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thesis entitled

THE EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE!) SINGING INSTRUCTION
0N BEGINNING INSTRUMENTAL SI'UDENI‘S'
more: ACHIEVEMENT

presented by

Catherine D. Bloedel Beery

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The Effects of Structured Singing Instruction
on Beginning Instrumental Students' Performance Achievement
By
. Catherine D. Bloedel Beery

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF MUSIC EDUCATION

School of Music
1996

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT or STRUCTURED SINGING INSTRUCTION 0N BEGINNING
INSTRUMENTAL STUDENTS CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND
PERFORMANCE ACHIEVEMENT
By

Catherine D. Bloedel Beer-y

The purpose of this study is to compare instructional techniques that emphasize the
development of tonal syntax through the Singing of rote songs and resting tones to
traditional beginning instrumental instruction. Most speciﬁcally, this study concerns itself
with whether these two approaches result in signiﬁcantly different student achievements in
terms of: (1) intonation, (2) phrase shaping, and (3) musical expression. The secondary
problem ofthis study will be to investigate the effect of music aptitude on student
achievement in terms of: (l) intonation, (2) phrase Shaping, and (3) musical expression.

One hundred and sixteen band students were divided randomly into two groups.
TheMusngpﬁWwasadministeredtoall students. GroupAreccived traditioml
msuumamlmstnwﬁmandGmumeceivedinsmwﬁonemphasizingsingingmtewngs
and resting tones. At the conclusion of 14 weeks, student performance of a short sight-
rendingemdewasevaluatedbyjudges usingarating scale.

Conclusion: instruction using singing is effective in developing musical expression
for instrumental music students.

Copyright by
CATHERINE D. ggIéEDEL BEERY
1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My appreciation is expressed to Dr. Cynthia Taggart, committee chairperson, for
her guidance, support, and encouragement during the many phases of my degree program
and throughout the writing of my thesis.

1 wish to express my appreciation to my committee members Dr. Robert Erbes,
Dr. Michael Largery, and Mr. Phil Sinder for their many contributions in the preparation of
this document. Gratitude is extended to Mrs. Jan Fleck, Principal at Kreeger Elementary
School in Fowlerville, Michigan for her interest and support in this effort.

Thewriting ofthisthesisbecameafamilyaffair. lwishtothankmyfather,

Dr. James Bloedel, for his guidance and perseverance during the many hours he spent
assisting me with the statistical analysis ofthe data. Thanks also goes to my mother, Mrs.
Joyce Bloedel, a high school English teacher. The years she spent impressing the
importance of accurate English and her editorial suggestions throughout the writing of this
thesis helped to make this work possible. I thank them both for their constant love and
encomagement.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................... 1
Objectives in Beginning Instrumental Music Instruction... 1
Development of S ntax ......................................... 3
Teaching Techniques or Beginning
Instrumental Instruction ........................................ 4
Music Aptitude .................................................. 10
Summary ......................................................... 11
Purpose ........................................................... 12
Problem ........................................................... 12
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. ............................ 13
Introduction ....................................................... 13
Related Studies ................................................... 13
Summary .......................................................... 25
III. METHOD .................................................................. 27
Subjects ........................................................... 27
Procedure ......................................................... 27
Teaching Procedure for the Experimental Group ............ 28
Teaching Procedure for the Control Group ................... 29
Statistical Design and Analysis ................................. 33
IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ................. 35
Introduction ...................................................... 35
Results ............................................................ 35
Interpretations .................................................... 44
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATION 8.. 49
Summa ......................................................... 49
Conclusrons ...................................................... 50
Recommendations ............................................... 51
APPENDICES ............................................................................ 54
lesson Plans for the Control and Treatment Groups ....... 54
LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................. 76

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Means and Standard Deviations for the Tonal Imagery and
Musical Sensitivity Subtests of the Music Aptitude Proﬁle .................. 36
2. Means and Standard Deviations for the Music Aptitude Proﬁle
for the Sample Population for the Composite of Tonal Imagery

and Musical Sensitivity Subtests ................................................ 37
3. Interjudge Reliability .............................................................. 40
4. Rating Scale Intercorrelations .................................................... 41
5. Means and Standard Deviations for the Instrumental Performance Etude. 41
6. ' Two-way Analysis for Variance for Intonation. ............................... 42
7. Two-way Analysis for Variance for Phrase Shaping .......................... 42
8. Two-way Analysis for Variance for Musical Expression ..................... 43
9. Planned Comparisons Test for Musical Expression Composite ............. 43
10. Two-way Analysis for Variance for Etude Composite. ....................... 44

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Instrumental Performance Etude ............................................... 32
2. Rating Scale ...................................................................... 32
3. Distribution of Scores for the W ...................... 38
4. Distribution of Scores for the Performance Etude Composite .............. 46

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

 

Program objectives and teaching methods are influenced by national and m
standards, a teacher's personal experiences as an instructor and as a student, and the
attitudes andneeds ofthecommunity. They a'elikelytochangeovertimes a resultof
these inﬂuences. In beginning imtrumental music education, thee are a vaiety of
teaching methods tht guide students mad the achievement of performance objectives.
'I‘hischapteris concerned withliteraurerelatedto program ohjectivesandteaching
methods, with the goal of idemifying contemporary techniquu tha have been found to be
the Inca effective when used to teach beginning instrumentalists.

Program objectives should be designed to best suit the needs of the individual
program. Leonard and House (1972) state thatprogram objectives should be oriented
toward the development of students knowledge, conceptual understanding, performance
skills, altitudes, appreciation, and initiatives. Students' ability to recognize music patterns
and recall essemial mmical facts are concrete tasks thtrequire basic knowledge of music.
Conmptual undastanding involves one's ability to comprehend and apply musical
knowledge. A student should possess the ability to analyze an! generalize. An individual
should devdop insights inc musical interpretation and be able to perceive technical
problems of music perfumance. Musical knowledge and conceptual undastanding should
heapre'eqnisitetothedevelopmentofperfonnanoe skillsthuincludearralawareness and '
discriminatiar, music perception, the ability to solve techniml problems. F tr example, to
perform an etude, the student should: (I) possess a basic knowledge and understanding of
the written music, (2) audiate the rhythmic and tonal paterns in the music, (3) solve
technically diﬂ‘iarlt passages, and (4)play with good intonation and tone quality.

2

Attitudes, appreciation, and initiative include one's feelings toward listening to
music and performing music. One should demonstrate respect for music and a desire to
improve musicianship. A student should possess an appreciation of tasteful music
performance and of high quality musical repertoire. Lastly, a student should show
initiative toward practicing, caring for an instrument, performing musically, and
attending class regularly while in a musical ensemble. It is the educator's responsibility to
createprogramobjectivesthaternphasizetheseareas. Effectiveprogram objectivescan
improve students‘ musicianship by guiding them in the leaming process toward the
achievement of musical understanding and musical performance.

mnucﬁonalobjecﬁvesinaheginnmginsnumentalpmgramshmddbeestahhshed
from program objectives in order to assure student achievement of performance skills.
These objectives serve to guide daily learning by deﬁning desired observable beluvior,
conditions under which the action will occur, and the meciﬁc level of achievement
(Radocy and Zeigler, 1974). Instructional objectives should be directed toward the
development of an understanding of music (Leonard and House, 1972).

A student's conceptual understanding will manifest itselfin that students
performance skills. Therefore, instructional objectives should include skill criteria: for the
evaluation of students‘ conceptual understanding. The National Standards for Arts
Education establishedbytheMusic Educator’sNational Conference (1994) statethatthe
student should singandperforminsn'umentally withexmessionandtechnicalacctuacy,
and with good tone quality and intonation. Students who participate in an ensemble should
performavariedrepertoireoflimnneincluding some solosperformedby memory.
Schleuter and Schleuter (1988), Azzara (1993), and the Music Educator’s National
Conference (1994) believe students' music reading, improvisation skills, and composition
skills should also be evaluated. More speciﬁcally, Schleuter (1984) and Grunow and
Gamble (1989) state that beginning instrumental instruction should include the following
beluviors: (1) students should demonstrate their ability to audiate through singing rote

3
songs and tonal patterns, (2) students should synchronize body movement with the beat of
music and perform rhythmic patterns accurately, (3) students Should perform correct
phrasing and musical expression, and (4) students should perform executive skills such as
ﬁnger dexterity, embouchure, articulation, instrument position, posture, and breathing
correctly. Program objectives and instructional objectives represent the outcomes of
musical learning. Appropriate methods and teaching techniques will assist with student
attainment of these goals.

W
Anessentialelementinthemusiclearningprowssistheahilitytorecallandsing

melodies from previously heard music and to understand relationships of tones and
rhythms within a composition. Instructional objectives should include speciﬁc class
activities tint emplnsize the development of tonal and rhythm syntax (Gordon, 1980). A
senseofsteadytempoandmetameﬁmdamentaltorhydrmicunderstanding andasenseof
tonality is fundamental totonal understanding. One mustpossessasenseofrhythmtogive
syntaxtogivemeaning totherhythmic elementsofmusic, andone mustpossessasenseof
tonal syntaxtogivemeaning tothetonalelementsofmusic.

Audiating and possessing a sense of tonality is fundamental to listening,
performing, recalling, and creating music (Grunow, 1989). Audiation refers to the ability
to give music meaning through mentally Mug music by means of recall, musical
composition, or viewing musical notation (Gordon, 1980). Individual tones are
understoodby thelistenerbyrelatingthemtoothertoneswithinagiven tonality. The
understanding ofﬂrerelationshipsbetweenthetones within patternsandbetweenpattems
requires a syntactical Imda'standing of the organization of tonality within music. When a
nudenthasachievedasynmcﬁcalmdasmndingofmemnahwmroughwdiaﬁon,mmme
studentcangivemeaningtothetonalelementsofmusicbypredicting whatwilllogieally
comenextwhileperforrningorlisteningtoit.

4

Beginning instrumentalists should possess a syntactical understanding of the tonal
and rhythmic elements of music prior to any instrumental experience (Gordon, 1980;
Grunow and Gamble 1989). Class lessons that include instruction in singing the resting
tones, tonal patterns, and musical phrases together with movement to the macro heat and
chanting rhythmic patterns will improve a student's sense of tonality and sense of rhythm
(Grunow and Gamble, 1989; Azmra, 1993). Once a student can successfully perform
these tasks, the student should perform the same tasks instrumentally. Instruction that
emphasizesmedevelopmurtofasmdentscmceptualundersmndingofmusicwin rmnifest
itself in performance skills such as intonation, good tone quality, musical expression, and
rhythmic accuracy.

Ifthedevelopmentofa senseoftonal syntax iscentral tomusic understanding,
music teachers must ﬁnd a means through which to develop their students' tonal syntactical
understanding. In two individual studies, both MacKnight (1975) and Grutzmacher (1987)
found that instruction using tonal pattern content, with vocalization and harmonization as
teaching techniques, signiﬁcantly improved melodic sight-reading skills. Davis found that
a combination of singing and self-evaluation practice was a useful approach to developing
instrumental performce skills, self-evaluation skill, and positive attitude in beginning
sixth grade students (1981). The results of these studies indicate that a high level of musical
understanding, as indicated by melodic sight-reading capabilities, can be obtained when
instruction emphasizes tonal pattern training, singing with toml syllables, chanting with
rhythm syllables, active listening, and conceptualintion.

 

Programobjectivesdescrihewhatwillbetaughtandwhenitwillbetaught. Once
mewwamrhmmmmedmegodsdmemogmmappropﬁammahodmustbe
determined. Methodmataialssuchasmusictextsandsupplementalmaterialschosenby
the educator should complement the objectives of the music program. While choice of

5
program objectives and methods can signiﬁcantly affect a student's music achievement, the
techniques a teacher uses to introduce a student to music and guide them in the musical
experience are vital to a student's conceptual understanding, musical performance, and
attitudes toward music. Teaching techniques are the means to students’ achievement of
objectives.

Teaching techniques have been developed through empirical and descriptive
research about how children learn and mature, speculations of experienced teachers, and
teacher’s individual teaching preferences. Some of the established techniques include
(1) modeling and imitation, (2) lecture, and (3) singing. The following is an overview of
someofthetechniquescommonlyusedinbeginninginstrumental musicinstructiortrelated
research, and discussion of strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

I I l l' l l . .
Modelingandimitationareusedtotaach speciﬁcperformanceskills. Through
demonstration, or modeling, the teacher can Show the student the desired musical or
musically related behavior (Sang, 1986). Ieaming occurs when the student imitates the
teacher‘s model (Greer, 1980). Greer states that modeling followed by activities of
imitation and discrimimtion should aid in the development of aural musicianship and
instrumental performance skills (1980). Students who receive musical discrimination
naimngusingmodehngandinnmﬁmdemmsuatealnghalevelofdiscﬁmmaﬁmsldﬂs
than students who do not receive this training (Delzell, 1989). In Delzell‘s study, the
studentsreceivedonlyatualtrainingandwerenotengagedin musicreadingactivities. lt
wasfmmdthatﬂresmdentswhowereinsnuctedusingmodeﬁngandhnitaﬁonhad
signiﬁcantly higher discrimination skills; however, there was no signiﬁcant difference
betweenthegroupsinregardtomusicalperforrnanceachievement. Whenstudentsare
exposedto minimalnarration andnontechnicalvocabularyandanabundanceofpa'formed
musical examples of proper tone quality, intonation, melodic and rhythrrric patterns,

6
expression, style, balance, and tempi, they are able to discriminate between examples in a
”same” or "different" format and imitate a correct model performance (Delzell, 1988).

Puopolo (1970), Sang (1986), and Folts (1973) found that imitation of tape
recorded models improved student achievement of music performance skills. Kendall
(1988) found that modeling and imitation improved the development of aural musicianship
and music performance skills and, when combined with music reading activities, did not
impede student Ieaming.

Modelingandimitationpresentedthrargh self-insmrctionalpracticetapesand
teacher demonstration contribute to student development of pa'formance skills and aural
discrimination skills. Researchers (Folts, 1973; Kendall, 1988; Puopolo, 1971; Zurcher, ‘
1975) wouldarguethatmodelingandimitation togetherar'emosteffectiveforteaching
beginning instrumental students. Gordon (1980), Grunow (1989), and Azm (1993)
asserttlratwhen childrenareimitating, they any maelybe mimickingandnot
conceptualizing. Theybelievetlntmethodsthatencornagemoreadvancedlevelsof
thinkingpromote more rneaningfullearningataconceptual leveL Modeling andirnitation
alsorequirequality, ﬁequency,andconsismncy. Anyerrorinmodelingbytheinstructoris
verylikelytoresultin errorbythe student. Otherapproachesinconjunction with modeling
andimitation maygivethechildmoreofanoppornmitytodevelophigherlevelthinln'ng
skillstlurtmayassisttheminavoidingtherepetitionofapoormusical example. Modeling
andmutaﬁmalone,althoughprovareffecﬁveinsomesinnnmsandfmachieving some
goals, do not assure conceptual understanding in beginning instrumental music students.

m
Oneofﬂremostcommonformsofinsnucﬁoninbeglnninginsuumentalmusicis

lectureorverhal communication. Duringlecture, instructorsteach musicthroughtalking
aboutmusic. Thistechniqueisﬁequentlyusedtoconveyspeciﬁcfactsabommusic,to
solve technicalorexpressiveprohlemsinagivenperformance,ortoprovide verbal

7
imagery. Lecture should not be confused with classroom discussion, in which students are
given the opportunity to verbalize their knowledge. In discussion, students are
generalizing and are learning to conceptualize tluough identiﬁcation and comparison
processes. Iectrneasateachingappmachrefersonlytoverbalimtiononthepanofthe
instructor.

Papke (1972) found that, in secondary instrumental ensemble rehearsal, the time
directors spent in lecture ranged from 20% to 42.7% of the class period. Pontious (1982)
similarly found that conductor talk occupied 42% of high school band rehearsals. Choral
conductors were found to lecture 40% of the rehearsal time (Thurman, 1977). Kostka
(1984) found verbal communication to occupy 42% of private piano lessons. Sang (1985)
found that the average time spent talking during a beginning instrumental class was 40%
and that 13% was teacher modeling, 13% was singing and movement, and 34% was
students playing their instruments. In a previous study, Sang (1982) found modeling to be
amoreefﬁcientuseofclasstimethanlectm'eby nearlyathreetoonemargin.

In younger ensembles, teachers often attempt to explain music verbally to students
instead of providing musical experiences and examples for them. Too much time spent
lecturing may impede the development of performance skills. Based upon Sang's ﬁndings,
Dickey, (1991) investigated the effects oftwo forms ofinstruction, one that used a verbal
approachandonethatusedamodelingapproach. Thepurposeofthestudywasto
determinewhetha'instrumental music studentswhoweretaughtusingamodeling
approach would develop better melodic ear-to—hand skills, kinesthetic response skills, and
general music discrimination skills than students taught with verbal strategies. It was
found that the group receiving modeling instruction demonstrated signiﬁcantly greater ear-
to-hand skills and kinesthetic response skills. However, no signiﬁcance was found for
general musicdiscrimination sldllsinrelat'rontothegroupreceivingverhalinstruction.

Rosenthal (1984) investigated the use oftapedperformance forpractice with college
music majors. Four different kinds of training tapes were used as treatments with four

8
different groups. They included: (1) a performance of an excerpt of the etude and
integrated verbal instruction; (2) complete performance of the etude and no verbal
instruction; (3) verbal instruction with pauses for mental practice; and (4) no training tape.
Student performances were rated by two judges. Roswthal concluded that students using
the "performance only" tape achieved signiﬁcantly higher than students using the
”performance with verbal guidance" tape. Students using the "verbal instruction only" tape
and “no tape“ scored signiﬁcantly lower.

Research supportsthatlecture maybetheleasteffectiveapproach tousewith
beginning instrumentalists. Sang, Dickey, and Rosenthal commred the effectiveness of
Iectrueincomparison tomodcling strategies. Modelingandimitationisaneffective
approach for teaching beginning instrumentalists. However, there is little research to
support that lecture or modeling and imitation, when used exclusively, are effective for
developing a conceptual understanding of music.

 

Singing, the act of performing musically using one's voice, is one of the most
universal music performance skills (Schleuta‘ and Schleuter, 1988). Singing assists the
student in the development of (I) a sense of pitch, (2) a sense of tonality, (3) intonation,
(4) musical phrasing, and (5) style of articulation. It is fundamental to the development of
ascnseoftonality, which istheabilitytoamallyperceivethcrelationshipsoftoneswithina
harmonic framework (Gordon, 1971). Musical skills and musical unthstanding taught
through singing build readiness for instrumental performance and reading notation (Casey,
1993). Through singing, an individual develops the ability to audiate. When one audiates,
one comprehends the structure tonality, and meter of the music (Grunow, 1986). Singing
experiencesthatencourageaudiation facilitatedredevelopmentofasenseoftonality
(Leonard and House, 1959; Mursell, 1934). Singing can he used as a diagnostic tool to

9
assess how accurately students' audiate. A sense of tonality must be developed through
singing and audiation before a student performs music instrumentally (Gordon, 1980).

Beginning instrumental music students can improve performance skills by singing
the same music that is to be played on an instrument (Mtn'sell, 1934; McGarry, I967;
Grunow and Gamble, 1989). Harris (1977) found that singing during junior high and high
school band rehearsals signiﬁcantly improved students’ intonation. Once a student has
developed a sense of tonality, singing activities that emphasize relationships of tones to
musical symbolsandtophysicalacﬁonsshouldbehrcludedatdresameﬁmettntthe
instructor is encomaging further tonal development. Singing activities may also
incorporaterhythm with tonalactivitiesonceasenseoftonalityandrhythm havebeen
individually developed (Grunow and Gamble, I989). Singing is a musical achievement
that Signiﬁcantly contributes to musical unda'standing through tonal concept development
(Gordon, 1971).

Appropriate teaching techniques shouldbeusedwith singingexercisestoassure
achievement of performance skills and development of a conceptual understanding.
Activitiesinwhich studentsareinstructedtosingalong withtheteacherorasaclasswill
not signiﬁcantly improve tonal development (Gordon, 1980). Singing activities should
include listening, imitation, and group and solo experiences with tonal patterns and rote
songs using solfege and neutral syllables. All singing activities Should emphasize resting
tone. Theresﬁngtoneisthetonematsmndsmostrestfrﬂandisalsorefuredmasﬂrc
tonalcenterortonic. Differenttonalitiesareaudiatedin relationtotherestingtone
(Gordrm, 1971). One should determine the tonality by audiating relationships between the
tones and to the resting tone (Grunow, 1989). Beginning instrumental students should be
taughtmaudiateandsingtheresﬁngtmeinagivartonahtypﬁorminsuumaml
performance. Thisisimperativetothedevelopmentofasenseoftonalityaswellas
intonation (Grunow and Gamble, 1989).

1 0

Most traditional techniques used for developing a sense of tonality, intonation,
phrasing, articulation and expression do not incorporate Singing. Colwell (1969) states that
good intonation should be taught through listening and the use of a strobe tuner. In
contrast, Shuler (1986) suggests that a director-centered tuning process using a strobe tuner
willpreventstudentsfromachieving independenceintrming. Healsostressesthatthis
process of visual matching is diffa'ent than the aural process of matching and blending with
other musicians in an ensemble, which should be the musician's and teacher's goal. Shuler
states that good intonation is guided by student's toml audiation and by teacher‘s model of
in-tune playing and singing. Colwell (1969) also suggests using lecture to teach good
phrasing, articulation, and expression. Schleuter (1988) advocates singing the music
beforeplayingitonaninstrument. Hestaesdntaninsnumentisanextensionofﬂrevoice
and tasteful musical phrasing, dynamics, articulation, and expression can best be obtained
throughﬁrstsingingthemusicinthedesiredmanner.

I l . E . l
The effectiveness of teaching techniques should be measured in relation to students'
music aptitude. A student's music aptitude is his or her potential to achieve musically
(Gordon, 1980). Instructional objectives and instructional techniques should be adapted to
teach to the individual diffa'ences among students (Froseth, 1968; Gordon, 1970; Hatﬁeld,
1967). AteacMapproachmatfocusesmstudmtsasmdividmlsndﬂbemosteffecﬁve
for developing students' conceptual understanding and musical performance sldlls.
mWwordon. 1995) hasbemexpa'imtally Shown to
possess diagnostic as well as predictive validity (Gordon, 1965; Hatﬁeld, 1968). This test
battery shouldheadministeredpriortoinstrumental music instructiontomeasm'eeach
student's music aptitude. Threegroupsofstudents shouldbedeﬁnedwithineachclass
according to percentile ranks: low-aptitude, moderate-aptitude, and high-aptinrde. Once
thesegroupsaredeﬁned,instruction shouldadaptedtomeettheneedsofeach student.

1 1

In terms of developing objectives, program objectives should not be altered in
consideration of MAP results; however when formulating instructional objectives, the test
results should be considered. The results should be used to adapt instruction to meet the
individual differences of each student. Singing is an effective technique to use for adapting
instruction according to student's individual musical aptitude. For example, when singing
songs by rote and tonal patterns with individual students or small groups within a larger
ensemble, the instructor should select appropriate content that is most beneﬁcial to those
individuals. A teaching technique that effectively teaches to the individual musical
differences among the students can prevent boredom among the higheptitude studarts and
frustration among the low.aptitude students.

A teacher must know each student's potential to achieve in music so he can monitor
how each student is achieving in relation to that potential (Taggart, 1989). Students'
musical aptitudes should he considered when formulating appropriate instructional
objectives and when evaluating student achievement in relation to those objectives.
Furthermore, students' music aptitudes together with their music achievements can be used
to measure the effectiveness of contrasting teaching techniques.

Srunmant
Students learn best when they are actively involved in their environment. Research

has shown modeling and imitation to be an effective approach. However, this approach
provesmbemmeeffecﬁvewharhmpomtedwimodrermetlndsﬂratpromoteamme
conceptualtmderstandingofmusic. Modelingandimitationcanbeusedtoﬂchamal
peroepﬁonanddiscﬁmimﬁmskiﬂsbmalonedonotanowforthedevelopmentof
idenﬁﬁcaﬁmmassodaﬁmsldﬂsthmleadmﬂreabﬂitymgenerahaeandmodrahigha
levelthinking skills. Iectmeisuseﬁrlfordescribing musictostudentsbutdoesnot
provide a sinration in where students are learning through musical experience. The most
effective technique for the development of a sense of tonality and rhythmic understanding is

l 2
singing. During singing activities, the student is actively involved in imitation of a model
and in audiation involving independent thinking and conceptualization. A teaching
approach that is focused on singing allows for the development of a sense of tonality and
rhythm, music reading, and performance skills such as phrase shaping, musical expression
and style. Contemporary research should be concerned with examining the effectiveness of
mesentMchhgnmthodsﬂmtemphasinsingingmdeevelopingnewapmomhes
based upon the examination of the research results.

Elms:

Thepmposeofdrisstudyismmvesﬁgatemsuucﬁomltechniquesmatemplmize
the development oftonal syntax through the singing ofrote songs and resting tones to
improve music performance achievement and musieal understanding in beginning
instrumental students.

mum

'I‘heprimaryproblemofthis studyistocomparetwomodesofbeginning
instrumental instruction. One mode of instruction will emphasize the development of a
mofmnahq,mymmMmuMexmmmghathngamthuses
singingandplaying and focusesonrestingtoneinmusicreading activities. 'I‘heother
modeofinshrrcﬁonwiﬂnotincorporatesingingbutinstaadwill useatraditionalapproach
in which students perform instrumentally and in which notes and symbols are taught
throughidentifying themdirectlyfromnotation. Most speciﬁcally, thisstudyconcerns
itself with whether these two approaches result in significantly different student
achievement in terms of: (1) intonation, (2) phrase shaping, (3) musieal expression. The
secondmypmblemofdrissmdywmbetomvesdgateﬂreeffectofmusicapﬁmdem
student achievement in terms of: (l) intonation, (2) phrase shaping, and (3) musieal

expression.

CHAPTER H
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Meier:

Singing is a common instructional approach in beginning instrumental instruction.
However, a limited body of resea'ch exists concerning the effects of singing instruction on
ﬁfth grade beginning instrumentalists' achievement of performance skills and conceptual
understanding. Only ﬁve studies from the litermrre investigaed singing as a teaching
approach fcr elementary band classes. No surdy was found to be speciﬁcally concerned
with intonation, phrase shaping, and musical expression. The present chapter involves

discussion of these rained studies and compaison to the present study.

W

One early study on singing and beginning instrumental perfrrmance achievement
was conducted by Elliott in 1974. He investigated the effect of vocalization on the seme of
pitch of beginning band students. The major prrpose of Elliott's study was to research
whether regulm‘ singirg activities during beginning band classes had a signiﬁcant effect on
developing students' drilities to: (1) notice slight diﬁ'erences of tones sounded
consecutively, (2) recall a shat melodic passage correctly, (3) convert aurally perceived
sounds inc musical notation, and (4) mentally convert musical notation imo musical
sounds. These four abilities were how Elliott ddined a sense of pitch.

The subjects ofthe experimentwere 196 beginning band students from six different
schools. The students were grouped heterogeneously into experimental and control
groups, and math: one lesson every day forthe length of the school year. Although it is
not indicaed in the surdy, it is presumed from this schedule that the sample consisted of
junior high stnderls and not elementary students. Elliott p‘etested the students using the
pitchdiscriminationandtomlmemorysections ofthe -=‘

 

l3

l 4

Talents (1939 revision). The purpose of the pretest was to test student's ability to
recognize differences between tones played consecutively and to recall brief melodic
passages.

lessons were taught using the W (Parts One and Two).
Expaimental groups sang the pitches for the exercises on the syllable "la" after the teacher
hadmodeledthesingingexercise. In theﬁrsthalfofthe studywhen PartOnewasused,
exercises were played, sung, then played again. Once students began Part Two, exercises
were sung ﬁrstbeginningonatoneprovidedbythe instructorandthenplayed. Tbaewere
no other experimental methods indicated in this study. The control group was taught in a
traditional mannertlntwasdeterminedbytheindividual instructor. Attheconclusionof
the school year, students were again tested on the pitch discrimination and tonal memory
. .w. (Subtest A). Their ability to match
sounded music with musical notation was tested using Subtest B. Subtest C and D were

sectionsofthe x. in. -

 

used to mmsure the students' ability to change musical notation into musical sounds
through the identiﬁcation of pitch errors in given musical examples and their ability to
change musical sounds into musical notation through music dictation exercises.

The results ofthis study indicate that the experimental group scored signiﬁcantly
higheronSubtestsA,C,D,andontheoverallscores. Thisgroupalsoscoredhigheron
Subtest B but notat a signiﬁcant level. Brass players scored higher than woodwinds, but
notatasigniﬁcantlevel. Manyofthestudentsinboththeexperimentalandthecontrol
groups were involved in vocal ensembles outside of this study. Elliott found that neither
thosemvolvedinvocalarsemblesinﬂecmholgrormorhrmeexpaimmmlgroupscmed
higheronoverallposttestscores. Elliottalsocomparedsurdentswhosmdiedpianoto
mosewhodiansmdypianowiminmeexpaimenmlgroupandwiﬂﬁnmeconuolgroup
andbetweentheexperimentalandcontrolgroups. Pianistsinbothgroupsscoredhigheron
SubtestCthannonpianists. Also,pianistsintbeeaperimentalgroupscoredsigniﬁcantly
higherthanpianistsinthecontrolgroup. Elliottconcludedthatsingingasapartofdaily

1 5
instruction in band signiﬁcantly affected students' sense of pitch. He also concluded that
while private piano study had a signiﬁcant effect on students' ability to match musical
sounds with musical notation, regular participation in vocal activities outside of band did
not have a signiﬁcant effect.

This study isrelatedtothepresentone in thattheeffectofsinging on students'
sense of pitch was tested. However, this study differs ﬁom the present one in several
ways. First, subjects in this study probably were junior high students and the length of the
study wasone school year. Elliottdidnotgiveadetailedexplanation oftheinstructional
sequencing forthesingingactivities, soitisdifﬁcrﬂtmcompareeachingmethodtothe
present study.

Elliottchosetomeasure smdentabihtytlnoughmmgﬁm
Ideals. In this measure, students are asked to aurally discriminate among subtle
differencesintonesthatarepresentedoutofcontext. Thistestsstudentabilityinisolated
skills that are primarily focused on music perception and not music understanding. Since
the students were actively participating in music performance, it may have been more
appropriate to measure students' sense of pitch through instrumental performance.

Mch (1967) investigated the effects of vocalimtion on the development of
instrumental performance skills among junior high school students. The purpose of this
study was to investigate whether performance skills, such as technical acctn'acy, duration,
slurs, rests, fluctuation in tempo, observation of expressive mark, holds, and repeats, were
improved through instruction that included singing activities.

The subjects in the study were 74 junior high school brass and woodwind students.
Subjects wereplacedinexperimentalandconuolgroupsusinganntchedpairsprocess
basedonindividual scores ﬁomperformancesonﬂmnﬁoftheﬂath’nsiamum
Wandthemeanscoreandstandarddeviaﬁon. Theexperimentalgroup
consisted of seven sub-groups and the control group consisted of six sub-groups. All
groupsweehomogeneousandmetforone 18 rninutelesson for 14conseculiveweeks.

l 6
The instructional approaches used for the study were the same for each group, except a
singing activity was used with the experimental group. Vocalization of letter names,
rhythmic patterns, and articulation patterns along with singing activities to teach
instrumental playing were incorporated into the lessons for the experimental group. Prior
to instrument performance, the students in the experimental group were engaged in three
minutes of singing while simultaneously listening to a taped or live performance of the
same exercise. A neutral syllable was used during this singing activity. Students in the
controlgrouplistenedtotheexercisepriortoplaying itbut did notengageinany singing
activity. Forboth groups, the lessons werebasedonfmnj oftheﬂatldnﬂiamum
W Mmusedastheposttestattheconclusionofthestudy.

Gainsmadebytheexperimentalgroupwerehigherbutnotatastatistically
signiﬁcant level for(l) thegroupsin theirentireties, (2) thebrassorwoodwind sections
sections within the experimental and control groups, or (3) the segments in either groups
whosescoreswerebelowthethirdquadrille. Itwasfoundthatthegainsmadebythe
lowestquarteroftheexperimental groups were signiﬁcantlygreaterthan those madeby the
same segment of the control group.

From these results, McGarry made the following conclusions.

1. Vocalization signiﬁcantly effects the achievement ofperformance skills of
students of below average ability.

2. Vocalization is particularly effective for students in the lowest quadrille based on
the fact that no students in this segment of either group were studying privately.

3. Duetothegainsnndebythelowestquarteroftheexperimentalgroupthe
achievementrangeforthegroupasawholewasnanowed. McGarrystatesthatthis
phenomenon faciliﬁestheselecﬁonofrepertoheﬁrefamulaﬁonoflessonplansmnd
efforts to sustain interest during rehearsals.

4. Brass and woodwind sections were effected by vocalization exercises to almost

the same extent.

1 7

There are several differences between McGarry's study and the present one. The
subjects of McGarry‘s study were junior high school students. It is unclear whether these
students had instrumental training prior to this experience, and it is possible that through
maturation, their readiness for instrumental study had improved. McGarry's sections
within each group were homogeneous, whereas in the present study, students will be
placed in heterogeneous groups. One of the most striking weaknesses in McGarry's study
is that all of the singing activities occurred simultaneously with a live or recorded model. It
is possible that ﬁre absence of singing activities in which students sung separately from the
model may have impeded student's ability to audiate and also their development of a sense
of tonality.

 

- wasusedastheposttestmeasureaswellas
the pretest measure. This achievement test emphasizes the decoding of music symbols in
themusicreadingprocess. Inthetonaldimnsionofthistest,thestudentisawarded
points for playing the correct note. However, if the student waivers on a pitch or attacks
thepitch inconecﬂybutpaformsalipslmwachievethecmeapimmestudentissﬁn
given a ”correct" score. In addition, points are awarded in the musical expression
dimension when the student performs the correct dynamic marking or slur marking.
Fermatas and repeat signs are considered part of the musical expression dimension. This
measure does not adequately measure intonation, phrase shaping, or musical expression.
Inthepresentstudy,arating scaleisusedasaposttestmeasure.

Davis (1981) compared the effects of three experimental conditions on the
instrumental performance achievement of elementary band students. These experimental
conditions were (1) structured singing activities (2) self-evaluation practice, and (3) the
combination of structured singing activities and selfevaluation practice. Davis criticized
McGarry's study for not deﬁning the method of singing, solfeggio or number system, used
forsinginginsuuctioninhisstudy. Davisbelievesthatoneoftlesetwomethodsmight
have served to enhance the subjects' sense of tonality. In Davis' study, student self-

1 8
evaluation is used as a teaching method to develop independent thinking skills. He
believed that many students rely too heavily upon the teacher for solving problems and that
a goal of music education should be to train students to discriminate between an accrnate
andanhmcanateperformanceandmassociateleanedsldnsmnewchallenges. Practicein
self-evaluation can assist in the development of these skills.

The subjects in this study consisted of 59 ﬁfth-grade students and 34 sixth-grade
students. Within each school and grade level, students were randomly placed into small
heterogeneouscontrolorexperimental groups. Thetwo srnallgroupsineach school met
separately onceaweekfor30 minutes, andthenonceaweethetwogroupscombined
intoalargegroupfor40minutes. Duringtheselargegroupmeetings,experimentalgroups
werepairedwithexperimentalgroupsandcontrolgroupswith controlgroups. To facilitate
mecompansonofmemmemedrodsofmsumﬁoneachsnnngrmpmceivedvarymg
combinations of singing, self-evaluation and no singing and no self-evaluation. The length
ofthe expe'iment was 19 weeks (38 class lessons). All ofthe students wee pretested on
the "Melodic Tonal Imagery Subtest" of the W

Teaching methodfortheaperimental groupsconsistedofteachu'modeling, ‘
singing preparatory scale patterns, instrumental performance, singing and clapping, singing
only,andclappingonly. Fortheﬁrstthreeweeks, studentswereinstructedthroughrote
playing and singing exercises. Following teacher modeling of a three note pattern, the
students would play, sing, then play again the desired sequence of tones. Numbers were
usedtorepresartscaletones. Beginninginthefourthweek, studentsintheexperimental
groupwerebdmsingingacuviﬁesmatmvdvedsingingassigmdhmesmdemdesmme
class text. Scale numbers and syllables such as "la”, "tu", ”du“, and 'ta“ were used. The
teacher modeled the pitch, tone, rhythm, tempo, articulation, and phrasing. The resting
toneandscalerelationsineacheurdewaeemphasizedwithpreparatory scalepatterns
using numbers. In week 11 of the study, students began sight singing activities without
the aid of the instructor. The sight reading process involved singing the exercises in the

1 9
same key as the selection being studied, naming the resting tone and scale tones by
numbers, singing the resting tone that was played by the instructor, counting the melodic
rhythm, and singing the selection by sight using numbers. Self-evaluation practice began
in the fourth week of the study. Once a week, students evaluated their performance on note
accuracy, breathing and phrasing, tone quality, rhythmic accuracy, consistency of tempo,
and articulation. Only the sixth graders evaluated their performance on dynamics. Students
were post tested using the "Melodic Tonal Imagery Subtest'of the MAE and a music
interest inventory MW Individual performance measures included (1)
one prepared playing selection, (2), one prepared singing selection, (3) one sight-singing
selection, and (4) one sight reading selection. Performances were evaluated by each
student as a self-evaluation exercise and were also evaluated by a panel of three experts
who rated the student performances.

Theresultsoftheinvestigationindicatedthatﬁﬁh gradestudentswhoparlicipated
in structured singing activities as a single expaimental condition scored signiﬁcantly higher
on instrumental perfornmnce. The highest mean attitude was scored by this group,
although it was not higher at a statistically signiﬁcant level. Predictably, signiﬁcance was
notobtainedbyanexperimentalgroupintermsofmelorﬁctonalimagery. Them
Imam subtest of MAB measures a student's stabilized music aptitude. When this
testisusedasapretestandposttestastudentstestscoresforbothadminisuaﬁons should
becomparable. Thegreatestgainsweremadebyﬁfthgradestudentsinthesuucttned
singing and both singing and self-evaluation groups. The singing only and the singing and
self-evaluation group had the highest conelation. Davis concluded by stating that
structured singing activities, self-
evaluadonpracﬁceand thecombimtionoftheseprovideasigniﬁcantapproachto
developing instrumental performance skills, self-evaluation, and attitude. It is important to
notethatresultsdifferedforﬁrstand secondyearstudents. Itwas foundthatthetraditional
approach to instruction provided a signiﬁcantly effective approach to developing

2 O
instrumental performance skills and attitude with sixth grade students. No experimental
condition provided an effective approach to developing melodic tonal imagery.

The Davis study is similar to the present study in that the effect of singing on
beginning instrumentalists performance achievement was tested. Both studies use MAE as
a pretest measure and ﬁnal student performances evaluated by judges using rating scales.
Also, the instructor in the present study will model pitch, tone quality, rhythm, articulation,
and phrasing similar to the instructional sequences used by Davis. However, the student
will sing eachexercisepriortoplaying itonan instrument. Druingthisexercise, the
instructor will emphasize the resting tone. In the Davis study, students were required to
playtlreexercisebeforethey sangitandnoemphasiswasgiventoﬂrerestingtone. 'Ihe ‘
present study does not focus on any formal training of self-evaluation practice.

MacKnight (1975) investigated the effect of toml pattern training on aural
discriminationandsight—reading skills. Thepurposeofthestudywastodevelopteaching
techniques and materials that would emphasize the structrne of the melodic line. The major
problem underconsideration waswhetherornottonalpatterntraining inbeginning wind
instruction had a signiﬁcant effect on musical achievement in comparison to traditional
instruction consisting ofleaminglettanameaﬁngeringmndthen producing tlretone.

The experimental group consisted of 90 forn'th-grade students in three elementary
schools. The W and a Student Attitude Questionnaire were
administeredaspretests. MacKnightalso used . H
thatwereobtainedfromtheschoolrecordstostatistimlly match thegroupsonthebasisof
musicalaptitudeand intelligence. Oneoftlrethree schools servedas theexperimental

 

groupandtheremainingtwoservedascontrolgroups. Thehomogeneousgroupsofsix
smderrtseachmetonetimeaweekforSOminutesforaperiodof32weeks. Allgroups
cmaedmesanemataialwimﬂreexcepﬁonoftheexpainenmlgrmpmatwasmsmmed
using singing and tonal patterns with solfeggio. Students were instructed using a series of
tentonalpattems: "solmi",'solmido",'sollasol","miredo","soldo","solfami",

21

"solfamiredo", "dolasol", "dotido", and "sollatido'. The patterns were presentedin
athreestepprocedure: ( 1) aural presentation, (2) auditory-visual presentation, and (3)
auditory-visual presentation of the pattern within a musical phrase. The students sang the
panemsusmgsolfeggiomleuenamesmenpeformwmepauensmﬂrehhmtuments.
Melodic rhythm was taught in phrases through an aural or visual presentation. Students
were instructed using the Kodaly system of rhythm syllables to sing each phrase. Note
values were taught with a focus on the number of pulses given to the rhythm syllable.

Theconnolgroupwasmsnuctedusingthemethodprescﬁbedinﬂremmx
Wﬂyon, 1959). Inthis method, anewpitch with its letternameand
ﬁngeringmaybefoundatthetopofthepage. Thenewpitchislabeledasaﬁngeringanda
letternamenoothesigniﬁmnceisgiventoitinthetext. 'I‘hesurdentsinthecontrolgroup
were instructed to sing each exercise using lettermrmes and rhythm syllables. However, in
additiontothesyllables,theconnolgroupwasalsoinsuuctedthrough melodicrhythm
exercises by cormting in the traditional manner using a number to identify a quarter note
and'oneand”midenﬁfytwoeightnoesandsoforth. Theposttestmcasures
admrmstered“ intheﬁnaltwoweeksofthestudyconsistedoftheﬂamm' um
Reﬁnance Scale, ColwellMusrc' Achmm' Test, and the Sum mm d;
D . .

Themaﬂtsofﬁsstudyhdicatedtlmttheexpeﬁmerhlgrormscmedsiﬁﬁcanﬂy
higheondremsmantheconnolgroup. Amongthestudentswithlowmusicaptitude,
mosemmeexpeimentalgroupscmedsigmmuyhighemdremmanﬂrelow
aptitudestudentsinthecontrolgroup. ConceningMAI,theexperimentalgroupscored
signiﬁcantlyhigherthanthecontrolgroups. MAIscoresoflowaptitudestudentsinthe
experimental group wee not affected signiﬁcantly. lastly, the expeirneutal treatment did
nannkeasigniﬁcantdiﬁeencematﬁmdinaldevelopmentbetwemmetwogrmps.

Basedmtheseresultsﬁreresemehecmcludeddntwachingusingmnalpauen
instructionwassupeiortotraditional noteidentiﬁcationprocedm'esinregardtodeveloping

 

2 2
sight-rmding and auditory discrimination skills. MacKnight also stated that musical
understandingbedevelopedatahigh level whet instruction emphasizes: (1)tonal
pattern identiﬁcation, (2) active involverrrent in aural discrimination activities, (3) singing
using tonal syllables, (4) chanting using rhythm syllables, (5) conceptualization, and
(Gagammnmteialsmatmuodwemresandmythmsmmehmostcommonpanens.

TheMacKnightsmdyissimﬂarmmepresentsmdyinthattheeffectofsmgingon
beginning wind students' performance was tested. However, it is different in several
respects. Theinvesﬁgatorresearcheddreuseoftonalpattennainingonmusicreading
skills, speciﬁcally aural discrimination and sight-reading. Thepresent study focusesonthe
effects of singing on speciﬁc performance achievements such as intonation, steady beat,
phrase slnping, and musical expression. TheseelementsareincludedinﬂEESandMAI:
however, they are not evaluated as individual performance skills. The present study will
usearaﬁngscaletomeasuresurderuachievementspeciﬁcaﬂyondesesldns Inadditionto
this contrast, the MacKnight study used fourth graders as subjects. They were divided into
homogeneousgroupewheeasmthepresentsmw,meﬁﬁhgradeswﬂlbedividedmm
heterogeneousgroups.

Grutzmacher‘s study ( 1987) was also concerned with the effect of tonal pattern
insurrctiononbeginningwindspeformanceachievement. Moreexactly,shewas
mncemdwimmeeﬁeaofmismmuonmstudenm'abﬂitymsight-readpeeeivemnal
pahensinmajorandminormodeaandtoreadﬁomnotaﬁonmajorandndnortonal
pattenswbnpresentedarnallyandvisuallyatthesametime. Themajorproblemofthe
smdywastocomparetwomodesofinstruction. Theexperimentalapproachconcentrated
ontmalconceptdevelopmentusingtmalpamencontenuddrharmmizauonand
vocalization as teaching techniques. The control group instruction focused on a single-note
idenﬁﬁcaﬁonapproachusmgsymbolsandamngeofpitchesmugmﬁomnotaﬁonmat
emphasizedthedevekpmentoftechnicalskills.

 

2 3
The subjects included 48 ﬁfth and sixth grade beginning wind students. The

students were placed in homogeneous instrumental classes that were randomly assigned to
either the experimental or the control group in each school. The 30 minute lessons met one

time per week for 14 weeks and were taught by the researcher. The pretest measures

 

Imagery. Theinstructional content fortheexperimentalgroupincludedasetof 10 major
and lOminortonalpattems. ThelessonbeganwithalOminuteperiodinwhichtonal
patterns were presented aurally and then with notation. Students were engaged in singing
long tones, scales, and arpeggios using harmonization and vocalization with solfeggio.
Theyweealsomsmwtedmmajorandminmpatternsthrmghsingingfoﬂowedwim
performingoninstruments with harmonization. Themiddleportiorroftlre30minute
lessonfocusedonassignedexeeisesfromthetext. Thepatternofinstructionconsistedof:
(l)theisolation of tonal patterns, (2) singingthetonalpatten,(3) singingtheexecise,
(3) playingtheexercise, and (4) singingand playing theexercisewith harmonization. The
concluding ﬁve nrinutes of the lesson included identiﬁcation of tonal patterns within new
execisesandinuoducﬁonofnewtonesthrmrghﬂreh'ﬁrncﬁoninmnalpattens Lastly, ‘
playing activities at the aural level were transferred to music reading activities.
Theconuolgroupusedﬂlesametextwiﬂrﬂreomissimofwnalpaneninsmﬁon
Tones were presented using notation ﬁom the text. Long tones, scales, and arpeggios,
wereplayedfromnotationwithnosingingorharmonization. Newexereiseswere
presentedmﬂreordeﬂreyappearedmthetextwidrmsingingorhannonimﬁon. The
muoducdonofnewmnesmdsymbolsweepresertedthmughnotaﬁomﬁngenng,and
playing the tone. lessons included all aspects of learning to play and read music, including
suchareasasrhythm,articulation,anddynamics. Grutzrnacherstatedthatcarewastaker
tofollowmesmneprocedmesmbodrgrwpsinregardmtheseperfemancesldns. The
wachmgteclmiquefortheseskillswasnotdescﬁbedinthissmdy. Surdentswerepost

 

Results of this study indicated that instruction consisting of tonal pattern content
presented through the use of singing and harmonimtion activities signiﬁcantly improved the
melodic sight-reading skills of beginning band students over the traditional method, in
which notes are presented individually through notation with no singing or harmonization.
Itwasalsoshown thatinstructionemphasizing tlrerecognition ofmajorandminor
tonalities through singing, playing, listening, and comparing major and minor patterns
leadstoa strongerconceptual understandingthantheuseofdeﬁnitionsand descriptorsto
teach differencesbetween majorand minor. Correlationsbetweenpretestandposttest
measmesdemmsuatedtlmtstudentsintheexpeimertalgroupweeshiﬁingﬁom
dependenceon visual perceptiontowardmoreofabalanceoramal—visualpereeption skills
and therefore were beginning to develop a sense oftonality and audiation skills. lastly,
high correlationsbetweentheexperimental group scoresonMAEandmusic achievement
scmesinpeeepﬁmofmodesdemonsnateddutﬂreinsnucﬁmnlnwdmdapphedmﬂre
experimental group is a more efﬁcient way of developing tonal abilities of students and thus
translating aptitude into achievement.

The Grutzmacher study, like the MacKnight study, investigated the use of
instructionusingtonalpatterncontentonbeginning windplayersaural discriminationand
sight-reading skills. These two skills are consideed fundamental to the development of a
senseoftonalityandtoaconceptual understandingofmusic. Grutzmacherindicatedthat
any instruction in areas including rhythm, articulation, and dynamics was identical for both
groups. Neither of these studies researched the effects of singing on the development of
intonation, phrase shaping, or musical expression in beginning instrumentalists musical
performance. Also, both studies emphasized tonal pattern instruction, whereas the [resent
studywill focusoninstruction usingrestingtoneandrotesongs. Theseskills may alsobe
effectedbyinstructionthatemplnsizes singing andarealsosigniﬁcantskillsinthe

2 5
development of a sense of tonality and meaningful musical performance. Grutzmacher's
study also differs from the present study in that the subjects consisted of ﬁfth and sixth
grade students whereas the present study subjects include only ﬁfth grade students. The

W is used as a pretest in both studies. However, the present study will
useanemdeandmﬁngswemstcadofmalestntmmutmcxlenlandland
memmtmt

Summer

These studies, with the exception of Elliott's, determined that instruction using
singing signiﬁcantly improves student achievement of ‘ music performance skills. Elliott
found that instruction using singing improved students‘ aural discrimination skills and pitch
However, this measure does not test
instrumental music performance skills; therefore, the effects of singing on student
instrumental performance and conceptual rmderstanding is unknown. Both Mch and
MacKnight used
instruction on music performance skills. McGarry’s procedure consisted of singing an

 

 

tomeasrnetheeffectofsinging

etude using numbers and letter names prior to performing the etude instrumentally.
MacKnight focused on instruction using singing with tonal patterns. In addition to the
was, MacKnight also used MAI to measure student aural discrimination skills.
Similarly, Davies found that students involved in singing tonal patterns and etudes achieved
ata signiﬁcantly higherlevel than students who did notreceivethis form ofinstruction.
Davies evaluated student music achievement using their performance on one sight-reading
andonepreparedetuderatedbythreejudges. Grutzmacheralsomeastnedsmdents
melodic sight-reading and found similar results. She also determined that singing with
mnalpattermsigniﬁcmﬂyhnprovedpecepﬁmofmnﬂpanemasmswdusingdmjm
W. MacKnight, Davies and Grutzmacher state that students' sense of

2 6
tonality and conceptual understanding of music is signiﬁcantly effected by instruction using
singing.

From an investigation into these studies, it is evident that singing is an effective
approach for teaching beginning instrumental instruction. There is some evidence that
singing can effect students' sense oftonality and rhythm and instrumental performance
skills. Upon review of this literature, it is evident that the effects of singing on such
speciﬁc, fundamental objectives as intonation, phrase shaping, and musical expression
were sorrrewhat overlooked. It is the goal of this study to examine the effects of singing on
students' conwptual understanding of music as evidenced in their performance of these
skills.

CHAPTER III
MEI‘HOD
Senses.

The subjects for this study ee 116 fifth grade beginning band students currently
studying a brass orwoodwind instrumentinthe beginning band at Kreege Elements)!
School in Fowleville, Michigan. Letter: of inviteion to participate in the study wee sent
home to all beginning band students and their peents. All students who returned
pemission slips were included in the study. This study was approved by the University
Committee at Research Involving Human Subjects at Michigan State University.

m

At the beginning of the study, theWand WSubtests
of the WM: (Gordon, 1988) wee administered to the students. This

measure also includes a Wwbtestthz was not used in this study. The two
subtests chaser fe this expeimem are most specific to the musical concepts (inonation,
phrase shaping, musical expression) under investigation. In the metest, the
students were asked to compare amusical answewith amusical question. The musical
questions and answers consist of short phrases. The students were asked to decide
whethe the musical answer was like or different from the question. The M
mm is musial prefererce meeure that relates to musical expresn'cn and
musial creativity. The studert was shed to decide which of two renditions of the same
musical phrase made the better "musical sense" (Gordon, 1995).

The classrooms wee randomly divided into control and treatment goups. The
expedmendgroupmmistedoftheesub-groupsmdmemmolgmupmnsistedoftwo
sub-groups. This division was necessey to acmmmodate dre existing fifth-grade
daseocm schedules. Both the experimentalgroup and theconnol groupweetaughtby
the reseeche. Each group met for two 30 minute heteogeneous lessons pe week fora

27

2 8
period of 14 weeks. None of the students involved in this study had received any
instrumental instruction prior to this study, with the exception of classroom instruments
used in general music. The W (Feldstein and O'Reilly, 1988)
was the music text for both the experimental and the control groups. The instructional
sequenceinthistextisauaditionalapproachthatpresentsanew noteandits ﬁngeringat
the top of the page. Captions with examples of dynamic markings, slurs, breath nmrks,
staccato marks, legatomarks andothersymbolsarealso introducedonthetopofthepage.
Oneormoreoftheexercisesonthatpage focusonthenewconceptpreuentedin the
caption.

Theinitial fourclass lessons werethesameforboth theexperimental andthe
control groups. The instruction included: (1) instrument assembly, (2) instrument care,
(3) embouchm'e formation, (4) posture, and (5) tone quality and breath support
Instruction wascontrolledby usingthesameteechingtechniques fortenchingeach concept,
presenﬁngthehrstumentsinthesamesequencemndinmesameﬁmeperiod Two
qualiﬁedtenchersparticipatedina seriesofobservations designedtodeterminewhetherthe
lessonspreseutedtobothgroupswereequalinqualityandcontent.

 

The treatment for the experimental group included the following procedure:

1. Duringthe30minutelessonperiod, dieteticheﬂedthesmdentsinsteadybeat
activities for approximately two or three minutes. Movements consisted of swaying,
parallel arm movement, alternate arm movement, and tapping on various body parts such as
head, shoulders, and knees. The purpose of this activity was to develop the ability to
synchronize movement with the bent in music (Grunow and Gamble, 1989; Weikart,
1984).

2. lntheinstancewhaeanewnotewaspresentedonthelessonpagedtemher
sang the new pitch and students echoed the pitch on a neutral syllable. The teacher

 

2 9
demonstrated the ﬁngering for that pitch and the students performed the pitch
instrumentally. Then the pitch was be introduced to them in notation using the example at
thetopofthepageinthetext.

3. For eachnew song, the teachersang the resting toneandthestudents echoed.
The instruction for the new song proceeded using one or more of the following sequences,
depending upon the difﬁculty of the song.

aTheteachersangashortphmseﬁ'omﬂreexerciseandrepeatedﬂreresting
tone followed by student performance of the resting tone. The teacher directed the students
insingingthephrase.

b.1hetmcha‘sangdresantephmseusmgsolfegeandmesnrdentssangﬂre
resting tone. The students sang the phrase and concluded with the resting tone.

c. Theteacherinsu'uctedﬂresmdentstosingdrerestingtoneandtheusing
the phrase using a neutral syllable. The students practiced the ﬁngerings for the notes
presentedinnotation. 'l‘heclassrewatedtherestingtone.

4. Melodic rhythms were he chanted using a number to represent a quarter note and
"one and“ to represent two eighth notes.

5. Thesmdentsperformedﬂreresﬁngtoneandthepluaseondreirmsu'uments.

6. usontemsmncegaftathestudentshadperformedthesongmitsenﬁmtymte
exercise was repeated with some students singing and some playing, all of the students
singing, or all or the students playing.

All instruction regarding phrasing, dynamic markings, articulation, and style
markings was accomplished through singing examples, with the exception of reading the
wﬁdendeﬁnitionoftheconceptorsymbolatdreconclusionofthelesson. Theteacher
answered any questions the students may have had within the lesson period. If time
pamiﬁedphrasesincludingthenewnoteforthatlessonwerereviewed.

 

30

W

The instructional activities for the control group consismd of the following
procedure:

1. Withinthe30minutelessonperiod,theteacherledthestudentsinsteadybeat
activities for approximately 2—3 minutes. Movements consisted of swaying, parallel arm
movement, alternate arm movement, and tapping on various body parts such as head,
shoulders, and knees.

2. Whenanewnotewaspresentedattltetopofthepageﬁrewacherdnectedthe
smdent'sattentiontothenewnoteinnotation. 'I‘heteacherinstructedthestudentstolook
attheﬁngeringdiagraminthebookandhnitatetheﬁngeingforthenotegiveninnotation.

3. Theteacherdemonsu'atedthenewnotebyplayingitonaninsuumentandme
studentsimitated.

4. Rhythmswerebepresentedbyusinganumbertorepresentaquarternoteand
”one and " torepresent two eighth notes. Rhythms were leamedby chanting thecounts.

5. Theeachermuoducednewconceptsandsymbolspresentedonthepageby
readingthedeﬁnitionfromtheeaption. 'I‘heteacherdirectedthestudents‘attentionto
examples within the songs on the page.

6. The teacher led the students in chanting the melodic rhythm using a neutral
syllable and practicingtheﬁngeriugsforthephrase. ‘

7. 'I‘hestudentswereinstructedtoperformtheﬁrstphraseofthesong. Each
phrase of the song waschantedthen performed instrumentally.

8. Aﬁerthesmdentshadpaformedmeexercisemm,meexmoisewasrepeated
with some students ﬁngering and some playing.

Theinstructiomlmaterialswerethesameforbothgroups. Themaindifference
wasdmtmesmmwmmeexpeimmlgroupwaeengagedmsingingacﬁviﬁes,whaeas
studentsinthecontrolgroupwerenot.

 

3 1

To control for experimenter bias and in order to avoid contamination, several steps
were taken. All knowledge of musical aptitude was be kept from the researcher until after
the treatment period. Also, to insure that the teacher met the outlined requirements for each
group, another music teacher from the school district randomly observed and critiqued the
lessons taught by the researcher.

During the ﬁnal week of instruction, students were asked to sight-read an eight
measrneetudewrittenbytheresearcher(seeFigrue l) . Theetudewasadaptedtothe
appropriaterange forcach instrument The student performed the etude foran audio
recorderin separateroomt‘romthegroup. Anadultwaspresenttoassistthe studentwith
the recording.

The musical achievement of each student was be measured at the conclusion of the
study usingaﬁvepointrating scaleforeachofthethreeindependentvariables (intonation,
phrase shaping, and musical expression). The rating scale used by thejudges had a 5-point
continuous criteria intonation dimension, a 5-point continuous criteria phrase shaping
dimension, and a 5-point additive criteria musical expression dimension (see Figure 2).
Thethreedimensionsoftheraﬁngscaleweredesignedbymerewarcher. Student
performanceswereidentiﬁedby numberandrecordedonaudiotape.

 

 

f P
ﬁgure 1. Instrumental Performance Etude

STUDENT NUMBER _
RATING SCALE

INT ONATION (continuous criteria)

1

{lit-UN

The student does not play the resting tone in tune.

The student plays the resting tone in tune.

The student plays the resting tone and some of the notes in time.

The student plays the resting tone and the majority of the notes in tune.
Thestudentplaystheantireexerciseintune.

PHRASE SHAPING (continuous criteria)

l

I»)

Uthw

Thesmdentdoesnotperformanyofthenotesasbelongingtoamusical idea.
Thesttrdent performstwonotesasapartofamusicalidea.
Thestudentperformstwomeasuresasamusical idea.

The student performs one fourbarphrase but does not perform both phrases.

Thestudentperformsthenotesinthef'rrstphraseasamusicalideaandthenotesin
thesecondphraseasamusicalidea.

MUSICAL EXPRESSION (additive criteria)

1
l

l

The student performs with a sense of melodic and rhythmic direction.
The student performs using appropriate dynamics.

The student performs with characteristic tone quality.

The student performs with the appropriate articulation style.

The student performs the etude in the appropriate musical tempo.

COMPOSITE SCORE _____

Figure 2. Rating Scale

3 3

Three judges independently rated the student performances on three separate
occasions, one for intonation, one for phrase shaping, and one for musical expression.
The judges included the researcher and two graduate students from Michigan State
University. One of the graduate students was a pianist and the other graduate student was a
specialist in early childhood music and elementary classroom music education. Both have
taught instrumental music professionally. For each dimension, the judges listened to a
studentperformanceandthenrecordedthenumberontherating scalethatcorrespondedto
the criterion level that they felt best represenmd the student performance.

Prior to listening to the student performances, the judges were trained in the use of
the rating scale. Theresearchergavea description each ofthe criterion (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) in
every dimension. Thejudgeslismdtoﬁvesample studentperformancesforthetonal
dimension, for the phrase shaping dimension, and for the musical expression dimension
Then theyratedthestudentperformances forcach dimension anddiscussedtheresults.

 

At the conclusion of the study, interjudge reliability among the three judges
foreachofﬂredimarsionsofﬂreraﬁngscalemdmemwrcorrdaﬁonsbaweenme
dimensionsoftheratingscaleweredetermined. Thereliability,means,andstandard
deviationswerecalculatedforMAB. Themeansandstandarddeviationswerealso
calculatedforeachdimensionoftheratingscaleandforthecompositescoreforboththe
experimentalandthecontrolgroups.

Using the performance etude scores as the dependant variable, two-way analysisof
vanancewasusedmdetamimdiﬂaencesbaweenﬂnexpeﬁmamlandcmuolgrmpsm
theareasofintonation, phrase shaping, and musicalexpression'l'hisdesignwasusedto
deuminehowmusicapﬁntdemdmetypeofmusicmmcmuibutedmﬁﬁh-grade
beginning instrurueutal music students' music achievement. 1f the students in the
experimentalgroupscoredhigherdranthoseindteconuolgroupwithinthesameapﬁmde

 

3 4
classiﬁcations, it can be determined that the instruction that used singing and resting tone
was more effective in developing musical understanding .

CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND NIEIPREI‘ATION OF DATA

This investigaion is concerned with whether instructional techniques that
emphasize the development of tonal syntax through the singing d‘ rote songs and resting
tones improve music performance achievement and musical undestanding in beginning
instrumental students. The speciﬁc concern was whether instructional techniques including
singing result in signiﬁcantly diffeer! student achievement in terms of: (1) intonation,

(2) phme shaping, and (3) musical expression.

Thetesting dthistheoryinvolvedthe administrationofthemmmmme
(MAD (Gordon, 1988) as a pretest measure to establish high-aptitude, madame-aptitude,
and low-aptitude groups within the control and tremera groups. Alter instruction,
students' instrumental pe‘formances on an etude were evaluated bythree judges using a
three-dimensional raing scale as a measure of intonation, phrase slnping, and musical
expression.

The following statistics were calculated; (1) means and standard deviaions and the
reliability coefﬁcients of MAP subtests; (2) inta'judge reliability of the judges ratings for
the instrumental performance etude; (3) interca'relaions baween dimensions of the rzing
scale: (4) means and standard deviaions d the dimensions and composite of the rating
scale; and (5) atwo-way analysis of variance using dre instrumeraal performance dude

scores frr the three dimensions and the composite of the wing scale.

 

A comparison (1‘ the standard deviations of the sample population with those
reportedintheMABmanual show themean scoresofthesampdeinthis studytobesimilar
to the standadizaionsampleandthescoresmbe less varied thanthe standardizaion
sample (see Table l).

35

3 6
The reliability (alpha coefﬁcient) in this study for the W subtest of
MAP was .72 and for the MW subtest was .80, compared to .81 for the
1mm subtest and .85 for the MW subtest as reported by Gordon
(1995) in theMAP manual. These outcomes indicate that this measure was reliable with
this sample population.

 

 

 

 

 

Tonal Irmgery Musical Sensitivity
Mean 8. D. M S. D.
Control Group 48.80 5.97 46.26 6.72
Treatment Group 47.91 6.97 46.09 6.42
Standardization Sample 47.40 7.88 46.60 7.32

(MAP Manual)

 

Acomparisonofthecomposite meansand standarddeviations forthetreatmentand
controlgroupshowthecontrolgrouptohaveaslightly highermsanscorethanthe
treatment group. The W and composite scores of the experimental group were
more dispersed tlnn those of the control group (see Table 2).

 

 

 

 

Mm S. D.
Control Group 48.19 4.77
Experimental Group 46.26 6.63
Control X Experimental
Group 47.22 5.31

 

Based on MAP scores, students were grouped according to aptitude levels.
Students wimMAEscoresgreaterthanorequalmwthpemenﬁlewereidenuﬁedashigh-
aptitude; students withMABscoresgreaterthanorequal tothe33rdpercentileandlessthan
the 66th percentile were identiﬁed as moderate-aptitude; and students with MAB scores less
than or equal to the 33rd percentile were identiﬁed as low-aptitude students.

Theaptitude scoresasawholeapproximatedanormaldistribution (seeFrgures 3,
3a and 3b). However, once the students were grouped according to aptitude level,
discrepancies existed between the control and experimental groups. The standard deviation
of scores for the low-aptitude students in the treatment group (S. D. = 5.17) and high-
aptitude students in the treatment group (S. D. = 4.24) were both much larger than for the
low-aptitude control group students (S. D. = 2.26) and high-aptitude control group
students (S. D. = 2.54). The standard deviations of the moderate-aptitude students in the
treatment group (S. D. = .93) and the moderate-aptitude students in the control group

(S. D. = .89) were comparably dispersed.

 

   

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38

  
 

 

 

  

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18

6 4 2 0 8
4|

Ecoeam co 89:52

25 27 29 3133 35 37 39 4143 45 47/ 49 5153 55 57 59 6163 65

Score

ﬁgure 3. Distribution of Scores for the Music A 'tude Proﬁle for the

Control and Treatment Gro

39

. O. 8 7 6 .3 4 3 2 1 o o 9 a 7 6 s 4 3 2 1 o
1

:xpected

Nonnm
xomned

Nonna

”4!...”

v.

0.44.4.4.an 4.... 4

               
   

 

44.4.4444“
4444444474 44//444.4
. 4//4/4....4/4// 444.4.
4444444 .444/44444 44444/44/
44.44444/ /444./4/4/..4
44444 44444

.... . .../44.4.4444/4444 44444.44
4...... . ....t.......... 4..... :44 ///4/444 4.4/4444 /4//44444/
I4444444 4/44/44

7/4444/444/44 444.44 47444
I44444
474/4444 4/4/../ 4.///.... 4444
44.444 4.444444.

 

Z44
///
4

   

      

 

Score (Distribution 1)

 

Fr gure 3a. Distribution for the Control Grou

25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45/ 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 53 65

 

£535 .0 52:52 «Ewes—w .o 89:52

Score (Distribution 2)

Figure 3b. Distribution for the Treatment Grou

4 0
MW Intajudge reliability among the three independmt
judges was determined for each of the dimensions of the rating scale (intonation, phrase
shaping, and musical expression) and for the composite using correlations between all
possible pairs of judges. Table 3 presents the interjudge reliabilities. The composite
reliabilities ranges from .92 to .97. The high reliabilities indicate a high level of
consistency of the instrumental performance evaluations between the three judges.

Table 3. Jim! ix R --o ' f I ' .4164 .011- -.- t Atrium: t .1; {.‘.!l‘ .31.;

 

 

 

 

MW lntercorrelationswerecalculatedbetweenthedimmsions
of the rating scale. Overall, the intercon'elations were high, which is not desirable. It is
possiblethatwhatwasnmsmedineachofthedimensionswasnotdiscrete;thedimension
mayhavebeennusm'ingthesameperformancecharacteﬁstics. Thelowstcorrelaticn
wasbetweeannaﬁmmdphmseshangandﬂrehighestmnehﬁonwasbetwemphmse
shaping and expression (see Table 4).

4 1
Table 4. W

 

 

 

Xariahles Result
Intonation X Phrase Shaping .69
Intonation X Musieal Expression .67
Phrase Shaping X Musieal Expression .83

 

 

Allmeansofthetreatmentgmuptendtobehigherthanmoseoftheoontml group.
Means and standard deviations, and the two-way analyses of variance summary for
instrumental performance scores for the intonation, phrase sluping, and musieal expression

dimensionsoftherating sealeandtheeomposite scores fortheetudearepresentedin
Tables 5-10.

 

 

 

 

 

Control Treatment
Man S.D. Jean S.D
Intonation 8.70 4.28 9.55 2.96
Composite
PhraseShaping 7.28 4.17 8.16 3.70
Composite
Musical Expression 4.55 3.83 5.95 3.89
Composite

Etude Composite 21.69 11.52 23.95 9.62

 

42

The two-way analysis of variance for Intonation is presented in Table 6. The mean of the

treatment group was higher than the control group, however not at a signiﬁcant level.

Table 6.

 

 

 

 

m

Instruction 1 18.14 12.97 1.40
Aptitude 2 10.07 12.97 .78
Instruction x 2 10.50 12.97 .81
Apu'tude

.2395
.4627
.4476

 

Table 7 shows the two-way analysis of variance for Phrase Shaping. Although the
memofmeuemnartgmupwaslargerthanmatofmeconuolgmup,mediffaence
approached but did not reach statistieal signiﬁcance.

 

 

 

 

Setups: DF MW F
Instruction 1 48.96 15.54 3.15
Aptitude 2 10.81 15.54 .67
Instruction X 2 8.30 15.54 .53
Apﬁmde

.0786
.5008
.5878

 

In arms ofthe musical expression scores, no signiﬁcant interaction was found

between type of instruction and level of music aptitude. However, there was a signiﬁcant

4 3
main effect both for type of instruction and for music aptitude. This indicates that thee

was a signiﬁcant difference due to instruction; The experimental group scored signiﬁcantly
higher than the control group.

 

 

 

W F p-lpvel
Instruction 1 64.83 14.43 4.49“ .0363
Aptitude 2 46.29 14.43 321* .0442
Instruction X 2 7.89 14.43 .55 .5803
Aptitude

 

 

 

 

 

Same DF Sum W F 9-m—
High Aptitude 1 59.03 59.03 4.09* .0455

Control X Treatment

Moderate Aptitude 1 10.89 10.89 .75* .0367

Control X Treatment

Low Aptitude 1 7.94 7.94 55 .4599

 

Overall, the mean scores for intonation, phrase shaping, and musical expression
werehigherforthetreatmcntgroup. Howeva,thedifferencebetweenthe mean scores for
theueaUmntandconuolgroupsforﬂreemdecompositedidnareachstaﬁsdcal
signiﬁcance as shown in Table 10.

Table 10. Lieu-e Lid] Virul'

 

 

 

 

 

Source DF W i n-level
Instruction 1 276.07 109.58 2.52 .1 153
Aptitude 2 213.32 109.58 1.95 .1476
Instruction X 2 74.48 109.58 .68 .5089
Aptitude

WWW

Students who received instrumental music instruction that included singing tended
tohavehigherinstrumentalperformancescoresinall dimensionsoftherating sealethan
those students who received instrumental music instruction without an emphasis in singing.
However, those tendencies resulted in statistical signiﬁcance only in the musical expression
dimension.

1mm

Few signiﬁcant differences in performance skill between the treatment and control
groups were found to exist at the conclusion of the study. This outcome may have been the
result of several factors.

Variancewithinthegroups may haveaffectedtheresmtsofthe study (seeFrgm'es
4, 4a, and 4b). Student aptitude test scores ranged hour 27 to 63. Both of the high and
low scores were from students in the experimental group. The range of scores from this
groupwas morevariedthan therangeofscores forthecontrol group, witha low scoreof
37 and a high score of 59. Interestingly, the lowest scorer in the experimental group, with
ascoreof27, scoredanalmostperfectscore,42 pointsoutofapossib1e45 points,onthe
instrumentalachievementtest. Upon furtherinvestigation, itwas dcterminedthatthis

4 5
student is a special education student who likely had difﬁculty with the paper and pencil
aptitude test. Therefore, the validity of MAP with this student is questionable.

It is possible that the unequal class sizes may have affected the students' scores.
One of the experimental classes was considerably larger than the other experimental classes
and the two control classes. Because this class was larger, each student may not have
received ample individual instruction or instruction appropriate to his or her aptitude level.
Therefore, thestudentsinthisclass may nothaveachievedattheirfullpotential. Student
instrumentalperformance scoresmayhavebeenhigherifthe studentshadreceived more
mdividmﬁzedmmﬂmanalogousmtheinsuucﬁmreceivedbymesmdentsinﬂre
smaller classes.

Overall, theintercorrelationsbetweenthedirnensionsoftherating scalewcrehigh.
Thedimensions may havebeen measuring thesameperfonnancecharaaetistics. Also, itis
conceivablethatgiven the subjects’agesand thelengthoftheinstructionalperiod, the
students tended to achieve in the three dimensions in a similar way. The high correlations
betweenthedimensionshadlittlechanceofeffecting signiﬁcancegiventhefactthatcachof
the dimensions were evaluated separately using ANOVA.

Also,perhapsthe studywastoo short. Iftheinsu'uctionalperiodhadbeenlonger,
the tendencies may have become statistically signiﬁcant. A longer instructional period may
have given students time to further develop executive skills such as ﬁnger dexterity,
embochure, articulation, instrument position, posture, and breathing. The development of
these skills may improve student achievement in terms of intonation, phrase shaping, and
musical expression.

46

Noolobs
NOD‘UIQVG'J‘O

—l

 

— Expected
24681012141618202224262830323436384042 Normal

Figure 4. Distribution of Scores for the Performance Etude Commite

47

No of obs

 

0
05101520253035404550

Figure 4a. Distribution for the Control Group

No of obs

 

05101520253035404550

Figure 4b. Distribution for the Treatment Group

4 8

The validity of the student instrumental performance ratings may be questionable.
The students had no prior experience in a testing situation, and their sight—reading
experiences were minimal. It is possible that the students' unfamiliarity with the
environment and the task caused the students to become unfocused and perform at a level
different from their abilities.

Theleastgainsweremadebytheexpeﬁmentalgrmrpintermsofintonaﬁon. This
outcome may have resulted from two possible conditions. The teacher observed student
progress in singing the resting tones and rote songs with good intonation during the course
of the treatment period. However, student achievement in this area was not realized
instrumentally. It is possible that the students had not developed the necessary embochure ‘
strength, ﬁnger dexterity, instrument position, and breath control to consistently perform
instrumentally with good intonation. Secondly, it may not be reliable to measure student
achievement in terms of intonation after 14 weeks of instruction. Instruction using singing
may improve intonation, however-a longer treatment period is necessary to accurately
measure the effect of this instruction on student instrumental achievement.

Firmlly,thewcekdesignated fortestingwasnotoptirna]. Them '
ngiventotheﬁﬂhgradestudents drningthisweek. Some
classrooms did not attend music classes, and there was only partial attendance from other
classrooms. Students who missed the testing were required to perform the following
week. It is possible that the performance scores of these students (N = 23) were not
mﬁablebecausemesestudentshadnahadmemmucdmﬂmmesmdentswhoattended
classhadreceivedinthetwoweekperiod. ItwasalsoTormdoSafetyWeeLandallofthe
tornado drills occurred during the music class periods. Therefore, instruction was not
consistentforallofthegroupsduringthistime. Theweekpriortotesting, thestudentshad
three halfdays because ofparent-teacher conferences and the week following the testing
was springbr'eak. 'I‘heseunforttmateoccurrences mayhavehadanegativeaffecton
student instrumental performances.

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summer

The teaching experiment presented in the preceding chapters was conducted in order
to determine the extent to which singing rote songs and resting tone improves instrumental
performance achievement and musical understanding in beginning instrumental students.

A review of related literature disclosed that no parallel studies exist; however,
following «a related studies. Elliott (1974) found the instruction using singing improved
students' aural discriminzion skills and pitch perception. McGarry (1967) found
instructim that using singing improves studerl instrumemal achievement in performance
skills such as technical accuracy, duration, slurs, rests, tempo ﬂuctuation, fematas,
repeats, and observation of expressive marks. Tonal pattern training was found to improve
a smdents' sense of tonality and conceptual undestanding in studies by MacKnight (1975),
Davies, (1981), and Grutzmacher (1987). The relaed studies donot speciﬁcally measure
the effeas (11' teaching techniques using singing on intomtion, phrase shaping, and musical
expression.

This study included one hundred and sixteen ﬁfth—grade band students from
Kreeger Elemema'y School in Fowlerville, Michigan. 'I‘wo classrooms were randomly
asigned the control group and the remaining three class compised the treatment group.
The students participaed in a heterogeneous band class twice a week one half hour period.
The duration of the study was 14 weeks.

Teaching procedures employed with both groups were identical, except that die
member of the trement group prticipaed in singing activities. Because all teaching
procedures were cmducted by the experimenter, two qualiﬁed teachers participaed in a
series of observaions designed to determine whether the lessons yearned to both groups
were equalinqualiry md course centers andfreefrom anybias fran dreteachefor eithe

49

5 0
teaching technique or group.
All students were protested using the 19ml and MW subtests of the
MAB and post tested on an individual performance of a sight-reading selection. The
student perfonnances were judged by three judges using a rating scale.

W

The following results and conclusions can be considered valid for only the
population involved in this study. No statistically signiﬁcant diffa'ences in performance
skill as a result of singing were found to exist at the conclusion of the study between the
treatment group and the control group on the composite etude score. However, statistically
signiﬁcant differences in performance skill as a result of singing were found to exist
between the treatment and control group in terms of musical expression Instruction
including singing had the greatest effect on high-aptitude and moderate-aptitude students'
achievement in musical expression. Low-aptitude students' achievement was not effected
by instruction including singing. Statistically signiﬁcant differences nearly were found to
existbetween the treatmentandcontrol groupinregardtophrase shaping (p< .07).
Students' understanding of phrase shaping may be positively effected by singing.

OveralLthestudents indteu'eatmentgtoupsooredhigherontheinstrumental
performance etude than the students in the control group. Students in the moderate and
high-aptitude treatment groups made the largest gain in instrumental music performance,
althoughthisgainwasnotsigniﬁcant. Thedropinmeanscoresbetweenthemoderateand
high-aptitude students in the control group show that instruction that does not include
singing may not sufﬁciently challenge students of high musical aptitude. Teaching
techniques using singing are more easily adaptable to students' individual musical
differenwsthanareu'aditimalapproachestoinsuuction. Aninstructionalapproachthat
allowsforﬂexibilityinta'msofadapting instructiontotheindividual musicalneedsofall

5 1
students is a more effective approach for teaching classes that include students of all
musical aptitudes (Grunow and Gordon, 1989).

A review of studies investigating the use of singing as an technique for teaching
beginning instrumental instruction indicate that singing is an effective approach. Elliott
(1974) found that singing improves students' aural discrimination skills and pitch
perception. McGarry (1967), MacKnight (1975), Davies (1981), and Grutzmacher (1987)
found that singing positively effects student instrumental performance achievement.
However, these studies did not speciﬁcally measure intonation, phrase shaping, and
musical expression.

The results of this study support that instruction using singing of rote songs and
resting tormisaneffectiveappmachinbeginninginsuumentalinsmwtion. More
speciﬁcally, this type of instruction may positively effect students understanding of phrase
shaping, and musical expression.

Whiletechnical skilldevelopmentwasnotadirectconcernofthis study andwas
notmeasmedemphasizingasingingapproachintheinsﬁucﬁonofbeginmng instrumental
music students did not delay the development of technical skills as demonstrated by
improved melodic sight-reading skills and by observations made by the researcher.
However, ﬁrtherresearchinthisareaisnecessarybeforeaconclusioncanbemade.

Recommendations

The following recommendationsbasedupon thisexperimentareconcerned with the
needfmﬁﬂasmdiesmmeeﬁectsofsingingmmsuumenmlpafmnmceachievenent
and musical understanding in beginning band students.

The positive tendenciesin mean scoresfavoringthetreatment group implies thatthe
expaimenhlteaclﬁngapprmchmayhavemeffeﬂmstudentmsmmenmlperfammce
achievement. Differencesinoutcomes may havebeen statistically signiﬁcantif the students
hadbeendividedinmueannentandoonnolgroupsbasedonapﬁmdescmesusmga

5 2
matched pairs design. Because of school scheduling, the population in this study was
divided into control and treatment groups randomly by class.

It is recommended that replications of this study use smaller heterogeneous classes
of equal sizes. The classes sizes in this experiment ranged from 36 students to 19 students
in a class. Replications of this study using smaller, homogeneous classes is also
suggested The positive direction of the results shown in the previous chapter implies that
it would be desirable to observe the teaching techniques included in this study for a longer
period with the same students. Additional studies are needed to determine the effectiveness
of vocalization at various grade levels. It is probable that instrumental music students at all
performance levels would proﬁt considerably from instruction that includes singing.

Students inthis smdywerenotexposedtoasimilarnumberofsongsinboth major
and mmortonahues. Themajorityofexistingclass methodmaterialsavailableto music
educattxstodaydonottreatmajorandminortonalities withequalimportance. Thetext
usedin the school districtinwhich thisexperimentoccm'reddoesnotpresentasong in
minortonalitytmtilpage15(itisthe28thsong intheliterature). Thesmdentsinthe
treatmentgroupwereexposedtcsongsin minortonalitythrough singing exercises;
howeverthe studentsin thecontrol groupwho were using only thetext did not receivethis
beneﬁt. Thereforeposttesting studentsonpa'formancesinboth majorand minorwasnot
possible. This directly contradicts the ﬁndings in Grutzmacher's study (1987) in which
shestatesthataprogramofinstruction in which snidentsexperiencemajorand minor
tomlities through singing, playing, listening, and comparing major and minor tonal
patterns and songs leadstoahigherlevelofconceptual understanding. Therefore, the
present study should be replicated using a method that includes songs in both major and
minor tonalities equally.

Akeyboardinstrumentwasnotavaihbletothetsacherinthisstudy,
subsequentially no harmonization was possible. It would be interesting to replicate this

5 3
study using harmonization with the treatment group to determine the effect in terms of

intonation.

I l' .
Existing literature support that instruction using singing improves beginning band
students instrumental performance skills in terms of aural discrimination skills, rhythmic
accuracy, and music reading skills. This study suggests that singing may also improve
beginning band students' instrumental performance skills and musical understanding.
Instrumental music teachers and college students preparing for teaching instrumental music
needtounder'standthattonalconceptdevelopmentisessential in thetrainingofyoung
instrumentalists. Teachers nwd to guide students learning through the use of sequential

learning activities that employ singing.

APPENDICES

APPENDICES

LESSON PLANS FOR THE CONTROL AND TREATMENT GROUPS

Methods 8001: WM. pp. 1-15.
Each lesson will emphasize good executive skills and breath support

The key, tonality, tempo, and meta will always be established pricr to any singing or
instrumental performance activity with the treatment group.

Errors made by the control group will be corrected ve'bally and by chanting the melodic
rhythms. Errors made bytbe treatmemgroup will be correctedb ysinging. An eﬁ'ortwill
be made to avoid verbally carecting an error with students inthe treamem group.

During the singing activities with the treament group, some students will be selected to
perform instrumermallyand somewillbe selectto sing. Studentswillalsobepermittedto
singphrases asasolooras aduetwiththe teacherorapeer.

Portions of the following lessons may be repeated when the review is necessary.

Control Group
Week 1

Qu’ggjvg
The student will demonstrate an understanding: rhythms that include half notes and half
rests by chanting rhythm patterns to a steady

The student will demonsm an unde'standing of rhythms including half aces and whole
notes by performing from nottion.

Thestudemwindemonsu‘rteanundersmndingofthepitchesCmcertBﬂa, C, D, Efla,
and Fby performing themfrommusic notation

Materials
Exercises onpage4and5 ofmelamahLBanin

II'II'

l. Theteacherwill leadthesmdentsinsteadybeatactivities tha includemacrobertsin
duple mete:

2. Theteacher-will askthe studentstoechorhythm patternsdratinclude halfandwhole
notes.

3. The teacher will demonstrate pitches Concert B ﬂat thru F using good tone quality.

54

4.
5.

6.
7.

8.

5 5

The teacher will discuss the terms treble and bass clef, time signature, measure, breath
mark, bar line, and double bar line.

The teacher will ask the students to identify the notes that are presented in the exercise
by me and ﬁngering and perform them individually.

The teacher will demonstrate an exercise using an instrument.

The tteacher will lead the students in saying the exercise aloud using ”ta” and ﬁngering

e notes.
The students will perform the exercise on instruments.

Treatment Group
Week 1

D! . .
Identicaltocontrol group

Mam‘als'
Identical to control group

21.11.:

OP? 8 9 M PP N

Thewalchteir'wﬂlleadmestudentsinseadybeatacﬁviﬁesinclumng' macrobeats

in upemeter.

The teacher will lead the students in clmnting rhythm patterns that include half notes
andwholenotes.

TheMcherwillsingtheﬁvenewnotesthatarepresentedonpage4and5inthetext.

Theteacherwillsing somefamiliarsongsthatusethesenotesandaskthetosingalong
when they recognize the song.

The teacher lwill teach the students Hot Cross Buns by rote on a neutral syllable and
with sole e.

Theteacherwﬂlinuoducethesnrdentstotheﬁngmngsforthenotesinthissongand
instructthestudentstolocatethesepitchesinnotationonpages4ands.

TheteacherwillsinganexereiseﬁomthebookthatusesthesamenotesasHotCross
Buns and instruct the students to echo.

The teacher will instruct the students to sing the exercise.

Theteacherwiuinsmwtmestudentsmperformﬂreexerciseusingmsuuments.

.ThistMﬂbewmpletedfmsevaaldiﬂerentexercisesonpageMandS.

56

Control Group and Treatment Group
Week 2

New exercises from pages 4 and 5 will be taught using teaching techniques ﬁom Week 1

Control Group
Week 3

Dl"'

The student will demonstrate an understanding of rhythms that include quarter notes,
quarter rests, and halfnotes by chanting rhythm patterns to a steady beat.

The student will demonstrate an understanding of rhythms that include quarter notes,
uarterrests,and halfnotesby performing HotCross Bunsand Merrily We Roll Along
notation.

The student will describe the symbols: treble and bass clef, time signature, measure, breath
mark, barlineand doublebarlinewith accuracy.

Mamials:

Hot Cross Buns
Merrily We Roll Along

W3

The teacher will provide a model by playing the song using an instrument.

Theteacherwillaskthe smdentstochanttherhythmsintheﬁrstphraseby

using the counts 1-2-3—4.

Theteacherwillreview theterminology presentedonpages 4-6.

Thegeacherwinaskmestudentsmidenﬁfymemtesmmesongbylenermmeand
ngertng. .

Theteacherwiﬂleadthesmdentsmchanﬁngmeﬁrstphmsealoudandpracﬁceﬂre

ﬁngerings forthe notes.

Theteacherwinleaddtestudemsinchannngtheﬁrstphraseusingnmemmesand

ﬁnger practicethenotes.

. The students will perform the phrase using instruments.

This sequence will be used with each new phrase within each song.

. At the conclusion of the class period, the students will be asked to mirror the teacher's
steadybeat. 'lheteacherwillperformmactobeatsinduplemeteratdifferent
tempos. .

10. Theteacherwillplayashonsongindupleandaskthesurdemstokeepaseadybeat

09°“ 9‘ 5" 99’ N!“

57

Treatment Group
Week 3

D!‘ . .
Identicaltoconuolgroup

Mamas:
Identical to control group

I l' I l . .

l. The teacher will sing Hot Cross Buns to the class using a neutral syllable.

2. 'l‘hetetalcherwillsingtherestingtone(ConcenBﬂat)totheclassandtheclasswill
cc 0.

3. Theptgaﬂcherwillinstructthesmdentstolistenfortherestingtoneinthesecond

4. Theclasswillsin masthesong

5. Theteacherandc swillbegintogetherby theﬁrstnote. Theteacherwill

instruct the students to sing the remainder o the song to themselves and conclude
by singing the last note aloud.

The teacherwillteachthe studentsthe son insolfegebyrote.

The students will demonstrate the correct erings for mi, re, do, and sol on their
instruments.

. Thestudentswillsingthesongusingsolfegeandpracticetheﬁngerings.

.The students will perform the song using instruments.

10. The students will perform the song from notation.

11. The teacher will instruct the students to identify time signature, treble or bass

clefs, measure, bar line, and double bar line in the notation.
12. This sequence will be used for Merrily We Roll Along.

:Ooo >19

Control Group

Week 4

Q! . . .

The students will perform Hot Cross Buns and Merrily We Roll Along with accuracy.

Thestudentswilldemonsttateanundastandingon/4and4l4timesignaturesbychanting
countswithasteadybeat.

'I‘hestudentswillperformtiednotescorrectlywithinafamiliarsong.

. 5 8
Mamas:

214 March
Old MacDonald

Teachmg‘ mm gg;

1. The teacher will deﬁne a tie as a symbol that connects two notes ofthe same pitch.

2. The teacher will deﬁne 2/4 time signature as music notation that means there are two
beats in each measure and a quarter note gets one heat.

3. The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities including macro beats in
duple meter. The students will keep a steady beat and chant the counts aloud using
'1-2-3-4" or 'l-2" as directed by the teacher.

4. The teacher will perform 2/4 March using an instrument.

5. The students will chant the counts for 2/4 March aloud while keeping a steady beat.

6. The students will chant the song using a neutral syllable and practice the ﬁngerings.

7. The teacher will deﬁne breath marks and lead the students in performing the song
using instruments.

8. The same procedure will be repeawd for Old MacDonald.

Treatment Group
Week 4

Q! . . .
Identical to control group

MM
Identical to control group
Hot Cross Buns

111.11.:

Theteacherwill singHot Cross Buns andthe students willrespond with theresting
tone.

The students will sin Hot Cross Buns using solfege.

The students will orm Hot Cross Buns instrumentally.

Theteacherwill singtheﬁrstphraseon/4 Marchandthe studentswillrespond with
the resting tone.

The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase and the students will echo.

Theteacherwinteachdtemmaimngphmbysingingﬂephmseﬂeninsmwﬁngﬂe
students to echo.

This process will be repeated using solfege.

The students will sing the ﬁrst two phrases in solfege.

Thestudents willperformtheﬁrstphraseoninstruments.

y...
I

}°.°°>l 9‘!" PP!"

10.
II.
12.
13.

14.
15.

5 9
The students will sing the second phrase.
The students will perform the second phrase on instruments.
Steps 4—11 will be repeated for the third and fourth phrases.
The teacher will sing Old MacDonald and the students will respond with the resting
tone.
Steps 4—11 will be followed for the two phrases in Old MacDonald.
The students will perform Old MacDonald instrumentally.

Control Group
Week 5

01' . .
The students will perform the 214 March and Old MacDonald with accuracy.

The student will perform rhythms that including eighth, quarter, half, and whole notes and
quarter and halfrests with accuracy.

Thestudentwillperform fourbarphraseswithinasong.

Materials
Baa Baa Black Sheep
Frere Jacques

I I Il'

8999? N r

Theteacherwilllead studentsin steadybeatactivitics. Newactivitiesusing macro
micro beats will be included.

The stuldglnts will keepasteady beatand echo rhythmic patterns that includequarterand
erg notes.

Theteacherwincoumonemeasmeofeighthnoeswhﬂekeepingaseadybeat

The teacher will perform Baa Baa Black Sheep using an instrument.

The teacher will nnstruct the students to chant the ﬁrst phrase using "ta".

The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase using instruments.

Thea sequence similarto steps4—6willbefollowed forFrereJacques.

 

60

Treatment Group
Week 5

Q! . . .
Identical to Control Group

Mmmm
Identical to control group

11.1]. .

The teacher will sing Baa Baa Black Sheep to the students.

Theteacherwillsingtherestingtone(BﬂatConcert)andthestudentswillecho.

The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase and instruct the students to respond with the
resting tone.

The studentswillsing theﬁrstphraseandtherestingtone.

Theteacherwillsingtheﬁrstphraseinsolfegeandthestudentswillecho. Theteacher .
will ask forvolunteers to sing the ﬁrst phrase individually orwith a partner.

Theteacher-willdn'ectstudents' attentiontotheﬁrstplnaseofBaaBaaBlackSheepin
notation.

Theteacherwillaskthestudentstolocatethetimesignattne. Theteacherwilldeﬁne
thetimesignatureas tingthenumberofmacrobeatsinonemeasure.

. The students will sing the phrase from notation.

Theteacherwillteachtheremainingphraseby rote usinganeuual syllableandsolfege.
Therestingtonewillberepeatedattheendofthe hrase.

10. Thestudentswillsingthesongusinganeuualsyllabeandpracticeﬁngeringthe

notes.
11. Thestudentswillperfonnthesongusinginstruments.
12. AsimilarMchingsequencewillbeusedforFrereJacques.

pm s 9 we wwr

Control Group
Week 6

Q!"’

The students will demonstrate an understanding of eighth notes, quarter notes, and half
notesbyperforming themwithin fanriliarsongs.

The students will show an understanding of ﬁrst and second endings by performing a short
song that includes this notation.

The students will demonstratean understanding ofa slurbyperforming slurs from
notation.

6 l
The students will perform the new note, Concert A ﬂat, accurately within a familiar song.

Materials
Review: Baa, Baa Black Sheep, Frere Jacques

Yankee Doodle
Second Ending Blues
This Old Man

1. The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities that include movements to
macro and micro beats in duple meter.

2. The teacher will deﬁne the term key signature.

3. Theteacherwill perform do-sol in ConcertB flatmajorandinConcertEﬂatmajorto -
demonstrate the difference between the two keyalities.

4. The teacher will play several patterns and ask the students to discriminate between B flat
and E ﬂat major.

_5. The teacher will perform Yankee Doodle.

6. Theteacherwﬂlaskthesmdentstoidenﬁfywheremeﬂtenewnoteocansmﬂte
notation and to identify where the slurs occur.

7. The teacher will direct the students in chanting and ﬁnger practicing the ﬁrst phrase.

8. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase using instruments.

9. Steps6- 8willberepeated forthelastphrase.

10. A sirnilarapproachwillbeused forSeconanding BluesandThisOldMan. Theﬁrst
and second endings, slurs, and new note will always be reviewed prior to chanting

andﬁngeringthephrasesinthesong.

Treatment Group

Week 6

Q! . . .

Identical to control group

Materials

Identical to control group

Hot Cross Buns and Merrily We Roll Along

I 1' 111° .
1. Studentswill listentothe teacher sing HotCrossBunsin solfegeandrespond with

6 2
the resting tone.

Students will sing Hot Cross Buns in solfege.

Teacher and students will sing the ﬁrst note of the song, then audiate the interior

portion and sing the last note (resting tone) together at the same time.

Students will perform the song using instruments.

A similar progression will be used for Menily We Roll Along.

. The teacher will ask for volunteers to perform either song as a solo.

. The teacher will sing Yankee Doodle using a neutral syllable and the students will

respond by singing the resting tone at the conclusion of the teacher's performance.

. The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase and the students will echo. The resting tone

will be repeated at the end ofeach phrase.

. Theteacherwill asktheclass ifthis songhas the sameresting toneasHotCross Buns.
The teacher will sing Hot Cross Buns and Yankee Doodle. (Hot Cross Buns is in
ConcatB ﬂat majorand YankeeDoodle is in ConcertEﬂatMajor).

10. The teacher will explain that the two songs are in different keyalities.

11. The new note in Yankee Doodle will be introduced. The teacherwill sing do-re-mi-fa

and the students will echo.

12. The teacher will show the students the ﬁngering for the new note and the students will

perform do-re-mi-fa-do using instruments.

13. Thesamenoteswillbeusedtointroduceaslur. Theteacherwilldemonstratedo-re-

mi-fa slurred and the students will echo.

14. The teacher will sing do—re and mi-fa slurred and the students will echo.

15. The teacher will introduce the slurs in notation.

16. The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase of Yankee Doodle and the students will echo

and practice the ﬁngerings for the notes.

17. The teacher performance and student echo sequence will be used for the phrases within

each song. The resting tone will be performed at the conclusion of each song.

 

0 m «age we

Control Group
Week 7

Ql"°

The students will demonstrate an understanding of rhythms that include eighth notes,
quarter notes, and half notes by performing them from notation.

ThestudentswillperformConcertAwithinnotationofafamiliarsong.

Mmmn

Review: YankeeDoodleSecondEnding BlueeThisOldMan

SkiptoMyLou

TomDooley

I l' I I . .

1. Thestudentswillperform YankeeDoodle, SecondEnding Blues, andThis OldMan.

6 3
Prior to the performance of each song, the students will chant the ﬁrst phrase and
'ce the ﬁngerings.
2. The teacher will perform Skip to My Lou using an instrument.
3. The teacher will perform the ﬁrst phrase of Skip to My Lou.
4. The teacher will instruct the students to identify the new note within the phrase and
to ﬁnd the ﬁngering forthis new note at the to of the page.
5. The teacher will lead the students in chanting and gering the ﬁrst phrase of
Skip to My Lou.
6. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase using instruments.
7. Steps4-6willberepeatedforeach pltraseofthe song.

Treatment Group
Week 7

D!’ .
Identicaltothecontrolgroup

Materials
Identical to the control group

Hot Cross Buns
Frere Jacques

111.11.:

Teacher will Siwlllfl Frere Jacques and students will respond by singing the resting tone.

The students ' sing Frere Jacques.

Students will perform Frere Jacques using instruments and without notation.

Students will sing Hot Cross Buns then perform the song instrumentally.

The teacher will sing the restin tone of Hot Cross Buns followed by do-ti-do.

The students will echo the teac er‘s performance.

Theteacherwilldirectthe studentsinperforming thesethreenotesusing instruments.

The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase of Skip to My Lou and the students will respond
with the resting tone.

Theteacherwill sing the secondphraseofSkiptoMylouandthe studentswill
respond with the testing tone. The teacher will ask the students which one of the
phrases ends with the resting tone.

10. The students will sing the second phrase.

11. The ﬁrstand secondphrases willbeperformedusing instruments.

)0 PHQMPP’PI‘

64

Control Group
Week 8

D!' “V .
Thesmdentswinperformadonedquanernotecorrecﬂywiminafanﬁharsong.

Matgials

Skip to My Lou
Torn Dooley

Wham:
l. The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities including macro and micro
beats in duple meter.
2. The teacher will chant rhythm patterns that include quarter notes, half notes and
douedhalfmesandﬂtesmdentswﬂlechowhilepafomﬁngasteadybcat
3. TheglottedhalfnotepresentedinTom Dooleywillbeidentiﬁedasreceivmgthree
cats.
4. The students will chant the ﬁrst phrase and then perform it using instruments.
5. Comparisonsbetweentheﬁrstand secondphraseofthesongwillbe made.
6. The students will perform Tom Dooley in its entirety.
7. Thestudentswillperform Skip toMyLou.

Treatment Group
Week 8

Q! . .
Identical to control group

Mateials
Identical to control group
Go Tell Aunt Rhodie

Il'Il'

l. Tlteeacherwinlsadﬁmsmdentsmstadybeatacﬁviﬁesincludingmacmand micro
beatsinduple meter.

2. Theteacherwﬂlchantrhythmpattemsusingquarternotmhalfnotesmnd
dotted half notes and the students will echo.

6 5
The teacher will sing Tom Dooley.
The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase of Tom Dooley and the students will echo.
The teacher will sing the second phrase and the students will echo.
The students will sing the song ﬁom notation.
The teacher will ask the students how many macro beats were in the dotted half note.
The students will orm Tom Dooley using instruments.
The teacher will smg Go Tell Aunt Rhodie and the students will respond with the
resting tone.
10. The teacher will sing each phrase and the students will echo each phrase.
11. The students will sing Go Tell Aunt Rhodie.
12. Thesameprocedurewillberepeatedtoteachthe students thesongin solfege.

99°NP‘P'P?’

Control Group
Week 9

D!"'

lestudenmwiﬂdemmsuateanmdersmndingofmenewmte(CmoenA)byperfMg
it correctly within a familiar song.

Thesmdentswﬂldemmsuateanmdasmndingofuiplemetabypaformingmacmmd
nﬁcmbeatsindupleanduiplenreterwithaseadybeatusinganatual syllableandcounts.

Thestudentswilldemonstrateanunderstanding ofaocentsbyperformingthemwithina
familiar song. '

The students will demonstrate an understanding of rhythms that include halfnotes and
quarter notes by performing Lightly Row ﬁom notation.

W32
Review: Skip to My Lou and Tom Dooley

Faith of Our Fathers
Mexican Hat Dance
Lightly Row (pp. 6)

111.11..

I. Theclasswillchantandpracticetheﬁngaings fortheﬁrsttwophrasesofSkiptoMy
Lou.

2 . The students will perform Skip to my Lou instrumentally.

3. The students will dent and practice the ﬁngerings for Tom Dooley.

4. The students will perform Tom Dooley instrumentally.

5. Theteacherwill leadthe students in steadybeatactivitiesthatemphasize macrobeats
and micro beats in duple and triple meter.

6. Thacherwiuexplainmedifferencebetweenmetwonretersandﬁme signatures.

7. Thestudentswillbeaskedtoidentifythe3l4timesignatureinnotation.

6 6
8. The teacher will perform the ﬁrst phrase of Faith of Our Fathers, emphasizing the
dynamics, while the students perform the steady beat.
9. The teacher will deﬁne the terms: dynamics, piano, and forte.

10 The students will chant and ﬁnger practice through the ﬁrst phrase.

11. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase using instruments.

12. The students will chant and practice the ﬁngerings in the remaining phrases. Each
phrase will also be performed instrumentally.

13. The teacher will perform Mexican Hat Dance and ask the students to identify the
accents within the notation.

14. The students will chant and practice the ﬁngerings in the ﬁrst line of the song.

15. The students will chant the counts for the notes in the ﬁrst line of the song while
keeping a steady beat.

16. The teacher will ask the students to identify the clunges in the second line.

17. The students will perform the song using instruments.

18. The teacher will direct the students' attention to Lightly Row, on page 6, and instruct
them to think about the time signature, notes, and rhythms. The teacher will give
the students one minute to think about the song.

19. The students will perform Lightly Row using instruments.

20. The teacher will ask students to volunteer to perform lightly Row individually.

Treatment Group
Week 9

D!’ . .
Identicaltocontrolgroup

Ms:

Identical to the control group; omit review of Skip to My Lou and Tom Dooley

Go Tell Aunt Rhodie
Frere Jacques

Il'Il't

l. The teacher will sing through Frere Jacques and the students will respond with the
resting tone.

2. The teacher will direct the students as they sing Frere Jacques. The teacher will choose
two studercrltsto sing togetherononepartand theteacherwill sing the secondpart

m a man

3. Theteacherwill dividetheclass intoZ groups. Theclass willperform FrereJacquesin
a round.

4. Theteacherwill sing GoT‘ell AuntRhodieandthestudentswillrespondwiththe
resting tone.

5. The teacher will teach the students the song by rote using solfege. The teacher will ask
thestudentstopracticethissong using instruments ornextweek.

6 7

6. The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities that include macro and micro
beats in duple and triple meter.

7. The teacher will explain and demonstrate the difference between the two meters and
time signatures.

8. The teacher will sing the ﬁrst pluase of Faith of Our Fathers and the students will
perform a steady beat and respond with the resting tone.

9. The students will sing the ﬁrst phrase while keeping a steady beat.

10. Small groups of students will be chosen to sing the ﬁrst phrase while other students
keep a steady beat and read the notation. The groups will switch so that each
student ean participate in both activities.

11. A similar procedure will be followed for the remaining phrases in the song.

12. The teacher will perform Mexican Hat Dance on an instrument and the students will
perform the steady beat.

13. The teacher will teach the ﬁrst two phrases to the students by rote.

14. The students will sing the ﬁrst two phrases while performing the ﬁngerings correctly.

15. The teacher will ask the students to listen to the thrrd and fourth phrases and identify
what is different from phrases one and two.

16. The students will perform the song instrumentally.

17. The teacher will ask the students to deﬁne an accent and select individual students
to perform a phrase from Mexiean Hat Dance to demonstrate accents.

18. The teacher will direct the students' attention to Lightly Row and ask them to think
aboutthetime signature, notes, andrh ms inthesong. Theteacherwill givethe
students one minute to think through c song.

19. The students will perform the song as a group.

20. The teacher will request volunteers to pa'form the song individually.

Control Group
Week 10

Q! . .
See Week 9
The students will perform Pierrots Door ﬁom notation with accuracy.

Mantels:

Review Skip to My Lou, Tom Dooley, Faith of Our Fathers, and Mexiean Hat Dance, and
Lightly Row.

Pierrots Door

I l' I l' .
Each song will be reviewed using the following procedure:

1. The students will chant and ﬁnger through each phrase ofthe song and then perform
the phrase using instruments.

6 8
2. Small groups and individuals will be selected to perform the song.
3. The class will perform the song.
4. A verbal review of the new notes and new symbols will occur prior to the ﬁrst
performance and at the conclusion of the ﬁnal performance of each song.
5. The teacher will perform Pienots Door using an instrument.
6. The students will chant Pienots Door using counts and practicing the ﬁngerings.
7. The students will perform the song instrumentally.

Treatment Group
Week 10

El' . .
Identicaltothecontrolgroup

Mmmk
Identical to the control group

Also include Hot Cross Buns, Merrily We Roll Along, Go Tell Armt Rhodie, and
Frere Jacques

BxMEE¢Mm=
Each song will be reviewed using the following procedures:

The teacher will sing the song or the students will sing the song together.

The resting tone will be performed at the beginning and at the conclusion of each song.

The students will perform the song on instruments.

Students will be asked to ﬁnd pluases within songs that include an example of a she,
accent, or change in dynamic and perform the pluase individually.

The teacher will sing Pierrots Door using a neutral syllable.

The teacher will sing the ﬁrst pluase of the song and the students will echo.

The teacher will sing the second phrase of the song and the students will echo.

The students will sing Pierrots Door using a neutral syllable.

. Steps5-8willberepeatedwithsolfege.

wwscw ewwr

69

Control Group and Treatment Group
Week 11

This week was used as a review week. The review material was chosen speciﬁcally for
each class according to the needs of the individuals within the class.

Control Group
Week 12

Q! . .
The student will deﬁne the term duet as two musicians performing in harmony.

The students will perform a duet with accuracy. Duets using two students and duets
including two large groups will be performed.

The student will perform Concert A ﬂat within an exercise with accuracy.

The student will demonstrate an understanding of pick-up notes by counting them and
performing them correctly.

W

Pop Tune for Two
Exercise pp. 14, line 1

II'II' .

1. The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities that include macro and
micro beats rn duple and triple meter.
The teacher will deﬁne pick-up notes. The students will identify pick-up notes
in notation.
Thefteach‘rer will lead the students rn chanting the ﬁrst part, ﬁrst phrase of Pop Tune
or o.
. Thestudentswillperform theﬁrstpartintheduetPopTuneforTVvo.
. Steps3and4willberepeatedforthesecondpart,ﬁrst
The teacher will select four students to perform the ﬁrst phrase as a duet.
The teacher will direct the student's attention to the ﬁrst and second endings and
remind the students how to read this notation.
Theteacherwill leadthe studentsinchantingthe ﬁrstpart, secondphrase.
.T'he students will perform this phrase instrumentally.
10. Tire same procedure will be followed for the second part, second pluase
11. Thestudentswrll perform theﬁrstpartinitsentirety. Thestudentspwillperformthe
second part in rts en
12. The teacher will divide the class several different ways for several performances of the
song in harmony.
13. Theteacherwiudimctthestudarfsattenﬁontoﬂrenewnotepresmtedmrpage 14
and instruct the students to demonstrate the ﬁngering for this pitch on instruments.

we snue w P

7 O
14. The teacher will lead the students rn chanting the ﬁrst phrase of line 1, page 14.
15. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase instrumentally.
16. Steps 14 and 15 will berepeated for the second phrase.

Treatment Group
Week 12

Q!’ . .
Identicaltothecontrolgroup

Marnials
Identical to the control group

Go Tell Aunt Rhodie
Pierrots Door

111.11.:

. The teache' will sing Go Tell Aunt Rhodie and the students will respond by singing
the resting tone.

The students will perform the song instrumentally.

The teacher will srng Pienots Door and the students will respond by singing the
resting tone.

Theteaﬁherwill singeachphraseofthesongin solfegeandtlrestudentswilleeho
eac phrase.

The students will perform Pierrots Door instrumentally.

Theteacherwilldividethestudentsintotwogroups. Onegroupwillperformthe
song by singing and the other will perform instrumentally.

Theteacherwill sing throughtheﬁrstparttotheduet, PopTune forTwoandconclude
by singing the resting tone. The students will echo the resting tone.

The teacher will perform the ﬁrst phrase and the resting tone, the students will echo.
The teacher will explain that the ﬁrst two notes are deﬁned as pick-up notes and they
tfreginoaemacrobeatbefcretheﬁrstcomplete measure. Theyarecountedas

our-an

10. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase instrumentally.

11. Step8will berepeatedforthesecondphrase.

12. Theteacherwill sing the ﬁrstphraseofthesecondpartandconcludewiththeresting
tone. The students will echo the teacher's performance.

13. Theteacherwill selecttwostudentstosingtheﬁrstpartwhileshesingsthesecond
part with them.

14. The teacher will sing the secondpart.

15. Theteacherwill singthesecondphraseandthe studentswillecho.

16. The students will perform the second part using instruments.

1?. Theteacherwillexplainthatthesmdentsareperforming inharmony whenthey
perform a duct.

18. Theteacherwill sing through line 1, page 14.

19. Theteacherwill sing therestingtoneandtlre students willechotheresting tone.

ﬂ

209°N9‘S‘9‘P’N

7 1

20. The teacher will sing each phrase and the students will echo each pluase.

21. The teacher will sing mi- -re-do 1n this new keyality and the students will echo.
22. The teacher will demonstrate the new ﬁngering presean on this page and tell

the students it is the ﬁngering for the new resting tone.

23. The students will perform mi-re-do using instruments.

24. The students will sing the exercise from the notation while practicing the ﬁngerings.
25. The studenm will perform the exercise instrumentally.

Control Group
Week 13

D!' 'v .
Thestudentwﬂlperfonnedstawatonotescmrecﬂywithinafanuliarsong.

Mateials
Review Pop Tune for Two and Mexiean Hat Dance

CamptownRaces
TheManontheFlyingTrapeze

Il'Il':

1. The teacher will direct the students in chanting the melodicrhythm and practicing
the ﬁngerings for the ﬁrst gar-st of Pop Tune for Two.

2. The students will perform the tpart instrumentally.

3. The teacher will direct the students rn chanting the melodic rhythm and practicing
the ﬁngerings for the second part of Pop Tune for Two.

4. The students will perform the second part instrumentally.

5. Theteacherwill dividetheclassintotwogroupsandtheywillperforrn thesong
using instruments.

6. The students will chant and ﬁnger practice Mexiean Hat Dance.

7. The students will perform Mexrean Hat Dance instrumentally.

8. The teacher will instruct the students to perform the song again with very light
and short sounding notes.

9. Theteacherwill explain they paformed staccatoandinstructthestudentstolook
at the next page for the“:y deﬁnition of staccato.

10. The teacher wrll perform the ﬁrst phrase of Camptown Races instrumentally.

11. The teacher will rnstruct the students to chant and practice the ﬁngerings for the
ﬁrstphrase. Shewillremindthem tosaythestaceatonotesandaccentednows
correctly

12. Steps 10and 11 will be used fortheremaining phrasesofthe song.

13. The students will perform Camptown Races instrumentally.

14. Theteacherwill perform the ﬁrstphraseofTheManon theFlyingTrapezeandthe
students will tap the steady beat.

15. The teacherwill askthe studentstoidentify themeterand time signature forthe

7 2
song. The teacher will perform the ﬁrst phrase again.
16. The teacher will remind the students of the key signature and direct the class in
chanting and practicing the ﬁngerings for the ﬁrst pluase.
17. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase instrumentally.
18. The teacher will direct the students through the remaining phrases of the song
following the established sequence of chanting and ﬁnger practicing then

performing instrumentally.

 

Treatment Group
Week 13

D!’ . .
Identieal to the control group

Mamas
Identical to the control group, omit Pop Tune for Two

Pierrots Door
Frere Jacques

11.11..

The teacher will direct the students in singing Pienots Door.
The students will perform Pienots Door using instruments.
The teacher will sing Frere Jacques and the students will respond with the
resting tone.
The students will sin Frere Jacques in a round.
The students will orm Frere Jacques in a round instrumentally.
The teacher will sing Mexican Hat Dance and the students will respond with the
restrng tone.
The students will sing Mexican Hat Dance.
The students will perform the song using instruments.
Theteacherwill sing PierrotsDoorinthesametonality asCamptown Races and the
students will echo.
Theteacherwill sing the ﬁrsttwophrasesofCamptown Racesandthe students will
respond with the resting tone.
. The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase and the students will echo. The teacher will sing
the second pluase and the students will echo.
. The studentswill singthrough theﬁrsttwophrasesandpracticethe ﬁngerings forthe
notes.
. The students will perform the ﬁrst two phrases using instruments.
Steps 10 - 13 will be followed for phrases three and four.
. Theteacherwill explaintothestudentsthattheshortnotesinCamptownRacesare
deﬁnedas staceatoandinstructdremtoobservethenotatedexampleatthetop
o the page.
Theteacherwillleadthestudentsin steadybeatactivities intriple meterusing macro
and micro beats.

99°.“ 93"? PE"?

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9

73

17. The teacher willsrn the ﬁrst two phrases of The Man on a Flying Trapeze and the
students will pergorm the steady beat. They will respond by srnging the resting
tone.

18. The teacher will sing the ﬁrst phrase and the students will echo.

19. The students will sing the ﬁrst phrase and practice the ﬁngerings for the notes.

20. The students will perform the ﬁrst phrase instrumentally.

21. Steps 17- 21 will be followed for the third and fourth phrases.

Control Group
Week 14

C!’ .
ThestudentswillperformConca'tEcorrectlywithinafamiliarsong.

Thestudentswilldemonstrateanunderstanding ofkey signature by deﬁning thetermand
performingafamiliarsonginthecorrectkeyality.

The students will discriminate between major and minor tonalities.
Mm
Review Camptown Races

Let's Row Again
Erie Canal

II'II‘.

l. The teacher will direct the students in chanting through the ﬁrst two phrases of
Cam town Races.
The teac er will verbally review staccato, accent, and Concert A ﬂat.
The students will perform Camptown Races using instruments.
The teacher will duect the student‘s attention to the new note (Concert E) on
thetopofpage 15 andaskthe studerrtstodemorrstratetheﬁngering for
this note on their instruments.
The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities in duple meta using
macro and micro beats.
The teacher will perform the ﬁrst two phrases of Let's Row Again as the students
perform macro beats.
The teacher will instruct the students to look tluough the ﬁrst and second phrases and
loeate each time thenewnoteoccursin the notation.
. The teacher will directthe students rn chanting and ﬁngerpracticing the ﬁrstphrase.
.The students will perform the ﬁrst pluase instrumentally.
10. Steps 8 and9 will berepeated foreach phraseofthe song. Theteacherwill verbally
remind the students of the dynamics notawd 1n the third and fourth pluases.
ll. Theteacherwillaskthe studentstolisten toaperforrnanceofa famrlrarsong 1n
majortonality. TheMcherwillthenperfonnafamilimsonginminortonality.
Several songswillbeperformedandthewacherwill identify them as majoror

5‘5"!"

roooHshsn

7 4

minor after the song is performed.

12. The teacher will perform familiar songs in major or minor and the students will
answer with 'major‘ or ‘minor' responses.

13. The teacher will perform the ﬁrst phrase of Erie Canal and ask the students if this
song is in major or minor.

14. The students will chant and practice the ﬁngerings for the ﬁrst phrase of the song.

15. The students will chant the counts for the melodic rhythm and practice the ﬁngerings
for the ﬁrst phrase of the song.

16. The students will perform the song instrumentally.

17. Steps 13 - 16 will be followed for the second phrase of the song.

Treatment Group
Week 14

[11' . .
Identicaltothecontrolgroup

Mateials
Identical to the control group
Pierrots Door

131.11..

Theteacherwill directthestudentsin singing CamptownRaces.
The students will perform the song using instruments.
The teacher will lead the students in steady beat activities that include macro and
micro beats in duple and triple meters.
The teacher will sing Pierrots Door in Concert C Major and the students will echo.
The teacher will demonstrate the new ﬁngering for 'mi‘ in Pierrots Door.
Thestudents willperforrn the ﬁrstpluaseofthe songin ConcertCMajor.
Theeachlegwillintroducethestudentstothenotation forthisnoteatthetopof
page
Theteacherwillperform the ﬁrsttwophrasesofLet’s Row Again. The teacher
will sing therestingtoneandthestudentswillecho.
9. Theteachergwill sing the ﬁrstpluaseand the students willechoandrepeattheresting
tone.
10. The students will sing the pluase and practice the ﬁngerings.
l 1. The students will perform the pluase rnstrumentally.
12. The teacherwill srngthe secondphraseandthe studentswill respondwith theresting
tone.
13. The studentswill sing andpractice theﬁn 'ngs forthesecondphrase.
14. Steps9- l3 willberepeated forphrases and four.
15. The teacher will ask the students to listen to two different performances of Pierots
Door rn ma tonality and m minor tonality.
16. The teacherwrll sing the songin minorandthe studentswill echo. Theresting tone

9° >395“? Pl"?

7 5
will be repeated. ,
17. The teacher will perform several familiar song using an instrument and ask the
students if what they are hearing is 'major tonality' or 'minor tonality'.
18. The teacher will sing Erie Canal and ask the students the same question.
19. The teacher will sing it again and the students will respond with the resting tone.
20. Steps 9 - 13 will be followed for Erie Canal.

 

Week 15

Each student will be excused from hand to perform an eight measure etude. An adult will
assist the student with the use of the audio-tape player. The student will have one minute to
study the exercise before the performance. The adult will not be permitted to assist the
student with the music in any way.

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

    

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Colwell, R. J. (1963). An rnvestigation of musical achievement among vocal
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