$5 &§. . é . . K d... ‘r #5.! \ 433:... A; 5(3). .m :23. .3 s . . 3:- . n wmms 1 HIG ST ltlllfllljllil 193 E imiimiiiii 1572 8789 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES, KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEFS OF GLOBAL WARMING:A CDMPAHISIDN BETWEEN TWELFTH GRADE STUDENTS IN LANSING, MICHIGAN AND VALDDSTA, GEORGIA presented by James E. Feson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D Resource Development degree in __/ Major pro essor Date 7/4 A} 4’ / / MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 LIBRARY Mlchlgan State Unlverslty PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove thlo chockout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or boforo dots duo. ‘ DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ’———— —_'——— __———— ____———- ___———— ___———- AN ASSESSMENT OF A'I'I‘ITUDES, KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEFS OF GLOBAL WARMING: A COMPARISON BETWEEN 'IWELFI‘H GRADE STUDENTS IN LANSING, MICHIGAN AND VALDOSTA, GEORGIA By James E. Fason A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Resource Development 1 1996 ABSTRACT AN ASSESSMENT OF ATI'ITUDES, KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEFS OF GLOBAL WARMING: A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWELFI'H GRADE STUDENTS IN LANSING, MICHIGAN AND VALDDSTA, GEORGIA By James E. Fason The purpose of this study was to compare environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs held by two regionally separated populations. More specifically, the objectives of this study were (1) to assess the attitudes twelfth grade students hold toward environmental issues; (2) to assess how knowledgeable tweth grade students are about global warming; (3) to assess twelfth grade students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility: conservation, management and protection; and (4) to assess if regionally separated twelfth grade students differ in environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs. Data were collected from four high schools, two in Lansing, Michigan (Everett High School, Eastern High School) and two in Valdosta, Georgia (Lowndes High School, Valdosta High School). Seven hundred and eighty-four students participated in the study by completing a five-page questionnaire. Following the analysis of the questionnaires, twelve focus groups were developed. Sixty-one students participated in the focus group sessions, six sessions in each region. In achieving the objectives of this study, responses to the questionnaire were reported and analyzed by one or more of the following techniques: (1) frequencies, (2) analysis of variance, (3) correlations, (4) regression analysis, (5) Chi-square, and (6) descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). The quantitafive results suggested that the environmental attitudes of the Georgia respondents were significantly more positive than the Michigan respondents, this was also supported by the focus group sessions. The quantitative and qualitative data of this study also found the respondents to lack knowledge of general environmental issues, and global warming. The results also indicated that the Georgia respondents were significantly more knowledgeable of global warming. Additionally, the quantitative results of this study found twelfth grade students from both regions lack beliefs of responsibility. However, the focus group sessions revealed that the participants do possess moderate-to-strong beliefs of responsibility, but they are currently being masked by a sense of powerlessness. The findings of the study have implications for environmental education, students, secondary school teachers, parents and decision makers. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author of this study wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the members of his Guidance Committee, Dr. Cynthia Fridgen, Dr. Frank Fear, Dr. Eckhart Dersch and Dr. Craig Harris for the assistance given during this study. The quality of support and guidance extended by Dr. Cynthia Fridgen, Chairperson of my doctoral program and dissertation was superb. The author would also like to recognize Dr. Craig Harris for his timely, personable, and very capable assistance during the development and completion of this dissertation. Special thanks and appreciation are extended to Dr. James Jay, for his encouragement and generous support and funding during my tenure at Michigan State University. I am also indebted to Dr. Joshua Bagakas for his friendship and assistance to me in the quantitative data analysis of this study. Other fiiends and colleagues who provided encouragement, proof reading, and editing were Denise Embry, Ada Roberts, and Vince Richardson. Finally, I would also like to thank my parents, Johnnie and Yvonne Fason, for somehow helping me acquire the intelligence, or at least perseverance, to come this far. It is my sincere belief that this undertaking would not have been possible without the early guidance, support and encouragement the author received throughout his life. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Introduction of Research Topic 1 Statement of the problem 4 Significance of the Study 9 Organization of the Study 10 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Global Warming Overview 11 Public Opinion Of Global Warming 16 Environmental Concern Overview 21 Age 22 Residence 23 Political Affiliation 25 Social Class And Education Level 27 Students And Environmental Concern 29 Students And Environmental Education 32 Summary 40 III. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE AND HYPOTHESES Social-Psychological Perspective 42 Environmental Attitude Formation 46 Environmental Knowing 49 v RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research Strategy Instrument Development The Questionnaire The Questionnaire Pilot study Final Instrument The Focus Group Pilot Study of Focus Group Validity and Reliability University Committee on Human Subjects Research Hypotheses Data Collection Research Sample Selection of Research Sample Dependent Variables Independent Variables Statistical Techniques Qualitative Data Analysis Research Limitations PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Demographic Characteristics Age/Sex Race Residence Location College Education of Parents Source of Knowledge Observed Environmental Problem Quantitative Data Analysis Hypothesis 1 Results of Attitude Section Hypothesis 2 Results of Knowledge Section Hypothesis 3 Results of Beliefs Section Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis 5 Hypothesis 6 Hypothesis 7 vi 55 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 62 62 64 64 66 66 68 70 70 71 71 72 73 75 75 78 78 83 85 87 89 92 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Focus Group Analysis Description of the Findings Analysis of Questions Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY Population and Sample Design of the Survey Instrument Design of Focus Group Quantitative Data Analysis CONCLUSIONS Tests of Research Hypotheses Discussion of Qualitative Findings Environmental Attitudes Knowledge of Global Warming Beliefs of Environmental Responsibility IMPLICATIONS OF THE CURRENT STUDY Implications for Environmental Education Implications for Students Implications for Secondary School Teachers Implications for Parents Implications for Decision Makers RECOMMENDATIONS Future Research vii 93 94 95 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 103 105 108 109 109 110 110 115 119 119 121 121 122 123 124 125 127 128 131 132 Appendix A: Environmental Quesfionnahe 135 Appendix B: Focus Group Questions 140 Appendix C: Regional Characteristics 142 Appendix D: Parental Consent Form 143 Appendix E: Alpha Coefficients 144 .1 ...t'." LITERATURE CITED 145 R'. i“ f ‘f " I - . . .. , ' ‘4 1 . .,., J} I ,1 ‘ N i . "r _ _g i M 1’1} 1.”! \ H3 ‘\ I ‘\‘l\ l . _ '1‘! i; ELL.“ ‘1 “Vi i ( Raf: . - firth ' ‘- China: L-- ”talk \i .DfimOg.’I:an. . . 3,, 'Daztogrcmhit. 3' ~~.' ._, '..' viii I": _,.:. _. ‘7 - 5.9 5.10 5.11 LIST OF TABLES Page Respondent Demographic Characteristics by Region Environmental Attitudes of High School Students in Georgia and Michigan Percent Responses to the Knowledge Issues by Region Chi (4) The effect of environmental education on students has been positive and most studies have found that students lack factual knowledge about specific environmental issues, but do possess positive attitudes (Richmond, 1976; Zacher, 1974). The contradictions between studies found in this literature review supports the need for further study and the need for new and creative means of data collection. This researcher hopes the use of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods adds or fills some gaps currently found in the literature. The next chapter will describe theories on the relationship between people and. the environment and provide a possible explanation for variations in students’ , attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge. CHAPTER III THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction The purpose of this chapter centers on the development of a theoretical perspective that provides a framework for development of hypotheses about environmental issues. Environmental problems and issues not only occur within the physical environment, but in social and psychological realms as well. The literature review in Chapter II has shown the interrelationship between people and the environment studied. Therefore, theoretical explanations of interrelationships between the sociocultural and social-psychological aspect of people and their environment must, by necessity, contain social and psychological variables. The following sections of this thesis provide a basis for the development of a theoretical perspective. This perspective will enhance the explanation for variations in students’ attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge about environmental problems and issues. Social -Psychological Perspective The disciplines of sociology and psychology recognize the importance of one’s culture in the acquisition of knowledge and the shaping of attitudes and 42 43 beliefs (Hollander, 1971; Knutson, 1965; Hilgard, 1951). The term, ”culture" refers to a group’s design for living (Hollander, 1971). That is, it is a learned and shared set of socially transmitted assumptions about the nature of the physical and social world, the goals of life, and the appropriate means for achieving them (Knutson, 1965). From one’s own culture an individual acquires norms, values, beliefs, attitudes and language. Through language individuals give meaning to objects and situations and pass these meanings on to other members of their society. The definition that individuals inoculate through experience enables them to maintain an awareness of environmental elements and to relate to those aspects based on value orientations (Hollander, 1971). The capacity of individuals to react to situations is determined by the ”shared content of the psychological field that defines and guides experience and action" (Hollander, 1971, p.313). Key psychological processes involved in the internalization of culture include memory, imagination, and recall (Knutson, 1965). Those psychological processes related to decision making and the action orientation of individuals are perception, cognition, and attitude formation (Shibutani, 1955). Although there is considerable disagreement among psychologists over the innateness of perception, there is general agreement that individuals organize perceptions and the meanings assigned to them by learning in association with other individuals within a sociocultural context (Hilgard, 1951). Perceptual mechanisms provide individuals with what Knutson (1965) describes as a "filtering out" process: a person’s perceptual mechanisms are the 44 sole means for maintaining an awareness of himself, or herself, other people, and other things. They serve in filtering out of the environment things that may be of immediate or potential significance, organizing them in meaningful ways, and bringing them into attention so that they may be used in guiding future actions. Solley and Murphy (1960) have identified the components of the perceptual process as ”expectancy, attending, reception, trial and check, autonomic and proprioceptive arousal, and the final structured perception" (p.23). Solley and Murphy describe the "perceptual act” in which individuals acquire meaning as the individual scans the environment, searches for meaning, organizes the sense data directly received by the sense receptors into form and shape, determines what to attend and what to ignore, determines the degrees of significance between alternative possible meanings, decides which of many sense modalities to give primary attention, integrates with the memory traces of the past experience, orientates in terms of expectations, and predicts the action that offers the highest probability of success for the individual (Solley and Murphy, 1960). A second major psychological process relative to decision making and the action orientation of individuals is that of cognition. Some psychologists do not differentiate between perception and cognition. For example, Knutson (1965), recognizes that perception "involves the harmonious functioning of emotional and motivation, sensory and cognitive efforts" (p.47). Other psychologists, however, view cognition as a mediator of behavior, i.e., variables that intervene between the stimulus and the response (Hollander, 1971). 45 Cognition is based on information and beliefs relative to an individual’s culture. Knutson (1965) notes that an individual’s response to a situation is based upon a selective process between ”subjective and objective facts.” Knutson describes this process as follows. Each person perceives, knows, and experiences subjective facts in all areas in which objective facts exist. They may concern physical, biological, or social aspects of the environment, both concrete and abstract, and may, like objective facts, be concerned with the past, present or future. Specifically, Knutson notes that subjective facts are concerned with "hopes, fears, expectations, values, norms, standards, goals, incentives and other variables” which serve to govern an individual’s behavior (Knutson, 1965). The third psychological process influencing a person’s behavior is attitude formation. Attitude formation is closely related to the process of perception. Watson (1959) argues that attitudes are built into the process of perception. They also involve the sensory mechanism expressed in terms of feelings or values. In addition, attitudes may be rational and/or logical. But, beneath superficial expressions, they may be based on the emotional aspects of situations (Watson, 1959). The development of attitudes has been described by Watson (1959) as flowing from structure (S) to process (P) to attitude (A). In Watson’s view, structure is the social system consisting of "interrelated positions,” and for each position there is a set of expected behaviors governed by norms. The expected behavior is defined as roles characterized by certain obligations and privileges. 46 Environmental Attitude Formation Since environmental attitudes are learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably toward a given issue or object in question, feelings are usually based on at least some fragmentary information (Oskamp, 1991; Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Thus, an attitude may be formed if your early experience with an issue or object elicits a favorable or unfavorable feeling about it (Oskamp, 1991). In our everyday lives, attitudes play a major role in affecting our behavior. Attitudes influence our decisions and the positions we take toward public issues, such as energy conservation, global warming, land use, recycling and hazardous waste. Among the many factors affecting attitude formation, social psychologist emphasize the effect that the family has on a child’s early developmental years, educational influences and peer-group pressures. Others stress the influence of mass media, particularly television (Oskamp, 1991; Ajzen, 1988; Zimbardo and Ebbesen, 1969). Attitude formation refers to the initial change from having no attitude toward a given issue or object to having some attitude toward it, either positive, negative, or in-between (Oskamp, 1991). Very little influence of the school can be separated from the social background of the students, and very little of the influence of social background can be separated from the influence of the schools (Brookover and Erickson, 1975). Attitudes are formed through direct personal experience, parental influence, group peer pressure, and the mass media. Attitudes formed through direct personal experience with the attitude issue 47 or object are generally stronger than those formed through indirect or vicarious experience (Fazio, 1988). Salient incidents and repeated exposure are the two most fundamental ways in which attitudes are formed through direct personal experience. Salient incidents, particularly traumatic or frightening ones, are likely to remain very powerful in determining the person’s attitude for a long time (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Another way attitudes are formed is through repeated exposure to an object (person or idea) over time (Oskamp, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). This effect operates most strongly during the first few exposures, but attitudes continue to increase in favorability at a gradually slower rate over any number of exposures (Wilson, 1979; Zajonc, 1980). Parental influence over a child’s attitudes is so great that some authors have referred to childhood as a "total institution" (Oskamp, 1991). Children model themselves after adults; they adopt the attitudes and values of the adult world (Altman and Wohlwill, 1978). According to Oskamp (1991), a child’s attitude is largely shaped by its own experience with the world, but much of this experience comprises the teachings and modeling of parental attitudes. Other studies have found that an adult’s interaction with their children in the home is the major determinant of individual characteristics (attitudes and beliefs), rather than the economic level of the parents, their level of education, or other status characteristics (Bloom, 1964; Dave, 1963; Hanson, 1972; Wolf, 1966). The success or lack of success in a school subject eventually is a major force in determining how the student feels (attitudes) about the subject and his or her desire to learn 48 more about the subject (e.g., environmental issues) (Bloom, 1976). Following parental influence and the school, a child’s peer group is the next major determinant in the formation of attitudes (Oskamp, 1991). Peer groups at school have the most potent influence on a child’s day-to-day behavior and formation of attitudes (e.g., how much time they spend on homework, whether they enjoy coming to school each day, and how they behave in the classroom) (Steinberg et al., 1992). Where peer-group norms coincide with parental or school standards, existing attitudes may be strengthened, but peers also frequently introduce negative and/or alternative attitudes that conflict with both the parents’ and school’s position on the issue (e.g., environmental attitudes) (Y ouniss, 1980). The mass media (newspapers, magazines, books, movies, radio, and television) is also an important factor in attitude formation. Many of our attitudes are formed neither from direct experience with the object of the attitude nor by way of some inference process. Instead, information about some issue or object is provided by an outside source, the media. Many factors determine the degree to which information will be accepted when provided by an outside force. By age ten, TV and school has replaced the family as the most frequently mentioned sources of children’s information; attention to news media then becomes the most important influence on children’s socialization to public issues (e.g., environmental issues) (Conway, Wyckoff, Feldbaum, and Ahem, 1981; Garramone and Atkin, 1986). Exposure to outside sources of information will 49 usually lead to the formation of a descriptive attitude toward the issue or object. The particular source of influence for attitude formation varies from person to person and the learning experience depends on the context of the person’s social structure: family, class, peer group, ethnic group, religious and political groups, and country (Rokeach, 1968). Social-Psychological Basis of Environmental Knowing Many social-psychological theories have been advanced to explain the basis of environmental knowing. These theories have resulted in many conflicting viewpoints and for this study two theories have been identified and examined. The two theories used most by researchers to explain the social-psychological basis of environmental knowledge, attitudes and beliefs held by children and adolescents are the social learning theory and the cognitive dissonance theory (Chawla, 1988; Muuss, 1982; Davis, 1983; Baum et al., 1985). The development of environmental cognition is at the base of all theories presented in this literature review. It is clear that a host of factors affect development of environmental cognition. "Some prominent possibilities include (1) the child’s specific history of environmental behavior, activity patterns, and experience; (2) his or her future goals and expectations; (3) needs and values; (4) personality structure; (5) the structure of the prevailing socioculture and physical environment; (6) population changes; (7) changes in technology; (8) prevailing public attitudes and values toward the environment; (9) economic and class 50 structure; (10) life style; (11) social group membership and reference groups; (12) stage in life cycle, level of general cognitive development, and spatial relations ability; and (13) cultural and religious norms, rules, values, and beliefs; and so on" (Moore and Golledge, 1976, p. 142). Environmental knowing is the result of dynamic interaction between what a person brings to the situation and demands made on the person by the situation. There are many theories that treat cognition as a function primarily or entirely of contingencies from the immediate human environment, without ever considering the roles of the physical environment, cultural factors, personality, values, or intentions (Moore and Golledge, 1976). The Social learning theory considers the role of the physical and human environments, in environmental knowing. Humans are social animals, and much of the information and skills we acquire are through obscuring, interpreting, and responding in social settings, and through receiving reinforcements (Davis, 1983). Learning by observing and imitating others is a very efficient method of learning and an effective method for teaching (Davis, 1983). Children learn from the people around them and the interaction they have with the physical environment. The educational implication for the social learning theory is that children and adolescents learn most complex skills more effectively by imitating the behavior of their parents, teachers, and peers rather than by reinforcement, trial and error, and, in certain situations, even better than by verbal instruction (Muuss, 1982). For children, adults often serve as more powerful models than peers, since they 51 have status, prestige, competence, and power. However, "with adolescents, peer group members do serve as models and may have greater influence on imitative behavior than parents and teachers, partly because they share common characteristics, partly because the peer group has control over the rewards that matters to adolescents” (Muuss, 1982, p. 290). The social learning theory offers an explanation for the way that environmental knowing (attitudes, beliefs and knowledge) can occur and provides an understanding for the social-psychological basis of their cognition. The cognitive dissonance theory is based upon the assumption that people want to be consistent in their beliefs, attitudes, values, and behavior (Baum et al., 1985). This theory strongly supports the fact that human beings cannot tolerate inconsistency and will try to eliminate or reduce it (Zimbardo, 1969). The word "cognitive” in this theory reflects cognition and pieces of knowledge people have about themselves and their behavior. According to this theory, inconsistencies between two cognitive elements-~whether they represent knowledge, information, attitudes, or beliefs--produce dissonance (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). According to this theory, the inconsistency between the two elements makes humans feel uncomfortable and they do what it takes to get rid of that unpleasant feeling. They may change beliefs, attitudes and behavior in an attempt to make themselves feel better. The cognitive dissonance theory has three basic principles: ”(1) Dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate a person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance . . . [and to] avoid situations and 52 information that would likely increase the dissonance; (2) The magnitude of the dissonance (or consonance) increases as the importance or value of the elements increases; and (3) The strength of the pressure to reduce dissonance depends on the magnitude of the dissonance” (Festinger, 1957, pp.3 & 18). For example, a worker in the automobile industry might have the following cognition about himself, "I am working in the auto industry to produce automobiles." Suppose this worker also knows automobiles pollute, and he or she is against polluting the environment; he or she would then have the opinion, "I am against the auto industry." These two cognitive elements do not follow from each other; they are dissonant. If the worker is against pollution, he or she feels they should not be working in it. Faced with such a dissonant situation, if the elements are personally important to him or her, the individual will try to reduce the dissonance in one or more of the following ways: (1) change a cognition about the behavior, for instance by giving up working in the auto industry, (2) change a cognition about the environment, for instance by deciding that automobiles are not harmful to the environment; or (3) by adding new cognition that reduces the dissonance. With respect to the last option he or she might conclude, ”I believe the evidence linking the automobile industry to pollution is inconclusive and there are no great dangers to the environment.” The theorist believes that consistency fulfills important needs in a person’s life and is essential for a person’s effective functioning in the world (Ajzen, 1988). There are many other theories used for explaining the social-psychological 53 basis of environmental knowing (attitudes, beliefs and knowledge). These theories include the self-perception theory, the theory of classical conditioning, and operant conditioning theory. Bem’s (1970) self-perception theory suggests that we often form attitudes and beliefs about something or someone based on observations of our own behavior. For example, if we enjoy country living, we would decide we must like the country setting and what it has to offer; thus we would avoid the city and assume that we must dislike the city. Bem’s theory is interesting because it suggests that behavior can cause the development of attitudes, rather than the more common assumption that attitudes guide behavior (Baum et al., 1985). The classical conditioning theory suggests that associations are formed between stimuli that continually occur together (Baum et al., 1985). For example, suppose you have no particular attitude toward the environment (neutral stimulus), but you hate the fact that jobs are being lost due to stringent environmental laws. The repeated pairing of the environment with job loss would cause you to develop a very negative attitude toward the environment. The operant conditioning theory has also been used to explain social- psychological basis of environmental knowing. The operant conditioning theory suggests that because incentives for holding an attitude or belief are stronger than those for not holding it, the attitude or belief will be stronger (Baum, et al., 1985). For example, if maintaining certain attitudes or beliefs is rewarded by bringing about social approval or desired group membership, these attitudes or beliefs will be strengthened (Baum, et al., 1985). 54 Currently, there is a paucity of reported research explicitly dealing with high school students’ knowledge level and attitudes toward a specific environmental issue. On the other hand, there is a growing body of literature that invites efforts aimed at theory development on the attitudes and behavior of students toward the environment. Much of what is known about the social- psychological aspects of environmental problems and issues are based predominantly on studies of adults (over 17 years of age). However, there are a few empirical studies that examine differences in high school students’ beliefs, knowledge and attitudes regarding the environment. It is believed that the body of theory characterizing empirical studies provides a basis for the deduction of hypotheses to be presented for testing in this dissertation. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The purpose of this chapter is to present the methods used to achieve the objectives of the study, i.e., (1) to assess the attitudes twelfth grade students hold toward environmental issues; (2) to assess twelfth grade students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility: conservation, management and protection; (3) to assess how knowledgeable twelfth grade students are about global warming; and (4) to assess if regionally separated twelfth grade students differ in environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. Included in this chapter is a description of the population being studied, the method of sample selection, a description of the instrument and procedures used to obtain the data and a review of procedures used for data analysis. Research Strategy The choice of methodology for this study was governed by the axiom that the research must fit the research questions. According to Goetz and LeCompte (1984, p. ix) and Kantor, Kirby, and Goetz (1981, p.295), decisions on whether to use quantitative or qualitative methodologies should be based on the goals of the research. 55 56 The review of the literature in Chapters II and III revealed that a variety of factors can or do affect a persons’ relationship with the environment. Thus, many theories have been developed and presented over the past two decades in an attempt to account for these differences. The review of the literature revealed that most studies have used one form of data collection, and their results have been inconsistent. Therefore, both quantitative and qualitative strategies, were used in this study to gather data. This methodology, which, according to Goetz and LeCompte (1984), has become more prevalent and is a sound approach to research. They state, ”If a theory is valid, it should be amenable to substantiation through a variety of data-collection strategies. Although many theories are developed primarily through a single approach to data collection, they are generally enriched by broadening the data-collection base” (p.59). While the quantitative portion of the study is concerned with reliability or the replicability of the findings, the qualitative portion is focused on discovering the meaning of the data and providing a valid interpretation (Rist, 1977, p.45). As Rist explains, qualitative methods enable the researcher ”to get close to the data, to develop an empathetic understanding of the observed, to be able to interpret and describe the construction of reality as seen by the subjects, . . ." (Rist, p.45). By talking to the students, the researcher could find out what they meant by their answers in the questionnaire. In other words, the researcher could learn the participants’ meaning from their perspective rather than simply imposing a perspective on the data. 57 The use of both quantitative and qualitative methods enabled the researcher to cross-check the data gathered through one means with data gathered through another means, a process called triangulation. Another possible advantage of the use of both methodologies according to Rist (1977) is the possibility that, through the juxtaposition of the two, the researcher will "see new and different things” (p.48). The survey research sought not only a description of current attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of the students, but also explored the relationships of independent variables: gender, race, college education of parents, residence, and observation of environmental problems. These relationships were explored further by using focus groups that sought to explain or account for gaps or questions in the survey results. Though focus groups can be self-contained, their results can also be combined with other means of results from earlier studies (Morgan, 1988). Focus groups can be used as a follow-up to data collection, pursuing "exploratory" aspects of the analysis. The goal is to strengthen the total research project through the triangulation of focus groups and survey design. The combination of methodologies can strengthen a study design (Patton, 1982). Focus groups come with strengths and weaknesses. The strengths of focus groups are that they are easy to conduct, they can explore topics and generate hypotheses, and it is possible to collect data from group interaction. The weaknesses of focus groups are uncertainty about the accuracy of what the 58 participants say, lessened control of the researcher over the data generated, and uncertainty about whether the information mirrors individual behavior (Morgan, 1988). Instrument Development For the attainment of the objectives of this research it was essential, for reasons of relevance and validity, to obtain ideas for instrument development from various sources. Preparatory to the construction of the survey instrument, an extensive examination of the environmental literature was conducted to identify the most prevalent and/or pressing environmental and global warming issues affecting the nation. From the literature review, the main global warming concerns were identified, as well as the most important environmental issues facing this population. From these issues the items in the questionnaire were developed. The Questionnaire Four types of questionnaire items were constructed: (1) items that measure environmental attitudes; (2) items that measure knowledge of global warming; (3) items that measure beliefs of environmental responsibility: conservation, management and protection; and (4) demographic items. The attitude items were intended to measure what people say should be. The knowledge items were intended to measure awareness of the existence or occurrence of the global 59 warming phenomena, problems, and issues of concern. The belief items were constructed to measure what people think is true or false. The first draft questionnaire consisted of 12 attitude items, 17 knowledge items, 5 belief items, and 18 demographic items. Questionnaire Pilot Study The questionnaire was refined through a pilot study. The objectives of the pilot study were: to find out potential problems that could occur in the survey process; to learn the amount of time needed to respond to the instrument; and to observe the reactions of the students. The questionnaire was administered to three senior class homerooms (Sexton High School) in Lansing, Michigan. The students were instructed to ask for clarification of terms and phrases not familiar to them. Any request for clarification helped to detect which items needed to be revised. Final Instrument An item analysis made on the pilot questionnaire resulted in the rejection of two attitude items and two knowledge items that were found difficult. All belief items were retained, but many of them were revised, in light of the items that presented a problem to the respondents during the pilot study. The final questionnaire consisted of 10 attitude items, 15 knowledge items, 5 belief items, and 18 demographic items (see Appendix A). 60 The Focus Group The first draft of focus group questions consisted of 20 items, each of which was made up of a group of related questions centered on three themes: (1) responsibility; (2) the role of government in environmental protection; and (3) willingness to sacrifice. The items included the same issues and problems identified from the literature review as described earlier. The intention of the focus group was to probe into the perceptions, opinions, feelings, and values of the students to verify and supplement answers obtained through the questionnaire. The focus groups also allowed the students to freely express themselves, articulate their knowledge of environmental issues and their level of comprehension. Additionally, this process revealed their belief of responsibility by allowing the students to openly state what he or she was willing or not willing to do to protect the environment, without being forced into selecting from a set of prepared answers. Pilot Study of Focus Group According to Morgan (1988) a focus group consisting of five or six individuals provides the basis for a successful focus group session, therefore a group was developed using five senior students. They were asked to respond to 20 open-ended questions. Participants in the pilot study revealed that the process was too long and that some questions were repetitive. Considering their comments, the number of open-ended questions was reduced from twenty to eight 61 questions (see Appendix B). Validity and Reliability of the Instruments A step toward content validity was sought by reviewing the current environmental literature for the most pressing and urgent issues relating to global warming and other prevalent environmental issues. This review gave the assurance that the topics included in the instruments concerned relevant issues that pertain to high school students. Additionally, the instruments were submitted for review by two science education specialists, three high school teachers and researchers who had instrument development experience. The reliability of an instrument is its ability to obtain the same results if administered to the same group (sample) on two different occasions. In other words, it is the internal consistency between two measures of the same thing. A measure of stability is often called a test-retest estimate of reliability. It is obtained by administering a test to a group of persons, and then readministering the same test to the same group later, and correlating the two sets of scores (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1984). To determine questionnaire reliability, the researcher used a test-retest measure of stability (three week intervals, 90 respondents, all twelfth grade students) which gave the following Pearson r": 0.80 for attitude section, 0.85 for knowledge section, and 0.64 for the belief section. Based on the results, one can conclude that the questionnaire has a sufficient level of reliability to make it acceptable for this study. 62 University Committee on Human Subjects Approval by University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects for use of participants in the Assessment of Attitudes, Beliefs, and Knowledge of Global Warming: A Comparison Between Twelfth Grade Students in Lansing, Michigan and Valdosta, Georgia was granted on April 20, 1995. The authorization code issued was IRB #95-153. Modifications to the instruments were organizational and not substantial. They did not require further authorization by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects. Research Hypotheses: H1: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly more positive attitudes toward the environment than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H2: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly more knowledge of Global Warming than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H3: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly stronger beliefs of environmental responsibility than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H4: There will be a significant difference in the students’ attitudes toward the environment between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of the demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. H5: There will be a significant difference in the students’ knowledge of Global Warming between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of the demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are 63 controlled. H6: There will be a significant difference in the students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of the demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. H7: There will be a significant positive relationship among the students’ attitudes toward the environment, their beliefs of responsibility and knowledge of global warming. Data Collection The questionnaire was administered to the research sample (which consisted of twelfth grade students living in Lansing, Michigan and Valdosta, Georgia) during April and May of 1995. Twelve hundred twenty (1220) questionnaires were distributed (603 twelfth grade students in Lansing, Michigan and 617 twelfth grade students in Valdosta, Georgia) for data collection. Seven hundred eighty-four (784) questionnaires were collected (420 Michigan students, 364 Georgia students). Two hundred thirty-one (231) questionnaires were not returned and one hundred three (103) questionnaires were voided because they were incomplete due to the failure of the students to answer the questionnaires seriously and completely. An additional one hundred two (102) questionnaires were discarded due to the length of residence in their respective regions. Those respondents living in the two regions less than twelve years were excluded from the study. That was one criterion (length of residence) set by the researcher in the sample selection procedure. Only seven hundred eighty-four (784) questionnaires of the 989 returned were used for the research sample. 64 Research Sample The subjects involved in this study were from four secondary schools, two in Lansing, Michigan and two in Valdosta, Georgia (Lowndes County). The four schools were selected using two criterions: geographic location and similarity of characteristics in both cities (i.e., school size, median income, and other social demographics) (see Appendix C). The first group consisted of 420 twelfth grade students enrolled in Everett High School (220) and Eastern High School (200) in Lansing, Michigan. The second group consisted of 364 twelfth grade students enrolled in Lowndes High School (175) and Valdosta High School (189) in Valdosta, Georgia. The total number in the research sample was seven hundred eighty-four (784). Selection of Research Sample All twelfth grade students enrolled in their respective schools were asked to participate in the study. Twelfth grade students in their respective homerooms (every student has a homeroom assignment in their respective schools) were asked to participate in the study by completing a questionnaire. The homeroom teachers administered the questionnaire to the twelfth grade students and provided them with the opportunity to complete the questionnaire. A stratified sample design was used to draw the final research sample. The subdivision of the student population by grade (i.e., twelfth) represents the first stratification. The second stratum was the subdivision of the senior student 65 population by length of residence in their respective geographic regions or states. Those students who have attended school in their respective regions (states) for twelve or more years were considered by this researcher to be most likely to provide an accurate reflection of environmental attitudes and knowledge held by those students in that region. The total collection of student questionnaires represents the second stratum used in this study. Following the analysis of the questionnaires, twelve focus groups (six groups of five or more students in each region) were developed, to discover why and how the students have formed the attitudes and beliefs they hold. The focus groups also were used to gain an understanding of where the students have obtained their knowledge of environmental issues. They were asked to participate in the focus group sessions via parental consent (see Appendix D). The students who received parental consent were then randomly selected for participation in the focus group sessions. Although anonymity was lost, the students’ names were not included in the results, thereby assuring confidentiality. Dependent Variables There were three dependent variables in this study: (1) attitudes toward environmental issues; (2) knowledge level concerning global warming and other environmental issues; and (3) beliefs of environmental responsibility: conservation, management and protection. An attitude index score was created by taking the 66 mean of the responses across the 10 attitude items (Section A of questionnaire). Similarly a belief index score was computed as the mean of the responses across five belief items (Section C of the questionnaire). The outcome on the knowledge of global warming and other environmental issues was measured as the net correct responses to the 15 factual questions. Independent Variables There were seven independent variables in this study: gender, region, race, residence, observed environmental problems, source of environmental knowledge, and college education of parents. Statistical Techniques for Quantitative Data Analysis Because the main purpose of this study was to measure the environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge of secondary school students, suitable test items were developed and/or selected from other sources within these three broad categories. The following statistical techniques were used: frequencies, analysis of variance (AN OVA), correlations, regression analysis, chi-square, and descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). Frequencies were used to assess the frequency of responses on each item and the frequency on gender, age, geographic region, and length of residence. 67 Analysis of variance (AN OVA) was used to test significance of the differences in attitudes and beliefs between the Michigan and Georgia respondents. Correlations were used to investigate the relationships that might exist between the dependent variables. Regression analysis was used to show the combined effects of a set of independent variables and the separate effects of each independent variable while controlling for the others on the attitude and belief index scores. Chi-square was used to check significance of difference of the responses on the knowledge items. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were employed to show the general perceptions of respondents on each category of the questionnaire. Results of the data analysis will be presented in Chapter V. Qualitative Data Analysis Descriptive information was gathered during the audio-taped focus group sessions. Because of the small numbers of people, it was not possible to determine whether there were patterns in the information. The audio tapes and notes of the sessions became a source of data that seemed to support what was found in the quantitative data. This information was used to describe the 68 reactions and behavior identified by the participants. It was also a narrative way to support the quantitative analysis. The focus groups provided additional insight into what the participants were thinking, how they gain knowledge, and what they feel is important. Research limitations This study has two serious limitations that affected the generalizability of the findings: (1) It is not a national sample nor is it representative of twelfth grade students in Georgia or Michigan, or representative of twelfth grade students; (2) There are advantages and disadvantages to conducting focus groups and using questionnaires. The major advantage of doing both is that surveys allow for quantification of responses, while interviews allow for the interpretation of responses. The biggest disadvantage is that the two methods are mutually contaminating. Because of the limited number of participants in this part of the study, it was important not to make survey-fike interpretations with the focus group information (Morgan, 1988). CHAPTER V PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The purpose of this chapter is to present and analyze data concerning the hypotheses, and exploratory findings of the students’ environmental attitudes, level of global warming knowledge, and beliefs of environmental responsibility. Results are presented by giving a statistical analysis of the quantitative data and a descriptive analyses of the qualitative data. Both quantitative and qualitative data are reported in an attempt to give an objective and rich description of the research findings. The research sample responding to the questionnaire consisted of two groups-high school seniors in Valdosta, Georgia (Lowndes County) and high school seniors in Lansing, Michigan (Ingham County). In addition, twelve focus group sessions were conducted using students in Georgia and Michigan. The researcher used one or more techniques to achieve the objectives of the study or to test the research hypotheses. These techniques are: 1. Mean and standard deviation 2. Analysis of Variance (AN OVA) 3. Frequencies and percentages 4. Multiple regression analysis 5. Correlations 69 70 6. Chi-square 7. Focus groups Accordingly, the first section of this chapter provides an overview of sample characteristics, and the second part is concerned with the hypotheses. Demographic Characteristics Demographic information was collected on all subjects who participated in the survey. One purpose for the collection of this data was to provide an overview of the population that participated in the research project. Data were also collected to analyze differences between students and the regions in which they live. Demographic information from the focus group sessions will be presented in the qualitative data section of this chapter. Distribution of demographic characteristics by region is shown in Table 5.1. Age/Gender The students’ ages ranged from 14 to 19. Most students 455 (58%) were 18 years old. The majority of the students 399 (50.9%) were male. Race Most students 499 (63.6%) were white; one hundred seventy-one (21.8%) were African American. Hispanics constituted 57 (7.3%) of the students while 42 71 (5.4%) were Asian. Native Americans and others constituted 15 (1.9%) of the students. Residence Location The majority of the students, 413 (63.9%) were urban residents. Two hundred eighteen (19.4%) were rural residents. Suburban residents constituted 153 (16.7%) of the students. College Education of Parents One-hundred eight (108) or 33% of Georgia’s students indicated that both parents had attended college. Ninety-five (95) or 29% indicated that one parent had attended college and 122 (38%) indicated that their parents did not attend college. One-hundred twenty (120) or 31% of the Michigan students indicated that both of their parents had attended college, while 121 (32%) of the students indicated that one parent had attended college. One-hundred forty (140) or 37% indicated that their parents did not attend college. 72 TABLE 5.1 Respondent Demographic Characteristics by Region GEORGIA MICHIGAN DEMOGRAPHIC LEVEL NUMBER PERCENT NUMBER PERCENT l CHARACTERISTICS GENDER MAIE 174 48 225 54 FEMAIB 190 52 195 46 RACE WHITE 249 685 250 59.6 AFRICAN AMERICAN 87 23.9 84 20.0 HISPANIC 4 1.1 53 12.6 NATIVE AMERICAN 2 0.5 3 0.7 ASIAN 12 33 30 7.1 OTHER 10 2.7 - - SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE 34011811] 80 22 73 17 SOCIAL SCIHTCE MATH] SCIETCE 248 69 293 70 PHYSICAL -1 ELBCITVFJ OTHEI 36 10 54 13 RESIDENCE RURAL 181 50 37 9 URBAN 77 21 336 80 SUBURBAN 106 29 47 11 OBSERVED MOWAL YB 19S 54 276 66 PROBLEM IN CITY NO 86 24 77 18 DON'T KNOW 83 23 67 16 . COLLEGE EDUCATION OF BOTH PARBIT'S 108 33 120 31 PARENTS ONE PARENT 95 29 121 32 * NONE 122 38 140 37 Total Sample Size - 784 (Georgia-364 Michigan-420) Source of Knowledge The majority of the Georgia students, 248 (69%), indicated Math and Science as the subject area that provided most of their environmental knowledge, while eighty (80) or 22% indicated English and Social Science. This was followed by 36 (10%) who indicated Physical Education/Electives/Other (work study program, etc.) as the subject area that provided them with most of their environmental knowledge. 7 3 Two-hundred ninety-three (293) or 70% of the Michigan students indicated Math and Science as the subject area that provided most of their environmental knowledge, while seventy-three (73) or 17% indicated English/Social Science. Fifty-four (54) or 13% of the students indicated Physical Education/Electives/ Other (co-op program) as the subject area that provided most of their environmental knowledge (see Table 5.1). Observed Environmental Problem In City The majority of the Georgia students 195 (54%) observed environmental problems in their city. Eighty-six (24%) indicated they did not observe any environmental problems and 83 (23%) reported they did not know if they had observed any environmental problems. Two-hundred seventy-six 276 (66%) of the Michigan students reported they had observed environmental problems in their city, while 77 (18%) indicated they had not observed any environmental problems. Sixty-seven 67 (16%) did not know if they had observed any environmental problems in their city (see Table 5.1). Quantitative Data Analysis Environmental attitudes were measured through a ten-item scale constructed by the researcher using a Likert-type response pattern of strongly agree (SA), agree (A), undecided (UD), disagree (DA), and strongly disagree (SDA). Responses were coded from one to five with five assigned as strongly 74 agree (or strong positive representing the high end of the scale) and one assigned as strongly disagree (or strong negative at the low end of the scale). The respondents’ mean score ranged from 2.94 to 4.36. The attitude section of the questionnaire consisted of 10 items (1-10) (see Appendix A). The reliability of the attitude scale was estimated using coefficient alpha (Cronbach). The 10 item measure exhibited an alpha value of 0.77 (see Appendix E). Knowledge level concerning global warming and other environmental issues was the second dependent variable. Knowledge levels were measured through a fifteen item scale constructed by the researcher using a true, false, and don’t know response pattern. The responses were then converted into percent correct, incorrect and don’t know, to present the results in this chapter. Chi-square was used to analyze differences between students’ responses on global warming knowledge items. The knowledge section of the questionnaire consisted of 15 items (1-15) (see Appendix A). The reliability of the knowledge scale was estimated using coefficient alpha (Cronbach). The 15 item measure exhibited an alpha value of 0.80 (see Appendix E). Finally, the beliefs of the students’ environmental responsibility were researched using a five-item scale constructed by the researcher, using a Likert- type response pattern of strongly agree (SA), agree (A), Undecided (UD), disagree (DA), and strongly disagree (SDA). Responses were coded from one to five with five assigned to strongly agree (representing the high end of the scale) and one assigned to strongly disagree at the low end of the scale. The 75 respondents mean score ranged fi'om 2.48 to 3.89. The belief section of the questionnaire consists of five items (1-5) (see Appendix A). The reliability of the belief scale was estimated using coefficient alpha (Cronbach). The five item measure exhibited the following alpha value 0.57 (see Appendix E). III: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have a significantly more positive attitude toward the environment than students in Valdosta, Georgia. Oneway analysis of variance (AN OVA) was used to test the first hypothesis, which sought the difference between the students’ region and students’ attitudes toward the environment. Based on the overall attitude rating, the hypothesis was not supported by the data. Although both groups showed an overall positive attitude toward the environment, Georgia respondents (mean = 3.91) showed significantly more positive attitude (F =26.52, P <0.01) toward the environment than Michigan respondents (mean = 3.71). Results of Individual Attitude Items Table 5.2 presents the AN OVA results of the ten attitude items for Georgia and Michigan respondents. From this table it is shown that of the ten items used to record the students’ environmental attitudes, Michigan respondents (mean = 3.85) were slightly but not significantly more positive than Georgia respondents (mean = 3.80) on the item: "The media should do a better job of keeping people informed about environmental problems." With regard to holding industry responsible for their contribution to our 76 environmental problems, Georgia’s respondents showed a significantly more positive attitude than Michigan respondents (F =8.13, P <0.01). The mean attitude rating for Michigan respondents toward this item was also generally high. The mean values were 4.36 and 4.19 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Georgia respondents (mean = 4.27) revealed a significantly more positive attitude toward demanding government to protect the environment (F = 13.38, P <0.01). Michigan’s respondents also had positive attitudes, which were indicated by a mean value of 4.04. With regard to considering global warming one of the most serious problems facing the world, Georgia’s respondents showed significantly more positive attitudes than the Michigan respondents (F = 13.38, P <0.01). The mean values were 3.87 and 3.61 for the Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Georgia respondents were significantly more positive than Michigan respondents when asked if water pollution should be considered one of the most serious environmental problems facing the U.S. (F= 17.21, P <0.01). The mean values were 4.21 and 3.94 for the Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. With regards to protecting endangered species at the expense of economic growth, Georgia’s respondents showed a significantly more positive attitude than Michigan respondents (F=24.81, P <0.01). The mean values were 4.00 and 3.62 for the Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. 77 TABLE 5.2 Environmental Attitudes of High School Students in Georgia and Michigan T F P A'rrrrvnr: ITEMS GROUP N MEAN sn VALUE VALUE The media should do a better job of keeping me GA 364 3.80 .78 informed about environmental problems. MI 420 3.85 .92 5899 .4427 Industry should be held responsible for their GA 364 4.36 .79 contn'bution to our environmental problems. MI 420 4.19 .89 8.130 .0045“ U.S. citizens must demand that the GA 364 4.27 .77 government protect the environment. MI 420 4.04 .96 13.38 mos" Global warming should be considered one of the GA 364 3.87 .96 most serious problems facing the world. MI 420 3.61 1.06 13.24 .0003“ Water pollution should be considered one of the most serious environmental problems facing the GA 364 4.21 .80 U.S. MI 420 3.94 .98 17.21 .0000” Endangered species should be protected, even at GA 364 4.00 .94 the expense of economic growth. MI 420 3.62 1.12 24.81 .0000” Stricter laws should be placed on contributors to GA 364 3.97 .81 global warming. MI 420 3.80 .95 6.57 .0105‘ The students at this high school should do GA 364 3.90 .87 something to protect the environment. MI 420 3.82 .93 151 .2196 It should be more important to protect the GA 364 3.57 .95 environment than it is to produce energy. MI 420 3.32 .97 13.56 .0002" We should be willing to pay for environmental GA 364 3.13 1.07 protection, even if it requires a reduction in MI 420 2.94 1.03 6.68 .0099” spending on social issues (crime, health, etc). ENTIRE SCAIE ITEMS 1 - 10 GA 364 3.91 51 MI 420 3.71 53 2652 .0000" W = ost = 081 we Total Sample Size - 784 Significant at 0.01 level ” Significant at 0.05 level ‘ Georgia respondents (mean=3.97) revealed a significantly more positive attitude toward stricter laws being placed on contributors to global warming (F=6.57, P <0.05). Michigan respondents also had positive attitudes, which were indicated by a mean value of 3.80. 78 When asked if the students at this high school should do something to protect the environment, both Georgia respondents and Michigan respondents revealed positive attitudes. The mean values were 3.90 and 3.82 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Georgia respondents (mean=357) were slightly more positive than Michigan respondents (mean=3.32) on the item: ”It should be more important to protect the environment than it is to produce energy," (F=13.56, P <0.01). Georgia respondents were positive (neutral to positive) (mean=3.13) toward considering the reduction of spending on social issues (crime, health, etc.) for the sake of environmental protection (F=6.68, P <0.01). Michigan respondents revealed negative to neutral attitudes, which were indicated by a mean value of 2.94. H2: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have more knowledge of Global Warming than students in Valdosta, Georgia. Chi-square was used to test the second hypothesis, which sought the difference between the students’ region and students’ knowledge of global warming. Based on the net percent correct, Georgia respondents were significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents (F= 10.32, P <0.01). The overall means for the net percent correct were 18.08 and 13.21 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Consequently, the hypothesis can be rejected. Results of Individual Knowledge Items Table 5.3 presents the respondents’ responses as percent correct, incorrect 79 and don’t know for the Georgia and the Michigan respondents. In addition to the presentation of the results in precentages, the Chi-square results for the fifteen knowledge items for Georgia and Michigan respondents are presented in Table 5.4. Ten of the fifteen items listed in the knowledge section of the questionnaire were statistically significant. In Table 5.4 it is shown that Georgia respondents were statistically more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents on eight of ten items. The ten significant items will be presented in this section. Georgia respondents were significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents when asked if acid rain is polluted rain that harms lakes, land, and kills vegetation (x2 =25.83, P <0.01). In Table 5.4 it is shown that 89% of the Georgia respondents answered this item correctly, while 75% of the Michigan respondents answered the item correctly. The majority of the students answered incorrectly that carbon monoxide was not a major contributor to global warming, only 15% of Georgia respondents and 11% of Michigan respondents correctly answered this item. This item was significant and found Georgia respondents more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents (x2 =13.16, P <0.01). Forty-seven percent (47%) of Georgia respondents knew that the sea level could rise due to global warming, while only 37% of Michigan students responded to this item correctly. This item was significant and found Georgia respondents more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents (x2 =8.26, P<0.05). 8 0 TABLE 5.3 Percent Responses to the Knowledge Issues by Region GEORGIA KNOWLEDGE OF ISSUES CORRECT INCORRECT DON’T KNOW CORRECT MICHIGAN — INCORRECT DON'T KNOW LoveCanal'usplaceinNewYork thstwasusedasstoxicwaste dump before it was developed into anamusementparki' 16.0 12.0 730 21.0 11.0 67.0 Acidrainispoliutedrainthat harmslakes,land,andkills vegetation.’T 89.0 6.0 5.0 75.0 14.0 11.0 Carbon monoxide is the major contributor to the global warming trend. 1? 15.0 68.0 18.0 11.0 61.0 28.0 Thesealevelcouldrisedueto globalwarming.’T 47.0 17.0 36.0 37.0 21.0 42.0 Scientist have predicted that fires willstartassresultofglobai warming. 1? 13.0 50.0 37.0 20.0 39.0 41.0 It is predicted that global warming willcsusesomefloodingoflow- lyingcoastalareasfl‘ 440 12.0 44.0 39.0 21.0 41.0 Some species could become extinct due to global warming. T‘ 77.0 8.0 16.0 62.0 13.0 25.0 Global warming could cause the sun to shine brighter and hotter. F 21.0 57.0 22.0 30.0 45.0 25.0 Scientist have predicted that global warming will cause agriculture yields to change. 1‘ 66.0 9.0 25.0 50.0 13.0 36.0 Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) use is currently restricted in the U.S. T' 23.0 26.0 51.0 26.0 22.0 51.0 Deforestation is a major source of carbon dioxide emissions and accounts for about 90% of the global warming trend. F 16.0 31.0 54.0 17.0 36.0 47.0 It is predicted that regional disease patterns will change due to global warming.T 47.0 11.0 42.0 36.0 15.0 49.0 Methane and oxygen are gases that contribute to global warming. 1? 31.0 30.0 39.0 30.0 30.0 40.0 TheUSproducesmoreoiithanit irnports.F 47.0 18.0 35.0 47.0 21.0 32.0 Planting trees is a good way to combat global warming. '1‘ o pe rzle- rgla- 79.0 6.0 16.0 68.0 mm? 8.0 240 8 1 TABLE 5.4 Chi-Square Results for the Relationship Between the Knowledge of Global Warming KNOWLEDGE ITEMS CHI-SQUARE VALUE d.f P-Value Love Canal '- a place in New York that 4.27 2 .1183 wasusedaatosiewastedumpbeforeit was developed into an amusement park. Acidrain'upollutedrainthstharmslakes, 25.83 2 .0000“ land, and kills vegetation. Carbon monoxide '- the major contributor 13.16 2 “113” to the global warming trend. Theseslevelcouldriseduetoglobal 8.26 2 .0160‘ warming. Scientist have predicted that fires will start 11.65 2 M9” as a result of global warming. It is predicted that global warming will 11.82 2 .0027” cause some flooding of low-lying coastal areas. Some species could become extinct due to 19.16 2 M0“ global warming. Global warming could cause the sun to 12.76 2 .0016” shine brighter and hotter. Scientist have predicted that global 20.46 2 M0” warming will cause agriculture yields to change. Chlorofiurocarbons (CFCs) use '3 alrrently 2.49 2 .2867 restricted in the U.S. Deforestation is s major source of carbon 3.62 2 .1636 I dioxide emissions and accounts for about 90% of the global warming trend. It is predicted that regional disease patterns 9.19 2 moo" will change due to global warming. Methane and oxygen are gases that .3019 2 .8598 contribute to global warming. The us produce. more oil than it imports. 1.09 2 .5783 I Planting trees is a good way to combat 10.85 2 N44” global warming. 0 p m a [813. , an-iiiii Significant at 0.01 level “ Signifitant at 0.05 level ‘ 82 When asked if fires will start as a result of global warming, Michigan respondents were found significantly more knowledgeable than Georgia respondents (x2 =11.65, P <0.01). Twenty percent (20%) of Michigan respondents and 13% of Georgia respondents answered this item correctly. Georgia respondents were found significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents when asked if global warming will cause some flooding of low-lying coastal areas (it2 =11.82, P <0.01). Forty-four percent (44%) of Georgia respondents and 39% of Michigan respondents answered this item correctly. Georgia respondents were found significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents on the item: "Species could become extinct due to global warming,” (Jr2 =19.16, P <0.01). Seventy-seven percent (77%) of Georgia respondents and 62% of Michigan respondents answered this item correctly. When asked if global warming could cause the sun to shine brighter and hotter, Michigan respondents were significantly more knowledgeable than Georgia respondents (x1 =12.76, P <0.01). Thirty percent (30%) of Michigan respondents and 21% of Georgia respondents answered this item correctly. Georgia respondents were found significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents on the statement that predicts global warming will cause agriculture yields to change (x2 = 20.46, P <0.01). Sixty-six percent (66%) of Georgia respondents and 50% of Michigan respondents answered this item correctly. When asked if regional disease patterns will change due to global warming, 83 Georgia respondents were significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents (x2 = 9.19, P <0.05). Forty-seven percent (47%) of Georgia respondents and 36% of Michigan respondents answered this item correctly. Georgia respondents were found significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents when asked if planting trees is a good way to combat global warming (1:2 = 10.85, P <0.01). Seventy-nine percent (79%) of Georgia respondents and 68% of Michigan respondents answered this item correctly. H3: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly more positive beliefs 1: of environmental responsibility than students in Valdosta, Georgia. Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the third hypothesis, which sought the difference between the students’ region and the students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility. Based on the overall beliefs rating, the hypothesis, was not supported by the data. Both groups showed that overall they do not have strong beliefs of responsibility. The mean values were 3.18 and 3.23 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Results of Individual Belief Items Table 5.5 presents the ANOVA results of the five belief items for Georgia and Michigan respondents. In this table it is shown that Georgia respondents (mean=3.89) have significantly stronger beliefs than Michigan respondents (mean=3.62) on the item: ”Should the U.S. government be responsible for cleaning up the environment?" (F=l4.l3, P <0.01). Michigan respondents 84 (mean=2.73) have significantly stronger beliefs than Georgia respondents (mean=2.48) on the item: "Should the U.S. government spend less of its budget on environmental protection?" (F= 10.02, P <0.01). The remaining three items were not found to be significant. TABLE 5.5 AN OVA Results for the Difference in Environmental Beliefs between Regions BELIEF lTEMS GROUP N MEAN * sn F- P- ,' VALUE VALUE } ‘ Should air pollution control GA 364 3.10 1.11 cost be reduced for the sake of .9460 .3310 economic growth? MI 420 3.18 1.07 I Should crime be considered the GA 364 3.62 1.09 I biggest problem facing the .3167 .5738 9 United States? MI 420 3.66 1.05 Should the U.S. government be GA 364 3.89 .97 responsible for cleaning up the 14.1354 .0002” .- environment? MI 420 3.62 1.00 1 Should the U.S. government GA 364 2.48 1.11 spend less of its budget on 10.0277 .0016” environmental protection? MI 420 2.73 1.09 . I Should jobs come Em and the GA 364 2.82 1.12 Y environment second? 2.0890 .1488 f L MI 420 2.94 1.16 ? OVERALL GA 364 3.18 .64 i .9934 .3192 | MI 420 3.23 .59 =2 tron rsagree = rsagree 3=Un3ecrfi 4i=Xgree g-Stro—[h‘fy—ee Total Sample Size = 784 Significant at 0.01 level ” Significant at 0.05 level " 85 114: There will be a significant difference in students’ attitudes toward the environment between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents, region) are controlled. The hierarchical regression analysis approach was used to determine the extent to which region predicts environmental attitudes of high school students, while controlling for the respondents’ demographic characteristics. The regression approach was implemented hierarchically in a two-step process. At the first stage, demographic characteristics were entered into the regression model and region was entered in the second step. Table 5.6 presents results of the regression analysis. Table 5.6 also demonstrates that demographic characteristics alone accounted for 4 percent of the variance in environmental attitudes of Georgia and Michigan high schools. By including region in the model, the proportion of variance explained increased to 7.1 percent. Region (Beta = 0.198, P < 0.05) was a significant predictor of environmental attitudes, which indicated that Georgia respondents on average were predicted to be 0.198 standard deviations more positive than Michigan respondents. Other demographic variables that were significant at stage two were Mother’s education (Beta = -0.134, P < 0.05), Race (Hispanic) (Beta = 0.296, P < 0.05) and Gender (Beta = 0.091, P < 0.05). The findings suggested that respondents, whose mothers had no college education, were on average 0.134 standard deviations more positive than those whose mothers had college education; Hispanics on average were 0.296 standard deviations more positive than non-Hispanics; and female respondents were on average -0.091 standard deviations more positive than males. 86 TABLE 5.6 Regression Results for the Prediction of Environmental Attitudes of Georgia and Michigan High School Students by Their Demographic Characteristics (1: Male, 2= Female) EDUCATION BLOCK PREDICI‘OR STANDARDIZED P-VALUE R2 REGRESSION COEFFICIENT 1 EDUCATION Mother -0.141 0.0005“ 0.040 Father 0.078 0.0538 RESIDENCE Rural 0.056 0.1405 Suburban 0.083 0.0324“ RACE White -0.029 0.7144 African American -0.101 0.3216 Hispanic 0.168 0.1929 Asian -0.001 0.9778 GENDER -0.107 .0043“ ,, Mother -0.134 0.0008“ 0.071 Father 0.078 0.0512 RESIDENCE Rural 0.001 0.9796 Suburban 0.025 0.5233 RACE White -0.115 0.1608 African American -0.173 0.0882 Hispanic 0.296 0.0228" Asian 0.037 0.5670 GENDER -0.091 0.0144“ REGION (1=GA. 0=Ml') 0.198 0.0000" iiofi Sample Srze=784 ‘Significant at 0.05 level 87 At the first stage Suburban (Beta = 0.083, P < 0.05) was a significant predictor of attitudes but ceased to be significant at the second stage (Beta = 0.025, P > 0.05). Thus, Suburban was a significant predictor of attitudes only when region was not taken into account. On the other hand, Hispanic was not significant at the lst stage (Beta = 0.168, P > 0.05) emerged as a significant predictor at the second stage (Beta = 0.296, P < 0.05). The significance of Hispanic as a predictor of attitudes indicates that when region is controlled for, Hispanics were predicted to be on average 0.296 standard deviations more positive than non- Hispanics. No other demographic characteristics were significant at the 0.05 level. Since region was a significant predictor of attitude after controlling for the respondents’ demographic characteristics. The research hypothesis was supported. H5: There will be a significant difference in students’ knowledge of Global Warming between Georgia and Michigan when the effects of the demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. To address this issue, a hierarchical regression analysis was used to determine the extent to which region predicts high school students’ knowledge of global warming, while controlling for the respondents’ demographic characteristics. Regression analysis was hierarchically implemented in a two-step process. In the first step demographic characteristics were entered into the regression model and region was entered in the second step. Table 5.7 presents results of the regression analysis. 8 8 TABLE 5.7 Regression Results for the Prediction of Knowledge Level of Georgia and Michigan High School Students by Their Demographic Characteristics BLOCK PREDICTOR STANDARDIZED REGRESSION COEFFICIENT l EDUCATION Mother 0.009 0.8062 0.047 Father 0.001 0.9628 RESIDENCE Rural 0.012 0.7467 Suburban 0.107 0.0055“ RACE White 0.253 0.0019’ African American -0.243 0.0171’ Hispanic -0.063 0.6228 Asian 0.117 0.0741 GENDER 0.064 0.0832 (1=Male, 0=Female) We Mother 0.013 0.7326 Father 0.001 0.9672 RESIDENCE Rural -0.020 0.6014 Suburban 0.073 0.0691 RACE White 0.202 0.0149“ African American 0286 0.0053“ Hispanic 0.012 0.9222 Asian 0.140 0.0327“ GENDER 0.075 0.0460" REGION (1=GA, 0=MI) 0.118 0.0043‘ Tow Sampie Srze=784 ‘Significant at 0.05 level 89 Table 5.7 indicates that demographic characteristics alone accounted for 4.7 percent of the variance in the level of global warming knowledge held by Georgia and Michigan high school respondents. By including region in the model, the proportion of variance explained increased to 5.8 percent. Region (Beta = 0.118, P < 0.05) was a significant predictor of global warming knowledge, which indicated that Georgia respondents on average were 0.118 more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents. Other demographic variables that were significant at stage two were Race (White) (Beta = 0.202, P < 0.05), African American (Beta = -0.286, P < 0.05), Asian (Beta = 0.014, P < 0.05), Gender (Beta = 0.074, P < 0.05) and Region (Beta = 0.118, P < 0.05). Thus the findings indicate that white respondents were on average 0.202 standard deviations more knowledgeable than non-White respondents; African Americans on average were -0.286 standard deviation less knowledgeable than non-African Americans; Asians on average were 0.140 standard deviations more knowledgeable than African Americans and Hispanics; and male respondents were on average 0.074 standard deviations more knowledgeable than females. No other demographic characteristics were significant at the 0.05 level. Region was a significant predictor of global warming knowledge after controlling for demographic characteristics of respondents. Thus, the research hypothesis was supported. H6: There will be a significant difference in students’ beliefs of who is responsible for environmental protection between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. 90 The extent to which region predicts the beliefs of environmental responsibility in high school students was determined using a hierarchical regression approach, while controlling for effects of their demographic characteristics. The regression approach was implemented in a two-stage process. Only demographic characteristics were entered into the regression model in the first stage and region in the second stage. Table 5.8 presents results of the regression analysis. Table 5.8 illustrates that demographic characteristics alone accounted for 6.6 percent of the variance in the beliefs of environmental responsibility in Georgia and Michigan high schools. By including region in the model, the proportion of variance explained increased to 6.7 percent. Region (Beta = 0.040, P > 0.05) was not a significant predictor of environmental beliefs of responsibility. Other demographic variables that were significant at stage two were Race (White) (Beta = -0.454, P < 0.05) and Gender (Beta = 0.090, P < 0.05). The data indicated that White respondents’ beliefs of responsibility were on average -0.454 standard deviations weaker than non-White; and male respondents’ beliefs of responsibility were on average 0.090 standard deviations stronger than females. No other demographic characteristics were significant at the 0.05 level. Region was not a significant predictor of beliefs after controlling for the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Thus, the research hypothesis was not supported. 91 TABLE 5.8 Regression Results for the Prediction of Beliefs of Responsibility of Georgia and Michigan High School Students by Their Demographic Characteristics (1=Male, 0=Fema1e) Mother BLOCK PREDICT OR STAN DARDIZED P-VALUE R2 REGRESSION COEFFICIENT 1 EDUCATION Mother 0.019 0.6238 0.066 Father 0.055 0.1677 RESIDENCE Rural -0.018 0.6285 '1 Suburban -0.048 0.2025 RACE White -0.436 0.0000‘ African American 0.190 0.0597 Hispanic 0.195 0.1258 Asian 0.112 0.0847 GENDER 0.086 0.0191" Wm=4 Father 0.1683 RESIDENCE Rural -0.029 0.4537 Suburban -0.060 0.1312 RACE White -0.454 0.0000" African American 0.175 0.0856 Hispanic 0.221 0.0894 Asian 0.120 0.0669 GENDER 0.090 0.0153“ REGION (1: GA. 0=MI) 0.040 0.3244 92 H7: There will be a significant positive relationship among students’ attitudes toward the environment, their beliefs of responsibility, and knowledge of global warming. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to test the relationship between attitudes and beliefs, attitudes and knowledge and knowledge and beliefs. The correlation matrix for this analysis is presented in Table 5.9. The results illustrate that beliefs were significant, but negatively correlated with both attitudes (r=-0.131, P <0.05) and knowledge (r=-0.258, P <0.05). Table 5.9 Matrix of Correlation Coefficients ”VARIABLES ATI‘ITUDES KNOWLEDGE BELIEFS 1.0000 ATTITUDES (784) P = . .2048 1.0000 KNOWLEDGE (784) (784) =.000 P=. -.l314 -.2579 1.0000 BELIEFS (784) (784) (784) P=.000 P=.000 P=. rmrvflircases. However, knowledge was significantly and positively related to attitudes (r=0.205, 9 3 P <0.05). Thus, the relationship between beliefs and both attitudes and knowledge did not support the hypothesis. However, the relationship between knowledge and attitudes supported the hypothesis. Focus Group Analysis Sixty-one (61) students participated in focus group sessions. Twelve sessions were held, six sessions in each state. Thirty-one (31) students in Georgia and 30 students in Michigan participated in the focus groups. Tables 5.10 and 5.11 display demographic characteristics of the focus groups held by the two regions. As shown in Table 5.10, the average size of the focus groups in Georgia was five students and the average age was 17. Most of the students (18) were female. Nineteen of the students were white, ten students were African American and two were Asian. Table 5.11 illustrates the demographic characteristics of the Michigan students. Sixteen or 51% of the participants were female. Eighteen of the students were white, 10 were African American and two were Hispanic. The average size of the focus group sessions was five students and the average age was 17 . Focus group sessions generated additional information about students’ environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. Information gained through the focus groups added to information gained from the survey. Focus group questions centered on responsibility, the role of government in environmental protection and willingness to sacrifice (See Appendix B). 94 TABLE 5.10 Demographics of Georgia Focus Groups GROUP NUMBER GENDER l 5 Females 2 5 Females African American 3 5 3 Males; 2 Females White 4 5 Males White 5 5 Males African American 6 6 Females 1AfricanAm.;3Whit '2 ' anics L—— —= II 53, HEP TABLE 5.11 Demographics of Michigan Focus Groups TEit-(iU—P— NUMBER 0mm men AGE 1 5 Females White 17 I 2 5 Males White 17-18 3 5 1 Female; 4 Males White 17 4 5 Females African American 17-18 5 5 Males African American 17 6 5 Females 2 Hispanic; 3 White 1718 1 Description of the Findings Regarding the focus group data, the use of open-ended questions in the focus groups resulted in data that formed a conversational style of narrative. Often a participant related a story or incident to explain his or her point. 95 However, the strategy used in describing data was to convey the viewpoint of the majority of participants. Therefore, the researcher decided not to include long quotations, but to provide composite statements reflecting perspectives of the participants. According to Krueger (1994) there are three models or styles for reporting focus group results. For this research the summary description model was chosen. This style of reporting begins with a summary paragraph and then includes illustrative comments. Comments selected are intended to help the reader understand the way in which respondents answered the question (Krueger, 1994, p.169). Analysis of Questions 1. Let’s talk about sources of information here in your school. Where do you go for information about the environment? Probes: What type of information did you receive? What were your impressions of the information you received? Was the information current? Was it accurate or biased? Was it practical and useful? In each focus group session, participants cited several sources of environmental information with two sources mentioned most frequently. These were their physical science classes and social science classes. Other sources 96 included the library, teachers, and vocational classes. Participants felt that the information received was accurate, practical and current to the best of their knowledge. None of the participants felt they were extremely knowledgeable about the environment, or that they sought environmental information frequently. In both regions participants revealed that their contact with environmental issues within their school was limited to what was being covered in class that day. Typical comments by these students included: Environmental issues are important and should be included in our curriculum. (Groups 1,3, Georgia; Groups 1,4, Michigan) The environmental information we received was boring and did not keep the interest of the students. (Groups 2,4, Georgia; Group 2, Michigan) Recycling is the issue discussed most frequently in my school. (Groups 2,5, Michigan) The only source of environmental information in my school is my science teacher. (Groups 4,5, Georgia; Group 2,3, Michigan) The information we received about conserving electricity during a career fair was interesting and informative. (Groups 2,6, Georgia) I don’t have time to learn about the environment, I have too many other things to worry about (getting in college, sports, boyfriends/girlfriends and work). (Groups 2,5, Georgia; Group 5, Michigan) 2. What can or should your school do to provide better quality environmental information? In each session, the participants revealed several interesting ideas on how their schools can provide better quality environmental information. Three ideas were consistently mentioned, the creation of an environmental education class, 97 environmentally related field trips, and inclusion of environmental information into current classes. Participants were candid and very comfortable in expressing their opinions about improving the quality of environmental education in their schools. Typical comments by these students included: A class that focuses on environmental issues would help students become aware of environmental issues. (Groups 1,3,5,6, Georgia; Groups 2,4,5,6, Michigan) I think the quality of environmental education could improve in this school by including interactive environmental experiments to our classes. (Groups 1,6, Georgia; Groups 1,5, Michigan) Field trips are a good way to expose students to environmental issues. (Groups 1-6, Georgia; Groups 1-6, Michigan) The creation of an environmental organization in the school could serve as a source of environmental information to the students. (Groups 3,5, Michigan) 3. What can or should the government do to provide better quality environmental protection? The most significant suggestion participants made regarding this question was that government should take a more aggressive stance toward polluters. The majority of participants reported that ”the government was too lenient and allowed big business to get away with polluting the environment." Many participants could provide lengthy explanations of why they responded this way and what they would do differently. Typical comments by these students included: The government could increase the amount of environmental education. (Groups 1,6, Georgia; Groups 4,5, Michigan) 98 Higher fines for polluters are a good way to improve the quality of environmental protection. (Groups 4,5, Georgia; Groups 2,3, Michigan) More environmental regulations would help decrease the amount of pollution currently found in the environment. (Groups 2,4,5, Georgia; Groups 2,3,5, Michigan) The government is responsible for environmental protection and should be held responsible for letting so many polluters get away with polluting the environment. (Groups 1,2,3,4,6, Georgia; Groups 1-6, Michigan) 4. If you could change one thing about the environment, what would it be? Probe: What makes this area of the environment so important to you? Most participants chose air pollution as the one thing about the environment they would change. Two other issues were mentioned almost as much as air pollution, they were water pollution and solid waste. When asked why these issues are so important to them, participants mentioned that "these issues affected everyone and our quality of life.” Typical comments by these students included: Clean air is essential for everyone and extra attention should be devoted to this issue. (Groups 2,6, Michigan) If I could change one thing about the environment it would be cleaner air, everyone has the right to breathe clean air. (Groups 1,2,4, Georgia; Groups 1,6, Michigan) Air pollution is important to me, because we have an egg-like odor in our air caused by a local paper mill company. (Groups 1-6, Georgia) 99 The environment is delicate and we don’t have a replacement for it. (Groups 1,5, Georgia; Groups 1,6, Michigan) If I could change one thing about the environment it would be to create some type of technology to reduce the amount of waste we produce. (Group 5, Georgia) Our water needs to be cleaned so we can enjoy the beaches, fishing and drinking clean water. (Groups 2,3,5, Georgia; Groups 1,2,4, Michigan) 5. To what extent do you see the media as a valuable source of environmental information? Probes: To what extent do you see your parents as a valuable source of environmental information? To what extent do you see your peers as a valuable source of environmental information? Most participants reported that the media was the best source of environmental information for students, particularly the television. Consistently, participants said "that most of their environmental knowledge comes from the television.” They reported that the ”media did a good job of informing them of the current environmental hazards [oil spills, global warming and air pollution were mentioned] and events [Earth Day]." When asked if their parents were a valuable source of environmental information, almost consistently all participants said, "no." When they were probed, the majority said, "environmental issues rarely come up at home.” Peers also were not seen as a valuable source of environmental information by most students. Some participants did mention some positive environmental experiences with peers, but did not feel they were a source of information. 100 Typical comments by these students Included: Media does a good job of keeping me informed of environmental issues and problems. (Groups l,3,4,6, Georgia; Groups 2,4,5,6, Michigan) The television is the best source of environmental information. (Groups 1,3,4,5,6, Georgia; Groups 1-6, Michigan) Parents don’t have time to discuss environmental issues. They have more important things to do when they get home from work. (Groups 2,5, Georgia; Groups 2,3, Michigan) They now have all kinds of environmental information on television (commercials, cartoons, programs and news). (Groups 2,3,5, Georgia; Groups 1,4,6, Michigan) Radio stations could do a better job of including environmental public service announcements when most students listen to the radio. (Groups 4,5, Michigan) 6. How do you feel about environmental pollution? Probes: How should we hold polluters responsible? In most of the sessions participants expressed concern and some compassion for the status of the environment. Participants were adamant that they wanted a clean environment and polluters should be held responsible. However, most participants were not willing to admit or accept any blame for their part in polluting the environment. Most participants’ responses revealed that environmental pollution is a problem, but they did not think they could do anything about it. Participants were critical of the governments’ role in protecting the environment and stated that "environmental pollution should be a higher priority among government officials." When asked how should we hold polluters 101 responsible, participants overwhelmingly suggested "stronger regulations and higher fines.” Typical comments by these students included: Environmental pollution is important and something should be done to keep the environment clean for future generations. (Groups 1,4,6, Georgia; Groups 1,2,3, Michigan) Environmental polluters should have to pay steep fines; the money then could be used for environmental cleanup. (Group 3,4,5, Georgia; Groups 2,3, Michigan) The government could create new regulations to protect the environment. (Groups 1,2, Georgia; Groups 4,6, Michigan) We as students can’t do anything to protect the environment from polluters, but the government can. (Groups 5,6, Georgia; Groups 4,5 , Michigan) If we stop allowing big companies to pollute, our environment would be clean. (Group 1, Georgia; Groups 1,5, Michigan) It cost too much to stop environmental pollution, so we must create new ways to produce what we need. (Group 3,4, Georgia; Group 2, Michigan) When we graduate from high school and get jobs, people will pay attention to what we think is important about the environment. 7. Are you willing to sacrifice some economic growth to protect endangered species? Probes: Should jobs be sacrificed for the protection of endangered species? Should all citizens make sacrifices for the environment? What should be done to get people like yourself to make sacrifices for environmental protection? 102 In all sessions, participants expressed a willingness to sacrifice some economic growth to protect endangered species. Participants stressed a desire to preserve biodiversity and the importance of this preservation effort. However, some participants expressed a concern for loss of jobs due to the protection of endangered species. These participants reported that a balance between endangered species protection and economic growth would be the best desired outcome. Most participants agreed that jobs should not be lost for the protection of endangered species. When probed the students’ ideas of economic growth did not include their lives or their parents’ lives. For example, most participants were not willing to turn down a good paying job for the protection of endangered species. However, participants did feel that all citizens should make sacrifices for the environment. Some sacrifices participants were willing to make included walking or riding a bicycle when possible, conserving electrical energy and reducing the amount of waste they create. When participants were asked what would it take to get people like themselves to make sacrifices, most participants suggested "increasing the amount of environmental education within the school." They said, "The students would then realize the importance of making sacrifices for the environment." Typical comments by these students included: Jobs are more important than endangered species and should not be sacrificed. (Groups 4,5, Georgia; Groups 1,2,3,5,6, Michigan) All citizens can play a role in protecting the environment. It just 103 depends if they think it is important enough. (Group 1, Georgia; Groups 1,4, Michigan) Endangered species are very important because they will become extinct if we don’t protect them. (Groups 1,2,6 Georgia; Group 4, Michigan) The majority of the students at this high school don’t know how important it is to protect endangered species. (Group 6, Georgia) It is only the rich who don’t want to protect endangered species so they can get richer. (Groups 2,5, Georgia; Group 6, Michigan) 8. What do you know about global warming? Probes: Will global warming affect you or your family? Where did you first hear about global warming? How serious is global warming? Do you feel you have sufficient knowledge about global warming? What is global warming? The majority of the participants had very little knowledge of global warming. All of the participants were familiar with certain aspects of global warming. For example, they related several topics such as CF Cs, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect, and carbon dioxide to global warming. None of the participants could relate global warming to their personal lives or to members of their family. All participants considered global warming a serious problem, and the majority based their decision on the amount of attention the media had given the tapic. Some participants revealed that what they had learned about global 104 warming had mostly come from the television. In every session participants were asked what is global warming and if they felt they had sufficient knowledge of global warming. A few participants did attempt to define global warming, but their definitions were limited and insufficient. Typical comments by these students included: Global warming was not taught in my school. (Groups 3,4,5, Georgia; Groups 1,2,5,6, Michigan) Global warming will not affect me or my family. (Groups 2,4,5, Georgia; Groups 1,2,3,6, Michigan) The television has provided me with the little knowledge I have about global warming. (Group 1,3,4 Michigan) Global warming is not as serious as the media makes it out to be. (Group 5, Georgia; Groups 2,3,6, Michigan) We don’t have time in school to learn about every environmental issue. (Group 3,5, Michigan) Global warming is the heating up of the atmosphere and is caused by pollution. (Group 1,4,6, Georgia) CFCS are the cause of global warming. (Groups 2,3,4, Georgia; Groups 1,4, Michigan) Scientists are going to solve the problem of global warming before it affects me or my family. (Groups 1,5, Georgia; Group 2, Michigan) The government should work harder to educate the public about global warming and do more to protect us from this environmental hazard. (Groups 3,6, Georgia; Group 2, Michigan) CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter includes a summary of the purpose, objectives and methodology of the study. This is followed by conclusions drawn from data analysis. Recommendations are then made for additional research that relates to the problem. SUMMARY Over the past two decades, no regional studies have been conducted on high school students’ attitudes, knowledge and beliefs toward a specific aspect of the environment, especially using twelfth grade students and global warming as focal points of the study. The purpose of this study was to compare environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs held by two regionally separated populations. More specifically, this study assessed twelfth grade students’ knowledge of global warming, attitudes toward the environment, and beliefs of environmental responsibility. The importance and distribution of environmental information varies by region, therefore a critical examination and evaluation of our environmental education efforts in specific regions is needed. Previous studies have shown that the social demographic basis of 105 106 environmental concern (attitudes, knowledge and beliefs) varies by social class, age, gender, residence and political affiliation and ideology. According to studies conducted in the 19703 and 805 there is a high level of concern among high school students (Ramsey and Rickson, 1976; Perkes, 1973; Bohl, 1976; Alaimo and Doran, 1980). Prior studies were general, and did not examine regional differences in high school students’ attitudes, knowledge and beliefs for a specific environmental issue. This study found both regions to possess positive attitudes, but their level of knowledge and strength of beliefs were weak (low) to moderate. Furthermore, this study found statistically significant regional difierences in the respondents’ attitudes and knowledge. A number of theories have been developed to explain the attitudes, knowledge and beliefs held by high school students. The most prominent theories include: (1) social learning theory, (2) cognitive dissonance theory, and (3) operant conditioning theory. Other factors that contribute to the attitudes, knowledge and beliefs of environmental issues (i.e. global warming) are socio- demographic variables such as gender, race, region, residence, and college education of parents. Each variable mentioned above contributed to the general attitudes, knowledge and beliefs of the respondents being investigated. The primary purpose of this study was to assess twelfth grade students’ attitudes, knowledge and beliefs toward environmental issues and global warming. The secondary purpose was to determine if there is a regional difference in the attitudes, knowledge and beliefs held by regionally separated students. Four 107 objectives served as a basis for this study: Objective I - To assess the attitudes twelfth grade students hold toward environmental issues. Objective II - To assess how knowledgeable twelfth grade students are about global warming. Objective III - To assess twelfth grade students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility: conservation, management and protection. Objective IV - To assess if regionally separated twelfth grade students differ in environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs. In achieving the objectives seven hypotheses were stated for analysis purposes: H1: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have Significantly more positive attitudes toward the environment than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H2: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have Significantly more knowledge of Global Warming than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H3: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have sigrriiicantly stronger beliefs of environmental responsibility than students in Valdosta, Georgia. H4: There will be a significant difference in students’ attitudes toward the environment between Georgia and Michigan when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. H5: There will be a significant difference in students’ knowledge of Global Warming between Georgia and Michigan when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. 108 H6: There will be a significant difference in students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility between Georgia and Michigan when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. H7: There will be a significant positive relationship among students’ attitudes toward the environment, their beliefs of responsibility and knowledge of global warming. Population and Sample The population selected for this study was from four high schools, two in Lansing, Michigan and two in Valdosta, Georgia. Seven hundred eighty-four (784) twelfth grade students (Everett High School, 220; Eastern High School, 200; Lowndes High School, 175; Valdosta High School, 189) participated in this study during Spring semester 1995. All of the twelfth grade students enrolled in their respective schools were asked to participate in the study. A stratified sample design was used to draw the final research sample. Students participated in the study by completing a five- page questionnaire. Twelve hundred twenty (1220) questionnaires were distributed for data collection, 989 questionnaires were returned, but only 784 were used for the research sample. Following the analysis of the questionnaires, twelve focus groups were developed to discover why and how students have formed the attitudes and beliefs they hold. Focus groups also served as means to gain an understanding of where students have obtained their knowledge of global warming. Sixty-one students 109 participated in the focus group sessions via parental consent (see Appendix D), six sessions in each region. Design of the Survey Instrument A 48-item questionnaire based on the most prevalent global warming and environmental issues facing the nation was designed to obtain students’ attitudes, knowledge and beliefs. Items were divided into four functionally defined areas: ( 1) environmental attitudes, (2) knowledge of global warming, (3) beliefs of environmental responsibility, and (4) demographic information. On each item participants were asked to indicate their attitudes, knowledge or beliefs about the issue presented. Responses were indicated on a five point scale. The .05 level of confidence was used to determine statistical significance, however, in those instances where significant differences in attitudes and beliefs among comparison groups were found at .01 level of confidence, the difference was also reported. Design of the Focus Groups Focus group questions were centered on three themes: (1) responsibility, (2) the role of government in environmental protection, and (3) willingness to sacrifice. Participants were asked to respond to eight open-ended questions that probed the three themes mentioned above. The average size of the focus groups was five, and the average age of participants was 17. Information gained through the focus groups was reported for the purpose of strengthening the total research 110 project. The style of reporting chosen for this study was the summary description model; This style of reporting begins with a summary paragraph and includes illustrative comments of participants. Quantitative Data Analysis In achieving the objectives of this study, responses to the questionnaire were reported and analyzed by one or more of the following techniques: (1) frequencies, (2) analysis of variance, (3) correlations, (4) regression analysis, (5) Chi-square, and (6) descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation). Most results were presented in table form to make them relatively easy to comprehend and interpret. CONCLUSIONS There were four research objectives for this study. The first research objective was to assess the attitudes twelfth grade students hold toward environmental issues. According to Bob] (1976) and Richmond (1976), high school students hold positive attitudes toward the environment. Results of the quantitative data and qualitative data of this research are consistent with earlier studies of environmental attitudes. Another study conducted by Alaimo and Doran (1980) found all students (seventh to twelfth) to have positive attitudes for the environment, with eight and twelfth graders the most positive. Although this research included other grades (seventh to twelfth), the research is consistent with 111 the findings of this study, which found twelfth grade students to possess positive attitudes. A ten-item attitudinal scale was used to assess the students’ environmental attitudes in this study. The quantitative (AN OVA) results on this scale indicated that the respondents’ possess significantly positive attitudes (F =26.52, P <0.01). The mean values were 3.91 (Georgia) and 3.71 (Michigan). The qualitative data also provided valuable insight into the attitudes held by the participants. The focus group sessions served two purposes: first, they corroborate the findings of the survey data, and second, they provided the students the opportunity to explain why they hold a particular attitude. The focus group sessions revealed that the majority of the participants possess positive environmental attitudes. Participants consistently suggested ways to improve environmental education in their schools, recommended holding polluters responsible and expressed a concern for the future of the environment. The second objective of this study was to assess how knowledgeable tweth grade high school students are about global warming. Prior studies have not assessed twelfth grade students’ knowledge of global warming. Perkes (1973) found tenth and twelfth grade students to be knowledgeable of environmental issues that were affecting their own communities. He also found students were not knowledgeable of general environmental facts and concepts. A similar study by Bohl (1976) found high school students to have a limited amount of environmental knowledge. The quantitative and qualitative data of this study also found the respondents to lack knowledge of general environmental issues, as well 112 as global warming. A fifteen-item scale was used to assess the students’ knowledge of global warming. Students were asked to respond to a set of items that reflect the current and most prevalent global warming issues facing the nation. Participants’ responses were converted from a true, false and don’t know response pattern into a percent correct, incorrect and don’t know pattern for the presentation of the results. Chi-square was used to determine statistical significance of participants’ responses. Results of the quantitative data revealed that the participants lacked knowledge of global warming (F = 10.32, P <0.01). The means for the net percent correct was 18.08 and 13.21 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. The findings are consistent with a study conducted by Richmond (1976). He found students demonstrated a good understanding of environmental concepts, although they responded poorly to factual knowledge items. The qualitative data provided insight into why twelfth grade students’ knowledge of global warming is low. Focus group sessions revealed that there are some environmental education opportunities being missed in the respective schools. Participants revealed a high level of concern for the environment and a desire to learn more about the environment. In addition, participants expressed concerns about environmental materials being presented in their respective schools. Although none of the schools currently have an environmental education course in their curriculum, some teachers have incorporated some environmental issues into their lectures. The focus groups allowed this researcher the 113 opportunity to explore why there is a gap in knowledge, when concern for the environment is certainly present. Through the focus group sessions participants revealed the environmental education problems (needs, materials and method) that they recognized in their respective schools. They also provided the researcher with their sources of global warming knowledge, and how they feel about the information they had received. The third research objective of this study was to assess twelfth grade students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility (conservation, management and protection). A study conducted by Bohl (1976) concluded that the average high school student does not possess firm beliefs. A similar study by Alaimo and Doran (1980) found that twelfth grade students believe they can affect change. The quantitative results of this study found twelfth grade students lack beliefs of responsibility. A five-item belief scale was used to assess the students’ beliefs of responsibility in this study. The quantitative results of this scale indicated that the participants do not possess strong beliefs of responsibility (F =.9934, P > 0.05). The mean values for the two groups were 3.18 (Georgia) and 3.23 (Michigan). The quantitative findings of this study were partially supported by the qualitative data. The focus group sessions revealed that the participants do possess moderate-to-strong beliefs of responsibility, but the beliefs are currently being masked by a sense of powerlessness. The participants expressed in several sessions that they did not have the power or merit to make a difference but did believe they should participate in environmental conservation, management and 114 protection. In addition to the sense of powerlessness being revealed through the focus groups, it was very apparent through their comments that the participants hold the government responsible beyond all others including themselves. The focus group sessions on this topic helped clarify the relationship of students to their beliefs of responsibility. TWO points emerge from the focus group analysis that support the somewhat inconsistent findings of the survey. First, the extent to which the students’ beliefs of responsibility is a function of where they stand in life (e.g. out of school, working). Second, the students’ beliefs of responsibility can sometimes be masked by a sense of powerlessness. The focus group data confirmed the findings of the survey and provided insight about the meaning and interpretation of the results. The depth and breadth gained through the triangulation of methods proved to be essential in assessing the respondents’ beliefs of responsibility. The final objective of this study was to assess if regionally separated twelfth grade students differ in environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs. Oneway analysis of variance (AN OVA) was used to test for regional differences of students’ attitudes toward the environment. The results revealed that the Georgia respondents and the Michigan respondents both possess positive attitudes toward the environment. However, Georgia respondents (mean=3.91) revealed a significantly more positive attitude (F =26.52, P <0.01) toward the environment than Michigan respondents (mean=3.71). Chi-square was used to test for the significance of regional differences in 115 the participants’ responses on the global warming knowledge items. The participants’ responses were reported as net percent correct, incorrect and don’t know. Results revealed that Georgia respondents were significantly more knowledgeable than Michigan respondents (F = 10.32, P <0.05). The overall means for the net percent correct were 18.08 and 13.21 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to the test for regional differences of the students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility. Results revealed that both groups do not have strong beliefs of responsibility. The mean values were 3.18 and 3.23 for Georgia and Michigan respondents respectively. No significant regional differences in beliefs of responsibility were found between Georgia and Michigan respondents. Tests of Research Hypotheses Statistical techniques were applied in testing the research hypotheses posed in Chapter IV. The specific tests chosen were based on the nature of data collected and the needs of the hypothesis statements. Additional statistics were used where they might add substance to the test statistic. In comparisons and tests of relationships and differedbes, a critical value at 0.05 significance was chosen to maintain the power of the tests. 116 Research Hypothesis 1: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly more positive attitude toward the environment than students in Valdosta, Georgia. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. Both groups revealed positive environmental attitudes, but those respondents in Michigan did not possess significantly more positive attitudes toward the environment. The results indicated that the environmental attitudes of the Georgia respondents were Significantly more positive. Research Hypothesis 2: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly more knowledge of Global Warming than students in Valdosta, Georgia. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. Respondents in Michigan were not found significantly more knowledgeable of global warming than respondents in Georgia. However, the results indicated that the level of knowledge does differ among the regions, and found Georgia respondents significantly more knowledgeable of global warming. Although Georgia respondents were more knowledgeable of global warming, the level of global warnring knowledge among the two regions was low. Research Hypothesis 3: Students in Lansing, Michigan will have significantly stronger beliefs of 117 environmental responsibility than students in Valdosta, Georgia. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. Respondents from Michigan were not found to have significantly stronger beliefs of environmental responsibility. The quantitative findings suggest that the respondents from both regions do not possess strong beliefs of environmental responsibility. Research Hypothesis 4: There will be a significant difference in students’ attitudes toward the environment between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. This hypothesis was supported by the findings. Region was a significant predictor of respondents’ environmental attitudes. The results revealed that Georgia respondents’ attitudes were significantly more positive than Michigan respondents. Other demographic variables that were found significant were race, gender, and mother’s college education. Research Hypothesis 5: There will be a significant difference in students’ knowledge of Global Warming between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. This hypothesis was supported by the findings. Region was a significant predictor of the respondents’ knowledge of global warming. The results revealed 118 that Georgia respondents were more knowledgeable of global warming than Michigan respondents. Other demographic variables that were found significant were race and gender. Research Hypothesis 6: There will be a Significant difference in students’ beliefs of environmental responsibility between Georgia and Michigan, when the effects of demographic variables (gender, race, residence, college education of parents) are controlled. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. Region was not a significant predictor of the respondents’ beliefs of environmental responsibility. The results revealed that after controlling for the demographic characteristics of the Georgia and Michigan respondents, region was not a significant predictor of beliefs of environmental responsibility. Research Hypothesis 7: There will be a significant positive relationship among students’ attitudes toward the environment, their beliefs of responsibility and knowledge of global warming. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. Knowledge was significantly and positively related to attitudes. However, the relationship between beliefs and both attitudes and knowledge was negatively related, therefore the hypothesis was not supported. 119 Discussion of Qualitative Findings It should be noted, that focus groups can never claim to represent a much larger inferential population than surveys obtain through random sampling methods (Morgan, 1988). However, it is the researchers’ intention to present the focus group data as a means to strengthen the quantitative data obtained through the survey. The interaction of the participants in the focus group sessions allowed them to discuss, debate and confer on the attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs held by them and their peers. The richness gained through combining two research methods proved to be valuable in assessing the students’ attitudes, knowledge and beliefs in this study. Environmental Attitudes The quantitative results of the attitudinal section of the questionnaire found the Georgia respondents to possess significantly more positive environmental attitudes than the Michigan respondents. The focus group sessions revealed that both groups have positive attitudes toward the environment. However, an explanation of why the attitudes of Georgia respondents were significantly more positive was not clearly evident. This researcher will present two possible explanations of why there is a statistically significant difference between regions. First, the majority of the Georgia participants have had a "first hand" experience with a local environmental problem. The Georgia respondents mentioned they had lived with the offensive smell of a paper mill all of their lives. 120 This experience apparently had not negatively affected the respondents’ attitudes toward the environment, it has possibly enhanced their awareness and concern of environmental issues. The classical conditioning theory suggest that associations are formed between stimuli that continually occur together. For example, the offensive smell of the paper mill serves as stimuli for the respondents, thus they form positive attitudes toward the environment. A study conducted by Tremblay and Dunlap ( 1978) found that exposure to poor environmental conditions leads to environmental concern. This research supports the findings of this study, but it should be noted that the respondents from Georgia do not consider their environmental conditions to be poor. Second, most of the Georgia respondents recorded they were from rural areas, while the majority of the Michigan respondents recorded they were from urban areas. A study conducted by Ieftridge and James (1980) found the variable residency as a significant predictor of environmental attitudes. Their study concluded that rural students were statistically more perceptive (positive) of environmental issues than urban students. These findings are consistent with the quantitative and qualitative results of this study, but inconsistent with other studies that found urban students to possess the more positive environmental attitudes. The two explanations above are provided as a possible basis to account for the significantly more positive attitudes of the Georgia respondents. 121 Knowledge of Global Warming The quantitative findings of the knowledge section of the questionnaire found the Georgia respondents more knowledgeable than the Michigan respondents. The social learning theory provides a possible explanation of why quantitative and qualitative findings found Georgia respondents more knowledgeable of global warming than Michigan respondents. The social learning theory suggests that environmental knowledge comes from observing, interpreting, responding in social settings, and through receiving reinforcements. It was revealed in the focus group sessions that the paper mill in the Georgia community serves as a constant reminder (reinforcement) of environmental problems particularly air pollution (e.g. global warming). Overwhelmingly, the Georgia respondents mentioned global warming as one of the most urgent issues facing the United States. Although their factual knowledge of global warming was not consistent with their concern for the issue, they were found to be significantly more knowledgeable than the Michigan respondents. The social learning theory serves as a possible explanation of why the Georgia respondents were found to be significantly more knowledgeable of global warming. Beliefs of Environmental Responsibility The quantitative results of the beliefs section of the questionnaire revealed that the respondents from both regions lack strong beliefs of environmental responsibility. A study conducted by Bohl (1976) concluded that the average high 122 school student does not possess firm beliefs of environmental responsibility. The qualitative data of this study contradicts Bohl’s findings, but supports the findings of Alaimo and Doran (1980), who found that twelfth grade students believe they can affect change. The focus group sessions revealed that the respondents from both regions do possess moderate-to-strong beliefs of responsibility. This researcher believes that the beliefs are being masked by a sense of powerlessness. The focus group participants expressed in several sessions that they currently do not have the power or merit to make a difference in environmental protection. This researcher believes that the respondents’ beliefs of environmental responsibility is a function of where they stand in life (e.g. out of school, working). For example, most respondents revealed that they would be environmentally empowered only after finishing school and joining the work force. In addition, some of the descriptive phrases or words used by the respondents in the focus group sessions led this researcher to conclude that the respondents’ beliefs are currently being masked. In addition to the sense of powerlessness being revealed through the focus group sessions, it was very apparent that the students held the government responsible for the environment beyond all others, including themselves. Implications of the Current Study The results of the findings in this study Show that there is a greater need for quality environmental education in secondary high schools. Several possible 12 3 explanations were discussed previously for the lack of positive attitudes, lack of strong beliefs of responsibility and lack of global warming knowledge. Other possible explanations include the possibility that the materials and techniques provided in the classroom were not of sufficient quality. Also, the infusion of environmental education into the existing curricula for a few hours during the school year may not be of sufficient duration or intensity to produce marked changes in the students’ attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. In addition, the problem of inadequate motivation from teachers and school personnel could provide another explanation for the lack of attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. Teachers may particularly have difficulty motivating students regarding the more complex environmental issues such as incorporating factual global warming information into the curricula. More research is needed in each of the above areas before particular environmental education strategies can be implemented. Implications for Environmental Education The future development of environmental education will require the application of new concepts, new methods, and new techniques as part of a complete effort of teaching environmental education in secondary schools. Other constrains affecting the successes of environmental education programs are: inflexible scheduling, resistance and apathy by the community, administrators, teachers, reinforcement of parents, and youth oppression (powerlessness). Knowing that students are not exposed to environmental issues sufficiently in the 124 classroom, we should stress the personal and social uses of environmental education in everyday life. Implications for Students The focus group sessions revealed that the current teaching methods and materials used to educate the students about the environment was not comprehensive nor did it connect classroom learning to everyday life. The sessions revealed that the students do want to participate in their learning. This researcher believes that this type of commitment could be the starting point of successful environmental education in secondary schools. As mentioned earlier, the focus group sessions revealed that the respondents felt their opinions and ideas toward the environment were not regarded as having merit. If the students are empowered to participate in their own environmental education they could possibly feel empowered to speak confidently and authoritatively for the environment. For example, this researcher found that the students’ belief of environmental responsibility is being masked by a sense of powerlessness, therefore, it is important to build the students’ confidence and allow them to participate in their education. Environmental stakeholders are all humans, including students, so every effort must be made to empower their silent voice. Empowering the students will enable them to use scientific knowledge to design courses of action that will enable them to respond to environmental problems confidently as a responsible environmental citizen. The respondents in the 125 present study are students who are not currently encouraged to internalize environmental problems and critically think about solutions in their classes, therefore, they are less likely to have strong beliefs of environmental responsibility. However, once out of school, the respondents revealed that their beliefs of responsibility will change, but this researcher believes that the students will have missed the opportunity to learn and internalize the importance of environmental issues. Implications for Secondary School Teachers Teaching practices known to turn students away from environmental issues should be abandoned and replaced by approaches that encourage environmental learning. One approach that was repeatedly criticized by the respondents in the focus group sessions was the introduction of environmental issues without the opportunity to discuss, explore and experience the environmental phenomena. The respondents talked about the boring and meaningless hours of class time devoted to dissecting other issues but not environmental issues. Furthermore, the teachers who use this approach tend to assume there is one perspective on environmental issues. They do not give enough consideration to the students’ idiosyncratic interpretations, a sure method to silence students and to make them feel powerless toward environmental issues. The respondents emphasized the need for very well prepared teachers, well designed programs, and adequate facilities to achieve environmental education and objectives. They also suggested 126 that environmental education should be taught not only in science and social science curricula but in all school curricula. Existing programs should be reorganized to allow the development and implementation of teaching strategies and techniques of environmental education that would be suitable for the secondary school setting. Because environmental problems are comprehensive the education programs should be effective enough to draw the students’ attention to contemporary environmental problems and dangers for all humankind. Consequently, most teachers are unfamiliar with the interdisciplinary approaches directed toward solving environmental problems. Teachers should present environmental education in connection with the students’ own experiences and interests, frequently using hands-on experiences that are integral to the instructional process. All of the students viewed field trips as important environmental educational opportunities and felt that this would be an effective method of teaching environmental education. The teaching strategies should incorporate a holistic approach and encompass the various natural, social, cultural and economic aspects of the environment. Because of the interdisciplinary nature of environmental problems, a comprehensive approach to the teaching and implementation of environmental education materials must be incorporated. Students should be challenged and encouraged to express themselves and provide input on what they are learning and required to learn. Teachers should be familiarized and trained to handle values in classrooms to develop students’ awareness of the environment. This could be essential in helping students to 127 realize their underlying values as determinants of environmental attitudes and beliefs. Local environmental problems should be studied in teacher training programs. That is, the development of problem solving skills in teachers is essential if they are to help develop the same skills in their students. Teachers should be trained in ways to make use of local environmental field studies to help their students gain direct learning experiences. In addition, developing environmentally related workshops committed toward the interdisciplinary perspective, teaching methods and techniques should be modified to help students acquire the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs needed for comprehending, identifying, analyzing and proposing solutions to environmental problems. Also, further research is needed to obtain the actual situation regarding the use of environmental education teaching methods in secondary schools. Implications for Parents In stressing the importance of environmental education in secondary schools, we should simultaneously persuade parents to use their influence on children to incorporate environmental issues into their daily lives. The parental influence over a child’s attitudes and beliefs has been suggested by some researchers as a major determinant of their individual characteristics (environmental attitudes and beliefs) (Bloom, 1964; Dave, 1963; Hanson, 1972; 128 Wolf, 1966). Children model themselves after the adults in their lives and when those adults are lacking environmental sensitivity, the opportunity to influence environmental attitudes and beliefs are lost. Those adults include parents, family friends, teachers and school administrators. When adults incorporate environmental issues into their children’s lives, they are bound to improve or influence their own environmental attitudes and beliefs and help their children develop positive environmental attitudes and strong beliefs of responsibility. Implications for Decision Makers We need to discuss with students, other educators, and the public what we know about the problems that exist in environmental education dissemination in secondary schools. It is important to attend to students’ explanations of their environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. As I have explained earlier in this chapter, their answers coincide with other researchers explanations about the possible causes of poor environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. As educators, we should be concerned about the evidence that points to poor attitudes, weak beliefs and lack of knowledge as hidden failures of environmental education and our teaching practices. At the same time, I believe that it is useful for educators to be aware of the demographic forces that have helped shape the environmental attitudes and beliefs of students as we know them today. This knowledge will help us better understand some root causes of our environmental education problems and perhaps keep us from unnecessarily castigating ourselves 129 for our failures. A knowledge of environmental education history will also help us identify the weaknesses and flaws in our goals and methods and lead us to seek solutions. School authorities and others responsible for choosing textbooks and materials for the classroom need to be aware of the effects of these books and materials on students. This study has shown the harmful effects of dull, poorly delivered lectures on students’ environmental attitudes and beliefs. The focus group sessions revealed that the students’ lose interest in learning because of having to listen to boring lectures, they also tend to blame themselves for their lack of interest in environmental issues. They also think the inadequacy lies in them rather than the educator and the materials. They develop a self-concept that they do not like environmental issues and they do not possess positive environmental attitudes and beliefs. This self-concept leads to weak beliefs and poor attitudes toward the environment because they avoid learning and experiencing the environment and the cycle goes on. Because books are our main vehicles for teaching, we must make it our primary consideration to choose books that would appeal to our students. Our textbooks, materials and teaching methods must promote environmental learning, not discourage it. As educators, we should find effective methods of increasing interest in environmental issues outside the school. An approach that I would put at the head of the list of recommended methods is the use of independent reading programs. This approach would allow students to choose what issues they want to 130 learn about from a set of prepared environmentally related reading materials. In the focus group sessions, it was revealed that most of the respondents have positive attitudes toward environmental issues and a desire to learn more about the environment. In Chapter V, I revealed some comments by the respondents, these comments revealed the importance of students participating in their environmental learning and the type of materials and methods they want for this process. We need to stress that members of the next generation may be influenced by today’s environmental problems. It is encouraged that the national environmental education program be designed in large part to respond to the above concerns. This program would be designed to respond to several probable weaknesses of the current strategies used to carry out environmental education in secondary schools. This study found that both regions (Georgia and Michigan) do not have Specific environmental education mandates for their secondary schools. It is encouraging to note that the Lansing school district is implementing a mandatory global issues class for its ninth grade students starting Fall 1997. This class will focus on the interrelationships between humans and the environment. The above situations throw light on important areas to be pursued in further research. They also lend support to policy makers, environmental educators and environmental activist, who can probably ascertain where education, political relations, and financial resources are needed. Finally, the findings in this study offer a reasonable opportunity for 13 1 teachers and administrators to understand that social factors affect environmental attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. How the student responds to the environment now or in the future could depend on the type of environmental education that he or she receives while in high school. RECOMMENDATIONS The findings of the study suggest the need for environmental education curriculum development and additional research to bridge the gap between what we know about high school students and their environmental education needs. Recommended are the following: 1. Design a national environmental education curricula suitable for the various types of secondary school students that exist in society. The curricula should be designed with input from those (students) who will benefit from its development. It should be interactive, yet structured for experiential learning. 2. Include complex environmental issues and processes as an objective of the environmental education curricula. 3. Include critical thinking techniques and problem solving into environmental education curricula. This is important because students should be empowered to solve problems and critically think through environmental issues. 10. 11. 132 Emphasize the learning of complex scientific processes and provide explanations of natural processes and environmental changes. Emphasize the use of environmentally related field trips. Include ”essential learning" as an objective of the environmental education curricula. Include tradeoff costs and environmental impacts into the environmental education curricula. Emphasize the complex relationships between technological and socioeconomic development and improvement of the environment. Emphasize development of the students’ knowledge of historical, societal and international efforts to solve environmental problems. Include development of skills required to investigate, understand, and seek solutions for environmental problems. Emphasize integration of a multi-disciplinary approach to environmental education. Future Research Through the triangulation of methods, the researcher sought to answer some specific questions regarding twelfth grade students and global warming. Answers to those questions were presented in this document. The following suggestions for future research were formulated during various stages of this 133 investigation: 10. Investigate secondary high school educators’ environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs. Evaluate and research environmental education policies found in various regions of the United States. Research the use of financial resources in relation to environmental education. Research the dissemination of environmental educational materials within secondary school systems. Research beyond the school setting. Research needs to be focused on the interactive systems of teachers, parents and peers with students. Evaluate the extent to which teachers or parents reflect the environmental attitudes and personal actions of the students. Research the effectiveness of environmental experiential learning on secondary school students. Replicate this study using secondary school students in two different regions, in order to determine their environmental attitudes, knowledge and beliefs and compare results. Investigate the effectiveness of different teaching methods for environmental problem solving. Investigate the effectiveness of mass-media on students’ participation in 134 pro-environmental behavior and environmental knowing. 11. Investigate the effectiveness of the triangulation of methods to research other environmental issues and students. ' APPENDICES APPENDIX A arrmrx’ :1 ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY This questionnaire is designed to get your reaction to GLQAL MING. Please read each statement carefully. and then circle the answer that best describes your point of view. This is not a test. HERE ARE I) 'RIGHT m RM' ANflERS to the questions. 00 MT RITE You! I»: ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE. Your answers will be kept CDNPLETELY CONFIDENTIAL. FILLING OUT THE QESTIMIRE IS ENTIRELY “MARY. you can indicate your voluntary agreeeent to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. THANK YOU VERY MUCH. SECTION A: ATTITUOES TOIARO THE ENVIRONIENT Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (ID), Disagree (DA), Strongly Disagree (SDA) Please circle the nulber of your answer that reflects how you feel about the statement. SA A III DA SOA 1. THE 145014 5110010 no A amen JOB 1 2 . 3 ' 4 s or «terms HE inroaleo scour ENVIRDIHENTAL iSSUES. 2. INDUSTRY SHOULD BE HELD RESPMSIBLE l 2 3 4 5 FM THEIR CONTRIBUTIOI TO M. ENVIROIOIENTAL PROBLEHS. 3. 0.5. cmzrus msr 0am THAT THE 1 '2 3 4 s cavemen norm THE murmur. 4. GLOBAL NARNING 5140010 BE cousrocnro ‘ l 2 3 4 5 ONE OF THE INJST SERIOUS PROOLENS FACING THE “LO. 5. HATER POLLUTION SHNLD 8E CMSIDERED l 2 3 4 5 ONE OF THE DOST SERIWS ENVIRMNTAL PROBLEMS FACING THE U.S. 6. ENDANGERED SPECIES SINLD OE PROTECTED. l 2 3 4 5 3%? THE EXPENSE OF ECMIC 7. STRICTER LANS m0 OE PLACED N 1 2 3 4 S CONTRIBUTMS TO ELM WIN. 3. THE sruoms AT ms area M 1 z 3 4 s $110010 00 surmise to matter THE * sunscreen. 9. 1T SHOULD BE ME INTANT TO PROTECT l 2 3 . 4 5 THERENVIRMNT THAN IT IS TO PRwUCE EN Y. 10. HE SHOULD BE HILLING TO PAY son 1 2 3 4 s ENVIRONIENTAL PROTECTItIl. EVEN IF IT REQUIRES A REDUCTION IN SPENDING ON SOCIAL ISSUES (cries, health cars, etc.). 135 136 SECTION B:KNONLEOGE OF ISSUES Please circle the hunter 1 if you think the statement is true and numer 2 if 0 th' state-ant is false and the numer 3 if you don’t know if the stateeent is tru: gr filzeihe TRIK FALSE M’T Kim 1. LOVE CANAL IS A PLACE IN NEU YORK THAT 1 2 3 NAS USED As A TOXIC HASTE DUMP BEFORE IT NAS DEVELOPED INTO AN AMUSEMENT PARK. 2. ACID RAIN IS POLLUTED RAIN THAT HARNS l ' 2 3 LAKES. LAND AND KILLS VEGETATION. 3. CARBON MONoxIDE IS THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR 1 i. 2 3 TO THE GLOBAL NARMING TREND. 4. THE SEA LEVEL COULD RISE DUE TO 1 z 3 ' GLOBAL NARMING. _ 5. SCIENTIST HAVE PREDICTED THAT FIRES HILL 1 z - 3 START As A RESULT OF GLOBAL UARNING. 6. IT Is PREDICTED THAT GLOBAL NARMING HILL 1 2 3 CAUSE SOME FLODDING or LON-LYING COASTAL - AREAS. 7. SONE SPECIES COULD BECOME EXTINCT DUE l 2 3 TO GLOBAL UARMING. . B. GLOBAL NARMING COULD CAUSE THE SUN TO 1 2 3 SHINE BRIGNTER AND MOTTER. . 9. SCIENTIST HAVE PREDICTED THAT GLOBAL I 2 3 UARMING NILL CAUSE AGRICULTURE YIELDS TO CHANGE. 10. CHLOROFLUROCARBDNS (CFCs) USE - i z 3 IS CURRENTLY RESTRICTED IN THE U.S. ll. DEFORESTATIDN IS A NAJDR SOURCE 1 2 3 OF CARBON DIOXIDE EHISSIMS W ACCOUNTS FOR ABWT 905 OF TIE GLWAL NARNING TREE. 12. IT Is PREDICTED THAT-REGIONAL DISEASE l 2 3 PATTERNS NILL CMNNsE DUE To GLOBAL - RARNING. 13. NETHANE AND OXYGEN. ARE GASES THAT 1 2 3 CONTRIBUTE TO GLOBAL NARNING. 14. THE U.s PRODUCES MORE OIL THAN 1 2 3 . IT IMPORTS. - 15. PLANTING TREES IS A GOOD HAY T0 COTBAT i V 2 3 GLOBAL NARNING. 1337 SECTION C:BELIEFS Strongly Acres (SA). Aer-e (A). Undecided (UP). Disseree (PA). Strongly Disasree (SDA) Please circle the nuaber of your answer that reflects your BELIEFS about the statement. SA A UD DA SDA . SHOULD AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COST 1 z 3 4 5 BE REDUCED FOR THE SAKE OF ECONOMIC GROVTH? . SHOULD CRIME BE CONSIDERED THE 1 2 3 4 5 BIGGEST PROBLEM FACING THE 0.5? . SHOULD THE U.S GOVERNMENT BE RESPONSIBLE l 2 3 4 - 5 FOR CLEANING UP THE ENVIRONMENT? . . SHOULD THE U.S. GOVERNMENT SPEND LESS l 2 3 . 4 5 OF ITS BUDGET ON ENVIRONNENTAL PROTECTION THAN IT DOES NON? . SHOULD NE THINK OF JOBS FIRST AND THE 1 Z 3 4 S ENVIRONNENT SECOND? BACKGROUND INFORNATION 1. what is your age? (Circle the nuaher of your ansuer) l4 ....................... I 15 ....................... 2 16 ....................... 3 l7 ....................... 4 18 ....................... 5 19 or OVER ............ '...6 . Nhat is your sex? (Circle the order of your aesuer) Hale ..................... 1 Fannie ................... Z ..Nhat is your race? (Circle the aulher of your answer) African Auerican ..... ....I NBIEO...3 eeeeeeeeee . eeeeee 2 Hispanic ................. 3 Native Alerican .......... 4 Asian .................... 5 Other .................... 6 Please Specify: . Nhat is your grade level? (Circle the nuaber of your ans-er) 9th grade ................ 1 10th grade ............... 2 11th grade ............... 3 thh grade ............... 4 1:38 5. How long have you lived in this state? (Circle the Tuner of your answer) All of your life ................ 1 15 or more years ................ 2 10 or more years ................ 3 7 or more Years ................. 4 5 or less years ................ S 3 or less years ................ 6 6. How long have you attended this scrOol? (Circle the nulber of your answer) 1 year .................... l 2 years ................... 2 3 years ................... 3 4 years ................... 4 5 years ................... 5 6 or more years ........... 6 7. which of the following subject areas provides you with most of your environmental knowledge. (Circle the nulher of your answer) ‘ English ........................................ 1 Social Science nuunA....Eu.I .................. 2 Math .......................................... 3 Science ....................................... 4 Physical Education.., .......................... S ETQCtTVCS (~ue.tenn..tse.) .......................... 6 Other ............. 7 PleaseSpecify: 8. Do you plan to attend college? (Circle the nulher of your answer) Yes ............... 1 No ................ 2 9. Hhere do you acquire west of your environeental knowledge? (Circle the under of your anslnr) At Howe ............................... 1 At School ............................. 2 On the Radio .......................... 3 On the Television ..................... 4 Froe Newspapers/Nbgazines ............. 5 Parents ............................... 6 Peers .............. . .................. 7 Other.. ...... . ......................... 8 Please Specify: 10.Uhat do you see as the west urgent Environeental Problee facing the U. S. today? (Circle the nwlher of your answer) Hater Pollution ....................... l Toxic Haste ........................... 2 Global liar-ing ........................ 3 Air Pollution ......................... 4 Acid Rain ............................. 5 Ozone Depletion ....................... 6 Greenhouse Effect ..................... 1 Trash/Garbage ......................... 8 Other ................................. 9 Please Specify: 1J39 11. what best describes your family's living quarters? (Circle the nulher of your answer) House ................. 1 Apartment ............. 2 Mobile Hoee ...... . ..... 3 Duplex ................ 4 12. what best describes where your residence is located? (Circle the nulber of your answer) Rural ................. 1 (Rural: farm. outside city limits. etc.) Urban ................. 2 (Urban: city. town. etc.) Suburban .............. 3 (Between town and country, all houses) 13. with whom do you live? (Circle the nulher of your answer) Both Parents .......... 1 Hother Only ........... 2 Father Only ........... 3 Other ................. 4 Please Specify: 14. Hhat best describes how often you travel outside of this state? ' (Circle the nulher of your answer) 1 tine in a year ...................... 1 3-5 tines a year ...................... Z 6 or were tiles a year................3 none .................................. 4 15. Do you belong to any environ-ental organizations? (Circle the nulber of your answer) 16. Have you observed any environeental problees in your city? (Circle the nulher of your answer) Yes ................... 1 Ho .................... 2 Don’t Know ............ 3 17. Did your father attend college? (Circle the nulher of your answer) Yes ................... 1 ho .................... 2 Don’t Know. ........... 3 18. Did your eother attend college? (Circle the under of your answer) Yes ................... 1 No .................... 2 Don’t Know ............ 3 THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELP! IE APPRECIATE THE TINE AND EFFORT YOU HAVE GIVEN IN THIS SURVEY. IF YOU HAUE ANN FINAL CONNENTS, PEEASE USE THE SPACE ON THE RACK. APPENDIX B APPENDIX B FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS 1. Let’s talk about sources of information here in your school. Where do you go for information about the environment? Probes: What type of information did you receive? What were your impressions of the information you received? Was the information current? Was it accurate or biased? Was it practical and useful? 2. What can or should your school do to provide better quality environmental information? 3. What can or should the government do to provide better quality environmental protection? 4. If you could change one thing about the environment, what would it be? Probe: What makes this area of the environment so important to you? 5. To what extent do you see the media as a valuable source of environmental information? Probes: To what extent do you see your parents as a valuable source of environmental information? To what extent do you see your peers as a valuable source of environmental information? 140 141 6. How do you feel about environmental pollution? Probes: How should we hold polluters responsible? 7. Are you willing to sacrifice some economic growth to protect endangered species? Probes: Should jobs be sacrificed for the protection of endangered species? Should all citizens make sacrifices for the environment? What should be done to get people like youself to make sacrifices for environmental protection? 8. What do you know about global warming? Probes: Will global warming affect you or your family? Where did you first hear about global warming? How serious is global warming? Do you feel you have sufficient knowledge about global warming? What is global warming? APPENDIX C APPENDIX C Regional Characteristics VALDOSTA LANSING TOTAL POPULATION 75,981 127,321 MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME (DOLLARS) 23,295 26,398 PER CAPITA INCOME (DOLLARS) 10,919 12,232 MEDIAN FAMILY INCOME (DOLLARS) 28,007 31,576 SCHOOL ENROLLMENT Persons 3 years and over enrolled in school 22,514 37,857 Percent High School Graduate 69.8 78.3 Percent Bachelor’s Degree or higher 16.3 18.3 PERSON 16 TO 19 YEARS 5,588 6,617 Source: 1990 Census Data 142 MEAN WAGE AND SALARY INCOME 28,842 APPENDIX D APPENDIX D Parental Consent Form This consent form is asking your permission to allow your child to participate in an environmental focus group. The purpose of the focus group is to gain a better understanding of the environmental attitudes, and beliefs held by secondary school students in your child’s school. The group facilitator will ask indepth questions pertaining to how, where, and why, the students have obtained the environmental attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs they hold. It is estimated their participation in the focus group will take 25 to 30 minutes. The focus group will consist of 5 to 6 students, and the group will meet during the student’s lunch period or after school. Their participation in the focus group is completely confidential and anonymous and all participants will remain anonymous in any report of the research findings. Furthermore, your child has the final decision on his or her participation in the study, since participation in the study is completely voluntary. You can indicate your voluntary agreement to allow your child to participate by completing and returning this consent form. Any questions concerning this study please contact me at the phone number provided below. Thank You, James Fason Parent’s Signature Child’s Name Michigan State University Department Resource Development 517-353-1608 143 APPENDIX E Alpha Reliability Coefficients of the Three Scales APPENDIX E GEORGIA MICHIGAN ALL ATTITUDE .79 .74 .77 KNOWLEDGE .78 .81 .80 BELIEF .58 .56 .57 Note: GEORGIA = 364 cases MICHIGAN = 420 cases ALL = 784 cases 144 LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Ajzen, I., and Fishbein, M. (1980). . Englewoods Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Ajzen, I., and Fishbein, M. (1977). "Attitude-Behavior relations: a theoretical analysis and review of empirical research." Psychological_nulletin 84(5)=888-918- Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior. Great Britain: Open University Press. Alaimo, S.J. and Rodney Doran. (1980). "Students’ Perception of Environmental Problems and Sources of Environmental Information." I2urnal_9i_Enxirenmental_fidueatien 12(1):17-21. Albrecht, D., Bultena, G., Hoilberg, E., Nowak, P. (1982). 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