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MSU I. An Afflrmuflvo AcflonlEqml Opponunlly Inotmflon
Wm:

PATHS TO POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT: EVALUATION OF A
COMPREHENSIVE MODEL AND AN INTERVENTION WITH UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS‘

BY

Holly Lizotte Angelique

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1997

ABSTRACT
PATHS TO POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT: EVALUATION OF A

COMPREHENSIVE MODEL AND AN INTERVENTION WITH UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS

BY

Holly Lizotte Angelique

Two aims of this research were to examine the effects
of an intervention, with respect to the development of
political empowerment, and to develop and empirically test a
model of political empowerment. Undergraduates were
randomly assigned to one of two conditions
(intervention/control) and surveyed before and after the
intervention (or the equivalent two semester interim).

ANCOVA analyses revealed that individuals who
participated in the empowering intervention (N=54) had
increased feelings of political commitment (F=4.81, p<.05)
and a decreased sense of political efficacy (F=5.35, p<.05)
compared to individuals randomly assigned (N=52) to a
control group.

A model of political empowerment was developed,
including the latent constructs Political Awareness,
Political Competence, and Political Activism, as well as

Condition (intervention/control group membership). Two

competing models of hypothesized relationships among these
latent variables were compared, using LISREL 8. Goodness
of fit indices revealed that a nested model fit the data
better than the complex model. These results suggest that
upon intervention termination, students who participated in
the intervention reported less political competence'and more
political activism than students in the control group.

These results also suggest direct paths from Political
Awareness at Time 1 to Political Awareness at Time 2.
Political Competence at Time 1 predicted Political
Competence at Time 2. Also, a trend was noted that
Political Competence at Time 1 negatively predicted a change
in Political Awareness at Time 2. Political Activism at
Time 1 predicted Political Activism at Time 2, as well as
Political Awareness at Time 2.

Based upon these findings, a developmental model of
political empowerment was hypothesized. When a sense of
political activism and commitment can be sparked in
university settings, it may set the stage for the continued
development of political empowerment.

Limitations of this study were discussed and
suggestions for future research were presented. Overall,

the goals of this research were to advance theory

development, guide research and identify ways to promote

political empowerment in university students.

Thank you, Aja Binette, for being my inspiration.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Personally and professionally I have many people to
thank for help and guidance in completing this project. My
daughter, Aja Binette, has spent her entire life supporting
me and encouraging me to complete my doctoral degree.
Without the emotional backing of my family, including my
mother, father, sister, grandmother, aunts, and good
friends, I may never have pursued or succeeded in my
academic endeavors.

I want to thank members of my dissertation support
group, including Rebecca Campbell, Susan Englund, Manuela
Kress, Juliette Mackin, and Melody Scofield for their
continued support and encouragement throughout the
dissertation process. I want to thank David Lounsbury and
Nancy McCrohan for being my extended support network. I
want to thank students who helped in the data collection,
including Tina Felsing and David Pasternak. I especially

want to thank my dear friend, Kim Mizrahi, who was there to

vi

hold my hand whenever I needed her.

I want to thank my many mentors. At California State
University, Long Beach, David Dowell introduced me to
Community Psychology, taught me to believe in myself, and
modeled unyielding integrity. Patricia Rozee opened up the
world of feminism in academia.

At Michigan State University, my dissertation committee
provided continued support and dedication. I would
especially like to thank Thomas Reischl for taking on the
role of chair upon the sabbatical leave of William Davidson,
II. Each was a valuable contributor to this project. I
would also like to thank Ellen Strommen and Bob Caldwell for
their helpful comments and encouragement. A special thanks
goes to Deborah Bybee for her help with data analysis.

I would also like to thank the entire staff of the
Adolescent Diversion Project for allowing me to conduct
research on the project. I hope that I was relatively
unintrusive. I also want to acknowledge the hard work of
Suzy Pavick and Vicki Alexander in helping me complete this
project from out-of-state. Finally, I would like to thank
all the students who participated in this research for

making this project possible.

vfi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................... xv

INTRODUCTION .............................................. 1

CHAPTER 1 .

AN OVERVIEW OF EMPOWERMENT ................................ 3
Empowerment Theory .............................. 4
Empowerment Terminology ......................... 6
Summary of Conceptions of Empowerment ........... 8

Models of Empowerment ................................ 9
Intrapersonal, Interactional, and Behavioral
Components ...................................... 9
Praxis Versus Outcome Orientation .............. 10
Developmental Perspective ...................... 12
Antecedents .................................... 13

Research on Empowerment ............................. 15
Cross Sectional Research ....................... 15
The Many Concepts of Empowerment ............... 16
Retrospective and Longitudinal Research ........ 18
A Retrospective Study .......................... 19

The Era of Entry .......................... 19
The Era of Advancement .................... 20
The Era of Incorporation .................. 21
The Era of Commitment ..................... 22

Integrating Keiffer’s Study With Characteristics

of Empowerment ...................................... 23
Strengths and Limitations of Keiffer's Study ...23
A Longitudinal Study ........................... 25

Passive-Acceptance ........................ 26
Revelation ................................ 26
Embeddedness—Emanation .................... 27
Synthesis ................................. 27

vfii

Active Commitment ......................... 27

Summary Of Overlapping Themes ............. 28
Toward an Integrated Model of Political

Empowerment ......................................... 29
Political Awareness ............................ 31
Political Competence ........................... 32
Political Activism ............................. 33
Hypothesized Relations Among Constructs ...35
Characteristics of Empowering Environments .......... 36
Empowering Environments ........................ 36
The Small Group ........................... 38
Common Belief System ...................... 39
Knowledge and Skill Acquisition ........... 39
Resources ................................. 40
Leadership ................................ 41
Experience ................................ 41
The University as an Empowering Setting ...42
Summary and Conclusion .................... 43
Rationale and Goals of the Current Study ............ 44
This Study ..................................... 47

Specification of Independent and Dependent
Variables ...................................... 48
Specific Independent Variable ............. 48
Specific Dependent Variables .............. 49
Research Hypotheses ................................. 49
Testing Intervention Effects ................... 49
Testing the Empowerment Model .................. SO

CH.APTER 2

METHOD ................................................... 5 3
Setting ............................................. 53
Context of Setting .................................. 54
Participants ........................................ 55
Research Participants .......................... 55
Recruiting and Selecting Participants .......... 56
Demographics ................................... 57
Research Design ..................................... 60
Measures ............................................ 60
System Blame ................................... 61
Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems ....... 62
Creative Solutions ............................. 65
Political Efficacy ............................. 66
Political Identity ............................. 67
Political Action ............................... 69

ix

Political Commitment .... ....................... 71
Community Involvement .......................... 71
Social Service Career Goal ..................... 73
Demographics ................................... 74
Procedure ........................................... 75
Procedure: Administering the Pretest ........... 75
Assignment ..................................... 76
The Intervention ............................... 77
Common Belief ............................. 77
Small Group Setting ....................... 78
The Leaders/Mentors ....................... 79
Knowledge and Skills Building ............. 80
Format of Classroom Training .............. 80
Knowledge and Skills: Behavior
Modification .............................. 81
Knowledge and Skills: Obtaining
Resources ................................. 83
Knowledge and Skills: Social Problems of
Adolescents ........ _...._ ................... 84
Summary of Classroom Education ............ 85
Experiential Component .................... 86
Post Test: Intervention Group .................. 88
Post Test: Control Group ....................... 89
Model Development ................................... 90
Panel Designs .................................. 90
Analyzing Experimental, Cross Lagged,
Panel Data ..................................... 91
A Conceptual Overview of SEM and Strategy for
Analysis ....................................... 93
The Measurement Model ..................... 94
Testing the Measurement Model ............. 97
The Structural Models .................... 100
Testing the General Structural Equation
Model .................................... 103
The Goal Of Parsimony ......................... 106
CHAPTER 3
RESULTS ................................................. 108
Intervention Effects ......... ....- .................. 109
Intervention Effects on Political Awareness ...111
Intervention Effects on Political
Competence .................................... 114
Intervention Effects on Political Activism 116
Summary of ANCOVA Analyses .................... 120
Testing Models of Political Empowerment ............ 121

Consistency of Measures Across Time ........... 122

Consistency of Measures Across Groups ......... 124
Testing the Structural Equation Model ......... 124
Identifying an Indicator of Political
Awareness ................................ 128
Identifying an Indicator of Political
Competence ............................... 129
Identifying an Indicator of Political
Activism ................................. 130
Summary of Revised Latent Constructs ..... 133_
Testing Structural Models of Political
Empowerment ................................... 133
Testing the Full Latent Model of Political
Empowerment ................................... 134
Summary of Results of Full Latent Structural
Model ......................................... 138
Testing a Nested Model of Political
Empowerment ................................... 141
Summary of Results of Nested Structural
Model ......................................... 142
A Search for Greater Parsimony ................ 144
Comparison of the Full and Nested Models ...... 145
Summary of Model Testing ...................... 147
CHAPTER 4
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................. 149
Summary of Major Findings .......................... 149
Major Findings from the ANCOVA Analyses ....... 149
Major Findings from the LISREL Analyses ....... 151
Conceptual Contributions of This Study to the
Literature ......................................... 153
Critique of Zimmerman’s Nomological Network
of Empowerment ................................ 154
A Note About Political Competence and
Efficacy ................................. 155
Decrease in Political Competence/Efficacy
as a Temporary State .......................... 155
Decrease in Political Competence/Efficacy
as a Permanent Trait .......................... 157
Decrease in Political Competence/Efficacy
as a Developmental Transition ................. 160
Critique of Keiffer’s Model of Political
Empowerment ................................... 162

Hypothesized Developmental Process of

xi

Political Empowerment ......................... 164

Conceptual Limitations of ThisStudy ............... 167
Conceptual Limitations of Political
Commitment .................................... 167
Individual Differences and Moral Development ..169
Methodological Limitations of This Study ...... 172
Implications for Future Research ................... 176
Conclusion ......................................... 180

APPENDIX A

POWER ANALYSIS .......................................... 182
APPENDIX B

MSU ADOLESCENT TRAINING MANUAL: PSY 371/372 ............. 184
LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................... 251

xfi

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table
Table

N

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

17.
18.

LIST OF TABLES

Models of Empowerment .......................... 14
Demographic Characteristics .................... 59
Experimental Design with Sample Sizes

Reported ....................................... 60
Psychometric Properties of System Blame

Scale .......................................... 63
Psychometric Properties of Changed

Attitudes Toward Social Problems Scale ......... 64
Psychometric Properties of Creative

Solutions Scale ................................ 66
Psychometric Properties of Political

Efficacy Scale ................................. 68
Psychometric Properties of Political

Identity Scale ................................. 70
Psychometric Properties of Political

Action Scale ................................... 70
Psychometric Properties of Political

Commitment Scale ............................... 72
Psychometric Properties of Community

Involvement Scale .............................. 73
Psychometric Properties of Social

Service Career Goal Scale ...................... 74
Means and Standard deviations for

Subscales of Political Empowerment at

Pretest and Posttest, by Condition ............ 110
Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Awareness at Time 1 .............. 111
Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Awareness at Time 2 .............. 112
Analysis of Covariance for Changed

Attitudes Toward Social Problems .............. 113
Analysis of Covariance for System Blame ....... 113

Analysis of Covariance for Creative
Solutions ..................................... 114

)(iii

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Competence at Time 1 ............. 114
Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Competence at Time 2 ............. 115
Analysis of Covariance for Political

Identity ...................................... 116
Analysis of Covariance for Political

Efficacy ...................................... 116
Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Activism at Time 1 ............... 117
Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables

of Political Activism at Time 2 ............... 117
Analysis of Covariance for Political

Commitment .................................... 118
Analysis of Covariance for Political

Action ........................................ 119
Analysis of Covariance for Community

Involvement ................................... 119
Analysis of Covariance for Social Service

Career Goal ................................... 119
Scale Correlations for System Blame,
Creative Solutions, Changes Attitudes
Toward Social Problems, Political Identity,
Political Efficacy, Political Action,
Political Commitment, Community Involvement,
and Career Goal Scales at Time 1 and Time 2
Scale Correlations for System Blame,
Creative Solutions, Changes Attitudes
Toward Social Problems, Political Identity,
Political Efficacy, Political Action,
Political Commitment, Community Involvement,
and Career Goal Scales at Time 2, by Group
Modification Indices for Each Hypothesized
Path and Power to Identify Whether Each
Particular Path Coefficient is Significant
Correlation Matrix for Political Awareness,
Political Competence, Political Activism,
and Condition at Time 1 and Time 2 ............ 137
Fit Indices for Competing Models of

Political Empowerment ......................... 145

.125

.126

.135

mw

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

Figure

Figure

LIST OF FIGURES

Nomological Network for Political

Empowerment ................................... 30
Theoretical Relationships Among Constructs

of Political Empowerment ...................... 37
Model of Political Empowerment Over Time ...... 51
Measurement Model for Political Empowerment .95
Full Model of Political Empowerment With
Observed and Latent Constructs ............... 101
Model of Political Empowerment With

Condition Effects and Measurement Error ...... 104
Empirical Evaluation of the Comprehensive

Model of Political Empowerment ............... 139
Empirical Evaluation of the Nested Model

of Political Empowerment ..................... 143
Hypothesized Developmental Model of

Political Empowerment ........................ 166

XV

INTRODUCTION

College students differ in their development of
political empowerment. While some individuals become
committed to act for social change, others remain
politically alienated. Some research has addressed the
process of this development (Keiffer, 1984; Shields, 1992;
Yeich, 1992), yet little is known about ways to promote the
development of political empowerment. Because the political
empowerment of individuals has been deemed beneficial to
both individuals and society (Rappaport, 1977; 1981; 1987;
Zimmerman, 1990a; 1995) it is important to empirically
examine conceptualizations of political empowerment and
consider the mechanisms by which empowerment can be
fostered.

The dual purposes of this study are to articulate a
model of political empowerment that is both theoretically
and empirically sound, and to evaluate the effects of an

intervention on a sample of undergraduates. Four

2

substantive areas are covered. First, an overview of
empowerment as a response to political alienation is
provided. Second, models of empowerment as presented in
current literature, with specific attention to conceptual
limitations, are reviewed. Third, a critical discussion of
the current research on empowerment is provided. Finally,
an experimental study that addressed some of the theoretical
and methodological limitations of existing research is
presented. A sample of undergraduates were randomly
assigned to participate in an empowering intervention or
placed on a waiting list. All participants were surveyed
before and after the intervention was offered. Results of
this study will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
intervention and to examine and articulate a model of

political empowerment.

Chapter 1

AN OVERVIEW OF EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment is a concept that has emerged within a
number of fields within the social sciences (e.g., Asch,
1986; Bricker-Jenkins & Hooyman, 1986; Fagan, 1979; Freire,
1973; Rappaport, 1981; Rose & Black, 1985; Soloman, 1976;
Stensrud & Stensrud, 1982). While many conceptualizations
of empowerment have emerged, most researchers agree that it
involves transforming from a sense of powerlessness to a
feeling of powerfulness. It is a multilevel construct,
suggesting the consideration of individuals in social
contexts (Rappaport, 1987). To foster the development of
empowerment, opportunities for people to gain control over
their lives and communities must be provided or created
(Rappaport, 1981).

In general terms, empowerment appears to include a
critical awareness of one's sociopolitical environment

(Freire, 1970; Keiffer, 1984; Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995;

4

Zimmerman, 1995), and an increased sense of competence
(Fawcett, Paine-Andrews, Francisco, Schulz, Richter, Lewis,
Williams, Harris, Berkley, Fisher & Lopez, 1995). This
perceived competence includes efficacy and personal control
(Zimmerman, 1995), personal strengths (Perkins & Zimmerman,
1995), and individual motivation (Maton & Salem, 1995). In
addition, empowerment appears to be rooted in social action
(Zimmerman, 1995). Participation in one's community
(Rappaport, 1981) along with other forms of collective
action (Maton & Salem, 1995; Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995)
characterize a behavioral component of the empowerment
process. In sum, empowerment has been conceptualized to
include awareness, competence, and action.
W2

Empowerment theory unites individual well being with
the larger sociopolitical environment (Perkins & Zimmerman,
1995). There appear to be two different, but complementary,
views of empowerment theory within the field of community
psychology. According to Perkins and Zimmerman (1995), it
is important to differentiate between processes and outcomes
of empowerment in order to define empowerment theory

clearly. Accordingly, process has been defined in terms of

5

participation in empowering settings, while outcomes may
include increased levels of perceived competence (Perkins &
Zimmerman, 1995). In particular, outcomes have been defined
in terms of measurement, such as measuring the effects of
interventions designed to promote empowerment (Zimmerman,
1995). From this conceptualization, participation in
empowering activities (i.e., empowerment process) leads to
increased levels of measurable constructs of empowerment,
such as competence (i.e., empowerment outcome).

Another perspective considers process and outcome
variables to be one and the same. From this view,
participation may lead to increased competence, which would
in turn lead to increased participation. This theoretical
position has been termed "dynamic praxis" by Keiffer
(1984), indicating a dynamic exchange of action and
reflection and altered action. Other researchers have also
indicated the reciprocal and dialectical nature of
empowerment, as opposed to a process/outcome orientation
(Freire, 1970; Spreer & Hughey, 1995). Whether empowerment
develops by way of praxis or process/outcome (or both) may

be answered with forthcoming empirical research.

Empowerment Terminology

Perhaps because the notion of empowerment is appealing
across disciplines, it has become a very popular term.
Consequently, the meaning of empowerment has remained
ambiguous and vague. This ambiguity has potentially
obstructed the scientific inquiry and development of
empowerment theory and research (Perkins, 1995). For the
sake of clarity, it is imperative that researchers be
specific in their terminology when considering the concept
of empowerment.

Rappaport (1981), along with Zimmerman (1990a; 1995)
has differentiated between individual and psychological
empowerment. Psychological empowerment refers to
empowerment at an individual level of analysis, but includes
critical awareness, personal control and an active
orientation towards one's sociopolitical environment.
Rather than focusing on individuals changing to conform to
an existing system which may be oppressive, psychological
empowerment describes the process of changing individuals
while also questioning the legitimacy of existing societal
structures (Wallerstein, 1988; Yeich, 1992). Psychological

empowerment, therefore, includes the process of mobilizing

7

individuals and groups to create structural change (Yeich,
1992). In other words, this definition includes an element
of system blame as opposed to person blame. While Weight
Watchers is an example of an individual empowerment program
(changing individuals to fit a societal expectation),
homeless persons unions provide opportunities for
psychological empowerment (empowerment through mobilization
for social change). This terminology is somewhat confusing
in that "psychological" constructs imply an individual
orientation. For the sake of clarity, Gutierrez and Ortega
(1991) have provided a useful typology. This typology
includes three levels of empowerment including 1) Personal
Empowerment; 2) Interpersonal Empowerment; and 3) Political
Empowerment.

At a "personal level" empowerment is focused on ways to
develop feelings of personal power and self efficacy (Fagan,
1979; Freire, 1973; Gutierrez, 1987; Gutierrez & Ortega,
1991; Keiffer, 1984). At an "interpersonal level", the
notion of empowerment emphasizes the development of
different skills. This type of empowerment can include
helping people to help others and learning how to influence

the political process (Beck, 1983; Gutierrez & Ortega, 1991;

8

Mathis & Richan, 1986). At another conceptual level,
"political empowerment" stresses the goals of social action
and social change. Political empowerment incorporates both
personal and interpersonal levels of empowerment. This
level includes the intent to transfer power between groups
of society, while maintaining that individual change is
important (Fagan, 1979; Gutierrez & Ortega, 1991; Kahn &
Bender, 1985; Longres & McLeod, 1980; O'Connell, 1978).

To conclude, a conception of political empowerment that
includes the development of personal power and efficacy, the
acquisition of skills, and an emphasis on social action and
social change is consistent with the concept of
psychological empowerment and provides a useful term for
theory development and research. To ensure clarity, this
paper will use the term Political Empowerment to denote the
political nature of psychological empowerment.
WW

Conceptions of empowerment have included notions of
awareness, competence, and action. Empowerment may be a
process that leads to specific outcomes, may develop by a
dynamic process of action and reflection, or may include

both types of processes. Because psychological empowerment

9

includes a critical awareness of one's sociopolitical
environment, as well as an element of system blame, the term
Political Empowerment more accurately reflects the construct
of interest. To further understand the concept and process
of empowerment, a literature review focusing on proposed
models and research in this area follows.
Models of Empowerment

One purpose of this research is to develop a model of
political empowerment that is conceptually and empirically
sound. Recently, researchers have begun to hypothesize and
test models of empowerment specific to particular areas of
research. The following section will provide an overview of
models of empowerment that fit a political or struopural
change definition of the term. The goal is to integrate
overlapping themes and identify constructs of political
empowerment that are overlooked in the current literature.
This discussion, along with a critique of empowerment
research, will aid the development of a unified model of
political empowerment,that will be empirically examined.
In n In r ional and Behavioral Com onents

While Zimmerman (1995) stated that generic models of

empowerment may not be as useful as models developed for

10

specific purposes, he nonetheless proposed a general model
of empowerment that may demonstrate utility across many
settings. This theoretical model of "psychological'
empowerment includes three main domains, including an
intrapersonal component, an interactional component, and a
behavioral component. The intrapersonal component
incorporates notions of personal competence, or "how people
think about themselves" (p.588), including perceived
control, self-efficacy, motivational control, and perceived
competence. The interactional component refers to the
awareness people have of community and sociopolitical
issues. This component includes critical awareness,
understanding causal agents, skill development, skill
transfer across life domains, and resource mobilization.
The behavioral component focuses on the actions that enhance
empowerment. According to Zimmerman (1995), these include
community involvement, organizational participation and
coping behaviors. While theoretically appealing, this model
requires empirical support.
Prsxis Vsrsps Outcome Orientation

Zimmerman (1995) implied that the interactional

component develops before the behavioral component, claiming

11

that skills such as problem solving and leadership prepare
individuals for action. However, Zimmerman failed to
develop this argument, or refute the possibility of activism
(behavioral component) increasing one's critical awareness
and skill level (interactional component).

Contrary to Zimmerman's position, Keiffer (1984), along
with Speer and Hughey (1995) have noted the reciprocal
nature of the empowerment process. As noted earlier,
Keiffer (1984) used the term "dynamic praxis" to describe
the circular relationship of experience and reflection.
Action and experience enhance learning, and the increased
skills and changes in critical awareness associated with
learning leads to different experiences. These dual
perspectives may be flushed out with additional research.

While Keiffer (1984) described empowerment as a
process, Speer and Hughey (1995) include both process and
outcome variables in their multi-level empowerment schemata.
By incorporating the notions of outcomes with praxis, this
conception may bridge the gap between Zimmerman and
Keiffer's theoretical orientations. At the individual level
of empowerment, group membership, relationships, and the

process of action/reflection were considered process

12

variables, while knowledge of power, emotional
connectedness, and organizational participation were deemed
outcome variables (Speer & Hughey, 1995). However, while
Keiffer found empirical support for his hypotheses, Speer
and Hughey's (1995) conceptualization was based solely on a
theoretical argument.
Dsyelopmental Perspective

Some researchers have created models of empowerment
based on a developmental perspective. Both Keiffer's (1984)
model of citizen empowerment and Bargad and Hyde's (1991)
model of women's empowerment posited a hierarchical
progression from a period of little or no empowerment,
through periods of increasing commitment toward acting on
behalf of one's sociopolitical group. While the notion of
empowerment as a developmental process has received
empirical support (Bargad & Hyde, 1991; Keiffer, 1984), the
linear model of development has been criticized for being
inflexible with regard to different stages of development
across different periods (Englund, 1996). For example,
linear models do not allow for individuals to be
increasingly active and committed to a cause without

resolving ineffective leadership skills.

13
ABLQQEQQBLS

Other researchers have included antecedents in their
models of empowerment. In Spreitzer's (1995) study of
organizational empowerment, antecedents to empowerment
included role ambiguity, access to information, access to
resources, sociopolitical support, and organizational
culture. McMillan, Florin, Stevenson, Kerman, & Mitchell
(1995) considered perceived knowledge and skill development
to be antecedents to empowerment at the individual level.
Unfortunately, the hypothesized antecedents to political
empowerment remain ambiguous. A clear understanding of
these mechanisms may provide the necessary key to
understanding the impetus of empowerment.

To highlight the similar and dissimilar themes across
conceptualizations, Table 1 presents an overview of the
current models of empowerment. Again, these models
illustrate the overlapping themes related to awareness,
competence, and activism. However, these conceptions are
limited in that they are based primarily on theoretical
grounds. Empirical support for these conceptions is

essential.

Table 1. Models

of Empowerment

l4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AUTHORS TYPE OF LATENT OBSERVED
EMPOWERMENT CONSTRUCTS VARIABLES
Bargad 8: Political/ -acceptance -lack
Hyde (1991) Developmental awareness
(feminist) -reve1ation -awareness;
identity
-embeddedness -group
membership
-synthesis -integrate
identity
-commitment -action
Keiffer Citizen/ -entry -awareness;
(1984) Developmental ‘ identity
-advancement -mentors;
awareness
-incorporation -skills;
identity
-commitment -action
McMillan et Individual/ -past -knowledge;
a1 (1995) Community Skills
-present -competence
-future -expectancies
Spreer & Organizationm -pmocess -praxis
Hughey(1995) a1
-outcome -connection;
participation
Spreitzer Organization- -interpersona1 -competence;
(1995) al determination
-behavioral
-innovation
Zimmerman Psychological -intraper'sona1 -ef£icacy;
(1995) competence
-interactional -awareness;
skills
-behaviora1 -involvement;

coping

 

 

15

Research on Empowerment

Research on the concept of empowerment has included
both cross sectional and longitudinal exploration. While
some research has focus primarily on the conceptions of
researchers, others have relied on the narratives of those
who have become empowered. These different orientations to
research have led to some unrelated conceptualizations.
Overall, however, the notion of empowerment has begun to
blossom with the evolution of research.
W

In three studies, Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988)
examined whether citizen participation was related to
empowerment. Three components of empowerment were
hypothesized to include personality (locus of control),
cognitive (self and political efficacy), and motivational
(incentive to control one's environment) variables. In two
studies with college students and one study with community
residents, individuals with the highest participation had
the highest empowerment scores. Again in 1990, Zimmerman
used structural equation modeling to analyze the data and
found that involvement had a direct, positive effect on

empowerment.

16

This study had both conceptual and methodological
limitations. Methodologically, the study was cross-
sectional. Because of the correlational design, cause and
effect could not be established. Therefore, it is
undeterminable whether participation led to empowerment or
empowerment led to participation. Accordingly, very little
about the process of empowerment was revealed.

Conceptually, the notion of empowerment was based on
the authors' personal perceptions.. Limiting the definition
of empowerment to include only locus of control, efficacy,
and motivation, other domains may have been overlooked,
leading to an incomplete perception of empowerment. For
example, Breton (1990; 1993) found empowerment to be related
to the perceived capability of attaining goals, self-
confidence, and self-esteem. In order to more accurately
understand empowerment, overlapping themes must be
identified.

One recurring theme in cross sectional research is that
of action. In Zimmerman's (1986) study of college students
and community residents participating in both liberal and
conservative community organizations, significant

differences in the sense of empowerment as a function of

17

both level of and extent of involvement and activism were
found. In a study of 102 Mexican-American, male, United
Farm Workers, Hoffman (1978) hypothesized that locus of
control, self—esteem, and personal autonomy were components
of empowerment. While no significant results were found
between self—esteem, personal autonomy and empowerment,
Hoffman did find that United Farm Workers with the highest
involvement had the lowest levels of external locus of
control.

The primary strength of this literature is that it has
provided a foundation for the understanding of empowerment.
For example, the relationship between empowerment and action
has been established. However, due to the limitations of
cross sectional research, the direction of these
relationships remains a mystery. The conception of
empowerment as a function of action may be accurate, yet
incomplete. As such, other variables associated with
empowerment remain ambiguous.

Ths Mspy Conospts of Empowerment

The many concepts linked with empowerment may highlight

this ambiguity. Theoretical definitions and cross sectional

research have included notions of locus of control, self and

18

PC>ILJLtical efficacy, motivation to control one's environment,
ac:t:ivism, group consciousness and social identity, reduced
SEEILf-blame, and personal responsibility for change.
Additionally, models of empowerment have included ideas such
Elsa skill development, transfer of skills, resource
ITuobilization, community involvement, organizational
Iparticipation, coping behaviors, group membership, praxis,
increasing commitment, leadership skills, role ambiguity,
access to information, access to resources, and perceived
knowledge. Perhaps research that focuses on political
empowerment as a developmental process will help to weave
these ideas together to form a more accurate picture.
Retrospeotive and Longitudinal Research
Given the limitations and ambiguity associated with
conceptual arguments and cross sectional research, the
process of becoming empowered remains obscure. To continue
to shed light on the developmental process of empowerment, a
few methodological strategies may be used. One way to study
the development of political empowerment is to study the
politically empowered. Another strategy is to study the
developmental process of empowerment over time. Research

from these perspectives will be discussed in the following

19

SEECZtion.
A__12etrospeotive Study
To obtain an understanding of the process of
Cllransforming from a powerlessness to empowerment, Keiffer
(21984) relied on a series of ethnographic interviews (N=15)
VVith grass roots activists. In documenting this transition,
lie identified four distinct and progressive phases of group
involvement, including eras of "entry," "advancement,"
"incorporation," and "commitment." What follows is a
summary of the process that Keiffer documented.
Ths Era of Entry
In all initial interviews, participants reported a
former sense of political alienation and a lack of previous
connections to any socio-political group. All reported that
they did not envision a relationship with a socio-political
groups until they felt a direct threat to themselves
personally or to close relationships. Keiffer (1984)
posited that individuals who do "enter" a socio-political
group may differ from those who do pop, due to a sense of
integrity and connection to the community (Keiffer, 1984).
The mechanisms by which individuals develop this sense of

community and integrity was not explored by Keiffer. Some

20

reissearchers have posited that this community connection can
bEB facilitated through the creation of empowering
(arjxlironments (Maton 1993b; Maton & Salem, 1995). Further
i4rrvestigation of these mechanisms may reveal ways to "spark"
tilie required connection for political empowerment.

Within this era of entry, a particular episode of
Ipolitical action came to have a symbolic significance to the
individual. Characteristics of this period also included
the "de-mythification of power and the re-orienting of self
in relation to authority" (Keiffer, 1984, p.20). In other
words, this is a period of system blame_and a change in the
salience of one's various social identities.

Ths Era of Advancement

Three developmental traits of this era included
"centrality of a mentoring relationship," the "enabling
impact of supportive peer relationships within a collective
organizational structure," and the "cultivation of a more
critical understanding of social and political relations,"
(Keiffer, 1984, p.20). All participants noted the
importance of an individual who acted as an activist mentor
and took on such roles as friend, instructor, role model,

ally, or pseudo-parent. These relationships were

21

Patlrticularly important for emotional support, encouragement,
Erlci instructional support.

The structure of a collective peer group appeared to be
Eisssential for developing political skills and providing a
Eseafe environment for problem solving, risk—taking, conflict
Iresolution, and further articulation of beliefs. Along with

Iproviding a sense of power in numbers, the presence of an
(organization provided a place where like minded individuals
could challenge each other and facilitate each other's
growth as a competent participant.

Within and outside of this structure, individuals
developed a more critical understanding of the
interconnections of social, political and economic
relations. This greater depth of understanding and critical
analysis led to further involvement, thus strengthening
one's relationship to the political group. In sum,
political empowerment was facilitated by mentors and peers
in a structured environment.

Tho Ers of Incorporation

Upon successfully negotiating their involvement in a
socio-political group, individuals advanced to an era of

incorporation. Two themes emerged during this time.

22

Overall, one's skills, abilities, critical awareness and
personal self—concept matured significantly. Also, during
this phase, people were called upon to work through many
identity conflicts. Further critical analysis may have led
some into questioning the very dynamics of their current
personal relationships outside the political group. At this
point, a political identity developed. The group itself
became incorporated into individuals' senses of themselves.

The Era of Commitment

This era was characterized by the integration of
political beliefs and work into individuals' personal lives.
During this time, personal relationships changed, political
action increased, and some decided to make new career
choices based upon their political affiliations.
Mobilization and leadership also continued to increase
during this stage. Keiffer (1984) termed the development of
insights and abilities that were characteristic of this
stage, "participatory competence", indicating a combination
of beliefs (competence) and behaviors (activism) are
instrumental in reaching advanced stages of political

empowerment .

23

Integrsping Keiffer's Study With Characteristics of

Empowerment

To summarize the results of Keiffer's (1984) study of
the process of political empowerment, it may be useful to
consider its commonalities and dissimilarities with
political awareness, competence and activism, as were
previously identified as components of empowerment.

Political awareness was implied by Keiffer's
"demythification of power" (system blame) during the era of
entry and a continued critical understanding of social
structures during the stage of advancement. Political
competence was similarly alluded to through the "reorienting
of self" (political identity) during the era of entry, and
the continued change in self concept (identity and efficacy)
during the era of incorporation. Political activism
included both commitment and political action.
Stpspgphs snd Limitations of Keiffer's Study

This study offered additional components associated
with political empowerment. These include the following:
mentoring relationships, peer relationships, an
organizational structure, increased skills and abilities,

and some career changes. These components, identified

24

through a qualitative analysis of participant interviews,
may help to expand the limited conceptualization of
empowerment that has predominated the literature. Perhaps
clues to facilitating the process of political empowerment
can also be found in these participants' interviews.

While the qualitative analyses and inductive approach
to investigate the process of political empowerment aided in
an expanding conceptualization, limitations to this approach
should be noted. Because of its very broad scope of
exploration and very small sample size (N=15),
generalizability of this model is limited. Until the model
has been validated with other studies, and examined for
utility outside the realm of self defined activists, the
model must be used with caution.

Another limitation is that the research relies on
retrospective data. The actual process of development was
not documented. Instead, participants were required to rely
on memories. Such post hoc considerations are replete with
inaccuracies.

To more accurately explore the development of political
ernpowerment, researchers may consider setting up an

enmxowering environment and studying the process of change

25

associated with participation in that setting. As the
participants in Keiffer’s (1984) study hinted, an empowering
environment might include mentors and peers in a structured
setting, with opportunities for skills development and
career exploration. While empowerment research from this
perspective is currently absent in the literature, a few
studies of specific types of political empowerment have
attempted to investigate this development over time. The
following section will describe an example of this research.
A Longigpginal Study

While developmental models of political empowerment are
scarce, some researchers have investigated the development
of specific political identities and revealed similar
patterns to the work of Keiffer (1984). For example, Cross
(1971; 1978) and Downing and Roush (1985) created models of
Black Identity development and Feminist Identity
development, respectively. Each model incorporated
virtually identical stages, developing a state of passivity
into one of long term commitment. Downing and Roush's
(1985) five stage theory can provide a useful schema for
linderstanding political identity development. It includes

tflne stages of "passive—acceptance," "revelation,"

26

"embeddedness-emanation," "synthesis," and "active
commitment."

Bargad and Hyde (1991) empirically tested this model on
group of undergraduate women who were randomly assigned to
participated in a women's studies class or a control group.
Findings revealed patterns of feminist identity development
similar to the Downing and Roush model in the women's
studies participants, but not in the control group. A
description of this developmental process follows.

Psssivs-Aoceptance

In the first stage of this political identity
development, individuals were unaware of or denied
oppression. This stage appears to be consistent with lack
of previous affiliation in Keiffer's (1984) study, and the
concept of alienation.

Revslation

This second stage was often accompanied by some type of
critical political awareness (Gurin & Townsend, 1986; Bargad
& Hyde, 1991). At this point, identity began to take on a
3political dimension. This stage appears to run parallel

‘with.Keiffer's (1984) "era of entry".

27

Embeddedness-Emanation

The third stage, "embeddedness-emanation," was
characterized by an immersion in political culture. This
corresponds with Cross' (1971) "Black is Beautiful" stage.
During this stage, one's political identity became salient
and group membership came to have primary importance. This
stage is in accordance with Keiffer's notion of the "era of
advancement".

Synphesis

This is the stage of "synthesis," referring to the
continued development of a positive political identity. At
this time, one's relationship to the larger group became
incorporated into one's personal identity, as similarly
described in Keiffer's (1984) "era of incorporation".

Aopivs Commitment

In the final stage of both Cross's (1971; 1978) and
Downing and Roush's (1985) models of feminist identity
development, a commitment to social change predominated.
This was the stage of generativity. In this "active
commitment" stage, individuals began to live their lives as
though the "personal was political". Goals were established

to work toward effective social change and a devotion to

28

meaningful action was incorporated into the self—identity.

At this point of political empowerment, individuals
sought out meaningful ways to apply their abilities to a
social cause over a more extended period of time. For some,
this takes the form of more volunteer time devoted to a
political or social concern. For others, career choices
with political (or social service) connections may be opted
for (Whalen & Flacks, 1980).
W

Developmental models proposed by Keiffer (1984), Cross
(1971; 1978) and Downing and Roush (1985) have a number of
overlapping themes, providing external validity for both
models. A recurring topic was the concept of developing a
critical awareness or consciousness, that is, the ability to
consider the larger societal systems analytically.
Development of critical awareness included a process of
disindoctrination (Vio Grossi, 1981; Keiffer, 1984; Torre,
1986) and a demythification of power (Keiffer, 1984).

The concept of political competence was apparent in all
'three models, as was increasing commitment to action. This
(mommitment could take the form of increased political

activity, community involvement, or career changes. Similar

29

themes of political awareness, competence, and activism have
been identified in other studies of empowerment as well
(e.g., Breton, 1993; Davis, 1989; Lord & Hutchison, 1993;
Wallerstein, 1992; Whitmore & Kerans, 1988; Zimmerman,
Israel, Schulz, & Checkoway, 1992).

Toward an Integrated Model of Political Empowsrment

An integrated model of political empowerment must
incorporate recurring themes from current literature and
present them in framework that is conducive to empirical
evaluation. A theoretical framework that specifies
relationships among variables and helps to formulate a
measurement model has been called a nomological network
(Crohbach & Meehl, 1955; Zimmerman, 1995; Spreitzer, 1995).
In other words, a nomological network can present a visual
representation of the relationships between measured
variables and latent constructs. Once the relations among
all of the constructs in the network have been specified,
the model can be empirically tested. Three recurring themes
have included political awareness, political competence, and
Exolitical activism. Figure 1 presents this nomological

network .

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Political Awareness

Political awareness is one component of political
empowerment. Awareness of one's socio—political environment
includes distrust and critical consideration of large social
systems, salient attitudes toward social problems, and a
willingness to consider creative solutions to social
problems. The general distrust of large social systems is
often described as "system blame" (Rappaport, 1977; Sayles,
1984; Shingles, 1981). System blame is characterized by an
external locus of responsibility for (and control of) social
problems. Social problems are viewed as the result of
environmental forces (Shingles, 1981), rather than
individuals' shortcomings. A critical awareness of one's
socio-political environment has been correlated with
increased system blame and decreased passive acceptance of
socio-political structures (Lao, 1970; Rappaport, 1987).

Political awareness is expected to include changes in
attitudes toward social issues. Sayles (1984) stated that
while research on attitude changes may not focus on
Inobilization for social movements, it can explain who has
joined in a political activity and why.' In order to

Lumierstand "why" individuals have mobilized, research on

32

attitudes is important (Sayles, 1984). The salience of
one's attitudes combined with a general distrust for social
systems may lead individuals to consider creative solutions
to social problems, while also developing a critical
awareness of one's sociopolitical environment.

Political Competence

The notion of perceived competence includes the
feelings associated with control of one's political life and
its personal influences (Seeman 1966; 1972a; 1972b; Sayles,
1984; Breners & Fabj, 1993). Perceived competence includes
both political efficacy and political identity.

Political efficacy offers an antidote to powerlessness.
Political efficacy, or the feeling that individual action
can have an impact on the political process (Campbell, Gurin
& Miller, 1954; Pollock, 1982) refers to the perceived
control that an individual believes to have in regards to
personal and political outcomes (Seeman 1966; 1967a; 1967b).
Patterns of perceived control can change as an individual is
able to increase control over a situation. This
conceptualization of political efficacy is similar to
Rotter's (1966) notions of internal and external control.

Political efficacy, then, has come to be understood as a

33

form of political "powerfulness" (Zimmerman, 1989).

Social identity, or the increased salience and
importance of an individual's sense of oneself as
characterized by social relationships and group affiliation,
refers to one domain of political competence. The concept
of social identities involves the salience of particular
social roles, such as "mother", "student", or "republican"
(Deaux, 1991; Sarbin, 1970; Tajfel & Turner, 1988).
According to Sarbin (1970), examining and restructuring
social identities has been an important aspect of increasing
political empowerment and overcoming social isolation. For
example, research has shown that Black activists score low
in social isolation (Miller, 1982); This indicates that the
increased salience of a social identity (Black identity) may
combat social isolation. Similarly, the increased salience
of one's political identity may help to overcome socio-
political isolation and increase political competence.
Politiosl Aotivism

Activism and citizen participation is a process in
which individuals take part in decision making in
institutions, programs, and environments that affect them

(Heller, Price, Reinhartz, Riger, & Wandersman, 1984,

34

p.339). Activism in social movements has been found to
correlate with increased feelings of personal and political
efficacy (Florin and Wandersman, 1984; Zimmerman &
Rappaport, 1988), as well improvements in the community
(Cassidy, 1980; Hallman, 1984) and social policy change
(Florin & Wandersman, 1990). Participation can include
voluntary involvement in social and community groups as well
as political activism.

Voluntary associations with soCial and political
organizations have an important function as mediating roles
between individual and socio—political domains, including
work and politics (Pollock, 1982). Voluntary associations
provide settings for social and political integration
(Pollock, 1982). By volunteering in any social capacity,
one reduces their risk of political passivity.

Political activism has been predicted by political
Efficacy and system blame (Klobus-Edwards, Edwards, &
Klemmack, 1978; Piven 5. Cloward, 19.77,- Shingles, 1981). For
exaflmfle, in a study of community activism with undergraduate
euui other citizen activists, Zimmerman (1989) found that
IXXLitical efficacy was negatively related to alienation and

Positively related to motivation toward leadership,

35

including more control over handling of affairs. Similarly,
Lao (1970) studied 1400 black college students from 10
southern universities and found that social activists had
higher internal social control and external systems blame
scores than non-activists.

As a final step toward political empowerment, some
individuals come to devote their entire lives to social
change. In these instances, individuals may choose to
dedicate their work life, as well as their volunteer life,
to activism (Keiffer, 1984). In these instances, career

choices become a part of one's social activism and political

empowerment.

Hypothssizsg Rslations Among Constructs

Additionally, a model of political empowerment should
identify hypothesized relationships among constructs. The
literature has presented an ambiguous illustration of these
rElationships. While some studies have assumed a linear
ENRDgression from awareness to competence to activism, others
ha'Ve presented activism as a catalyst for political
aWareness and competence. As such, a full model of
Ixfilitical empowerment that includes bidirectional (i.e.,

reciputmally causal) relationships among constructs should

36

be explored in order to minimize the risk of overlooking
salient causal pathways. Figure 2 presents the theoretical
framework indicating the relationships among constructs.
Characteristics of Empowering Environments

Once a theoretical framework of political empowerment
has been established, another task for community
psychologists is to determine how to promote the development
of political empowerment (Kelly, 1986; Stokols, 1986). To
accomplish this, researchers must identify environmental
conditions that may facilitate this process. Bargad and
Hyde's (1991) study of feminist development assumed that
women's studies courses included empowering environments.
However, they did not explore the necessary components of an
empowering setting. The following section will outline the
characteristics of empowering environments, as supported by
literature in this area.
43m owsring Environments

Six main characteristics associated with empowering
en”Vironments have been noted. These include small group
setitings, a common belief system, opportunities to acquire
Skjills and knowledge, resources in good supply, leadership,

EHKi experience. The combination of these characteristics

37

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may promote the development of political empowerment over
time.

The Small Group

Rappaport (1990) and Bennett (1992) outlined an agenda
to identify and create empowering settings. They concluded
that empowering settings were likely to be small
organizations that worked toward local solutions. Small
groups were perceived as more effective than large,
providing opportunities and meaningful roles for all members
(Rappaport, 1987). Actual recommended group size, however,
was not stipulated.

The importance of the small group has been deemed
important for many reasons. It can provide a sense of
community, may act as catalyst for social action, and have
an impact on sense of perceived control and empowerment
(Chavis and Wandersman, 1990). Group interaction has been
identified as an important method for enhancing empowerment
IPrOcess by many researchers (Bricker-Jenkins & Hooyman,
l986; Freire, 1970; Gutierrez, 1987; Gutierrez & Ortega,
19914 Keiffer, 1984; Rose & Black, 1985). This may be, in
parn;, because of the group's effect on attitude change and

fCflflnation, especially when cohesive (Gutierrez & Ortega,

39

1991; Keiffer, 1984; Perry 1980).

W

A common belief system that unites the group could
inspire, challenge, and mobilize individuals (Bargad & Hyde,
1991; Cross, 1971; 1978; Downing & Roush, 1985; Maton,
1993b). This belief system can be central to the group’s
membership, such as feminism, ethnic identity, work place
unions, or can include a common social concern, such as
juvenile delinquency or reproductive rights. All united
individuals do not have to be members of the oppressed
group. However, peer support is critical (Keiffer, 1984).
All members should be united by the similar philosophies of
the social problem and solution (Sayles, 1984).

WM

The acquisition of needed knowledge and skills has been
Cited as an important aspect of political empowerment
(Keiffer, 1984; Maton, l993b; Spreitzer, 1995).
Specifically, knowledge about the common social concern and
skills to help change the social problems have been
identified as contributing to political empowerment. These
learrdng processes can happen informally, through such

activities as practice (e.g., computer skills), and reading.

4O
I{c3vnever, knowledge and skills can also be acquired formally,

t:lixnough a structured educational process.

Education has been considered a tool for political

enrqpowerment among social science researchers and activists

a:1;ike (Freire, 1970; Freire & Macedo, 1987; Shor & Freire,

2159877 Stanage, 1986). Freire (1970) proposed an

"ennancipatory pedagogy" for empowering people and creating

£3c>cial change. Education can be viewed as a tool of

1.iJoeration, by creating critical awareness about societyy

<D£Ipression, and history (Freire, 1970; Freire & Macedo,

1987). A goal of emancipatory pedagogy is to become aware

(Di? the connections between personal experiences and larger

I>C>litical structure (Freire, 1970; Freire & Macedo, 1987).

Resouroes

Resources are necessary for a variety of empowerment

53<>als. Physical resources, such as meeting space and

mEiterials (books, computers) to develop knowledge and the

ScDcial problem and skills to combat that problem are

iI‘n'portant (Maton, 1993b). Supportive resources can be

a(unired through donation and volunteer services, or can be

Errovided through affiliations with existing organizations,

Stlch as churches and schools.

41

L a rshi

An empowering environment includes leadership that is
both supportive and challenging (Maton, 1993a; 1993b) . This
leadership can be in the form of informal mentoring and peer

relationships (Bargad & Hyde, 1991; Keiffer, 1984). More

formal leadership may include teachers, work supervisors and

clergy.
We

The role of experience in securing commitment to social

Change has been well documented. To demonstrate this, a

1Drief description of the settlement house projects may be

L1Seful (see Breton, 1990; Chambers, 1983; Levine & Levine,

1970; Levine & Perkins, 1987; Levine & Perkins, 1997;

IWellekoff, 1994) . The settlement house projects were

Settings where relatively privileged social service

V(Blunteers could live and work, providing services to the

W(Drking class poor. These projects: were based on the notion

tll‘lat one had to live (or spend a great deal of time) in a

Given community in order to understand the people and social

Problems of the community. These experiences helped

Volunteers to identify the environmental roots to social

problems, thus leading to political involvement.

42

Individuals were more likely to become involved when
injustices were occurring to people they knew.
The University as an Empowering Setting

One function of the university is to stimulate
political awareness of the social issues of our time.
Creating settings to facilitate this development of
political empowerment within university settings could be of
Value to community psychologists who are committed to
education and social change.

Universities classes typically have many of the
Characteristics associated with empowering environments.
Opportunities to develop skills and knowledge abound.
Teachers offer leadership that is both Supportive and
Challenging. Resources of all types are very accessible.
Furthermore, the university setting is one example of a
Structured organization as promoted by Keiffer (1984) .

University settings can potentially be structured in
SLlch a way as to more completely create empowering settings.
Organizing classes into small groups, basing a class around

a common social cause, and structuring many opportunities

for hands-on community experience are all reasonable

possibilities for community researchers and educators. In

43

sum, the university provides an appropriate setting for
creating an empowering environment and investigating the
development of political empowerment over time.
Summary and Conclusion

This paper began with an overview of empowerment. This
included a discussion of conceptualizations of empowerment,
empowerment theory and empowerment terminology. In
psychology, there are two predominant ways in which
empowerment is viewed. One perspective views empowerment as
a process of adapting individuals to the existing social
structure (e.g., empowerment through parenting classes to
become better parents). Another conceptualization defines
empowerment as a process of mobilizing individuals and
groups for the purpose of social change (e.g. lobbying for
paternal leave for fathers after the birth of a baby to
restructure child care responsibilities in families). The
structural change conceptualization, termed "political
empowerment", has driven this literature review.

Next, an overview of current models of empowerment were
presented and critiqued. Themes associated with these
models included intrapersonal, interactional and behavioral

components, a praxis versus an outcome orientation,

44

developmental perspectives, and the consideration of
antecedents to empowerment. From the overlapping themes
presented in these models and other research on empowerment,
an integrated model of political empowerment was developed.

Upon review of the empowerment literature, many
methodological strategies were presented to study
empowerment. Because of the limitations of cross—sectional
research to understanding a process of change over time, it
was decided that a longitudinal approach to studying
political empowerment would be most fruitful. It was
hypothesized that creating an empowering environment may
provide an opportunity to document the process of
transformation from a sense of alienation to political
empowerment. Furthermore, opportunities for creating
empowering environments were found in a university setting.
Therefore, the next task of this paper is to present an
experimental research project that examined the empowerment
process longitudinally, in a sample of undergraduates in a
university setting.

Rationale and Goals of the Current Study
Little is known about the process of political

empowerment. Empowerment is important to consider because,

45

in some studies, empowerment has been found to be an
effective mechanism to mobilize individuals to act toward
social change (Hoffman, 1978; Rappaport, 1990; Zimmerman,
1990; Zimmerman & Rappaport, 1988). While some research has
attempted to document the process of political empowerment
through self-report and retrospective data (Keiffer, 1984),
little is understood about the effects of deliberate
attempts to promote empowerment in a sample of unempowered
but earnest individuals. For community psychologists
interested in structural change and the promotion of
empowerment, this matter demands further exploration.

Keiffer (1984) took an initial step toward
understanding the process of empowerment by interviewing
self—identified grass roots activists. To extend Keiffer's
work, and work toward mobilization, it is imperative that
researchers study changes in individuals interested in
community activism over time. These individuals may be at
various stages of active political commitment, but it is
reasonable to assume that all individuals who take steps
toward community volunteering will share a similar desire to
SSt involved in their community.

In particular, to examine the effects of an empowerment

46

program, random assignment of interested community
volunteers to either work in an empowering setting or be
placed on a waiting list would be useful. In this way,
change in political empowerment over time, as a function of
participation in an empowering setting, can be examined. In
this way, individuals who are concerned but passive, as well
as those who are already politically committed, can be
examined.

Additionally, the confluence of research has implied
conceptual schemes that represent the process of political
empowerment. Latent constructs including political
awareness, political competence and political activism are
considered to be marks of political empowerment. However,
directionality of the relationships between these constructs
has remained ambiguous. For example, it remains unclear
whether increased political awareness has a direct effect on
activism or vice versa. To address these concerns, the
current research aims to address two goals:

1) to examine the extent to which a university course,
With a politically empowering setting, can be successful at
influencing the development of political empowerment, and

2) to identify which causal pathways are salient with

47

respect to the development of political empowerment.

The first goal will be addressed through an
experimental intervention and the second goal will be
addressed through the empirical examination of the proposed
model of political empowerment.

This Study

The present study investigated the development of
political empowerment in a sample of undergraduate students
(N=106). The aims of this research were accomplished
through a pretest-posttest experimental study.
Undergraduates interested in participating in the
politically empowered setting (structured as a fieldwork
class) were administered a questionnaire, and then randomly
assigned to either a course participation or control group.
Upon course completion (or the equivalent interim of time
for the control students), a second questionnaire was
administered. Multiple measures were used to evaluate the
domains related to political empowerment. These measures
include; 1) System Blame, 2) Creative Solutions, 3) Changed
Attitudes Toward Social Problems, 4) Political Identity, 5)
Political Efficacy, 6) Political Action, 7) Political

Commitment, 8) Community Involvement, 9) Social Service

48

Career Goals. The three hypothesized domains included
Political Awareness, Political Competence, and Political
Participation. It was predicted that undergraduates in the
course participation group will become more politically
empowered than undergraduates in the control group.

Two issues were explored in this research. First, this
study attempted to identify the extent to which an
intervention affects the process of political empowerment.
Second, a primary task was to identify a model of political
empowerment with both explanatory power and parsimony. From
these two considerations, it will become possible to design
more effective empowerment interventions.

Spsoification of Independent and Dependent Variables

Following is an overview of the independent and
dependent variables considered in this study.

WW ‘

The specific independent variable in this study is
participation an intervention designed to promote political

empowerment.

49

Specific Dependent Variables

Three dependent variables considered in this research
include:

1) Political Awareness

2) Political Competence, and

3) Political Participation

Indicators of Political Awareness included measures of
system blame, changed attitudes toward social problems, and
creative solutions. Indicators of Political Competence
included measures of political identity and political
efficacy. Indicators of Political Activism included
measures of political action, political commitment,

community involvement, and social service career goals.

Research Hypotheses

Testing Intervention Effects

To examine the effects of the university intervention
on the development of political empowerment with university
students, the following hypothesis was examined.

Hypothesis 1: Students completing a course with
politically empowering characteristics will have increased
levels of Political Awareness, Political Competence, and

Political Activism compared with students assigned to a

50
waiting list.
Testing the Empowerment Model

Refer to Figure 3 for a presentation of the structure
of the comprehensive model of political empowerment. To
articulate a model of political empowerment, the following
hypothesis will be examined.

Hypothesis 2: Participants’ levels of Political
Awareness, Political Competence, and Political Activism at
Time 1 will predict levels of Political Awareness, Political
Competence, and Political Activism at Time 2.

The hypothesized relationships among the variables
associated with political empowerment remains ambiguous,
from the literature published to date. Striving toward an
integrated, comprehensive model of political empowerment
requires that all potential pathways be examined. Therefore
all pathways between the latent variables at Time 1 and all
latent variables at Time 2 will be estimated.

However, since another goal of this research is to
arrive at a psrsimonious model, a nested comparison of this
complex model will also be evaluated. Therefore, a third,

exploratory hypothesis will also be examined.

51

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Hypothesis 3: Participants’ levels of Political
Awareness, Political Competence, and Political Activism at
Time 1 will predict onlytselect levels of Political
Awareness, Political Competence, and Political Activism at
Time 2.

This hypothesis will be tested via post hoc
modifications. Upon empirically examining the magnitude of
the hypothesized pathways of the comprehensive model of
political empowerment, select pathways will be omitted, and
a nested model will be evaluated. The more complex model
can oply be justified if it fits the data significantly

better than the nested, parsimonious model.

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Setting

The setting for this research was a two—semester class
offered through the psychology department of a large
midwestern university. This class was focused around the
belief that juvenile delinquency is a social problem with
both behavioral and environmental root causes. The
structure of the course was planned as an environment to
promote the development of empowerment.. It incorporated a
common belief system with small group meetings, active
leadership, and intense community experience. The small
group format facilitated the development of peer networks
and leaders/mentors who were available, supportive, and
challenging, as well. The average group size was 8
individuals (6 students and 2 mentor/instructors). Students
earned a total of 8 semester units and must agree to enroll

for two consecutive semesters in order to fulfill course

53

54

requirements.

The format of the course included a traditional
educational component as well as an experiential, fieldwork
component. The education component included training to
gain knowledge about the causes of juvenile delinquency, and
skills to help eliminate the problem. Two areas of focus
included behavioral training and resource acquisition. In
addition to the resources already provided by the university
system (libraries, phones, classrooms, etc), resources
available within the local community, especially that may be
relevant to area youths, were the target of this
intervention. The experiential component of this class was
an 18 week interim of community involvement.

Context of the Setting

The research took place within the context of an
ongoing project at Michigan State University that trains
student volunteers to work as advocates with adolescents in
the local community. The Adolescent Diversion Project
(Davidson & Seidman, 1974; Davidson, 1976; Davidson & Rapp,
1976; Davidson & Rappaport, 1977; Davidson, Seidman,
Rappaport, Berck, Rapp, Rhodes & Herring, 1977; McVeigh,

Davidson, & Redner, 1984; Eby, Mackin, Scofield, Legler, &

55

Davidson, 1995; Mackin et al, 1995; Seidman, Rappaport &
Davidson, 1976a, 1976b; Shillo & Davidson, 1994), operating
at MSU since April, 1977, aims to divert adolescent youth
away from the juvenile justice system by matching
adolescents who have encountered the criminal justice system
with university students enrolled in a Psychology 371/372
(Psychological Innovations and Research) course sequence.

Adolescents who have been charged with a first offense
can choose to participate in the Adolescent Diversion
Project as an alternative to continuing with legal
proceedings. In exchange, criminal charges are dropped.

Participants

Rossarch Participants

Participants (N=106) were students who attended two
orientation meetings for Psychology 371/372 (Psychological
Innovation and Research). Because other fieldwork
experiences are offered under the course sequence Psychology
371/372, it is important to note that only students
interested in the courses offered by a project called the
"Adolescent Diversion Project" were included in this study.
In order to qualify for this course sequence, students were

Social science majors, who had completed an introductory

56

psychology class, and were in good academic standing with
the university. All participants were Michigan State
University undergraduate students.

Recruiting and Selecting Participants

Participants were recruited in February, 1994. Letters
were sent to 2000 social science majors, inviting them to
attend an orientation for a two semester fieldwork class
that provides an opportunity for community experience with a
local court-referred youth. Additionally, open invitations
(to social science majors only) were posted around the
university campus and handed out in psychology classes.
Within the social science majors, social work majors were
excluded from recruitment efforts because of time
constraints making it implausible for undergraduates
pursuing those majors to take the two—semester course
sequence.

The invitational letter requested that students call
the project office for more information, if interested.
About 200 students called the office and were given the
locations of a two-session orientation in March, 1994.
Approximately 160 students attended the first orientation

session, where they received a more detailed project

57

description as well as course requirements. The
requirements, including a 6 to 8 hour per week community
involvement commitment, personal transportation, and a
flexible schedule, were all stressed. Students were also
informed that eligible students would be enrolled on a
lottery basis (i.e. randomly assigned).' Students who were
still interested were asked to return for a second meeting
to fill out several forms. The two meeting agenda allows
for students to seriously consider their commitment level
and to make a well—planned choice about program
participation. This process led to the attrition of less
committed students.

Only students attending both meetings and confirming
interest in the program qualified to be in this research
project, as well. One hundred twenty seven students
returned the second night to complete the paperwork. At
this time, they were asked to complete agreements to
participate in the course, as well as a survey about
political empowerment.

W
Of the study participants (N=106), 66% were women and

34% were men. All were undergraduate students with an age

58

range from 18 to 43, with the mean at 20.64 years (Mdn=20).

Most of the sample was white (95%). Only 3% of the
sample was Black and 1% Latino. Due to an ongoing minority
recruitment effort, members of under represented ethnic
groups were recruited for participation in this volunteer
project (i.e. not included in random assignment) and were
therefore excluded from this study.

All participants had some prior college experience.
Socio—economic class was assessed by annual family income,
with a range of $7,000. to $300,000. Fifty percent of the
sample was married or living with a committed partner and
another 40% reported being involved in a serious
relationship. Only three participants (2.8%) had children.
Twenty one percent of the participants stated that their
political affiliation was Republican, but only 10%
considered themselves to be conservative. Twenty two
percent of the participants stated that their political
affiliation was Democratic, yet more (27%) considered
themselves to be liberal. The majority of participants
(43%) considered themselves to have a moderate political

affiliation. Table 2 presents demOgraphic characteristics.

59

Table 2. Demographic Characteristics

 

 

Percentage
GENDER
male 34.9
female 65.1
AGE
<20 26
20 - 24 69.2
25 - 29 04
30> 00.9
RACE
African/African-American 01
Asian/Asian-American 02.9
Latina/Latino 00
Mixed Race 01.9
White/Caucasian 90.5
Other 03.8
POLITICAL AFFILIATION
Republican 21.4
Independent 43.7
Democrat 22.3
undecided 12.6
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
Liberal 26.7
Moderate 43.8
Conservative 09.5
Not Sure 19

 

60

Research Design

Respondents were randomly assigned to either
participate in the intervention (Experimental Condition) or
be placed on a waiting list (Control Condition). The
effectiveness of the intervention was assessed by a single-
factor design (Experimental or Control Condition) at two
time intervals (pre and post). An illustration of the
research design is presented in Table 3. Sample sizes are

given in the cells.

Table 3. Experimental Design with Sample Sizes Reported

 

 

 

Design Pre 7 Post

Experimental 61 54

Control 65 52
Measures

As noted previously, three constructs of political
empowerment were suggested by the intersection of
empowerment theories. These three constructs include

Political Awareness, Political Competence, and Political

61

Participation. Multiple indicators of these constructs have
been suggested by the literature as well. The following
section outlines the measures that were used as indicators
of the three empowerment constructs.

Nine measures were used to assess changes associated
with political empowerment. These nine measures were
hypothesized indicators of three latent constructs.
Measures of system blame, attitudes toward social problems,
and creative solutions were used to measure the construct
"Political Awareness." Measures of both political efficacy
and political identity were used as indicators of "Political
Competence." Similarly, measures of political action,
community involvement, political commitment, and social
service career goals were used as indicators of "Political
Participation." Additionally, demographic information was
collected. Following is a description of the measures used
in this study.

System Blame

A scale constructed to measure external political
efficacy, or " beliefs about political institutions"
(Miller, Miller & Schneider, 1980, p. 253), as well as an

additional six items developed for this survey, together

62

were used as an measure of system blame. Responses were in
the form of an agree—disagree likert format. After
reviewing inter-item and item-total correlations for this
eleven item scale, six items were dropped. The reliability
for the resulting five item scale was established for this
sample (alpha = .81).

The average rating agreement was determined for the
five items comprising this measure. This measure was scaled
such that the higher scores reflect stronger political
system blame and lower external efficacy. Examples of these
items included the statements "In this country, a few people
have all the political power and the rest of us have nothing
to say", and "anyone who really wants to get ahead in this
country can" (reverse scored). Table 4 provides a complete
list of the items and psychometric properties of the system
blame scale.

Changed Attitudss Toward Social Problems

A seventeen item list of social problems was created to
assess attitudes toward social problems, an indicator of
Political Awareness in this research sample (alpha: .93).
The average rating for the seventeen items corresponding to

social problems was assessed via a five point likert scale.

63

Table 4. Psychametric Properties of System Blame Scale

 

Scale Items

 

1. I don’t think public officials care much what people
like me think.

2. Generally speaking, those we elect to public office
lose touch with the people pretty quickly.

3. Candidiates for public office are interested in
people’s votes but not in their opinions.

4. Politicians are supposed to be servants of the people,
but too many of them try to be our masters.

5. In this country, a few have all the political power and
the rest of us have nothing to say.

number of cases = 106

Alpha = .81

Range of values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .35-
.80

 

Participants were asked to respond to "please indicate how
much the class you are now taking (experimental) or how much
your classes in general (control) have influenced your
thinking on each of the following social issues". On a five
point likert scale ranging from "not at all influenced" to
"very much influenced", participants responded to issues
including child abuse, homelessness, teen pregnancy, crime,
etc. Higher scores indicated stronger belief in class
influence on attitude. Table 5 provides a complete list of
the items and psychometric properties of the Changed

Attitude Toward Social Problems scale.

64

Table 5. Psychometric Properties of Changed Attitudes Toward
Social Problem Scale

 

Scale Items

 

1. sexual harassment

2. stranger rape

3. acquaintance rape

4. woman abuse/domestic violence

5. abortion

6. child custody

7. child abuse

8. AIDS

9. homelessness

10. juvenile delinquency
11. poverty

12. substance abuse

13. safe sex

14. teen pregnancy

15. crime

16. street violence

17. school failure/drop out

Number of cases = 101

Alpha =.93

Range of values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .54-
.74

 

65

r iv 1 ti ms

The six item measure of Creative Solutions was created
as an indicator of Political Awareness. Examples of the
items in this measure include "Neighborhood programs
designed to curb criminal activities are a good idea", and
"Volunteering at after school programs is a good way to
encourage potential drop—outs to stay in school".
Participants responded to these items by indicating the
extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement
in a likert format. The average rating agreement was
determined for the six items comprising this scale. This
measure was scaled such that the higher scores reflect
higher agreement with hopeful solutions to contemporary
social problems. After reviewing inter-item and item-total
correlations for this 6 item scale, 2 items were dropped.
The reliability for the resulting four item scale was
established (alpha = .53) for the present sample. Table 6
provides a complete list of the items and psychometric

properties of the Creative Solutions scale.

66

Table 6. Psychometric Properties of Creative Solutions Scale

 

Scale Items

 

l. Volunteering at after school programs is a good way to
encourage potential drop-outs to stay in school.
2. Handing out clean syringes is a good wAy to cut down on

the transmission of AIDS.

3. Neighborhood programs designed to curb criminal
activities is a good idea.

4. Handing out condoms in high schools is a good way to
encourage safe sex practices.

Number of cases = 106

Alpha = .53

Range of values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .30-
.37

 

Politioal Efficacy

Items from a scale constructed to measure internal
political efficacy (Craig & Maggiotto, 1982) were
administered. This measure was designed to assess the
extent to which one believes oneself to have the skills
necessary to influence the political system. This nine item
scale included statements that represent internal political
efficacy, or "individual's self-perceptions that they are
capable of understanding politics and competent enough to
participate in political acts such as voting" (Miller,
Miller & Schneider, 1980, p. 253). Responses were in the

form of an agree—disagree likert format. After reviewing

67

inter-item and item-total correlations for this 9 item
scale, 3 items were dropped. The reliability for the
resulting six item scale was established (alpha = .65).

The average rating agreement was determined for the six
items comprising this final scale. This measure was scaled
such that the higher scores reflect higher internal
political efficacy. Table 7 provides a complete list of the
items and psychometric properties of the Political Efficacy
scale.

Political Identity

The political identity scale was comprised of six items
corresponding to social identities (Deaux,; Tajfel & Turner,
1988) with the addition of thirteen items corresponding to
other social identities with a political focus. Political
Identity was one indicator of Political Competence. The
average of the summed importance scale for the 6 political
identity items were scaled such that higher scores will
reflect more important political identities to the
individual. Participants were asked to rate the extent to
which each identity was important to them on a five point
likert scale, ranging from "not at all important to me" to

"extremely important to me". Identity items included

68

Table 7. Psychometric Properties of Political Efficacy Scale

 

Scale Items

 

1. Sometimes politics and government seem so complicated
that a person like me can't really understand what's
going on.

2. People like me are generally well qualified to
participate in the political activity and decision
making in our country.

3. I feel like I have a pretty good understanding of the
important political issues which confront our society.

4. Today’s problems are so difficult that I feel I could
not know enough to come up with the ideas that might
solve them,

5. I feel like I could do as good a job in public office
as most politicians we elect.

6. It doesn't matter what a person does- if the
politicians want to listen they will, and if they
don't, they won't.

Number of cases = 106

Alpha '6 .65

Range of values for corrected item-total correlations = .24-
.46

69

"Political Affiliation", "Volunteer" and "Social Activist".
After reviewing inter—item and item—total correlations for
this nineteen item scale, seven items were dropped. For
this sample, the reliability for the resulting twelve item
scale was established (alpha = .79). Table 8 provides a
complete list of the items and psychometric properties of
the Political Identity scale.
Politioal Aotion

A ten item checklist of political actions comprised the
Political Action Scale, one measure of Political Activism.
This scale was adapted from Zimmerman (1989). This measure
was comprised of a checklist of activities, including
"Voting", "Participating in a boycott", and "Attending a
political march". Respondents indicated whether they had
participated in these activities within the last year. A
summed score of all ten items was determined, with higher
scores reflecting more types of political actions. After
reviewing inter-item and item-total correlations for this
ten item scale, three items were dropped. The reliability
for the resulting seven item scale was established for the
present sample (alpha = .59). Table 9 provides a complete

list of the items and psychometric properties of the

70

Table 8. Psychometric Properties of Political Identity Scale

 

Scale Itemb

 

1. your occupation

2. political affiliation
3. social activist

4

. leader
5. academic
6. volunteer
7. gender
8. ethnicity
9. sexual orientation

10. survivor
11. member of a priveleged group
12. socio-economic class

Number of cases = 104

Alpha 8 .79

Range of values for corrected item-total correlations - .35-
.58

 

Table 9. Psychometric Properties of Political Action Scale

 

Scale Items

 

signing a petition

participating in a boycott 4

working on a political campaign

attending a political rally

attending a political march

. going to hear a talk by a political person
. organizing a political event

\JO‘U‘IIBWNI"

Number of cases = 106

Alpha 8 .59

Range of values for corrected item-total correlations s .28-
.42

 

71

Political Action Scale.
Political Commitment

The five item measure of Political Commitment was
created as an indicator of Political Activism. Statements
such as "I have a lifelong commitment to work for social,
economic, and political equality for all" were included in
this measure. Participants indicated the extent of their
agreement with these statement on a five point likert scale.
The average rating agreement was determined for the six
items comprising this scale. This measure was scaled such
that the higher scores reflect higher levels of political
commitment. After reviewing inter—item and item—total
correlations for this seven item scale, one item was
dropped. The reliability for the resulting six item scale
was established for this sample (alpha = .69). Table 10
provides a complete list of the items and psychometric
properties of the Political Commitment scale.
W

To further assess Political Activism, community
involvement was assessed with a seven item checklist
including communities such as "Neighborhood", "Family", and

"School". Additionally, respondents had the opportunity to

72

Table 10. Psychometric Properties of Political Commitment
Scale

 

Scale Items

 

l. I consider myself to be a social activist

2. I volunteer often in the community

3. I am very committed to a cause that I believe
contributes to a fair world for all people.

4. On some level, my motivation for almost every activity
I engage in is a desire for an egalitarian world.

5. I have a life long commitment to work for social,

economic, and political equality for all.
6. I use the term.feminist or pro-feminist to describe
myself.

Number of cases = 106

Alpha = .69

Range of values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .30-
.51

73

list other organizations and communities that they were
involved in. A summed score of all items was determined,
with higher scores reflecting more types of community
influences. After reviewing inter-item and item-total
correlations for this scale, six items were dropped. In
this sample, the reliability for the resulting two item
scale was established (alpha = .63). Table 11 provides a
complete list of the items and psychometric properties of
the Community Involvement scale.

Table 11. Psychometric Properties of Community Involvement
Scale

 

Scale Items

 

1. Organizations
2. Other communities involved in‘

Number of cases = 106
Alpha = .63
Values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .29; .54

 

Sooial Ssrvice Carser Goal

To assess career goals, respondents were asked to
indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed (on a
likert scale) with statements, including "1 plan to work in

the field of human services". This two item scale developed

74

for the purpose of this study will be sCaled such that
higher scores reflect greater intention to work in the field
of social services. Mean scores will be calculated.
Internal consistency for this scale was calculated (alpha:
.48) for this sample. Table 12 provides a complete list of
the items and psychometric properties of the Social Service
Career Goal scale.

Table 12. Psychometric Properties of Social Service Career
Goal Scale

 

Scale Items

 

1. I plan to work in the field of human services.
2. I plan to work with children or adolescents as a
career.

Number of cases = 106
Alpha = . 48
Values for corrected itemrtotal correlations = .33

 

Demographios

Finally demographic information on each respondent were
obtained. Demographic data included gender, ethnicity, age,
income, relationship status, number of children, sexual
orientation, religion, and political affiliation. Refer

back to Table 2.

75

Procedure

This study has been reviewed and accepted by the Human
Subjects in Research Committee (UCHRIS) at Michigan State
University (IRB #93-182).

Procedure; Administering the Pretest

Measures were administered to all students attending
both of the orientation meetings required for participation
in the two semester course (Adolescent Diversion Project),
(N=127). At the end of second meeting, all students were
asked to fill out a survey. They were instructed that it is
completely voluntary and that they could refuse or withdraw
at any time. Filling out any portion of the questionnaire
was on an entirely volunteer basis. Participants were
instructed that they could skip any portion of the
questionnaire or quit at any time without penalty.

They were also informed that participation in this
study would not affect their chances of getting into the
class. It was clearly explained that all eligible students
would be picked randomly (by lottery) to participate in the
program. Students were instructed that the class list would
be posted the following day at the program office. Students

were encouraged to attend future orientations if they were

76

committed to this project but were not selected to
participate this year.

Confidentiality was assured. All participants were
instructed that the questionnaire is confidential. Only the
primary researcher and small research team would have access
to any name linked with any data.

Then, all students were asked to sign a statement,
agreeing to volunteer for this study. A written consent
form also included information about the voluntary,
confidential nature of this study.

All research participants were invited to be contacted
again for a follow up survey. They were asked to print
their names, addresses, phone numbers, and information about
3 alternative contact people on demographic data sheets, in
order to facilitate future contacts. Finally, all
participants were thanked for their involvement.

W

Immediately following the second orientation meeting,
students were randomly assigned into one of two conditions.
All qualifying undergraduates were randomly assigned to
either the Experimental Condition (to participate in the

course) or placed in a Control Group (no participation). A

77

list of the experimental group participants (those who may
enroll in the course) was typed and posted the following
day.
Tho Intervention

The intervention included a shared belief, small group
setting, leadership, development of skills and knowledge,
resource utilization, and experience. The common concern
and shared goal was a desire to work toward eliminating
juvenile delinquency. The intervention began with a
classroom educational component and gradually shifted to a
more experiential learning program. Close supervision and
interaction between students and instructors throughout the
process provided the framework for ongoing mentoring
relationships. See Appendix B for the complete training
manual for this intervention.

Common leief

Before committing to this project, all participants
(experimental and control) shared one common belief. They
were all committed to the social services and hoped to have
an opportunity to work with a court-referred youth from the
local community. They were all willing to donate a

substantial amount of time and energy to this cause, at

78

least for a two-semester period.

The belief system that the Adolescent Diversion Project
espoused is much more specific. This project operates from
a perspective that views juvenile delinquency as a social
problem with both environmental and behavioral root causes.
As such, the project aims to train volunteers to intervene
at both individual and societal levels (see Davidson &
Rappaport, 1978).

Small Group Setting

The small group setting was seen as advantageous and
necessary for empowerment. It allowed for more student
interaction with other students and with mentors. During
the first weeks of training, groups of about 20 students
assembled for about one hour per week. Immediately
following a large group discussion and small quiz, the
groups would break down into groups of 6 for the remaining
one and one half hours, for more indepth discussion with 2
instructors. Group membership and instructors rotated
weekly during the first 5 weeks, allowing for the entire
group to form intrapersonal relationship. At week 6 of
this 36 week project, individual groups of 6 students and 2

supervisor/mentors were formed. These groups continued to

79

meet weekly for two and a half hours.

The LeadersZMentors

The role of the instructors/leaders as mentors was an
important component of this intervention. Leaders included
graduate students in ecological community psychology as well
as undergraduate supervisors who had previously completed
the project.

During the first part of the intervention,
relationships were developed with the small class size and
ratio (3/1). Once participants were assigned to work with a
youth, the contact between participants and supervisors
intensified. In addition to 2.5 hour weekly meetings with 2
supervisors and 6 participants, ongoing communication in the
form of phone conversations was the norm. Some students
called supervisors an average of 3 times per week, while
others only called once or twice weekly.

The supervisors' roles as mentors was critical to
designing appropriate individually tailored programs for
each youth and for working with the myriad of social issues
that were faced. The mentors used their own personal,
research and activists experiences as the groundwork from

which to teach and advocate on behalf of social issues. The

80

backgrounds of the supervisor/mentors at the time of this
research included woman—battering, girls and delinquency,
AIDS prevention, poverty, low-income housing problems, and
school to work transitions. Supervisor/mentors used
critical discussions and their own activism as a tool for
increasing political awareness.

Knowlsdgs and Skills Building

The intervention began in many ways like other typical
university classes. The focus of the class was on knowledge
and skills acquisition. The focus of this particular course
was on the concern of juvenile delinquency and related
social issues. Specifically, this class provided classroom
instruction and practice in the areas of behavior
modification and resource procurement. Resource acquisition
both within the university and in the community was deemed
important.

F rm la sroom Trainin

The program began with 14 weeks of classroom training.
This component of training was similar to many classroom
experiences in that it included weekly reading assignments,
weekly quizzes, and additional classroom exercises and

homework. It differed from traditional college courses in

81

that the student/instructor ratio was approximately 3/1. In
other words, a typical class 30 students was broken down
into 5 small groups of 6 students each. Each group had 2
instructors (graduate teaching assistants and undergraduates
who had exceptionally completed the course). In this way,
individual attention and student interaction was
facilitated.

Additionally, the classroom training used a mastery
model of education. Accordingly, students did not move
ahead to new training areas until they had successfully
mastered current work. The training began with reading and
education about two theoretical models that the program
incorporated: behavioral and advocacy. Also, the course
work included a strong focus on education about specific
social problems of adolescents from a community psychology
perspective.

Knowledge and Skills: Behavior Modifioation

After an overview of the entire course was presented
during the first week of class, the classroom focused on
behavior modification techniques as an initial area of
skills building. Articles and selected book chapters

(including Seidman & Rappaport, 1974; Davidson, Seidman,

82

Rappaport, Berck, Rapp, Rhodes & Herring, 1977; Tharp &
Wetzel, 1969) were read and discussed in groups. Once
underlying theoretical perspectives of behavioral training
were mastered (based on an open ended quiz performance),
additional readings (including Cormier, 1983; DeRisi & Butz,
1975; Patterson, 1971; Saxon, 1979; and Stuart, 1971; 1973)
guided discussion and practice sessions of behavior
modification techniques. The knowledge from these readings
were also assessed through open ended quizzes. See Appendix
B for the assigned readings on behavioral training.
Instructors guided practice sessions on implementing
behavioral contracts. Participants designed and implemented
their own personal behavior modification programs.
Participants also role played the process of helping others
design and monitor behavioral agreements. This was in
preparation for the experiential component of the class,
when undergraduates would model and apply the concepts, such
as behavioral reinforcements and management, in field
settings. In particular, university students learned,
through education and classroom practice, to create and
implement behavioral contracts with adolescents and their

families. Additionally, undergraduates gained the skills to

83

implement and monitor behavioral contracts in community and
family settings. Discussion guides, assignments, and role
plays associated with this component of the intervention
were spread over five weeks.

Knowl d e an Skills: Obtainin Resour es

A second area of focus for this intervention was
centered around gaining access to resources within the local
community. This component of the intervention was based
upon the belief that human behavior is to a great extent a
function of social structures (Davidson et al, 1977). To
change maladaptive behaviors of individuals, oppressive
social structures must be changed. In particular, an
environmental resources conception of human behavior guided
the training for this component of the class, by
highlighting the rights of each individual to society's
resources. A fundamental belief of this approach is that
each individual has a right to getting needs fulfilled.
Discussions and quizzes assessed each individual’s knowledge
of this perspective, as presented by researchers and
community institutions alike (Becker, 1978; Beyer, 1980;
Davidson & Rapp, 1976; Guggenheim & Sussman, 1985).

Additionally, participants obtained local resource

84

information, such as teen help cards with hotline numbers
and a guide to free and cheap activities for youth in the
local area. Undergraduates worked toward developing
advocacy skills by learning about typical community
organizations that they would be working with, such as
school systems, practiced communicationstyles in class
role—plays, and investigated community resources on their
own. They investigated a community resource, in-person, and
wrote a description of the services provided. The results
of the community resource investigation were compiled into a
directory of local resources that could be used throughout
the program. An additional five weeks of classroom training
was devoted to resource acquisition.

Knowlsdgs and Skills; Social Problems of Adolssosuts

An additional focus of the intervention was to include
discussions about social problems as they pertain to
adolescents. Training about social problems was included
throughout the classroom education. Discussions about
social issues including delinquency, poverty, family
violence, substance abuse, rape, incest, reproductive
rights, legal rights, health care, employment and housing

discrimination, and illiteracy were woven throughout many

85

classroom discussions. Readings by McIntosh (1989), Steele
(1992), and Ryan (1976), on racial discrimination and victim
blaming, respectively, were studied and discussed. Two
class meetings were devoted exclusively to the topics of
victim-blaming as described by Ryan (1976). The classroom
exercises included discussion and debate about victim
blaming, as well as the challenge to participants to examine
their own tendencies to blame individuals over social
systems.

Summary of Classroom Education

The education component of the program included
readings and discussions about articles explaining behavior
modification in field settings, environmental resources and
advocacy, cultural diversity, and blaming the victim. (Refer
to Appendix B). In addition, a description of the program
philosophy was made explicit. Other information was also
presented describing adolescence, and a classroom exercise
on victim blaming encouraged a reexamination of personal
values and prejudices.

Local advocacy education included a list of free and
cheap activities in the local area, a student-compiled

directory of local resources, and an invited speaker from a

86

local community agency, such as the YMCA. A total of 12
weeks of weekly 2.5 hour weekly meetings, as well as
homework assignments were devoted to the knowledge and
skills acquisition component of this intervention.

Experiential Component

The second part of the intervention focused on both
practice and experience working with a youth in the local
community. First, during class training, through a series
of role-playing exercises, participants practiced effective
advocacy and resource acquisition in professional settings,
as well as setting up behavioral contracts.

Once the classroom training had been successfully
completed, each university student was assigned a court—
referred youth to work with for an 18 week period.
Adolescents and university students worked together to reach
individually tailored goals, for at least 6-8 hours per
week. This was done under the weekly supervision of the
project director, 2 graduate student instructors, and 5
other undergraduate volunteers. During this fieldwork
component of the class, undergraduates worked within the
environment/community of their assigned youth. By working

closely with the family, the undergraduate could assist in

87

setting up behavioral agreements that were appropriate to
the needs of family members. In addition to working closely
with family members, undergraduates worked with other
community organizations, as needed. By becoming immersed in
the community, the undergraduate could work effectively with
the youth to secure access to local resources. The targeted
areas for intervention for all adolescents in the Adolescent
Diversion Program included family, school, employment, and
recreation. Additional areas were targeted on an
individual-need basis.

Participants worked with a youth for 18 weeks, 6—8
hours per week, immersed in the adolescent's environment,
using newly learned skills to set up behavior modification
programs in the youth's family and to advocate on behalf of
the youth in the community.

While every 18 week plan was individually tailored to
the adolescent's needs, all interventions shared some common
characteristics. All intervention plans included a general
assessment phase, an implementation phase and a termination
phase. During the assessment phase (3-4 weeks), the
participants got to know the youth's family and significant

others. Additionally, each participant visited locations

88

that the youth frequented, including school, place of
employment, and recreational hang—outs. At this stage,
potential mentors were targeted for the youth.

During the implementation phase (10 weeks), the program
became individually tailored to the youth's specific needs.
Some areas of involvement included family relations, school
attendance, improved grades, and advocacy, recreation, and
formal and informal employment. Other areas for
intervention included substance abuse, pregnancy and
parenting, illiteracy, health problems, poverty, domestic
violence, gang activity, legal problems, etc.

During the termination phase (4 weeks), each
participant focused on teaching self-advocacy skills to the
youth and her/his family. During this time, the youth,
along with family (and other identified mentors) created and
implemented their own behavioral contracts, if appropriate
for the family. Finally, each participant compiled a list
of resources and instructions for behavioral contracting for
the youth and presented it to him/her upon their final
meeting.

Post lost: Intervention Group

Upon completion of the Adolescent Diversion Project,

89

all participants in the Experimental group were administered
the survey again on the final day of class (N=54). The
attrition rate (N=7) was due to 4 students who dropped the
class, 1 who failed, and 2 students who had been granted
permission to enroll previously (not randomly assigned).
Again, participants were informed that survey completion was
completely voluntary and the information provided would
remain confidential. Again, participants were asked to sign
a volunteer agreement form. Participants were thanked for
their involvement.

MW

All participants in the Control condition (N=65) were
invited to reconvene and complete a similar questionnaire.
First, students in the control condition were sent a letter
inviting them to attend a scheduled meeting, where they were
administered a survey and received $10.00.

Follow up phone calls were made to Control Group
participants who did not respond to the first invitation,
offering to schedule individual meetings at their
convenience. They were contacted by phone (through
information submitted during the course orientation and

through the MSU student directory). and invited to fill out

90

a second questionnaire at their convenience, for which they
would be paid $10.00. Additional tracking methods
(including letters and phone calls) to find participants
through alternate contact persons were used as necessary,
when participants were difficult to locate. The tracking
procedures were moderately successful and most participants
in the control group (N=52) returned to complete a second
survey.

Model Development‘
Pan Desi ns

This study was an experimental, cross lagged, panel
design. In panel designs the same individuals are measured
at different time points. Panel designs allow for stronger
causal inference than cross sectional designs (Finkel,
1995). This includes the analysis of causal relationships
between independent and dependent variables as well as among
variables of interest.

Panel data, however, do not rule out all of the
problems of causal inference in nonexperimental research
(Finkel, 1995). Causal inference is best accomplished in
true experiments, through random assignment. In order to

rule out any preexisting differences between groups,

91

increase internal validity, and offer the best estimation of
causality, this research used a true experimental design,
randomly assigned participants to one of two groups
(intervention/control), and collected data from the same
individuals at two time points.

Additionally, the temporal component of panel designs
allow for the estimation of models with lagged causal
effects. In other words, prior values of variable X (such
as Political Awareness) may influence future values of
variable Y (such as Political Activism), and vice versa.
Since effects over time are a concern in this study, the
cross lagged panel model provided an accurate assessment of
the direction of causal inference (Dwyer, 1983).

Analyzing Experimental, Cross Lagged, Panel Data

Ways to test panel data include cross lagged
correlations, regression analysis, path analysis, and
structural equation modeling. Cross lagged panel
correlations have been sharply criticized due to their
failure to account for autoregression effects (i.e., other
factors such as the causal influence of a variable on itself
over time) (Farrell, 1994). Regression analyses focus only

on outcomes. To examine reciprocal effects requires

92

additional analyses.

In path analysis, hypotheses about causal relationships
among variables are often illustrated in a path diagram.
Each of the endogenous variables (i.e., dependent variables)
in a path model is expressed as a function of other
variables in the model and a residual or disturbance (random
error) term (Farrell, 1994). The statistical significance
of the coefficients associated with each path in the model
can be determined and the squared multiple correlation can
be used as a measure of how well each endogenous variable is
predicted by the model (Farrell, 1994). Multiple regression
has several limitations to analyze path models. First, it
involves a separate regression analysis for each endogenous
(dependent) variable. Therefore, it cannot provide an
overall test of the model fit (Farrell, 1994). This makes
it difficult to compare alternative, competing models.
Another limitation of regression analysis is the assumption
that error terms are uncorrelated and that causal flow is
unidirectional (Farrell, 1994). In other words no variable
can be both a cause and effect of another variable.

Structural equation modeling is a method for studying

relations among variables. A major advantage of structural

93

equation modeling (SEM) is the ability to test models about
latent (i.e., unobserved) variables (Farrell, 1994). This
requires the specification of a measurement model which
depicts the relationships between the observed (i.e., the
measures used in a study) and the latent variables which
represent the hypothetical constructs or factors being
measured. SEM also calculates all of the parameters in the
model simultaneously and provides a test of the overall fit
of a model to the data. This makes it possible to test
competing models. SEM has the additional capability of
being able to examine the consistency of a model across
different groups of participants (Farrell, 1994).
Accordingly, structural equation modeling was used to
analyze these data.
A n e al Overview of SEM and Strate for An 1 s

The goal of structural equation modeling is to test
hypotheses about relations among observed and latent
variables (Bollen, 1989; Hoyle & Smith, 1994; McCrohan,
1995). This model is a statistical statement about the
hypothesized relationships. The general structural equation
model consists of two complementary models: the measurement

model and the structural model (Hoyle & Smith, 1994).

94

Factor analysis is an example of a measurement model and a
general linear model is an example of a structural model
(Hoyle & Smith, 1994).

To evaluate these models, a sequence of analyses were
planned. The strategy was as follows: First, group
differences (intervention versus control group) in
development of political empowerment would be examined.
Then, a measurement model was to be evaluated. The
consistency of the models across groups and over time would
then be established. Third, structural models were to be
evaluated. Consistency of the structural models across
groups and time would also be established.

Tho Measurement Model

Measurement models depict the relations between
observed and latent variables (Hoyle, 1991; Hoyle & Smith,
1994). In other words, measurement models are hypotheses
about the relations between a set of observed variables
(such as ratings or questionnaire items) and the constructs
(i.e., unobserved variables) that they were designed to
measure (Hoyle & Smith, 1994). Figure 4 presents the
measurement model for political empowerment proposed by

this research.

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As illustrated, the measurement model presents the
indicators of the constructs (latent variables) associated
with political empowerment. Specifically, three indicators
of Political Awareness include System Blame, Attitudes
toward Social Problems, and Creative Solutions. Two
indicators of Political Competence include Political
Identity and Political Efficacy. Four indicators of
Political Activism include Political Action, Community
Involvement, Political Commitment, and Social Service Career
Goals. Observed variables (indicators) are represented by
squares and unobserved variables (latent constructs) are
represented by circles.

A benefit of structural equation modeling includes the
specific acknowledgment of measurement error (i.e., random
error, uniqueness) Each of the boxes which represent
indicators of the latent variables Political Awareness,
Political Competence, and Political Activism is influenced
by error (Hoyle & Smith, 1994). An advantage of adding
correlated errors of measurement to a measurement model is
that it can result in improvements in the overall fit of the
model and can sometimes uncover problematic sources of

covariance among ratings or items of a measure (Hoyle &

97

Smith, 1994).

Another benefit of structural equation modeling is its
ability to simultaneously evaluate many measurement
equations. For example, in this study, each of the nine
observed variables were originally believed to be influenced
by one latent construct. Evaluation of the measurement
model would involve simultaneously solving all 9 measurement
equations implied by the measurement model presented
previously in Figure 4.

In sum, the measurement model points out that each
indicator (observed variable, such as Political Identity) is
influenced by one latent variable (e.g., Political
Competence) that it has in common with one or more other
indicators (e.g., Political Efficacy), and a second latent
variable (represented by a small circle) that accounts for
error (the variability unique to that indicator).

Tosting the Measurement Model-

The evaluation of the measurement model was planned to
include three steps. First the overall measurement model
would be evaluated. Then, consistency (invariance) in the
measurement model would be tested. Finally, the consistency

of the measurement model across time would be tested

98

(Farrell, 1994).

The overall fit of the measurement model was to be
determined by confirmatory factor analysis. Hoyle (1991)
indicated that the fit of this model is very important
because all possible latent models are nested within it. If
confirmatory factor analysis does not indicate an acceptable
fit of the model, it may indicate problems with the
underlying structure of latent variables or measures
(Farrell, 1994). In this case, the model would be modified
and reevaluated as deemed appropriate.

Upon verifying that the measurement model accurately
fit the data, multiple analyses would be used to determine
the consistency of the model across different groups and
over time (Farrell, 1994). Measurement consistency (or
invariance) concerns the degree to which a construct or a
measure of a construct retains its meaning across groups or
over time (Pentz & Chou, 1994). Conceptually, consistency
between groups can be understood by considering the question
"is the meaning of variable x the same for groups a and b?"
(Pentz & Chou, 1994). In structural equation modeling, the
question is phrased, "does the same measurement model hold

for groups a and b?” (Pentz & Chou, 1994). It is imperative

99

to ensure that the meaning of variables is the same across
groups in order for further comparisons of correlations or
means to be meaningful.

Bollen (1989) identified a set of hypotheses to examine
any differences in the measurement model's consistency over
time (or between the intervention and control groups).

These hypotheses include: 1) the models have the same form
(i.e., the same pattern of fixed and free parameters; 2) the
factor loadings are identical across groups and time; 3) the
factor loadings and measurement error variances are
identical across groups and time; and 4) the factor loadings
and the variances and covariances among measurement errors
are identical across groups and time.

Confirmatory factor analyses were planned to test the
consistency of the measurement model across groups and time.
If patterns of factor loadings were found to be
significantly different across time or groups, parameters
would be estimated individually for each group and each time
point. Selected parameters would be constrained to be
identical across time and group. This is statistically
equivalent to correcting the covariance matrix for

attenuation. Structural path models are examined once the

100

measurement model is resolved.

The Structural Models

Structural models can indicate relations among
exogenous (independent) and endogenous (dependent)
variables, both observed or latent. A simple regression
equation represents the simplest structural model. In
regression analyses, an observed independent variable
influences an observed dependent variable. First, the model
to be estimated must be specified. Figure 5 depicts a
representation of the full structural model that will be
evaluated in this research.

The parameters to be estimated indicate the relations
between two variables, and are constants. The tpoo
parameters (represented by straight arrows) are estimated
form the obtained data. Fixed parameters are not estimated
because no relations among those variables of interest are
hypothesized.

At Time 1, Political Awareness, Political Competence,
and Political Activism represent predictors (exogenous
variables) and at Time 2, Political Awareness, Political
Competence, and Political Activism represent outcomes

(endogenous variables).

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This structural model is a statistical statement about
the theoretical model that was discussed previously. In
this "full" model, the latent variables are mutually
influential on each other over time. In other words, all
pathways between the Time 1 latent variables and the Time 2
latent variables are hypothesized to be froo parameters and
will be estimated from the data. However, due to the
developmental aspect of these relationships among variables,
no synchronized effects were hypothesized (relations among
latent variables at the same time point) and the values of
these fixed parameter are set at zero for statistical
analyses. The degree to which the pattern of troo and fixod
parameters hypothesized in the model is consistent with the
pattern of variances and covariances obtained from the set
of observed data will be evaluated to indicate the adequacy
of the model.

This model identifies some of the advantages of
structural equation modeling. Structural equation modeling
bears no restrictions on the relations between exogenous
variables (note the curved arrows between Political
Awareness, Political Competence and Political Activism at

Time 1). The curved arrows represent cOrrelations between

103

the predictors.

Also, in structural models, variables may be considered
as both outcomes (endogenous variables) as well as
predictors (exogenous variables) in a model. This is true
of all three latent variables in these models.

Testing the General Structural Eguation Model

The general structural equation models used in this
research was planned to include both measurement and
structural models. The inclusion of both models ensures
that measures will be corrected for unreliability and
preserve optimum flexibility in modeling relationships among
exogenous and endogenous variables (Hoyle & Smith, 1994).
Figure 6 presents the structural equation model to be
evaluated.

There are multiple advantages to examining structural
equation models. Some of these advantages have already been
noted, including the ability of structural equation modeling
to include correlations among predictors, correlations among
error terms, the ability for the same variables to be both
predictors and outcomes, and simultaneous evaluation of all

causal pathways.

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Autoregression effects (correlations among disturbance
or random error terms) at both time points are also taken
into account in structural equation modeling. These paths
account for the relations between identical indicators at
two time points that are not attributable to the relation
between the substantive latent variables.

Finally, it is important to point out that all paths
are evaluated simultaneously. First, the full path model is
evaluated. Then, a nested comparison of alternative models
can be assessed in order to arrive at the most parsimonious
model that is also theoretically justified. In such post-
hoc modifications there is the potential for both "chance"
findings and sample "idiosyncracies" (McCrohan, 1995; Panter
& Hoyle, 1995). However, post hoc modifications can be
useful when grounded in theory. Due to the exploratory
nature of this part of the research, post—hoc analyses which
include testing a nested model, was deemed appropriate.

The path models will be tested using LISREL 8. First,
the full model was planned to be evaluated. The fundamental
hypothesis that is being tested in structural equation
modeling is that the covariance matrix of the observed

variables will be equal to the matrix implied by the

106

proposed model. The covariance matrix obtained by the data
is a function of a set of parameters. If the hypothesized
model was accurate, the covariance matrix implied by the

model would reproduce the obtained matrix exactly (McCrohan,

1995). The residuals indicate the differences between the
observed and implied covariance matrices. The extent to

which the model fits the data will be evaluated by examining
multiple "goodness of fit" indices.
Tho Goal of Parsimony

A main goal of this research is to articulate a model
of political empowerment. The model that has been described
was based upon the convergence of multiple theoretical
positions. As such, it is quite complex. Initially, at
least, it is important to include many components of
political empowerment in order to avoid ignoring important
relationships among variables.

Both the complexity of this model and the potential
obstacles that data analyses can pose point to a related
concern of parsimony. A major goal structural equation
modeling is to identify the most efficient way to account
for the preponderance of the data. Like a good theory, a

simple model that can explain a lot of data is superior to a

107

complex model that accounts for limited data. The
comprehensive model, on the other hand, is only justifiable
if it can account for significantly more data than a more
parsimonious model.

Due to the exploratory nature of this research, and to
address the concerns of model complexity, a nested models
was considered. The goal is to arrive at a parsimonious
model of political empowerment that is both theoretically

sound, with considerable explanatory power.

Chapter 3

RESULTS

Two research questions were examined in this research.
First, it was expected that a university setting designed to
promote political empowerment would be more successful than
college as usual. To evaluate this hypothesis, ANCOVA
analyses were performed to examine the effects of condition
(class participation or college as usual) from Time 1 to
Time 2. In other words, ANCOVA was used to test the effects
of condition on each of the nine dependent variables at Time
2, using each of the nine Time 1 scores as the covariates.
For this study, ANCOVA was considered a more powerful test
than repeated measures ANOVA, in that Main Effects could be
tested, rather than Interaction (Time X Condition) Effects.
Simply stated, ANCOVA was the more direct test. ANCOVA was
used to directly test comparisons of two Time 2 scores,
based on a Time 1 score.

The second research question asked which causal

108

109

pathways between latent variables of political empowerment
(political awareness, political competence, and political
activism) would be salient with respect to the development
of political empowerment. To investigate this research
question, structural equation modeling was performed, using
LISREL analyses.
Intervention Effeots

It was hypothesized that three domains of political
empowerment would include Political Awareness, Political
Competence, and Political Activism. Three measures of
Political Awareness included System Blame, Changed Attitudes
Toward Social Problems, and Creative Solutions. Two measures
of Political Competence Included Political Efficacy and
Political Identity. Four measures of Political Activism
included Political Actions, Political Commitment, Community
Involvement, and Social Service Career Goal. Table 13
reports means and standard deviations for all subscales of
political empowerment at pretest and posttest, by condition.
The following section reports on intervention effects on

each domain of political empowerment.

110

Table 13. Means and Standard Deviations for Subscales of
Political Empowerment at Pretest and Posttest, by Condition

 

 

 

Subscales Intervention Group (n=54) Control Group (n-52)
Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest

System.Blame 3.28(.77) .37(.71) 3.23(.65) 3.33(.80)

Creative 3.79(.62) .85(.60) 3.77 (.59) 3.80 (.56)

Solutions

Change Attitudes 2.64(.84) .06(.80) 2.50(1.02) 2.78(.92)

Toward SocialProblemm

Political 3.19(.49) .16(.52) 3.19(.67) 3.07(.57)

Identity

Political 3.15(.60) .06(.57) 3.34 (.59) 3.40(.68)

Efficacy

Political l.72(1.46) .48(1.34) 1.48(l.21) l.40(1.18)

Action

Political 2.93(.67) .15(.72) 2.82(.74) 2.81(.75)

Commitment

Community l.09(1.20).93(l.18) .71(.87) .83(.88)

Involvement

Social Service 4.18 (.89) 4.09(.80) 4.l3(.77) 3.80(.97)

Career Goal

 

Noto. Standard deviations are reported in parentheses.

111
Intervontion Effects on Political Awareness

Three subscales of Political Awareness were
hypothesized to include System Blame, and Changed Attitudes
Toward Social Problems, and Creative Solutions. Table 14
reports the intercorrelations between the subscales
(observed variables)of Political Awareness at Time 1.

Table 14. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Awareness at Time 1

 

 

 

 

System Creative Changed Attitudes
Blame Solutions Toward Social
Problems

System. 1.00

Blame

Creative .04 1.00

Solutions

Changed .02 .05 ‘ ‘ 1.00

Attitudes Toward
Social Problems

Noto: **p<.01;*p<.05

 

Table 15 reports the intercorrelations between the
subscales (observed variables) of Political Awareness at
Time 2. No significant correlations were found. While each
subscale had adequate internal consistency, they appeared to

be measuring independent constructs.

112

Table 15. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Awareness at Time 2

 

 

 

 

System. Creative Changed Attitudes
Blame Solutions Toward Social
Problems

System. 1.00

Bleme

Creative .03 1.00

Solutions

Changed .12 -.10 1.00

Attitudes Toward
Social Problems

 

Noto: **p<.01;*p<.05

At Time 2, descriptive statistics for the Political
Awareness subscales were as follows: Changed Attitudes
Toward Social Problems (M=2.78, SD=.92, Control Group;
M=3.06, SD=.80, Experimental Group); System Blame (M=3.80,
SD=.56, Control Group; M=3.85, SD=.60, Experimental Group);
Creative Solutions (M=3.33, SD=.80, Control Group; M=3.37,
SD=.71, Experimental Group).

ANCOVA analyses (controlling for Pretest/Time 1
scores), revealed that intervention effects on Changed
Attitudes Toward Social Problems was F(1,1)=2.32, n.s. See

Table 16.

113

Table 16. Analysis of Covariance for Changed Attitudes
Toward Social Problems

 

 

Source df F p
Condition '1 ~ 2.32 .13
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 20.67 .00
S within-group error 102 (.62)

 

Notoy Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

ANCOVA results for the other two subscales of Political
Awareness were also not significant: System Blame, F(1,1)=
.02, n.s; and Creative Solutions, F(1,1)=.17, n.s. See

Tables 17 and 18, respectively.

Table 17. Analysis of Covariance for System.Blame

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 .02 .90
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 25.50 .00
S within-group error 103 (.46)

 

Notoy Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

114

Table 18. Analysis of Covariance for Creative Solutions

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 .17 .68
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 37.57 .00
S within-group error 103 (.25)

 

Soto; Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

Intorvention Effects on Political Competence

Two subscales of Political Competence were hypothesized
to include Political Efficacy and Political Identity. Table
19 reports the intercorrelations between the subscales
(observed variables) of Political Competence at Time 1.

Table 19. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Competence at Time 1

 

 

 

Political Political
Identity Efficacy
Political 1.00
Identity
Political -.07 1.00
Efficacy

 

Hots; **p<.01;*p<.05

Table 20 reports the intercorrelations between the
subscales (observed variables) of Political Competence at
Time 2. No significant correlations were found. While each

subscale had adequate internal consistency (see Tables 7 and

115

8 respectively), they appeared to be measuring independent

constructs .

Table 20. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Competence at Time 2

 

 

 

Political ~Political
Identity Efficacy
Political 1.00
Identity
Political .06 1.00
Efficacy

 

Soto; **p<.01;*p<.05

At Time 2, Descriptive statistics for Political
Competence were as follows: Political Identity (M=3.07,
SD=.57, Control Group; M=3.16, SD=.52, Experimental Group);
Political Efficacy (M=3.40, SD=.68, Control Group; M=3.06,
SD=.57, Experimental Group). Refer to back to Table 13 for
means and standard deviations at pretest and posttest, by
condition.

ANCOVA analyses for the Political Identity scale were

not significant; F(1,1)= .91. See Table 21.

116

Table 21. Analysis of Covariance for Political Identity

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 .91 .34
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 20.55 .00
S within—group error 103 (.25)

 

Hots; Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

Intervention effects on Political Efficacy were
significant, but in the opposite direction than hypothesized

F(1,1) = 5.35, p<.05. See Table 22.

Table 22. Analysis of Covariance for Political Efficacy

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 5.35* .02
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 83.26 .00
S within-group error 103 (.22)

 

Notou Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.
Intervention Effects on Political Activism

Four subscales of Political Activism were hypothesized
to include Political Action, Political Commitment, Community

Involvement, and Social Service Career Goals. The

intercorrelations among these subscales were higher than

117

those of the subscales of other constructs of political
empowerment. Table 23 reports the intercorrelations between
the subscales (observed variables) of Political Activism at
Time 1.

Table 23. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Activism.at Time 1

 

 

 

 

 

1. 2. 3. 4.
1. Political 1.00
Action
2. Political .38* 1.00
Commitment
3. Community .23* .22* 1.00
Involvement
4. Career .18 .30** .11 1.00
Goal

 

Soto; ** p<.01; * p<.05

Table 24 reports the intercorrelations between the

subscales (observed variables) of Political Activism at Time

Table 24. Intercorrelations Between Observed Variables of
Political Activism.at Time 2

 

 

 

 

 

1. 2. 3. 4.
1. Political 1.00
Action
2. Political .24** 1.00
Commi tment
3. Community .14 .05 1.00
Involvement
4. Career .11 .45** -.03 1.00
Goal

 

Hots; ** p<.01; * p<.05

118

ANCOVA analyses revealed that the intervention did have
a significant effect on one of the subscales, political

commitment F(1,1) = 4.81, p<.05. See Table 25.

Table 25. Analysis of Covariance for Political Commitment

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 4.81* .03
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 26.98 .00
S within-group error 102 (.43)

 

Noto. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

The intervention did not have a significant effect on
the other three subscales; political action F(1,1)=.04,
n.s., community involvement F(1,1)=. 19, n.s., and social
service career goals F(1,1)= 2.86, n.s. A trend for social
service career goals is noted. See Tables 26, 27, and 28,

respectively.

119

Table 26. Analysis of Covariance for Political Action

 

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 .04 .84
Pretest Measure Covariate l 40.89 .00
S within-group error 103 (1.15)

Noto. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square

errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

Table 27. Analysis of Covariance for Community Involvement

 

 

Source df F p
Condition 1 .19 .67
Pretest Measure Covariate 1 29.36 .00
S within-group error 103 (.86)

 

Notou Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
** p<.001; * p<.05.

Table 28. Analysis of Covariance for Social Service Career
Goal

 

 

Source 'df ' F p
Condition 1 2.86 .09
lPretest Measure Covariate 1 9.20 .00
jS'within-group error 103 (.72)

 

lflotou Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square
errors; S = subjects.
‘** p<.001; * p<.05.

120

Summary of ANCOVA Analyses

ANCOVA analyses were performed to investigate
intervention effects on the development of political
empowerment over time. With Time 1 scores as the
covariates, once pretest scores were controlled for, very
few intervention effects were found. Specifically, a
significant effect was found for Political Commitment and a
trend was found for Social Service Career Goals. A
significant effect was found for Political Efficacy, but in
the opposite direction than was hypothesized. In other
words, the intervention group scored lower on Political
Efficacy at Time 2 than the control group.

In sum, ANCOVA analyses were conducted to test the
intervention effects on three domains of political
empowerment, including Political Awareness, Political
Competence, and Political Activism. No intervention effects
were found for Political Awareness, as analyses for each of
the three subscales (System Blame, Creative Solutions,
Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems) yielded
insignificant relationships. Some support was found for the
presence of intervention effects on political competence,

specifically the Political Efficacy subscale. However, this

121

intervention effect was in the opposite direction than
hypothesized, indicating that participating in the
politically empowering intervention actually led to
decreased political competence compared to not
participating. No condition effect was found for the
Political Identity subscale of Political Competence. Some
evidence was found for the intervention effects on Political
Activism, as participating in the politically empowering
intervention did lead to increased Political Commitment
compared to not participating. While no intervention
effects for Political Action or Community Involvement were
found, a trend for Social Service Career Goals was found.
Testing Models of Political Empoworment

Recall the hypothesized model was composed of three
latent constructs, including Political Awareness, Political
Competence and Political Activism. Each latent construct
was originally hypothesized to be supported by multiple
indicators (refer back to Figure 6). Before the empirical
examination of a latent model with multiple indicators can
be performed, it is necessary to resolve the measurement
model (refer back to Figure 4). This is accomplished by

conducting confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to determine

122

the adequacy of the hypothesized factor loadings, the degree
of measurement model fit, and latent construct
intercorrelations (Newcomb, 1994). The factor loadings of
the CFA are important because all latent models are nested
within it. Insignificant factor loadings can indicate
problems with the underlying structure of the measurement
model.

As suspected, based on the pattern of intercorrelations
among observed variables discussed earlier, the measurement
model could not be resolved. In other words, a factor
solution could not be obtained; the indicators of each
hypothesized latent construct did not load on that factor.
The CFA model was inadequate and the underlying structure of
the measurement model needed to be reconsidered.

Consistency of the Measures Across Time

The consistency of the original model across time
points could not be established using CFA. However,
consistency of the measures could still be assessed by
observing patterns of intercorrelations across both time
points. This assessment revealed fairly poor consistency,
in general. For example, System Blame was not significantly

correlated with any other measures at Time 1, but was

123

negatively correlated with Political Efficacy at Time 2.
Creative Solutions was significantly correlated with
Community Involvement and Social Service Career Goals at
Time 1, but was only significantly correlated with Political
Action at Time 2. Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems
was significantly correlated with Political Identity at Time
1 , but was significantly correlated with Political Action,
Political Commitment, and Social Service Career Goals at
Time 2.

Political Efficacy and Political Commitment appeared to
have the most consistent pattern of intercorrelations across
time. Political Efficacy was significantly correlated with
both Political Action and Political Commitment at both time
points. Political Commitment was significantly correlated
with both Political Efficacy and Social Service Career Goals
at both time points. However, there was some inconsistency
in each measure as well. For example, Political Efficacy
was significantly correlated with Social Service Career Goal
at Time 1 only, and System Blame at Time 2, only.

Similarly, Political Commitment was significantly correlated
with Community Involvement at Time 1 only and Changed

Attitudes Toward Social Problems at Time 2, only. Table 29

124

displays the complete pattern of intercorrelations for each
of the observed variables at Time 1 and Time 2.
Consistency of Measures Across Groups

Random assignment should ensure consistency of measures
across groups at Time 1. However, at Time 2 patterns of
intercorrelations across groups should be examined. Refer
to Table 30 for correlations among observed variables by
group, at Time 2. Consistency of the measures across groups
at Time 2 was weak. In fact, no similar patterns of
significant correlations were identified. Patterns of
correlations between Political Identity and System Blame, as
well as between community involvement and political
commitment were similar (all approaching zero). Political
Efficacy and Social Service Career goals had low
correlations for both groups. A trend was noted for
Correlations between Political Actions and Changed Attitudes
Toward Social Problems. Overall, measures were fairly
inconsistent across groups at Time 2.
IESting the Structural Eguation Model

The originally hypothesized models (including both
measurement and structural models) were dependent upon

resolving the measurement model and arriving at a three

125

Table 29. Scale Intercorrelations for System Blame, Creative
Solutions, Changed Attitude Toward Social Problems,
Political Identity, Political Efficacy, Political Action,
Political Commitment, Community Involvement, and Career Goal
Scales at Time 1 and Time 2

 

 

1 2 3 4 5. 6 7 8. 9.

logy-tom 1000 003 012 003 '031**002- 012 '013 .07
Blame

2.Creative .04 1.00 -.10 .15 .17 .19* .08 .06 .14
Solutions

3eChang°d Atte To 002 005 1000 .13 - 014 022* .27** .05 026
Social Problems

4.Political -.O3 .12 .24* 1.00 .06 .23* .18 .09 .17
Identity

5.9611t1ca1 .oo -.13 -.1o -.07 1.00 '.20* .30** .03 .05
Efficacy

6.Political -.03 .17 .13 .09 .21* 1.00 .24** .14 .11
Action

7.Political .03 .14 .16 .10 .33** .38** 1.00 .05 .45**
Commitment

8.Community -.10 .25 *.03 .00 -.01 .23* .22* 1.00 -.03
Involvement

9.Socia1 Service .09 .25* .04 .13 -.21* .18 .30** .11 1.00

Career Goal

 

Note; Time 1 correlations are depicted in the lower diagonal
of the matrix. Time 2 correlations are depicted in the
upper diagonal of the matrix.

Notoi_**p<.01; *p<.05

126

Table 30. Scale Intercorrelations for System Blame, Creative
Solutions, Changed Attitude Toward Social Problems,
Political Identity, Political Efficacy, Political Action,
Political Commitment, Community Involvement, and Career Goal
Scales at Time 2, By Group

 

 

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10syst°m 1000 011 020 007 '034* 011 '005 013 029*
Blame ’

2.Creative -.06 1.00 -.15 .04 .23 .23 .20 .01 .25
Solutions

30Chang°d Att0 T0 000 '006 1000 007 -013 024 027 007 019
Social Problems

4.Political -.02 .26. 19 1.00 .07 .32* .08 .05 .19
Identity

50p°11t1ca1 -027 015 '005 011 1000 019 051 011 010
Efficacy

60p°11tica1 -007 016 018 014 025 1000 032* -001 019
Action

7.Political -.22 -.06 .21 .26 .23 .16 1.00 .04 .27
Commitment

8.Community -.36**.10 .01 .12 -.01 .24 .03 1.00 -.19
Involvement

SOSOCial SOrViCQ '024 000 030* 011 011 002 063** -007 1000

 

Nets; Experimental Group (N=S4) correlations are depicted in
the lower diagonal of the matrix. Control Group (N=52)
correlations are depicted in the upper diagonal.

EELS; **p<.01; *p<.05

127

factor solution, to confirm that each latent construct was
supported by multiple indicators. Without a resolved CFA
solution, support for latent constructs with multiple
indicators was lacking.

Despite lack of support for the measurement model, the
structural model could still be evaluated. However,
limitations of evaluation of structural models only should
be noted. First, testing the consistency of measurement
models can be assessed through CFA. This is equivalent to
correcting a covariance matrix for attenuation. Without a
resolved measurement model, correcting the covariance matrix
for attenuation is preferred. Second, resolving the
measurement model allows for the acknowledgment of
measurement error. As noted earlier, an advantage of adding
correlated errors of measurement to a measurement model is
that it can result in improvements in the overall fit of the
model (Hoyle & Smith, 1994).

Since each latent construct was not supported by CFA,
reconsidering the indicators of each latent construct was
important before proceeding to test the structural model.
FOr each latent construct, with the exception of Political

ACtivism, there was little commonality among the observed

128

\rariables. In other words, each observed variable appeared
1:0 be measuring independent constructs. In order to test
‘the latent model, one strategy is to identify the “best”
rneasure of each latent variable. This was completed by
Eexamining the statistical properties and theoretical
jjustification of each measure. Statistically, the decision
t:o eliminate some measures from further analyses can be
leased on less than adequate internal consistency,
<:onsistency of a measure across time points, and ceiling
eeffects. Theoretically, “best” measures can be identified
13y reviewing the literature for indication of a
(:omprehensive measure of each latent variable, as well as
(examining the items of each scale, conceptually.
WWW
Recall the observed variables of Political Awareness
Vvere originally hypothesized to include System Blame,
(Zreative Solutions, and Changed Attitudes Toward Social
IProblems. The Means for System Blame (3.28) and Creative
ESolutions (3.79) indicated possible ceiling effects for
t:hose measures. Furthermore, Creative Solutions had low
:internal consistency (alpha=.53). No conceptual reason for

tretaining Creative Solutions over the other indicators of

129

I?olitical Awareness could be put forth. Therefore, Creative
Solut ions was dropped .

Both System Blame and Changed Attitudes Toward Social
IProblems had poor consistency across time. There was no
.indication of ceiling effects for Changed Attitudes Toward
£30cial Problems. Furthermore, Changed Attitudes Toward
ESocial Problems appeared to capture the concept of Political
kaareness most completely. As Sayles (1984) noted,
eattitudes provide a key to who participates in political
tnovement. As attitudes appear to be a stronger conceptual
:indicator of Political Awareness than blaming systems,
(Shanged Attitudes Toward Social Problems was identified as
t:he best measure of Political Awareness.

Idontifying an Indicator of Politioal Compotonce

Originally, both Political Identity and Political
IEfficacy were conceived to be indicators of the latent
\rariable, Political Competence. However, CFA did not
ssupport this notion. Internal consistency of both measures
Eippeared to be adequate (alpha=.65 for Political Efficacy
sscale; alpha=.79 for the Political Identity scale). No
(ceiling effects were noted. Political Efficacy was the more

(:onsistent measure across time points, as it had a similar

130

{pattern of correlations at both time points. Political
Identity, on the other hand, was correlated with Political
chtion, Political Commitment, and Social Service Career
(Boals at Time 1, but only Political Action at Time 2.

Conceptually, Political Efficacy also seemed to reflect
t:he idea of Political Competence better than Political
IIdentity. For example, in Zimmerman’s (1995) nomological
Iuetwork, efficacy is noted as main component of empowerment.
ZIdentity, on the other hand, has been associated with
especific forms of political empowerment, only, such as Black
IEmpowerment or Feminist Empowerment. Therefore, Political
IEfficacy was identified as the best measure of Political
(Zompetence.

Identifying an Indicator of Political Activism

At first glance, an argument could be made to retain
tzhe multiple indicators of Political Activism. The
:intercorrelations among the indicators of Political Activism
Cienoted some support for the originally hypothesized
“measurement model, as significant correlations among the
ssubscales were noted. However, some of these subscales were
EilSO significantly correlated with indicators of other

latent constructs. For example, at Time 1, significant

131

<:orrelations between Career Goals and Creative Solutions
(r=.25; p<.05); Community Involvement and Creative Solutions
(r=; p<.05); Political Commitment and Political Efficacy
(r=.33; p<.01); and Political Action and Political Efficacy
(r=.21; p<.05) were found. Also, at Time 2, the pattern of
intercorrelations among observed variables was not stable.
IFor example, Career Goals was no longer correlated with
(Creative Solutions (r=.14, n.s), but was significantly
czorrelated with Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems
(r=.26; p<.01). Political Commitment was also correlated
\Nith Changed Attitudes at Time 2 (r=.27; p<.01). At Time 2,
IPolitical Action was correlated with Creative Solutions
(r=.19; p<.05); Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems
(r=.22; p<.05); Political Identity (r=.23; p<.05); as well
éas Political Efficacy (r=,20; p<.05), each representing an
:indicator of other latent constructs. Refer back to Table
229 for intercorrelations of all subscales of political
eempowerment at Time 1 and Time 2.

Based upon this inconsistency, a decision was made to
:identify the best measure of Political Activism. Two

Iproblems were noted with the Social Service Career Goals

scale. Conceptually, it referred to a very narrow type of

132

(activism. Moreover, the internal consistency of the scale
\Nas poor (alpha=.48) and a ceiling effect was noted.
(Conceptually, the Community Involvement measure was also
inadequate, as it only reflected involvement that may or may
IlOt be “political” in nature..

The Political Commitment indicator had adequate
internal consistency (alpha=.69), while the Political Action
indicator had less adequate internal consistency
(alpha=.59). No ceiling effects were noted and the patterns
(of intercorrelations across time points were similar.
(Zonceptually, the Political Action scale reflected
tnainstream political activities, with items such as “going
t:o hear a political person”. Political Commitment
:reflected an activist orientation with items such as “a
Ilifelong commitment to social change". Keiffer (1984), as
Vvell as Bargad and Hyde (1991), identified commitment as a
czulminating stage of political empowerment. Because
I?olitical Commitment had higher internal consistency than
IPOlitical Action, and appeared to reflect the concept of
Ebolitical activism better than specific actions, Political
(Zommitment was identified as the best indicator of Political

Activism.

133

Summary of Revised Latent Constructs

Because each latent variable was not represented by
tnultiple indicators, as originally hypothesized, a
reconsideration of the latent model was necessary. In other
\uords, to test the structural model of political empowerment
\nithout the support of multiple indicators for each latent
<:onstruct, an alternative strategy to measure the latent
tnodel must be used. One strategy is to identify a single
tneasure of each latent variable. Disregarding some measures
éand identifying others as superior indicators of each latent
‘variable is accomplished through empirical and theoretical
(evaluation. After examining each indicator both empirically
éand conceptually, Changed Attitudes Toward Social Problems
Vvas identified as the best indicatOr of Political Awareness.
I?olitical Efficacy was identified as the best indicator of
I?olitical Competence. Political Commitment was identified
618 the best indicator of Political Activism.
fiPosting Struotural Models of Political Empoworment

In keeping with the spirit of the originally proposed
Einalyses, a two-part strategy was employed to evaluate
(:ompeting models of political empowerment. First, a full

structural model was evaluated, including only free

134

Ioarameters (represented by straight arrows) between
exogenous variables at Time 1 and endogenous variables at
'Time 2. Second, in an effort to identify a parsimonious
Inodel of political empowerment, some parameters were fixed
(not estimated; arrows removed) and a nested model was
(evaluated. The fit of each of these competing models to the
(data was assessed. Furthermore, the power to identify
\Nhether each particular path coefficient was assessed via
(examination of modification indices. Refer to Table 31.
'Tosting tho Eull Latent Model of Politioal Empouormont

This model was tested via estimation with analysis of
<:ovariance structures in LISREL 8 (Jereskog & Sérbom, 1989).
TPhe structural equation model contains the relationships
Eamong Condition, Political Awareness, Political Competence,
61nd Political Activism. See the correlation matrix in Table
:32. Only this uncorrected correlation matrix was used for
tzhe LISREL analyses, because correcting for attenuation
Iresulted in a matrix that was not positive definite, a
lrequirement for model identification in SEM.

Two types of results are important in structural
eequation modeling (Klem, 1995). First, estimates of the

Tnagnitude of the hypothesized effects are reported in path

135

Table 31. Modification Indices for Each Hypothesized Path
and Power to Identify Whether Each Particular Path
Coefficient is Significant

 

 

Path Modification Bxpec ted Power**
Index Change*
Condition 1 . 02 . 16 . 17

to Political Awareness (Time 2)

Political Awareness (Time 1) 14.10 . . .34 .96
to Political Awareness (Time 2)

Political Competence (Time 1) 2.53 -.22 .36
to Political Awareness (Time 2)

Political Activism (Time 1) 4.07 .24 .52
to Political Awareness (Time 2)

Condition 5.96 -.23 .68
to Political Competence (Time 2)

Political Awareness (Time 1) 2.57 -.08 .36
to Political Competence (Time 2)

Political Competence (Time 1) 38.35 -.64 .99
to Political Competence (Time 2)

Political Activism (Time 1) 2.07 .10 .29
to Political Competence (Time 2)

Condition 6.03 .33 .68
to Political Activism (Time 2)

Political Awareness (Time 1) .35 . . -.04 .09
to Political Activism (Time 2)

Political Competence (Time 1) .85 .11 .15
to Political Activism (Time 2)

Political Activism (Time 1) 17.29 .46 .99
to Political Activism (Time 2)

\

Hots; *“Expected Change" refers to the prediction of the decrease in
chi-square that will be obtained if that particular path is introduced

into the model.
**Power to find significant path coefficients is estimated from

the modication indices.

136

(diagrams. The sign of the path coefficients should be
consistent with the predictions and the size of the
coefficients should be statistically significant.

Second, examining the extent to which the hypothesized
Inodel is consistent with the observed data is reported via
ggoodness of fit indices. In general, three conditions are
<:onsidered to determine whether the data fit the proposed
tnodel. First, a chi—square goodness—of-fit test should be
Inonsignificant, indicating that there is no difference
loetween the data and the model. In other words, a
Idonsignificant chi-square finding is one indicator that the
(data fit the proposed model. However, with a large number
(of parameters being estimated, a chi—square test may be too
{powerful, therefore two additional criteria are used to
Cietermine goodness—of-fit (Hayduk, 1987; Jereskog & Sorbom,
3.989). These include the goodness-of-fit index
(GFI)/adjusted goodness-of—fit index (AGFI) (which should be
Eibove .90 and .80, respectively), and the root mean square
lresidual (RMR), which should be close to zero (Hayduk, 1987;
CTéreskog & Serbom, 1989). However, RMR does not take
IDarsimony into account. Therefore, the root mean square

(Error of approximation (RMSEA) may be a better fit index to

137

Table 32. Correlation Matrix for Political Awareness,
Political Competence, Political Activism, and Condition at

Time 1 and Time 2

 

 

1 2. 3. 4. 5 6. 7.
1. Political Awareness 1.00
(Time 1)
2. Political Competence -.10 1.00
(Time 1)
3. Political Activism .16 .33.. 1.00 ’
(Time 1)
4. Political Awareness .42** -.14 .21* 1.00
(Time 2)
5. Political Competence -.17 .68** .27** .30** 1.00
(Time 2)
6. Political Activism .03 .19 .46** .27** .30** 1.00
(Time 2)
7 0 condition 008 " 016 008 016 027** 023** 1000

¥

Eggs; **p<.01; *p<.05

138

:report. This index should be close to .05. This index is
loased on the assumption that the model fits the data and is
éadjusted for complexity. This is a more relative index and
:it does take parsimony into account. Each of the four
ggoodness of fit indices were examined.

First, the sizes of the path coefficients were
<:onsidered and many paths were statistically significant.
IPigure 7 presents the empirical evaluation of this model.

Many of the goodness—of—fit indices were within their
aappropriate range of values, providing some evidence that
tJne data fit this model. With the number of parameters
enstimated, it is not surprising that the chi—square test was
Ekignificant x?(3) = 15.84, p = .01. The goodness-of-fit
.iridex (GFI) was .92, the adjusted goodness-of-fit index
(ZMGFI) was .64, the root mean square residual (RMR) was .03,

Eirnd the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was

~321.

éilymmary of Rosults of Full Latent Structural Modol

Condition was a significant predictor of both Political
c:Ompetence and Political Activism at Time 2. All path
cZOefficients were not positive, as predicted, however.

(:Cnndition predicted Politcal Competence in the opposite

139

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ciirection than hypothesized.
Political Awareness at Time 1 was a significant
Ipredictor of Political Awareness at Time 2. Political

(Zompetence at Time 1 was a significant predictor of

I?olitical Competence at Time 2. Political Activism at Time

:1 was a significant predictor of Political Awareness and
I?olitical Activism at Time 2.
Many causal pathways were not significant in this full

Ilatent model. No significant predictions were found between

I?olitical Awareness at Time 1 and Political Competence or

Ekolitical Activism at Time 2. Similarly, no significant

Enathways were found between Political Competence at Time 1
ialld Political Activism at Time 2 nor was there a significant
prediction for Political Activism at Time 1 and Political

(Icnmpetence at Time 2. Also, Condition did not appear to be
£3 jpredictor of Political Awareness at Time 2. A trend for
I-°C>Ilitical Competence at Time 1 predicting Political
ZXVWareness at Time 2 was noted.

Many of the fit indices were within acceptable range,
Ifinding some support that the model fit the data. However,

I\C§FI was particularly low, as it fell below the criteria of

'530, and RMSEA was particularly high at .21, far above the

141

-05 criteria.

'Iesting a Nested Model of Political Empowerment

Nested comparisons of alternative models can be
gassessed in order to arrive at a parsimonious model.
IExamining non—significant causal pathways and t-values can

said in the decision of which pathways to eliminate from the

Einalysis of subsequent nested models. As noted earlier,

t:here exists the potential for chance findings and sample
“idiosyncracies” in post hoc modifications (McCrohan, 1995;

IPanter & Hoyle, 1995). However, a simple model that

exxplains a lot of data is considered superior to a complex

nuodel that explains little data. For this reason, post hoc

éalialyses can be useful to aid in the development of
parsimonious model 8 .

A number of pathways were dropped from the original
rnOdel including pathways between Political Awareness at Time
31 and Political Competence and Political Action at Time 2,
POlitical Competence at Time 1 and Political Activism at
jPiJne 2, Political Activism at Time 1 and Political
(:Canetence at Time 2, and Condition and Political Awareness
Eitl Time 2. Results from the nested model follow.

The size of the path coefficients was considered and

142

all paths were statistically significant. Figure 8 presents
the empirical evaluation of this model.

The goodness-of-fit indices were within their
appropriate range of values, indicating that the data fit
this model. Again, with the number of parameters estimated,
it is not surprising that the chi-square test was
significant x2(8) = 22.40, p = .01. The goodness of fit
index (GFI) was .95, the adjusted goodness of fit index
(AGFI) was .81, the root mean square residual (RMR) was .04,
and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was
.13.

Summary of Results of Nested Structural Model

All pathways were significant, with the notable
exception of the pathway between Political Competence at
Time 1 and Political Awareness at Time 2. A trend was noted
for this pathway. Also notable was that the pathway between
Condition and Political Competence was in the opposite
direction than predicted.

To summarize the results of the nested model, evidence
was found that Condition predicted Political Competence and
Political Activism at Time 2. Political Awareness at Time 1

predicted Political Awareness at Time 2. Political

143

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Competence at Time I predicted Political Competence at Time
2 and a trend was noted for Political Awareness at Time 2.
Political Activism at Time 1 predicted Political Activism
and Political Awareness at Time 2. Overall, the fit indices
indicated that the nested model fit the observed data better
than the full structural model. In particular, RMSEA
dropped from .21 in the full model to .14 in the nested
model.
A Search for Greater Parsimony

As noted earlier, a strategy of post hoc analyses to
arrive a parsimonious solution involves examining t-values
and fit indices to determine which pathways to remove form
the original full model. The strategy involves removing
paths one at a time until a parsimonious solution that
accounts for much of the data is arrived at. It may be
noted that the nested model described above included one
non-significant path, from Political Competence at Time 1 to
Political Awareness at Time 2. In an attempt to find a more
parsimonious solution, a nested model with that particular
path removed was examined.

The results of the resulting model included the

following fit indices: x2(9)=25.87, =.Ol; GFI=.94;

145

AGFI=.81; RMR=.O4; RMSEA=.14. While AGFI remained the same,
all other fit indices revealed a worse model fit with the
non-significant path removed. While the path was non-
significant, it contributed to the overall goodness of fit
of the model. Therefore, the nested model presented
earlier, with one non—significant path was deemed the most
parsimonious model that fit the data.
Comparison of the Full and Nested Models

Table 33 depicts the differences in fit indices for the
competing latent models.

Table 33. Fit Indices for Competing Models of Political
Empowerment

 

 

Model x2 df p NFI PFI CFI x’difference NFI change
Pull 15.84 3 .005 .91 .10 .92

Model

Nested 22.40 8 .02 .87 .33 .91

Model

Difference between Full and Nested Mbdels 6.56 .04

 

Note. NFI = Normed Fit Index; PFI= Parsimonious Fit Index;
CFI=Comparative Fit Index.

As Joreskog (1978) noted, differences in chi-square
values may be more informative than the chi-squares
themselves. A useful strategy for comparing the fit of

competing models is to note the chi-square/degrees of

146

freedom ratio (Hoelter, 1983). As the ratio decreases, the
fit of the given model improves. From this perspective, the
fit of the nested model is better than the fit of the full
model. The ratio decreased from 15.84/3 to 22.40/8,
approximately from 5/1 to 3/1.

A more formal approach is to conduct a Likelihood
Ration Chi-Square Test. This is a strict test to determine
whether two models are statistically different. To conduct
the Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square Test, the difference in chi-
squares for the two models (6.56) was referred to a chi-
square table with the degrees of freedom equal to the
difference in degrees of freedom for the two models (5).
With p=.05, and df=5, a x? difference of 11.07 would
indicate a significant difference between the two models.
The x? difference (6.56) was not significant.

Lack of significance can be interpreted to mean that
the two models do not differ in fit. However, this is a
very stringent test. In fact, it is possible to discover
that a parsimonious model is a worse fit of the data than a
more complex model. An overall assessment of the difference
in x2 values, decrease in x?/df ratio, all the fit indices

and path coefficients suggests that the nested model is a

147

better fit of the data than the full model.
Summary of Model Testing

The planned analyses included resolving a measurement
model, examining a structural model, and a competing nested
structural model. The hypothesized measurement model could
not be resolved using CFA. Consistency of the indicators
across groups was as expected with random assignment.
Consistency of the indicators across time points was fairly
poor, in general.

A strategy to identify one measure of each latent
construct (in the absence of support for multiple
indicators) and then test a competing structural model as
originally planned was used. First, a full structural
model, with all parameters between Time 1 and Time 2 free,
was examined. Some support that this model fit the data was
found. However, the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index was
particularly low.

Next, a nested, latent model of political empowerment,
‘with many fixed parameters (i.e, no hypothesized
relationships), was evaluated. Parameters were fixed after
examining t—values and path coefficients in the full latent

model. While on path was non-significant, data suggested

148

that it contributed to the overall fit of the model. The
resulting model fit the data better than the original. All
fit indices were within an acceptable range. Support for a

more parsimonious model was found.

Chapter 4

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Two goals of this research were to evaluate the effects
of an intervention that was designed to promote the
development of political empowerment and to articulate a
model of political empowerment that is both theoretically
and empirically sound. This project was moderately
successful on both counts.

Summary of Major Findings

First, intervention effects were evaluated using ANCOVA
analyses. Second, a model of political empowerment was
tested using LISREL 8. Following is a summary of the major
findings of each of these analyses.

Majgr Findings from the ANCOVA Analyses

The first goal addressed in this research was to assess
whether people who took a college course with a political
empowering component become more politically empowered than

people who were placed on a waiting list. Evidence was

149

150

found indicating that individuals randomly assigned to
participate in the intervention had increased levels of
Political Commitment (an indicator of the latent construct,
Political Activism) compared to individuals who did not
participate. In contrast, those who participated had
decreased levels of Political Efficacy (an indicator of
Political Competence) upon completion of the intervention
compared to those who did not participate. Also, a trend
was obtained, suggesting that individuals who participated
in the intervention were more likely to plan careers in the
field of social services. Those who participated in the
intervention were no more likely to have increased Political
Awareness (as indicated by measures of System Blame,
Creative Solutions, or Changed Attitudes Toward Social
Problems) than individuals randomly assigned to a control
group (waiting list).

In conclusion, there was some indication that
participants in the experimental condition (empowering
college course) did have some increased levels of Political
Activism and some decreased levels of Political Competence
at the end of the intervention compared to participants in

the control condition (waiting list). The college class did

151

not appear to have an effect on Political Awareness.
Major Findings from the LISREL Analyses

A second goal was to articulate a model of political
empowerment. A two—part strategy included testing a full
latent model and also examining a competing nested latent
model. The nested model was a better fit with the data, as
indicated by the goodness of fit indices. Additionally, the
nested model was more parsimonious than the full model,
while also accounting for more data.

A nested latent model was found to fit the observed
data, as indicated by multiple goodness of fit indices.
According to this parsimonious model of political
empowerment, Condition predicted both Political Competence
and Political Activism. However, Condition predicted
Political Competence in the opposite direction than
hypothesized. In other words, people who completed this
intervention (empowering college course) had decreased
levels of Political Competence and increased levels of
Political Activism than people who were randomly assigned to
a waiting list. In sum, this finding is consistent with the
ANCOVA analyses noted above.

Furthermore, this model provided evidence that, for

152

this sample, levels of Political Awareness, Political
Competence, and Political Activism at the end of the 36 week
interim were each predicted by their respective Time 1
level.

Perhaps the more interesting prediction from this model
is that Political Activism at Time 1 significantly predicted
Political Awareness at Time 2. In other words, the
commitment to social justice preceded attitude changes, in
this sample. Also noteworthy was a negative trend (not
significant) between Political Competence at Time 1 and
Political Awareness at Time 2. If this trend is accurate,
increased levels of competence and efficacy may predict less
“changed” levels of Political Awareness at Time 2. In sum,
the data did support a meaningful model of political
empowerment.

This model posits that over the course of two college
semesters (36 weeks), an intervention in a university
setting, designed to promote political empowerment will
effect one’s level of Political Activism, as measured by
Political Commitment, more than typical college courses.
Furthermore, this model reveals that, for this sample, an

increased activist orientation and sense of political

153

commitment led to increased political empowerment over time,
regardless of university-structured empowering
interventions. Specifically, feeling politically active led
to feeling politically aware, as evidenced by increases in
changed attitudes. These findings suggest that by sparking
an activist orientation and sense of political commitment,
political awareness may follow. Additionally, this study
has provided evidence that university courses can be
designed to promote political activism and commitment,
perhaps acting as a catalyst for the process of political
empowerment to occur.

geneeptual Centributione ef this Study te the Literetgre

This study offered a conceptual framework for

investigating political empowerment. Both Zimmerman’s
(1995) nomological network of empowerment and Keiffer’s
(1984) model of empowerment can be critiqued. This study
éalso attempted to address the process of empowerment over
t:ime. Finally, this study may have uncovered a complexity
Ixegarding the role of Political Competence and efficacy in

tile developmental process of political empowerment.

154

Cri i e of Zimmerman’s 199 Nomolo ical Ne w rk of
Empewerment

First, this research found some empirical support for
Zimmerman’s (1995) model, which included interpersonal,
interactional, and behavioral dimensions. A subscale of the
interpersonal dimension would include efficacy (the
indicator of Political Competence in this research). The
interactional dimension was represented by changes in
attitudes, or Political Awareness, in this research. The
behavioral dimension would include Political Activism.
Zimmerman (1995) stated that empowerment was not merely an
interpersonal construct, but should include the evaluation
of behavioral and interactional constructs as well. This
research supported this notion, adding that a behavioral
dimension, Political Activism appears to drive the
development of political empowerment, at least for this
particular sample. In contrast to Zimmerman’s (1995)
nomological network, however, this research discovered that
Political Efficacy, the indicator of Political Competence,
actually decreased significantly as a result of

participating in the university intervention.

155

A Note About Political Competence and Efficacy

The intervention appeared to have a negative effect on
Political Competence (as measured by Political Efficacy).
This was contrary to the effect that was expected and
contradicted past research findings as well. It may be that
this was a fluke finding that could notbe expected to be
replicated. In this case, it may be discarded. However, it
is also possible (as the empirical evaluation suggested)
that the intervention effects were accurate and that certain
“empowering” interventions de cause decreases in political
competence and efficacy, at least in the short term. This
possibility would warrant further discussion about the
potential complexities of the role of political
competence/efficacy in the development of political
empowerment.
De a e in Political Com eten Efficac as Tem or r
State

One interpretation of this result might be as follows:
Well meaning individuals decide to work for a cause that
seems important to them. This decision can be made without
a great amount of critical thought or political debate about

the issue (for example, juvenile delinquency) but a basic

156

humanitarian effort. Once a person becomes involved, he or
she will inevitably become more familiar with the
intricacies of the social problem (for example, the
relationships to poverty, lack of resources, etc.) This may
have two immediate short term effects including a stronger
sense of commitment to the cause, along with a sense of
being overwhelmed by the magnitude of the social problem and
its related issues. This might lead to a sense of
incompetence; a decreased sense of political efficacy. In
other words, the problem may seem too large for the person
to handle.

Perhaps if the sense of incompetence is not consuming
and the person is able to continue working for their social
cause, a renewed, stronger sense of competence and efficacy
will develop over time. The decreased sense of political
competence would be a temporary effect, then. Longitudinal
research would be necessary to examine this interpretation.

If this interpretation is accurate, it points to
another intriguing consideration. In the process of
developing a sense of political empowerment, it may be
common for a temporary lag in political efficacy, (or one’s

sense of political competence) to occur. Depending upon how

157

this developmental “transition point” is resolved,
individuals may be inclined to “drop out” of their political
activities if they become overwhelmed, while they may be
prompted to “become immersed” in their activities as they
recognize the need for action. This “efficacy lapse” may
offer an important intervention opportunity for those
interested in promoting political

empowerment.

Decrease in Political Com etence Efficac as a rm n nt
Trait

However, this sense of incompetence may remain all
consuming. Interpreting the decrease in Political
Competence/Efficacy as a temporary state is an optimistic
perspective. It is also possible that the decrease in
feelings of efficacy may be a more permanent trait, at least
for some individuals.

Consider this interpretation of the results. Well
meaning college students decide to work for a cause that
seems important to them. As in the past example, these
students are guided by basic humanitarian beliefs, but
perhaps lack the full understanding of the demands of

activist work. In other words, these students may be driven

158

by idealized notions at this point. The reality of the
difficult, often unrewarding day to day work may be
overwhelming. This lack of immediate gratification and
potential for limited, if any, long term results may be a
learning experience for many. In turn, this may lead some
individuals to accept that activist work is no longer a
personal aspiration. Unlike the previous example,
individuals in this scenario may become steadfast in their
decisions to become apolitical. Interventions to “spark”
continued activism might be in vain.

If this interpretation is accurate, other
considerations are important. While interventionists may
despair, developmental researchers may become intrigued. In
this example, the experience of the intervention was just as
meaningful to the life course development of the individual
as in the previous example. Rather than going through a
temporary lapse in competence, some individuals may come to
a sense of political alienation as a more stable personality
trait.

These different paths of development may be similar to
other developmental changes that occur to individuals

progressing from late adolescence into adulthood (the age of

159

the participants in this study). Adolescents have the
opportunity to try on many personality “hats” during their
transition to adulthood. Some roles may be played out for a
short time, while others may become permanently embedded in
one’s adult identity. For example, some college students
become vegetarians, others become musicians, artists,
actors, or athletes. For most, these roles are temporary.
In the transition from parental influence to independent
living, adolescents can engage in a variety of “role
transitions”, including the role of political activist. The
university setting provides a safe environment for
experimenting with many “hats”. For some adolescents, these
“hats” may “fit", and be worn into adulthood. Some may even
incorporate their teenage activities into their career
choices. For example, one student in the experimental
condition commented, “The class was great. I’ve decided to
become a social worker and focus on children’s rights". For
others, the “hat” may be worn for only a short while, but it
will not “fit” into their adult lives. Another student
said, “I always thought I wanted to be a child psychologist
until I took this class. Now I know that I could never work

with kids for the rest of my life! And dealing with the

160

schools was even worse!!” Those who became less politically
competent may have simply discovered that the “activist hat”
did not fit their lives.
De rease in Political Com etence Efficac a a Develo m n al
Transition

From a developmental perspective, these findings
are in accordance with Perry’s (1968) theory of late
adolescent development. Perry (1968) studied cognitive
development of college students and noted a progression from
“dualistic” to “relativistic” thought. Dualistic thinking
was characteristic of most incoming college students. This
can be illustrated by the question that many students ask
their professors, “What is the tight answer?” Dualistic
thinking is reducing problems to a dichotomy of right/wrong
or good/bad. Relativism, on the other hand, requires the
ability to critically consider problems “relative” to a
variety of circumstances. The relativist thinker might
challenge the professor, “That answer on the exam is only
correct when...” Perry (1968) maintained that late
adolescence is the developmental period when the transition
from dualistic to relativistic cognition is possible, and

noted many more relativistic thinkers upon college

161

graduation. However, the transition is a function of both
maturity and experience. Many adults can remain halted at
the dualistic stage of development.

As noted earlier, the intervention provided the
opportunity for critical thought about one’s sociopolitical
world. For many students, this was a difficult task.
Knowing that participants would be advocating for a juvenile
offender, one of the first critical discussions revolved
around juvenile delinquency. Dualistic thinkers would
comment, “But if it’s against the law, it’s just wrong and
he shouldn't have done it.” Relativistic thinkers would
respond, “As long as laws are made to target certain
individuals and groups, we need to stop judging them.” With
only anecdotal evidence, it appeared that there were far
more dualistic thinkers than relativistic thinkers in the
experimental condition.

Following Perry’s theory of development, it may be that
dualistic thinkers in the experimental condition, without
the ability to critically analyze their sociopolitical
environment and question their own values, may have been
more inclined to become overwhelmed, continuing to search

for the “right” way to advocate for a juvenile offender and

162

work for social change. When no “right” way was presented,
the decline in one’s sense of competence and efficacy was
almost inevitable. Meanwhile, dualistic thinkers in the
control condition might not have been faced with the
activist dilemmas that led to decreased efficacy.

Following this interpretation of adolescent
development, researchers and activists might want to
consider the developmental stage of potential participants.
While adolescence may be the ideal time in one’s life to
begin to “dabble” in political activism, an advanced level
of cognitive development may provide the answer to the
question of who becomes politically empowered and committed
to a social cause versus who becomes overwhelmed and
politically disempowered. Future research may illuminate
the potential interaction effects between cognitive
development and political empowerment.

Critique pf Keiffer’s Model of Politieel Empowerment

The results of this study raises some conceptual issues
for research that has attempted to document the preeess of
political empowerment. For example, Keiffer (1984)
documented a four -stage process of empowerment that began

with an era of entry, led to eras of advancement and

163
ineetporation, and culminated with an era of commitment.
This research did find support that the development of
political empowerment is a process that cannot be
accomplished as the direct result of an intervention. This
research also indicates that upon entry to the process of
political empowerment, one will probably continue to
“advance and incorporate” through increased political
actions, changed attitudes and career goals. However,
contrary to Keiffer’s findings, commitment appears to be
associated with the era of entry, rather than the final
stage of empowerment.

According to Keiffer, commitment was associated with an
advanced level of political empowerment. This could be
described as reaching a self-actualized stage of political
empowerment, where every action and inaction is considered
in a political context. In this study, however, commitment
(as the indicator of Political Activism) set the process of
empowerment in motion. This finding leads to an interesting
question. Does empowerment begin or end with commitment?
Embedded within this question may be the limits of linear
analyses. Research in the positivist tradition can

accurately evaluate the effects of one variable upon

164

another, yet is unable to identify cyclical relationships.
We might as well be asking the question, “Which came first,
the chicken or the egg?” Accordingly, the answer may be the
same: “Both and neither”. In other words, it is possible
that both Keiffer’s finding, as well as the evidence from
this research, are both accurate. ~It is likely that
commitment leads to changes in Political Awareness which in
turn leads to increased commitment which leads to changes in
Political Awareness...and so on. If this is true, then the
combined efforts of Keiffer and this study have found
support for the idea that the developmental process of
political empowerment may involve cycles of change, rather
than linear stages of development.
Hypethesized Develepmental Process of Peliticel Empewerment
Simply discovering that university-based interventions
could increase political commitment over the course of two
semesters, while having little or no effect on activism or
other constructs associated with empowerment may appear
discouraging. Researchers and educators might be left with
questions, such as “Will the intervention effects last over
time?”. Perhaps even more daunting a question might be,

“Can Political Activism, as measured by commitment, alone be

165

associated with empowerment?” Fortunately, this research
allowed for these questions to be a'ddreSsed. Accordingly,
this study found support for the idea that sparking a sense
of political commitment and an activist orientation might
last over time.

The structural equation model lends itself to a
developmental interpretation of the data. Based upon these
results, a conceptual model of the development of political
empowerment over time may be hypothesized. Figure 9 depicts
the relationships of the variables in the hypothesized
model. This model hypothesizes that Condition positively
Predicts Political Activism and negatively predicts
P01 itical Competence. Over time, Political Activism will
predict increases in Political Awareness. Over time,
Political Competence will predict decreased changes in
Political Awareness. Empirically testing the latent model
of political empowerment provided an analysis of the
potential for an intervention that increases Political
activism to have long term effects on continued development

of political empowerment.

166

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Conceptual Limitations of This Study

One of the conceptual limitations of this study was the
limited attention given to the developmental stages of late
adolescence. In addition to the limited understanding of
cognitive development in this sample highlighted earlier,
different levels of commitment, individual differences in
experience and different paths to moral development may have
also influenced the research findings.

Conceptual Limitations of Political ggmmitment

Given the discrepancy between the findings of this
research and the developmental stages in Keiffer’s (1984)
model, the notion of Political Commitment warrants further
discussion. It is possible that the term “commitment” has
been described in a general way, without considering that
different “level” or “types” of commitment may exist. For
example, one level of commitment may be described as the
kind of commitment students felt upon coming to the course
orientation, hoping to be selected for the class. This type
of commitment might involve basic humanitarian beliefs that
people should become involved in their communities. The
students who came to the class orientation all shared this

level of commitment. They all wanted to help at-risk teens.

168

To that extent, all of the participants were
“preselected” to already have a sense of political
commitment. With this in mind, it is important to point out
that this was not a random sample of college students. All
changes that took place over time must be regarded in light
of the notion that the sample was limited to a initially
motivated group. For example, from this perspective, the
decrease in political competence may simply reflect
regression toward the mean.

However, other levels of commitment may exist. The
commitment discussed by Keiffer (1984) as well as Bargad &
Hyde (1991) was characterized by a lifelong goal to work
toward social justice. It was a sense of commitment rooted
in one’s personality and a salient part of one’s identity.
This stage of commitment seemed to represent a higher level
of commitment (or perhaps a different type of commitment)
than the commitment required of a community volunteer. The
differences in commitment may be further illuminated by the
stereotypes of “do—gooder” versus “radical activist”. The
stereotypes may conjure images of a traditional homemaker
volunteering at her community church juxtaposed to a

militant feminist leading a protest march. Each individual

169

might possess the same desire for involvement, but by very
different means of “political commitment”. Further
research will be necessary to flush out the differential
meanings of the word “commitment”.
Individual Differences and Moral Development

Another limitation of this study was that the
intervention may have had a profound effect on some
individuals that became lost in the reductionist
quantitative data. Anecdotally, some of the participants
commented on the extent to which participating in the
empowering intervention had been meaningful to them. For
example, one participant said, “I wasn’t sure how this
experience would be, but now I know that I want to work with
teens, or maybe even younger kids”. Another participant
commented, “This was a good experience, but I wouldn’t want
to do it again. I used to want to be a psychologist, but
after doing this, I’ve decided to go to law school,
instead”. In both of these cases, participating had a major
impact on the individuals, personally. However, these
experiences remain masked by the data. It is important to
assessing the results of this study in the context of the

data analyses conducted.

170

Individual differences in the development of political
empwerment, as a result of very different experiences in the
intervention, may be worth further analyses. Because each
participant’s involvement was individually tailored to meet
“someone else’s needs” (the juvenile offender’s), and
included advocacy throughout Ingham County, MI (from the
inner city to remote rural sites), individual experiences
were quite varied. Some participants had school and
parental cooperation, easy going youths, clearly defined
objectives, and subsequently a successful intervention.
Others met with combative parents, uncooperative
institutions, and hostile youths. These interventions were
far more challenging and often ended in frustration.

Intuition may hint at which type of intervention led to
greater political empowerment. Research on moral
development may further help to explain. Gilligan (1982),
building on Kohlberg’s (1968) earlier work, identified
different paths to moral development. One path was based on
a justice orientation, with competition being a primary
motive for action. This path of development is typical
among boys and men. For those participants with a justice

orientation, an experience that included confronting a large

171

institution (such as a school system) and “winning” a case
may be perceived as greatly successful, regardless of the
countless frustrations along the way to the successful
outcome. One participant fought for over ten weeks to stop
his assigned youth from being unjustly expelled from school.
On the morning that he was able to drive his assigned youth
to school, he expressed being as proud as a parent and glad
that justice prevailed.

A second path (Gilligan, 1982; Gilligan & Attanucci,
1988) was based on a care perspective, with ensuring human
relationships being a primary motivation for action. This
path of development is typical among girls and women.
Another student was assigned to work with a younger child
(age 8) and soon discovered that he could not read. With
the support of his teacher and his custodial parent, she was
able to teach him to read. She expressed great satisfaction
with watching her assigned youth read to his custodial
parent and described her experience with the intervention as
very successful, despite very little activism or advocacy.

However, another student was pulled over by police for
minor traffic violations the first two times she entered the

neighborhood of her assigned youth. Her car was torn apart

172

and searched for drugs and weapons. This students had never
before received any traffic violation and felt that her
rights had been violated. Furthermore, she highly suspected
that certain neighborhoods were targeted by police. While
she had an otherwise successful experience in the
intervention, she remained troubled by the confrantational
episodes with the police. This scenario was more typical of
the participants’ experiences in the intervention. Most of
the participants were women (presumably most followed the
care orientation of moral development) and most experiences
were overshadowed by direct confrontational advocacy (more
conducive to a justice orientation). Perhaps future
research will attend to the interaction between moral,
cognitive, and political development.
Meth l ical Limita i ns f hi St

Several methodological limitations may influence the
strengths of the conclusions that can be drawn from this
work. First, the measurement model originally proposed
could not be evaluated because the data did not support the
three latent constructs through confirmatory factor
analysis. This could indicate either a problem with the

underlying factor structure of the latent variables or

173

problems with the measures. Considering that the model was
quite specific, in spite of the fact that it was developed
from a confluence of sometimes conflicting theories, it is
quite likely that the initial underlying factor structure
was ill conceived.

The latent model was examined as planned. However,
only one measure of each latent variable was used in the
analysis. Thus, this research was limited in its attempt to
tap into the many different facets of the complex concept of
political empowerment. Perhaps the findings of this
research will aid theoreticians in developing more
comprehensive models, taking into account the many domains
represented by the term empowerment.

In a related matter, it is important to point out that
the final model presented was the result of post hoc
analyses. Whenever post hoc analyses are performed there is
the potential for chance findings. However, when post hoc
analyses are grounded in theory, as was the case in this
research, it can still be a useful and meaningful approach
to understanding and interpreting data. To avoid the
likelihood of chance findings, only theoretically relevant

models were considered for post hoc analyses.

 

174

Another limitation of this study concerns the
independent variable, the empowering intervention. This
intervention included many different areas, including small
group size, mentors and leaders, skill development, access
to resources and immersion in the community. However, these
domains were not evaluated separately, but were instead
combined in one intervention effort. The results indicated
that an intervention with all of the aforementioned
components can lead to increased political commitment.
However, this research is limited in that the main effects
of each component of the intervention and interaction
effects cannot be ascertained. While it is important to
discover which mechanisms are effective in triggering the
development of political empowerment, this research has only
tapped into one general approach.

Another concern is that of power. Because the
relatively small sample size for the number of variables
evaluated, it is possible that some effects were not
identified. According to Cohen (1988; 1992), a sample size
of N: 133 would have been necessary for an expected medium
effect and an optimal level of power (.80). The sample size

of N=106 reduced power to .73 for the ANCOVA analyses and

175

did not yield sufficient power to identify overall model
fit. See Appendix A for a more complete discussion of this
concern. On a positive note, medium effects can be assumed
for the effects that were identified.

The small sample size may reflect other problems as
well. For example, the homogeneity of the sample opens up
the concern of generalizability. This sample was mostly
white, between 18—25 years old, with relatively privileged
academic backgrounds. This study included one sample of
individuals, at one university, participating in one very
specific type of empowerment program. Furthermore, this
sample may have been inadvertently “preselected” individuals
with some level of political motivation, efficacy, and
commitment, leading to restriction of range for some of the
measures. It is important to consider the
representativeness of this sample when interpreting the
results.

It was previously noted that the process of political
empowerment is developmental, increasing over long periods
of time. This research only spanned a time interim of 36
weeks. With the combined analyses of the intervention

effects and the model development, some developmental

 

176

implications were noted. However, this study only allowed
for the speculation of a developmental model of political
empowerment. This is only an initial step toward
understanding the developmental process of evolving
political empowerment. For example, the short time interim
seemed to have a negative effect on the development of
Political Competence and Efficacy. It is possible that this
is an accurate assessment in the short term. It could be
that a new awareness of the social problems can lead to
sense of being overwhelmed and feeling less competent.
However, it would seem plausible that over time, commitment
combined with activism would lead to increased efficacy and
competence. This conclusion can only be hypothesized, not
born out of this research, however.
Implications for Futpre Researgh

One of the major themes implied throughout this
research is that articulating a meaningful model of
political empowerment is important for social change
.research and action. A useful model can aid in our
Ilnderstanding of empowerment theory and suggest mechanisms
Ixy'which social change agents can spark this process in well

imitentioned citizens. A model was developed for this

177

purpose. However, while retaining theoretical relevance,
the latent model tested in this study was not supported by
multiple indicators, as originally proposed. These results
suggest the need for more research in the area of model
development. Perhaps continued theory development and
testing may help to resolve some of these theoretical
inconsistencies.

While each of the scales used in this research had
acceptable internal consistences, several observed variables
would benefit from refinement and reanalysis. In
particular, these included the scales measuring creative
solutions, system blame, political identity and community
involvement. Since these scales were developed specifically
for this research project (with some adaptation from other
published scales) it is likely that some of the items were
not accurately grasping the meaning of the relevant
construct. Continued scale development.in these areas is
essential for future empowerment research.

Part of understanding the process by which political
empowerment develops requires an understanding of the
Inechanisms that activate the process. While this study

indicated that empowering interventions can prompt the

178

development of Political Activism, any specific aspects of
the intervention most responsible for the prompting remain
unknown. Future experiments should consider the evaluation
of different levels of the intervention. For example, one
group may participate in small group settings with a leader,
while another group may participate in small group settings
without an assigned leader. In this way, it might be
possible to distinguish between the effects of small group
participation and having a leader on the development of
political empowerment. In this way, the most salient
triggers of the empowerment process may be identified.

It was also noted that the small sample size and
specific intervention strategy may have'limited the research
findings. Political empowerment is a broad concept, but
each individual research project can only tap into some of
its domains. A larger sample size would allow for the
evaluation of many variables, with increased power.
Research with other samples and different types of
empowering interventions is recommended to corroborate the
findings of this experiment.

Quantitative data and experimental designs are useful

to establish causal relationships, eliminate extraneous

179

variables, and to test group differences. However,
quantitative analyses can mask different patterns of
experiences that may be meaningful for a complete
understanding of the process of political empowerment.
There may be many different paths to political empowerment.
In future research, supplementing experiments with
qualitative analyses could add richness and texture to
research findings from quantitative analyses. More
importantly, qualitative analyses could help to reveal
specific mechanisms that trigger empowerment to develop.

Also, different paths of moral development, as well as
different stages of cognitive development may have
interacted with the effects of the intervention. However,
these effects were not investigated in this study. Perhaps
future research will be able to flush out the potential
influences of moral and cognitive development on the process
of becoming politically empowered.

Finally, this project focused on political empowerment
as a developmental process. Furthermore, it was noted that
the process of political empowerment may include cyclical
relationships of change. However, as noted earlier, this

study was limited to a pretest-posttest design. Research

 

180

projects designed to follow participants over a longer

period of time may yield meaningful results concerning the

developmental patterns of political empowerment.
Conclusion

This study provided a fresh perspective on the
development of political empowerment. It suggested that it
is possible for university based courses to be designed to
inspire political empowerment to develop. Furthermore, an
example of what such an intervention might look like was
described. In addition, a theoretically sound and data
supported model of political empowerment was offered as a
heuristic for understanding the concept of political
empowerment.

This study also offered hope to academics and social
change agents that a sparked commitment and activist
orientation might lead to increased awareness and
empowerment in the near future. The results of instigating
empowerment may not be immediate. Undergraduate students
Inay not finish a course and proceed to the nearest political
event. However, with a new sense of political commitment,
'undergraduates could become increasingly more politically

.aware and empowered over time.

181

There is a major longitudinal implication of this
research. By leading to other activities associated with
empowerment, sparking a sense of activism and political
commitment might be more like sparking a forest fire, that
continues to grow, rather than lighting a match, that dies
out in a few moments. For researchers, educators, and
potentially empowered individuals alike, this is good news.
For those of us interested in social change activism and
prompting the political empowerment of others, the message
obtained from this data is clear. Promote political
activism through political commitment. Social change will

follow.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

Power Analysis

This project had N=lO6 participants. Post hoc
considerations of power revealed that this sample size was
limited. According to Cohen’s (1988) procedures for MANOVA,
a power test for the overall model was computed. Alpha was
set at .05, power at .80 and f2 (standardized effect size)
at .25. In other words, a medium effect size was assumed.
This analysis indicated that N: 128 participants would be
optimal. A reduced sample size of 106 reduced power to .73.

For structural equation modeling, estimating power
became more complex. In SEM, power can refer to overall
model fit or power to find whether particular path
coefficients are significant. The idea of “power” is very
neW’ in the area of SEM, and in many respects the literature
has yet to adequately address the issue.

There are many ways to test overall model fit. One way
is to examine the GFI index (.92). Power is also affected
Iby'sample size, alpha levels, and model complexity, however.
'rhe Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) can

Ixrovide a more comprehensive estimation of overall power

182

183

fit. Power for the overall fit was estimated to be
approximately .70 with the full measurement model (with
multiple indicators). With the reduced model (single
indicators and fewer degrees of freedom), overall model fit
decreased to approximately .20. The conclusion was that
there would have been adequate power with the inclusion of
the observed variables in the originally hypothesized model.
However, given the sample size and the reduced model size,
there was not adequate power to test the overall model.
Another estimation of power in SEM is the ability to
find specific significant path coefficients. Again, this is
affected by sample size. Simply, this estimate is a
restatement of effects sizes. Table 32 reported these
estimations. While there was sufficient power to estimate a
feW'path coefficients, overall power was weak. In other
xmords, because there was very little relationship between
'variables in the sample, there was little power to test the

nxmdel with each specific path as opposed to without each

specific path.

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

Appendix B

MSU ADOLESCENT PROJECT TRAINING MANUAL: PSY 371/372
Department of Psychology: Michigan State University

INTRODUCTION: The primary goal of the project in which you are
to be intensely involved over the next several months is to
provide quality community-based service to local youth in legal
jeopardy with the juvenile justice system. While the juvenile
justice system has many components, which we will outline and
discuss later, the aim of this project is to keep local youth out
of the formal court system.

There are a large number of people involved in the operation
of this project. Volunteers, such as yourselves, will furnish
the critical ingredients of providing quality service to the
youth with whom the project works and of bringing case related
material to training/supervisory sessions. Trainer/supervisors
will conduct the group meetings for the volunteers. They will,
in turn, be supervised by the project director.

Egpggpgpigng; Each of the training and supervision
sessions will last for two and a half hours. One critical
component of this project is your attendance at all of these
training/supervision sessions. This requirement is not because
we are particularly interested in making sure that all good
little volunteers go to their meetings. Rather, we have found
that the mutual discussion and input we can have as a group will
have an important impact on our work with individual youth.

The training/supervisory sessions will consist of several
things throughout the course of the year. During the first nine
sessions the majority of the time will be spent in training you
in effective methods of intervention with adolescents who have
come into contact with the legal system. It is important that
each one of you have a strong background in the approaches to
youth used in this project. Thus, the first nine units will be
presented so that everyone will learn the essential information
relevant to service for youth. During the first term you will be
assigned outside readings and homework relevant to your work in
this project. The reading assignments are outlined at the
Ibeginning of each unit. Your trainer/supervisors will inform you
xMhere the readings are located. If homework is included in the
linit, the assignments will be outlined at the end of that unit.
'They involve either individual or small group work. You will be
(EXPGCCEd to have mastered the material in the assigned readings
axnd.have completed the homework by the time that you come to the

class meeting.
When your meeting starts, your supervisor will spend the

184

185

first portion answering any questions that you may have had about
the reading assignment. You will then demonstrate your
understanding of the material from the manual and from the
readings. This will be in written and/or oral form, depending
upon the structure your trainer/supervisors and the project
director have chosen to follow. This may be followed by small
group discussion of homework assignment, class exercises, role
playing, and/or supervision of the i early cases assigned to the
project.
0 After Psychology 371, the meetings will be focused on group
discussion of the individual cases with which you will be
working. The meetings will include the following

components:

0 You will be asked to present a detailed oral description of
your case each week to the group.

0 You will be expected to add input to the group discussion of

individual cases and attend to suggestions about your case
from other volunteers and the supervisor.

O The discussion of each person's case will consist of
goal-oriented group problem solving. In short, this method
of group supervision consists of outlining the goals or
problem areas for each case, the alternative solutions
available, the costs and benefits of each alternative, and
the selection of a course of action.

0 You will be asked to bring a weekly progress report to each
meeting (see Appppdixpa for a sample report).
0 You are expected to keep a log of your activities. The

specifics of how you are to keep the log and some sample

excerpts are presented in Appendix_fi. The log will

summarize all contacts you have made with and for your youth
during the entire intervention period.

It is also important that you are clear as to the relative
degrees of responsibility that you have to each of the program's
components. You should view as your first responsibility the
youth with whom you will be working and his/her best interests.
This responsibility includes your interactions with him/her as
well as your interactions with your friends and others. The
importance of confidentiality in your interactions with your
friends, and relatives cannot be overemphasized. Your pgpppd
responsibility is to the project as a whole. It is critical that
jyou.are honest with your supervisors about activities relevant to
the youth. While they definitely will have positive expectations
aibout your interactions with the youth, do not hesitate to tell
thefllabout something that has gone on which you think may have
been a mistake. If they and your group know about problems then
they can work them out together with you. Your 1.1111151
:responsibility is to your fellow students. This includes your
;anut to the group discussions relevant to your own and other

186

people's cases.

Up to this point we have discussed your involvement in the
training/supervision sessions. However, your major involvement
in this project, in terms of time, will be working with or on
behalf of a young person from the local community. Three general
principles apply:

0 You will spend six to eight hours per week providing service
to the youth to whom you are assigned. This will include
direct interaction with the youth, interaction with
significant other people in the life of the youth, and
preparing for future interactions.

0 The intention of this project is to provide individualized
service to each of the youths referred. In other words, you
will be applying the principles and techniques learned in
the training units to each youth according to the
characteristics of the individual and his/her situation.

0 Your role will become clearer to you as you participate in
the project. You will be a negotiator, mediator, change
agent and advocate. You will not be a police officer,
probation officer, parent, or therapist. It is difficult to
prescribe your role or spell it out in any more detail
because each individual is unique and each intervention
differs. You will need to take an individualized approach.
This means that while you will always follow the principles
of the models, the specific strategies that you will
implement vary. Training/supervision sessions will provide
a time and place for you to explore various roles and
practice a number of intervention techniques. Further
discussions about the planning of an individualized
approach, the development of intervention tactics and the
use of supervision will follow.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

Historically, the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency in
America was created by the initiation of the juvenile court
system at the end of the 1880's. Prior to that time, youthful
offenders were handled with varying degrees of formality by adult
courts. The initial thrust for the creation of the separate
system for handling juveniles came from the desire to protect
children from mistreatment while still providing a vehicle for
safeguarding society from youthful wrongdoings. The failure of
refuge homes, used for wayward youth in the nineteenth century,
had resulted in children being severely treated and used as low
cost manual laborers. The juvenile court was designed to provide
for the care of children in a way which would ideally approximate
that provided by "responsible" parents. Other central issues in
the formation of a separate juvenile court were that the court
per se would operate with a maximum amount of flexibility in

187

order to allow informal truth-seeking procedures and would
provide a format amenable to individualized treatment. In short,
it was suggested that the juveniles exchange their constitutional
right to a full—fledged trial for the benevolent concern of the
court. This exchange was felt to be a fair trade-off for the
juveniles, given the good intention of the law.

The court's sphere of influence was quickly expanded. The
courts had been created with all the fervor of a publicly
supported social movement. For example, Illinois Juvenile
Courts, usually cited as indicative of early juvenile court
development, were created by the 1899 Juvenile Court Act and
given jurisdiction over any youth who violated the criminal code.
Its operation was based on the work of unpaid probation officers
appointed by the court. By 1901, legislative change expanded the
legal definition of juvenile delinquency to include uniquely
juvenile offenses such as incorrigibility. In 1905, the Court's
mandate was further expanded. Initially it was responsible for
the adjudication (judicial decision) and disposition (sentencing
or referral of cases). Now it was also to direct supervision of
treatment services provided in carrying out its orders. In 1907,
legislation further expanded the Court's arena by providing for
professional probation officers and court staff.

After the fervor of the first decade of this century, the
juvenile courts in this country essentially conducted their
mission in a rather dormant fashion. Most other states had
followed Illinois in creating separate courts for juveniles by
the twenties. Separate Juvenile Bureaus in urban police
departments were close behind. Procedural informality,
individualized treatment, and provision of services approximating
those of a natural home were held as basic operating principles.
Such procedures were not thought to require multiple safeguards.

All continued relatively quietly until the middle 1960's.
At that time the juvenile justice system, like many other social
institutions, became the target of a variety of attacks, both
from within and outside its ranks.

1) The firs; line of criticism attacked the juvenile

court's justification for acting with procedural informality

while at the same time holding the fate of the individual
youth in its hands. In the 1967 Supreme Court decision in
the case of Gault, the majority opinion stated that although
the juvenile justice system had good intentions, the
condition of being a youth did not justify a kangaroo court.

It was thought that the system had failed to provide either

sound, effective treatment or procedural safeguards insuring

constitutional rights, thereby leaving the youth with
nothing.

2) A aepppd line of criticism focused on the mistreatment

of youth by sending them to highly malignant correctional

188

institutions. The poor conditions which existed in the

juvenile institutions were almost unbelievable. In

addition, recidivism rates (frequency with which youth
continued to get into legal trouble after receiving
treatment) were extremely high.

The juvenile justice system had originally been created to
improve conditions and provide treatment for youth; it was now
being attacked for not fulfilling its mission.

One major response to these criticisms was the suggestion of
more innovative individualized intervention programs. However,
since courts typically have been understaffed, alternative
sources of personpower have been needed to carry out these
individualized plans. This current program is, in part, designed
to provide qualified volunteers to serve as individualized change
agents working directly with the youth in his/her natural
environment.

' o I
I. Manual:
A. Overall goal of the MSU Adolescent Diversion Project
(ADP).

B Expectations of volunteers.

C Components of case supervision.

D. ADP volunteers' responsibilities.

E. ADP volunteers' role.

F Purpose of the juvenile justice system.

G Criticisms of the juvenile justice system

UNIT I: BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND DELINQUENCY

BEADINQEI
Goldstein, A. P. Harootunian, B., & Close COnoley, J. (
1994). Stadant_Agraaai9ai__Braxanti9n1_manasamanti_and_

pgplapgmppp_p;gipiggp New York: The Guilford Press.
pp. 74-119.

Tharp, R.G., & Wetzel, R. J. (1969). Behayipr_mpdifipapipn_

' e r v' m n . New York: Academic, pp.

1-25, 44-51, 54-60, 96-111.

Wilmes, D.J. (1988). Paranfing_f9r_£ra1antign1__flam_ta_ Raise
a_Child_tQ_§ax_N9_t9_AlaghalLDrasa- Minneapolis:

Johnson Institute Books, 141—150. '

In the first two units we will be talking about two
relatively distinct rationales with regard to human behavior and
delinquency. One is the behayippal approach, which will be
discussed first, and the other is the epyirpnmgnpal_;§gpupp§g
approach, which will be presented second. After the theories and
traditions of each are examined, a discussion of how the two
models fit together to form an effective individualized case
approach will follow.

 

The roots of the behavioral approaches can be traced to

189

learning theory and experimental psychology. In addition, it
should be noted that the behavioral conception of human behavior
and problems is in many ways a reaction to traditional medical
model and intra-individual approaches.

The traditional explanations of human behavior often focus
solely on internal psychic health or illness. Supposedly, iptta;
individual characteristics resulting from early childhood
experience and genetic background produce observed differences in
human behavior and personality structure. 'Internal states are
seen as predictive of actual human actions. The traditional
approaches view human problems as indiyidpal problems and the
individual becomes the focus of therapeutic and change
strategies. Great emphasis is placed on professional therapists
to initiate this change within the individual.

The behavipral gppgeptipp differs in several important
respects from the traditional approaches discussed above.

1) It emphasizes the importance of an individual's

gpyixppmept in determining actions.

2) It suggests that the fppps_pfi_phange be the enyirppment

of the individual rather than the individual per se.

3) It stresses that the target of change include multiple

envirpnmental ppmponepts rather than only the individual via

one-to-one therapy. Therefore people other than the
professional therapist are viewed as critical to the process
of change.

4) It suggests that ongoing human behavior is a function of

the principles of learpipg theory rather than relatively

intractable intra-individual characteristics.

5) It stresses that deviance is_a function of spgigtal

lgpelipg processes rather than a characteristic of

individual deviant actions. In other words, behavior is
only termed deviant when observed by and defined as such by
important others or by the individual.

The behavioral approach suggests that human performances are
a function of several basic processes. These processes were
initially highlighted in early laboratory experimentation.

First, there are five processes for initiating, maintaining, and

inppeasipg human behavior.
1) Instruttian_ar_Er9mpLias - defining Specifically how
and what to do; verbal instruction about how to engage in
the desired behavior. This strategy is often used to help
develop a new behavior.
Ep;_§xamp;§; you could ask the youth you are working with to
meet you someplace, telling him/her specifically where you
will meet, what you will be doing, the time of the meeting,
and how to get there.
2) Mpdglipg - having someone observe another person doing
something; providing a behavioral example of the behavior.

190

This strategy is often used to help develop a new behavior.
Fer example: you might show the parent(s) of the youth a
different way of interacting with him/her. You could have
the parent(s) watch you and the youth engage in a positive
conversation about the youth's activities for that day.

3) s' 'v ' f m - presenting a positive or

desired event following the occurrence of some action.

Positive reinforcement increases the incidence of the

behavior it is contingent upon.

Epr example: you could set up a situation where your

assigned youth would receive an allowance based on

performance in school each day.

4) Negative Reinfpreement - discontinuing a negative or

undesired event following the occurrence of some action.

Negative reinforcement increases the incidence of the

behavior it is contingent upon. Our program emphasizes the

use of positive reinforcement, and generally negative
reinforcement is not used in formal behavioral agreements.

However, an example of negative reinforcement would be:

parent(s) agree to stop nagging or yelling if the youth

agrees to do the dishes Monday through Friday by 8:00 pm.

The reward would be the reduced/ended complaining of the

parents.

5) Shepipg - reinforcing successive approximations of the

desired behavior. This strategy is used when the likelihood

of an individual emitting the fully perfected criterion
behavior is low.

Ep;_exemple; a youth who has a history of never doing

homework might be reinforced for successive approximations

of the desired 30 minutes of study time by being reinforced
first for sitting at the kitchen table for 3 minutes quietly
with an open schoolbook in front of him, then for 5 minutes,

10 minutes, solving 3 questions and so on.

Second, in addition to the strategies above for increasing
and maintaining desired actions, there are two principle methods
for deereaeing human behavior:

1) Exti etipp - the reinforcing event which was maintaining

the behavior is no longer presented or made available.

Ep;_exemple: a teacher decides to ignore the

attention-seeking comments of a student who receives much

attention from the class when confronted by the teacher.

The process of extinction may lead to two side effects

before the target behavior decreases and eventually

disappears: 1) the target behavior may increase in

frequency for a time before it begins to decrease, and 2)

sometimes there is the appearance of frustration behaviors

such as crying and aggressive actions. Since extinction
does not teach any new alternative behavior, it should

191

always be used in combination with the positive
reinforcement of an acceptable alternative to the behavior
being extinguished.

2) Ppniehment - there are two forms of punishment:

a. P ' hme n 'v ev - presenting a
negative or aversive event following some undesired
action.

Fe; exemple: you could set up an agreement between

the youth and parent(s) such that if the youth
returned home late, he/she would have to do extra
household chores.

b. P i m ' ' v - removing
a positive event following some undesired behavior.
Epr example: under a family agreement a youth might

be prohibited from watching evening television each
day s/he did not attend school.
Although punishment can be an effective method for reducing
undesired behavior, it is pet a reeemmended intervention
strategy. Five undesirable consequences are associated with

using punishment (Tharp & Wetzel, 1969). These are:
l) Punishment may W which

could take one of many forms from a passive refusal to
comply to a violent physical attack on the punisher. Such
counteraggressive behaviors often cause the initial punisher
to retaliate through the use of more intensive punishment,
creating a spiraling interaction in which both individuals
emit increasingly more aversive/punishing behaviors.

2) Punishment may weekep_the_relatienehip between the
punisher and the one being punished, who may begin to fee;
and/or exhibit epxiety around the punisher.

3) Punishment may W The
person who is punished may purposely avoid the punisher.

For example, a youth who is always hassled by his/her parent
for one thing or another, may "tune out" the parent(s) or
never stay around the house.

4) Punishment tends to only tempererily_enppreee the
undesired behavior.

5) Punishment daas_n9t_taagh_any_namlannrgnriate
e1te;netiye_peheyier. Punishment may decrease the frequency

of undesirable behavior, but this does not guarantee an

increase in desired behaviors.

Although the use of punishment is not advocated in your
intervention activities, you should be aware of how to
appropriately use punishment if the family insists on its use.
Three conditions should always be observed. First, punishment
should only be used in conjunction with positive reinforcement of
desired/acceptable behavior. Second, punishment should occur
immediately following the undesired behavior. Third, positive

192

reinforcement removed as a form of punishment should never be
reinforcement earned through engaging in desired behavior. For
example, if a youth earned 50 cents for every class she/he
attended, the youth should not be punished by taking away 50
cents each time she/he skips class.

While this brief overview of a behavior approach to human
behavior has summarized the basic processes governing the actions
of people, most of these principles are usually conceived of as
operating at the individual level. In other words, one person,
in control of the reinforcers, is viewed as controlling or
influencing the behavior of another individual. In the
situations that you will be dealing with as part of this program,
it is usually the case that 1ptetpereppe1_1pte;eet1ene define the
areas which need attention. These interpersonal exchanges
operate in a two-way fashion (rather than one individual having
absolute control) according to the principles outlined above.

In actuality, the youth and significant other, e.g., parent,
teacher, friend, employer, have considerable mutual influence
over the actions of each other.
An operant interpersonal view of human behavior applies
learning theory principles to the interpersonal situation.
Within this framework a number of assumptions are made regarding
interpersonal relations between youth and significant others in
their lives (Stuart, 1971).
1) The W in the
interpersonal situation is viewed as something which hee_te
pe_ee;ped rather than an absolute right. People have to act
nice towards others in order to expect positives in return,
and vice versa.
2) Effective interpersonal relationships are governed
according to the perm_pf_;ee1p;ee1ty. In other words, the
adage of "If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours" turns
out to be true.
3) The value of an interpersonal relationship is a function
of the range, rate, and magnitude of positive re1ptepeemente
involved in that relationship. People value others who
treat them positively, on many occasions, and in many ways.
4) W in an
interpersonal relationship. When two individuals specify
what they can mutually expect from each other it allows a
certainty which will increase the chances of positive
exchanges, and allow the exploration of additional positive
alternative modes of interaction.

There have been many theories of juvenile delinquency put
forth by social scientists since the early part of this century.
Most of them have focused on either pathological or deviant
individuals as the cause of delinquency. Other theories have

193

argued that delinquency was the product of deprived or
discriminatory social conditions. Neither of these very
prominent sets of approaches have produced adequate explanations
of delinquency nor have they suggested helpful intervention
approaches.

The operant framework views delinquency as a function of a
set of ongoing interactional processes. It is very important to
note that the principles which are said to govern the initiation
and maintenance of delinquent behavior are the same as those
which are said to function in all human actions. Delinquency is
not viewed as pathological or deviant in and of itself. Rather,
delinquency is socially defined. In fact, the mere commission of
the unlawful act is insufficient to identify a delinquent. The
act must be observed and formally labeled in order for a youth to
become known to the juvenile justice system.

It appears that delinquency is a function of several
processes which you will be attempting to change with your
assigned youth. It has been observed that the interactions
between delinquents and their families are different from those
of nondelinquents on a number of dimensions.

1) Families of delinquents disproportionately display

(model) and attend to (reinforce) delinquent actions. In

other words, the youth have been exposed to and reinforced

for the commission of undesired actions by their families.

2) Families of delinquents fail to attend to the prosocial

performance of the youth. Academic, social, and vocational

accomplishments of the youth are insufficiently attended to
by his/her family.

3) Interaction patterns in families of delinquents are

generally governed by aversive controls rather than positive

relationships. The family you will be seeing during the
next few months may often disproportionately use negative
tactics such as threats, grounding, and complaining to
attempt to get what they want. '

4) The peer group of delinquents may similarly

disproportionately attend to and encourage delinquent

activities and insufficiently encourage prosocial
accomplishments. The peer groups of the youth you work with
may provide social payoffs for "hell raising" and seldom be
interested in the academic, vocational, or recreational
accomplishments of the youth.

5) The school personnel which relate to the youth

(primarily teachers) will also be overly concerned with the

negative actions of the youth and fail to pay consistent

attention to his/her accomplishments.

6) Other significant individuals in the life of the youth

fail to pay consistent attention to his/her accomplishments.

In short, there are many interpersonal forces in the form of

194

contingencies which have led the youth towards a path of unlawful
activity.

The implications of the operant interpersonal explanation of
delinquency described above are multiple. ~Obviously,
interpersonal contingencies form a major component in the
development and maintenance of delinquent activity. Thus, the
focus of interventions must be the interpersonal relationships
within the life of your assigned youth. One major goal for you
will be to move these relationships towards the norm of
contingent reciprocity, that is, a giving back and forth based on
specified rules of behavioral exchange. Positive reciprocal
interactions are a central component in averting further
difficulty. You will want to work with the youth end his/her
significant others to change their interaction patterns, creating
a positive gp1d_pre_gpe ("this for that") relationship. In
addition, you need to be aware of the importance of yep; own
relationship with your youth. This relationship should also be
based on the positive principles outlined above. The training
units will, in part, be spent teaching you how to use these
principles in modifying the relevant interpersonal relationships.
The importance of assessing and intervening in each case on an
individual basis will be stressed.

It must be noted that your interventions will be with both
the youth epd the various significant individuals in his/her
life. Many traditional approaches, particularly those involving
volunteers such as yourselves, have placed exclusive focus on the
individual youth in isolation.

As can be seen from the explanation of delinquency reviewed

above, 'm n a r w'
iptetpeteppel envirepment pf the yepth. If you focus solely on

the youth it would probably be next to impossible to bring about
change, and any change which might occur would not likely
continue after you terminate working with the youth. As will be
seen in the next unit, it is also critical to focus on the
youth's needs and the related environmental resources in order to
maximize the relevance and longevity of change.

B i Prin i l f m ni

11ml

A. How the Behavioral conception of human behavior
differs from traditional approaches

B. Basic processes for initiating/increasing/maintaining
human behavior

C. Basic processes for decreasing human behavior

D. Effects of the use of punishment

E. Assumptions about relations between youth and

significant others according to the operant
interpersonal view of human behavior
F. The operant framework view of delinquent behavior

195

G. Interpersonal Processes operative in the lives of
delinquent vs. non-delinquent youths
H. Implications of the operant interpersonal explanation
of delinquency
Re 'n
.A. Decline of the professional therapist as a viable
intervention approach
B. Negative consequences of the medical model
C. Definition and task of contingency management
D. Principles of learning theory
E. The triadic model, its components, and the role of the
mediator
F. Strategies for developing new behaviors
G. Effects of the use of punishment
H. Communication skills; active and facilitative
listening

UNIT II: ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES CONCEPTION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
AND DELINQUENCY RATIONALE FOR MULTIPLE STRATEGY MODEL
BEADIN§§=
Davidson, W.S., & Rapp, C. (1976). Child advocacy in the
justice system. Speiel Wprk, 21(3), 225-232.

Davidson, W.S., Seidman, E., Rappaport, J., Berck, P., Rapp,
N., Rhodes, W., & Herring, J. (1977). Diversion

programs for juvenile offenders. Spe1e1_flerk_3eeee;eh_ epd_
W. 11(2), 40-49.

Ryan, W. (1976). B1em1ng_thepy1et1m. New York: Vintage Press,

Intro. and Chapter 1.

       

   

     

1! 0:11:11. 1:30- 1.: . _-—1
The popularized environmental resources conception of human
behavior forms the basis for the child advocacy approach and its
related techniques. As with most theoretical and conceptual
developments in the field of social science, the environmental
resources conception of human behavior is very much a reaction to
and an outgrowth of traditional conceptions and strategies within
academic and professional realms. .

The first of these traditional approaches, prominent within
the fields of psychology, social science and within society as a
whole, is generally characterized as the 1nd111dpe1_d1£fezepeee
tradition. The basic premise of this school of thought is that
human behavior is a function of relatively stable, individual
characteristics, such as intelligence, personality, and family
background. Furthermore this approach maintains that there are
some individuals who act and think differently from "normal"
individuals. This approach has led to a myriad of techniques to
change "undesirable" individuals within a traditional therapeutic
format. The basic strategy involves inducing change in the
specific characteristics of the individual so that undesired
actions disappear or are replaced by desired actions,

196

self-esteem, and ego strength. Most of the change approaches
that you are familiar with, in the fields of psychology,
psychiatry, social work, counseling, and education, are aimed at
changing individual characteristics as the appropriate route to
therapeutic gain.

A second approach to human behavior, very prominent in the
field of sociology in the fifties, and at the base of the social
action movements of the sixties, is the epe1e1_eepfiliet
theoretical position. The basic premise of the social conflict
approach is that human behavior is to a great extent a function
of social structures. In other words, formal and informal social
structures and forces function to direct an individual and/or
group towards behavior patterns considered to be normative or
legal. This position suggests that cultures are successful in
convincing their members of the desirable goals to obtain. In
our own culture such common goals include material wealth,
education, and good jobs. However, it also suggests that
subgroups within each society are differentially provided with
legitimate and illegitimate means of attaining the commonly
esteemed goals. In other words, if legitimate means towards the
commonly held goals are not available to individuals or groups,
they will seek and find illegitimate methods of attaining
congruence with society's ideals. Thus, deviance is viewed as an
illegitimate means of obtaining a desirable goal and is a
function of rather intractable social conditions and structures.
The implication of this social structure/social conflict
conception of human behavior is that the opportunity structures
of American society have to be opened so that all groups have
equal access. The social conflict approach is often related to
the individual differences ideology by the suggestion that the
observed individual differences (low intelligence, criminality,
poverty, or a poor work record) are a function of an unequal
opportunity structure within the society.

Although the environmental resources conception of behavior
developed out of (and therefore shares some perspective with) the
social conflict model, it is very different from the earlier
model in some important respects. In fact, theorists of the
environmental resources approach criticize two major weaknesses
which they see as common to both the individual differences and
the social conflict models:

1) Both of these earlier models view the differences

between people or between social groups as the major source

of social problems. Both approaches focus on differences,
and seek to eradicate these differences between people and
groups. In contrast, the environmental resources approach
suggests that the WW which
exist between people in a pluralistic_society are dee1teh1e.
The importance and integrity of each and every individual is

197

seen as paramount. This approach, rather than seeking to do

away with the differences between people, instead upholds

and supports each person's right to express and fulfill
themselves as a distinct individual. This is not to condone
the continuation of social structures that deny certain
groups equal access to resources. The point is that rather
than focusing on differences, the environmental resources
approach focuses on the right of each individual to have
their needs fulfilled.

2) Both the individual differences and the social conflict

models are criticized for their fixed, static natures. They

both suggest that relatively stable characteristics are
predictive of human behavior. The environmental resources
position in contrast proposes that human behavior is much
more likely to be a function of epgeing_eee1e1_pxeeeeeee --
like those within the family, the government, the school

system which by their very nature cannot be captured by a

static model. Furthermore, it argues that the two other

approaches, with their focus on static individual and social
characteristics, provide an excuse for not being involved in
the social process. The alternative suggested by the
environmental resources conception is one of 1pyelyement, in
which the basic right of each individual to society's
resources is highlighted. This position was most
elaborately delineated by the Joint Commission on Mental

Health in Children during the early 1970's. The Commission

stated that each individual in our society has a basic right

to resources, in all life domains, which society has
available. The constitutional rights to life, liberty, and
happiness were reasserted as a systematic position about how
to deal with human difficulty. In short, eeeh_1pd111dpe1

WW through

education, vocation, recreation, interpersonal

relationships, and upbringing.

The implications of the environmental resources conception
of human behavior are that advocates need to work for various
individuals and social groups, to insure that the society and
local community respond to the needs of all their members. The
advocacy approach is hardly new to our society. In fact,
advocates have existed in a number of naturally occurring and
professional roles for some time. Parents are construed as
advocates for their children, lawyers for their clients,
professional associations for their constituents, and labor
unions for their workers. This conception also suggests that the
role of the advocate needs to be more widely dispersed among
various demographic, developmental, and professional groups.

The advocate needs to intervene within the ongoing social
processes which are relevant to the life of the individual or

198

group. Thus, an advocate will insure that eeeh individual
receives the full gamut of resources to which he/she has a right,
and which are needed to fulfill individual needs.

     
   
 

      

    

  

_ ;=;-_r e; 01 e.- 0! 0, Veg, = Paid-1:9,

Initially the environmental conception was applied to the
problem of juvenile delinquency due to a growing recognition that
the traditional approaches failed to provide any productive
strategies for dealing with youthful law violators. The
traditional explanations of delinquency failed to account for the
widespread incidence of illegal behavior by youth among all
social and demographic groups. In addition, the traditional
approaches to treatment had resulted in the apparently malignant
conditions prevalent in the nation's juvenile justice system and
in the programs designed to rehabilitate delinquent youth.

The basic position of the environmental resources conception
of juvenile delinquency is this:

1) Illegal youthful behavior is widespread among all youth

groups.

2) A subset of the youthful law violators are identified by

police, parents, and school officials as being official

juvenile delinquents.

3) If sufficient material and personal resources are not

exerted, the youth will in fact become officially labeled

delinquent.

4) After a youth enters the system, access to important

resources is further reduced.

The environmental resources conception suggests that
delinquent youth are very much like all other youth (many of whom
commit illegal acts), except that the material and personal
resources which could have been used to keep them out of the
juvenile justice system were not utilized. This subset of
youthful violators that are identified often reflects the
oppression of members of society who do not have privileges based
on race or economic standing. Once a youth enters the system,
his/her access to important resources is further reduced. The
environmental resources model stresses the value of the
individual. A youthful offender is seen as having unfulfilled

personal and material needs. Thus. aaah.19ath_musf_ha_resnegfad

- o 9:? ‘ 0 ' 0 1' o n " _- o “ 0-, a. "9.

The acceptance of the fact that juveniles have a right to
community resources has been a function not only of theorizing in
the social sciences but also of events in the legal and political
spheres. As was mentioned earlier in this manual, most "people
helping" approaches progressed in relative solitude from the
early 1900's to the early 1960's. During the mid-sixties the
rights of those being served by various social agencies were
reasserted in the streets and in the landmark decisions of the
United States Supreme Court. For example, the decision in the

199

Gault case indicated that juvenile offenders have a right to the
nation's legal resources in the defense of their cases. This
basic philosophy was expanded to other social service fields, and
the basic rights of individuals to be involved in and have some
control over their own destinies was stressed.

In the area of treatment of juvenile offenders, this
individual rights/child advocacy approach has recently been
recommended as a general intervention strategy. Success in
American society, both material and personal, can be viewed as a
function of one's ability to manipulate society's resources for
one's own benefit. Children have lacked advocacy groups and
hence have probably received less than their fair share of the
community's resources. Youth identified as delinquents have
obviously received even fewer of the resources to which they have
a right. Thus, the child advocacy approach suggests that the
scales should be balanced so that the law violator has an equal
chance of gaining the resources necessary to fulfill his/her
personal and material needs.

The advocacy intervention used in the ADP involves a
multiple-strategy, problem-solving proCess proposed by Davidson &
Rapp (1976). The steps of this intervention model are
interrelated and contain feedback loops. The process is
classified into three general phases: 1) primary assessment, 2)
strategy selection, and 3) implementation. Each phase will be
discussed in detail in subsequent units. Here you are provided
with a brief overview of this advocacy intervention model.

During the first phase, p;1mery_eeeeeement, the advocate:
a) assesses the unmet needs of the youth; b) generates a list of
all possible resources that could be used to fulfill those needs:
c) identifies who controls the needed resources; and d) assesses
the vulnerabilities of those who control needed resources; that
is, those factors to which the target individual/institution
would be most responsive and which would lead to the procurement
of desired resources.

The second phase involves ee1eet1pg_e_etretegy that will
produce the resources needed. Strategies are multiple and can be
viewed as varying along two continuum, a pee1t1ye;te;neget12e
santinuan and an meim With
respect to the first set of strategies, at the pee1t11e end the
advocate attempts to gain good favor of the person or agency in
control of the needed resources. At the midpoint, the advocate
maintains a neptte1 position and provides information to critical
individual or agency about the unmet need. At the negetiye end,
the advocate takes direct aversive action against the critical
individual or agency. The second set of advocacy strategies
involves a continuum with points representing the individual,
administrative, and policy level. At the ind1y1dpe1_1eyel, the
advocate identifies the critical person in control of the needed

200

resources and directs one of the above strategies toward that
individual. At the admipietret1ve level, the advocate identifies
a critical agency in control of the needed resource to which
advocacy strategies are directed. At the pelicy leyel, the
advocate identifies some political or social system that was
responsible for the lacking resource and works toward bringing
about policy/system changes. These two sets of strategies
interact. Each can be combined with each other producing nine
distinct advocacy strategies.

The last phase of the advocacy intervention model is
implementetien. This involves carrying out the selected advocacy
strategy and monitoring the outcome to insure that the needed
resources are obtained.

Within the context of this intervention model, th;ee_gene;e1
gplee and responsibilities of the eh11d_edyeeete emerge:

1) The advocate needs to take on the role of 1dent1fiying,

Wm ' 'Z'n . andganatafiathLnaceasarLcomsmitLrem

to meet the needs of the individual or group which is

his/her constituent. The unmet needs of the individual are
to be identified by the advocate together with the

constituent individual or group. The advocate is called on
to use the existing resources of the community. In general,

a wide variety of resources exist which are little known to

or used by the population in question relevant to their

personal and material well-being. The advocate must also
meet the needs of the individual through the creation of
community resources which may be non-existent.

2) The advocate must WW

etpetegy to mobilize or generate community resources.

Obviously, multiple tactics are available and none are

universally applicable or predictive of success. The

advocate is called upon to carefully consider the various
strategies available, the idiosyncrasies of the individual
and the situation and resources to be targeted, as well as
to make a decision about a course of action likely to lead
to the desired goals. At the very heart of the child
advocacy approach is an individualized strategy rather than

a set of carefully specified steps to follow in all

instances. Obviously, the child advocacy approach relies a

great deal on the individual resources and capabilities of

the advocate.

3) The goal of the advocacy effort is to teeeh_the

'Qq' '0.e 9‘310 1‘,9‘q 0 27? m- - 7‘- -eq 0 - 90;' '09.

Since the approach is based on the sanctity of the

individual and his/her rights to resources, it is critical

that the individual be involved in the advocacy effort, so
that he/she will be able to assume self-advocacy at the
close of the intervention. Obviously, the aim of the

201

intervention is not to require that the person need a formal
external advocacy system to maintain his/her well-being.
The individual needs to be directly taught the methods and
organization of self-advocacy efforts and/or the option of
organizing others to join in the approach.
WNW:
Washes
In the first two units of the training manual we have
discussed the fundamental concepts of the behavioral and
environmental resources approaches. Although the application of
these theories is distinct, we will be using a combination of
these two concepts in dealing with the youth involved in this
project. It is crucial that you understand the reasons for
presenting both approaches within the same manual. This summary
will provide the rationale for promoting the multiple strategy
model and will show how the two models will fit together in the
remaining six units and in the actual intervention period:
1) Each method of mediating change for the youth has been
selected for its soundness in theory and in practical
application. In the Illinois Delinquency Project
(University of Illinois, Champaign/Urbana) there were no
major outcome differences in number of police contacts,
number of court petitions, and seriousness of police
contacts between the group using the environmental resources
model and the group using behavioral agreements. However,
there were significant differences between youths who were
involved with the Project and those who received normal
court services. The latter group had a greater number of
police contacts and court petitions than those who
participated in the Project, regardless of which
intervention model they received. In other words, ppth
h wer ver iv .
2) Although both groups did better than those not receiving
the new strategies, it was clear that because of a special
need or situation a particular youth might have done better
if another strategy had been permitted. As a result
of in-depth assessment you will become knowledgeable about
the needs and special problems of your youth. Each of the
youths assigned will of course differ in many respects.
Behavioral and environmental resources initiatives are
presented together so that ppt1ppe_e;e_expepded.
3) The use of a tailor-made program will help to eliminate
the tendency to make assumptions about the youth's problems.
While guidelines for implementing each model are given, the
youth and family need to determine which areas will be
targeted for intervention. Obviously, how you use the
methods must be largely determined by the individual's

circumstances. WW

202

advan e f i r c .

4) The combination of these models will help to 1pep;e_the
' i an r b'l' f h

exegpte. When considered together, a combination

behavioral/environmental resources approach covers more of

what may be significantly affecting the youth's life. A

multi—level intervention provides flexibility and mutual

backup systems rather than total dependence on a single
technique.

5) Having the opportunity to plan a strategy and pick your

own methods will allow you the freedom to be more than a

technician following a routine. You will have the freedem

l ' ' i t ' v i i '

p1epe. Innovation will provide good role modeling for your

youth and will lead to creative solutions.

What does individualizing an approach in working with a
youth entail? How does one devise practical plans and how do
both models fit together in doing so? These questions and others
will be directly addressed in the remaining training units.
Future sessions will be designed to show how the multiple
strategy model can be practically applied to the situations you
encounter.

Beeie Erinpiplee frpm Unit II

Manual

.A. Basic premises of the individual differences model and
the social conflict model

B. Criticisms directed at these two approaches by the
environmental resources conception, and how E.R.
differs from these.

C. Rationale and implications of the advocacy (E.R.)
approach

D. Environmental resources conception of delinquency

E. The three general phases of the problem-solving
process proposed by Davidson and Rapp

F. The roles and responsibilities of the child advocate

G. Multiple strategy rationale

Readings

A. Rationale for the advocacy approach, specifically for
delinquent youth

B. Roles and responsibilities Of the child advocates

C. Beliefs and values leading to the initiation of the
Illinois Project

D. Assessment, evaluation procedures, and the
determinants of success of the Illinois Project

E. Steps in blaming the victim

F2 Rationale for the victim-blaming approach

G. Hiding the victim—blaming approach

203

UNIT III: INITIAL PHASE
ASSESSMENT AS A PRELUDE TO INTERVENTION

EEADIN§§=
"Some things to think about when working with juveniles".
DeRisi, W.J. & Butz, G. (1975). Wr' ' h '

Champaign: Research Press, 9—25.
Price, J.R., Levine, A. H., & Cary, E. (1988). Ihe_;ighte_efi
t nt . Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press,
(Preface, Introduction, & pp. 3—10).

The interventions that you will implement with and on behalf
of your youth will have several phases. You will spend the first
few weeks primarily getting to know the youth. During this
period you will also be doing an in-depth eeeeeemept of the
youth's situation, available resources, and significant others.
You will then be making some decisions about what areas to
change, and which model and techniques to implement to bring
about the desired changes. Next you will initiate and implement
your chosen strategy. Actually, you may be intervening in
several different areas of the youth's life at the same time.
After you have implemented a strategy you will meniter its
outcome. You need to continually evaluate your success in
achieving goals and be sensitive to sources of feedback.
Information secured from your monitoring efforts may indicate the
need for intervention modifications. You may need to edinet your
original plans, and/or additional areas may be targeted during
the eighteen week intervention period. By the time you terminate
your involvement you will have helped to foster durable,
meaningful change in the youth's life by strengthening the
youth's and significant others' abilities to renegotiate
interpersonal contingencies and act as their own advocates in
accessing resources.

The flowchart on the following page provides an overview of
the entire 18 week intervention process. As you can see, there
are a number of steps and paths that you can take over the course
of your intervention. All interventions, however, will pass
through five general phases: 1) assessment; 2) implementation;
3)monitoring; 4) adjustment; and 5) termination. This unit and
the one which follows focuses on the first phase -- assessment.

I_ni_tial_2has_a

Your initial introduction to a youth and his/her life
situations will actually involve several sequential steps. After
a youth and his/her legal guardian have agreed to participate in
this program, the project director assigns the youth a volunteer.
Your supervisors will begin assigning cases somewhere around week
four or five of training. When assigned a
case, you will be provided with some basic facts about him/her
such as name, address, age, and interests. It is critical that

204

you make contact with the youth as soon as you are assigned.

This contact will generally consist of a telephone call to the
youth to set up a mutually agreed upon time and place to get
together. You should introduce yourself by name and identify
yourself as being from the "MSU Volunteer Project". Often a
commonly agreed upon activity will provide an opportunity for the
youth and volunteer to begin to get acquainted. Be very specific
about the time and place, and live up to the arrangements
precisely.

You will spend the first few weeks primarily getting to know
the youth and his/her situation. These initial meetings should
be fairly relaxed so that you and the youth can become acquainted
and feel comfortable with each other. In addition, you should
use this opportunity to begin the very important process of
assessment. Exactly how you do this is critical. On the one
hand, while you want to find out the maximum amount of
information about the problematic interpersonal interactions
which the youth encounters and the unmet resource needs the youth
has, you do not want to be exclusively "problem" oriented.

These youth will likely have been "problemed" to death in the
past and may be turned off by such an approach. Instead, during
the first weeks you want to focus your early discussions on what
the youth does and inquire specifically about each area
discussed. In this manner, "problem" areas will emerge as one
component of the youth's life and can be attended to as such.
Important areas to discuss include family, school, friends,
employment and free time activities. You will probably think of
other appropriate areas as you talk with your youth.

The interpersonal atmosphere in which the early
conversations are conducted is very important. You should
attempt to foster a feeling of genuine concern toward the youth
and a sincere interest in his/her situation. However, you should
avoid playing social worker or attempting to force an emotional
bond where one does not exist. At the same time, you must gather
necessary information about the youth and be constantly sensitive
to possible information about interpersonal relationships and/or
unmet resource needs. Once again, this must be done with
sincerity and some tact. The last thing you want to do is come
on like the local cop or an investigative reporter. To
summarize, while your initial contacts with the youth will be
similar to getting to know any new acquaintance, it is essential
that you be aware at all times of the need to gather pertinent
information about the youth and his/her social and environmental
situation. In other words, you are to begin the phase of
assessment.

WM

Keeping in mind the multi-level intervention approach which

this course emphasizes, you must obtain enough information to

205

enable you to develop a comprehensive intervention plan. In
order to allow yourself the flexibility to utilize an appropriate
combination of behavioral and environmental resource (advocacy)
strategies, the necessary background information about the youth
and his/her situation must be gathered. Only after you have made
this comprehensive assessment can an intervention plan, tailored
to the needs and potentialities of your youth, be developed and
implemented.

In the actual assessment process, you should be
simultaneously gathering information that could be used for
either behavioral or environmental resource oriented
interventions. However, for the purposes of this manual, it may
be most clear to discuss the assessment requirements of each
methodological approach separately. Once the requirements of
each method are clear to you, it should be possible to encompass
both methods when your actual assessment takes place.
WW

When doing behavioral assessment it is important to
understand the factors which control the observed behaviors.
Kanfer and Saslow (1969) have identified the following factors to
be aware of when conducting behavioral assessmentsl:

1) People operate within multiple systems, including

biologic, economic, social, and psychological.

2) Most interpersonal interactions are operantly

controlled.

3) The range of behavioral repertoire is limited by the

individual's biological, social, and intellectual

competence, by past history of reinforcement for behaviors,
and current norms of membership groups.

The implications of these factors for assessment are that
individual assessment is essential and that all systems that
individuals operate within are open to targeting for
modification. .

In using the behavioral approach, you want to set the stage
for yourself to facilitate negotiations between the youth and
various significant others in his/her interpersonal network and
to work with them toward interpersonal agreement. To be able to
accomplish such a task, you must obviously first gather the
necessary information about the youth's interpersonal network.
This information includes:

1) Who are the important persons in the network, such as

parents, teachers, and employers.

2) What are the present contingencies operating in the

network, such as what are the reinforcers that are

maintaining the behaviors, and who are potential mediators.

 

206

3) What are the problem areas in the network.

As soon as feasible in the relationship you should identify
with the youth and family members the interpersonal contingencies
you would all like to work on. A cardinal rule is that YOU WANT
TO SELECT GOAL AREAS IN TERMS OF IMPROVEMENT RATHER THAN ONLY
STOPPING OR REDUCING HASSLES. Your role now includes
facilitating negotiations, for the purpose of establishing and
monitoring interpersonal agreements.

At this point the assessment phase moves into a more
advanced stage. Now assessment will be intermixed with specific
action steps. Once you have established rapport with the youth
and identified areas in which you will be working, the next step
is to set up meetings between yourself and the important people
you have mutually identified. While the range of important
persons who might be identified should be based on the individual
youth and the situation, you will generally be most heavily
involved with parents, teachers, and employers. The purpose of
the initial meeting with the youth and each of the significant
others identified is to establish what each party would like to
see improved in their mutual interaction. After setting up such
meetings, and making necessary introductions, your task is to
identify what each party would like changed in the most exact
terms possible. The best way to gain such.information is to ask
each party that question directly, and then further question them
in order to get their desires more clearly specified and
translated into positive rather than negative statements.

For example, a common thing that teachers want is for the
youth to do his/her "school work". Your response would be to
find out exeetly what the school work entails in terms of daily
and weekly tasks. A common request by parents is for the youth
to "follow household rules". Your response would be to ask
exeetly what those rules are. Kids often want to get parents
"off their backs". When inquiring specifically as to what that
means, you might find out that the youth wants to be able to go
out with his/her friends without a 30-minute lecture about why
he/she shouldn't. Your response here would be to find out
exactly what the youth would like the parents te_de_ineteed.

To properly specify the behavior(s) that is to be changed,
you should be able to answer the following two questions:

1) Do you kaaa_aaaatly_ahat_each_narty_ia_aaking_for so

that all concerned would agree on whether the change had

taken place or not?

2) Can each ragaeat_he_atatad_ia_noaitixe_terms. rather
than in terms of what each would like the other to stop
doing?

Seeking the answers to these two questions should guide your
eassessment interactions with your youth and his/her significant
others . ' ' iv h v' ' i '

207

.nq - on 90 7 iV‘ p‘h-V'or‘ a ‘ -_0‘ ‘9 _01 ' ‘ ‘1 {-9.
After identifying the desired changes of each party you are ready
to negotiate an agreement. Details about the negotiation process
will be provided in the coming units.

Th E v' m n R r v
In using this approach you will want to set the stage for
yourself to assume the pple_pf_edypeete for the youth and his/her

situation in areas of personal or collective need. This will
involve gathering information from the youth and significant
others in his/her life, as well as familiarizing yourself with
resource options potentially available. In other words, you will
want to begin to identify the critical interfaces between the
youth and the social systems of the local community. The
components of this process include: 1) the unmet needs of the
youth; 2) the resources desired; 3) the various community
resources available to meet those needs; and 4) the vulnerability
of those who are in control of the resources.
1) As soon as possible you should identify with the youth
and family the e;eee_pf_ppmet_peede that you would all like
to work on. A cardinal rule in the advocacy approach is
that YOU WANT TO IDENTIFY AREAS OF UNMET NEED WHICH WILL
RESULT IN POSITIVE CHANGES RATHER THAN ONLY BEING CONCERNED
WITH STOPPING AREAS OF HASSLE. Talk not only to the youth
about what resources he/she would like to have, but also
speak to significant people in his/her life. Parents,
teachers, employers, and others add new dimensions and
ideas.
2) After you have gotten to know the youth you are working
with and assessed with him/her and relevant others the
individual needs to be focused on, the next step is to
decide what resgurcee ere peeded. This step is frequently
overlooked because several resources may be identified
immediately. However, the most obvious resources might not
include all the options, and they might not be the best ones
for the youth. It is crucial for you to brainstorm and
generate as large and complete a list of alternatives as
possible. In addition, it is important to assess the
probability that once acquired, the resources will actually
fulfill the needs of the youth.
3) Next, you must identify the eritical ipdividpele at the
interfaces between the youth and the social system who can
provide the resources to fulfill his/her unmet needs. It is
insufficient to merely target a system for advocacy. You
need to identify and isolate the individual who is in
r h ir r . For example, it is not
appropriate to target the local school system as failing to
provide your youth an adequate education. What you must do

208

is to identify the individual administrator, principal,
secretary, or teacher who can provide the targeted
resources. In other words, each area targeted for change
that you mutually select must include the specific resources
that you would like to obtain and the individual who has
control over those resources. Similarly, it is insufficient
to indict the local employment field for failing to provide
your youth with meaningful and rewarding employment. What
must be done is to select what kind of job(s) would meet the
individual need, what rate of pay is reasonable and needed,
and exactly who is in the position to provide the youth with
the employment situation desired. For the resources that
are not presently available or accessible, the individuals
or organizations known to be interested or involved in the
general area may prove to be a useful starting point.
4) Finally, you need to determine how the individual that
you targeted can be influenced by assessing her or his
idieeyneraeiee. An assessment must be made of the factors
to which the individual would be most responsive, and of the
strategies that would most likely lead to attainment of the
resource. Obviously, you will need a good deal of
information about the target individual in order to make
decisions about the strategy to be used during the advocacy
effort. Quite like the attorney taking a case to court, you
have to have your case together, know the issues involved,
and understand how the judge and jury can be persuaded.
In the coming units some of the strategies involved in the
advocacy method will be discussed in greater detail.
' r e od
The process of assessment is an essential starting point for
both the behavioral and the advocacy methods. The needs of the
youth, the significant others in the youth's life, the resources
possessed by the youth and his/her family, and the external
resources available in the community all must be assessed and
considered in formulating an intervention strategy. This

assessment should cpver ell eepecte pf the yepth'e life (home,

school, friends, free time, employment, and legal situations).
In addition, it should include epeeifie_ipfermetipn. General,
“unsupported findings are unacceptable as the following examples
illustrate:

Examples:

[niacceptable: Youth says her parents hassle him.

zucceptable: Youth agrees to be home by 11:00 for privelege of
going out the following night.

Ilnacceptable: Youth says school is OK.

jusceptble: Youth says he likes all his classes except math. His
report card indicates that he received a D in math and C's or

209

above in all other classes. Both he and Mom report regular
attendance, as is confirmed on report card.

Unacceptable: Youth wnts to participate in work study program but
was told that she would have to wait 6 months.

Acceptable: Youth was told by a secretary that she would have to
wait 6 months. The Director was found and a copy of the rules
was obtained.

Finally, although assessment is especially crucial in the
early phase of your contact with the youth, you should remain
attentive to any new information or changes in the need or
resource situation throughout your work with the youth.
Aeeeeemept ie a centippeus ptpeeee that will begin with your
first contact with your youth and continue throughout the 18 week
intervention.

NOTE: UNIT IV REQUIRES SEVERAL DAYS OF PREPARATION BEFORE THE
GROUP MEETING. REMEMBER TO PLAN AHEAD.

WW
I.
Five general phases of the intervention

Initial contact with youth

Interpersonal atmosphere and strategies in the initial
phase

Need/Rationale for assessment

Factors which influence behaviors and their
implications for assessment (Kanfer & Saslow)
Assessment of interpersonal network and existing
behavioral contingencies

Cardinal rule of behavioral model

Choosing target behaviors for behavioral agreements
Assessment of unmet needs and potential resources
Cardinal rule for advocacy model

Length of assessment

N Q H m 0 m m U Q wiPE:
:3

II.

E

General guidelines for interacting with juveniles
Choosing behaviors for behavioral agreements
Roles and characteristics of mediators

Importance of exercising rights and challenging
violations

E. The rights to an education

000335

UNIT IV: ASSESSMENT IN PRACTICE

.EEEEEDEEE:

(yuggenheim, M. & Sussman, A. (1985). Courts and fact—finding
procedures. In M. Guggenheim & A. Sussman, Ihe_;ighte_efi
ypppg_peeple. New York: Bantam Books, 28-63.

Enatterson, G.R. (1973). Familiee. Champaign: Research Press,

210

47-57 .
Tharp, R.G. & Wetzel, R.J. (1969). Behavipr mpdifieatien in the
natural envirpnment. New York: Academic, 69-96.

Last unit discussed your roles and responsibilities during
the assessment phase. The unit highlighted the general
assessment requirements for each intervention approach. This
unit will elaborate on these requirements and discuss some
specific assessment methods that will assist you in collecting
important information essential for formulating an effective
intervention plan.

The.§ahaxiara1_bnnroaah

As a point of review, in conducting a behavioral assessment
your objective is to gather information about the youth's
interpersonal network. This information includes:

1) who the important persons are in the network; 2) what
contingencies are operating in the network; and 3) what the
problem areas are in the network. In addition, it is imperative
that the behavior targeted for change is clearly defined and
stated in positive terms.

Tharp and Wetzel (1969) have divided the assessment process
into five specific tasks.2 These tasks involve the assessment
Of:

1) The behavioral repertoire of the youth.

2) The antecedent events, which are the conditions leading

to the targeted behaviors.

3) The stimulus maintaining or reinforcing the behavior.

4) The reinforcement hierarchy. ' '

5) The identification of potential mediators.

The first task involves iaaatifying_and_aalecting_of_the

' r t f i rv i n. Behaviors can be
classified into three general categories. These three
categories are’:

a. behavipral exeeae: behavior that is problematic because

it occurs in excess frequency, intensity, duration, or under
conditions when it is socially unacceptable/sanctioned. For
example: habitual truancy, cursing.

b. pehavieral defieit: behavior that is problematic
because it fails to occur with sufficient frequency, with
adequate intensity, in appropriate form, or under socially
expected conditions. For example: illiteracy, social
withdrawal.

c. behaviptal asset: Kanfer and Saslow define this as

 

211

nonproblematic behavior. Assets can also be defined as

at;epgt_e, such as what the individual does well,

appropriate social behaviors, special talents, assets,

and/or skills. For example: a youth's tendency to come

home by set curfew, mechanical skills, musical abilities.

You will want to focus your assessment efforts on
identifying and selecting behavioral assets (positive behaviors)
for intervention purposes. You will need to assist your youth
and those in his/her interpersonal network in pinpointing

' ' 'v e v' . Behavior should be defined in terms
such that it can be easily observed and counted. If the behavior
cannot be counted reliably, it has not been properly pinpointed
and efforts at bringing about positive change will be
unsuccessful. For example, targeting an increase in "responsible
behavior" as the focus for change, is a poorly pinpointed
behavior. Rather, specifying what the party involved means by
"responsible behavior" would be more satisfactory. For example:
son comes in by designated curfew hour, son does dishes on
specified day, and parent follows through on giving son the use
of the car for maintaining his curfew. In the latter examples,
"responsible behavior" has been clearly specified. The behaviors
can be observed and counted and, consequently, all involved would
reliably agree whether or not the behaviors have occurred.

The second task involves ideatiiying_anteeedent_eyente,

This means identifying the conditions under which the targeted
behavior occurs. You are to ask yourself: "what conditions or
what events set off the target behavior"? For example, does the
youth's parent start nagging at him when he begins playing his
stereo? Identifying antecedents events is a difficult assessment
task and consequently has not been incorporated to a great extent
in behavior modification techniques. You will spend most of your
efforts engaged in the other assessment tasks, however, it is
important that you are aware of the influence of antecedent
events on behavior.

Carefully assessing the evanta_ahich_are_maintaining_the
behayier is the third assessment task. You will need to identify
the functional relationships between the targeted behavior and
the consequences of the behavior. The consequences could occur
naturally or they could be purposely arranged in order to bring
about desired change. An example
of a naturally occurring consequence would be a teacher who
praises a student for providing a correct answer. The teacher's
social praise may be the maintaining stimulus for the student's
study behavior. An example of a consequence purposely arranged
to maintain a desired behavior is a parent who gives her son the
use of the car Saturday afternoon for having babysat his four
year old sister.

Much of your behavioral intervention will involve you being

212

a contingency manager. You will teach the family you are
assigned how to arrange environmental rewards for the purpose of
bringing about desired change. During the assessment phase,
however, it is important that you identify those naturally
occurring events operating within the youth's interpersonal
network that are maintaining desired and undesired behaviors.
Only after proper assessment will you have gathered the pertinent
information to be able to rearrange contingencies so that
undesired behavior is no longer rewarded and desired behavior is
rewarded.

The fourth assessment task involves assessing the
reipfptgement hierarphy of the youth. This is simply identifying
the rank order of the youth's reinforcers. Although many events
may have reinforcing properties, some reinforcers are more
powerful than others. For example, perhaps a three day
suspension from school and the associated chance to sleep-in late
and watch morning television, is more reinforcing than parental
social praise for attending school. To some youths an extended
curfew to 3:00 a.m. is a stronger reinforcer than a five dollar
allowance. This assessment task can be accomplished by asking
the youth about the strength of potential reinforcers, asking the
parents and significant others, and through direct observation.

The number and diversity of potential reinforcers is
virtually limitless. Some of the major categories include:
material reinforcers, token reinforcers, social reinforcers,
people reinforcers, and activity reinforcers. Further, it is
important to keep in mind what may serve as a strong reinforcer
for you may not be a reinforcer for your youth and vice versa.
Although any event which increases the behavior upon which it is
contingent is considered an effective positive reinforcer, not
all potential reinforcers can be used in your behavioral
interventions. Any reinforcer you select to manipulate must
conform with two criteria. First, it must be available in the
youth's natural environment for dispensing on contingency.
Second, it can not be anything that is socially considered
antisocial, illegal or immoral. For
example, no matter how strong the potential reinforcing power of
Inarijuana, skipping school, or driving without a permit, such
things eanp_t be used as reinforcers.

The fifth and final assessment task is ideptifyipg_peteptial
__eaiate;e. An effective mediator must have three qualities:

1) Possess strong reinforcers for the youth.

2) Be able to dispense reinforcement on contingency.

3) Be in the youth's environment and frequently around when

the target behavior occurs.

The dispensing of positive reinforcers has the effect of
,increasing the positive value of the dispenser, and consequently,
<3an.increase the emotional bond between the mediator and target.

213

The intervention strategy of using behavioral agreements is based
on this principle. Therefore, through the application of this
principle you will help your youth improve and strengthen his/her
interpersonal relationships. Specifically how you will structure
such interactions is the topic of the next unit.
Qhaeryatian1_Counting_and_3acording

The activities of observing, counting and recording targeted
behaviors go hand-in-hand with assessment. Whether for initial
preliminary assessment purposes or for monitoring implemented
intervention plans, observing, counting and recording targeted
behaviors are essential components of the intervention process.
These activities are important for five major reasons:

1) Behaxior_change_is_asaally_a_aloa_nroceaa. Some

behavior may require several weeks before significant change

is noticed. By systematically observing, counting and

recording the behavior one can see small improvements as

they occur.

2) Ractifiaa_mianarcentian_or_aaxalidated_aaaeaament_of
Largeted_hehayier. For example, the school attendance

officer informs Mr. Sidewell that his son, Terrance, has
been absent every day for the past week. The class
attendance monitoring sheet that the volunteer helped
Terrance and his father create indicates that Terrance
attended all but one of his five class every day last week.
The school attendance record was incorrect. Terrance's
school bus was late each day causing him to miss homeroom
where attendance is taken.

3. May_rainforca_daairad_behaxior. The mere act of
observing and/or recording improvements in targeted
behaviors has been found to have reinforcing value for
some, bringing about behavioral change without other forms
of intervention.

4) Servee aa a prpmpt tp the mediate: to administer social
praise and/or to deliver other reinforcers.
5. v' n of n i ' . These

activities allow one to systematically evaluate the outcome

of implemented intervention strategies. They provide a

valid assessment of the effectiveness of the intervention

and indicate if changes are needed.

The_Adyocacy_Annroach

In order to plan a comprehensive advocacy intervention you
will need to identify: 1) the unmet needs of the youth; 2) the
resources that will fulfill those unmet needs; 3) the
critical individual(s) in control of the needed resources; and 4)
the idiosyncracies of those in control of the needed resources.

Your assessment activities will include you directly asking
the youth about his/her unmet needs. Although we advise you not
to ask directly the question "What are your unmet needs?", other

214

forms of questioning will provide you with useful assessment
information. Such questions include:

What are your interests?

What would make going to school better or more pleasant?

What do you do in your free time?

What would you like to do?

In addition to asking the youth, talking with others in the
youth's life such as parents, teachers, and employers, is likely
to add additional information. Observation is another method of
collecting information about youth's unmet needs. This would
include observing naturally occurring behaviors as well as asking
your youth to try a new behavior and watching his/her response.
For example, if your youth wants a job you could secure a sample
application, have him/her complete it, and review the form with
him/her. This will provide you with information on your youth's
reading and writing abilities, whether s/he has all the necessary
information such as social security number and references, and
the type of job youth would like.

In your search to identify resources you will engage in such
activities as brainstorming as many alternatives as possible,
interviewing community members, and doing investigative research.
Similar tactics are used to identify the advocacy target which is
the individual in control of the needed resources. Assessment of
the target's idiosyncracies is a more difficult task. Some
questions that will help guide your assessment of the target's
idiosyncracies
include:

1) Does the target have an ideology that would resist or

encourage the provision of the resource for the youth?

2) Is there any relationship between the advocate and the

target, or between the youth and the target?

3) Does the target view the relationship as positive or

negative?
4) What are the target's self-interests?
5) To whom is the target most responsive -- supervisors,

taxpayers, consumers, legislators, pressure groups?

6) How accessible is the target?

7) Does the target have direct control over the provision

of the needed resource or is the target only one part of the

decision-making process?

8) Does the target have many potential allies and how

influential are they?

Once you have gathered the pertinent assessment information,
you will be prepared to select a specific advocacy strategy to
secure the needed resource. Details of these strategies are the
topic of the following unit.

 

215
B l r n' V
I . . .
Five assessment tasks in the behavioral model
Assessment and classification of behaviors
Pinpointing behaviors
Criteria for selecting reinforcers
Characteristics of effective mediators
Reasons to observe, count, and record behaviors
Questions which gather advocacy assessment information
Methods for collecting advocacy assessment information
Assessing the vulnerabilities of the advocacy target

HZEQ'IJUIUOIDID
Ward

(D
P-
:3

II.
Rights of youth in juvenile court system
Importance of observing and counting behaviors
The behavioral assessment tasks

Availability of reinforcers

Potential Mediators

Intervention effects of assessment

. Type of potential reinforcers

UNIT IV: HOMEWORK

Q m m U n w w

W.
A. Provide you with experience in conducting some of the tasks

associated with behavioral assessment, in particular,
provide you with practice in observing, counting and
recording targeted behavior.

B. Provide you with experience in the advocacy assessment
process.
BJE IVE

A. Behavioral Assessment
Part of your skill in assisting others to change their

behavior comes from your understanding of how behavior change
works in yourself. Therefore, this week you will initiate a
self-management program by monitoring your own behavior for a
period of several days.
1) WW When
selecting a behavior, keep in mind the rules associated with
properly pinpointing behaviors. Ideally you want to select
a positive behavior and define it in specific terms. State
the behavior and write a clear definition, one that
describes the behavior in observable terms.
2) Deviae a methgg pf teegrding/counting the targeted
behavior. Make sure to ahpw your method.
3) Celleet_data on the occurrence of the behavior for a
minimum of 5 days. Make sure to ehpm your data.
4) Bring te elaae your writtep definition of the targeted
behavior, your recording chart/system, your data, and
epmplete answers to the following questions:
a. Did you adequately pinpoint the behavior? Why do you

216

think so?
b. How easy was your recording system?
c. Could someone else have been able to observe the
targeted behavior and have reliably recorded its
occurrence using your system?
d. Could your system be improved? If so, how?
e. Did you notice any patterns or changes over time?
5) This homework assignment will be collected and graded.
B . Advocacy Assessment
This assignment is designed to provide you with practice in
identifying and gathering information about potential advocacy
resources.
1) Choose one advocacy area that you would like to
investigate. Examples include recreational resources,
substance abuse resources, employment resources, and
reproductive health resources.
2) Generate a list of at least 10 possible resources in
this one area. Ideas for available resources can be
generated from a variety of sources, including your common
knowledge of available resources, the yellow pages, the
Community Resource Guide, referrals or suggestions from
other agencies, friends, co-workers, or relatives. Make
sure you are selecting resources that would be accessible to
young people living in Ingham County. You will not receive
credit for resources outside of this area (unless they are
accessible to our youth) and will be required to redo any
non-local sheet. Also, many MSU services are not available
to youths, so look elsewhere for resources.
3) Select three resources from your list of 10. Call these
three and collect pertinent information as outlined on the
Community Resource Sheet on the following page. Supervisors
will provide three copies of this sheet. Use one sheet per
source.
4) Bring list of 10 resources and completed Community
Resource Sheets to class. The assignment will be collected
and graded.
UNIT V: SELECTION AND INITIATION PHASE OF THE INTERVENTION
BEADlflfifiz

Tharp. R. G.. & Wetzel. R. J. (1969). WWI;
vir . New York: Academic, 111-147.

Stuart, R.B. (1973). Behavioral contracting within the families

of delinquents. In J.S. Stumphauser (Ed.), Behgyig;_;h§;gpy
with_d§linguents. Springfield: Thomas, 334-350.

After establishing a relationship with the youth and
assessing his/her situation from both the advocacy and behavioral
jperspectives, it will be necessary to execute your plans of
action. Again, although you may very likely employ both methods

217

simultaneously, the two procedures will be described separately
for the purpose of clarification. Keep in mind that assessment
will continue throughout the entire intervention in order to
further your understanding of the youth and to be sensitive to
changes in the youth's life.

maul—Agreement

There are several general rules which you should keep in
mind when you are in the process of negotiating a behavioral
agreement.

1. Every item in an agreement must be menieereble. It must

be specific and observable by both parties involved,

otherwise there's no way to deal with it. A common mistake
is to be concerned with things over which you can have no
influence. For example, parents frequently want to decide
where their child goes and with whom he/she associates.

Given that they can't follow the youth around when not at

home, it's better to focus on whether or not the youth

returns on time and informs them of his/her whereabouts.

2. A request for change by either party must be capable of

generating reeipreee;_eheege by the requester. The

agreement should involve an egeel exchange of
responsibilities and privileges.

3. Work on a few things that appear important to both the

youth and the other party involved. You obviously don't

have time nor can you change everything right away. The
intention is to get a pattern of positive interaction
initiated by focusing on a few important events.

4. The terms of the agreement must be eleexe_epeeifiie, and

written in common language.

How you introduce agreements to the youth and his/her family
is important. To begin, meet separately with each party.
Discuss what each person would like to see changed, or would like
to receive from the other person, along with what they would be
willing to give in exchange. An agreements should then be
discussed as a tool to help them make these changes. You may
need to meet more than once with each party to clarify potential
ideas.

After discussing the desired privileges and responsibilities
with each party, you will then meet with all the parties
involved. The purpose of this meeting will be for you to select
the reepeneibilities, privileges, end benuses to be included in
the agreement. This will involve extensive discussion in which
you will facilitate negotiations. During this process, it will
be important for you to keep the above rules in mind. A further
task for this meeting is the establishment of a mutual menieering
eyeeem of eeeh person's performance under the rules of the
agreement. More specifically, you will develop, in writing, an
interpersonal agreement between the youth and the various others

218

you have identified as important. The agreement should include
the following components:
1) Erizilegee: Specific things which each party desires
such as free time with friends, spending money, or use of
the family car.
2) Reepensibilities: Specific things which each party
agrees to do for the other such as attend school, maintain
curfew, or complete household chores. (NOTE: The number of
responsibilities should equal the number of privileges that
could be earned, e.g., if three responsibilities are
specified, the agreement should contain three privileges.)
3) Benuses: An extra desired event that the youths can
expect if they do especially well while performing their
responsibilities such as permission to stay out longer
than usual, extra spending money, or the opportunity to have

a party.
4) MQfliLQIiEQ: A method for monitoring the performance of
each party on each of the above components which can be
verified by both parties. Common examples include diaries,

checklists, charts, and grade cards.

We do not recommend the use of sanctions in agreements. If
the terms of the agreement are fair and the rewards earned are
strong incentives, then sanctions are not necessary. Do not
suggest the use of sanctions to the family. If a parent insists
on including sanctions, discuss this with your supervisors. If
sanctions are included, make sure that the youth is not losing
privileges already earned.

SAMELE_A§35§MEEIEFFECTIVE DATES: From November 5, 1990 to
November 25, 1990.
IF MARK AGREES TO: THEN MOM AGREES TO:
Come home for dinner by Give Mark $.15 a day
5:00 pm (Mon-Fri) ($.75 possible per wk)
Complete homework before Give Mark $.15 a day
going out after dinner ($.75 possible per wk)
(Mon-Fri)
Come in at specified curfew Give Mark $.15 a day
(Sun-Thur 9:30; for Sun-Thurs and
Fri & Sat 10:00) $.40 a day for Fri & Sat

($1.55 possible per wk)

BONUS: If Mark comes home on time every night (7 days) in any_
given week, then he earns a one hour out extra, to be
used one night of his choice the next week.

This agreement will begin on Monday, November 5, 1990 and will

run until Sunday, November 25, 1990.

Both Mark and his mother will monitor the above
conditions by each initialing the prepared monitoring chart.

We will meet on Sundays to discuss how it is going and
figure out what privileges and bonuses Mark will receive.

219

We will renegotiate this agreement in three weeks, on
Sunday, November 25, 1990.

 

 

(Youth) (Parent/mediator)

 

(Volunteer)
MOM LED MARK WILL INITIAL THE BOX IF MARK DOES THE FOLLOWING:

Sun rMon Tues Wed Thur Fri Sat
Home for dinner
(5:30 Mon - Fri)

Completed homework
before going out
(Mon - Fri)

In by curfew
(Sun - Thurs: 9:30;
Fri & Sat: 10:00)

TOTAL AMOUNT EARNED?
DID MOM PAY THIS AMOUNT AT END OF WEEK?
WAS BONUS EARNED?
IF YES, WHAT NIGHT OF THE WEEK WILL MARK TAKE HIS
ADDITIONAL HOUR OUT? . .

Under the principle of reciprocity, one party's privileges
become the other's responsibilities and vice versa. The
agreement should be presented to the parties involved as a
selective set of their concerns which they agree to work on as a
beginning step in producing change. You should be ready to
acknowledge that the first agreement cannot focus on everything;
rather it provides a place to start. The agreement should be
signed by each of you. You will need to check back quite
frequently initially to monitor the progress of the agreement.
If you have selected contingencies which are truly important to
each party, in other words, contingencies that function as
reinforcers, the agreement should be successful. The importance
of carefully watching, listening, and inquiring about important
changes for each party will become very clear at this point.

WWW

As you may recall, previous units provided an introduction to
the various advocacy strategies. This unit will provide details
on.nine specific advocacy intervention strategies. Strategies
available in child advocacy are multiple and might be thought of
as varying along two continua (Davidson & Rapp, 1976). The first
describes various advocacy strategies ranging from peeitixe_ee

 

 

 

 

220

DQ9§LiM§.§DDLQ§Qh§§ to change. Points on this continuum include
the following:

1) At the peeitixe end, the advocate can attempt to gain the

good favor of the person or agency in control of the needed

resource.

2) At midpoint, the advocate could select a neeerel strategy

in which information would be provided to the critical

individual or agency about the youth's unmet needs.

3) At the negeeiye end of the continuum, the advocate could

take, or threaten to take, direct aversive action against the

critical individual or agency.

The second set of strategies available to the child advocate
consists of a continuum of approaches to bring about change that

ranges from the indixidua1_1exel_tg_the_sogietal_lerel.

The points on this continuum include the following:

1) At the individeel level, the advocate identifies the
critical person in control of the needed resource.
2) At the fidfllflifiLIQLiXQ level, the advocate identifies a

critical agency in control of the needed resource.

3) At the peliey level, strategies include situations in

which the advocate identifies some political or social system

that is responsible for the resource that is lacking.

As can be seen, the two sets of strategies interact. In other
words, you will select strategies that are positive or negative
and identify systems or individuals that must be changed.

I. 22eitixe_Strategx_aL_the_Indiridua1_Lexel. One common
situation is that young people's needs for education are
not being met because of inappropriate or irrelevant
aspects of their curriculum. Taking a positive-individual
strategy, the advocate would identify individual teachers
and seek their agreement to try to make adjustments in the
classroom curriculum that would be more conducive to the
needs of youths.

II. E9sitixe_Strate9x_at_the_Adminieratixe_Lexel. The
absence of adequate recreational activities and
facilities constitutes another typical area of unmet
needs for youths. Taking an administrative-positive
approach, the advocate would contact the city commission
with a proposal for drafting an application for a
community development grant to generate additional
recreational facilities and programs.

III. E9sitiMe_StraLesx_at_the_EQIiex_Lexel. Many Youths who
are seen in delinquency programs are unemployed. Taking
a positive approach at the policy level, the advocate
would lobby state legislators to amend irrelevant
restrictions on the types of employment for which young
people could qualify and try to initiate legislation to
provide jobs in the public and private sectors.

221

IV. ,n_o g,Tou-Prov'-'o r. ‘03 .7 7 ‘ 101 19,1_ ‘V‘ .
Another example of unmet recreational resources could be
a particular youth's desire to participate in organized
athletics. Taking an individual—information approach the
advocate might tell the coach of a local football team
that the youth in question wanted to join the
league.

Lexel. In the area of employment, the advocate taking an
administrative-information strategy would present
information about potentially available employees and
rates of unemployment to the director of the local youth
employment service and would see that such information was
highlighted by the media to influence policy-makers.

VI. WW
Educational resource are a common area of need for all
young people. In fact, current educational systems fail
to deal effectively with one—third to one-half of
American youths, many of whom consequently come into
contact with the juvenile justice system. Taking an
information strategy at the policy level an advocate
would present the state board of education and state
superintendent of schools with dropout rates and
preferences for educational alternatives and would
highlight the right of all students to a public
education.

VII. WWW Youths are
sometimes denied access to employment because of the
employer's knowledge of past deviance. Taking an
individual-negative approach, the advocate would have the
local media cover the story about a young person's being'
denied a job by the particular employer.

VIILWWWWL Youths
are often denied access to alternative education because
of the lack of resources. Taking a negative strategy at
the administrative level, the advocate would initiate a
class-action suit against the school district for failing
to meet its legislative mandate to educate all youth.

Ix. WWW Frequently,
youths are not employed because of discrimination on the
basis of race, sex, and/or economic status. Taking a
negative-policy strategy, the advocate would enjoin a
legislative committee to investigate the Department of
Labor's enforcement of policies prohibiting
discrimination.

The actual combinations of strategies that could result are

jpractically endless and depend on the situation, the people
involved, the resource in question, and the person controlling

222

the resource.

A critical step is to assess the potential impact of
alternative strategies. You will want to select the most
promising advocacy strategy based on the following factors:

1) What you know about the target individual(s) and where

they are vulnerable to change efforts. Anything we jointly

know about the target individual and previous attempts to
institute change should provide us clues as to what type of
strategy and level of intervention holds the most promise.

2. What intervention strategy is likely to produce the most

durable change. There's no sense in following exclusively

short-term approaches. Many unmet needs may call for policy
level changes in the handling of various community resources
rather than only a decision relevant to a particular case.

During your involvement you will carry out advocacy efforts
fig; and with your youth. To the greatest extent possible, your
efforts should be directed towards advocacy WiLh your youth.
This will minimize the amount of time spent in doing things fer
your youth. Your purpose is to teach the youth the advocacy
skills that will enable them to create-positive change in their
own lives, long after you are gone. The experience the youth
will gain through observation and participation is invaluable.
If it is necessary to conduct efforts on behalf of your youth,
you mee; verbally review with them how you gathered the
information in order to further their advocacy skills.

The actual advocacy effort is governed by the general
principle of action. You are to be very outgoing, persistent,
and insistent in your efforts to mobilize the community's
resources for your youth. Advocacy efforts will include personal
contact with the target individual or individuals. Several
things are important about how you should approach the target
individual.

1) r n h r r

negeeiye_ligh; as an excuse for why he/she needs a certain

resource. Each individual has the right to community

resources, therefore no excuse is necessary. Other people
will have identified your youth as having problems. Being
problem-focused will not help your youth gain access to
resources. Focusing on your youth's strengths and assets will
help gain access to resources.

2) It is important that you are well eWere ef the style 9f

r 'n ' ' ' ' e , so that
your entry into the system can be facilitated. This does not
mean that you need to agree with or be co-opted by the local
school, employment, recreational, or social systems. However,
you will need to be intricately aware of their medes_gfi
epereeien so that you can use their existing resources to the
best advantage of the youth. The initial phase of assessing

223

the target individuals and systems provides you with a
critical base for gaining entry to the community's resources.

3) n 'e r iz h r i ' i r 'n ' h
ygggg yee ere werking with, yeurself, er the pregrem. Be

positive, diplomatic and knowledgeable in your interactions

with others. For example, if there is a problem at school,

talk thoroughly with the youth and parents before you approach
the school personnel. Be diplomatic and positive with the
school personnel even when conflict occurs.

In addition to direct advocacy efforts xii personal contact,
you may also be involved in indireee_edyeeeey efforts which
involve phone calls, correspondence, and contacts with others
closely related to the target person. In addition to trying to
convince the target person of the unfulfilled need of your youth,
another effective route for advocates is to bring indirect
pressure on the target individual through other people. For
example, suppose the targeted individual was the director of a
local youth employment program. In order to get a useful job for
your youth you might also want to contact the local Board of
Directors and/or funding source of that program to bring
additional influence on the targeted individual. Indirect
advocacy efforts will be accomplished as a supplement to the
direct advocacy effort. It is critical that a single individual
be targeted for the advocacy effort so as not to engage in
amorphous system blaming as an alternative to action.

MnlLiDl§_§£I§L§§¥_MQ§§l

Again, it should be emphasized that the behavioral and child
advocacy methods are not mutually exclusive. A given area of the
youth's life might call for the use of one or both methods. The
success of your intervention will be considerably dependent upon
your ability to creatively respond to each situation on an
individual basis and apply the technique that is most
appropriate. In other words, you should not decide which
technique you like the most from the readings and use that method
indiscriminately, but rather you should let the nature of each
situation dictate the appropriate action.
I. Mamas).
General rules for negotiating a agreement
Components of a good agreement
The principle of reciprocity
The nine general advocacy strategies
Factors in selecting an advocacy strategy
Considerations when approaching an advocacy target
The role of indirect advocacy
II. We
Resistances to the Behavioral approach (individual, family,
school, and community); examples; proposed solutions

0 m m o n w >

E"

224

B. The use of common market or token economies in behavioral
agreementing

C. Relationships with mediators

D. Stuart's view of family interactions and relationships

E. Stuart's 4 assumptions of behavioral agreementing

F. Components of behavioral agreements

UNIT VI:SELECTION AND INITIATION OF INTERVENTION: APPLICATION
READINGS:

Transcript: Th i ' . (1984). pp. 1-12.
Cormier. S J. (1983). Approe2h1n9_§shool_£ersonnel:

Cons1derat1ons_for_the_Effeot1ye_Adrogste pp.1-3-
Handout: 2o1nters_o___ek1ns_In1t1s1_Qontaot_w1th_§ommnnit¥
_embers. pp- 1-2-

Saxon, W. (1979). Behavioral contracting: Theory and Design.

ghiig Welfere, 5a (8), pp. 523-529.

The format for this unit will be different than those up to
this point. Although you will not be quizzed on the reading
material, you are expected to read this material before you
attempt your homework. The readings for this unit are very
practically-oriented and are designed to provide you with some
suggestions/pointers on initiating your behavioral and advocacy
interventions. They are also intended to assist you with your
homework assignment.

HOMEWORK
QQQEQIIMES: Provide you with practice in initiating behavioral
agreements and advocacy strategies.
MEAHQ_IQ_QBQEQIIEES: Your supervisors will divide your class up
into two smaller groups of 3-4 students. Your group will be
assigned either the behavioral role play situation or the
advocacy situation (see following pages). You are to schedule a
time for your group to meet before next week's class to role play
the situation your group has been assigned. Your role plays are
to be tape-recorded and the tape is to be brought to class. The
tapes will be part of the class exercise. (Check the sound level
and quality of your tape when recording.) Each tape will be
played and reviewed by your supervisory group for feedback and to
serve as a prompt for further role plays. Flawless performances
are not expected, so pleeee do not worry about rehearsing or
perfecting interactions. Review of the tapes are to serve as a
means of identifying effective actions/responses, suggesting
alternative actions, and resolving/praCticing difficult
situations. In other words, it is a learning technique and not a
means of individual evaluation.

225

UNIT VI: ROLE PLAY:
INTRODUCING THE TECHNIQUE OE BEHAVIORAL AGREEMENTS
Siteetien: It is the third week of your intervention. The

assessment information you have gathered indicates that your
youth, Derek Smith "wants": money, to stay out later, and not get
bugged all the time by his parents. Derek is 15 years old and is
in the 9th grade. You have also discovered that Mom and Dad
"want": Derek to do chores around the house, come in on time, and
"shape up" and "grow-up".

Qtjeetiye: Introduce the concept/technique of behavioral
agreements to the parties involved.

Ieek: Your group is to conduct thgee separate role plays. Each
member of the group should role play the Melenteer at least once.
These are to be:

1. Introducing agreements to the youth.

2. Introducing agreements to the parents.

3. Bringing both parties together and re-introducing
the idea of agreements to them for the purpose of
setting the stage for a negotiation session.

NOTE: You ere net to conduct a negotiation session (that you
will do in the upcoming weeks); rather, you are to just
introduce/explain the technique of using agreements to those
who will be involved.

WM:
1) Do a preliminary assessment identifying what each party
specifically wants. Attempt to pinpoint behaviors,
remembering to get behaviors stated in specific, positive
terms. This is an opportunity for you to practice the skill of
probing.
2) Propose the idea of agreements to each party separately
first, in attempt to persuade them to enter an agreement
negotiation session.
3) Explain agreements in a simple and clear manner. Avoid
jargon and psychology related termS/phrases. Use everyday
examples to get points across.
4) Think of effective replies if confronted with resistances,
such as the bribery issue.
5) Point out the importance of reciprocity.

UNIT VI: ROLE PLAY: INITIATING ADVOCACY STRATEGIES
Siteetien: It is the third week of your intervention. Your 15
year old youth, Sarah Smith has just received a classroom
suspension from her 6th hour math class. A meeting between
Sarah, her mother, and the Assistant Principal for Discipline has
been set for the day after tomorrow. Until then, Sarah is to
remain in a 6th hour study hall.

Sarah states she doesn't know why she was suspended from her
math class, but suspects that it may have something to do with
Ms. Thompson, her teacher not liking her because they always

226

argue. Consequently, Sarah says that sometimes it is easier to
just skip that class.
Objeetiyee; Identify the specific ground for Sarah's suspension
and plan an advocacy strategy that will fulfill Sarah's needs.
geek: Your group is to come up with examples of how advocacy
strategies could be used. Role play th;ee_eepe;ete
siteatiens/interactions suggested from the scenario
presented above. Examples include clarifying the
incident with Sarah, approaching the teacher,
approaching the Assistant Principal, and attending the
scheduled meeting with mom and school officials.
Im 'n ' ' .
1) Always keep in mind the purpose of your meeting with
whomever, in order to enhance the likelihood of accomplishing
your goals.
2) What specific advocacy strategy(s) did you select? Which
strategy has the greatest likelihood of achieving desired
outcomes?
3) How do you plan to introduce yourself to school personnel?
4) To what extent do you plan to involve the youth and/or her
mom in your advocacy efforts?
UNIT VII: BEHAVIORAL AGREEMENTS AND ADVOCACY INTERVENTIONS IN
PRACTICE: CASE STUDIES

EEADINQfit ‘

Becker, W.C. (1971). Par r . Champaign: Research
Press, pp. 47-49, 85-91.

DeRisi, W.J. & Butz, G. (1975). Wr' ' v'
Champaign: Research Press, 37-55.

The Negetietien Progess, pp.1-3.

Patterson, G.R. (1977). Eemiliee. Champaign: Research Press,
59-72.

Beyer, M. (1980). Community and school partnership: Youth
rights and the role of advocates. In Jordan, J. B., Sabatino,
D. A., & Sarri, R.C. (Eds.). WW pp-
51-67.

Transcript: Negetietien Seeeien, pp. 12-32

As you read through the following case studies‘ look for areas
of intervention. What advocacy efforts could you have performed
in the behavioral agreement case? What kind of agreement could
you have drawn up in the advocacy case? What would you have
asked or done differently if you had been the volunteer?

The following case study highlights the principles,
activities, and anticipated outcomes of the behavioral agreement
method of intervention.

 

227

Joe was a sixteen-year-old who had come to the attention of
the court's juvenile division for possession of marijuana and
violation of the municipal curfew laws. Prior to the referral to
the Adolescent Diversion Project, Joe had contacts with the
police, including possession of controlled substances, truancy
from school, and curfew violation. Joe lived in a middle-class
area of Urbana-Champaign and both of his parents were employed.
His father worked as a maintenance department supervisor and his
mother was a bus driver for the city transit system.

After being assigned to Joe, the volunteer called Joe at home
and set up a time for them to get together. They arranged to
meet at the youth's home. At that initial meeting, the volunteer
explained the project briefly to Joe and his parents. He and Joe
were then left alone by Joe's parents.~ Although Joe had been
rather quiet initially, particularly in the presence of his
parents, he gradually began to discuss his own situation. The
volunteer asked open-ended questions about various areas of Joe's
life.

Joe indicated that he was in high school but was not
interested in school. He said that he skipped whenever he got
the chance. He talked of his interests in sports, particularly
the Babe Ruth baseball team he pitched for, and the Sunday
afternoon football group he hung around with. In discussing his
home situation, Joe said that he didn't really mind it at home,
but that "I spend as much time as possible away from home, with
the guys or my girlfriend. The initial contact ended with Joe
and the volunteer making plans for the upcoming weekend, either
to go to a football game or to play football together.

During the remainder of the initial two weeks Joe and the
volunteer went to a movie, played football again, had dinner
together and talked on the phone several times. The volunteer
began to work on assessing Joe's situation more specifically in
order to initiate an agreement between Joe and his parents. The
volunteer set up separate meetings with Joe and his parents to
discuss what they would like to see from the project and each
other. The volunteer explained the idea of behavioral agreements
and what was required by both parties. The volunteer then
arranged an initial agreement negotiation session. Joe's parents
thought Joe should show more responsibility around the house,
keep better hours, and improve his appearance. Joe wanted to get
his parents off his back and get a component stereo set. At the
conclusion of this session, the volunteer asked both Joe and his
parents to specify these changes in greater detail prior to the
next meeting.

At the next meeting, the volunteer prompted the parents to
specify some responsibilities they would like from Joe. They
felt he should: 1) inform his parents where he was after school

228

and return home before 5:00 p.m.; 2) make his bed and clean his
room daily; 3) put out the garbage on Wednesdays and Fridays; 4)
set the table for dinner each night; 5) mow the lawn or shovel
the snow as needed; 6) cut his hair; and 7) improve his grades in
school. Joe specified that he wanted to: 1) be allowed to earn
at least $5.00 per week toward the stereo he wanted; 2) be
allowed to go out four nights and two weekend nights; and 3) be
allowed to choose his friends without interference or harassment
from his parents.

On the basis of this information, the volunteer helped Joe and
his parents to negotiate the following agreement:

Joe Agrees: Return home by 5. (Mon-Th)

Parents agree: Let Joe go out from 7:30 to 9. (Mon—Th)

Joe Agrees: Home by Midnight (Fri—Sat)

Parents agree: Joe goes out following night.

Joe agrees: Make bed daily

Parents agree: $.50 per day

Joe agrees: Set the table for dinner daily

Parents agree $.50 per day.

Benee; If Joe performs at 80% or better in #1 through #4 above
for a week, his parents will deposit an additional $3.00 in his
account.

At this time the volunteer also set up daily checklists on
each of the terms of the agreement to be jointly used by Joe and
his parents to record each other's performance.

Following the implementation of the initial agreement, the
volunteer monitored the agreement by checking the checklist every
time he was at the youth's home. He called to prompt the youth
and parents to fulfill their responsibilities and praise their
efforts. In addition, he met weekly with all parties to review
their progress. It was an excellent opportunity to model,
prompt, and praise positive behaviors. In addition, the
volunteer and Joe spent three to five hours per week in various
recreational activities. These included sports events, going to
the local Boy's Club, and playing Nintendo.

Joe's performance on the agreement was consistently 90% or
better. Two weeks after it began, Joe received grades for the
term. The volunteer's earlier visit with Joe's teachers had
indicated that Joe was having some difficulty, but passing his
courses. He received an F, one D, one B, one C, and an
incomplete. This report card created considerable controversy
between Joe and his parents. The volunteer suggested that school
performance be included in the agreement. Daily checklists for
completing assignments were established with Joe's teachers and
he was able to earn additional savings towards his stereo.

Soon, Joe was consistently performing at 100% on all agreement
items and both he and his parents reported to the volunteer that
they were more satisfied with the situation. In addition, Joe

229

had been in no further difficulty with the police, and his next
report card contained one A, one B, and three C's.

During the last weeks of the intervention, the volunteer
engaged in termination activities with Joe and his parents. They
discussed the agreement approach and its use on an ongoing basis.
They role-played negotiations of several situations in which
agreements would be useful. The volunteer coached them in
specifying what each party wanted, stating requests in positive
terms, negotiating reciprocal agreements, and monitoring the
agreement. The volunteer reported that they parted on a very
friendly basis and that Joe had spontaneously called several
times during the months following termination.

In summary, the behavioral agreement model involved the
following activities on the part of the volunteer:

1) During the first weeks of contact the volunteer attempted

to assess areas of interpersonal conflict. Attention was

focused on the home and school, on selection of behaviors to
be modified, and critical persons to be involved.

2) The following week the volunteer involved the youth and

the family in a process of specifying the behaviors each would

like changed.

3) Sometime near the fourth week the volunteer helped

negotiate the written agreement between the parties. The

agreement specified what each person would change in

the relationship and what each could expect.

4) After implementing the agreement, the volunteer closely

monitored the agreement with both daily prompting and weekly

reviews sessions. The volunteer praised their efforts and
progress and prompted them to do the same. After four weeks,
the volunteer also assisted the family in renegotiating the
agreement.

5) Approximately four weeks prior to termination, the

volunteer intensified his instructions to the youth and family

in how to negotiate and monitor agreements.

The following case study exemplifies the principles,
techniques, activities, and possible outcomes of the child
advocacy method of intervention.

Donna was a twelve-year-old who had four previous contacts
with the police. Her previous contacts included arson, theft,
and incorrigibility. Donna was in the seventh grade and an A and
B student in school. Donna's mother worked as an air traffic
controller. At the time of referral, Donna was being charged
with theft from her neighbor's house.

The volunteer made the initial contact with Donna by phone,
explaining that she was with the Adolescent Project and that she
would like to get together with Donna. By the volunteer's
report, Donna sounded rather disinterested, but a "very

230

intelligent kid." Their initial meeting was at Donna's home, and
the volunteer met Donna and her mom. She and Donna talked for an
hour about the project and the youth's activities and interests.
In the next few weeks Donna and the volunteer went to soccer
games, a local museum and had lunch at a restaurant.

The volunteer also met with Donna's mom. She was quite intent
on explaining Donna's problems as resulting from her parent's
divorce. She felt Donna's current delinquent acts were due to
the divorce. The volunteer prompted mom to think about areas of
advocacy in which she would like to see Donna become involved.

Later that week, the volunteer initiated a meeting with Donna
by explaining the general principles of child advocacy. She
expressed to Donna that they needed to be concerned with ways in
which Donna would be able to obtain the kinds of things she
wanted. She went on to explain that these might involve
programs, activities, or employment that Donna felt would be
useful. She further suggested that what she and Donna might do
together could be included. This precipitated a series of
discussions surrounding Donna's interests and the activities she
would enjoy. Donna and the volunteer continued their activities
over the next two weeks, attending an intramural football game
and going on a nature hike while still discussing Donna's needs.
These discussions culminated in an agreement between Donna and
the volunteer to focus on the following activities:

1) Earning her own money.

2) Joining an ice hockey club.

3) Getting involved in a recreational group, particularly

those involving swimming and gymnastics.

4) Joining a nature study group.

Following this initial assessment, Donna and the volunteer set
about determining what community resources existed for meeting
their objectives, what strategy they would follow in obtaining
each, and when they would follow through. They went together to
the library to look through the county directory of social
services, and called the local park department and the Girl Scout
agency. After determining the availability of the needed
programs and activities, Donna and the volunteer then constructed
the following set of strategies and responsibilities:.

1) Empleymeet: Donna and the volunteer discussed the

realities of a 12-year-old gaining formal employment. They

realized that more informal ways of earning money would have
to be sought and decided that Donna would circulate among her
neighbors a flyer indicating her availability for odd jobs
such as gardening, leaf raking, garage cleaning, and window
washing. This would be followed up by personal contacts with
each family on her block.

2) lee_Heekey: Donna and the volunteer contacted the head of

the local youth hockey club for information and determination

231

of eligibility requirements, time commitments, and fees.

3) Gymneetiee: Their earlier search for information had

indicated that the local YWCA had a weekly gymnastics

instruction program Wednesday after school. Donna agreed to
go and sign up. The volunteer agreed to ask Donna's parents
for the $10 registration fee.

4) Swimming: Donna agreed to sign up for the Saturday

swimming program at school.

5) NQLHLQ= Donna and the volunteer were to go together to an

organizational meeting for the neighborhood Girl Scout Troop.

Although Donna indicated that she had been interested in these
activities for some time, her mom had been more interested in her
staying around the house. The volunteer talked more with mom
about the rationale for involving Donna in these activities and
how the activities were selected. According to the volunteer's
report, mom agreed to provide transportation and half of the fees
if Donna would pay the other half with her own money.

Donna and the volunteer were successful in accomplishing each
of their stated goals except the ice hockey which wouldn't start
for two months. Donna worked up her small business to where it
kept her occupied two afternoons per week; by the end of the
project she had even opened a savings account. She was also
involved on a regular basis in the other activities. Her mother
reported "she's been extremely responsible lately."

About midway through the project, Donna's mom decided that
they would be moving out of state after the first of the year.
Donna and the volunteer turned their attention in that last month
to preparing for the move. This took the form of having Donna
get information from her new community about the potential for
similar activities there and planning strategies for how she
would involve herself in the new community. According to the
volunteer's report, Donna even wrote a plan of action for herself
after receiving information about the new community in the mail.
They spent their last two sessions together with Donna's mom
explaining the importance of the advocacy strategy for future
situations.

YOUTH EMPLOYMENT

Many youth wish to find a way to earn spending money. As an
advocate, there are generally two strategies by which you can
help your youth earn extra money. These include helping him/her
secure a formal job or assisting them in finding less formal or
temporary types of work he/she can do for money.
LW

Less formal ways of earning money have proven to be an

excellent way for younger youth to earn money and for all

youth to develop business or job references for future
employment. Informal jobs include babysitting, lawn care, dog
walking, trash removal, running errands, paper routes, and

II.

232

domestic services. Youth who engage in such activities are
not restricted by age requirements and can dictate the amount
of work they wish to do in order to meet their particular
level of monetary need.
Explore with your youth who could provide work for your youth
such as family, friends, and neighbors. Has the youth worked
for any of these people before? What type of jobs is the
youth willing to do? Does the youth have the necessary
equipment? Can they borrow it? These are all questions which
must be addressed when considering potential options with your
youth.
A very effective strategy is helping a youth set up a small,
ongoing business by establishing a regular clientele. Canvas
the youth's neighborhood for individuals who could supply work
for your youth. One very efficient method of doing this is to
help your youth draw up a flyer which outlines what kind of
work your youth is interested in doing. Distribute these with
your youth in his/her neighborhood and post them at local
businesses.
Above all, be creative in helping your youth secure temporary
employment. Look beyond the more traditional paper route jobs
to areas such as pet care, craft sales and selling cookies.
Wt
For the older youth, or one who wishes to secure a more stable
means of earning money, a regular job may be more appropriate.
The components of securing formal employment include
preparation activities and the selection and implementation of
job search strategies.
A. Pr r i : The volunteer's primary task in the
preparation phase is to expose his/her youth to situations
they will encounter when actually looking for work.
Intervention activities will include: 1) Coaching your youth
on demeanor and attire; 2) Compiling references and gaining
practice in filling out applications; and 3) Role playing job
interviews.
1) Demeener_end_3tti;e: The volunteer will need to coach
his/her youth on appropriate dress for the job search. The
youth should be dressed in clean, casual clothes. Tennis
shoes, T—Shirts and jeans, are not appropriate interview
clothes. Simple pants or skirts, blouses or dress shirts
are a must for the successful applicant. Hair should be
groomed, clean and out of the face. Excessive jewelry and
makeup, as well as gum or food, should be avoided.
Equally important is the demeanor of the aspiring
applicant. Instruct your youth to be attentive, ask
questions, and indicate that they are interested in working
when interviewing with managers. Youth need to be coached
in being courteous yet persistent in their requests to

233

submit applications and speak with managers.

2) Referen2es_snd_£ragtiee_592112stion: Initially. it

will be helpful for you to pick up a number of practice

applications from a variety of businesses which hire kids.

Look these over and be ready to sit down with your youth to

discuss their content. There will be standard personal

information asked for along with a request for school,
personal, and business references. Use the phone book to
get complete addresses and phone numbers. Brainstorm with
your youth who they would use for personal and business
references. Keep in mind that personal references do not
include relatives and past employers. Be creative in
generating potential business references. Keep in mind
that this includes informal employers. Is there a neighbor
the youth has babysat or done lawn work for in the past?

Since most kids will be applying for entry-level positions

prior work references are not a must, but particular

interests, experiences or work-related aptitudes are a

plus.

Have your youth write down this personal, school and
work-related information on an index card and have them take it
with them while applying for jobs. Not only will this expedite
the process of submitting applications, but complete references
will also impress potential employers.

Next, have your youth fill out these applications; the
more the better. Practice will increase the speed at which
your youth will be able to fill out applications, will
allow you to assess their writing and reading skills, and
will give the youth a sense of competency in one aspect of
the process of getting a job. A complete, positive and
neat application will put your youth at a definite
advantage over the other kids looking for jobs.

3) BQIQ_EIQX_IBL§£21§ES: Another important phase of the

preparation process is role playing of interviews with

potential employers. Youth must learn to speak with
managers while submitting applications. This will enable
the potential employer to associate a face with the name of

a particular applicant.

Be the "employer". Give your youth a taste of what

questions they might expect to encounter in an interview.

Why do you want to work here? What hours would you be

available—? When could you start? Why should I hire you

over these other kids? Switch roles. Model for your youth
how to be persistent, positive and to ask necessary
questions regarding when decisions to hire will be made.

B. Se1e2t1on_enQ_Imnlementet1o__of_Joh_§esrch_§tratesies:
1) Where te Apply: Once you have prepared your youth for

the actual job search, the question becomes where he/she

234

should apply. Youths often express a desire to work in the
highly visible fast food franchises, ice cream parlors or
convenience stores. These places receive large number of
applications due to their highly visible nature. Though
your youth may want to work at these places, encourage your
youth to submit applications to less visible places as
well. They may have less openings, but due to their lower
visibility, they receive less applicants. Have your youth
submit applications everywhere. Cover an area of
businesses, having your youth ask for and submit
applications at each and every store, shop or restaurant.
2) Eelleg-up: Have your youth write down in a job logbook
where, when and who they talked to. ‘Devise a follow-up
plan, wherein your youth will periodically recontact these
prospective employers in order to see whether openings have
occurred. Recontacting each and every employer, either by
phone or in person, every week is not too often. In fact,
this persistence on the part of your youth will demonstrate
motivation, a sincere interest to work and will single out
his/her application from all others.

** Obtaining a job for your youth is a simple matter of the

number of applications submitted and the frequency at which they

follow-up on these regularly. **

 

In helping your youth to find a job you must be greetiye_end
eeppettiye. Finding a job is hard work, and at times, a
demeaning experience for youth. You must be positive, upbeat and
enthusiastic in helping your youth secure employment. Make the
job search as rewarding as possible for your youth. Submit
applications, then engage in some pleasurable activity with your
youth Involve significant others in the job search effort. If
you are able to make the process of getting a job as positive and
pleasurable as possible, your youth's chances of obtaining
employment will be enhanced.

' ' ' om it 11
I. Manuel

A. Applications of the intervention strategies: Areas for

using agreements in the child advocacy case; areas for
advocacy in the behavioral agreement case

B. Informal employment

C. Formal employment

D. Advocates role in the job search
II. Readings

A. Guidelines in the negotiation process

B. The criticism trap - the steps involved and parties

affected

C. Sample agreements

D. Use of social reinforcers

E. Use of checklists and written agreements

235

F. Obstacles to effective advocacy for educational needs

G. What the advocate should know or do to pursue advocacy

within the school bureaucracy

UNIT VIII: MONITORING THE INTERVENTION

READINGS:

DeRisi, W.J. & Butz, G. (1975). flritins_hehayior_contracts.
Champaign: Research Press, 57-66.

Price, J.R., Levine, A. H., & Cary, E. (1988). The_;ignte_ef
etudegte. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, pp.
46-90; 97-106; 135-146.

Breggin, P. (1991). Texie_2eyehietry, Capters 12 & 13. St.
Martin's Press: NY.

Guttman, M. (1995). The ritalin generation. U§A_Weekend

December 27-29, 1995.

Once you have put into effect the strategies discussed in the
past units, you must immediately begin the important process of
monitoring your intervention. Indeed, a critical part of the
agreements you negotiate and the advocacy you conduct is the
monitoring systems which you build into the overall strategy.
The monitoring procedures for the behavioral and the advocacy
interventions will be discussed separately. Keep in mind that
you will be simultaneously carrying out and monitoring
interventions of each type in your work with your youth.

WW

One of the most important facets of any agreement you
negotiate and execute is the system you design for monitoring the
agreement. The monitoring system for a behavioral intervention
will include a chart which provides spaces for recording the
occurrence of the desired, agreed—upon behaviors -- both
responsibilities and privileges. A good monitoring system will
have the following characteristics:

1) It should be_eimple and easy to understand in format.

2) It should be eeey_te_eee. For example, it should involve

checks and initials rather than written out descriptions of

what occurred.

3) It should Lequire_metee1_menitering, Both parties should

be involved in recording the information.

4) It should be WWW
behaviors, as the agreement is. Do not include space for
other comments. That just invites the inclusion of irrelevant
and negative information.

5) The monitoring system should be designed so that the
information is reeerded_immeeiete1y_fellewing the desired
behavior. This reduces the likelihood of inaccuracies and
also increases the probability of positive interactions
between the parties involved.

6) The system should W for

monitoring. If the system has the above characteristics, this

236

will be achieved. If monitoring is easy and results in

positive interactions and consequences for both parties, it

will continue.

A sound monitoring system is important for primarily three
reasons. First, and most importantly, the monitoring tasks will
initiate frequent, positive, goal-oriented interactions between
the youth and the significant people in the youth's environment.
Since the development Of these interactions is the primary goal
Of using behavioral agreements, the monitoring phase is a crucial
component of this process.

A second important reason for implementing a monitoring system
is that it provides accurate and specific feedback about the
effectiveness of the behavioral intervention. By carefully
reviewing the information from the monitoring system with the
parties involved, everyone will achieve a clear picture of what
progress is being made and, specifically how they are enacting
the agreement that was negotiated. Without the monitoring
system, this would be a matter of recollection and subjective
opinion.

Finally, a sound monitoring system is important because it
helps everyone involved to maintain a constructive focus and to
avoid irrelevant arguments. Since the monitoring
system describes muteelly monitored accomplishments, it removes
the possibility of disagreements over what has or hasn't
occurred. It also provides a current and proactive
focus, thereby reducing the likelihood that either party will
bring up unrelated accusations from the past.

Your role during this monitoring phase of the behavioral
intervention will require that you maintain a very eetiye
involvement with all of the participants in the agreement. Any
newly negotiated agreement requires that both parties develop new
behaviors. Negotiating an agreement, while important, is only
the beginning. Actually living out the agreement on a day-to-day
basis is the more demanding part. During this phase your
involvement will be erueiel to the success of the intervention.

Your activities while monitoring a behavioral intervention
will fall into two major categories. First of all, you will
arrange fleekly Leview eeseiene with the parties involved in the
agreement to review the monitoring charts and discuss the
progress that has been made. You should schedule a minimum of
two such meetings during the first week that a new agreement is
in effect. After that, meetings at weekly intervals are
sufficient. These meetings should continue regularly throughout
the intervention. Since you may have difficulty in coordinating
everyone's schedules for these meetings, the best approach is to
agree upon times for the weekly review sessions during your
agreement negotiation session. There are several important
considerations to keep in mind concerning these weekly review

237

sessions.

1) The meetings should always include ell_inyelyed_pertiee.

2) Your overall goal for these meetings is to keep the
discussions brief_end_peeitiye in tone.

3) h 'n m ' . Pay particular attention to
exactly how the people involved are exeCuting the agreement.
The information you receive from the monitoring system should
provide you with the basis for further inquiry. You will have
to ask specific questions several times in order to find out
exactly what happened. Finding out how the agreement is being
used in actuality will allow you to accurately assess progress
and provide constructive suggestions.

4) Reetriet_the_dieeeeeien to information from the monitoring
chart. Don't allow the discussion to stray from the
monitoring task. It may happen that one or both parties are
eager to bring up other issues or areas of concern. These
other topics must be put off to another time. Your primary
goal for these monitoring meetings is to review and discuss
the progress made in the agreement behaviors.

5) Everyone involved must keep in mind that ehenge_ie_e
g;edee1_p;eeeee. Be prepared to accept set-backs as a natural
part of the change process. Your task is to help everyone
maintain a positive focus and not overreact to any negative
occurrences. Caution them to be realistic and patient in
their expectations and yet help them to maintain a sense of
optimism and motivation.

6) These monitoring sessions are gregg'ggpgrgnnjgjga :9: HQ”
L9_m9d§l_hh§_h§he2191§ you are encouraging them to develop in

their interactions with each other. Be positive and reward

any small changes that have occurred. Prompt and encourage

positive interactions between them (e.g., "I see you were on
time to fourth hour every day this week James. What do you
think of that Mrs. Smith? ). Provide feedback in terms of
what alternative responses the person could make in a certain
situation rather than only providing empty criticism.

Remember that changing old habits is very hard work. Leave

both parties with the knowledge that you appreciate and

respect the efforts that they have made.

The second type of monitoring activity that you will engage in
is deily meniteging which involves frequent spontaneous contacts
with the parties involved in the agreement to prompt and
encourage the newly agreed—to activities. These interactions
should be timed so that you can prompt or provide instruction for
the new agreed-upon behaviors or monitoring activities. For
example, if your youth Sue has agreed to take out the trash on
Tuesday night, give her a call to remind her. Then Wednesday
morning you might call Sue's father to see that he noted it down
on the chart and responded positively when he saw that she had

238

completed her chore. Or, for example, if a school monitoring
system has been arranged that requires that Sue get weekly notes
from her counselor, make calls to her and her counselor on Friday
to remind them to do so. Remember to monitor the priyilegee in
the agreement as well. Did Sue and her father remember to
arrange the ride to her friend's house that she had earned?

These frequent contacts not only increase the likelihood of
compliance and success but also allow you to troubleshoot as
minor issues and misunderstandings arise. When you are in
frequent contact with the parties involved these issues can be
resolved quickly. This intensive monitoring also provides you
with an opportunity to provide a great deal of encouragement and
praise to all parties. Be creative in this regard. If your
youth and his/her parents have been working hard to improve their
relationships through complying with an agreement, initiate a
celebration with them. Engage in some joint activity that they
would both enjoy or do anything that lets them know you
appreciate their efforts. This sort of celebrating helps them to
appreciate the progress they've made too.

Renegetietienghere may be times when you find that the original
agreement is not meeting the interpersonal goals of the parties
involved. Such failure may be a result of inadequate assessment
in determining which changes are actually important to each party
or perhaps the initial interpersonal situation has changed. It
may also be the case that the initial agreement quickly
accomplished its stated goals. There may be times when you
decide that it would be more beneficial to attempt to renegotiate
the initial agreement. Such renegotiation should follow these
general decision rules:

1) You should not consider renegotiation until three to four

weeks after implementing the initial agreement.

2) The agreement renegotiation should follow the same

procedures as the negotiation of the initial agreement.

3) You should involve all parties, including the supervisory

group, in the renegotiation process.

4) The renegotiation should be based on the information you

have gained from executing the initial agreement.

if ' 90_ a! - -. h 9g. 71 0 “Q ‘ ‘i ‘ 19!. 1.0%
r'v' ' ak ' ' ' ' ' ' . You
should be able to select new privileges for each party from the
information provided in the original negotiation session. You
may also generate ideas by listening carefully to each party's
concerns and watching the things they do in interpersonal
exchanges.

When an agreement is renegotiated because of inadequate
performance by either party, you should also follow the
principles laid out for the initial agreement negotiation. In
general, if one or both of the individuals is not meeting the

239

terms of the agreement, then they have not received interpersonal
exchanges which they value for their performance. You may need
to negotiate additional privileges for either or both parties to
be exchanged for increased performance. If the existing
privileges are insufficient to induce the desired change, you may
need to upgrade the execution of the specific terms of the
agreement such as how and when privileges are delivered or the
consistency with which they are delivered.. A list of agreement
problem areas prepared by DeRisi and Butz (1976) is included at
the end of this unit. This is an extremely useful guide to refer
back to when troubleshooting an unsuccessful agreement.
MW

Careful monitoring is also an important component of the
advocacy approach and it involves paying close attention to the
effects of your advocacy efforts. It is important that you
determine the youth's satisfaction with the changes that have
occurred. It is also important that you check the specific
effects of the change directly. Advocacy and accountability go
hand in hand. You may find that changes which have been
specifically agreed to by the target individual are not being
carried out exactly as planned or may be producing undesired side
effects. For example, the youth who you are working with has
been assigned to a special education program which is irrelevant
to his/her areas of interest and future vocational or educational
aspirations. You could work out a curriculum change with the
school counselor so that the youth's interests and potential were
better served by the education system. After implementing a
strategy you need to follow-up by carefully checking with the
youth and others. If after careful questioning you find that the
new classes were in fact also irrelevant for the needs of the
youth, you would need to reassert the rights of the youth
through additional advocacy strategies.

The key to adequate monitoring of your advocacy efforts is to
ask very specific educated questions of the youth and the other
parties involved. You need to know enough about the situation so
that you are able to accurately assess whether anything useful
has happened. The response "Everything's okay" is not sufficient
when inquiring about the progress of change efforts. You need to
find out exactly what has happened without playing 20 questions.
You are likely to get accurate feedback if you:

1) have established rapport with the youth;

2) are sufficiently informed about the changes desired;

3) can ask questions in a manner that the youth can
understand; and

4) can convince the youth that you know what you are talking
about.

240

e a v a

Similar to the renegotiation process in the behavioral
approach, you will also find it necessary to initiate secondary
advocacy efforts. The following principles apply:

1) You should allow adequate time for the initial changes to

take place. Skeptical patience describes the position you

should take.

2) Careful monitoring of the change process should provide

you with additional information to use in the event that

further direct or indirect action is needed.

3) You should assess both with the youth and your supervisory

group whether additional effort in an area of unmet need is

indicated.

In general, secondary advocacy efforts should include a
careful scrutiny of the initial strategy used, the approach
taken, and the specific targeted individual. You may decide that
another strategy is indicated or that the initial effort needs to
be executed again.

W

Crises may occur during any phase Of the intervention period.
How they are handled may determine the effectiveness of your
intervention. People are typically more susceptible to influence
and change during crisis periods. Thus, crises yield rich
opportunities for the youth and significant others to develop
different approaches and receive new understanding of their
world. For you, they provide an excellent opportunity to be
especially useful. By not overreacting or panicking as others in
the youth's life are doing, you can continue in your role as
negotiator/advocate to help the youth and significant others to
find alternative ways of dealing with the new problems.

However, although crises demand immediate attention, it is
critical that you do not set up new reinforcing contingencies or
put a major focus on the crisis situation, for that would only
tend to reinforce the occurrence of these events. In addition,
do not let crises jeopardize the areas of change already being
worked on and the successes already accomplished.

Important things to remember:

1. Remain calm.

2 Gather information.

3. Call your supervisors.

4. Refer to the basic philosophies.

S Advocate for your youth.

6. Continue working on other areas of intervention.
Troubleshooting Guide
The following questions may help you to spot the problems in your
agreement system.

The Agreement

1) Was the target behavior clearly specified and worded

2)

3)

4)
5)

6)

241

positively?
Did the agreement provide for immediate reinforcement
after the behavior occurred?

(i.e. monitoring and praise)
Did it ask for small approximations to the desired
behavior?
Was reinforcement frequent and in small amounts?
Did the agreement call for and reward accomplishment
rather than obedience?
Was the agreement mutually negotiated?

The Target (Youth)

1)
2)
3)

4)

Did (s)he understand the agreement?

Is (s)he getting the reinforcer from some other source?
Do the reinforcers have to be reevaluated (are they
sufficient/desired)?

Has a new problem behavior developed that is drawing the
mediator's attention away from the target behavior?

The Mediator

1)
2)

3)

4)

5)

From:

DeRisi. W.J.. & Butz, G. (1976). Mr1t1n9_hehaxior_contracta_.
Champaign: Research Press, pp. 58-59.

Did the mediator understand the agreement?

Did (s)he dispense the kind and amount of reinforcement
specified in the agreement?

Did (s)he dispense it according to instructions, at the
rate specified, and with consistency?

Did punishment accidentally accompany the performance
being reinforced?

Did (s)he stop mediating?

B . . . J E H . MIII

I.

II.

Manual

A. Characteristics of a sound monitoring system

B. Rationale for a behavioral monitoring system

C. Volunteers' role and 2 major activities during behavioral

UNQHZQMMU

.3’

monitoring

Review sessions

Daily Monitoring

Considerations in planning weekly review sessions
Modeling behavior in the monitoring phase
Decision principles for agreement renegotiation
Monitoring the advocacy intervention

Secondary advocacy efforts

Volunteers' role during crises

Considerations in "troubleshooting" an agreement
Readings

Troubleshooting: agreement; youth; mediator; measurement;
and volunteer

242

B. Due process rights of students .
School suspension: rights and procedures
D. Relation of school to law enforcement; search and seizure
procedures
E. Reasons why tracking and classification in schools has come
under attack
F. Confidentiality of school records
G. Difficulties associated with securing the rights of
students; pro's and con's in securing rights
H. Reasons why ADD diagnoses and Ritalin use has increased
I. Problems with labeling and the use of medications in
schools

0

UNIT IX: TERMINATION/GENERALIZATION/OVERVIEW

SUPPLEMENTAL ADYQQAQX MATERIAL:

Guggenheim, M., & Sussman, A. (1985). Ihe_;ighte_ef_yeung
peeple, Chapters IX and XI. New York: Bantam Books, pp. 218—
234; 247-267.

Also, skim through other parts of the book, especially pp.

1-27; 108-131; 187-267 to familiarize yourself with its

content. The book contains many issues surrounding youths'

rights that have been addressed in past cases. Use this book
as a resource for intervention purposes.

Lansing School District's Code of Student Conduct.

(NOte: you need not study this material; skim through it to

familiarize yourself with its content. Use it as a resource

for intervention purposes.)
We:

As outlined in the introduction of this manual, the goal of
this project is to keep the youth out of the juvenile justice
system. Our means of accomplishing that goal are to get the
youth and the important people in his/her environment to use the
methods of behavioral agreements and advocacy as alternatives to
seeking formal societal means of control. The accomplishments
that you are able to make with the youth and his/her situations
are the beginnings of changes in interpersonal strategy and
meeting individual needs.

One problem which any program of this type has is that the
involvement with the population being helped cannot last forever.
Decisions to terminate at any particular time point are merely
subjective. In this project we have selected eighteen_yeeke as
the model intervention time period. Eighteen weeks allows
sufficient time to accomplish significant Changes, allows a
mutually visible time period to accomplish goals, and has been
shown to be short enough to avoid undesired dependency.

During the last four weeks of the 18 week intervention period
your primary focus will be to teach the youth and significant
others to use the methods of negotiated interpersonal agreements

243

and advocacy as strategies for goal attainment and conflict
resolution. The preparation of these people for your termination
should include three components.

The first component is to W
that you are going to be involved with a particular youth for an
' w k im ri . You will want to inform all parties
of this fact early in your involvement. It will make all parties
aware that there is an explicit target date for accomplishment of
stated goals and gradual transfer of primary responsibility back

to those individuals in the natural situation. As you near the
end of the eighteen week time period, you will want to begin more
systematically informing the parties of the termination date and
suggest specific things to be accompliShed prior to your
termination.

Throughout the intervention you will be teaching the youth and
his/her significant others the methods of behavioral agreements
and advocacy. The seeend component involves inteneifiying_yen;
ieetzeetien of the methods of negotiated interpersonal agreements
and advocacy. This will take place through your instruction,
example, and practice.

In the case of agreements, the initial and renegotiated
agreements will provide practice sessions for handling future
situations which may arise. However, you will want to spend the
last four weeks of your intervention specifically instructing all
concerned in the methods and principles which you have been
utilizing in implementing the negotiated interpersonal
agreements. Essentially, you will want to provide them with the
information and principles that you have used throughout the
intervention. For example, you will want to tell them in some
detail about: a) the phases of negotiated interpersonal
agreements; b) the basic principle of positive reciprocity; c)
the importance of working on mutually monitorable events; d) the
importance of specific positive contingent feedback; e) rules for
renegotiation of interpersonal agreements; and f) using the
information from successful and poorly executed agreements. In
short, you will want to provide them a detailed alternative to
turning to the police or other formal agents of social control
for conflict resolution.

One effective termination practice involves compiling an
eggeement_peeket for those you have worked with. Such packets
should contain a summary of information necessary to effectively
negotiate and establish sound agreements. Including sample
agreements and/or fill-in-the-blank agreements are also useful.
Such packets should be clear, concise and written in common
terms. These packets serve as a resource for individuals to
refer back to when establishing behavioral agreements on their
own.
In the case of adveeecy, you will be instructing the youth and

244

significant others in the methods of advocacy from the beginning,
and modeling advocay techniques throughout the intervention.

This will take place through your mutual discussions and the
youth's observations of your advocacy efforts. It is important
that the youth not only be told about and observe how to execute
self-advocacy, but that he/she actually gain first-hand
experience in pleading his/her own case. During the last four
weeks of the eighteen week intervention, you will intensify
training the youth to be a self-advocate. You should provide
him/her with all the information that you have been using. For
example, you will want to tell the youth in detail about: a) the
phases of executing an advocacy effort; b) his/her basic rights
to the community's resources; c) the importance of making an
adequate assessment of his/her unmet need areas; d) the various
advocacy strategies available; e) the rules for selecting
strategies (paying careful attention to the effects of
self—advocacy efforts); f) the rules for supplemental advocacy;
and 9) how to use the information gained for future need
fulfillment. In short, you want the youth and significant others
to have an alternative to passive acceptance of unfulfilled
needs.

Similar to compiling a resource for future behavioral
agreements, you can compile an edyeeeey_peehet for your youth
outlining in simple and clear terms the above mentioned points.
Useful information to include in this packet are the names,
telephone numbers and pertinent information associated with
various community resources you've helped your youth gain access
to, as well as resources that may be of future use. Once again,
this packet serves as a resource which your youth can refer back
to when carrying out self-advocacy on his/her own.

The thIQ component of termination will be the eethel_p;eetiee
ef the metheds by the parties involved so that they gain the
experience of carrying out such processes on their own. The
parties in each interpersonal agreement should practice the
agreement negotiation process in your presence. You will help
the parties role play a future situation which they expect will
arise. In addition, the youth should actually carry out an
advocacy effort with you acting as coach. Have the youth select
an area of need, brainstorm resources, roleplay and have the
youth implement a strategy to access the resource. Also review
with the youth the previous advocacy efforts worked on. These
practice sessions will allow you to observe their execution of
each method, enabling you to provide constructive feedback about
their performance. It will also reinforce that your involvement
will be ending. ‘ ‘

Before we conclude the training segment, let's review the
phases and processes involved during the intervention period.
The model provides both a repertory of skills and a series of

 

245

circular, inter-related paths to be used as needed rather than a
rigid plan that has to be followed. Several important points
need to be considered in using this flow chart.

1) Assessment and monitoring of all areas of the youth's life

should continue regardless of the stage of the intervention.

2) Several areas of the youth's life may need attention at

any given point in time. Intervention may be proceeding

simultaneously at several different stages on the chart.

3) Certain phases of one strategy (advocacy or agreements)

may be appropriate in conjunction with the other.

4) The process (path followed) on the chart flows in both
directions.

A final task you will accomplish is to prepare a termination
report. This report will incorporate the information you have
been compiling on the case in your weekly progress reports and
log book. See Appeudiy for instructions and excerpts. Your
termination report will include an expanded version of the
following components:

geele. What were you specifically working on with this youth

and his/her situation during your 18 week involvement.

Include your original goals and any additional goals you

identified later.

Ieehhiquee. Detail exactly what you and others involved in
the case did to accomplish the goals identified above.

Eyeluetieh. What is your assessment of the degree to which

the goals were accomplished and the techniques utilized were

helpful.

Summary

You have now completed the nine training units. Although the

focus of the group sessions will now shift from primarily

training to supervision, w r 1
refe; te thie manuel. This will maximize your effectiveness in
implementing the skills you have just mastered.
Basie Etineiples frem Quit I;
I. Manual:
A. Rationale for 18-week intervention period.
B. Purpose of the termination strategy.
C. Sequential components of the termination approach.
D. Agreement and advocacy packets: rationale and contents.
E. Strategies for maintaining change.
F. General components of the termination report.
G. Overview of intervention process.

II. Readings:

Miscellaneous rights and prohibitions of young people.
Juvenile labor laws: rationale, protections, and exemption
Obtaining work permits

Contracts with minors (not behavioral agreements)

U 0 w ?

 

246

APPENDICES Of Appendix B
Appendix A/of Appendix B

N T N F WE Y

Fill in the Progress Report completely before class.

SIDE_QNE=

The questions on this side are self explanatory.
h' i 'a - Throughout the Progress Report, you are to
refer to your youth only through the use of his/her initials.
Do not use first and/or last names.

hete - Refers to the date of your case presentation, date your
class met.

Velunteers's Name - Your name.

Eepett_numhe; — Indicate the week of the intervention you are
reporting.
Queetieh_l — This should be identical to your response to

question IV from your previous week's Progress Report. In
other words, your current week's plans should be the same as
those you set up the week before.

Queetieh_ll - State how your current week's plans fit into your
long range goals. How do your daily tasks enable the youth
and the family to learn the models?

Queetieh_111 - List what you actually accomplished over the past
week.

Queetieh_1_ - You should begin filling this section out before
class; however it is highly likely that you may adjust your
plans based on feedback you receive during case supervision

Refer to the attached example.

SIDE IWQ:

For each item, please be sure to use the number of digits

specified.

W:

1) Self explanatory.
2) This should reflect the tetel_numhe;_ef_heute you spent
working on your case over the past week. Include in your
estimation: time spent in direct contact with your youth,
direct contact with significant others, time on the phone and
any other time you spent working on behalf of your youth. The
only time spent which is not included is your travel time.
When reporting hours, use three digits and round off
minutes to one decimal point.
Eer exemple:

a. If you spent a total of 7 and a half hours working on

you case, you would write: "07.5".

b. If you spent 7 and a quarter hours, you would

write: "07.3".

c. If you spent 7 and three quarter hours, you

would write: "07. 8".

3) Direct _eet_te;fieee_eehteet means the amount of time you

 

247

actually spent with your youth, in-person.

4) Same as above, except this question asks for the amount of
direct face-to-face contact you had with significant euulte in
your youth's life. This can include parents, grandparents,
teachers, counselors, etc.

5) Select the number which best reflects your agreement
activities over the past week.

Fe; inetenee, during the past week you could have discussed
agreements with the youth (response 3) and you could have
discussed agreements with the mediator (response 4); however,
response 5 indicated both of these activities and should be
the number you write. Similarly, if you discussed, negotiated
and implemented an agreement all within one week, you should
select response number 7.

6) This question as well as the above question (i.e., Q 5) is
referring to your most recent agreement.

7) Determine the tetel uumhe; ef heurs you spent on egteemeht
eetiyitiee over the past week.

NOTE: This number, should be leee_then_et_equel_te the
hours reported in gueetieu_2.

Qaest1ona_&_throush_14:

These questions refer to the number of hours you spent engaged
in various advoeeey eetivitiee over the past week. Be sure you
use 3 digits and round off minutes to one decimal point. (De_net
ihelude time spent in various agreement activities in this
section.)

Queetieh_;g would include time spent on termination activities
and any other activities that do not fit into the other
categories.

APPENDIX B/of Appendix B
IN T T R

Contact Length of Nature of Logbook
# and date Time Contact Page No.

 

 

 

 

1) Fill out a chart like the above example on the first 6
pages of the logbook. Enter each contact or effett to make a
contact you have with the youth. Also include any efforts or
contacts you make without the youth on his/her behalf on this
chart. Then, in the body of the logbook write a brief
description of the contact in the appropriate week's write up.
Include all phone contacts in both places.

2) Organize the body of your logbook in weekly segments,
beginning with the week your youth was assigned to you. In
addition to describing all contacts enter other information
such as your feelings about the case, your plans for the

248

coming weeks, and evaluation of strategies you have tried.

Treat the logbook as a diary or a running account of your

involvement with the youth.

3) Other instructions:

a. Refer to persons in your logbook by initials only.
b. Put your name and address in the logbook.
c. Don't let others read the book - keep it confidential.
APPENDIX C.
I -I TERVENT N N T N

You will submit a brief report at the midpoint and at the
termination of your involvement with your assigned youth. These
two reports are very important. A copy of each report will be
given to the probate court. They should be brief (2-3 pages
max.), behavioral, and positive in tone, outlining what you
assessed upon entering your case, what goal areas you mutually
targeted for intervention activities, and what you actually
accomplished in each of these areas.

All reports should follow the general format presented below.
Examples of acceptable Mid-Intervention and Termination reports
are attached.

SW:

A. H in - Include youth's name, volunteer's name and date

of first contact. The date of first contact is the date you

actually met the youth in person. Termination reports should
also include the date you terminated involvement with your
youth.

B. Ihtxeduetety_2e;eg;eph - Briefly summarize the initial

stages of assessment with your assigned youth, identifying

which goal areas you, your youth and his/her significant
others mutually identified as being targeted for intervention
activities.

C. Beuy_et_3epett — For each of the targeted areas

delineated in your introduction, submit a paragraph

specifically outlining, in layperson's terms, the nature of
your intervention activities. Include:
1) What you assessed. This includes needs, targeted
resources, problematic interpersonal relationships, and
areas for improvement.
2) What your goals were in that area.
3) What you actually accomplished. In the
Mid-Intervention report include the goals for the remaining
weeks of your intervention.
4) Summarize the skills that the youth has learned in each
of these areas and how they will be able to use these
skills in the future.

D. Ceheluuihg_§tetemeht - Include a few sentences to

end your report.

Remember to be brief and behavioral, yet positive in

249

describing your intervention activities. Your reports should
reflect the philosophies of the program by focusing on the
strengths and assets of your youth and his/her situation. You
and the family will have worked hard in creating positive changes
— give yourself credit for your many efforts.
NOTE: REPORTS MUST BE DOUBLE-SPACED AND ERROR-FREE

SAMP E D- N N N P
Youth Name: DeAnthony Jones
Volunteer Name: Mary Smith
Date of First Contact: March 22, 1994

On March 21, 1994, I was assigned to work with DeAnthony

Jones. At thirteen years of age, DeAnthony is currently living
with his mother, stepfather, sister, and brother in the Lansing
area.

Upon meeting and getting to know DeAnthony and his family,
we mutually identified the following areas in which to conduct
intervention activities: (1) the area of employment; (2) the
area of school; (3) the area of family life; and (4) free time
activities. . .

In the area of employment, DeAnthony expressed a desire to
earn some money this summer. As DeAnthony is only 13 years old,
we decided to look into less formal means of earning money. We
drew up some flyers and distributed them in DeAnthony's
neighborhood in order to solicit odd jobs from local residents.
To date, DeAnthony had secured 3 lawn jobs, two of which he will
be maintaining on a regular basis throughout the summer.
DeAnthony has also expressed an interest in golf, so we looked
into the idea of caddying. We registered DeAnthony to go through
a caddying orientation at the local country club. During the
course of our remaining weeks together, we wish to complete the
caddying orientation with the hope that DeAnthony will be able to
caddie several times a week. DeAnthony would also like to
continue with his lawn service work, possibly distributing
additional flyers in his neighborhood.

In the area of school, DeAnthony is a 7th grader at Dwight
Rich Junior High. Our assessment revealed that DeAnthony's
school attendance needed improvement. After meeting with
DeAnthony's counselor, Mr. Sloan, and talking with DeAnthony and
his mother, it was decided that DeAnthony needed some sort of
incentive to increase his school attendance. To date, we have
discussed the idea of negotiating an exchange between DeAnthony
and his mother, wherein DeAnthony would earn privileges (possibly
money or additional time out of the house) in exchange for
attending classes.

During the remaining weeks of our involvement, I hope to
implement such an agreement, not only to increase DeAnthony's
school attendance, but also to more positively involve
DeAnthony's mother in the area of school. I also wish to see

250

that DeAnthony enrolls in classes that he would like to take in
the 8th grade, particularly in the area of art where he has great
interest and has demonstrated an aptitude.

In the area of family life, DeAnthony gets along well with
his parents and brother and sister. As the oldest of the three
children, DeAnthony is occasionally required to babysit for his
younger siblings and does so willingly. DeAnthony regularly
fulfills his responsibilities around the home such as babysitting
and chores, and all involved seem happy with this situation.
During our remaining time together I will continue to monitor the
home situation for future intervention activities.

In the area of free time activities, DeAnthony likes to
play video games, bowl, and golf. During our first few weeks
together we visited local arcades and bowling alleys where
DeAnthony demonstrated his adeptness in these areas. During our
remaining weeks together we hope to continue to engage in these
activities, possibly involving DeAnthony's parents. Also, we
found out that if DeAnthony becomes a caddie at the local golf
course, he will be allowed to play golf for free two mornings a
week, something DeAnthony is very interested in doing.

In conclusion, DeAnthony is a bright, energetic young man
who has many interests, strengths and friends. I am looking
forward to our remaining weeks together.

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