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A STUDY OF THE CONTINUING EDUCATION INTERESTS OF SCHOOL
PSYCHOLOGISTS IN MICHIGAN: CONSIDERATIONS

FOR PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

BY

Mary Louise Ross

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Edumtional Psychology,
and Special Education

1997

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE CONTINUING EDUCATION INTERESTS OF SCHOOL
PSYCHOLOGISTS IN MICHIGAN: CONSIDERATIONS
FOR PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
By

Mary Louise Ross

The study was conducted to provide information for the planning and
development of continuing education Opportunities for school psychologists in
Michigan. Regulations adopted by the State of Michigan in 1992 require the
completion of specific continuing education requirements as a condition of
maintaining the proper certification for practice. The Choice of options to complete
the requirement, along with a consideration of factors such as preferred sponsor,
preferred context, release time, reimbursement from an employer, and willingness
to travel to participate in a continuing education activity, was investigated. Also
considered was the level of interest in developing a Specialty in the delivery of
services, either by the school age or disability category served. Recent literature in
the field has suggested a broader role in the delivery of school psychological
services. The writer investigated the level of interest in the broad competency areas

outlined in state regulations for school psychologists, which can be used, in part, to

Mary Louise Ross
define the expanded role. To facilitate planning and development of conferences,
workshops, or college courses, the level of interest in specific current topics was
investigated as well. Finally, the researcher collected demographic data on school
psychologists in Michigan to study the relationship between gender, educational
level, years of experience, location of employment, and work setting and the
participants’ preferences and interest levels.

It was found that school psychologists preferred a combination of college
credit and state-board-approved continuing education units (SBCEUS) to complete
the new requirement. For credit, they preferred an organizational sponsor and a
local sponsor for SBCEUS. Most respondents reported release time to attend
continuing education activities. A large percentage reported some reimbursement
for conference or convention activities. Most reported convenient access to
continuing education Opportunities and a willingness to travel up to 50 miles to
participate in them. The investigation showed a strong level of interest in
specialization for both school age and disability categories. In the broad
competency areas, the interest levels were strongest for intervention, prevention,
and consultation activities. Statistically significant relationships were found between
gender, educational level, and location of employment and participants’ reported

preferences and interest levels.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this study and dissertation would not have been possible
without support and assistance. For that, I extend my sincere appreciation and
express gratitude to the following:

The Michigan Association of School Psychologists for the financial support
of the study.

The Michigan Department of Edumfion Office of Professional Preparation and
Certification, especially Shawn Witherspoon, for the data base.

Alice Kalush from the Michigan State University Computer Center and David
Dainelis for their invaluable technical support.

Dr. Harvey Clan'zio for his friendship through the years and for serving as
chairman of the guidance committee and Chief editor.

Dr. Irvin Lehmann for his sound advice with design and analysis of the study
as a committee member.

Dr. Jacqueline Lerner and Dr. Walter Hapkiewicz for their encouragement and
guidance as committee members.

Sue Miller for her patience and expertise in the preparation of the manuscript.

My family and many friends for the love, understanding, and pride they have

shown throughout my doctoral studies.

My granddaughters, Kamara and Samantha, for whom I hope this endeavor

will serve as inspiration to achieve their goals.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................... viii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ........................ 1
Introduction .......................................... 1
Purpose of the Study ................................... 3
Background .......................................... 4
Limitations of the Study ................................. 9
ll. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................... 11
Background ......................................... 12
Provision of Continuing Education ....................... 16
Overview of the Current Status of the Field ................ 21
Trends in Demographics Among School Psychologists ....... 23
Current Trends in System Reform ....................... 27
Assessment ....................................... 29
Consultation ....................................... 31
Counseling ........................................ 32
Curriculum ........................................ 33
Intervention and Prevention ........................... 35
Specialization ...................................... 38
Ill. METHODOLOGY .................................... 41
Subjects ........................................... 41
The Instrument ...................................... 43
Procedure .......................................... 47
Statistical Analysis .................................... 49
Research Questions .................................. 50

vi

IV. RESULTS .......................................... 57

Demographic Data ................................... 57

Results Regarding the Research Questions ................ 61

Research Question 1 ................................ 62

Research Question 2 ................................ 65

Research Question 3 ................................ 68

Research Question 4 ................................ 71

Research Question 5 ................................ 76

Research Question 6 ................................ 78

Research Question 7 ................................ 80

Research Question 8 ................................ 86

Research Question 9 ................................ 93

Research Question 10 ............................... 96

V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............ 100
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH ................................ 126

System Changes .................................... 126

Michigan Department of Education .................... 126

Universities ....................................... 128

Professional Organization ........................... 129

Local and Intermediate School Districts ................. 130

Individual Practitioners .............................. 132

Context ........................................... 133

Topics ............................................ 134

Future Research .................................... 136

APPENDICES
A. Survey Form ....................................... .139
B. Cover Letter ....................................... 145
C. State of Michigan Rules Regarding Role and

Competency and Certification Of School Psychologists ...... 147

D. Supplementary Tables ............................... 158

REFERENCES ................................................ 173

vii

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

LIST OF TABLES

Years of Experience as a School Psychologist ................... 58
Case Load: School Age Groups Served by Respondents .......... 59

Case Load: Special Education Categorical Programs Served
by Respondents ........................................... 60

Case Load: Mean Percentage of Time Respondents Spent in
Broad Service Areas ....................................... 61

Respondents’ Choices of Options to Complete the Continuing

Education Requirement ..................................... 63
Credits Applied to Advanced Degree: Demographic Effects ......... 64
Colleges or Universities Respondents Were Likely to Attend

for Continuing Edumtion Credit ............................... 67
Respondents’ First Choice of Continuing Education Sponsor

for SBCEUS .............................................. 68
Choice of Continuing Education Option: Demographic Effects ....... 72
Choice of MASP as a Sponsor for Continuing Education for

College Credit: Demographic Effects .......................... 73
First Choice of SBCEU Sponson Demographic Effects ............ 73
Amount of Release Time to Attend Conferences or Conventions ..... 77
Release Time: Demographic Effects .......................... 78

Availability of Conference/Convention Reimbursement:
Demographic Effects ....................................... 80

viii

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Proximity to Confinuing-Edumtion-Approved College or

University: Demographic Effects .............................. 81
Willingness to Travel for Credit: Demographic Effects ............. 82
Proximity to Continuing-Education-Approved SBCEU Site:

Demographic Effects ....................................... 84
WIllingness to Travel for SBCEUS: Demographic Effects ........... 85
Respondents’ Interest in a School Age Group Specialty ............ 87
Respondents’ Interest in Special Education Categorical Areas ....... 88

Interest in a Special Education Disability Category Specialty:
Demographic Effects ....................................... 89

Case Load: School Age Groups Served, Rural Location ........... 91

Case Load: Special Education Categorical Programs Served,

Rural Location ............................................ 92
Respondents’ Level of Interest in Broad Competency Areas ........ 93
Respondents’ Level of Interest in Broad Competency Areas ........ 94
Interest in Broad Service Competencies: Demographic Effects ...... 95
Ranking of Psychologists’ Interest in Specific Topics .............. 97

ANOVA Summary of Significant E-ratios for Interest in Specific
Continuing Education Topics: Demographic Effects .............. 158

Means and Standard Deviations for Specific Interest Topics
by Gender .............................................. 161

Means and Standard Deviations for Specific Interest Topics
by Educational Level ...................................... 162

Means and Standard Deviations for Specific Interest Topics
by Years of Experience .................................... 163

Means and Standard Deviations for Specific Interest Topics
by Employment Location ................................... 164

ix

33.

Means and Standard Deviations for Specific Interest Topics
by Work Setting .......................................... 165

Summary of Statistically Significant Results for Each
Research Question ....................................... 166

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Inlmduflinn

Regardless of the initial preparation for practice of school psychology, there
will always be new ideas and concepts as the knowledge base and ideology of the
field expand over time. It is generally agreed that continuing professional
development is both a necessary and an expected activity for a school psychologist.

The concept of a profession implies, among other criteria, responsibility for
evaluation of the services that school psychologists provide, including the need for
practitioners to examine their own delivery of services to make changes or
improvements (Houle, 1980). A recommendation to do so is not a completely new
idea to school psychologists on the national level. The American Psychological
Association (APA) has been an advocate of on-gcing professional development for
many years, especially following the initiation of professional institutes for school
psychologists by the Division of School Psychology 16—APA in the 1950s (Fagan,
1993). This division Offers school psychologists presentations Within the broad
context of the annual APA convention.

The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) also has been an
advocate of continuing education. Under the sponsorship of this professional
organization, many states have developed state school psychological associations.

One of the basic purposes of these state affiliates was to provide continuing

2
professional development opportunities to their memberships. As a result,
association-sponsored workshops and special skill-development programs have
become a very popular means of attempting to improve the skills of practicing school
psychologists.

NASP was responsible for developing and executing a program of national
certification that also carried a standard for continuing education as a renewal
requirement. This program, which was formalized in 1989, had its historical
beginnings in 1974 with an organizational recognition of the need to provide a
program of continuing professional development for school psychologists. In 1974,
the NASP Executive Board and Delegate Assembly approved the Continuing
Professional Development Committee (CPDC) as a standing committee. Initially, the
CPDC awarded the Continuing Professional Development Recognition Certificate
and later the NASP Certificate for Continuing Professional Development for the
completion of organized and documented continuing education activities. After a
number of modifications, the continuing professional development program
continued until 1989, when it was replaced with the national certification prOcess.

This voluntary program stresses continuing professional development
through many types of experiences. Self-study through reading of professional
literature, participation in state offices, attendance at conferences or workshops, and
college courses are examples of activities that are considered acceptable.

The national certificate must be renewed every three years. This system
completed a second round ofthree-year renewals in 1995. The rationale underlying
the national certification was to establish not only standards for continuing

professional development but also a credential that would be recognized and

3
accepted for practice across the country. To date, only 11 states have instituted a
reciprocal agreement based on this credential.

In 1989, when the national certification process was begun, 537 school
psychologists from Michigan qualified for the credential (NASP, 1989). This
represented about 50% of the practicing school psychologists at the time. Only two-
thirds of the original group renewed their national certificate (Broadwater, 1995).
The effect of this certification process in Michigan was small, with only 25% (n = 308)
of the practicing Michigan school psychologists renewing the national credential.

In 1988, the Michigan State Board of Education’s Office of Special Education
formed a task fOrce to study the practice of school psychology in the state and to
develop recommendations for change or improvement. The NASP continuing
education model subsequently was incorporated by the State Board of Education’s
office of Special Education in a redesign of the training and continuing professional
development requirements for school psychologists in Michigan. A core
consideration of the new design was to make continuing education an employment
requiLemem rather than a recommendation or a voluntary practice. The continuing
education requirement was defined as the completion of six semester hours of
college credit from a state-board-approved institution of higher learning or the
equivalent in state-board-approved continuing education units (SBCEUs) within a

five-year time frame.

Eumosuflbefitudx

The researcher’s overall purpose in this study was to provide data for
professional organizations, universities, and intermediate school districts in the

planning and development of continuing professional development opportunities for

4

school psychologists. Information was collected on school psychologists’ plans to
satisfy the new Michigan CEU requirement. The information collected in this study
will be useful for planning courses, workshops, and/or conferences that satisfy the
new requirements and meet the professional needs and Interests of school
psychologists. The lnforrnation gathered will help identify a broad range of topics for
conferences, courses, or workshops related to school psychologists’ professional

needs.

Backgammon
In September 1992, the Michigan State Board of Education adopted a new

set of regulations that required school psychologists to obtain certification as a
necessary credential for practice in the public schools. These new regulations
replaced a process called Full Approval, which had been in effect for many years.
The new regulations bring school psychologists into the educational certification
system along with teachers, counselors, and school administrators. These
regulations were written to ensure a high standard of initial preparation for entry into
a professional role in public education. To maintain high standards in educational
practice, the regulations also require a program for continuing education for renewal
of the certificate. The certificate is valid for a period of five years, at which time it
must be renewed with evidence of continuing education in order to continue to
practice in the public schools.

The new regulations define two levels of certification: preliminary certification
and full certification. The preliminary certificate is granted in conjunction with
completion of a minimum of 45 graduate semester hours from a state-board-

approved university training program and a 600-CIOCk-hour internship. The full

5

certificate, which is granted upon satisfactory completion of one year of supervised
practice, carries the continuing education requirement for renewal. The initial
Implementation of the rule allowed for the majority of practicing school psychologists
to be 'grandfathered" into the system with full certification, including those with M.A.
degrees as well as those with an Ed.S. or a doctorate. This is the first group of
school psychologists who will be affected by the requirement for continuing
education, which must be completed by 1997.

There is some flexibility in how the continuing education requirement may be
fulfilled. College course work, SBCEUS, or any combination of college credit and
SBCEUS totaling the prescribed number of contact hours in credits and/or SBCEUS
will satisfy the requirement. An SBCEU is defined by State Rule R380.206, which
establishes the requirements for initially obtaining a School Psychology Certificate
and for the renewal of the certificate. It also defines an SBCEU and its
corresponding equivalent in college credit. An SBCEU means credit received for
successfully completing a state-board-approved professional development program.
One SBCEU equals 10 contact hours in a Class, workshop, seminar, conference, or
clinical activity. One semester credit equals 30 contact hours. The rule further
states that ”the renewal of the certificate requires the completion of 6 semester hours
of credit in an approved program or the equivalent in approved state board
continuing education units (SBCEUs).“ All renewal evidence submitted most
demonstrate a contribution to the individual’s professional development as a school
psychologist. College course work must be taken at a state-board-approved
institution of higher learning. However, it is not required that course work for renewal
be taken in a School Psychology, Teacher Edumtion, or School Administration

department. For example, a psychology course may be taken through 3 Psychology

6
department of a college or university. It Is also not required that course work
submitted for renewal be taken at the graduate level. To complete the renewal
process, a college transcript must be provided to the state.

R380.206 also allows the requirement to be fulfilled by the acquisition of 18
SBCEUS. The ratio ls three SBCEUS equal one semester hour of credit. SBCEUS
may be earned only at state-board-preapproved conferences, workshops, or
inservice presentations. Or they may be granted by state-approved institutions such
as colleges or universities, teaching hospitals, intermediate school districts, or
professional organizations that sponsor on-going educational opportunities for
employees or members. At the time of renewal, the individual must complete a state
application form indicating the types of programs that have been approved for
SBCEUS they have attended and request the program sponsors to mail to the state
board a record or transcript of the SBCEUS that have been earned by the individual.

R380.206 allows the additional flexibility of permitting the individual to choose
any combination of college courses and SBCEUS as long as itfulfills the basic hourly
contact requirement. For example, a combination of a three—credit college course
and the completion of nine SBCEUS would be acceptable for renewal. The same
type of documentation must be submitted when application for renewal is made: a
college transcript and evidence of completion of the SBCEUS.

These changes will likely increase the demand for continuing education
opportunities and may require institutions of higher education, school districts, and
professional organizations to offer a greater variety or increased number of
continuing education programs. The development and expansion of educational
programs in any sector is complex. It requires the additional commitment of many

resources such as administrative staff, Instructional staff, support staff, time,

7
facilities, and finances to accomplish. For school districts and professional
organizations, the changes will require, in addition, the development or
implementation of a system for record keeping to provide the necessary
documentation for individuals who participate in their programs. This can quickly
become a significant burden on school districtss and professional organizations’
human and financial resources.

The Michigan Association of School Psychologists (MASP) has long been a
provider of professional development opportunities for Its members through annual
statewide conferences and regional workshops or inservice presentations. This
organization was one of the first professional groups in the state to gain state board
of education approval to offer SBCEUS to its members for attendance and
participation in such sponsored activities. The organization’s responsibility to meet
the needs of its membership in completing the new mandate requires planning
continuing education opportunities that are of strong interest and contribute
significantly to the professional growth of school psychologists. The responsibility
for the design and development of a system for the necessary record keeping and
documentation will place an increased demand on the organization to manage the
process. In 1993 the executive board of MASP authorized the present researcher
to collect information from school psychologists in the state to help focus and direct
the planning and budget for future professional development opportunities.

A study of the entire population of school psychologists has never been done
In Michigan. The data collected to answer the basic questions cited above will also
provide additional information about the population of school psychologists in

Michigan and their current practice.

8

During the past several years, many studies have been conducted on the

roles and functions of school psychologists, based on national samples. Information

gained from the present study will provide an estimate of how closely Michigan

school psychologists compare to their national colleagues. Some of these national

studies have focused on such topics as interest in a doctoral degree (Brown, 1989a,

Cobb, 1989; Fagan, 1989; Reschly & WIIson, 1995), amount of time spent in various

activities such as assessment or consultation (Fagan 8 Wise, 1994; Huebner, 1992;

Miller, Witt, & Finley, 1981), and interest in developing skills to serve a specific

disability or age population (Fagan 8 Wise, 1994).

State Rule R380.203 establishes the role and expected competencies of

school psychologists in Michigan. The rule states,

Among other functions a school psychologist may:

a.

Be involved in planning educational intervention, curriculum,
management, and teaching strategies for pupils.

Consult and counsel pupils, administrators, school personnel, parents
and others.

Be available for evaluation of all pupils.

Evaluate pupils referred as potential candidates for special education
programs and present a report to the local educational authority on
pupils evaluated.

Administer tests which may include intelligence, achievement,
personality, and perceptual-motor tests.

Interpret the psychological and other diagnostic data to professionals,
parents, pupils, and others.

State Rule R380.208 specifies the ways that school psychologists will demonstrate

the various competencies to fulfill the role as defined in R380.203.

Many national studies have indicated that school psychologists continue to

spend a major part of their time in the assessment role and only a small amount of

9
time engaged In the other roles and functions (Cook 8 Patterson, 1977; Curtis 8
Meyers, 1988; Fagan 8Wise, 1994; Graden, Zins, 8 Curtis, 1988; Hughes, 1979;
Meacham 8 Peckham, 1978; Reschly 8 Wilson, 1995; Smith, 1984; Wright 8 Gutkin,
1984). The extensive data collected in this study will provide information, as defined
by the level of interest, about how closely school psychologists in Michigan are
aligning with the ideology of the broadened role called for in the current school
psychology literature and the current state rules that define the role and expected

competencies.

l i 'l I' [ll SI |

There are several limitations to this study. The researcher focused only on
the first group offully certificated Michigan school psychologists who were included
in the data base obtained from the Michigan Department of Education (MDE) Office
of Professional Preparataion and Certification. Persons holding preliminary
certification were not included. Therefore, the results of this study may not
generalize to other states.

Although precautions were taken to Check on the representativeness of the
respondents vis—a-vis the nonrespondents to the survey, there remains the possibility
that the respondents were not typical of the nonrespondents.

The study did not cover interest levels related to other specific topics outside
the field of school psychology, nor did it cover all possible topics of specific interest
for continuing education. For example, during the course of the study, a strong
interest has developed in the area of expanding school psychological services into
the health care arena. As a consequence, no items relating to this new development

were included in the survey.

10

The new certification rule allows the completion of college credit to satisfy the
continuing education requirement. However, the questionnaire did not ask whether
respondents would choose to take graduate or undergraduate course work. It asked
for information on the type of course work that might be Chosen—for example,
whether the course would be in psychology, education, or a related field.

Although the researcher looked into participants’ interest in developing
specialty areas, she did not investigate whether there was any interest in expanding
school psychological services in general education.

This study did not address the issue of noncompliance with the requirement
due to individuals who might leave the field before their certification expires and
would therefore be unaffected by the need for continuing education. Nor did the
study address the question of interest in private practice or whether individuals
possessed the proper state license for private practice.

Last, the researcher reported only what school psychologists said they would
do, not what they actually did. And although the researcher reported the interest
levels of school psychologists in several areas, she did not address the issue of how
developing or expanding personal interest would actually affect practice and best

meet the needs of students.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of the literature covers four major areas pertinent to the topic of
continuing education forthe profession of school psychology. First, discussion ofthe
background and development of continuing education in the field of school
psychology includes the reasons for the provision of continuing education
opportunities, the need to participate in them, the traditional providers of continuing
education programs, and the traditional methods and means of providing them.
These topics all are discussed within the context of the trends in education, which
now require continuing education participation as a condition of continued good
standing in professional organizations and as a condition of continued employment.

Second, an overview of the current status of the field of school psychology
provides a context in which to consider specific topics or types of continuing
education programs that might be of interest to practitioners. The overview includes
discussion of the many Changes that currently affect practice in the schools: (a) the
continuing call from within the field for a broader role in the delivery of services; and
(b) the changing demographic picture of practitioners as to gender, level of

education, place of employment, and school setting.

11

12

Third, the review considers the current trends in education reform relevant to
the practice of school psychology and special education. This information provides
the rationale for obtaining current interest levels of practitioners and for the content
of the questions on the survey instrument. Last, the review provides background
Information and support for the formulation of the research questions posed in the

study.

Backgmund

The concept of continuing education within a profession is not a new idea.
Professional psychology is a science-based practitioner profession. As such,
professional psychology is committed to continuing development of its knowledge
base, and the practice of psychology should be guided not only by theory and
previously established facts but also by any relevant, more recent additions to what
is known. Continued learning is an essential part of the natural evolution of
professions and professionals (Houle, 1980). The concept of a profession implies
responsibility for evaluation of services, including the need for individual
practitioners to examine their own delivery of services (Houle, 1980). The value of
examining service delivery is two-fold. One is related to accountability and ethical
responsibility, and the other one to feedback or self-supervision, SO that individuals
can monitor and improve their skills to achieve maximum professional competence.

School psyChologists are covered by the ethical codes of conduct that have
been established by APA and NASP. Although membership in these organizations

implies an acceptance of the ethical codes to guide conduct and practice, the codes

13

must be adhered to whether or not a practitioner is a member of an organization as
they may be applied to them by their employer, the state or other public bodies. The
ethical codes of both organizations contain a requirement for professional
competence to be maintained by continuing education. ”Psychologists strive to
maintain high standards of competence in their work. . . . They maintain knowledge
of relevant scientific, and professional information related to the services they
render, and they recognize the need for on-going education” (APA’S Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, cited in Fagan 8 Wise, 1994, p.
303). The NASP Principles of Professional Ethics also require that “School
Psychologists engage in continuing professional development. They remain current
regarding developments in research, training, and professional practices that benefit
Children, families, and schools" (Cited in Fagan 8 Wise, 1994, p. 332).

The need for continuing professional development is based on the realization
that professional obsolescence can occur within the working life of any field. Dubin
(1972) stated that a professional’s competence often is measured by the construct
of half-life. He defined this as the time after completion of professional training
when, because of new developments, practicing professionals have become roughly
half as competent as they were upon graduation to meet the demands of their
profession. Dubin estimated that the half-life of psychological training averages
about 10 to 12 years. Although some areas of psychology undoubtedly have a
shorter half-life, Rosenfield (1981) argued that the rate of Change in educational and

developmental psychology seems greater than in most other areas. Hynd, Pielstick,

14
and Schakel (1981) estimated that the half-life for a school psychologist’s knowledge .
is perhaps three to five years. This rate of Change has much relevance for school
psychologists in terms of the professional responsibility for continuing education.
The practice of school psychology requires an emphasis on self-supervision as
school psychologists often function in isolation from other school psychologists, and
supervision is limited or nonexistent (Rosenfield, 1981). The new continuing
education requirement enforces the ethical responsibility and provides an
opportunity for feedback and continued professional growth.

Lifelong learning and the need to have contact with new developments
become integral to the profession. Rosenfield (1981) further stated that lifelong
learning and the habits and motivation related to that concept suggest the need for
education based on the needs of the adult learner. The method of fulfillment of the
new continuing education requirement for school psychologists in Michigan is, in
part, self-directed. Fulfilling the requirement by university or college credit, SBCEUS,
orsome combination of the two, is left to the personal choice of the practitioner.
Likewise, the topic of a college or university course or approved CEU activity chosen
by a practicing school psychologist to fulfill the new continuing education
requirement is left to personal interest or expediency.

Hynd and Schakel (1981) stated that the success of continuing education
programs is determined by the recognition of their value to practitioners. The
historical literature of school psychology includes many national surveys of

practitioners that have indicated the need for workshops and seminars in such areas

15

as learning disabilities, emotional impairments, and assessment procedures.
including neuropsychological, personality, and preschool techniques. Other areas
include intervention strategies, legal issues,and consultation (Hynd 8 Schakel,
1981). National studies, which are assumed to be representative of the field of
school psychology as a whole, suggesting Interest in these broad topics for
continuing education, may be too general to meet the needs and interests of
practitioners in a single state. The subjects for such national studies usually area
drawn from the membership lists of national organizations such as APA or NASP.
Not all practicing school psychologists belong to a professional organization. For
example, MASP represents approximately 65% of the school psychologists in
Michigan (Oermann, 1996). The results of these studies may not, therefore, provide
accurate estimates of the interest levels of all practitioners at either the national or
the state level.

For example, in a study ofjob satisfaction paralleling a national study among
\fIrginia school psychologists, and which included both members and nonmembers
of national professional organizations, the national survey results tended to
overestimate the findings (Levinson, Fetchkan, 8 Hohenshil, 1988). The information
gained from these national studies, therefore, may be too general to provide
accurate information for state organizations, state colleges/universities, and
local/intermediate school districts to plan courses, conferences, and workshops.

Information gained from members of national organizations may not have the same

16

value to all of the practitioners within Michigan to satisfy their own professional

interests and fulfill the continuing education requirement.

E" [Cl"E|l'

Hynd et al. (1981) suggested that when continuing education is required by
law, the requirements "constitute an additional impetus for providing CE
opportunities” (p. 485). The requirement for continuing education by the Michigan
Department of Education (MDE) as a criterion for continued eligibility for certification
to practice thus carries with it the responsibility for state professional organizations,
state colleges sand universities, mental health institutions, and school districts in
Michigan to provide opportunities to satisfy the needs and interests of practicing
school psychologists.

As a distinct specialty in the field of psychology, school psychology has its
own research base, body of knowledge, and methods of practice applied within an
educational or school context. The level of training to enter the field is extensive.
Current Michigan rules establish the educational specialist degree or its equivalent
as the standard criterion for certification (see Appendix C). Although it is possible
for persons with 45 semester hours and a 600-clock-hour internship to qualify for
preliminary certification, this process is used infrequently to enter employment in
Michigan schools. The intention of new certification regulations, while allowing for
the preliminary certification status, was to require the completion of an educational
Specialist degree (Witherspoon, 1997). The postgraduate or continuing education

needs of these highly trained professionals, by this qualification, are unique as

17

compared to other areas within the broad field of education in general. Most
teachers begin their careers at the baccalaureate level; counselors and
administrators begin at the master’s level. As school psychologists enter the field
with a higher level of training, it is reasonable to assume that their postgraduate
training needs will be different from those of others in the educational community.

The provision of continuing education opportunities in Michigan, historimlly,
has been through professional organizations such as APA-Division 16 through its
state-level affiliate, the Michigan Psychological Association, and MASP. The most
common method of providing continuing education programs forthese organizations
has been through national-, regional-, and state-level conferences and workshops.
For example, MASP has held annual statewide conferences for the past 25 years.
It also has sponsored regional conferences and workshops during this time. These
events are widely publicized and are open to members and nonmembers alike.

As in most organizations, the workshop topics or major conference theme is
usually chosen by a committee. Although the choice may reflect current issues and
developments in the field as perceived by the committee members, it may not
necessarily reflect the individual members' interest levels or adult learning needs of
current practitioners, or be of interest to nonmembers. In their study of the
development of a model for continuing education of school psychologists in
Michigan, Lesiak, Petty, and Braccio (1975) found that topics need to be selected
that more fully address the educational needs of practicing school psychologists.

Although they mentioned that their Choice of educational topics used in their model

18

was based on information gained from a statewide survey, the authors did not
provide a copy of their survey instrument, any information as to the nature of the
questions used in their survey, the size of sample, or specific results. The model
advocated by Lesiak et al. was a ”trainer of trainers” procedure in which a small
number of school psychologists (n = 22) were nominated by the director of special
education in their school district to attend specialized training on two broad topics:
behavior modification and affective education. The school psychologists who
received the special training were then to hold workshops in 12 regional areas
throughout the state to bring the information to more of their colleagues. Although
this procedure met with some success, the feedback received from participants in
subsequent workshops held by the specially trained group indicated some
dissatisfaction with the topics selected for training. To improve practitioners’
satisfaction with the model, Lesiak et al. suggested doing regional needs
assessments across the state.

The Michigan colleges and universities that train school psychologists also
have offered continuing education programs for practitioners. As a large majority of
school psychologists work on a school-year-calendar basis, these programs usually
have been offered in the summer. Often they are centered around a central theme.
Some examples are (a) a curriculum-based assessment workshop offered by
Central Michigan University in 1993 on Beaver Island, (b) new assessment
techniques for diagnosing learning disabilities offered by University of Detroit-Mercy

in 1994, and (C) use of the Rorschach as a projective technique for personality

19

assessment offered in summer 1996 by Michigan State University. College or
university programs might not be accessible to m any practitioners due to the
distance required for travel or the cost of tuition.

Hynd and Schakel (1981) Cited several studies that indicated a preference for
condensed two- to three-day workshops concentrating on a single subject for
continuing education purposes. In their study of continuing education in Michigan,
Lesiak et al. (1975) found additional factors that influence continuing education
activities, such as release time and reimbursement for expenses. These authors
pointed out that “school districts must be willing or able to provide the support
necessary for these [continuing education] activities” (p. 401) if they are to be
successful.

MoSt school psychologists are employed by local or intermediate school
districts. Larger school districts have provisions for staff development or continuing
education opportunities that are organized and implemented by educators for
educators. The topics are usually of interest to those who either are in a Classroom
or are responsible for curriculum or educational administration. Although there are
areas within the state, such as the Wayne-Oakland-Macomb counties, whose local
Staff development programs are of interest and benefit to school psychologists, they
are not easily accessible to a majority of practitioners. In addition to time, monetary,
and distance considerations, lack of widespread marketing of the program and
availability only to employees of that school district or intermediate school district

limit CEU accessibility.

20

Afurther complication with the new continuing education requirement and the
granting of CEUS is the application and approval process required by the MDE. To
sponsor and provide continuing education opportunities requires accurate record
keeping to verify participation in and completion of the program. Whereas college
and university course work can easily be documented with a transcript and a grade,
documentation of attendance at conferences and workshops sponsored by
professional organizations or school districts is problematic. Most local school
districts are unable to comply with these requirements, likely due to time pressures
and the additional costs of the record keeping (Harberts, 1993).

AS a service to its members, MASP accepted this verification responsibility
for members and nonmembers who attend MASP-sponsored programs for a nominal
administration fee. An additional concern is the legal responsibility for accuracy as
errors may affect an individual school psychologist’s ability to obtain recertification.

Many mental health institutions and professional organizations throughout
Michigan offer professional development opportunities. However, many ofthe same
difficulties—marketing of the program, the time it is offered, travel distance required
to attend, the sponsoring organization’s neglect to fulfill the requirement to obtain
MDE approval to grant CEUS, and the necessary record keeping of participation for
accountability—may interfere with the feasibility of attendance by school
psychologists.

The major portion Of the responsibility for the provision of continuing

educational opportunities will be carried by the state professional organizations,

21
state colleges and universities, and local or lnterrnediate school districts. To do so
intelligently, they will need to know the needs and interests of practicing school

psychologists.

: . [II C ISII [II E”

The appropriate role and the accepted function of a school psychologist have
been the subject of much debate and conflict between ideology and reality for
several years. The literature indicates that school psychologists, historically, have
expended an inordinate amount of energy defining their role (Alpert, 1985; Bradley-
Johnson, Johnson, 8 Jacob-Timm, 1993; Cook 8 Patterson, 1977; Fagan, 1992;
Graden et al., 1988; Hughes, 1979; Lacayo, Sherwood, 8 Morris, 1983; Meacham
8 Peckham, 1978; Ramage, 1979; Reschly 8 Wilson, 1995; Wright 8 Gutkin, 1984).
This professional obsession with identity may be a result of multiplicity of role
definers and the generalist nature of school psychological practice (Bardon, 1983).
Several role researchers have investigated both actual and desired roles (Cook 8
Patterson, 1977; Curtis 8 Meyers, 1985; Fagan 8 Wise, 1994; Graden et al., 1988;
Hughes, 1979; Meacham 8 Peckham, 1978; Reschly 8 Wilson, 1995; Smith, 1984;
Wright 8. Gutkin, 1984).

Although it is difficult to compare studies due to differences in instrumentation
and samples, two findings consistently have emerged from these role studies. First,
school psychologists continue to spend approximately 50% of their time in
assessment activities and 20% in consultation, with the remaining time divided
among counseling students, attending inservice, administering, counseling parents,

conducting research, and evaluating programs. Fagan and Wise (1994)

22

summarized this by saying that "school psychologists spend 60% to 70% of their
time in activities that make up only about 25% of their training” (p. 219). Second,
school psychologists desire to spend less time in assessment and more time in
virtually every other activity, especially in consulting with school personnel (Fagan
8 Wise, 1994; Huebner, 1992; Miller et al., 1981). The limitations of the
psychodiagnostician role and the advantages of alternative models of service
delivery, as well as the provision of a broader range of services, especially
consultation, have provided the theme for numerous articles in professional journals
(Fredriksson, 1986; Graden, 1989; Gutkin 8 Curtis, 1990; Pryzwansky, 1986;
Reschly 8 Wilson, 1995; Zins 8 Ponti, 1990).

School psychologists who experience a discrepancy between actual and
desired roles may experience job-related tension and lower levels ofjob satisfaction.
For example, in one of the few studies conducted on a statewide basis, Hughes
(1979) found a significant negative correlation between the magnitude of the
discrepancy between actual and desired roles and job satisfaction among Virginia
school psychologists.

Given the consistent finding of a discrepancy in actual and desired role
definitions and school psychologists’ preference for a more preventative and
consultative role, it becomes important to understand the mechanisms and
processes of role definition. "The process of role definition refers to those
environmental and personal factors that influence the agreed upon formal role

description and the daily activities of school psychologists" (Benson 8 Hughes,

23
1985, p. 65). From a developmental perspective, it would be important to
understand the effects of those forces in the context of the actual activities of school
psychologists as the input is transformed into knowledge of what the role should be.
It is necessary to understand the mechanisms or processes by which individuals
represent their personal perspectives of their professional working world in order to
recommend strategies for role expansion and role transformation.

The personal level of interest as expressed within the envirOnmental context
of the new state CEU requirement could be one mechanism to inform state
professional organizations, state colleges and universities, and local school districts
that have responsibility for developing CEU opportunities of the adult learning needs
of practicing school psychologists and their movement toward implementing the
ideology of an expanded role. Reschly and Wilson (1995), in their study of trends
in roles and job satisfaction among school psychologists, suggested that periodic
surveys of school psychologists are needed to assess the degree to which Changes

are occurring in the field and the direction in which they are going.

II'D l'i SIIEII'I

Throughout the historic literature in school psychology, many studies have
indicated changes in the Characteristics of practitioners over time. Consider
practitioner gender composition. Farling and Hoedt (1971) indicated a 60:40 ratio
of men to women. By the early 19803, this figure had Changed to a 50:50 or 45:50
ratio (Goldwasser, Meyers, Christenson, 8 Graden, 1983; Meacham 8 Peckham,

1978; Ramage, 1979). Fagan and Wise (1994) Cited results from a national survey

24

sponsored by NASP in 1988 showing a 38.2:60.1 ratio of men to women, with 1.7%
of their sample recorded as unspecified. In a national survey conducted by Reschly
and \Mlson in 1991 (Cited in Fagan 8 Wm, 1994), a similar ratio was obtained: 35%
males to 65% females. In a more recent study, Reschly and Wilson (1995)
continued to find this same gender ratio.

The above-mentioned studies provide a picture of a field that has become
highly feminized. Although the actual practice of a profession, based on similar
training or adherence to ethical standards, may not show any gender effects, the
question of specific interests and adult learning needs by gender remains open. Are
there differences in the ways that male and female practitioners prefer to satisfy the
new continuing education requirement, or in their topics of interest? The present
study was undertaken to provide information on this question, information that might
help to plan and organize continuing education opportunities. Such data could be
of value to all practitioners, while addressing more specific concerns of both men
and women.

The degree status of school psychologists has been a topic of great
controversy throughout the recent history of the profession (Brown, 1989b; Cobb,
1989; Fagan, 1993). In the mid- to late 1980s, these writers and others suggested
the need for and a naturally occurring trend toward a greater number of school
psychologists obtaining the doctoral degree. Brown (1989a), using an extrapolation
formula based on the number of school psychology graduates with educational

Specialist degrees and those who had completed a doctoral program, predicted that

25

”during the next ten years school psychology will become a predominantly doctoral
profession” (p. 175). In their national survey, Reschly and Wilson (1995) did not
provide evidence of this trend. Their results supported the educational specialist
(Ed.S.) as the most common degree status in the field.

In Michigan, for many years, the required entry-level credential for school
psychologists was a master’s degree, although some universities did require an
Ed.S. For example, Michigan State University required the Ed.S. since 1973. That
was changed with the 1987 revision of the State School Code, which set an Ed.S.
degree as the entry-level requirement. The new certification rule, which established
the continuing education requirement, included a grandfather Clause that granted
certification to all who were currently practicing school psychologists, regardless of
their degree status. The new continuing education requirement allows the Choice
of obtaining college credit as one means of completion. Will practitioners use this
opportunity to pursue an advanced degree in school psychology? A trend in this
direction would likely be of interest to the state colleges and universities that offer
school psychology training programs. Another consideration for the development
of providing continuing education opportunities is whether the current level of
education, as defined by degree status of a school psychologist, has an effect on
their Choice of method to fulfill the CEU requirement or their Choice of continuing
education tOpics that reflect specific areas of interest.

Reschly and Connolly (1990) examined prevailing assumptions regarding

differences between school psychologists in different employment settings. In their

26

study they compared school psychologists, based on their employment setting, with
regard to the level of professional preparation, roles, employment conditions,
continuing education needs, and perceptions of current problems. The employment
settings were defined as rural, suburban, or urban. Reschly and Connolly’s findings
indicated limited support for the existence of a more generalist role for rural school
psychologists and more involvement in regular education issues. They also found
implications for variations in graduate training programs and in continuing education
based on the employment setting. Their national sample was drawn from the 1990
NASP membership roster. The problem of a national sample and the use of a
national organization’s membership list may have provided results that do not
generalize well to the state level or to all practitioners within the state.

In Michigan, school psychologists who are employed by local and
intermediate school districts provide services in a variety of employment settings.
Whether or not differences exist in the preferences of school psychologists based
on employment setting would be of interest to those who must provide CEU
opportunities to meet continuing education needs.

Fagan and Wise (1994) reported that the most common employment setting
for a school psychologist is the single public school district. The next most common
is the cooperative arrangement, in Michigan through the intermediate school district,
which provides services to small rural or suburban districts and sometimes to several
small-town districts. Fagan and Wise further indicated that school psychologists

work in other nontraditional settings such as

27

public and private community or state agencies, including community mental
health centers, developmental disability centers, or rehabilitation centers;
independent and Church-related private schools and private practice. Even
within school settings differentiation occurs, with some practitioners serving
elementary schools and others serving secondary schools, or some
performing specific tasks (e.g., work with sensory-impaired Children) and

some working as generalists. (p. 6)

Fagan and Wise indicated that traditional school settings dominate the field but that
the number of nontraditional settings continues to grow.

In their national study of demographic trends, Reschly and Wilson (1995)
reported the following results: Primary employment settings were public schools
(86%), private practice (4%), hospital (1%), college or university (1 %), institutional!
residential setting (1 %), Clinic (1%), and other settings (5%). It would be Of interest
to see the patterns of employment among school psychologists in Michigan and to
determine whether the type of school setting in which they work has any influence

on the choices they make to fulfill the new CEU requirement and in the level of their

interest in specific topics or content.

WWII
In their review of the school psychology literature advocating significant
reforms in the service delivery system, Reschly and Wilson (1995) covered more

than 17 different studies on this issue. They summarized:

The reforms are designed to address significant problems in the current
system; specifically the undocumented effectiveness of special education
programs, nonfunctional and stigmatizing classification of students with mild
disabilities, failure of aptitude by treatment interaction approaches to
assessment and interventions, poor treatment validity of current measures,
overlapping and poorly coordinated special programs, poor quality of

28

interventions. and disproportionate minority placement in programs with
undocumented benefits. (p. 63)

These problems in the current system have implications for the content or
themes of courses, conferences, or workshops of a continuing education nature.
Reschly and Wilson (1995) further defined specific reform principles that could give
direction to the development of continuing education opportunities:

The system reform principles involve: (a) the adoption of outcomes criterion

to determine the effectiveness of services; (b) use of functional assessment

procedures directly related to defining problems in natural settings, monitoring
progress, and evaluating outcomes; (C) systematic problem solving; (d) direct
measures of academic and social-behavioral performance in natural settings;

(e) frequent progress monitoring with Changes in interventions when progress

toward goals fails to meet expectations; and (f) systematic implementation of

principles of instructional design and behavior Change. (p. 63)

Additional system reforms of importance for continuing education planning
that Reschly and Wilson (1995) suggested are:

(a) noncategorical classification schemes for students now Classified in mild

disability categories such as specific learning disability; (b) combining

remedial and special education programs such as Chapter I and resource
pull-out programs; and (0) attempts to prevent disability Classification through
provision of services in general education or delivery of special education in

general education Classrooms. (p. 64)

Along with a call for reform and a redefinition of the delivery system, the
literature continues to provide evidence that school psychologists spend most of
their time in various activities related to students with disabilities and special
education programs (Fagan 8 Wise, 1994; Reschly 8 Connolly, 1990; Smith, 1984).
Fagan and Wise provided an extensive review of the literature in this area and

provided a summary of the various work-related activities of school psychologists

and the amount of time spent in each. They found that actual services were heavily

29

oriented to individual assessment (50% or more), with less emphasis on involvement
with interventions (about 25%) and consultation (20%), and almost no involvement
with research activities (less than 2%).

The question remains open as to the level of interest school psychologists in
Michigan have in these various areas of system reform and in what direction, given
the opportunity through the new continuing education requirement, they will move
as demonstrated by their Choice of continuing education opportunities.

The current Michigan rule (R380.203) stipulating the roles and functions of
school psychologists (see Appendix C) requires competence in the broad areas of
assessment, consultation, counseling, curriculum, intervention, and prevention.
These competency areas, which mirror the delivery-system reform problems and
principles, can be used as a frame of reference to help guide the planning of CEU
opportunities.

The Michigan state rule also defines the broad topical areas of competence
that figure prominently in the literature calling for and defining an expanded role.
The current literature related to these broad topics can give direction to specific

workshop, conference. or college course themes.

Assessment

As the literature has indicated, school psychologists continue to spend most
of their time in assessment. The type of assessment is usually within the framework
of finding a Child eligible for a special education program or service and consists, for

the most part, of individual intelligence tests such as the Wechsler scales, the

30

Stanford-Binet IV, the Kaufman battery for either Children or adults, and individually
administered achievement tests such as the Woodcock Johnson, the Wechsler
Individual Achievement Test, and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement.

Additional assessment time provides updated information on intellectual
growth and achievement of students with disabilities to meet legal mandates, both
state and federal, for a three-year comprehensive reevaluation of their progress in
special education. The same test battery given for an initial evaluation or one that
is very similar will likely be used again.

The current sampling of literature in the field suggests expanding assessment
skillsinto other areas: authentic assessment (Christenson, 1991; Kamphaus, 1991),
bilingual assessment (Figeroa, Fradd, 8 Correa, 1989), clinical assessment (Hynd,
1992; Kamphaus, Frick, 8 Lahey, 1991; Kratochwill 8 Plunge, 1991; Morris, Bergan,
8 Fulginiti, 1991), curriculum-based assessment (Fugate, 1993; Mehrens 8 Clarizio,
1993; Shapiro 8 Ager, 1992; Shapiro 8 Eckert, 1994; Stoner, Carey, lkeda, 8 Shinn,
1994), functional assessment (Gresham 8 Gansle, 1992; Kern, Childs, Dunlap, 8
Clarke, 1994; Kratochwill 8 Plunge, 1991; Noell 8 Gresham, 1993), infant
assessment (Epps 8 Jackson, 1991; MCLinden 8 Prasse, 1991; Oakland, 1995),
low-incidence handicaps, e.g., autism (Brewster, 1997; Stavrou 8 French, 1992),
personality assessment (Knoff, 1993), preschool assessment (Feil 8 Becker, 1993;
Lidz, 1990), psychopharrnacological assessment (Kubiszyn, 1994), neuropsycho-

logical assessment (D’Amato, 1990; Farmer 8 Peterson, 1995; Riccio, Hynd, 8

31
Cohen—Morris, 1993), and vocational assessment (Anderson 8 Hohenshil, 1990;

Hicks, 1994; Nolte, 1994).

Consultation

Fagan and WIse (1994) suggested that the assessment role provides
information to determine the nature of services needed by a student; ”consultation
strengthens the chances that appropriate services will be delivered" (p. 122). They
defined the work ”consultation” to mean a variety of activities such as giving advice,
offering suggestions, and providing counsel or solutions to work-related problems.
Recent literature on this topic continues to indicate an ideological push toward
greater use of consultation (Conoley 8 Conoley, 1982; Curtis 8 Meyers, 1985, 1988;
Gutkin 8 Curtis, 1990; Zins 8 Ponti, 1990), as well as an increased desire on the
part of school psychologists to expand their practice with consultation as a service
(Costenbader, Swartz, 8 Petrix, 1992; Huebner 8 Mills, 1994; Reschly 8 Wilson,
1995).

‘ Along with using consultation as a service in the schools, the literature offers
an additional direction for the use of these skills in the school health movement.
School psychologists are being urged to reconfigure their services toward school-
based and school-linked health care services (Talley, Short, 8 Kolbe, 1996). The
use of a consultation model by school psychologists to work closely with parents;
social service, health, welfare, and juvenilejustice agencies; and business, industry,

and communities to address health factors that affect learning is seen as a means

32

not only to address needs, but also to expand roles (Carlson, Paavola, 8 Talley,
1995; Romualdi 8 Sandoval, 1995).

In a recent study of school psychologists in Michigan, Fugate (1993) reported
that practitioners indicated that they were spending approximately 12% oftheirtime
in consultation. Additional information on this important topic is needed to validate
that estimate and provide data on the direction of interest of current Michigan
practitioners in developing, improving, or expanding skills in this competency area

to help providers plan appropriate continuing education opportunities.

Counseling

Michigan rule R. 380.203 (see Appendix C), which specifies the competencies
of the role of a school psychologist, states that, among other functions, a school
psychologist may ”counsel pupils, administrators, school personnel, parents, and
others.” The precise meaning of the word ”counsel“ in this rule has not been defined
legally. For some, it is meant to be interpreted in the most general sense of giving
advice or information. For others, including many practitioners, it is taken to mean
the provision of psychotherapy (Prout, Alexander, Fletcher, Memis, et al., 1993;
Watkins, Tipton, Manus, 8 Huntington-Shoup, 1991) or in studies of job satisfaction
as an activity that is a more desired addition to service delivery in the schools
(Brown, 1994b; Hughes, 1979; Prout et al., 1993; Smith, 1984; Watkins et al., 1991).

Although it does not consume as much time as other reported work activities,
counseling continues to be mentioned in national surveys as an accepted part of the

school psychology role. In his national survey, Smith (1984) found that practitioners

33

spent approximately 11% of their time in counseling activities—”7.3% counseling
students and 3.8% counseling parents“ (p. 801). Yoshida, Maher, and Hawryluk
(1984) found that, of the 60% of their national sample who reported engaging in
some counseling activity, 37% reported that they spent 1 to 5 hours per week
counseling students, and 16% said they spent 6 to 10 hours per week. In their
sample, 46% of the respondents indicated some counseling activity with parents.
Of this group, 41% spent 1 to 5 hours counseling parents. and 4% indicated they
spent 6 to 10 hours in this activity. In a recent survey of Michigan school
psychologists, Fugate (1993) found that his sample reported spending 3.7% of their
time in counseling activity. This seeming discrepancy between the national and
state-level studies warrants further investigation, particularly as this activity is
considered a specific role function within state rules. The level of interest in
counseling as a part of the service delivery system in general, as expressed by
practitioners in the current study, will give further information to help plan continuing

education opportunities emphasizing this area of required competence.

Quaiouium

According to current Michigan rule R340.1151 (see Appendix C), school
psychologists are to be involved in ”planning educational intervention, curriculum,
management, and teaching strategies for pupils." As reported in past and current
literature, school psychologists spend the bulk of their time doing assessments,
including the assessment of children’s academic-skills problems. As Shapiro and

Ager (1992) indicated, there is a great need to link assessment to instructional

34

practice. They advocated using curriculum-based assessment as the means to
assess a student’s failure to perform certain skills and the means to link Classroom
intervention to the development of an acceptable level of proficiency within specific
areas of the curriculum for the student. Further, they saw curriculum-based
assessment as an opportunity for a comprehensive examination of the in-Class
performance of students, thereby strengthening the link between measurement and
instruction. They wrote, ”Instruction needs to relate constantly to assessment, and,
likewise, assessment should be the basis for intervention“ (p. 294).

In a call for reform in the school psychology delivery system, authorities (e.g.,
Reschly, 1988; Reschly, Kickiighter, 8 McGhee, 1988) have recommended that
school psychology practitioners and trainers prepare for several new services to be
offered within the field, one of which is instructional design. However, Shinn and
McConnell (1994) suggested that current school psychology services typically ignore
the role of general education curriculum and instruction practices, as well as their
potential contribution to students’ academic difficulties. Further, they suggested that
ignoring this contribution can reduce the recognition of effective instructional
practices that can serve to reduce or remediate students’ learning difficulties. They
proposed that school psychologists direct more effort at ensuring the implementation
of effective instructional practices in both special and general education.

lnastudy of Michigan school psychologists, Fugate (1993) found little support
for the use of curriculum-based assessment as an assessment tool. School

psychologists in Michigan do not have to possess teaching credentials to enter a

35

school psychology training program. To provide an introduction to the public schools
and the educational system, all of the training programs require a prospective school
psychologist to spend time in the schools in a practicum, a supervised internship, or
both. The typical preservice training curriculum does not necessarily include college
course work in curriculum, instructional design, orteaching methods. Could the lack
of acceptance found by Fugate among practitioners in Michigan be related to a lack
of interest in these educational fundamentals? The present researcher investigated

the level of interest in this important area of expected competence.

l i I. l E l'

Although State Rule R340.1151 (see Appendix C) specifically mentions
”planning educational intervention,” the precise meaning of intervention is not
defined. In essence, intervention means to come in or between by way of
modification. Prevention means to come before, to anticipate, to keep from
happening. In educational circles, prevention is commonly accepted to mean
activities performed by school personnel to prevent various problem situations or
difficulties that could have an adverse effect on the educational progress of students
from occurring. Intervention activities are thought of as measures taken to modify,
correct, remediate, or eliminate problems or deficiencies that have been identified
as an impediment to students’ educational progress.

In recent times, the rapid growth of special education programs and services
has placed an extreme burden on the financial and personnel resources of the

educational system. An effort has been made to slow the growth of these programs

36
by reducing special education referrals. A number of researchers have found that
once a student is referred for a special education evaluation, there is a high
probability of an eligibility determination as handicapped and a recommendation for
special education. For example, Clarizio and Halgren (1993) found that 80% ofrural
Michigan children with disabilities remained eligible for special education upon their
three-year reevaluation.

In the school psychology literature, school psychologists have been urged
increasingly to provide more ”prereferral” prevention and intervention activity (Fagan
8 WIse, 1994). In the literature recommending increasing consultation as a
desirable alternative to expanding services, these two activities often are linked
under the preferred role for school psychologists. Rosenfield (1987) suggested that
school psychologists require increased knowledge of effective and appropriate
classroom intervention strategies and improved skills in the process of consultation
to become skilled interventionists rather than merely assessors.

Public Law 99-457 requires states to provide early childhood special
education through early identification of handicapping conditions or developmental
delays. The law requires the development of an individual family service plan, which
necessitates the coordination of many community agencies, including the public
schools, as a form of mandated early intervention. In their review of the implications
of this law for school psychologists, Short, Simeonsson, and Huntington (1990)
suggested that practitioners will need additional training specific to young children,

such as early Child development, family assessment, and intervention.

37

In a national survey of graduating students and practitioners, the quality of
training for intervention procedures was consistently rated significantly lower than
other areas of assessment, consultation, and communication (Graden, Christenson,
Ysseldyke, 8 Meyers, 1984). These same individuals rated intervention as the area
requiring additional competencies not obtained during training.

The present study of Michigan school psychologists may shed light on the
level of interest in the content and process of intervention strategies in this major
competency area of the role as defined by the state rule.

Brown, Pryzwansky, and Schulte (1987) defined prevention activities in a
slightly different fashion, based on two levels of service: primary and secondary
prevention. In their view, primary prevention refers to activities that are proactive
and enhance the functioning of a group assumed to already possess positive mental
health, for example, enhancing coping skills or developing problem-solving
strategies. Secondary prevention, in their view, involves identifying and treating
problems before they have serious consequences, for example, early identification
and intervention programs for learning and/or developmental problems and
remediation efforts for individuals with weak academic skills in some specific area.
In a more recent work, Brown (1994a) refined these concepts into what they called
universal, selective, and indicated intervention. Universal interventions were seen
as very broad in nature, whereas others were targeted and described as selective

or indicated. Selective interventions consider factors outside of the Child, such as

38

poverty or low-income status. Indicated interventions include measures to help the
child more directly.

In their study of special education directors In Texas, Cheramie and Sutter
(1992) found a need for more primary and secondary prevention services. Their
results also indicated a need for more involvement with at-risk and regular education
students and for more counseling and consultation services from school
psychologists. Offord (1996) suggested using a targeted approach to provide
interventions as a more effective way to assist high-risk populations.

A sampling of recent literature reveals a trend encouraging school
psychologists to become more involved in prevention activities as a means of role
expansion. Suggested areas for involvement include the development of crisis-
intervention teams to prevent and reduce school violence (Poland, 1994), child
abuse and neglect (Alpert, 1992; Herrera 8 Carey, 1993), and comprehensive
school-linked services in collaboration with social agencies to improve children’s
health and welfare (Romualdi 8 Sandoval, 1995). The present study will provide an
indication of the level of interest in prevention activities among Michigan

practitioners.

S . I. l'

Most school psychologists receive preservice training that prepares them to
perform a variety of functions. Most training programs embrace a generalist
orientation, which persists even though graduates earn an educational specialist

degree. Fagan and WIse (1994) suggested that the rapid development of the

39

profession in the last two decades has given increasing attention to the issue of
whether practitioners should be trained as generalists or specialists. They indicated
that although this issue has been discussed frequently in the literature, "little has
been published on the subject" (p. 187).

Fagan and Wise believed that several factors that are included in the current
educational system reforms will stimulate or encourage greater specialization among
school psychologists. The passage of Public Law 99457 has the potential to
increase job opportunities for school psychologists at the infant-toddler and
preschool levels. The law requires that services that are identified by the individual
family service plan be given by the ”highest qualified provider.” Fagan and Wise
saw this as having a strong impetus to hasten advanced training orthe development
of a specialty area in practice. They also saw an increased need for practitioners to
”specialize in vocational school psychology, secondary, transition, and
postsecondary services” (p. 187).

While recognizing that persons who obtain a doctoral degree may have
developed a specialty area, Fagan and Wise agreed that many school psychologists
develop specialties through

experience, continuing education and personal interests. For example,

school psychologists may obtain additional expertise in the assessment of

low-incidence handicaps, preschool assessment, or parent training. AS
practitioners become more experienced, areas of special expertise commonly
develop. . . . Many find that their interests have Changed over the years and

Choose to specialize in a particular topic. Such specialization does not

always involve returning to graduate school for formal preparation.

Frequently the necessary expertise is gained through conventions,
workshops, in-depth reading, and supervised apprenticeships. In some

40

instances, a concentration of graduate courses in a specialty area if
completed but not as part of a degree program. (p. 188)

This researcher investigated the level of interest in specialization among
Michigan school psychologists in areas as defined by school age levels or by

specific disability areas.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The Investigator used a mail-in survey as the primary method. Data were
collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire, 3 common tool for data
collection from large groups. The purpose of the specially designed questionnaire
was to collect information on demographic factors of respondents, the parameters
of the context in which school psychologists are currently working, their Choice of
options to satisfy the continuing 'education requirement, and their level of interest in
a variety of content topics, which might be useful for course, conference, or

workshop planning.

5111213915
The subjects for the study included all individuals who received the school
psychologist certificate from the MDE between August 1 and December 31, 1992.
The new state regulations require practicing school psychologists who held Full
Approval to apply for the certification in order to take advantage of a ”grandfather"
opportunity. The MDE needed a period of time to evaluate and process all of the

applicants and to develop'a data base. The data base provided by the MDE

41

42
included the title, name, address, terminal educational degree, and gender of the
newly certified school psychologists.

The MDE data base included all individuals (N = 1,052) who were issued the
new certificate by the state of Michigan as well as those who had applied for
preliminary certification status. The Preliminary Certificate does not carry the
requirement for continuing education and has other requirements that are not
applicable to individuals who were in current practice. The present study included
only those who were granted full certification (N = 988) and who were subject to the
continuing education requirement.

Individuals were listed in the order of their application dates. The data were
reformatted to create an alphabetized mailing list and address labels. To protect
privacy and confidentiality, each individual was assigned a case number by reverse
order of the alphabet. This case number was not included on the questionnaire to
preserve confidentiality, but itwas included on the sending address label, as well as
the return address labels of the return envelope and the postcard that was to be
used in a drawing for a year’s free membership in MASP. It was assumed that
confidentiality would encourage more extensive participation and return of the
questionnaires. The case number was included on the return address label that was
attached to the prepaid return envelope and was hand coded on the survey forms
as they were returned. This allowed for a simple accounting of which cases in the
data base returned the surveys. This system also allowed a second contact to be

made with those who did not respond within a three-week period. It allowed for a

43

further assessment of those who returned the survey form and the incentive
postcard and those who returned only the postcard. The postcards of those who did
not return surveys were not used in the drawing for membership. There were only
a few such cases ([1 = 14).

Coding the case number on the returned questionnaires also allowed for a
comparison of respondents with the nonrespondent group to determine whether any
differences existed on the variables of gender and degree. These variables were
included in the research questions that framed the study. Differences between the
respondents and nonrespondents on these variables could have an effect on the

results of the study, possibly indicating that they were different groups.

Ihelnsimmem

A questionnaire was designed to collect demographic information, Choice of
continuing education option, and interest levels needed by professional
organizations, universities, and intermediate school districts to lay plans for meeting
the state’s continuing education requirement. Additional data regarding current
practice activities, release time, and availability of reimbursement for continuing
education opportunities also were collected.

The questionnaire (see Appendix A) was divided into six sections. The first
section, entitled About You, contained questions on basic demographic information.
Included in this portion were questions relating to the gender of the respondent, the
level of education as defined by the terminal educational degree, and the number of

years of practice as a school psychologist. These data were necessary to assess

44
whether there were demographic differences that would have an effect on the type
of plan to complete the continuing education requirement or an effect on the Choices
made by the respondents.

The second section, About Your Place of Employment, contained
questions relating to current geographic location and type of employment setting.
Location referred to place of employment, such as a City, small town, or rural area.
The employment setting referred to the type of school: public, private, parochial, or
other. Data collected in this section were needed to determine whether there were
any differences in the Choice of plan to complete the continuing education
requirement or in the level of interest in various topics related to the geographic area
or employment setting. Recent writers have, for example, suggested that there are
differing educational needs for rural and urban school psychologists (Reschly 8
Connolly, 1990).

The third section of the questionnaire, called About Your Caseload,
contained items related to current practice activities and context. It also covered the
level of interest in developing any type of specialized practice, either by the age
group served or special education disability category served. These items were
designed to collect data that could be used directly to develop continuing education
opportunities. Many times, programs or workshops are developed to address such
age groups as preschool or elementary school. Also, it is not uncommon to have
continuing education opportunities be developed to feature the latest research in a

particular disability category.

45

The fourth section of the questionnaire, called About Your Continuing
Education Plans, Included questions about leave time available for conferences or
workshops, reimbursement from their employer, geographic access to continuing
education opportunities, and their Choice to fulfill the new requirement, college credit,
18 SBCEUS, or some combination of the two. These items were designed to provide
information that could be helpful in timing, planning, and marketing continuing
education opportunities. This section provided data on the respondents’ choice of
plan to satisfy the new continuing education requirement, a main question of the
study.

The fifth section contained questions designed to measure the respondents’
level of interest in continuing education programs addressing the six broad
competence areas as defined by state regulations: assessment, consultation,
counseling, curriculum, intervention, and prevention. This section was provided to
provide data that could be used to develop continuing education opportunities
around a competency area as a general theme. With the exception of assessment,
these broad areas reflect the types of services called for in the recent literature as
the expanded practice role. The data collected in this study will provide a picture in
terms of' the level of interest in the competency areas of how Closely school
psychologists in Michigan are aligned ideologically with an expanded practice role.

The last section of the questionnaire covered the level of interest in specific

topics for continuing education programs, courses, or workshop development. For

46

example, what is the level of interest in neuropsychological assessment? Or what
is the level of interest in group counseling methods?

All of the questions allowed the participants simply to Check or quickly Circle
their responses. Level—of—interest questions were written as Likert-type scale items
with five choices of responses. Very Interested, Interested, Maybe, Not Interested,
and Definitely Not Interested. The scale was set from Very Interested (1) to
Definitely Not Interested (5).

The questionnaire was piloted, and revised with the advice and comments of
several practicing school psychologists, many of whom were members of the current
MASP Executive Board (N = 31) and members of a graduate-level course for school
psychologists (N = 12) at Michigan State University. Before the actual printing and
mailing, the questionnaire was reviewed and revised three times. The final revision
was field tested on two separate groups for the length of time needed for completion
and ease of use. One group was a graduate-level college class for school
psychologists (M = 12) and another was the school psychology staff from a local
school district (N = 22). Average total time needed to complete the instrument was
15 minutes.

The investigator prepared a cover letter (see Appendix B) to explain the
survey and its purposes to the subjects, who received the questionnaire in the mail.
The letter included an explanation of the new continuing education requirement and
cited the language of the new state regulation directly for reference. The letter

assured the confidentiality of responses forthose who returned questionnaires. The

47

content of this letter was reviewed by the MASP Executive Board before printing.
Upon Initial review, it was considered acceptable and was mailed along with the

questionnaire.

Emeedure

The cover letter, questionnaire, prepaid retum-mail envelope, and a special
prepaid postcard were mailed to the 988 individuals in the data base. To increase
the probability of participation and a speedy response, the potential participants were
offered a Chance for a free one-year membership in the MASP, a $50 value.
Included in the mailing were instructions on how to use the special prepaid postcard
forthe drawing. Respondents were instructed to mail it in, separately, after they had
completed and mailed their questionnaire. If they chose to participate in the
drawing, they needed to complete the postcard with their name, address, and
telephone number that could be used to contact them in the event that they won the
drawing as there was no other way to identify survey respondents by name. This
separate procedure was necessary to preserve the confidentiality of survey
respondents. The postcard had a case number on the return address label already
attached. This allowed for some additional tracking of response rates by matching
returned postcards and returned questionnaires.

The initial mailing allowed three weeks for a response. During this time, 543
completed questionnaires were returned. A reminder postcard was sent to
nonrespondents, and 32 more questionnaires were returned. This brought the total

of completed questionnaires to 575. Of the 988 questionnaires that were mailed, 35

48

were returned by the postal service due to incorrect addresses, 7 were returned by
persons who were no longer practicing, and 1 was removed from the mailing list as
the person was recently deceased. This, in effect, reduced the population to 945
and resulted in a 61% return rate.

An assumption that is often applied to mail-in surveys is that people who have
a particular Interest in the subject matter or the research itself are more likely to
return questionnaires than those who do not (Fowler, 1993). It was assumed that
the new continuing education requirement would stimulate a high interest In the
study and result in a high rate of return. Fowler suggested that although there is no
minimum agreed-upon standard for an acceptable response rate, Babbie (1989),
Citing “rules of thumb for survey research,“ noted that a very good response rate is
70%, a good response rate is 60%, and 50% would be considered adequate.
Accordingly, the 61% response rate to the survey was considered good.

The known Characteristics of gender and graduate degree from the original
data base were compared to the remaining group of nonrespondents in an effort to
assess sampling bias. Chi-squares of gender and graduate degree indicated no
significant difference between the two groups. To further assess bias, a telephone
survey was conducted on a random sample of 25 nonrespondents. Telephone
numbers were available in the data base supplied by the MDE. Persons were briefly
interviewed regarding their participation in the MASP Continuing Education Survey.
Of the 25 persons who were contacted, 15 said they believed they had participated

in the survey and had returned the questionnaire, 6 persons indicated that the new

49

requirement did not affect them as they were Changing positions (4) or retiring (2),
3 persons could not recall receiving a questionnaire, and 1 person indicated that he
never participated In surveys. It was assumed from this effort that more than half of
this nonrespondent group believed they had participated in the survey. It was
assumed that this reflected a degree of interest in the overall study and the intention
to participate, even though they did not actually do so.

Based on the chi-square analysis of the two demographic characteristics of
gender and educational level, as well as the results of the telephone survey, there
is no evidence to suggest that the respondents should not be considered as

representative of the population.

Sll'l' IE I.

The survey instrument generated a variety of types of data, which called for
a variety of statistical tests. Several of the sections involved nominal data, which
allow for the use of frequencies, percentages, and the Chi-square statistic for
analysis. The contingency coefficient (9) was used to provide an index of any
relationships derived from the cross-break tables and the Chi-square statistic
(Fraenkel 8 Wallen, 1993, pp. 188-89). Although a 5-point Likert-type scale might
not accurately represent an interval scale and is more properly called an ordinal
scale, it is also arguable that the variable, level of interest, is a continuous variable
with an approximately normal distribution in the population. If this is so, it is
reasonable to regard the ordinal data collected on the Likert-type items as Interval

data for statistical purposes (Crocker 8 Algina, 1986). Therefore, in the analysis,

50

these data were treated as interval under these assumptions, which allowed the use

of analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the level of interest.

Besearsbflusstions

The study was designed to answer several questions. They are listed in their
order of importance to the investigation:

ReseamLQuestienJ: Which option, the six-semester—credit option gained

through attending college or university courses, the 18 SBCEUS, or a

combination of these two options, do school psychologists prefer in meeting

the continuing education requirement?

Operational definition: This was operationalized by using the survey
instrument developed for the study to report the responses for each Choice In Item
12.

Analysis: The data are reported in frequencies and percentages of the

responses for each choice in Item 12.

Reseamhgueetjenz: Which type of continuing education sponsor do school
psychologists prefer in meeting the new requirement?

Operational definition: Continuing education sponsor refers to a local or
intermediate school district, college or university, or professional organization such
as the MASP. The new state regulations require that certain procedures be
completed by an agency to become an approved continuing education sponsor.
This was operationalized by using the survey instrument to report the responses for
each Choice in Items 13b (preferred college or university), 13C (college credit through

the MASP), 14d (order of preference among the options), 15c (preferred college or

51
university), 15d (college credit through the MASP), and 15k (order of preference
among options).
Analysis: The responses data are reported in frequencies and percentages
of the responses for each Choice in Items 13b, 13c, 15c, and 15d. Responses for
14d and 15k are reported by first choice.

Winn}: Which type of context do school psychologists prefer
in meeting the new requirement?

Operational definition: Context, for those choosing the college/university
course option or the college/university course portion of the combination option, was
defined as a series of short courses on related topics, or courses via television.
Context, for the 18-SBCEU option or the SBCEU portion of the combination option,
was defined as the preferred frequency of programs offering SBCEUS, preferred
time span per session, and preferred time of day for session. This was
operationalized by using the survey instrument to report the responses to Items 13d
(series of short courses), 13e (course by television), 14a (preferred frequency of
programs), 14b (preferred time span), 14C (preferred time of day), 15h (preferred
frequency of programs), 15i (preferred time span), and 15] (preferred time of day).

Analysis: The data are reported in frequencies and percentages of the
responses for each choice in Items 14a, 14b, 14C, 15h, 15i, and 15].

.BeseaLmQuestienA: Are there existing preferences for type of continuing

education option, type of continuing education sponsor, or the context for

completing the requirement based on the demographic variables of gender,

level of education, years of experience as a school psychologist, geographic
location of employment, and type of school setting?

52

W311: There is no significant difference In preferences between or

among groups categorized by gender, degree, Iomtion of employment, and

school setting.

Operational definition: This was operationalized by using the survey to
report the frequencies of responses for each category.

Analysis: The chi-square statistic and the contingency coefficient were used.

BeseeLdJQuestionj: Do school psychologists have release time available

from their employers to attend SBCEU activities necessary to complete the

continuing education requirement? If so, how much time is available?

Hypothesisj: There is no significant difference in the amount of reported

release time between or among groups categorized by gender, degree, years

of experience, location of employment, and school setting.

Operational definition: Release time was defined as time away from the
normal workday and setting, granted with the employer’s knowledge or permission
for the purpose of attending an activity designated for continuing education. This

was operationalized by using the survey to report the average amount of time for
those who responded affirmatively to Item 8.

Analysis: Chi-square, the contingency coefficient, and ANOVA were used
to test for relationships, or significant differences, between or among groups

categorized by the variables of gender, degree, years of experience, employment

location, or school setting.

Reseamuestienj: Are school psychologists reimbursed by their
employers for continuing education activities? If so, how much
reimbursement is available?

Hypmneeisj: There is no significant difference in the availability of
reimbursement from the employer for continuing education activities between

or among groups categorized by gender, degree, years of experience,
employment location, and school setting.

53
Operational definition: Reimbursementwas defined as the employer paying

some or all of the costs, such as tuition, registration fees, lodging, meals, or travel
expenses for the employee to attend continuing education activities.
Reimbursement was categorized on the survey as either full or partial for
conferences and conventions and by the number of credits for tuition. This was
operationalized by using the survey to report the responses by the full or partial
category in Item 9, and the number of college credits reported for reimbursement in
Item 7.

Analysis: The data were analyzed by reporting the frequencies and
percentages of the responses for the Choices in Items 7 and 9. Chi-square, the
contingency coefficient, and ANOVA were used to test these items for relationships
or group differences by gender, degree, years of experience, employment location,
and school setting as these items contained data that were both nominal and

Interval.

W: How Close to approved sponsors of continuing
education opportunities are school psychologists? How far are they willing
to travel to participate in continuing education activities?

Hypetbesisl: There are no significant differences in proximity to SBCEU

opportunities or in the willingness to travel to participate in them between or

among groups categorized by gender, degree, years of experience,

employment location, and school setting.

Operational definition: Distance was defined in terms of miles divided Into
five Choices of 25—mile increments and ranging from 25 miles or less to more than

100 miles. This was operationalized by using the survey to report the responses to

54
Items 103 (closest site for college credit), 10b (distance willing to travel for credit),
11a (closest SBCEU site), and 11b (distance willing to travel for SBCEU program).

Analysis: The data were analyzed by reporting the frequencies and
percentages of responses to Items 10a, 10b, 11a, and 11b. Chi-square and the
contingency coefficient were used to test for relationships by gender, degree, years
of experience, employment location, and school setting.

Researenfluestienfi: IS there interest in developing an area of specialization

within the practice of school psychology? If so, in what area—by school age

or by disability category?

flypmnesifl: There is no significant difference in the level of interest in

developing a practice specialization by school age or disability category

between or among groups categorized by gender, degree, years of
experience, employment location, and school setting.

Operational definition: Schoo/agewas defined by the educational divisions
of infant, preschool, elementary, middlefjunior high, high school, and adult. Disability
categories are defined by federal and state rules and are very familiar to school
psychologists. They include autism, mental impairments, sensory or physical
impairments, learning disabilities, and speech and language disorders. This
question was operationalized using the survey to report the responses to Items 5d
(interest in school-age specialty) and 5e (interest in a categorical disability specialty).

Analysis: The data were reported in frequencies and percentages of the
responses to Items 5d and 5e. Chi-square and the contingency coefficient were
used to test for a relationship to the Choice of specialization by school age or

disability category between or among groups categorized by the variables of gender,

degree, years of experience, employment location, and school setting.

55

W: What is the level of interest in continuing education

topics related to the general categories of expected competencies required

In state regulation R380.203, which defines the expected role of school

psychologists In Michigan?

timothoslfl: There Is no significant difference In the mean level of Interest

In the general competency categories found in state regulation R380.203

between or among groups categorized by gender, degree, years of

experience, employment location, and school setting.

Operational definition: Level ofinterestwas defined as the choice of rating
on the following 5-point Likert-type scale: Very Interested (1 ), Interested (2), Maybe
(3), Not Interested (4), and Definitely Not Interested (5). This was operationalized
by using the survey to report the means for each scale in Item 16.

Analysis: ANOVA was used to test for differences in mean level of interest
in the general competency categories found in the state regulation between or
among groups categorized by gender, degree, years of experience, employment
location, and school setting.

Beseamnfluestienjflz What is the level of interest in specific continuing

education topics found in the current literature that relate to the competency
areas?

Hypothesiejfl: There is no significant difference in the mean level of interest
in specific continuing education topics between or among groups categorized

by gender, degree, years of experience, employment location, and school
setting.

Operational definition: Current literature was operationalized as
psychological material that has been published In the United States since 1990, and
included in publications listed in ERIC and PsychLit data bases. Level of interest
was defined as the choice of rating on the following 5-point Likert-type scale: Very

Interested (1), Interested (2), Maybe (3), Not Interested (4), and Definitely Not

56

Interested (5). This was operationalized by using the survey to report the means for
each scale for all of the questions included in Item 17.

Analysis: ANOVA was used to test for differences in level of interest in
specific continuing education topics between or among groups categorized by

gender, degree, years of experience, employment location, and school setting.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

In addition to providing data with which to answer the research question, the
writer also sought to gather demographic information regarding school psychologists
in Michigan that might be helpful for planning and development of continuing
education opportunities. The demographic data, based on N = 575, provide a

context for the survey results.

W

The survey instrument contained several sections specifically designed to
collect demographic data along with data to answer the research questions. The
sections about demographics were titled About You, About Your Place of
Employment, and About Your Case Load. This section contains the results from
each of the demographic sections of the instrument.

The section About You inquired about the respondents’ gender, degree level,
and years of experience. Of the 575 persons who completed the instrument, 43%
(247) were male and 57% (328) were female. Slightly less than one-third of the
respondents (31% or 175) reported having a master’s degree, 52% (297) had an

educational specialist degree, and 18% (100) held a doctoral degree.

57

58

The reported number of years of work experience ranged from 1 to 34 years.
Data from this Item were grouped for analysis Into five categories, each representing
five-year increments. The work experience reported by respondents Is summarized

in Table 1.

Table 1: Years of experience as a school psychologist. (N = 551)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Years Frequency Percent
1-5 years 78 14.2
6-10 years 109 19.0
11-15 years 150 26.0
16—20 years 121 21.0
21+ years 93 16.0
Missing 24 4.0

 

 

 

 

 

The second section, About Your Place of Employment, asked for
information on the predominant location and setting of the respondents’ place of
employment. Twenty-seven percent (151) of the respondents reported working in
an urban location, 38% (212) in a suburban location, 21% (118) in a rural location,
and 15% (82) in a small-town location. Almost all of the respondents (94% or 528)
reported working in a public school setting. Only 5% (29) reported working in a
special center school, and 1% (7) indicated that they worked in a hospital school,

private school, or parochial school.

59

The section About Your Case Load was designed to elicit data on the
school age categories served on the respondents’ case loads and the special
education categorical programs or general education programs receiving their school
psychological services. Items in this section inquired further regarding interest in an
area of specialization in the delivery of school psychological services either to an
age group or a special education program for a specific disability. State of Michigan
special education rule R340.1701(d) requires the provision of services from birth
through age 26. The reported level of service to school age groups is summarized

in Table 2.

Table 2: Case load: School age groups served by respondents. (N = 575)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age Group Frequency 1 Percent
Infant 1 14 19.9
Preschool 271 47.1
Elementary 498 86.6
Middle/junior high school 406 70.6
High school 339 59.0
Adults 81 14.4

 

 

 

 

 

Note: Not all respondents indicated service in all age categories.

Special education programs in Michigan are designated by a categorical label
indicating the specific disability area that receives service. Respondents were asked

to indicate which categorical programs they serviced. As seen in Table 3, the

60

frequencies and percentages of the cases were highly concentrated in the following
categorical programs: learning disabilities, emotionally impaired, educable mentally
impaired, and resource rooms. In addition to their delivery of services to special
education programs, slightly more than half (53%) of the 299 school psychologists

responding to the survey reported that they serviced general education programs.

Table 3: Case load: Special education categorical programs served by
respondents. (N = 575)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Program Frequency Percent
Learning disabled 515 89.6
Emotionally impaired 497 86.4
Educable mentally impaired 475 82.6
Resource rooms « 418 72.7
Physical or health impaired 281 48.9
Speech and language impaired 268 46.6
Trainable mentally impaired 247 43.0
Preprimary impaired 246 42.8
Autistic impaired 185 32.2
Severely mentally impaired 150 26.1
Severely multiply impaired 136 23.7
Hearing impaired 132 23.0
Visually impaired 94 16.3

 

 

 

 

Note: Not all respondents indicated service In all age categories.

61

Respondents were asked to indicate the percentage of time in which they
engaged in six broad service areas: evaluation, consultation, curriculum, prevention,
intervention, and counseling. Once again, not all respondents indicated participating
in all of the areas. The percentage of time reported for each of the areas ranged
from 2% to 100%. The average percentage of time respondents reported in these
areas is summarized in Table 4. Respondents Indicated that evaluation was the
most likely service activity, whereas curriculum and prevention activities were the

services least likely to be provided.

Table 4: Case load: Mean percentage of time respondents spent in broad service
areas. (N = 575)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Service Area Frequency Mean Percent of Time
Evaluation 536 59
Consultation 529 20

flI
Counseling 290 1 1
Intervention 415 10
Prevention 277 8
Curriculum 162 7

 

 

 

 

Note: Not all respondents indicated service in all service areas.

8 II B I. l! B I Q l'
The researcher sought to answer several questions regarding school

psychologists’ choices for meeting the new continuing education requirement, as

62

well as their interests in various topics that could be used by providers for planning
and development of continuing education opportunities. Data were collected on the
availability of continuing education opportunities in terms of time, distance, and
reimbursement factors. The relationship of the demographic variables of gender,
degree, years of experience, employment location, and work setting to the choice
of option and the level of interest in these topics was investigated. Results of the

data analyses to answer these questions are presented in this section.

ResearcbfluesflonJ

Which option, the six-semester-credit option gained through attending college

or university courses, the 18 SBCEUS, or a combination of these two options,

do school psychologists prefer in meeting the continuing education
requirement?

The data used to answer this question consisted of the frequencies and
percentages of the school psychologists’ responses to Item 12a (6 semester hours),
12b (18 SBCEUS), and 12C (credit/SBCEU combination), indicating their Choice of
option to complete the continuing education requirement. The researcher
hypothesized that the results would be similar for each of the three options.

Of the 575 responses to this question (Items 12a, 12b, 12C), 13% (74)
respondents Chose the six semester hours option, 36% (202) Chose 18 SBCEUS,
and slightly more than half (51% or 289) indicated they would prefer a combination

of credits and SBCEUS. The frequencies and percentages obtained for each of the

three options were not similar; they are summarized in Table 5.

63

Table 5: Respondents’ Choices of options to complete the continuing education
requirement. (N = 565)

 

Option Frequency Percent 1]
Credit/SBCEU combination 289 51.1
18 SBCEUS 202 35.8

 

   
  
 

 

 

Six semester hours 74

 

 

 

   

Nete: Ten participants did not answer this question.

The results indicated a combination of college credit and SBCEUS as the
most likely Choice for completing the new continuing education requirement. For
more efficient and cost-effective planning and development purposes, it is important
to know how many SBCEUS or college credits the respondents to this option might
likely complete. The survey instrument asked for that information in Items 15a
(number of credits) and 15f (number of SBCEUS) to Clarify this point. Of the 264
respondents who answered the question regarding credits, 63% indicated that they
would likely take three credits; 14% might enroll for four credits. Although it is
possible to enroll for a one- or two-semester-credit Class, many college courses offer
three or four semester hours of credit. These data suggest that a large majority of
respondents (75%) would likely enroll in one college course. The combined data
obtained from all who indicated they would likely enroll for college credits yielded a
total of 334 respondents (58%) who indicated the likelihood of additional college

course work.

54

Persons who indicated the likelihood of obtaining college credit also were
asked whether this credit would be applied to an advanced degree. Of those who
chose the six-credit option, 54.3% (38) said yes. In the credit/SBCEU-combination
group, 28.5% (78) Indicated they would apply the credits to an advanced degree.
The responses to these two items were analyzed for their relationship to gender,
educational level, years of experience, location of employment, or work setting.
Significant effects were obtained for gender, educational level, and years of

experience (see Table 6).

Table 6: Credits applied to advanced degree: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable of N 12 C Relationship “
Gender 1 344 113266" .1785 Low
Educational level 2 343 222437" .2468 Low
Years of experience 4 325 380588" .3280 Low II

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*9 < .05.

The contingency coefficient (C) was used to assess the strength of the
relationship within the respective cross-break tables. Forthe variable of gender (Q =
.1785), there was a low degree of relationship. Females were more likely than
males to use the credits earned toward an advanced degree. There was a low

degree of relationship for the variable of educational level (9 = .2468).

65

Approximately two-thirds (172) of those holding a master's degree or an educational
specialist degree were not interested in pursuing an advanced degree. For the
variable of years of experience, the C—value of .328 suggested a low degree of
relationship, as well. Respondents with one to five years of experience were the
most likely to use the credits toward an advanced degree. However, they
represented only slightly more than half of this category. All other categories of
experience indicated an Increasing percentage of respondents not interested in this
endeavor

Of those in the combination credit/SBCEUS group, 41 % indicated they would
likely earn nine SBCEUS. The responses to this item ranged from 2 to 45, which
suggested some confusion regarding the new continuing education rule’s definition
of the credit/SBCEU ratio. The maximum number of SBCEUS allowed is 18. The
ratio is one college credit to three SBCEUS. The mean for this item was 8.784,
median 9.00, and standard deviation 5.019. However, 75% of the responses fell in

the one to nine range of probable SBCEUS.

Researcbfiuestioni

Which type of continuing education sponsor do school psychologists prefer
in meeting the new requirement?

Continuing education sponsor referred to either a local school district or an
intermediate school district (ISD), college or university, ora professional organization
such as MASP. The survey instrument was designed to allow the respondents to

select one of the three options of six credits, 18 SBCEUS, or the credit/SBCEU

66

combination based on their Choice of option to fulfill the new certification
requirement. Additional data relating to all of the research questions were gathered
through the responses of these three groups to survey Items 13a-e (credits), 14a-d
(18 SBCEUs), and 15a-k (credit/SBCEU combination). The frequencies and
percentages reported to satisfy this research question were obtained by collecting
and combining the responses of these three groups to Items 13b (college or
university), 13C (credit through MASP), 14d (preferred SBCEU sponsor), 15c
(college or university), 15d (credit through MASP), and 15k (preferred SBCEU
sponsor).

It was hypothesized that the frequencies or percentages of the school
psychologists’ Choice of continuing education sponsor to complete the continuing
education requirement would be similar.

Nine percent (50) of the respondents Choosing the six-credit option and 38%
(219) of the credit/SBCEU-Combination group indicated that they would likely enroll
in an MASP-sponsored activity that was offered for college credit. This represents
47% of the total number of respondents.

The respondents In the six-credit group and the credit/SBCEU-Combination
group also were asked to indicate a college or university they might likely attend to
obtain credit. A total of 402 responses were collected, which constituted 77% of the
total group. The frequencies and percentages of the colleges or universities chosen

are summarized in Table 7.

67

Table 7: Colleges or universities respondents were likely to attend for continuing

education credit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Institution Frequency Percent I
Wayne State University 65 16.0 1
Western Michigan University 58 14.0
Michigan State University 54 13.0
Eastern Michigan University 53 13.0
Central Michigan University 49 12.0
Other Michigan colleges 30 7.5
Grand Valley State University 28 7.0
University of Detroit 26 6.0
University of Michigan 21 5.0
Oakland University 9 2.0
Saginaw Valley State University 5 1.0
Out of state college/university 4 <1.0

 

 

The groups choosing either the 18 SBCEUS orthe credit-SBCEU combination

were asked to rank order their choice of sponsor. The responses of the two groups.

by first choice, are summarized in Table 8.

The frequencies and percentages obtained from the three groups regarding

their choice of sponsor, whether for credit or SBCEUS, were not similar. Of those

seeking the credit option, a sizable percentage would likely attend an MASP-

sponsored activity offered for college credit. Of the respondents choosing SBCEUs

for all or a portion of the way to satisfy the continuing education requirement, 47%

68

appeared more likely to attend a locally sponsored activity. Slightly more than one-

fourth, 27%, would attend a program offered through an organization.

Table 8: Respondents’ first choice of continuing education sponsor for SBCEUs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sponsor Frequency Percent
W12 ([1 = 192)
Local 125 65.1 H
Institution 5 4.2
Organization 59 30.7
W (n = 284)
Local 143 50.4
Institution 46 16.2
Organization 95 32.9
C I' | lB-SBCEH ID I'IZSBCEII
Gmuns (n = 376)
Local 269 47
Institution 54 9
Organization 154 27
Besearchfluestioma

Which type of context do school psychologists prefer in meeting the new

requirement?

Context, for those choosing the college/university-credit option or the

college/university-credit portion of the combination option, was defined as a series

of short courses on related topics, or courses via television. Context, for the 18-

SBCEU option or the SBCEU portion of the combination option, was defined as

preferred frequency of programs offering SBCEUs. preferred time span per session,

and preferred time of day for session.

69

The survey instrument was designed to allow the respondents to select one
of the three options of six credits, 18 SBCEUs, or the credit/SBCEU combination as
their choice to fulfill the new certification requirement. The responses relating to the
context from Items 13d (series of short courses), 13e (course by television), 14a
(preferred frequency of SBCEU programs), 14b (preferred time span), 14c (preferred
time of day), 15e (series of short courses), 159 (course by television), 15h (preferred
frequency of SBCEU programs), 15i (preferred time span), and 15] (preferred time
of day) were collected and combined, and their frequencies and percentages were
reported to answer this research question.

The six-credit group (n = 71) indicated a strong likelihood (76% or 54) of
attending a series of short courses developed around a central topic. Slightly more
than half of this group (55% or 39) indicated interest in courses offered via television.

In the credit/SBCEU combination group, 286 respondents answered the
credit-context questions. A large percentage (83% or 229) indicated that they would
likely enroll in a series of short courses to satisfy the new continuing education
requirement. And 55% (155) indicated interest in courses via television.

The combined data from the two groups (n = 357) indicated that 81% (290)
would likely enroll in a series of short courses developed around a central theme and
that 55% (194) would likely enroll in a television course.

The frequencies and percentages of the type of context preferred by those

interested in college credit for the two groups, singularly and in combination, were

very similar.

70

The context for the 18-SBCEU group and the credit/SBCEU-combination
group included data on the preferred frequency of programs, preferred length of
program, and the preferred time of day. Data from the 18-SBCEU group are
summarized as follows: 73% (142) preferred a monthly program, full-day sessions
were preferred by 60% (119), and a daytime program was chosen by 87% (168).
The credit/SBCEU group indicated the following preferences for SBCEU programs:
53% (153) would like a monthly program, 43% (117) liked full-day sessions, and
62% (172) preferred a daytime program.

The combined data from the two groups indicated that 63% (195) preferred
a monthly program, 50% (236) preferred a full-day session, and 72% (340) preferred
a daytime format.

The data from the groups, both singularly and combined, indicated some
differences in percentages in regard to the preferred context for SBCEUs. However,
the choices made by the groups as to the preferred frequency of SBCEU programs
and the preferred time of day for programs were all similar. These choices
represented a majority of responses in these two preference categories. The
frequencies and percentages of the preferred choice for length of session were
different for each group. The data from the combined responses of both groups to
this question indicated that about 50% of those who preferred to obtain SBCEUs

would prefer a full-day session, whereas the other 50% would prefer another option.

71
Win04

Are there existing preferences for type of continuing education option, type

of continuing education sponsor, or the context for completing the

requirement based on the demographic variables of gender, level of
education, years of experience as a school psychologist, geographic location
of employment, and type of school setting?

The demographic data gathered by means of the survey instrument included
respondents’ answers to the several variables noted in the research question.
Further, this writer looked at the relationship of these demographic variables to the
options chosen by the respondents to satisfy the new continuing education
requirement, as well as their levels of interest in various topics for continuing
education opportunities.

The relationship of the. demographic variables to the choice of option (six
credits, 18 SBCEUs. or a credit/SBCEU combination) was analyzed using chi-square
and the contingency coefficient for the strength of the relationship. No relationship
to the choice of option was shown by the variables of gender or work setting. The
results that indicated a significant relationship between choice of option and the
variables of educational level, years of experience, and location of employment are
shown in Table 9.

Approximately half of those persons holding a master’s degree and well over
half of those with an educational specialist degree chose the credit/SBCEU
combination. This was in contrast to those holding a doctorate, of whom only 40%

were interested in this option. Of those holding a doctoral degree, approximately

50% indicated a preference for the 18-SBCEU option.

72

Table 9: Choice of continuing education option: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable or u x2 9 Relationship
Educational level 4 552 132820" .1514 Low 1
Years of experience a 541 160987“ .1735 Low
Employment location 6 553 171508" .1764 Low

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*5: < .05.

Well over one-half of the persons in the 1- to 5-year, 6- to 10-year, and 16-
to 20-year work experience groups chose the credit/SBCEU-combination option.
Persons in the 16- to 20-year work experience group were the least interested in the
six-credit option.

Slightly less than one-half of those working in suburban locations preferred
the credit/SBCEU option, in contrast to well over 50% of respondents from all other
locations who indicated this preference.

A significant relationship with the choice of MASP as a sponsor for continuing
education opportunities offered for college credit was found for gender and work
setting. These results are summarized in Table 10. Females were significantly
more likely than males to indicate this preference. Those who worked in a public
school setting were also significantly more likely to prefer MASP as a sponsor for

college credit.

73

Table 10: Choice of MASP. as a sponsor for continuing education for college credit:
Demographic effects.

       
 

 

 

   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable at u 12 c Relationship fl
1 Gender 1 359 184913" .2211 Low fl
; Work setting 6 355 17.7648* .2183 Low I

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*p < .05.

Gender, years of experience, and location of employment all showed a
significant relationship to the first choice for type of sponsor for SBCEU
opportunities. The results are shown in Table 11. Gender showed a very low
degree of relationship as estimated by C = .120. Years of experience also showed
a low degree of relationship, 9 = .2024. Location of employment was weakly related

to sponsor choice, 9 = .1723, but not as weakly as gender.

Table 11: First choice of SBCEU sponsor: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

‘ Variable d! N 35;: C Relationship
Gender 1 476 5.8145* .1201 Low
Years of experience 8 454 19.4661 * .2024 Low
Employment location 6 468 14.4175" .1723 Low

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*p < .05.

74

The respondents ranked their preferences for an organizational, institutional,
or 10ml sponsor for SBCEUs. The data from the cross-break table revealed that
both males and females were equal in their preference of an organizational sponsor.
However, males were less likely than females to choose an institutional sponsor.
Females were more likely than males to choose a local sponsor.

The cross-break table for years of experience and first choice of sponsor for
SBCEUs showed that percentages among all work experience groups increased as
years of experience increased, with regard to the choice of a local sponsor for
SBCEUs. beginning with slightly less than one-half of the 1- to 5-year group and
culminating with 70% of the 21+_-year group.

The cross-break table for first choice of sponsor revealed that more than one-
half of all persons in each of theemployment locations indicated a preference for a ,
local sponsor to offer SBCEUs.

Significant relationships forthe preferred context for college credit were found
between the demographic variables and a series of short courses and courses by
television. One preferred context, a series of short courses, for those choosing
college credit as an option was significantly related to the variables of gender (12
m1: 4, u = 357] = 31.0352, p < .05), educational level (,8 [or = 8. u = 357] =
17.3036, p < .05), and work setting (,8 [or = 8, u = 353] = 36.8497, p < .05).
Contingency coefficients for each variable (9 = .2945, C = .2155, and C = .3073,

respectivelY). indicated a low degree of relationship.

75

Seventy-three percent of the respondents who indicated they were very likely
to enroll in a series of short courses were female. Persons with an educational
specialist degree were more likely than those from other educational levels to
indicate interest in a series of short courses. More than one-half of the persons
working in a public school setting chose this Option.

Asecond context preference, courses by television, was investigated among
those who indicated a college-credit option. No significant relationships were
evident in the data between a preference for courses via television and the five
independent variables.

For those choosing the SBCEU option, significant relationships were found
between the preferred time span for programs and the preferred time of day and the
variable of location of employment. The preferred time span (3;2 [df = 9, N = 465] =
20.0458, p < .05) had a weak relationship with location of employment as estimated
by the contingency coefficient, C = .2032. The relationship between preferred time
of day and location of employment (3;2 [df = 9, N = 463] = 20.4909, p < .05) also was
weak, as estimated by the contingency coefficient, 9 = .2063.

Well over one-half of persons working in urban or suburban locations
indicated a preference for a full-day time span. A large percentage of persons from
all of the work locations indicated that they preferred programs to be held during the
daytime.

The research hypothesis of no significant difference in preferences based on

the demographic variables of gender, degree, location of employment, and type of

76
school setting was retained for the six-credit-option group. For the SBCEU group,
there was a statistically significant relationship between lomtion of employment and
the preferred time span for programs and the preferred time of day for them to be

held.

W

Do school psychologists have release time available from their employers to

attend SBCEU activities necessary to complete the continuing education

requirement? If so, how much time is available?

The research hypothesis proposed no significant difference in the amount of
reported release time according to the variables of gender, degree, years of
experience, employment location, or school setting. The survey instrument was
used to elicit the average amount of time of those who responded affirmatively to
Item 8. Release time was defined as time away from the normal workday and
setting, granted with the employer’s knowledge or permission for the purpose of
attending an activity designated for continuing education.

A very large percentage (92.3% or 525) reported that they did have release
time. Well over 85% of persons in all work locations indicated that they had release
time to attend conferences or conventions. However, not all of the respondents who
answered this item affirmatively provided an answer to the second item, which
inquired how much time was available. The amount of release time reported is
summarized in Table 12.

A statistically significant relationship was found between the availability of

release time and the variable of educational level (3(2 [d1 = 2, N = 566] = 1 1.3598, n <

77
.05). However, the relationship was only a weak one (C = .1402). Of those persons
answering affirmatively, well over one-half held an educational specialist degree.
More than half of those with a master’s degree said they did not have conference or

convention leave time.

Table 12: Amount of release time to attend conferences or conventions. (N = 247)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Release Time (Days) Frequency EPercent
1 11 4.5
2 55 22.3
3 54 21.9
4 46 18.6
5 48 19.4
6+ 33 13.4

 

 

 

 

Note: There were 328 missing cases.

The variable of work location also showed significance (12 [df = 3, N = 557]
= 14.9810, p < .05). This relationship between the availability of release time for
continuing education activities and location of employment was quite low (Q =
.1593)

As seen in Table 13, the ANOVA results revealed a significant relationship
between the amount of release time available and level of education. No significant
relationships were found with regard to the other variables. Thus, the research

hypothesis was rejected for this variable and retained for the others.

78

Table 13: Release time: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I Educational Level Mean _ SD _—
Master’s degree 3.5902 2.0471
Educational specialist 3.7554 1.8200
Doctoral degree 4.7660 2.7992

 

Note: ANOVA results revealed a significant difference (E [df = 2,2] = 5.439, p < .05).

Researchmestionfi

Are school psychologists reimbursed by their employers for continuing
education activities? If so, how much reimbursement is available?

Reimbursementwas defined as the employer paying some or all of the costs,
such as tuition, registration fees, lodging, meals, or travel expenses, for the
employee to attend continuing education activities. Reimbursement was categorized
on the survey as either full or partial for conferences and conventions and by the
number of credits for tuition. Data were collected by means of the survey instrument
in the responses to the full or partial category sections in Item 9, and the number of
college credits reported for reimbursement in Item 7.

More than three-fourths of the respondents (77% or 435) indicated that they
did not have tuition reimbursement for college credit. For those respondents who
answered affirmatively to this question (23% or 127), the amount of tuition
reimbursement available ranged from one to six credits. A very small number (8)
reported availability of reimbursement for more than six credits. The mean number

of reimbursed credits reported was 5.622, with a standard deviation of .497.

79

Reimbursement for conference/convention purposes was reported by 72%
(406) of the respondents. Half of the persons answering affirmatively (51% or 205)
indicated they had partial reimbursement to attend these activities. Thirty-eight
percent (153) reported receiving full reimbursement. The remaining 48 persons
reported no availability of reimbursement.

There was no significant relationship between the availability of tuition
reimbursement and the variables of gender, educational level, years of experience,
location of employment, or work setting. As a result, the research hypothesis was
retained for this portion of the question.

Significant relationships were found between the variables of gender and
location of employment and the availability of conference/convention reimbursement.
The results are summarized in Table 14. For gender, the result was statistically
significant; however, the degree of relationship was low (Q = .123). Whereas the
cross-break table percentages of those answering yes to the question of
reimbursement were about even between males and females, more than two-thirds
of the individuals who said they did not have reimbursement were females. The
relationship between location of employment and the availability of conference!
convention reimbursement also was statistically significant. Again, the contingency
coefficient (C = .370) suggested a low degree of relationship. Persons from
suburban and rural work locations were more likelyto have reimbursement from their
employers to attend these activities than were those who worked in urban or small-

town locations. More than half of those who responded that they did not have

A—w‘a"

80

reimbursement worked in an urban location. These results are summarized in Table

14.

Table 14: Availability of conference/convention reimbursement: Demographic

 

 

 

effects.
Variable d! N x2 Q Relationship
Gender 1 563 8.7322“ .1232 Low
Employment location 3 551 87.5016* .3701 Low

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*p < .05.

No significant relationships were found between any of the five independent
variables and the availability of either full or partial reimbursement, based on the chi-

square statistics. Thus, the research hypothesis was retained for this question.

Researmguestionl
How close to approved sponsors of continuing education opportunities are
school psychologists? How far are they willing to travel to participate in
continuing education activities? a .
Distance was defined in terms of miles divided into five choices of 25-mile
increments and ranging from 25 miles or less to more than 100 miles. To address
this issue, data were analyzed for all responses to Items 10a (distance to approved

site for credit), 10b (distance willing to travel for credit), 11a (distance to approved

site for SBCEUs), and 1 1b (distance willing to travel for SBCEUs). Very limited data

81
were collected in the response categories for distances beyond 50 miles.
Accordingly, the responses to those items were combined and analyzed as 50+
miles. The results of respondents’ choosing either credit or $80 EUs were combined
into two categories and further analyzed for any effects of gender, level of education,
years of experience, location of employment, or work setting.

Sixty-one percent (346) of the respondents reported being 25 miles or less
from the closest site for college credit. Approximately 22% (122) reported being 25
to 50 miles or less from a college or university site.

Significant relationships were found between the variables of gender and
location of employment and the proximity to an approved site for obtaining college
credit to satisfy the new continuing education requirement. The results are shown
in Table 15. The contingency coefficient (C = .102) was very low for gender but

somewhat stronger for location of employment (9 = w .3888).

Table 15: Proximity to continuing-education-approved college or university:
demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable d1 13 x2 9 Relationship
Gender 1 561 5.9410* .1025 Low
Employment location 6 549 973509" .3888 Low

 

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*p < .05.

82
Of those who reported they were within the 267 to 50-mile range, more than

two-thirds were female. The results indicated that urban and suburban work
locations were more likely to be within a 25—mile or less proximity to a college or
university site. A suburban location was most likely to be within 50 miles or less, and
some rural respondents more than 50 miles. These data confirmed what might be
logically expected, based on the geographic location of the many Michigan colleges
and universities and the distribution of the population of school psychologists.

Forty-two percent (237) of the respondents indicated that they would be
willing to travel 25 miles or less to obtain college credit. Thirty-five percent (202)
reported a willingness to travel 50 miles or less to obtain credit.

No statistically significant relationships were found between the independent
variables of gender, level of education, and work setting and the willingness to travel
to obtain credit. Table 16 contains a summary of the relationships that were

statistically significant.

Table 16: Willingness to travel for credit: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable df N x2 Q Relationship
Years of experience 8 535 161695“ .1723 Low
Employment location 6 547 509850" .2913 Low

 

 

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*0 < .05.

83

Although significant relationships were found for years of experience and
location of employment. in each case the relationship was low (Q = .1723 and .2914,
respectively). These data suggest that persons working in urban or suburban
locations were about even in their willingness to travel either 25 miles or less or up
to 50 miles to obtain credit. Respondents in a rural or small-town location indicated
more willingness to travel longer distances. Of these two groups, persons from
small towns were more likely to travel 50 miles or less and those working in rural
locations were evenly divided in their willingness to travel 50 miles or less or more
than 50 miles to obtain credit.

Seventy percent (364) of the respondents indicated that they were 25 miles
or less from the closest site to obtain SBCEUs. And 18% (93) reported being 50
miles or less from the closest site for SBCEUs.

No significant relationships were found between the variables of gender,
educational level, and work setting and the proximity to a continuing-education-
approved site for SBCEUs. As shown in Table 17, significant relationships were
found for the variables of years of experience and location of employment. Although
these relationships were statistically significant, their degree of relationship was low.

More than half of the respondents working in rural and small-town locations
reported a proximity of 25 miles or less as the closest SBCEU site. Well over three-
fourths of those working in both urban and suburban locations reported being within

25 miles or less of an SBCEU site. The research hypothesis was rejected for the

34

variables of years of experience and location of employment; it was retained for the

variables of gender, educational level, and work setting.

Table 17: Proximity to continuing-education-approved SBCEU site: Demographic

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

effects.
Variable df N x2 C Relationship
Years of experience 8 497 163015" .1782 Low
Employment location 6 507 455741" .2871 Low
E=H==== =——————

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*p < .05.

The respondents were more evenly divided in their reported willingness to
travel to obtain SBCEUs. One-third (34.7% or 194) were willing to travel 25 miles
or less, approximately one-third (31.5% or 176) were wiling to travel 50 miles or less,
and the remaining individuals were willing to travel more than 50 miles to obtain
SBCEUs.

No significant relationships were found between the variables of gender,
years of experience, or work setting and willingness to travel for SBCEUs. As shown
in Table 18, both level of education and location of employment yielded statistically
significant results. Ioth relationships were weak, however (9 = .1272 and .3349,

respectively).

85
Table 18: Willingness to travel for SBCEUs: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable d! N x2 C Relationship
Educational level 4 556 9.1497* .1272 Low
Employment location 6 547 693516" .3349 Low I

w a =

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*3: < .05.

Approximately one-half of the persons indicating a willingness to travel in any
of the distance categories held an educational specialist degree. Slightly less than
half of those with a doctoral degree said they would be willing to travel 25 miles or
less to obtain SBCEUs.

More than one-half of the suburban respondents indicated a willingness to
travel 25 miles or less to obtain SBCEUs. Approximately one-third of the urban
group indicated a similar willingness. Approximately one-half of the small-town
group and more than one-half of the rural group were willing to travel more than 50
miles to obtain the required SBCEUs.

The research hypothesis of no significant differences in the willingness to
travel to participate in SBCEU activities based on the variables of gender,
educational level, years of experience, employment location, and school setting was
supported for gender, years of experience, and work setting; it was rejected for

educational level and location of employment.

86
Researclmuestionj

is there interest in developing an area of specialization within the practice of
school psychology? If so, in what area—by school age or by disability

category?

School age was defined by the educational divisions of infant, preschool,
elementary, middle/junior high, high school, and adults. Disability categories are
defined by federal and state rules, and school psychologists are very familiar with
them. Categories include autism, mental impairments, sensory or physical
impairments, learning disabilities, emotional impairments, and speech and language
disorders. The data for this question were obtained by using the survey Instrument
to elicit responses to Items 5d (interest in a school age specialty) and 5e (interest in
a disability categorical specialty). The results were analyzed for any significant
differences in level of interest in developing a practice specialization by school age
or disability category according to the variables of gender, degree, employment
location, or school setting.

On the survey instrument, school psychologists were asked whetherthey had
an interest in developing or furthering a specialty, either by school age group or
special education categorical area, in their service delivery. Of the 550 persons who
responded, approximately two-thirds (62% or 342) indicated an interest in a school
age specialty. The choices of school age group of the 342 respondents who

answered this item affirmatively, by frequency and percentage of cases, are shown

in Table 19.

87

Table 19: Respondents’ interest in a school age group specialty.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

fl School Age Group Frequency Percent of Responses Percent of Cases II
" infants 80 9.4 23.4
Preschool 127 15.0 37.1
Elementary 1 30 1 5.3 38.0
Middle/junior high 85 10.0 24.9
High school 63 7.4 18.4
Adults 21 2.5 6.1 ||

 

 

 

 

 

N919: There were 342 valid cases and 848 total responses to the question as some
persons chose more than one category.

Further analysis indicated no significant relationship between the variables
of level of education or location and interest in developing a school age specialty.
Gender was statistically significant (3;2 [d1 = 1, N = 550] = 6.51 139, p < .05), but there
was a low degree of relationship (C = .1081). Cross-tabulations of the choice of a
school age category by gender showed an interesting pattern, however. Females
were more interested in an infancy or preschool specialization than were males. On
the other hand, males and females were fairly even in their choices of the other
school age categories as possible areas of specialization. Cross-tabulations of
years of experience and the choice of school age category indicated that individuals
in the 11- to 15-year range of experience were most strongly represented in the
choice of a specialty across all age categories. Although statistical significance was

not obtained for this variable, cross-tabulations of the choice of a school age

88

specialty and level of education revealed that, of the choices for any age category,
half were made by persons holding an educational specialist degree.

With regard to an interest in developing or furthering a specialty in a special
education category, 529 of the respondents answered this item. Slightly more than
half of the school psychologists (53% or 282) answered affirmatively. Table 20
reflects their choice of special education categorical areas by frequency and

percentage of cases.

Table 20: Respondents’ interest in special education categorical areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category Frequency Percent of Responses Percent of Cases
Emotionally impaired 1 10 14.6 39.0
Learning disabled 110 14.6 39.0
Autistic impaired 74 9.8 26.2
Preprimary impaired 70 9.3 ' 24.8
Speech & language impaired 17 2.2 6.0
Hearing impaired 17 2.2 6.0
Physical or health impaired 16 2.1 5.7
Educable mentally impaired 12 1.6 4.3
Trainable mentally impaired 10 1.3 3.5
Severely multiply impaired 10 1.3 ' 3.5
Visually impaired 8 1.1 2.8
Severely mentally impaired 7 .9 2.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: There were 282 valid cases and 756 total responses to the question as some
persons chose more than one category.

89

Statistically significant relationships were found between the variables of
gender, educational level, and years of experience and the level of interest in a
special education disability category specialty. These results are summarized in

Table 21.

Table 21: Interest in a special education disability category specialty:
Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

Variable df hi it2 5.: Relationship
Gender 1 529 7.0785* .1 149 Low
Educational level 2 526 8.5112“ .1261 Low
Years of experience 4 509 105414" .1424 Low

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: C = contingency coefficient, an index of relationship derived from a cross-
break table.

*9 < .05.

Although the variable of gender was statistically significant, the contingency
coefficient (C = .1149) indicated a low degree of relationship. Females were
somewhat more likely than males to indicate an interest in this type of specialty. The
variable of educational level also reached statistical significance, and again the
contingency coefficient (Q = .1261) indicated a low degree of relationship. Cross-
tabulations revealed that persons holding a master‘s degree were more interested
in specialization, whereas those holding either an educational specialist or a doctoral
degree were fairly evenly divided in their level of interest in a special education

categorical specialty. The variable of years of experience was statistically significant

90
as well, but the contingency coefficient (C = .1424) suggested that this relationship
also was low.

A larger percentage, approximately two-thirds, of the persons in the 1- to 5-
year and 6-to 10—year experience groups indicated an interest in a special education
categorical specialty, whereas about half of those in the 11- to 15-year experience
group expressed an interest in this area. More than half of the persons in both the
16- to 20-year and 21+-year groups said they were not interested in a special
education categorical specialty.

The research hypothesis of no significant differences in interest in developing
or furthering a specialty in a disability category between or among groups
categorized by the five demographic variables was retained for location of
employment and rejected for gender, educational level, and years of experience.

In their earlier national study, Reschly and Connolly (1990) found limited
support forthe existence of a more generalist role for school psychologists employed
in rural locations, as well as more involvement in regular education issues. They
suggested that the continuing education needs of persons employed in different
settings, such as rural location as opposed to urban or suburban, may be different.

The demographic data collected in this study regarding school psychologists
who reported working in a rural location were analyzed to shed further light on this
question. Twenty-one percent (118) of the respondents in this study reported
working in a rural area. All respondents to the questionnaire were asked to indicate

which school category and which special education programs they serviced as part

91

of their case load. Analysis of the work-location data revealed that persons in rural
areas reported provision of service in all of the school age categories and all of the
special education categorical areas. (See Tables 22 and 23 for a summary of these
data.) Although these frequencies and percentages indicate a different pattern as
compared to the results obtained from the study as a whole (see Tables 2 and 3),
they suggest that, in rural areas, school psychologists may indeed be practicing
more as generalists within the school age populations and the special education
categorical programs as compared to their colleagues in other work locations.
These results indicate some additional support for the generalist role among rural
school psychologists in the provision of service by school age and disability

category.

Table 22: Case load: School age groups served, rural location.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age Group Frequency Percent of Cases
Infant 34 8.0
Preschool 60 13.8
Elementary 1 14 26.1
Middle/junior high 104 23.9
High school 102 23.4
Adults 22 5.0

 

 

 

 

 

Note: There were 118 valid cases and 436 responses to this item. Not all persons
indicated service in all age categories.

92

Table 23: Case load: Special education categorical programs served, rural location.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Age Group Frequency Percent of Cases
Educable mentally impaired 107 7.4
Learning disabled 107 13.0
Emotionally impaired 102 12.4
Resource rooms 102 12.4
Preprimary impaired 61 7.4
Physical or health impaired 60 7.3
Trainable mentally impaired 59 7.2
Speech 8. language impaired 48 5.8
Autistic impaired 47 5.8
Severely mentally impaired 42 5.1
Severely multiply impaired 39 4.1
Hearing impaired 29 3.5
Visually impaired 21 2.5

 

 

 

 

Note: There were 118 valid cases and 824 responses to this item. Not all persons
indicated service in all age categories.

Respondents also were asked whether they provided service to general
education programs. Although 52% of all persons responding answered
affirmatively, only 41% of those working in rural locations reported this activity.

In summary, these results suggest that school psychologists working in rural
locations were indeed serving in a more generalized role as compared to those
employed in other locations. They spent more of their time in special education as

compared to regular education, in contrast to their counterparts in other locations.

93
W

What is the level of interest in continuing education topics related to the

general categories of expected competencies required in state regulation

R380.203, which defines the expected role of school psychologists in

Michigan?

Level ofinterestwas defined as the choice of rating on a five-point Likert-type
scale ranging from Very Interested (1) to Definitely Not Interested (5). The data to
answer this question were gathered using the survey instrument to report the means
for each scale in Item 16. State Regulations R340.1151 and R340.1156 are
included in their entirety in Appendix D. The general competency categories are
assessment, consultation, counseling, curriculum, intervention, and prevention. A

summary of the responses to Item 16 in frequencies and percentages of cases is

shown in Table 24.

Table 24: Respondents’ level of interest in broad competency areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Interest (Percent of Cases)
Definitel
category Intelreersyted Interested Maybe Intefgéted Not y
Interested
Assessment (N = 563) 35.3 39.8 19.2 4.4 1.2
Consultation (fl = 570) 47.0 39.1 11.2 2.1 .5
Counseling (1! = 556) 36.2 31.7 22.1 7.9 2.4
Curriculum (N = 562) 15.6 27.0 31.5 21.0 4.9
Intervention (fl = 566) 58.7 35.0 4.9 .7 .7
Prevention (N = 565) 52.9 31.9 12.4 1.4 1.4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note: The his for this item differ because not all persons responded to each
category.

94

A combination of the Very Interested and Interested results revealed high
levels of interest on the part of the respondents in intervention (93%), consultation
(86%), prevention (85%), and assessment (75%). A strong level of interest was
shown in counseling (68%). A relatively low level of interest in curriculum, as
compared to other competency areas, was indicated by 43% of the respondents.

Under the rationale provided by Crocker and Algina (1986), the variable of
level of interest was assumed to be continuous with a normal distribution. This
allowed the researcher to treat the data collected through the Likert-type items on
the questionnaire as interval for statistical purposes. ANOVA was used to analyze
the mean level of interest in the general competency categories found in the
Michigan state regulations according to groups categorized by gender, degree,
employment location, and school setting. The means and standard deviations for

the level of interest in broad competency categories are shown in Table 25.

Table 25: Respondents’ level of interest in broad competency areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Category Mean SD
Assessment 1 .964 .039
Consultation 1 .702 .033
Counseling 2.083 .044
Curriculum 2.726 .047
Intervention 1 .498 .029 l
Prevention 1 .665 .036 1|

 

Note: The Likert scale was set with the lower numbers indicating the highest level
of interest.

95

For the variable of gender, significant results were found for the following
categories: consultation (E [df = 1] = 4.280, p < .05). curriculum (E [df = 1] = 5.233,
p < .05), intervention (E [d1 = 1] = 12.023, p < .05), and prevention (E [Q]? = 1] =
21.782, p < .05). For the variable of educational level, significant results were found
for the following categories: assessment (E [df = 2] = 3.204, p < .05), curriculum
(E [$11 = 2] = 6.581, p < .05), intervention (E [511 = 2] = 2.993, p < .05), and prevention
(E [01 = 2],= 4.1888, p < .05). For the variable of years of experience, significant
results were found for the assessment category (E [df = 4] = 2.756, p < .05). A

summary of these data is provided in Table 26.

Table 26: Interest in broad service competencies: Demographic effects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable 51! Frequency ' E

Assessment

Educational level 2 563 3204*

Years of experience 4 543 2756*
Consultation

Gender 1 560 4280"
Curriculum

Gender 1 552 5233*

Educational level 2 549 6.581*
Intervention . '

Gender 1 566 12.023"

Educational level 2 563 2993*
Prevention

Gender 1 565 21.782“

Educational level 2 562 4.188*

 

 

 

Note: Ms vary because not all persons answered all items on the questionnaire.

'p < .05.

96

The results did reveal significant differences in the mean level of interest in
the general competency categories found in Michigan state regulations R340.1151
and R340.1156, according to the variables of gender, level of education, and years
of experience. Thus, the research hypothesis was rejected for these groups. The
hypothesis was supported for the variables of location of employment and work

setting.

W

What is the level of interest in specific continuing education topics found in
the current literature that relate to the competency areas?

The term current literature was operationalized as material that has been
published since 1990. The content of the questions represented various topics
suggested in the literature that could be used to develop continuing education
offerings either for credit or for SBCEUs. The data to answer this question were
obtained using the survey instrument to report the means for each scale for all of the
questions that were part of item 17 on the questionnaire. These data also were
treated as interval underthe Crocker and Algina (1986) rationale. ANOVA was used
to analyze the mean level of interest in the specific topics.

Table 27 contains a summary of the means and standard deviations for each
of the individual topics. The rankings of specific interest show questions related to
certain types of consultation and assessment to be at the highest levels, whereas
interest in counseling or curriculum-related activities showed a more moderate level.

Consultation, whether it be with families or of a prereferral nature, ranked highest,

97

followed closely be interest in neuropsychological assessment and behavioral!
classroom management. Pediatric psychopharmacology also ranked high. Timely
topics such as authentic assessment and Inclusion were of moderate interest.
interest in the gifted, research, and bilingual assessment ranked lowest among the

psychologists’ interests.

Table 27: Ranking of psychologists’ interest in specific topics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Topic Mean SD
Consultation 1 .88 .89
Consultation with families 1.93 .91
Prereferral consultation 1.96 .96
Neuropsychological assessment 2.08 1.08
Behavioral and classroom management 2.15 .95
Clinical assessment using DSMllI-R 2.25 1.12
Pediatric psychopharmacology 2.25 1.11
Personality assessment 2.27 1.07
Parenting education 2.28 1.05
Developing peer intervention 2.35 1.01
Curriculum-based assessment 2.35 1.08
Preschool assessment 2.37 1 .17
Alternative service models 2.38 1.02
Cognitive behaviors therapy 2.41 1.12
Group counseling methods 2.44 1.13
Consultation with physicians 2.45 1.00
Computer skills 2.57 1.17
Authentic assessment 2.58 1.05
Inclusion models 2.59 1.04

 

 

 

 

 

98

Table 27: Continued.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F Topic Mean SD
Outcome-based education 2.60 1.08
| Consultation with mental health agencies 2.64 1.02
Curriculum planning 2.65 1.08
Program evaluation methods 2.65 1.06
School restructuring 2.65 1.06
Student assistance programs 2.66 1.06
Human growth and development 2.68 1.00
Counseling methods 2.71 1.26
Infant assessment 2.77 1.30
Collaboration with social agencies 2.84 .98
Cultural and ethnic differences 2.87 1.06
Low-incidence assessment 2.91 1.06
Special needs of the gifted 3.07 1.11
Research design and analysis 3.08 1.15
Bilingual assessment 3.37 1 .19

 

 

 

 

 

The results were analyzed for significant differences in the mean level of
interest in specific continuing education topics according to gender, educational
level, years of experience, employment location, and school setting. A summary of
the significant findings is presented in Tables 28 through 34, found in Appendix D.

Significant differences were found in level of interest in specific continuing
education topics according to gender, educational level, years of experience,

employment location, and school setting. Thus. the research hypothesis was

99

rejected. Unfortunately, although these results have statistical significance, they
may not have practical significance.

A summary and discussion of the findings may be found in Chapter V.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This study was conducted to provide information for the planning and
development of continuing education opportunities for school psychologists in
Michigan. Regulations adopted by the state in 1992 require the completion of
specific continuing education requirements as a condition of maintaining the proper
certification for practice. The choice of options to complete the continuing education
requirement along with a consideration of the factors of preferred sponsor, preferred
context, release time, reimbursement from an employer, and willingness to travel to
participate in a continuing education activity were investigated. The investigator also
considered the level of interest in developing a specialty in the delivery of services,
either by school age or disability category. Recent literature in the field has centered
on the development of a broader role in the delivery of school psychological
services. The writer investigated the level of interest in the broad competency areas,
found in state regulations for school psychologists, which can be used to define the
expanded role. The level of interest in specific topics as suggested in current
literature, which could be used in planning and development of conferences,

workshops, or college courses, was investigated as well. Finally, the researcher

100

101
studied the relationship between gender, educational level, yearsof experience,
location of employment, and work setting and the preferences and interest levels of
the school psychologists who participated in the study.

From the three options found in the new state rules to complete the continuing
education requirement, more than halfofthe school psychologists responding chose
a combination of college credit and SBCEUs as their preferred method to complete
the new requirement. However, for planning and development purposes, it is
important to consider that, whereas only a small number of respondents chose the
six-credit option and about one-third chose the 18-SBCEU option, the question
remains whether to offer continuing education opportunities for college credit or
SBCEUs

The combined responses of those who indicated some interest in college
credit represented a sizable percentage of interest in at least one college course.
The choice of which college or university most likely to be attended for the credit was
not evenly divided among the respondents (see Table 7, p. 67). All of the institutions
mentioned by respondents in the survey had either a college of education or a
department of education. Most had a department of psychology. Not all ofthem had
school psychology training programs. The new state rule does not specify what type
of course would be acceptable, nor does it indicate whether the course work must
be exclusively at the graduate level. This might make the planning and development
of postgraduate course offerings that would attract sufficient enrollment more

challenging than sponsoring a conference or workshop offered for SBCEUs.

102

The study was sponsored by MASP, which has long been Involved in the
planning and development of professional growth opportunities for members through
conferences and workshops. Recently, In 1995 and 1996, MASP also offered the
opportunity to earn college credit through attendance at the annual statewide fall
conference. To assist the organizational leadership in the planning and
development of continuing education opportunities to help school psychologists
satisfy the new requirement, respondents were asked their preference of a sponsor.
Choices included a local or intermediate school district, college or university, or
professional organization such as MASP. Slightly less than half of the respondents
who expressed an interest in obtaining college credit to satisfy all or a portion of the
new requirement indicated a likelihood of attending an MASP-sponsored activity for
college credit. Although analysis of the variables of gender and work setting yielded
statistically significant relationships, they were quite low. Females were slightly
more likely than males to attend an MASP-sponsored activity offered for credit. As
almost all of the respondents reported working in a public school, any effect of other
work settings on the level of interest was too small to measure.

The preference of MASP as a sponsor for SBCEUs was not as strong as the
preference for sponsorship of continuing education programs offered for college
credit. Approximately one-fourth of the respondents indicated a preference for
attendance at organization-sponsored programs. A locally sponsored program
offered for SBCEUs was preferred by almost half of the respondents to the survey.

Although statistically significant relationships were found between the variables of

103

gender, years of experience, and location of employment and the preference of a
Ioml sponsor for SBCEUs, the relationship again was quite low. Females were
more likely than males to prefer to obtain SBCEUs locally as first choice.

The likelihood of choosing a local sponsor increased with the number of years
of experience. As persons mature in their professional practice, it is understandable
that other factors, such as personal or family concerns, may also play a part in the
desire to have continuing education activities that are more convenient to attend.
As the literature has suggested, as more and more women are entering the field
(Fagan 8 Wise, 1994; Reschly & Wilson, 1995), the need to balance career and
family responsibilities is a well-recognized concern and may affect a need for
convenience.

Half of the respondents choosing a local sponsor as their first Choice worked
in a suburban location. This would suggest that more Michigan local and
intermediate school districts need to plan and develop continuing education
opportunities for school psychologists, along with those offered for teachers,
counselors, and administrators. MASP could also offer more loml activities using
the regional structure of the organization and working with the local or intermediate
school districts in a region. Planning locally sponsored continuing education
programs creates the opportunity to develop them to meet local or regional needs
and interests.

A preferred context for obtaining either credit or SBCEUs was also

investigated to give further direction for planning and development. For those who

104

displayed an interest in college credit, a large percentage indicated an interest in a
series of short courses developed around a central theme. And slightly more than
half of this group indicated an interest In courses offered via television.

This finding offers additional direction for planning and development of
continuing education programs. Using the concept of specialization coupled with the
broad competencies required by state regulation, continuing education activities
could be offered as a specialized series to develop a specific competency.
Participation in a continuing education activity that is offered as a series around a
central topic may have more educational value than attendance at the typical
workshop or program with a topic that is reflective of the latest fad In the field. ADHD
is one topic that comes to mind.

A series of short courses also could be developed around the interest in
furthering or enhancing a specialty in serving either a particular school age
population or specific disability area. Completion of a specialty series could be
recognized with a certificate similar to the approach used by Western Michigan
University's Specialty in Prevention of Alcohol and Drug Abuse (SPADA) program
for clinicians. Certification is awarded upon completion of a series of short courses
centering on prevention of and intervention in dmg and alcohol abuse, as well as a
competency evaluation. This postgraduate specialty certificate is recognized by both
the clinical community and the insurance industry.

The development of a postgraduate specialty may allow school psychologists

to bring more competence to their day-to-day practice within the context of the

105

school. It is logical to consider that the development of additional competencies
adds value to an employee’s service to his or her school district. This may offer
additional weight tothe argument against school districts subcontracting for services
with professionals who do not have expertise in providing school-based
psychological services.

Persons who might have developed specialties might also be able to share
their expertise by training others. Or they may provide specialized consultation or
second opinions In situations where there may be only a small school psychology
staff or where the incidence or prevalence of a problem or disability is quite low or
infrequent The need for accurate and early diagnosis of autism, as proposed by
Brewster (1997) and Stavrou and French (1992), is one area that comes to mind.
The level of interest in furthering or developing a specialty in this disability area was
highly ranked on the survey.

The survey indicated a high level of interest in the media approach as a
context in which to earn college credit to satisfy the continuing education
requirement. The use of a television media approach opens more possibilities for
planning and development of continuing education programs. Many school districts,
as well as colleges and universities, are equipped for courses using an interactive
television context. The MDE will accept continuing education credit or SBCEUs

earned through an approved program in a telecommunications or distance-leaming

context.

106

The context for those choosing SBCEUs for all or a portion of the means to
satisfy the new continuing education requirement was conceived as time: How often
should programs be offered, how long should they last, and what time of day is
preferred? Respondents clearly indicated that they preferred a monthly program
offered in a daytime session. This preference might reflect the need for some
continuity and depth to programs offered for SBCEUs.

The availability of release time from the employer to attend continuing
education activities and eligibility for reimbursement from the employer were also
investigated. The availability of these factors could be considered an indication of
support on the part of an employer to maintain a high level of professional growth for
school psychologist employees. Most of the respondents indicated that they had
some release time from their employers to attend conferences or workshops. While
the amount of time reported ranged from one day to six days, the fact that it is
available Is encouraging. School districts, for the most part, recognize the
importance of participation in professional growth activities.

Most of the respondents reported that they did not have reimbursement from
their employers for college tuition. The availability of this benefit was not significantly
related to the five research variables. Reimbursement for college tuition is likely a
contractual benefit. Not all school psychologists might have contracts from their
school districts with this benefit

Reimbursement, either full or partial, for conferences or conventions was

reported by more than 70% of the survey respondents. This would suggest strong

107

support for the professional growth of school psychologists from their employers.
Statistically signifimnt relationships were found for both gender and location of
employment and the availability of reimbursement for conferences or conventions,
but no differences were found for amount. Males and females were about equal in
reporting access to some reimbursement for this type of continuing education
activity. However, of those respondents reporting no reimbursement, two-thirds
were females. Persons who indicated access to conference or convention
reimbursement were most likely to work in a suburban or niral location. More than
half of the persons who indicated they did not have this type of reimbursement
worked in an urban lomtion.

As an additional piece of information for planning and development purposes,
respondents were asked how close (in miles) they were to sponsors of continuing
education opportunities and how far they were willing to travel to obtain them.
Although most of the respondents preferred a local sponsor, this might not always
be possible. In this case, distance and a willingness to travel become important
considerations in the planning of a continuing education program. More than 60%
of the respondents indicated that they were within 25 miles of an approved site for
college credit. Most of the respondents indicated that they would be willing to travel
up to 50 miles to obtain credit. The variable of years of experience had a statistically
significant relationship to the willingness to travel for college credit. Persons with
1 to 5 years and 6 to 10 years of experience were less willing than others to drive

any distance for credit. It is possible that these practitioners, who were in the early

108

stages of career development, may have needed continuing education opportunities
that were more conveniently located. Travel takes time. Perhaps the use of a local
sponsor or of media technology could reduce the time needed to travel for continuing
education credit. Persons with more experience were more willing to travel to obtain
credit. It is possible that as individuals mature in their careers, they may be less
affected by a need for convenience.

Seventy percent of the respondents reported a distance of 25 miles or less
to a site offering SBCEUs. This suggests that there is reasonably convenient local
access for many practitioners to earn SBCEUs to fulfill their continuing education
requirement. The distance they were willing to travel was evenly distributed across
the several distance choices. This may suggest that if a SBCEU program is of
sufficient interest to school psychologists, travel distance Is not necessarily a
prohibitive factor.

Persons working in urban or suburban locations were willing to travel 25 miles
or less, whereas those working in small towns or rural areas were willing to travel
greater distances. This finding is likely due to the notion that persons working in
these areas are more accustomed to driving longer distances for many things,
including those outside of work-related activities.

Recent literature in the field (Bradley-Johnson, Johnson, & Jacob-Timm,
1993; Fagan & Wise, 1994; Gutkin 8. Curtis, 1990; Reschly & Wilson, 1995; Zins 8.
Ponti, 1990) continues to expand a discussion on the idea of a specialty as a means

of role expansion in the delivery of school psychological services. Fagan and Wise

109
(1994) indicated that, although this issue has been discussed frequently in the

literature, ”little has been published on the subject" (p. 187).

The concept of specialization could be used to guide the development of
continuing education programs to this purpose. Two ofthe major research questions
of the study were posed to provide information to help clarify this point.
Respondents were asked to Indicate Interest levels by school age or disability
category. Approximately two-thirds of the respondents were interested in a specialty
defined by school age levels, and slightly more than half were interested in a
disability-area specialty.

The school age levels that received the greatest show of interest were
preschool and elementary years. Cross-tabulations of the choice of a school age
category by gender yielded an'interesting pattern. Females were more interested
in an infancy or preschool specialization than were males. This may reflect the
expected nurturing and caretaking roles of females in society. Males and females
were fairly even in their choices of the other school age categories as possible areas
of specialization.

Cross-tabulations of years of experience with the choice of school age
category indicated that individuals in the 11- to 15-year range of experience were
most strongly represented in the choice of a specialty across all age categories.
This suggests that a sizable amount of professional experience may be a factor in

the interest in specialization by school age categories.

110

In contrast to the recent call in the literature for school psychologists to
become more involved with general education programs (Fagan & Wise, 1994;
Shinn & McConnell, 1994), school psychologists continued to indicate a high degree
of interest in special education and working with students with disabilities. This was
revealed by the high level of Interest In a specialty concerned with a disability
category. Yet the specific topic of inclusion models to service disabled students
received only a moderate level of interest from respondents.

, The special education category receiving the highest percentage of interest
was learning disabilities, followed by emotionally impaired, autism, and preprimary
impaired. Recent literature has supported the development of skills that provide
accurate early diagnosis and appropriate interventions, especially in the area of the
autism-spectrum disorders in young children (Brewster, 1997; Stavrou 8 French,
1992). Using the preprimary impaired category, which is specific to Michigan, as a
guide, many continuing education activities have focused on infancy and early
childhood needs. It appears that practitioners continue to have strong interest in
them as areas of specialized practice activities.

Michigan currently offers special education services from birth through age
26 (R340.1701(d). School psychologists are most often the first persons to
recognize and diagnose disorders in the infant and preschool populations. The
development of a specialty in these disabilities may provide greater opportunity for
appropriate early intervention and educational programming for the very young child

with a disability. This reflects closely the thoughts of Short et al. (1990), who

1 11

suggested that practitioners will need additional training specific to young children
as the implementation of PL 99-457. requiring early childhood special education,
continues to develop. The law requires that services provided to disabled children
and their families be given by the highest qualified provider. A postgraduate
specialty would meet this legal requirement. Currently, many Ph.D. students at
Michigan State University are taking the infancy cognate, which leads to a certificate
in early childhood education.

Cross-tabulations among the demographic variables indicated that females
were slightly more interested than males in a special education categorical specialty.
Perhaps this is again reflective of the nurturing or caretaking role accepted by many
women.

Persons holding a master’s degree were stronger in their preference for the
development of a special education categorical specialty than those holding an
educational specialist or a doctorate degree. The number of master’s-level school
psychologists in Michigan is expected to decline, in light of the new requirement for
the educational specialist degree as an entry-level credential and as these persons
retire. The original data base obtained from the state of Michigan listed
approximately one-third of the school psychologists who are currently practicing and
are affected by the new credentialing process at this educational level. This
compared closely with the percentage of master’s-degree respondents to the survey.

It might be useful for those who plan and develop continuing education activities to

1 12
direct their efforts at this group, using the opportunity to develop a special education
specialty as an incentive for participation.

The length of time spent in practice as a school psychologist had a
statistically significant relationship to the preference for a special education
categorical specialty. Two-thirds of those with 1 to 5 years and 6 to 10 years of
experience indicated a preference in this area. About half of the group with 11 to 15
years of experience also were interested in a disability specialty. As school
psychologists continue to spend most of their time working with disabled students,
it seems logical that, over time, a personal professional interest could develop in a
disability area. For planning and development purposes, the offering of continuing
education programs covering the various disability areas while emphasizing the most
preferred categories seems logical. As research in all branches of science continues
to expand our knowledge of disabilities, practitioners need to keep abreast of the
findings to better serve the needs of children and their families.

Continuing education provides an opportunity to improve or expand
professional competencies (Dubin, 1972; Fagan & Wise, 1994; Houle, 1980; Hynd
8r Schakel, 1981 ; Lesiak et al., 1975; Rosenfield, 1981). To provide further guidance
for planning and development, the researcher looked at the level of interest in
continuing education topics related to the general categories of professional
competencies required in state regulations that define the role of the school
psychologist in Michigan. These competencies are assessment, consultation,

counseling, curriculum, intervention, and prevention. Whereas this study revealed

113
a high level of interest in intervention, prevention, and consultation as topics, it also
showed a continued high level of interest in assessment. Counseling received a
moderate amount of interest, whereas curriculum was the least favored topic.

The high level of interest in the topics of intervention, prevention, and
consultation reflects closely the current direction of the literature, which has been
encouraging school psychologists to become more involved in these activities as a
means of role expansion (Cheramie & Sutter, 1992; Herrera & Carey, 1993; Offord,
1996; Poland, 1994; Romualdi &Sandoval, 1995). As Rosenfield (1987) suggested,
school psychologists require Increased knowledge of effective and appropriate
intervention strategies and improved skills in the process of consultation to become
skilled ”interventionists”. rather than merely assessors. Within the top-10 ranking of
specific interest items on the questionnaire, half of the preferred topics related to
consultation, intervention, or prevention activities. These topics would lend
themselves to continuing education programs of both types, college credit and
SBCEUs. They also would lend themselves well to the development of a short
course series to further or enhance skills in any given area.

Of the demographic variables studied, gender had a statistically significant
relationship to the level of interest in all three of these broad service areas. This
seems to reflect a pattern observed through the study and may warrant further
investigation.

The level of education yielded significant effects in regard to the intervention

and prevention categories. Fagan and Wise (1994) and others have indicated that,

1 14
whereas school psychologists spend about half of their time performing
assessments, they desire to spend less time in this function and more time in
virtually every other activity that defines the role (Fagan 8 Wise, 1994; Huebner,
1992; Miller et al., 1981). Yet the results of this study of school psychologists in
Michigan, while supporting interest in performing other types of activities, showed
that a high level of interest in assessment remains.

As there continues to be a high level of interest in assessment, planners and
developers of continuing education activities might offer opportunities to expand this
competency area, as suggested in the literature, by developing programs that
promote skills in types of assessment other than intellectual and achievement. The
specific topic items on the survey may serve to give further direction for this
consideration. From the top-10 most preferred topics found in the study, three items
were specific to an expansion of assessment skill: neuropsychological assessment,
clinical assessment using the system of the W
W and personality assessment. This direction corresponds with the
recommendations in recent literature for the development or enhancement of these
assessment skills (D’Amato, 1990; Farmer & Peterson, 1995; Hynd, 1992;
Kamphaus et al., 1991; Knoff, 1993; Kratochwill & Plunge, 1991; Morris et al., 1991;
Riccio et al., 1993).

The average percentage of time respondents reported they spent on
counseling activities was 11%, and the reported level of interest in this as an area

for continuing education was judged to be moderate compared to those previously

115

mentioned. Counseling often has been suggested as an area in which school
psychologists could provide more direct services to students (Cheramie & Sutter,
1992; Prout et al., 1993). Counseling also has been mentioned in studies of job
satisfaction as an activity that is desired as an expansion of service delivery in the
schools (Brown, 1994; Prout et al., 1993; Watkins et al., 1991). This makes this
finding somewhat curious as counseling has traditionally been accepted as a
”psychological” practice. Current Michigan rules provide for school psychological
services as a specific service to be included on a student’s Individualized Education
Plan or Individual Family Service Plan. A recent audit of the second largest school
district in the state indicated that this category of service is rarely used (Swanzy,
1996).

There are several possible reasons for the moderate interest level in this
broad service area of counseling. Many school psychology programs do not offer
opportunity for training in counseling methods. Perhaps this lower level of interest
is a case of not missing what is not known. As there is not a high level of
expectation to perform this service within a school system, there may not be an
opportunity to exercise the skill, even if it was part of preservice training. In addition,
there may be role conflict among public school employees such as guidance
counselors and school social workers who also provide this service. In some
districts these roles are specified by their labor agreements, and providing this
sewice if not so specified in the contract could be construed as a contract violation

subject to grievance procedures. Last, depending on the size of the school district

116

and the size of an individual school psychologists case load, there may not be much
time left during the school day to provide a direct service such as counseling to

students.
Curriculum competencies received the lowest level of interest. In Michigan,
teaching experience Is not required as part of the school psychologist certification
I process. Although some training programs offer instruction in curriculum and
instructional design, many do not. Again, this may be a case of not missing what is
not known. The lower level of interest in curriculum compared with the high level of
interest in a learning disabilities specialty expressed by respondents to the study
seems contradictory. To determine the required severe discrepancy between ability
and achievement, which is required by both federal and state rules for the diagnosis
of a learning disability, certainly some knowledge of a student’s curriculum and how
it has been taught is important in the development of an appropriate educational
intervention. In addition, this finding seems to be at odds with the call in recent
literature (Shapiro 8r Ager, 1992; Shinn 8r McConnell, 1994) to link assessment to
instruction. Without knowledge ofcurriculum or instructional design or instructional
methods, this may be difficult to accomplish. A lack of knowledge of curriculum,
instructional design, or teaching methods may make intervention, prevention, or
consultation activities difficult in both regular and special education classrooms. A
lack of knowledge in these areas may undermine the credibility of a practitioner with
teachers. This low level of interest in curriculum may also account for the lack of

strong support for curriculum-based assessment as a tool to evaluate achievement,

1 17
which was reported by Fugate (1993). Yet curriculum-based assessment ranked in
the top half of preferred topics of specific interest. However, as long as the context
of practice remains the school, school psychologists may need to have more
encouragement to become more aware of and skilled in this expected competency.
Sponsorsof continuing education programs may need to do more marketing of the
need to enhance or expand this competency area.

The ranking of the top-10 most preferred topics of interest for the
development of continuing education programs is‘ likely to be of interest to those who
plan and develop these opportunities. However, a look at the lowest ranking topics
may have value for planning purposes as well.

The topics receiving the lowest levels of interest included human growth and
development, counseling methods, infant assessment, collaboration with social
agendas, cultural and ethnic differences, low-incidence assessment, special needs
of the gifted, research design and analysis, and bilingual assessment. Perhaps
respondents felt comfortable with their level of knowledge in some of these areas—
human growth and development, for example. Other topics, such as bilingual
assessment or counseling methods, may have only a limited application in everyday
practice, depending on many factors, such as location of employment or labor
agreements.

The very low level of interest reported regarding the needs of the gifted is
indeed puzzling. There has been much information in the research literature and the

popular press to suggest that this is an underserved student population in our

118
schools (Pendavaris 8 Howlee, 1996; Sapon-Sheva, 1996). This finding seems at
odds with the child-advocacy role that characterizes the work of school
psychologists. Perhaps the field has focused on the needs of low achievers at the
expense of high achievers or those with potential to do so. It certainly bears further
investigation.

The low level of interest in the topic of research design and analysis is also
puzzling. It may suggest that school psychologists are comfortable with their current
level of knowledge or that they do not have a strong desire to engage in educational
research. Another possibility may be that there is little support or incentive for
research activities among practitioners. Or there simply may not be enough time to
devote to this endeavor and keep up with case load requirements. Curiously, school
psychologists do use data-based problem solving at the individual level. This is
another area warranting further investigation.

A secondary focus of the study was a compilation of demographic
characteristics of school psychologists in Michigan and their level of interest in some
of the current trends reflected in the literature and compare them to findings from
national studies. These comparisons were made in the area of gender ratio of
practitioners, degree status, employment location and setting, and how practitioners
spend their time in the major service areas of the field.

Many recent national studies (Fagan & Wise, 1994; Pion et al., 1996; Reschly
& Wilson, 1995) have presented a picture of a field with a gender ratio of

approximately 35% male to 65% female. The findings of this study showed that the

119

ratio is much smaller, with 43% male to 57% female. Many of the findings
throughout this study showed significant but weak effects of gender which are
interesting (see Table 34, Appendix D). The differences in preferences expressed
by the respondents in this study may stimulate further investigation.

Some recent literature in school psychology has suggested that the field will
move to have a larger percentage of practitioners who hold the doctoral degree
(Brown, 1989a). In their national study, Reschly and Wilson (1995) did not find
evidence to support this trend. Their results indicated that the educational specialist
level was the most common degree status. In this study, the educational specialist
degree was held by 52% of the respondents. Because this level of education is the
standard for certification as a school psychologist In Michigan by state rule, it is
expected that the percentage will increase over time. It is possible, however, that
if the health care movement increases the strategic role played by the schools,
additional Ph.Ds in school psychology and from other areas of psychology (e.g.,
clinical psychology) may engage in school-linked or school-based psychological
services, thereby increasing the number of doctoral-level psychologists in the
schools.

The new continuing education requirement could be seen as an incentive for
those holding a master’s degree or an educational specialist degree to apply the
credits to an advanced degree. Twenty percent of the respondents indicated such
an interest. The demographic factors of gender, level of education, and years of

experience did show statistically significant relationships. Although females were

120

slightly more likely than males to indicate they would pursue an advanced degree,
the degree of relationship for gender was quite low. The level of education had a
more negative direction. Approximately two-thirds of those holding a master’s or
educational specialist degree were not interested in earning an advanced degree.
The educational specialist degree was made the entry-level requirement by the state
of Michigan in 1989. The new continuing education requirement recognized persons
holding a master’s degree at the time of implementation of the rule (1992) as fully
certificated and did not require the completion of an additional degree.

There may not be a financial incentive for a school psychologist to pursue an
advanced degree for several reasons. Most public school employee contracts are
typically structured around bachelor's or master‘s degrees for wages and benefits
as these are the degrees most widely held by teachers, counselors, and
administrators. In some contracts, the educational specialist degree and the
doctoral degree may be specifically recognized for salary purposes. In others, they
may be included in a category called master’s plus 30 credits, for example. School
districts are most often on very tight budgets. In times of a budget shortfall, it is not
uncommon for districts to lay off nonteaching personnel, such as counselors, school
social workers, and school psychologists. School psychologists and school social
workers do not hold tenure under Michigan rules, which makes them somewhat
more vulnerable to layoff in times of financial difficulty. Holding credentials above
and beyond the required entry level can also prove detrimental in hiring. For

example, if an open position for a school psychologist is budgeted by the local or

121
intermediate school district for a specific dollar amount and that district has a salary

schedule that requires additional dollars to be paid for an advanced degree, a
candidate with a doctoral degree might be passed over in favor of one with an
educational specialist degree as this level of education meets minimal state
requirements for hiring. This can be seen by the district as a cost savings in wages
both initially, at the time of hire, and paid out over time to an employee.
Professional responsibilities for school psychologists are not differentiated by
educational level in Michigan as they are in some states (e.g., Texas). Texas has
levels of defined practice, with the doctoral level considered the highest and the one
having the most responsibility. In Michigan, the roles and functions of a school
psychologist are the same whether a person has a doctorate, an educational
specialist, or a master's degree. Much of the work that is currently done by school
psychologists, as shown in the recent literature as well as in this study, centers on
assessment. A school psychologist who has completed the additional training and
developed advanced skills required for a doctoral degree may not have an
opportunity to exercise all of them. For these various reasons, it would appear that
for school psychology in Michigan, the growth of a doctoral-level profession is not
very likely. Of course, ifdoctoral-level clinical psychologists seek employment in the
schools as a private practice and opportunities and financial incentives due to
managed care diminish, more school psychologists might seek the doctorate with

a clinical or counseling emphasis to ensure their status in the school setting.

122

In their 1990 national study, Reschly and Connolly found limited support for
the existence of a more generalist role for school psychologists employed in rural
locations, as well as more involvement in regular education issues. They suggested
that continuing education needs of persons employed in different settings, such as
a niral location as opposed to urban or suburban, may be different.

The demographic data collected in this study regarding school psychologists
who reported working In rural locations revealed that they were, indeed, practicing
more as generalists within both school age populations and special education
categorical programs as compared to their colleagues in other work locations.
However, urban and suburban schools may have case loads distributed in different
ways as they are likely to have larger school psychology staffs and a greater variety
of educational programs and services.

It was assumed that school psychologists who functioned in a generalist role
would not show distinguishable differences in the amount of time spent serving
either general or special education programs. Respondents were asked whether
they provided service to general education programs. Although 52% of all persons
responding answered affirmatively, only 41 % of those in rural locations reported this
activity. This is also in contrast to those in suburban locations, of whom 65%
reported service to general education programs, and 49% of urban and 48% ofthose
from small-town locations indicating this type of service. This finding offers some
evidence to the contrary of the results of a national study conducted by Reschly and

Connolly (1990), which found support for a mral location. of employment and more

123

involvement in general education issues. It might be questioned that if rural school
psychologists are spending less time providing services to general education
programs than other employment locations, are they than spending the remainder
serving special education programs? If so, this seems to weaken the notion of a
more generalist role for rural locations.

Two of the major research questions regarding the level of interest in
developing or furthering a specialty by school age or disability category, and the
level of interest in continuing education programs centered on the broad service
competency areas found in state rules, were analyzed for differences by location of
employment There was no statistically significant relationship between interest in
developing a specialty either by school age or disability category and this variable
among those working in a mral location. This might be considered to indicate an
interest in a more generalized role by default-that is, if not interested in a
specialized role. Or it may simply be an indication of satisfaction with the status quo.

The responses of the rural school psychologists in the broad service
categories were analyzed on the assumption that a difference in the level of interest
might be indicative of a difference in an area needed for enhancement or expansion
of a competency. For example, it was assumed that differences in these categories
might suggest a movement toward development of a specialty, in consultation or
intervention strategies. With respect to the level of interest in the broad competency

areas defining school psychological services in this study, no statistically significant

124
relationships were found between any competency area and location of employment.
The level of interest was, therefore, not related to the location of employment.

Some differences for location of employment were noted in the specific
interest topics, as summarized In Table 25. However, the specific topics that
revealed a statistically significant effect did not represent any particular pattern or
broad competency area. Rather, a variety of interests in specific topics was
reported. Thus, it would be diflicult to determine any particular Interest pattern
based on the location of employment for these specific topics.

These results do offer some support forthe generalist role among nlral school
psychologists in the provision of service by school age and disability category.
However, little support was found to indicate that a rural location of employment was
related to more involvement in general education issues or that a rural employment
location was significantly related to interest levels suggestive of different continuing
education needs in the broad competencies, orto most of the specific interest items.

Respondents in this study were asked to report the percentage of time spent
in the major service activities that define the role of school psychologist. Many
recent national studies have called for a redefinition of this role, with deemphasis on
assessment and expansion of service in all other areas. Yet Fagan and Wise’s
(1994) extensive review of the literature on this topic revealed that 50% or more of
service activity was oriented to assessment, about 25% to intervention, and about
20% to consultation. Fugate (1993), in his study of Michigan school psychologists,

reported that school psychologists spent 12% of their time in counseling activities

125

and 4% of their time In consulting. Results from this more recent study closely
resemble those of the national studies in the areas of assessment and consultation,
and continue to resemble Fugate’s results with respect to counseling activities.
Perhaps in the succeeding years since Fugate’s study, school psychologists in
Michigan have made gains in one area of role expansion, namely, consultation.
In their review of work settings for school psychologists, Fagan and Wise
(1994) indicated that although the public school Is the predominant work setting,
employment in nontraditional areas continues to grow. Reschly and Wilson (1995)
found that 86% of the school psychologists in their national study listed their primary
work setting as a public school. Results from the present study revealed that 94%
of the respondents worked in a public school, 5% in special center schools, and only
1% in any other area. In Michigan, it appears that this trend for employment of

school psychologists in nontraditional settings has yet to catch on.

CHAPTER VI

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Hynd et al. (1981) suggested that when continuing education is required by
law, the requirements create an additional impetus to provide continuing education
opportunities. When the new certification and required continuing education rule
went into effect in 1992, there was an underlying assumption that this process would
ultimately have a positive effect on the practice of school psychology. It seemed
reasonable to assume that continuing professional development at an individual
level would enhance the delivery system of school psychological services overall
and better meet the needs of students in Michigan public schools. However, such
requirements are not in themselves a guarantee that these assumptions will be

actualized. Some system changes might be required.

Wages
I l' | . D I I [E I I.
Ifthe assumption of an ultimate positive effect on children’s education is to
be realized from this new procedure, there needs to be coordination of continuing
education activities at all levels of the educational system, from the MDE,

universities, professional organizations, and local and intermediate school districts.

126

127

The MDE Is likely to have greater awareness of the larger picture of
educational needs within the state. The several departments are also current on
state and federal legislation and the implementation of public policies that affect
public education. The MDE is likely to have greater awareness of funding,
resources, and financial issues that also affect the overall educational delivery
system. As the public institution responsible for implementing state rules, it must
also ensure accountability for compliance with them. This carries the responsibility
for monitoring the quality and the effectiveness of programs and services in the
schools.

To ensure the coordination of a higher level of quality continuing education
for school psychologists, the MDE might consider the reinstitution of a state
supervisor of school psychological services. The MDE had such a position several
years ago. Direction and coordination of professional development from the state
level has proven to be successful in realizing improvements at the school level. In
Iowa, for example, the state director for school psychological services and university
trainers worked cooperatively on expanding the use of consultation skills to reduce
special education referrals (Reschly & Grimes, 1991).

The MDE Office of Professional Preparation and Certification might also
consider clarifying what is meant by the word ”approved” in their oversight of
postgraduate course work or programs offered for SBCEUs. Postgraduate course
work should have a clear relationship to professional practice. Workshops and

conferences should have clear relevance to practice as well. Although standards

128

do exist for the length of time a program offered for SBCEUs must meet to receive
MDE approval, standards for content are not apparent in the current policy.

The MDE should expand the list of approved providers of continuing
education programs. It is not uncommon for organizations, such as the American
Psychological Association or the American Medical Association, to sponsor
programs that earn continuing education credit under their auspices. These
professional organizations are not likely to apply for ”approved“ status from the MDE
to allow school psychologists who attend to be eligible for SBCEUs. However, these
programs are indeed of high quality and relevance to the practice of school
psychology. Accepting participation in such programs would go far in expanding the

continuing education opportunities for school psychologists.

I I . 'l'

The implementation of the new continuing education requirement offers not
only an increased opportunity to provide leadership in the development and training
of well-educated new school psychologists who enter the field, but also in the area
of postgraduate education. The creation and development of postgraduate course
work or seminars can assist those in current practice to maintain and enhance their
professional skills. The creation of a series of short courses around central themes
that have current relevance, or the development of postgraduate specialties, would
be in the realm of the training institutions. University professors are most likely to
have extensive knowledge of the research base and current trends within the

profession of school psycholOQY. as well as the field of education as a whole. Using

129
this knowledge base In cooperation with the MDE, professional organizations and
local school districts could assist in the development of more coordinated, current,
and comprehensive continuing education programs. The universities, with their
research capabilities, could also provide evaluation services to assist In continual

improvement of the process.

EmssionaLQnoanization

This study was supported by MASP for the purpose of planning and
developing programs to assist psychologists in meeting the new state requirement
for continuing education. MASP has a long history of sponsoring conferences and
workshops. As the professional organization representing about two-thirds of the
school psychologists in Michigan, MASP has a strong interest in continuing
professional development.

The organization brings many supports to assist the MDE and the universities
in developing quality continuing education programs. MASP has access to
practicing school psychologists through its membership roster. Through various
committees within the organizational stnlcture, MASP closely monitors educational,
political, and social issues that affect the profession and the implementation of
school psychological services. The regional structure of MASP approximates the
regional stnicture of lSDs In Michigan. MASP provides communication and
information on these Issues to subscribers through the MichiganfisxchBemct. the
organization’s newsletter. It also has marketing capabilities for continuing educafion

programs through the organizational newsletter.

1 30

One of the findings of this study was that respondents preferred MASP as a
sponsor of activities offered for college credit and preferred a local sponsor such as
a local or intermediate school district for obtaining SBCEUs. It is recommended that
MASP develop a collaborative relationship with university trainers of school
psychologists to offer programs for college credit. This could be accomplished by
using the fall or spring statewide conferences sponsored by the organization as a
means of offering a short course. The additional cost of tuition, along with
registration fees, would need to be considered because many persons indicated that
they did not receive reimbursement for college tuition. Conference and convention
leave and partial reimbursement were somewhat more available to school
psychologists from their employers. Such courses would have to be developed and
monitored through one of the state colleges or universities. Or a continuing
education consortium could be developed among the Michigan universities that offer
school psychology training programs. Enrollment and completion of requirements
would then be indicated on a college transcript. This would simplify the record
keeping and documentation needed to verify completion ofthe continuing education

requirement at the time of recertification.

I I III lilSl ID'I'I

Local and intermediate school districts are in a position to be most clearly
aware of the educational needs of their own school populations. The
superintendents and special education directors are most likely to be aware of local

funding and resources. They are most likely to be aware of some of the individual

131
professional competencies possessed by their school psychologist employees
through regular individual performance reviews.

The new continuing education requirement offers these local agencies an
opportunity to have a positive Influence on the delivery of school psychological
services to meet particular local educational needs. Local and intermediate school
districts commme offer staff development programs. Unfortunately, most of them
are designed for teaching or administrative staffs, which represent a majority of the
professional employees. Working cooperatively with each other and the MDE, the
universities and professional organizations could increase development of continuing
opportunities for school psychologists to address local or regional needs and to
enhance or expand personal professional competencies.

Local and intermediate school districts might review their policies regarding
release time or reimbursement to attend professional development programs to
ensure that they are not acting as a barrier to the required professional growth of
their school psychologist employees.

In this study it was found that school psychologists preferred a local sponsor
for SBCEU programs. They also preferred a monthly, daytime format. This would
suggest that MASP, in collaboration with university trainers, should work
cooperatively through the regional structure of the organization with local and
intermediate school districts to plan and develop programs offering SBCEUs. This

type of cooperation could result in the development of programs specifically tailored

132

to meet regional or local needs and the interests of practitioners. Such programs
could also serve as a local or regional forum for school psychologists in the area.

This arrangement may help to share costs among sponsors as well. MASP
should continue to act as the registrar at these events, keeping the record of
attendance and completion ofthe SBCEU activity, to remove this burden of providing
documentation from the local or intermediate school district. MASP would then
supply a transcript to participants to use for verification of SBCEU continuing

education activity at the time of renewal of the certificate.

lndeuaLELacfitiQnets

The new continuing education requirement offers each individual school
psychologist an opportunity to examine his or her own delivery of services. This new
process emphasizes the ethical responsibilityto monitor and improve individual skills
to achieve a higher level of professional competence. The requirement creates an
opportunity to enhance, expand, or develop new skills that could spur role expansion
in individual practice. At the individual practitioner level, the greatest potential exists
to truly have a positive effect on addressing the educational needs of children within
the schools.

To ensure that the new continuing education requirement will have a
beneficial effect on meeting the educational and mental health needs of Michigan
school children, a great deal of coordination and planning is needed from the
leadership at all levels of the system to make it happen. Each level within the

educational system has many resources. If these were used in a collaborative

133

fashion, the continuing education process might become more comprehensive and
meaninng for the Individual practitioner and a real benefit to the profession of

school psychology as a whole.

Context

The concept of a media context was of strong interest to the respondents in
this study. The major sponsors of continuing education programs for school
psychologists should investigate the use of a media context. Teleconferencing and
interactive video courses are becoming more common in education, as well as in
business and industry. Linking these newer methods of training to continuing
education programs offers a broader spectrum of opportunity in quality of
programming. Many respondents preferred to do minimal amounts of travel to
obtain SBCEUs. Using this technology may be an answer to both time and travel
concerns.

Satellite technology could also be investigated to offer long-distance
programs that can be down-linked locally. These programs could then be offered
at local sites set up for an interactive format. Programs developed within a media
context might also be offered on the education-access stations available through
many local cable television companies. Currently, many colleges offer courses via
television. Teleconference technology is already being used in education as well as
in business and industry for training and professional development. Cooperative

efforts, such as the development of a continuing education consortium, among

134
continuing education sponsors could enhance the quantity and quality of programs
offered in this context.

Although preferences regarding the likelihood of attending programs offered
as a series around a central topic or via television were not specifically gathered
through the survey, this time preference lends itself to developing SBCEU activities
offered as a series or via television as well. The opportunity to earn SBCEUs could
be combined with programs offered for credit. The program requirements would not
necessarily ~be the same if participating to earn SBCEUs instead of credit or a
specialty certificate, for example. This would allow the use of similar resources for
the development of a program, and persons could attend in a manner that best met

their professional preference.

Ionica

The survey yielded a sizable number of broad and specific topics of strong
interest that would be useful for planning and developing continuing education
programs. By working cooperatively, the leaders in the field from all levels of the
educational system could coordinate topics that not only address the current levels
of practitioners’ interest but could Open new horizons as well. Practitioners may not
always have the big picture of current and future developments in the field that
require increased skill or knowledge.

Sponsors of continuing education activities should continue to offer programs
relating to the topics of infancy, early childhood, and preschool education. These

areas continue to show a high level of interest among respondents and fit with

135
federal legislation requiring special education programs and services for very young
children and their families.

School psychologists continue to show high levels of interest in the special
education categorical areas of Ieamlng disabilities, emotional impairments, autism,
and early childhood disorders. Sponsors of continuing education programs should
continue to offer opportunities that target the needs of students with these as well
as all other disabilities that interfere with learning.

Although it has been assumed by some in the field that assessment activities
are not of interest to school psychologists, the findings from this study suggest that
there continues to be a high level of interest in this major competency area.
Planners should consider offering opportunity for continuing education in areas of
assessment other than those most typically used by school psychologists. This
researcher found that there was a high level of interest in neuropsychological
assessment, clinical assessment, and personality assessment. Moderate levels of
interest were shown in curriculum-based assessment and preschool assessment.

The tapics of consultation, intervention, and prevention strategies were also
of high interest. As these are very broad topics, they offer much opportunity for
sponsors of continuing education programs to develop a wide variety of
programming to meet the needs of practitioners. These areas also lend themselves
to the development of short courses or a series of presentations that could serve to

enhance or expand these specific competencies.

136

As the process of school restructuring continues In Michigan, especially as
it applies to special education, school psychologists will need to be kept current on
the changes in the educational delivery system and their place within it. The
movement Is toward a more unified educational system with emphasis on
noncategorical programming for students with disabilities. There is an expectation
of more collaboration with social agendas and the development of student support
service teams. This will require school psychologists to be well versed in the areas
of curriculum, instructional design, behavior, and classroom management. As
curriculum and instructional design were not highly preferred topics of interest,
sponsors of continuing education programs will have to do more marketing of the

growing need for proficiency in these educational areas.

Eutunefiesearch

One of the interesting findings from this study was the significant relationship
of gender to many of the questions. Although the results were statistically significant
for many specific questions throughout the study, they were not very strong in their
degree of relationship. However, in many cases, females were responsible for the
difference. The literature has suggested a growing national trend toward more
females than males in the profession. There is a question as to what influence this
demographic factor may have on future trends within the field. A more in-depth
study of gender could investigate the concem that increased participation by women

may lead to erosion of the status of school psychology in Michigan.

137

Additional studies might shed light on the reasons for the low level of interest
in such important topics as curriculum, special needs of the gifted, and research
design and analysis. The relatively low interest on the part of practitioners
underscores the point that individual interest should not be the sole or necessarily
the primary determinant of continuing education needs. Leaders from all levels in
the profession may have to help them expand their horizons, especially if the
practice 0f school psychology is to remain an integral and indispensable service in
the schools.

In 1997, all school psychologists must present their documentation of
completion of the continuing education requirement. It will be of interest to have a
follow-up study to verify the actual options chosen by practitioners to fulfill the new
requirement. What people say they will do does not always correlate that well with
what they actually do.

Within a climate of school reform, the MDE adopted the new certification and
continuing education requirement for school psychologists. An underlying
assumption of this new process was that the school psychological services provided
to Michigan school children would continue to be delivered by well-trained,
competent professionals. Another, more basic assumption is that these services
would have a beneficial effect on education within the schools. Once the process
of recertification has gone through the first five-year cycle in 1997, the MDE should
assess the basic assumption of beneficial effects within the educational delivery

system as a consequence of the required continuing education program.

138

Further research might also address the issue of whether school
psychologists actually engaged in their preferences for satisfying the continuing
education requirement. They also could be asked for ways to enhance the value of

this new requirement.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

SURVEY FORM

139

Michigan Association of School Psychologists Continuing Education Survey

Please answer the following questions.
ABOUT YOU
I. Sex: __ Male _ Female
2. Highest degree earned:
_ Masters _ Educational Specialist __ Doctorate
3. Years of experience as a school psychologist:
ABOUT YOUR PLACE OF EMPLOYMENT
4a. Predominant location:
_urhan (city) __suhurhan __rtinil _small town (not rural)
4h. Predominant setting:
__Puhlic School _Private School _Parochial School ___Hospital School _Special Center School
ABOUT YOUR CASELOAD
5a. Describe your current caseload as to the ages of the students you service. Please check only those that apply.
_lnfants __Preschool _Elementary School _Middle/Junior High School ___High School ____Adults

5h. Describe your current caseload as to the types of Special Education programs you service. Please check only those that apply.

_Aull.\lic Impaired _Hecring Impaired __Severely Mentally _Emotionally Impaired _Visoally lnpcircd
Impaired

_Traiirahle Mentally _Educchle Mentally _Phyaieally or Otherwise _chcrely Multiply _Learning Disabled

Impaired Impaired Health Inquirer! Impaired

____Speeeh and Language __PrcPrimcty Impaired __Resloon:c Rooms

Impaired

5c. Do you service any General Education programs?

yes no

Sd. Would you be interested in deveIOping or furthering a school age specialty in your practice!

yes no

if yes. please indicate your choice.

_ Infants _ Preschool _ Elementary __ Middle/Jr High School __ High School __ Adults

140

5e. Would you be interested in developing or furthering a specialty in one of the categorical areas?

yes no

If you answered yes, please indicate your choice.

_Autistic Inmcircd _Hearing Impaired _Severely Mcrlally _Emotionclly lnpcircd _Vicuclly [availed
Impaired

_Trcinable Mentally _Educablc Mentally _Physically or Otherwise ' ' _chcrcly Multiply _Lcarning Disabled

Impcired Impaired Health lmpcired Impaired

_Speech and Language _PrePrimcry Impaired _Recoursc Rooms

Impaired

6. Please estimate the percentage of time you spend in the following activities. Total should not equal more than l00%.

 

_Evaluation _Consultation _Curriculum _Prevention _lntervention _Counseling
ABOUT YOUR CONTINUING EDUCATION PLANS:
7. Is tuition reimbursement available from your employer?
__ No. _ Yes. Number of credits per year: __ (Please convert term hours to semester hours at 3T=28)
8. Is Conference/Convention Leave time available from your employer?
_ No. _ Yes. Number of days per year: .—
9. Is reimbursement for Conference/Convention leave available from your employer?
_ No. _ Yes. Type of reimbursement: _Full __Partial _None
10a. Geographic access to the closest approved site for college credit:
__ 25 miles or less _ 26-50 miles _ 51-75 miles _ 76-100 milcc __ 100+ miles
10h. If a college course were of interest to you how far would you be willing to travel to attend?
_ 25 miles or less _ 26-50 miles __ 51-75 miles _ 76-100 miles __ I00+ miles
lla. Geographic access to the closest approved program to grant SBCEUs:
_ 25 miles or less _ 26-50 miles _ 51-75 miles __ 76-100 miles _ 100+ miles
llb. How far would you be willing to travel to attend programs offering SBCEUs?
_ 25 miles or Ices _ 26-50 miles _ 51-75. milca _ 76-100 miles _ 100+ milcc

12. My choice of format to fulfill my continuing education requirement:
a. 6 Semester hours. If you chose this option, please answer Question 13 and omit 14 and 15.
h. I8 SBCEUs. If you chose this option. please answer Question 14 and omit l3 and 15.

c. Combination of credit and SBCEUS. If you chose this option, please answer Question 15 and omit l3 and 14.

141

13. Answer only if you chose 12a. If you chose the 6-seinester Option. please answer the following questions.

a. Credit to be applied to an advanced degree? Yes No

b. I am most likely to obtain my credits at: College or University

 

c. If college credit were available at MASP sponsored programs, would you attend'.’

Definite Yes Yes Maybe No Definitely No

d. If it were available. how likely would you be to enroll in a series of short courses on related topics which were designed to obtain the
required 6 semester hours?

Very likely _ Likely Maybe No Definitely No

e. If it were available. how likely would you be to enroll in a college .uurse via television?

__ Very likely _ Likely _ Maybe _ No _Deftnitely No
14. Answer only if you chose 12b. If you chose the IS SBCEUs option. please answer the following questions.
a. Preferred frequency of CEU programs:
_Weeltly _Monthly _Semi-annually _Annually
1:. Preferred time span:
_Half-day sessions _Weekend sessions _Full-day sessions _Weelt-long sessions _Two-day sessions
c. Preferred time:

Daytime Evenings Weekends Summer

(1. Please rate your choice in order of preference as to how you are most likely to obtain SBCEU‘s: 1 (first choice). 2 (second choice).
3 (third choice)

__ locally (own school district. ISD. neighboring district)
_Institutionally (college. university. teaching hospital)

_Organizational (professional conferences. workshops)

15. Answer only if you chose 12c. If you chose a combination of SBCEUs and semester credit. please answer the following questions.
a. Probable number of college credits:
b. Credit to be applied to an advanced degree! _Yes No
c. 1 am most likely to obtain my credits at: College or University
d. If college credit were available at MASP sponsored programs. would you attend'.’
_Definite Yes Yes _Maybe N0

_Dcllnilc Ni)

cl

142

If it were available. how likely would you be to enroll in a series of short courses on related topics which were designed to obtain the
required 6 Semester hours?

Very likely Likely Maybe No

f.

g.

Definitely No
Probable number of SBCEUs:

If it were available. how likely would you be to enroll in college courSe via television?

Very likely Likely Maybe No

b.
Weekly Monthly Semi-annually

j.

Definitely No

Preferred frequency of CEU programs:

Annually
Preferred time span:
Half-day sessions Weekend sessions Full-day sessions Week-long sessions Two-day sessions
Preferred time:
Daytime Evenings Weekends Summer

k.

 

Please rate your choice in order of preference as to how you are most likely to obtain SBCEU‘s: I (first choice). 2 (second choice
3 (third choice)

_Iocally (own school district. 150. neighboring district)
Institutionally (college. university. teaching hospital)

_Organintional (professional conferences. workshops)

16. The State of Michigan rules for the role and functions of a School Psychologist define these broad skill areas. Please indicate your lev-
of interest in Continuing Education Programs on these major topics. Please circle your answer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l-Very lnterested 2-lnterested 3-Maybe 4-Not Interested S-Definitely Not
lnterested
a. Assessment I 2 3 4 5
b Consultation 1 2 3 4 5
c. Counseling l 2 3 4 5
d Curriculum 1 2 3 4 5
e. Intervention l 2 3 4 S
f. PreVention l 2 3 4 5

 

 

 

143

I7. Please indicate your level of interest in the following specific topics for Continuing Education Programs. Please circle your answer.

 

5eDefinitely Not

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l-Very Interested 2-lnterested 3-Maybe 4-Not Interested Interested
Consultation skills . l 2 3 4 5
and methods
Pre-rel'erral l 2 3 4 5
consultation
DeVeloping peer l 2 3 4 5
intervention program
Consultation with l ' 2 3 4 5
families

 

Consultation with
mental health |
agencies

I.)
0..)
Jo

LA

 

Consultation with
physicians and other I 7 3 4 5
health care providers

 

Counseling methods

 

for pre-school aged l 2 3 4 5
children
Cognitive Behavior I 2 3 4 5

Therapy groups

 

Group counseling l 7 3 4 5
methods

 

Collaboration with l
social agencies

IO
U
‘8

M

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bi-lingual assessment l 2 3 - 4 5

Neuro-psychological I 2 3 4 5

assessment

Curriculum-based I 2 3 4 5

assessment

Personality l 2 3 4 5

assessment i

Clinical assessment l 2 3 4 5

using DSMllI-R

Authentic ;L\.~'csslltcnt l 2 3 4 5
‘-Pediatric l 2 3 4 5

Psychopharmacology

 

 

144

 

l-Very Interested

 

 

 

 

S-Del'initely Not

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2-lnterested 3-Maybe 4-Not Interested Interested
Preschool assessment I 2 3 4 5
Infant assessment l 2 3 4 5
Low incidence l 2 3 4 5
arisessmcnt
Curriculum planning
and teaching I 2 3 4 5
Strategies
Outcome based I 2 3 4 5
education
Human Growth and I 2 3 4 5
De\'elt)pmenl
Behavioral and
classroom I 2 3 4 5
management
twhniques
Cultural and ethnic I 2 3 4 5
differences
Computer skills I 2 3 4 5
Program evaluation l 2 3 4 5
methOds
Research design and l 2 3 4 5
analysis
Inclusion models I 2 3 4 5
School restructuring I 2 3 4 5
Parenting education I 2 3 4 5
Student Assistance l 2 3 4 5
Programs
Special needs of the l 2 3 4 5
Cilted
Alternative service I 2 3 4 5

mndcls

 

 

Thank you Very much tor your cooperation. Please return your completed surVeyto

Mary Lou Ross. President;
Michigan Association or School Psychologists

7546 Candlewood S E

Grand Rapids. Michigan 49546

 

APPENDIX B

COVER LETTER

145

 

 

B

Afifiated with National Association a! School Psychologist:

I MICHIGAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS
P

 

IWA. ‘Ti
August 15, 1994

Dear School Psychologist,

In 1992 you were granted a Michigan School Psychologist
certificate from the State Board of Education. This
certificate is now a legal condition of employment in the
schools of our state. A program of continuing education is
needed to renew the certificate. Renewal, which occurs for
most school psychologists in 1997, requires the completion of
6 semester hours of college credit from a State Board
approved institution or the equivalent in State Board
approved Continuing Education Units within that time period.

As part of its long standing commitment to professional
development, the Michigan Association of School Psychologists
is sponsoring a survey of randomly selected individuals from
the group of the newly certified School Psychologists in our
state. The purpose of this project is to learn how our
colleagues plan to satisfy this requirement and which topics
are of greatest interest for continuing education. The
information gathered will be used by the organization as a
part of long range planning to continue to provide quality
professional development programs. The results also will be
shared with the university training programs in Michigan to
help in their planning as well.

The survey will take 10-15 minutes to complete. Your
responses are confidential. Additional specific information
regarding the definitions in the law may be found on the
reverse side of this letter. Please return your completed
survey in the enclosed envelope by August 31, 1994.

As an added incentive for your participation, MASP will
hold a drawing for a free membership to begin in the 1994-
1995 fiscal year. After you have completed and mailed the
survey, fill out and send the enclosed post card to be used

in the drawing which will be held on September 14, 1994. The
winner will be notified by mail.

The current trends of change in education will
undoubtedly have an impact on our role as school
psychologists and on our present service delivery systems as
well. I hope you will make participation in the survey a
personal and professional priority. This is an opportunity
to share your thoughts, which collectively, can add up to
make a difference for our profession in meeting the challenge
of change through continuing education.

Sincerely yours,
Mary Lou Ross
MASP Past-President

 

All Children Can Learn

 

APPENDIX C

STATE OF MICHIGAN RULES REGARDING ROLE AND COMPETENCY
AND CERTIFICATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

146

Some additional information and definitions:
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST CERTIFICATION

R 380.206 pertaining to the school psychologist certificate
states that "a school psychologist certificate shall be valid
for 5 years..." and that "the renewal of a school
psychologist certificate requires the completion of 6
semester hours of credit in an approved program or the

equivalent in approved state board continuing education
units."

1. The 6 semester hours for renewal may be completed a
at a State Board approved program in a college or
university which has regional, state, or national
accreditation and which prepares school
psychologists in accordance with these rules.

2. Continuing Education Units means credit received
for successfully completing a board approved
professional development program. One continuing
education unit equals 10 contact hours of
participation in a class, workshop, seminar,
conference or clinic activity. One semester credit
equals 30 contact hours.

3. A combination of credit hours and SBCEUs may be
used to satisfy the requirement. When based on a
combination of SBCEUs and semester credit hours,
count 1 semester credit = 3 SBCEUs.

4. All renewal credits must contribute to the
individual’s professional development as a school
psychologist.

147

REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE RULES
for
Special Education

Effective
July 1. 1987

Including

Rules for
School Social Worker
and
School Psychological Services

and

Rules for the Transportation of
Handicapped Persons

Michigan State Board of Education
Box 30008
Lansing, Michigan 48909

148

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST CERTIFICATE

Filed with the Secretary of state on
These rules take effect on September 1, 1992

(By authority conferred on the state board of education by
section 1251 of Act No. 451 of the Public Acts of 1976, as
amended, being 5380.1251 of the Michigan Compiled Laws)

R 340.1151 - R 340.1158 Rescinded by R 380.210.

R 380.201 Definitions.

Rule 1. As used in these rules:

(a) ”Approved program” means a board-approved program in
a college or university which has regional, state, or
national accreditation and which prepares school
psychologists in accordance with these rules. .

(b) "Board" means the state board of educatidn.

(c) "Continuing education unit" means credit received
for successfully completing a board-approved professional
development program. One continuing education unit equals
10 contact hours of participation in a class, workshop,
seminar, conference, or clinic activity. One semester of
credit equals 30 contact hours. A program sponsor shall
maintain all records of a school psychologist's
participation.

(d) "Department" means the department of education.

(e) "Michigan institution" means an institution of
higher education which has regional, state, or national
accreditation.

(f) ”Preliminary school psychologist certificate" means
the initial certificate issued to an applicant who has met
the requirements of R 380.204 to function as a school
psychologist.

(g) ”School psychologist certificate" means a
certificate that is issued to an applicant who has met the
requirements of R 380.206 and R 380.208.

R 380.202 Persons to hold school psychologist
certificate.
Rule 2. (1) A school psychologist, effective
September 1, 1992, shall hold a certificate pursuant to
these rules. Only a person who is certificated by the

6/7/91

149

department as a school psychologist in accordance with
these rules shall use the title of school psychologist.

(2) A.person who is employed as a school psychologist by
a local or intermediate school district shall be required,
by September 1, 1992, to hold a valid Michigan school
psychologist certificate or a preliminary school
psychologist certificate.

R 380.203 Role of school psychologist.

Rule 3. A.school psychologist may function in the
following roles:

(a) Provide school psychological services to any pupil.

(b) Collaborate with staff in planning educational
intervention, curriculum, behavioral management, and
teaching strategies.

(c) Consult, counsel, and collaborate with pupils,
parents, school personnel, and appropriate outside
personnel regarding mental health, behavioral, and
educational concerns utilizing psychological principles.

(d) Provide psychological evaluation for pupils referred
as candidates for special education programs and provide
reports to the appropriate educational authority.

(e) Perform systematic direct observations of pupils.

(f) Administer tests which may include intelligence,
achievement, personality, adaptive behavior, and
perceptual-motor tests.

(gI'Interpret the psychological and other diagnostic
data for professionals, parents, pupils, and appropriate
others.

(h) Collaborate in program planning and evaluation
services for decision-making purposes.

R 380.204 Preliminary school psychologist certificate.

Rule 4. (1) An applicant for a preliminary school
psychologist certificate shall meet both of the following
requirements:

(a) Have completed a minimum of 45 graduate semester
hours in an approved program toward the school
psychologist certificate. An internship shall not be
considered a part of the 45 semester hours.

(b) Rave completed not less than a GOO-clock-hour,
supervised internship with school—age pupils in an
approved school psychologist program, 300 clock hours of
which shall be in a school setting under the supervision
of a person who holds a Michigan school psychologist
certificate.

(2) Officials of a Michigan institution that has an
approved program shall recommend to the department, on a
form provided by the department, the issuance of a

150

preliminary school psychologist certificate. The
recommendation to issue the preliminary school
psychologist certificate shall be made when an applicant
has completed the requirements approved by the board as
defined in these rules. An application to an institution
with an approved program.for a preliminary school
psychologist certificate shall be considered a
certification requirement. An applicant shall meet the
requirements for a preliminary school psychologist
certificate when his or her application has been received
and approved by the institution and the department. The
department shall review the recommendation made by the
officials of an institution before the certificate is
issued to determine that certification requirements are
met.

(3) A preliminary school psychologist certificate shall
be valid for 3 years. A preliminary school psychologist
certificate expires on June 30 of the expiration year
indicated on the certificate.

(4) A person employed under the preliminary school
psychologist certificate must have local supervision
provided by a fully certificated school psychologist.

(5) An applicant and an employer shall be familiar with
the specific requirements of the preliminary school
psychologist certificate.

(6) A preliminary school psychologist certificate may be
renewed for an additional 3 years upon completion of not
less than 6 semester hours of credit in an approved
program. Credit shall be in courses appropriate to a
school psychologist as determined by the institution. A

preliminary school psychologist certificate may be renewed
once .

R 380.205 Out—of-state credit for preliminary school
psychologist certificate.

Rule 5. (1) An out—of-state applicant for a school
psychologist certificate shall apply for a Michigan
preliminary school psychologist certificate.

(2) The board may accept a comparable school
psychologist certificate from another state or a foreign
country as a basis for the issuance of a Michigan
preliminary school psychologist certificate.

(3) The board may accept credits presented for
certification from accredited institutions or agencies
located in other states or'foreign countries. Proof of
credit shall be submitted to the department directly from
the institution, on official transcripts.

151

R 380.206 School psychologist certificate.

Rule 6. (1) An applicant for a school psychologist
certificate shall meet all of the following requirements:

(a) Hold a valid Michigan preliminary school
psychologist certificate.

(b) Possess a specialist‘s degree or its equivalent in
school psychology from an institution with an approved
program.

to) have completed a minimum of 15 graduate semester
hours in school psychology, including an internship, in
addition to the 45 semester hours required for the
preliminary certificate.

(d) In addition to the 600 clock hours required for the
preliminary certificate, have completed not less than a
GOO-clock-hour, supervised internship with school—age
pupils in an approved school psychologist program, 300
clock hours of which shall be in a school setting under
the supervision of a person who holds a Michigan school
psychologist certificate.

(e) Meet the requirements set forth in this rule and in
R 380.208.

(f) Have completed 1 year of successful experience
employed as a school psychologist with direction from a
fully certificated school psychologist.

(2) Officials of a Michigan institution that has an
approved school psychologist program shall recommend, to
the department, on a form provided by the department, the
issuance of a school psychologist certificate. The
recommendation to issue a school psychologist certificate
shall be made when an applicant has completed the
requirements of these rules. An application to an
institution that has an approved program for a school
psychologist certificate shall be considered a
certification requirement. An applicant shall meet the
requirements for a school psychologist certificate when
his or her application has been received and approved by
the institution and the department. The department shall
review the recommendation made by the officials of an
institution before the certificate is issued to determine
that certification requirements are met.

(3) A school psychologist certificate shall be valid for.
5 years.

(4) A school psychologist certificate expires on June 30
of the expiration year indicated on the certificate.

(5) An applicant and an employer shall be familiar with
the specific requirements of the school psychologist
certificate.

(6) The renewal-of a school psychologist certificate
requires the.pompletion of 6 semester hours of credit in
an approved prognm or .the equivalent in approved state
board continuing .ducation units. Credit shall be towards

152

an individual's professional development as a school
psychologist. Credit completed out of state shall be
earned at an accredited institution.

(7) All renewal credit shall be completed after the date
of issuance of a school psychologist certificate and
within the S-calendar—year period before applying for
renewal.

(8) Correspondence credit is not acceptable for meeting
*he requirements of an initial school psychologist

:tificate or its renewal.

9) Credit earned toward renewing a school psychologist

tificate may be used for renewing a teaching or
administrator's certificate.

-0) To renew a school psychologist certificate that has
been expired for more than 5 years, 12 semester hours of
credit shall be required.

(11) To renew a school psychologist certificate that has
been expired for more than 10 years, 18 semester hours of
credit shall be required.

R 380.207 Program approval and periodic review.

Rule 7. (1) A school psychologist preparation program
shall be approved for a 5—year period by the board. The
requirements for the school psychologist certificates
identified in these rules shall be included as part of the
program preparation. The board shall review the adequacy
of institutional resources, staff, and academic advisement
services in meeting state requirements. The board will
also utilize supply and demand data in determining the
need for approving additional training programs.

(2) A 5—year renewal of board approval shall require an
institutional report of graduates before program renewal
and a report of the number of instances certificate
recommendations have been denied. The report shall
include recommendations for program revisions and
responses from graduates, employers, and other school
administrators on revising program requirements.

(3) Failing to comply with board certification and
program approval requirements or knowingly advising
individuals to complete credit in excess of board—approved
institutional requirements may result in the suspension of
an institution's approval pending a review by the state
superintendent of public instruction.

(4) The officials of an institution shall document to
the department that the applicant has met all approved
program requirements.

153

R 380.208 School psychologist competencies.

Rule 8. A.candidate seeking approval for a school
psychologist certificate shall be recommended by an
approved college or university as having demonstrated all
of the following competencies:

(a) A.knowledge of the organization and administration
of local and state agencies and their services for pupils.

(b) A knowledge of federal and state special education
laws and other legal aspects of the role of the school
psychologist.

(c) Skills in the ability to consult, counsel, and
collaborate with pupils, parents, school personnel, and
appropriate outside personnel regarding mental health,
behavior, and educational concerns utilizing psychologist
principles.

(d) An understanding of the rationale of testing,
measurement, and skills in the administration of tests,
'including those which measure intelligence, achievement,
peiggnality, adaptive behavior, and perceptual-motor
sk s.

(e) The ability to carry out systematic direct
observations of pupils.

(f) Skills in integrating data obtained from tests and
from other sources of information and the ability to
communicate these findings to other professionals,
parents, and pupils in a meaningful way.

(g) Skills in psychological report writing and other
written communication.

(h) The acquisition and mastery of a broad understanding
of learning and learning impairments.

(i) A knowledge of human growth and development in
pupils with or without handicaps.

(j) A knowledge of human behavior and behavior
management techniques and the capacity to plan and
implement classroom management procedures pertaining to
the behavior of pupils.

(k) A comprehensive understanding of personality
development and the assessment of human behavior.

(1) A knowledge of how cultural and ethnic differences
influence behavior and affect evaluation.

(m) Competency in the planning and prescribing of
teaching and-curriculum strategies for pupils.

(n) A knowledge of computer technology necessary to
implement computer applications for management, to
understand the computer's instructional value, and to
develop the computer skills needed in the delivery of
special education services.

(c) A knowledge of the ethical standards of the
profession of school psydiology.

154

R 380.209 Eligibility of persons who have temporary or
full approval on August 31, 1992, to receive
certificates.

Rule 9. (1) A person who has temporary approval as a
school psychologist on August 31, 1992, pursuant to the
provisions of R 340.1153 shall be eligible to receive the
preliminary school psychologist certificate without
meeting the certificate requirements set forth in the
provisions of R 380.204.

(2) A person who has full approval as a school
psychologist on August 31, 1992, pursuant to the
provisions of R 340.1152 shall be eligible to receive the
school psychologist certificate without meeting the
requirements set forth in the provisions of R 380.206.

(3) A school psychologist who was approved on August 31,
1992, pursuant to the provisions of R 340.1152 or R
340.1153 shall have 5 years from the effective date of
these rules to apply for a preliminary school psychologist
or school psychologist certificate.

R 380.210 Rescission.

Rule 10. R.340.1151 to R 340.1158 of the Michigan
Administrative Code, appearing on pages 2795 to 2797 of
the 1979 Michigan Administrative Code, are rescinded.

155

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICES

(By authority confened on the state board of education by section 620a of Act No. 269 of
the Public Acts of 1955, as added, being §340.620a of the Michigan Compiled laws)

R 340.1151 Role of school psychologist.

Rule 1. Among other functions a school psychologist may:

(a) Be involved in planning educational intervention, curriculum, management. and teaching
Strategies for pupils.

(b) Consult and counsel pupils, administrators, school personnel, parents, and others.

(c) Be available for evaluation of all pupils.

(d) Evaluate pupils referred as potential candidates for special education programs and present a
reporttotbclocaleducationalauthorityonpupilshchascvaluated.

(e) Administer tests which may include intelligence, achievement, personality, and

trial-motor m.

nth” Interpret the psychological and other diagnostic data to professionals, parents, pupils, and
crs.

R 340.1152 Qualifications of school psychologist.

Rule 2.0) For full approval by the department of education, a school psychologist shall meet all
of the following requirements:

(a) Possess at least a master’s degree in school psychology or its equivalent.

(b) Have completed a minimum of 45 graduate semester hours in school psychology or related
areas, in addition to an internship.

(c) Have completed not less than a 500 clock hour supervised internship with school age persons
under the supervision of an approval school psychologist training institution.

(d) Meet the competency requirements as setforth in R 340.1156.

(e) Have completed 1 year of successful experience as a school psychologist with direction from
a fully approved school psychologist.

(2) An institution of higher education maintaining a school psychologist training program
approved by the department shall make a recommendation concerning the full approval of a school
psychologist

(3) A school psychologist shall request reapproval from the department if he were previously

fully approved but has not been employed as a school psychologist for 5 or more consecutive
years.

R 340.1153 Temporary approval.

Rule 3.0) For temporary approval by the department of education, a school psychologist shall
meet all of the following requirements:

(a) Have completed a minimum of 30 graduate semester hours toward competencies for full
approval in school psychology or related areas, in addition to the internship.

156

(b) Have completed not less than a :00 clock hour supervised internship with school as: pupils
under the supervrsion of an approved school psychologist training instinrtion.

(2) An institution of higher education maintaining a school psychologist training program
approved by the department shall make a recommendation concernrng the temporary approval of a
school psychologist.

(3) Temporary approval may be extended annually for 3 consecutive years if a school
psychologist completes a minimum of 6 semester hours of satisfactory work necessary for full
approvalpriorto September 1 ofeachyear.

R 340.1154 Approval of school psychologists trained out of state.

Rule 4. Temporary approval may be granted for 1 year to a school psychologist fully approved
or certified as a school psychologist by another state, ifMichigan has a reciprocal agreement With
that state. Full approval shall be given upon completion of a successful year as a school
psychologist in Michigan. If reciprocity has not been established. the department of education shall
evaluate his credentials and experience to determine eligibility for approval.

R 340.1155 Approval of training program.

Rule 5. A school psychologist training program maintained by an institution of higher education
in this state shall be approved by the department of education. An approved program shall be in
compliance with the competency requirements for a school psychologist under R 340.1156.

R 340.1156 School psychologist compet requirements.
Rule 6. A person completing a school psycho ogy training program shall demonstrate
competencies as follows:
(a) A tlmowledge of the organization and administration of local and state agencies and their
servrces or
(b) Skills in the administration and interpretation of tests, which shall include intelligence,
achievement, personality, and perceptual-motor nests.
(c) An tmderstanding of the rationale of testing, measurement, and evaluation.
(d) Skills in integrating data obtained from tests and from other sources of information through
bath written and oral commrmication.
(e) Skills in psychological report writing.
‘3) fire capacity to interview, consult, and counsel with school personnel, parents, pupils, and
o ers.
{(g) El}: eapacity to plan and implement classroom management procedures pertaining to behavior
0 pup
(h) Competency in the planning and prescribing of teaching and curriculum strategies for pupils.
(i) The acquisition and mastery of a broad understanding of the psychology of learning and
learning impairments of pupils.
beg; A comprehensive understanding of personality development and the assessment of human
vror.

(k) The capacity to communicate his psychological findings to professionals, parents, pupils,
and others in a meaningful manner.

157

R340.1157 Schooldiagnostlcian.

Rule7.The TheHdeparmentofeducafimshauapmoveuaschmlpsychobgistapasmemployed
approved,oreligibleforapprovalasaschooldtagnosticianpriortotheeffectivedateoftheserules.
PersonseligibleforapprovalmayseekapprovalwithinSyearsofcompletionoftheirpmgram. A

personeruonedinaschooldiagnosdcianuamhrgprogrampnortoSeptemberl,1973,shallreceive
approvalbythe departmentasaschoolpsychologrstuponcompletionofhisprogram.

R 340.1158 Use of the title "school psychologist."

Rule 8. Only ns approved by the department of education as school psychologists, in
accordance with 3:0 rules, shall use such title.

APPENDIX D

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES

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