a signal designated Children will be told to run and kick as many of the jugs off the polyspots as possible. Parents and children will place milk jugs on polyspots and repeat the activity. a B i a a a B a=milkjug Parents will give children the following cues: 1. Run fast 2. Try not to step on poly spot (foot placement) SKILL: BOUNCING (10 minutes) i "Assisted Bouncing" DESCRIPTION Equipment: One 8 inch playground per child DIRECTIONS Parents will hold the ball (loosely) waist height for child. Child will practice hitting ball using the pads of their finger tips from their parents hand. Child will repeat action with dominant and non-dominant hand. TEACHING CUES FOR PARENTS: 1. Use finger tips, not palm of hand. 2. Flex and extend wrist. 205