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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

Domestic Violence among Latino Families in Detroit,
with a Focus on Spouse Inequality in Education and
Income and the Wives' Strategies to Avoid Violence

presented by

Nomlindelo E. Mfenyana

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master's degree in 'Anthropology

 

 

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DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AMONG LATINO FAMILIES IN DETROIT, WITH A FOCUS ON
SPOUSE INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION AND INCOME AND THE WIVES’ STRATEGIES TO
AVOID VIOLENCE

BY

Nomlindelo E. Mfenyana

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Anthropology

1996

ABSTRACT
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AMONG LATINO FAMILIES IN DETROIT,

WITH A FOCUS ON SPOUSE INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION AND INCOME
AND WIVES' STRATEGIES TO AVOID VIOLENCE

BY

Nomlindelo Mfenyana

This study is about domestic violence between Latino spouses of
Mexican descent in Detroit. It focuses on the relationship between
domestic violence and higher education and income of wives compared to
husbands, as well as strategies devised by wives to avoid violence. It
is a qualitative study that analyzes responses from twenty-seven women
who were part of 165 respondents interviewed by means of open and closed
ended questionnaires. Of twenty-seven women selected, nine were involved
in domestic violence and eighteen were not. Findings indicated that
education was not related to domestic violence, but became a problem
only when it resulted in wives earning more than their husbands. The
results suggested that wives having higher incomes than their husbands
could be related to domestic violence. It emerged that all women used
multiple strategies to avoid domestic violence. There were also
indications that a power struggle between spouses was related to

domestic violence.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank God for giving me the opportunity to come to
the United States and for giving me the strength and perseverance to
complete this work. I am grateful to The Kellogg Foundation for awarding
me the scholarship that enabled me to accomplish my goal. My Committee
Chair, Dr. Ann Millard, was not only the best adviser a student could
possibly have, but was also an untiring cheerleader at a time when I
needed cheering most. She opened her house and her heart to a complete
stranger; words cannot express how much her kindness is appreciated.
With her assistance, I was able to get the data for this work and to
finish this study.

I also thank each of my committee members. Dr. Merry Morash helped
me with the data used in this study and suggested that I register for a
course called Domestic Violence: An International Perspective, which was
extremely valuable and useful in enriching this study. Dr. Bill Derman
and Dr. Joe Chartkoff both provided effective comments and kind support.
I thank them all for their hard work.

To friends and relatives, the Mpumlwana family, Thoko and Malusi,
for unfailing support and for caring for our children when we needed
help. Their kindness and help will never be forgotten or taken for
granted. Deepest appreciation also goes to the network of all the
friends for support and encouragement in ways too numerous to mention.

To the Ntlabati family, especially Nakazi, our problems were never too

ifi

heavy when shared. I thank them for their love, understanding and
unfailing support to our children.

And last but not least, thanks to my husband Khaya and to my
children Phumlani, Nelisa, Thembela, and Khusela. Because of them, and
with them I have completed this work. Khaya’s help and support was
always there when I needed strength to carry on. Phumlani’s computer
skills helped me to finish this work; words cannot express my gratitude.

To all my children, you are unique blessings in my life, for which I

thank God everyday; your smiles were all I needed to cheer me up.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................... vi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2
STUDIES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE STUDY .................................... 6
Definition of Domestic Violence ................................... 6
Feminist Perspectives on Domestic Violence ........................ 7
Stress Theory ..................................................... 8
Previous Research on Domestic Violence ............................ 8
An Overview of the Detroit Community ............................. 13
Orientation towards the Target Population ........................ 14
CHAPTER 3
METHODS .............................................................. 16
Data Collection Procedures ....................................... 16
The Sample .................................................... 16
Data Gathering ................................................ 17
The Instrument ................................................ 18
The Present Study ............................................. 18
Ethical Issues ................................................ 19
Data Analysis ................................................. 20
CHAPTER 4
REPORTING OF CASES AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............................... 21
Violent Households ................................................. 21
Summary of Information about Violent Households .................... 46
Nonviolent Households .............................................. 49
Summary of Information about Nonviolent Households ................. 71
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ................................ 74
Comparing Violent and Nonviolent Households ........................ 74
Women’s Levels of Levels in Relation
to those of their Husbands ....................................... 79
Women's Incomes Compared to those of their Husbands ................ 80
Factors Contributing to Change and Strategies Devised
by Women to Avoid Violence in the Household ...................... 81
Conclusions ........................................................ 85
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................... 89

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Violent households ........................................... 50

Table 2. Nonviolent households ........................................ 73

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Since the women’s movements of the early 19605, domestic violence
has continued to gain attention in the United States. The increase in
awareness has led to a variety of services and legislation aimed at
alleviating the problem. The feminist perspective views domestic
violence as a reflection of the male-dominated society. According to
the feminist view, as long as the structure of the society continues
to oppress and devalue women economically and socially, violence
against women will remain prevalent. Prevention through education and
laws that protect the rights of women cannot be effective if the
structure of the society remains unchanged. Both men and women are
often strong believers in traditional sex roles; for example, women
often express their dependency on men for financial support. The
social structure reinforces dependency by promoting unequal access to
rewards. It should be noted that most of the information reported
about domestic violence comes from women who have sought assistance
from shelters, counselors and other formal sources of assistance.
There are, therefore, likely to be a great number of women who have
escaped from abusive relationships through their own efforts or with

assistance of informal sources of support. With these concerns in

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mind, the present study includes a focus on the strategies of women to
avoid domestic violence.

Domestic violence in this study is defined as physical abuse that
involves delivering a blow or using a gun, a knife, or any other
weapon against the wife or cohabiting partner by the husband or
partner. This study explores the following factors in relation to
domestic violence:

a) wife’s level of education in relation to that of her husband.

b) the wife's income compared to that of her husband.

c) the strategies devised by the wife to avoid violence in the
household, including the factors contributing to a decrease in
the extent of violence.

Education is investigated in this study because it has some
important functions in the society. It can be argued that education
has counteracted the inequalities of the society by maintaining a
standard to determine rewards to be allocated to a person. The ability
of a person to perform a task is largely determined by the skills
obtained through education. Education has created greater social and
economic equality and has facilitated upward mobility, irrespective of
gender. Therefore, there is a direct link between education and the
possibility of a better income. Feminist theory maintains that before
the Second World War, women had a limited choice in educational
qualification, were paid less than men, and were denied the right to
wage labor because of being associated with household work. It could
be argued that education served as an agency of social control to

legitimize the existing class structure rather than promoting social

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change. The women’s movement that started in the early 19605 brought
changes that resulted in women’s rights being protected by law.
The women’s movement was instrumental in making it possible for income
to be determined by a person's level of education rather than by
gender or class. To the extent that a higher level of education
results in higher income, it could be argued that employers view
educational achievement as an indication of individual capability. The
income variable also involves the question of power, which, according
to the feminist perspective of the male-dominated society, is
associated with men. There have been allegations that men do not
accept equality with women because they regard it as a demotion of
their ascribed statuses. Stress theory maintains that domestic
violence is linked to stress, and low income has been indicated as one
of the stressors.

The issue of a power struggle between husband and wife is therefore
linked to domestic violence. This is associated with stratification in
the society in which men are regarded as superior to women. The
neoclassical perspective portrays a democratic system in which
individuals compete in a free market on the basis of their individual
capabilities and are rewarded according to criteria determined by
measurements of performance. Such a view contrasts with the feminist
view of male authority.

Domestic violence is a worldwide problem, occurring in both more
developed and less developed countries. Accounts have been presented
by writers from many countries. Freedman (1985) states that in Canada,

one of ten women in marriage relationships is beaten by her husband.

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Bowker (1983) says that cases of domestic violence in the United
States exceeded one million from 1973 through 1975. Most divorce cases
in the United States result from spousal abuse (Hirsch 1981). The
problem must be addressed because the domestic unit is responsible for
the primary socialization of children. The social learning theory
paradigm suggests that the result of unchecked domestic violence will
be an aggressive society because children imitate the behavior of
adults. According to Bowker (1983), women in abusive relationships are
reluctant to seek help from the police because the police are not
trained or competent in handling such cases.

This study aims to contribute to the understanding of domestic
violence by analyzing information from semi-structured interviews with
Latinos in a major urban center in the United States.

I have been intrigued by the problem of domestic violence,
especially the question of why human beings would want to inflict pain
on others, especially on those with whom they emotionally involved. In
trying to trace the origin of this behavior, I have based my argument
on the nonhuman primates, which share a common ancestor with hominids.
It is my belief that if the problem of domestic violence were
genetically inherited, there would be traceable signs in some of the
nonhuman primates, for example, the chimpanzees, which share a common
ancestor with humans. Studies of chimpanzees, however, have noted no
aggressive behavior between males and females (Zihlman 1981).

The problem of domestic violence it has often been ignored or
denied. Bannon (1976) points out that the existence of domestic

violence was denied because it was regarded as a private matter, even

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I131

by the victims themselves. The present study agrees with Bannon that
one strategy to deal with domestic violence is to make it a public

matter, write about it, make people know it exists.

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CHAPTER,2
STUDIES OF DOMESTIC‘VIOLENCE

AND AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY PARTICIPANTS

This chapter presents a review of previous research on domestic
violence pertaining to the variables in this study: education of the
wife in relation to that of the husband; income of the wife in
relation to that of the husband; and the strategies devised to bring
about positive changes in abusive behavior. Background material
includes: definitions of domestic violence; feminist perspectives; and
stress theory. The chapter also presents an overview of the community
in which the study was conducted and the specific orientation towards

the target population.

Definition of Domestic Violence

Campbell (1992) distinguishes between wife battering and wife
beating. To her, battering is an act that is directed towards women
and is characterized by ongoing, severe forms of violence, whereas
wife beating occurs occasionally and is a mild form of violence.
Schattmaier (1987) defines domestic violence as physical attacks,
threats of physical attacks, and psychological attacks, such as
humiliating remarks by a man to dominate or control a woman with whom

he is or has been in an intimate relationship. Hampton and Coner-

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Edwards (1993) define domestic violence as a behavior pattern that
occurs in physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, and economic
forms developed to perpetuate intimidation, power, and control of the

abusing spouse over the abused spouse.

Feminist Perspectives on Domestic Violence

Feminists view domestic violence as a reflection of a male-
dominated society (McKee 1982; Lateef 1982). An investigation of the
collapse of development projects in Mexico and India because of the
reluctance of women to participate revealed that such projects were
empowering women, which was a threat to their husbands who retaliated
by beating them (Heise et a1. 1994). Violence against women is said to
be rooted in social institutions that perpetuate hierarchical gender
relations through socialization and socioeconomic inequality (Heise et
al. 1994; Ramos 1969).

Dobash and Dobash (1979) see domestic violence as related to
patriarchal domination. The patriarchal order of the society
legitimizes male superiority by promoting inequalities between men and
women. The society has embraced male superiority in material ways; for
example, men earn more than women irrespective of experience or
educational qualification (Straus 1980; Stets 1988; Viano 1992). Men
who own resources are able to exercise control over women, and those
who do not, use physical violence to maintain their positions (Banks
1990; Straus 1980). According to Straus, men cannot accept equality of

power with women, and this is said to contribute to domestic violence.

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Stress Theory

Stress theory points towards stress as being related to domestic
violence (Craig 1990; Cox 1990; Stets 1988; Straus 1980). Low income
as well as unemployment lead to the inability of the husband to
perform his male role, such as providing for the material needs of the
family, and this results in stress. Straus and Smith (1990) have
pointed out that the 1985 National Family Violence Resurvey showed
that the rate of abuse among Latino couples was fifty-four percent
higher than that among Anglo couples. The census report of 1989 showed
that the average Anglo family's annual income was $30,600 compared to
$13,800 for a first generation Latino family (Chapa and Valencia
1993). Pandian (1985) has stated that the rate of alcohol consumption
is high among the Latinos in the United States. Some writers regard
drinking as a means of building self-esteem by providing psychological

relief from stress (Cox 1990; McClelland and Davis 1972).

Previous Research on Donestic'Violence

In this section previous research that involves domestic violence
is reviewed, to look at what this behavior is attributed to in these
studies. Also the information pertaining to the strategies for
avoiding violence is explored.

Lateef (1992) did a qualitative study among Indo-Fijians on wife

abuse in 1983 and 1987. The aim of the study was to investigate the

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reasons for, the context of, and the nature of violence imposed on
Indo—Fijian wives by their husbands. The findings based on case
studies revealed that physical violence was used by husbands as a
means of exerting power and control over their wives.

Dutton's (1995, 1988) studies of domestic violence are based on
case histories of the victims as well as of the abusers, who were in
psychotherapy. The study involved adult males, comprised of groups of
men who were: happily married; maritally conflicted but not violent to
their wives; men who had an assaultive behavior relating to their
wives as well as to other people. The experimental group were men who
assaulted their wives but were not involved in violence outside
marriage. The wife assaulters as well as the assaultive group were men
who had been referred for treatment to the Assaultive Husbands Project
by the Vancouver Family Court or other institutions; they participated
voluntarily in the study. The happily married group participated
voluntarily in the studies following advertisements in local
newspapers. The objective of this research was to find out why men
assault their wives. A salient finding was that all respondents were
either abused as children or grew up in families where the parents
were involved in fights. According to Dutton, violence was a
psychological factor that was related to powerlessness during
childhood. The power that these men did not have during childhood,
they later tried to exert on their wives. He emphasized the quest for
power and control by referring to people such as O. J. Simpson who
“treated their wives like possessions that had to be controlled.”

According to Dutton, when men feel they are losing that power they

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resort to spousal abuse.

A study by McKee (1992) in 1975 to 1976, in Las Flores, Ecuador,
asserts that domestic violence culminates from feelings of
subordination of men by women. The data were based on eleven cases,
randomly selected from a sample of fifty-two families. The customary
pattern of land inheritance led to men’s feelings of subordination; by
custom, women inherit a portion of land from their parents on marriage
in this society, but the inheritance of property by males might be
postponed until the death of the man’s parents. Therefore, the newly
married couple depended on the land owned by the wife for subsistence.
According to McKee, male superiority was strongly supported in this
society, and economic resources, such as the control of property, were
means of establishing dominance. Therefore, the conflict between the
two institutions of male dominance and female inheritance of property
are seen as promoting domestic violence. Women are allowed to inherit
property, which is a resource that is associated with power.
Therefore, men use domestic violence to restore their status that has
been diminished by the land inheritance custom that makes women, at
least in the early years of marriage, owner of the main resources that
support household.

A study similar to the present study was done by William J. Hauser
(1982). His sample consisted of one hundred (100) female college
students at the University of Akron, Ohio, who were either married,
widowed, or divorced. The data were collected in 1978, through
negotiations with faculty members to allow members of their classes to

participate in the study. Questionnaires were then distributed to

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those who met the criteria. To test his hypothesis about a
relationship between domestic violence and resources, he looked at
education, income, and occupation of the respondents in relation to
their spouses. The analysis examined the conditions in which
conditions physical violence was most likely to occur, focussing on
the relationship between physical violence and relative control over
resources. The results revealed that in households in which the wife
had a higher salary; higher level of education; and a better job than
the husband, there was more violence. It was also shown that in
households in which the husband had a higher level of education, there
was less violence. This was a quantitative study, and the sample was
chosen from university women; it is not, therefore, representative of
the wider population.

Wilt and Bannon (1977) investigated the circumstances leading to
assault between husband and wife in Detroit. The economic problem was
found to be a contributory factor in 19 households. Insufficient
financial means led to resentments between husband and wife, with some
women accusing their spouses of incompetence because they were unable
to meet the needs of the family.

Holtaling and Sugarman (1990), analyzed data from the National
Family Violence study that was collected by Straus et al. in 1980. The
data was from a cluster sample of 2,143 families in which one adult
family member was interviewed. A total of 960 men and 1183 women were
interviewed, but Holtaling and Sugarman focused on female respondents
only. Their aim was to detect the factors that put women at high risk

of being assaulted by their spouses. They found that women in the low

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socioeconomic status were at higher risk of being assaulted than those
in well—to-do households.

Mitchell's (1992) study in Wapeland, New Guinea, investigated why
there was no domestic violence among the Wape. The data were collected
during an eighteen-month field trip in 1970 to 1972 and brief visits
in 1982 and 1989. Data included relevant court records reviewed during
these visits. The results showed that women who experience abuse by
their husbands commit suicide, and this act stigmatizes the husband's
family. The Wape also believe that the ancestors disapprove of
domestic violence. Therefore, the fear of the supernatural enabled
them to control their anger. In addition, the Catholic and Protestant
missionaries are regarded as having promoted harmony in Wape
households by regarding abusive bad behavior as unChristian. Finally,
the government laws against domestic violence helped prevent abusive
behavior. Thus, according to Mitchell, fear of stigma, the
supernatural powers of the ancestors, religion, and law combine in
preventing domestic violence in Wape society.

Craddock (1980) did a study in Australia to test Tallman’s
hypothesis that the person who has authority is the person who is more
likely to make decisions in the household. This study involved forty-
two couples; the procedure was to assess the couples before and after
marriage for a period of six months. Each couple was given a problem
to solve and required to reach a joint decision of how they would come
to a satisfactory solution to the problem. The discussion was tape
recorded; nobody else was present during the session. The results

showed that authority depended on the problem being solved and the

 

 

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values possessed by each couple. Issues such as job transfers mainly
favored the man's decision, whereas issues that involved decisions
about child discipline and religion depended on whether the couple had
common values. In cases in which they had different values,
centralized authority inhibited reasoning, whereas for couples who had
common values, centralized authority facilitated reasoning. In cases
involving financial management, the wives were either suppressed by
their husbands or deferred to them. This study is limited, however,
because the couples were aware that the problems were not real.

Different results could be anticipated if the problems were genuine.

An Overview of the Detroit Community

Detroit, Michigan, has a total population of about 4 million, of
which the majority is black (Darden et al. 1987; Sinclair and Thompson
1977). The Latinos in Detroit consist of people of Mexican descent,
who are the largest group, people of Puerto Rican descent, and people
of Cuban descent (Lebeaux 1973). Detroit has some of renowned
industries, such as the automobile industry, in addition to trading
centers. The prospect of job opportunities attracted immigrants from
all over the United States (Darden et al. 1987).

The society is stratified by both race and class. Place of
residence depends on both factors; for example, Dearborn, Ferndale,
and Hazel Park in the 19403 were white suburbs, and this was
reinforced by the Detroit Housing Commission as well as the Federal
Housing Administration (Darden et al. 1987). A large number of Mexican

Americans are in areas that are adjacent to the business center, such

14
as West Bagley Street. Most of the poor people stay in this area
because most of the houses are not in good condition and so the rent
is low (Sinclair and Thompson 1977). The Latinos have encountered
problems related to staying in these areas because, according to
Gonzales (1990), some insurance companies charge more for areas that
are designated as undesirable. In addition, according to Gonzales,
prices of items in supermarkets in these areas are higher than in
affluent neighborhoods. According to Harrison and Kennedy (1994),
Latinos are at high risk of substance abuse because of the misfortunes
they are faced with. Julian and McKenry (1993) have implicated alcohol
as a cause of domestic violence in 60 to 85 percent of reported cases
in the United States. In Detroit, the mayor is black, and therefore
one might expect an improvement in the social conditions of the
minority groups but it is not the case. Sinclair and Thompson (1977)
state that the ultimate control of power is the state, and local

forces can do nothing about it.

Orientation to the Target Population

The population of Mexican Americans in the United States totalled
about 12.6 million in 1989 (Vigil 1984). The geographical distribution
of the Latinos in the United States is skewed toward the southwestern
states, an area once part of Mexico. Many Latinos from the Southwest
did not have job skills, and the majority could not speak English,
making it very difficult for them to be employable (Gonzales 1990).

Latinos have the lower levels of educational attainment than other

groups, such as Blacks and whites, in the United States (Saldana

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1994). In 1989, for example, in the 18-to-24 age group, 82.1 percent
of whites had completed high school, 78.1 percent of African Americans
had completed high school, and just 55.9 percent of Hispanics had
completed high school (Milk 1994). Undereducation has a major impact
on unemployment and is the reason for the concentration of unskilled
labor in low-paying jobs. Lower income and the inability to meet the
needs of the family contribute to higher rates of domestic violence.
Some writers have pointed out that the school dropout rate is high
among Latinos (Milk 1994; Saldana 1994). In addition, performance at
school is often poor because of lack of interest. According to
Gonzales (1990), Latino children receive less praise than Anglo
children because there are few Latino teachers on schoo, staffs.
English language incompetency affects them because the instructions
are given in English, and Spanish is not taught (Lamb 1970; Chapa and
Valencia 1993). The low socioeconomic status of their parents affects
the children’s school performance because they live in overcrowded
conditions with no place to study. In America, a place of residence
defines which school a child should go to, and in most cases, the
schools serving areas in which minority groups live are poorly
financed and staffed by unqualified teachers (Jenks et a1. 1972; Reyes

and Valencia 1993; Chapa and Valencia 1993).

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CHAPTER 3

IMETHODS

This chapter explains how the data were collected, how the
respondents were obtained, how the interviews were conducted, and how

the data were analyzed.

Data Collection Procedures

The principal investigator responsible for the collection of data
was Dr. Merry Morash, chair and professor in the School of Criminal
Justice. The co-investigator was Dr. Anna Santiago, who, previous to
becoming a professor, was a social worker responsible for counseling
battered women and their children in the late 19705. Ten bilingual
interviewers were selected from the Latino community in Detroit. These
interviewers were received intensive training by the investigators.
The investigators were assisted by their colleagues as well as by
graduate and undergraduate students.

The Sample

The sample consists of Latinos residing in the Detroit metropolitan
area; Latinos includes people from Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, as
well as other Spanish-speaking areas. The sample was selected from the
telephone directory of this area and supplemented with information

from local community listings, such as church directories. The

16

 

 

 

 

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17

eligibility criteria was the presence of a married or a cohabiting
couple in the household; screening was done to determine these
factors. This sample was ideal because one of the objectives of the
study was to compare levels of violence between different Latino
ethnic and socioeconomic groupings. To avoid bias, because not all
Latinos have access to phones and some have unlisted numbers, the
investigators made inquiries among participants about other people who
might be interested in participating in the study; in this way, they
managed to include some who did not have phones or who had unlisted
numbers. The interviewers eventually interviewed 165 adult female
respondents from this sample.

Data Gathering

The data were collected in the winter of 1991 by bilingual
interviewers from Detroit. The interviewers were supervised by the
field supervisors, and their activities were monitored during the
entire phase of data collection. The co-investigators made bi-weekly
visits to the field supervisor and the interviewing team. Each
interviewer was assigned to interview about 40 households. Daily
activities of the interviewers were monitored by means of their logs.
They submitted completed interviews weekly to the supervisor, who made
a thorough check of them. In addition, the field supervisor could be
contacted at any times should problems arise in the interview. The
interviewers were instructed to abandon the interview if there was any

objection from the spouse.

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The Instrument

A questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions was used
for collecting data. The questions were constructed in both English
and Spanish. The interview questions were constructed in such a way
that issues related to gender role expectations, national origin, and
level of acculturation, as well as background information pertaining
to witnessing or experiencing violence in childhood, were covered.
Issues about stress related to family violence were covered in
questions directed at the employment status of the respondent as well
as that of the spouse. The instruments were pretested during September
and October 1991 on Latina women who were shelter clients in the

Detroit area.

The Present Study

In this study, a qualitative paradigm was chosen in order to focus
on understanding the relationship between relative education and
relative income of husbands compared to their wives as factors in
violence and to investigate the strategies to avoid violence. I found
the Latino data ideal for my own study because, as a minority group in
the United States, they are subject to problems similar to those of
minority groups elsewhere. Therefore, the findings will not apply not
just to the United States but to other countries as well. Policy
makers will be able to use this information to address interests of
other groups. Minority groups, such as the Latinos and women, will
benefit because some of the issues that affect them will be clarified

and addressed. These groups are not usually represented when policies

 

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that affect them are made; therefore, this will be one of the ways of
sending the message across. The study will lay a foundation for
further research by those scholars interested in this field.

My study focused only on Latinos of Mexican descent with a sample
of 27 of the 165 respondents interviewed. I analyzed forty cases on
the first disk of the interview material and selected only the
respondents of Mexican descent. From the group of respondents of
Mexican descent, I selected all violent cases, of which there were
nine. No violence was involved in the remaining 31 cases. Of the 31
nonviolent cases, I selected 18 for comparison with the violent cases.
The issues covered were those pertaining to the level of education of
the wife in relation to that of her husband; the income of the wife
compared to that of her husband; and, the strategies devised by the
wife to avoid violence, including factors contributing to a decrease
in violence in the household. Educational level is important because
salary as well as employment opportunities are related to the level of
education (Hauser 1982).

Ethical Issues

Dr. Morash had submitted her study to Michigan State University for
human subjects review. I also submitted my part of the study to
Michigan State for human subjects review. The guidelines pertaining to
the requirements were adhered to at all times. The data were kept in a
safe place that was not accessible to other people. Pseudonyms were
used for the respondents to avoid identification. As part of
confidentiality, the real identities of the respondents were not known

to me because I was not involved in the collection of data.

20

Data Analysis

The analysis is divided into three parts: the level of education of
the wife in relation to that of her husband; the income of the wife
compared to that of her husband; and the strategies devised by the
wife to avoid violence including factors that contributed to a
decrease in violence in the household. Therefore, partial transcripts
were analyzed to limit the information available about each respondent
and focus on the variables being investigated. To accomplish this,
responses to open-ended questions to characterize women's statements
were reviewed. In this way, women's statements to open-ended questions
were able to yield a more complex analysis, which provided a basis for
hypothesizing causes of domestic violence. In addition to open-ended
questions, some information came from quantitative questions. One aim
is to find out whether women who are more educated and are earning
more than their husbands are more likely to be abused than those who
are less educated and earning less than their husbands. The results
are then compared and contrasted with those households in which

violence was not experienced.

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CHAPTER.4

REPORTING OF CASES AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Data reporting is based on twenty-seven cases among Latinos of
Mexican origin in the Detroit metropolitan area. Domestic violence was
experienced in 9 households of 27 cases analyzed. In this chapter,
data pertaining to the 9 cases of domestic violence and 18 of
nonviolent households is reported and analyzed. Variables used to
analyze the data are: the level of education of women in relation to
their husbands; the income of women in comparison to that of their
husbands; and, the strategies devised by women to avoid violence,
including the factors that have contributed in bringing about positive
changes in the households. Two tables, one on violent and the other on
nonviolent cases, supplement the narratives. Findings from violent and

nonviolent households are compared and contrasted.

‘Violent Households

Although domestic violence includes both physical and verbal
attacks, in this paper I concentrate on physical violence only, that
is, delivering a blow or using a gun, a knife, or other weapon against
the wife. This criteria was met by 9 of the 27 cases analyzed. Each
case is reported in the following pattern: the key factors related to

domestic violence between husband and wife; the data as reported by

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the respondent pertaining to the variables under investigation; and a
summary of the wife’s version of what she considers to lead to

violence.

Case 1 (ID #500)

In this case, there is a power struggle between the husband and the
wife related to the principles of male superiority and gender division
of roles. The strategies devised to maintain these principles in the
face of education of women as well as their entry in the labor market
are also demonstrated.

Sarah is about 39 years old, and her husband is 40. They have two
children, one nine years old and the other's age not stated. These are
the only people in this household. The husband has been in the United
States for 20 years; how long Sarah has been in the United States is
unknown. Sarah is a college graduate and the husband a high school
graduate. They are both fully employed. The husband is a “pump
operator” in two garages. The husband feels he is treated with dignity
on the job and is satisfied with his salary considering his ability.
He feels, however, that his boss has too much power over his life.
Sarah holds a management job and has been in the same job for ten
years. She provides more than half of the household income. Both
spouses are members of the Catholic Church.

Fights between Sarah and her husband started after two years of
marriage, when she could not get the things she wanted. In her words,
“Because of the economy, you cannot make it, even though we don’t live

in Troy or Bloomfield Hills.” Sarah described her husband as, “a male

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chauvinist pig,” because he expected her to do everything in the house
even though she was working long hours in her job. He would drink and
stay out all night, and if she questioned him, he would respond by
hitting her. She stated that she tried to be home for her husband and
children and also to have his dinner on the table, but it was hard to
do that after working long hours. She elaborated that when she was on
maternity leave, the situation got worse; in her words, “He wanted to
show that he was macho, it was like he owned me.” She said that she
was once separated from her husband and got together with him again
after one and a half years.

On a question about the reaction of her parents towards the abusive
relationship, she admitted that her parents did not like her husband,
but they did not interfere in their marriage because, according to
her, they knew that the situation would improve. Sarah stated that
according to Mex1can culture, an ideal husband is supposed to be hard
working and provide for the needs of the family. In addition, he is
accorded the power to tell everyone in his household what to do. On
the other hand, an ideal wife in Sarah's words is, “ A slave,
housewife, to have his dinner on the table, does not work, and has 50
million kids.”

Sarah thinks that the reason that fights were more frequent when
she was on maternity leave was that she was at home all the time. When
she went back to work, things improved because according to her, “ I
am the agitator, I was not there to nag him.” She also attributed
changes in abusive behavior to the fact that they were growing older

and therefore more understanding. She explained that her husband's

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expectations about her role as a wife have changed. He now shares in
household chores such as preparation of meals and disciplining
children. “He is so good to me now; separation gave him some time to
think. He found that living in America is not like living in Mexico.
He does not want me barefoot and pregnant; [he said] that eating beans
and rice is not a life.” Sarah now takes part in decisions that
involve the family; for example, she decides who should do particular
chores in the household. She shops for groceries, pays the family
bills, and drives the family car as much as her husband does.
According to her, times change and people also change. She maintains,
however, that it is very important to keep Mexican tradition and is
very proud of being Mexican. Both English and Spanish are spoken in
the household, and they still maintain contact with relatives in
Mexico.

In this household, Sarah was a college graduate and her husband was
a high school graduate. Although both were fully employed, more than
half of the household income was from the Sarah's job. Even so,
Sarah's husband was satisfied with his salary considering his ability.
Sarah attributed the lessening of the abuse she had experienced to
several factors. One was her work. She reported that the abuse was
worse when she was on maternity leave because she was home all the
time. Separating from her husband, Sarah said, helped because it gave
him time to think. In addition, she attributed changes to the fact
that they were both growing older and therefore more understanding

towards each other. She also stated that her husband's expectations

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about her role as a wife had changed; he now shares in household
chores such as preparation of meals and disciplining children.
According to this data, it seems that the husband was not able to
fulfill culturally prescribed roles, and therefore, not able to uphold
the principle of male superiority in the view of the wife. The wife
was highly educated and earning more; this was part of what led to the

power struggle and to spousal abuse.

Case 2 (ID #164)

This is a case in which different gender role expectations led to
strife. The presence of the extended family as an additional factor in
maintaining such ideas is also shown.

Thelma is 42 years old and her husband 51. They have 4 children who
live with them. The ages of three of their children are 17, 15, and
10; the age of the fourth child was not stated. There are 6 people in
the household, including the respondent. Thelma’s husband has an
eighth-grade education, and he is fully employed at a automobile
factory. He feels that the pay is not enough, considering his ability,
that his boss has too much power over his life, and that he is not
treated with dignity at work. Thelma has had “some college” and is
fully employed at “some clerical job.” More than half of the income in
this household is from Thelma's job. Thelma and her husband are both
members of the Catholic Church.

Thelma had experienced violence at home in the past. Her parents
had verbal as well as physical fights because her father was very

jealous. Her mother was also very strict with her children and did not

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give them time to play with their friends but encouraged them to
attend school and do home chores. Thelma stated that she was hit twice
by her mother. To resolve these fights, her mom bought her presents,
including a dress in one instance. One of these episodes was very
serious because her mother had used a metal wire, which bruised her
arms and legs. “The school called her, and my mom never hit me again.
I am thankful my mom did it to discipline me because look at how happy
and successful I am now. I wouldn't call her abusive, rather strict.”

Fights in this household started near the beginning of their
marriage. Thelma had a baby at the time and had just moved to the
United States to join her husband, who was staying with his
grandmother. Thelma at some stage decided to hit back at her husband,
as demonstrated by the grandmother's plea: “Don't hit my grandson,
please don't do that.” According to Thelma, the fights were mostly
triggered by “his laziness and unwillingness to change.” She wanted
her husband to go back to school, but all he did was watch television.
Thelma is a very active person, and her husband hates that as he wants
her to stay at home and watch television as well. “When I leave the
house, it causes more fights. He tells me I waste time and I should be
home, but I say we were not going anywhere anyway. The way my husband
thinks is very different than the way I think. Tomorrow is not
important to him, but it is for me and my kids. My husband has no
desire to change the way things are. He is not motivated to make
things better the way I am.” Thelma also stated that saying

“inappropriate things" to the other person contributes to fights. “For

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instance, I asked him to put a battery in the car. He refused to do
it. I got angry and said things I shouldn't have.”

Thelma stated that according to the Mexican culture, an ideal
husband should be the one who provides for the needs of the whole
family. According to her, her husband does not meet these
expectations. “He is working, but just because you work doesn't mean
that he’s responsible. He doesn’t try.” On the other hand, an ideal
wife should “be home, raising kids, pursuing dreams, behaving
properly, being a wife, mother, domestic engineer.” Thelma said that
she was trying to meet these expectations. “As a working mother and
wife, I try the best I can to be supportive of my family. I try to do
best with kids, try to teach them moral behavior, try the best I can
to lead them best way. At first, I wanted to have the choice to work,
but then in the USA, I realized I had to work. I wish I could give
100% at home but I can’t, working 12 hours per day.”

At the time of the interview, Thelma explained that there had been
positive changes in the household. She attributed these changes to the
fact that her husband's grandmother had moved out of the house, and
also her strategies to shut her mouth and get out of the house as
often as she could. “We talk and communicate now; too many people were
living in our house. When his grandmother moved out, it was better.”
Mexican culture is maintained in the household, as shown by the use of
Spanish, and Thelma is very proud of being Mexican. The family also
maintains contact with the husband’s relatives living outside Detroit.

Thelma was a college graduate and her husband's level of education

was eighth grade. They were both fully employed, Thelma was doing

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clerical work and her husband working at a car factory. More than half
of the household income was from Thelma; her husband felt that his
salary was inadequate considering his ability. Thelma wanted her
husband to go back to school, but according to her, he was lazy and
the future was not important to him. At the time of the interview,
conditions had improved in this household, and Thelma attributed this
to the fact that the grandmother who had been staying with them had
out. She also stated that she has devised a strategy of shutting her
mouth and getting out of the house as often as possible. They also
resolve some of the problems by talking, and according to her,
communication helps.

In this household, Thelma seems to be blaming her husband's
grandmother for interfering in their disputes and herself for saying

things that she should not have said to her husband.

Case 3 (ID #305)

This case illustrates the gender division of roles and male
superiority in the household. It also brings up the problem of
interference by relatives, which seems to aggravate misunderstanding
between husband and wife.

Dorah was 39 years old, her husband 42 and they had three children.
The oldest got married in March 1992 and was no longer staying with
them. The remaining two children were 13 and 12 years old. There were,
therefore, four people in this household. The husband had been in the
United States for 25 years. They were both members of the Catholic

Church, and neither had any formal schooling. The husband was fully

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employed as a “cement finisher.” Dorah was a “field outreach
technician,” a job that involved taking blood pressure and checking
urine for “sugar diabetes.” She had been employed in other jobs since
1983. Less than half of the family income was from the wife.

Dorah had experienced violence when she was growing up. Her parents
were involved in both physical and verbal fights because they both
drank alcohol. She elaborated that her mother was very jealous and her
father was actually her stepfather. During these fights, she was
sometimes hit by the stepfather when trying to stop him from hitting
her mother. Sometimes her “stepdad” would yell at her and she would go
to bed crying.

The fights between Dorah and her husband started early in their
marriage. Dorah described the financial state at that time as having
been a “shaky one” in the household. They disagreed about money and
payment of bills. “It was hard to please him because he would always
be counting the money.” Other fights, according to Dorah, were caused
by the interference of family members. The most serious fight was when
Dorah had a knife and initially wanted to kill him, but then decided
to back off because, according to her, “It was not worth it.” Dorah
stated that her husband wanted “. . . to be the head of the home. He
does not want me to be me. No 50-50 percent, no 75-25 percent.”
Another fight was triggered by what he said to her in front of his
family. “I was making a Mexican dish that I had done alone before. He
said, “Don't let her do it because she does not know how to do this.”

An ideal husband, according to Dorah, should be the sole supporter

of the family, a person who takes time to watch and play with his

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children. She described her husband as a person who “does not spend
enough time with his children.” The ideal wife, according to her, is
“the slave of the husband, a mother; she should be there for the
children. . . . I am a lousy homemaker and I guess wife too. I try to
be a friend to my children.”

Positive changes started when Dorah's oldest daughter turned 10
years of age. Communication improved as they began to listen to each
other's problems. “He is more understanding. . . . I don't tell him
certain things that might get him upset after a day at work.” She
elaborated that her husband began to know her, not what his family
told him about her. “Over the years, I would tell him that I am not
going to kiss his family’s butt.” She also motivated her husband by
saying that they were going to make it because “God does not tighten
the rope to choke them.” Dorah maintains that it is very important to
keep tradition and is very proud of being Mexican. Most of her friends
are Mexican, and she also maintains contact with relatives outside
Detroit. They speak both English and Spanish in the household; the
neighborhood is primarily non-Latino.

Dorah and her husband had no formal education, and less than half
of the household income was from Dorah. She was employed as a field
outreach technician and her husband was working as a cement finisher.
Dorah said that there were improvements in the household, abuse had
decreased. This she attributed to communication, listening to each
other's problems, and avoiding interference by the husband’s family
members. She also elaborated that she told her husband that she was

not going to let his family interfere in their marriage. Another

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31
strategy she used was not to tell her husband things that might upset
him, especially after a day at work. She also consoled her husband by
pointing out that whatever problems they encounter, God was always
there for them and they were going to make it.

Dorah blames the family and herself for the fights in the
household. According to her, the husband's family had an influence
over her husband; he listened to them rather than to her. She also
described herself as a “lousy homemaker” and “lousy wife,” which is an
indication that she sees herself as not being competent in performing

her roles.

Case 4 (ID #280)

This case deals with gender role expectations and the poor economic
situation related to unemployment of the husband.

Harriet and her husband were both 37 years old and had been married
for 20 years. They had four children, two of whom were living with
them, but information about their ages was not available. There were,
therefore, four people in the household, including the respondent. The
husband had been in the United States for 25 years, but Harriet's
duration of stay in the United States was not stated. Harriet was a
four—year college graduate, and her husband's level of education was
eighth grade. They were both fully employed. The husband was an
airplane caterer. The husband felt that the pay he got was not enough
considering his ability, though he was treated with dignity in the

job. Harriet’s income was more than her husband’s but information

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32
about her job is not available. They were both members of the Catholic
Church.

Harriet stated that fights in this household started early in their
marriage. According to her, the first five years of their marriage
were the most difficult financially, because they had very little, not
even a place of their own. They had relocated from Texas; her husband
could not speak English; and neither of them could find a job.
“Unemployment, financial difficulties, housing problems, we didn't
have a place of our own. He didn’t speak English. It was a terrible
time.” Their friends tried to help them find jobs, but it was
difficult because they had no skills. This situation resulted in anger
in both of them, which neither was able to verbalize. Harriet said
that she was the one who started the fights out of frustration. “The
first time we fought I was devastated; I never thought I could get so
angry. I slapped him and to my surprise he slapped me back." She went
on to state that in this particular episode they fought like two men.
It was a violent fight and stopped when they were both physically
exhausted. According to Harriet, an ideal husband should be
responsible for the financial support of the family and an ideal wife
for the domestic chores and keeping the family Mexican-oriented. She
stated that if her husband tried hard enough he could find a job. She
believed that her husband was obliged to support her.

At the time of the interview, there were positive changes in this
household in that the violent behavior had stopped. “It all stopped,
the physical and verbal fights. We've been married for almost 20

years. We've come a long way.” This she attributed to employment,

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advice, and therapy. They got advice from their clergy and they also
got into therapy where they got a lot of material on marriage to read.
They were then able to be partners in their marriage. When Harriet got
a job, her husband initially thought that she could cope with the
household chores together with being employed, but he soon realized
that she could not. He then started helping with household duties. She
stated, “It was difficult to be 100 percent mother, wife, and be
employed.” Harriet has also stated that in all their arguments she is
the one who always gets her way.

Harriet had experienced violence when she was growing up. Her
parents were involved in violent fights about women, alcohol, and
drugs. According to Harriet, these fights were never resolved, but her
parents would make up the following day as if nothing had happened.
Harriet was very proud of being Mexican, this was demonstrated by
speaking Spanish in the household. She also stated that it was very
important to maintain Mexican tradition.

Harriet was a college graduate, whereas her husband's level of
education was eighth grade. She was also earning more than her
husband, and her husband felt that the salary he was given was not
enough considering his ability. The husband was an airplane caterer,
but Harriet’s type of job has not been stated. Harriet stated that
decrease in violence was experienced when her husband was employed.
She also attributed change to advice from their clergy and to therapy
where they got reading material on marriage.

In this household, Harriet blamed the poor economic situation and

herself for domestic violence. She stated that unemployment of her

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34
husband frustrated her, and according to her, it was the role of the

husband to support her.

Case 5 (ID #255)

This case deals with a poor economic situation despite the fact
that both husband and wife are employed. The inability to meet the
basic needs of the family culminates into stress which leads to
fights.

Barbara’s age has not been stated in the data, but her husband was
30 years old, and they had two young children. There were seven people
in the household, including the respondent, but it was not clear what
relation they were to the couple. The husband had been in the United
States for 20 years, but no information was noted about the wife. Her
husband left Mexico for the United States because he did not have a
good job there. The level of education of the husband has been stated
as “some high school” and hers as seventh grade. They were both fully
employed. The husband was a construction laborer. He felt that the
salary he was given was enough considering his ability, but admitted
that he was not treated with dignity on the job and also that his boss
had too much power over his life. Barbara was employed at a school
preparing food and had been in this job for one year. Less than half
income in the household was from Barbara's job. They were both members
of the Catholic Church.

An ideal husband, according to Barbara, is supposed to be
hardworking, responsible, and fulfill family obligations. The ideal

wife should stay at home and fulfill her obligations to the family.

PW

 

 

 

[II

II

If

35
Barbara experienced violence at her home when she was growing up. Her
parents fought and sometimes stopped talking to each other for days.
When the children had done something wrong, her father put the blame
on her mother. There were also financial problems, and in addition,
her father was cheating on her mother.

Violence in Barbara's household started at the beginning of their
marriage, to such a degree that at some stage her parents commented
that they should not have married. Barbara stated that economic
pressure makes people to act in a way they would not normally act.
“Cuando se esta soltera se piensa mas bien, se idealiza el matrimonio
pero cuando se vive la realidad es muy duro.” (When one is single, one
idealizes marriage, but when one hits reality, it is very hard).
Barbara sees financial security in the household as very important for
the future of the children. On the other hand, she said her husband
does not care and does not show any responsibility for the welfare of
the children. Her husband does not worry about anything; he says that
money comes and goes. According to Barbara, the majority of bad things
happened when her husband was drunk. He would go to parties without
telling her and expect her not to be upset when he came back.

Barbara stated that she once left her husband and stayed with her
grandmother because she wanted a divorce. Her husband got there and
took their child by force for the whole day. He told her that if he
called the police, she would never see the child again. She then went
back and stayed with him, “Soportar la vida que llevo, sin estar de
acuerdo con ella.” (To put up with the life I have, without agreeing

to it). At the time of the interview, there was no improvement in the

 

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36
violent behavior in this household. Barbara stated, “Ese problema es
muy dificil porque la mayoria de las veces una acepta las cosas aun
cuando tu no estes de acuerdo, por evitar problemas.” (That problem is
very difficult because the majority of times one accepts things, even
when you do not agree, in order to avoid conflict).

In this household the wife’s level of education has been stated as
seventh grade and that of the husband as “some high school.” The wife
was contributing less than half income in the household, and the
husband, though his salary was more than his wife’s, felt that it was
not enough considering his ability. The husband was employed at a
construction firm and the wife in a school preparing food. Barbara
escaped abuse once by going to stay with her grandmother, but she had
to go back to her husband when he took their child and threatened her
that if she called the police, she would never see the child again.
She went on to say that she simply accepts things as they are, though
she is not happy about them, just to avoid violence.

Barbara blames alcohol for the behavior of her husband and blames
herself for wanting things she knew they could not afford. She also
put the blame for their poor financial state on the number of people

in the household, which she said was seven, including herself.

Case 6 (ID #552)

In this household, there was a power struggle related to the fact
that the husband was unemployed and the wife was employed. A change in
gender roles between the husband and wife was accompanied by domestic

violence.

 

i|III III.

37

Mikie was 37 years old and her husband was 39. They had three
children, the oldest of whom was 12 years old, making five people in
the household, including the respondent. The husband had been in the
United States for 25 years, but no information was noted about the
wife. Mikie was a high school graduate and her husband‘s level of
education has been described as “some high school.” They were both
fully employed. Mikie was employed as a secretary at General Motors
lien department, and more than half of the family income was from her
job. Her husband was employed as a bartender at Wendy's. The husband
felt that his salary was inadequate considering his ability, though he
strongly agreed that he was treated with dignity on the job. They were
both members of the Catholic Church.

An ideal husband, according to Mikie, is supposed to have high
expectations and be supportive of his children’s achievement. An ideal
wife, on the other hand, should stay at home and watch the children
all the time. She does not remember any violence at her home when she
was growing up. In the household, both English and Spanish are spoken.
Mikie felt that it was very important to maintain tradition and was
also very proud of being Mexican.

Mikie stated that when violence started in her household the
financial situation was bad because her husband was not employed. He
is has epilepsy, and it was difficult for him to get a job, so she was
the only one who was employed. Mikie stated that the fights would
start over petty things, such as who should own the dogs in the
household. Her husband once confessed that he was jealous of their

older son. In one of these episodes, her husband went out to drink and

 

 

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S .N WW3 “Um.

I
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38
when he came back they argued even more; he then threw a plastic
basket at her.

At the time of the interview, the situation in this household had
improved in that there were no fights anymore. Mikie attributed this
to the employment of her husband. She stated that her husband is very
helpful now; he cooks and helps with kids. The only thing that upsets
him is the fact that he cannot drive the family car because he has
epilepsy. The changes, according to Mikie, were first experienced four
years ago. Now that he has a job, Mikie’s husband does not want her to
work. She stated that, “He got used to me being at home because I was
laid off from work." A strategy devised by the wife to avoid conflict
in the household is to discuss things together because, according to
her, it is of no use to fight because they have responsibilities. In
addition, to discussions she said, “If there is a subject that bothers
him, I’ll skip it and figure it out for myself.”

In this household, the wife states that she was a high school
graduate and she has described her husband's level of education as
“some high school.” She was employed as a secretary at General Motors,
while her husband was a bartender at Wendy's. The wife was earning
more than the husband, and according to her, her husband felt that the
salary he got was not enough considering his abilities. The wife
stated that what contributed to lessening of fights in the household
was the employment of her husband; initially she was the only one who
was employed. When her husband got a job, fights stopped but he wanted

the wife to stop working. She said that discussing things together

 

 

 

H537

39
helped. In addition, she avoids violence by not bringing up things she
knows would upset her husband.

Mikie attributed domestic violence to the unemployment of her
husband and to the fact that he felt that she was giving more
attention to their eldest son than to him. Therefore, domestic
violence was a way of getting attention from the wife. It has also
been noted that when the husband was employed, he wanted the wife to

stop working.

Case 7 (ID #461)

This case illustrates domination of women by men and how the
existing status quo could be perpetuated by relatives.

Cindy was 28 years old and her husband was 34. They had 5 children,
the oldest of whom was 10 years old. There were seven people in the
household, including the respondent. The husband had been in the
United States for 20 years. The level of education for both of them
was 7th grade. They were both fully employed. The wife was working at
a clothes factory, and less than half of the household income was from
her job. The husband was working at a construction company, and he
felt that the pay he got was inadequate considering his ability and
that his boss had too much power over his life. They were both members
of the Catholic Church.

Cindy considered an ideal husband to be one who treats his wife
well, is hard working, and takes care of his children. An ideal wife,
according to her, should be hardworking, a good wife, and patient with

the kids. She never witnessed violence at her home when she was

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40
growing up because she did not have a father. She is very proud of
being Mexican and also feels that it is very important to maintain
tradition. They speak Spanish in the household, and the majority of
her friends are Mexican.

Fights in this household did not start at the beginning but during
the course of the marriage. The first time they were involved in a
fight, her husband was drunk and Cindy’s sister told him things that
were not true. During this episode, he had a knife and wanted to kill
Cindy and her mother. She explained, “Me golpio, me avento al piso y
me pego mucho, llore.” (He hit me and threw me to the floor and hit a
lot. I cried). They were separated after this episode, and she stayed
with her mother. Her relatives were very happy when they were
separating, but they got back together again after a short time. They
went for counseling, and her husband stopped drinking for two months,
but after that things became the same as before. She said that
sometimes her husband would get drunk and demand food that sometimes
they did not have and fighting would ensue. Describing another
episode, she said, “Estabamos viendo una pelicula con las ninas y
luego no quiso verla, me cogio y me golpio. (We were watching a movie
with my daughters and then he did not want to see it, he grabbed and
hit me). The reason was he did not like the movie they were watching.
A friend of her husband’s helped her by stopping him from continuing
to hit her; she did not hit back.

At the time of the interview, the situation in this household was
still grave, because her husband had not changed. Cindy stated that

her husband did not want her to participate in decisions and that

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41
everything was resolved his own way; this frustrates her. In addition,
he does not want the children to make noise and punishes them for
doing so. “Le molestaba que los ninos jugaran, gritaran, etc.” (It
bothered him that the kids played and screamed, etc.). Cindy explained
that she was not sure what actually bothered her husband about her,
but she was aware that his family never loved her. She stated that she
tries to avoid being beaten by trying to keep him happy and avoiding
doing things he does not like. She always asks for forgiveness because
she does not want to be beaten in front of the children. What she
would like to do to improve the state of her marriage is for her
husband to go for counseling to stop drinking. She admits, however,
that the situation is not as bad as it used to be, because her husband
no longer expects supper on the table like he used to. “He has
mellowed with age."

In this household, both spouses' level of education was seventh
grade. The husband was working at a construction company and was
earning more than the wife. She stated, however, that her husband felt
that his salary was not enough considering his ability. Cindy stated
that although the situation in her house was still not good, abuse has
decreased slightly; this she attributed to getting older. Counseling
also helped for two months but then her husband stopped going to
appointments. She also avoids being beaten by trying to keep him happy
and avoiding doing things he does not like. Sometimes she asks her
husband to forgive her because, according to her, she does not want

her husband to beat her in front of the children. She also lets her

42
husband make all the decisions in the household and does not
participate at all.

Cindy blames alcohol for violence in the household; she says that
in all the instances in which she was assaulted, her husband was
drunk. She also blamed interference of other people in their affairs;
for example, her sister told her husband things she was not supposed
to have said, which resulted in her and her mother being nearly
killed. She also blamed the husband's relatives because, she said,
they never liked her and that could be related to the attitude of her

husband towards her.

Case 8 (ID #76)

This case shows how stress brought about by unemployment affected
the behavior of the husband and how stress was managed by the husband.

Sakie was 30 years old and her husband was 37. They had one child,
whose age has not been stated. There is no information about the
number of people in the household or how long they have been in the
United States. Neither spouse had formal education. Sakie was not
employed, but her husband was working at a factory. They were not
members of any Church.

An ideal husband, according to Sakie, should provide for the needs
of the family, and the ideal wife should be submissive, obedient and
have many children. Sakie had no experience of violence at her home
when she was growing up. She felt that it was very important to
maintain tradition and was also very proud of being Mexican They spoke

Spanish in the household and most of her friends were Mexican.

43

Sakie explained that gambling and alcohol changed her household,
from a happy home to one full of fights. She elaborated that her
husband even spends the household money on these pleasures. These
changes started three to four years ago, “. . .despues de que el
perdio el trabajo fijo que tenia y ahora vamos de un lugar de aqui y
para alla, y prontito, nos mudamos para otro lugar a ver que hay de
mejorar.” (. . . when he lost his job, which was stable, and now we go
from one place to another. Very soon we will move to another place. We
will see if things get better). She elaborated that her husband was
not honest; he cheats on her and denies it. At some stage, they lived
apart because of these problems. Sometimes he would promise to take
her to a place but at the appointed time he would fail to turn up. She
would get very angry and the fighting would then start. She said, “El
es muy boca grande, dira muchas cosas, muy repelon." (He has a big
mouth, he will say many things). She went on to say, “Pues que a mi me
gusta que me lleve a bailar y el siempre con sus amigos.” (Well, I
would like him to take me dancing, but he is always with friends).

At the time of the interview, there was no improvement in this
situation. Sakie attributed this to drinking and lack of understanding
between her and her husband. She said, “Nunca mejor, de peor.” (Never
better, it gets worse and worse). She stated that she has changed; she
listens and is more creative now, but her husband has not changed.
Because she wants her marriage to stay intact, however, she has
decided not to tell her husband anything that might get him upset and

thus lead to violence.

44

In this household, neither Sakie nor her husband had any formal
education. Sakie was not employed, but her husband was working at a
factory temporarily. Sakie stated that because she wants her marriage
to work, she has decided not to tell her husband anything that might
upset him and lead to violence. She also elaborated that she has
changed, but her husband has not.

Sakie blamed unemployment for the behavior of her husband.
According to her, domestic violence coincided with her husband's loss
of a stable job. She also blamed alcohol because her husband even
spends household money for alcohol, and fights are triggered when he

is confronted with these allegations.

Case 9 (ID #466)

This case illustrates domination of women by men and the strategies
used to enforce male authority in the household.

Lilly was 57 years old and her husband was 66. They had four
children, two of whom were grown and longer living at home. Therefore,
there were four people in the household, including the respondent.
Lilly had been in the United States for 39 years and her husband for
44 years. Lilly was a high school graduate, but she was not sure of
the standard of education of her husband. Lilly was employed as a
cook, and her husband was a retired steel worker. They were both
members of the Catholic Church.

An ideal husband, according to Lilly, is a man who is considerate
and loving to his wife, responsible and working for the family. On the

other hand, an ideal wife, according to her, “una tonta” (is a dummy)

45
of the husband and should take care of the home. Lilly had experienced
violence at her home when she was growing up. Her parents fought
because her father was very particular about food. When he was
dissatisfied with what had been prepared, he would throw his plate on
the floor. Lilly explained that her mother never talked back when
confronted by her dad. Lilly was very proud of being Mexican and felt
that it was very important to keep tradition. They spoke Spanish in
the household, and most of her friends were Mexican.

Lilly stated that fights in this household started at the beginning
of their marriage; her husband was not employed at the time and she
was pregnant. Her husband gambled and drank a lot at the time, and she
had no one to share her frustrations with. She went on to explain that
her husband is “macho”; he does not give her a chance to give an
opinion, and he always has the last word. Arguing and questioning his
behavior led to fights. At the time of the interview, the situation
had not completely improved. Lilly stated that communication is very
strained in their household because her husband is always angry. On
very few occasions he asks to be forgiven. Lilly attributes his
behavior to the fact that he was abused as a child. Lilly stated that
there are slight changes in her household now because her husband no
longer gambles or drinks and that the style of abuse has changed from
physical to verbal. She attributed these changes to the fact that her
husband is now old and sickly.

In this case, Lilly was a high school graduate but she does not
remember the level of education of her husband. Her husband was a

retired steelworker, and Lilly was still working as a cook. She stated

46

that fights in this household started when her husband was not
employed. She said that some change in the abusive situation has
occurred because her husband is now old and sickly. She does not offer
her opinions in the household; her husband always has the last word.

Lilly attributed the behavior of her husband to the fact that he
was abused as a child. She also blamed alcohol and gambling for
domestic violence; according to her, now that her husband has stopped

drinking and gambling, fights have stopped in the household.

Summary of Information about Violent Households

Eight of the nine respondents experienced domestic violence early
in the marriage. Looking at the ages of the women, which range from 30
to 57 years, shows that they were young when fights started. Also they
had young children when the fights started. One respondent (Dorah)
pointed out that a decrease in violence in her household was
experienced when her daughter was ten years old. Another respondent
(Mikie) stated that when she experienced domestic violence in her
household, her husband confessed that he was jealous of their older
son because he was getting more attention from her. Now that the son
and the couple are older, violence has decreased.

All nine respondents had similar beliefs about what they considered
to be ideal roles, for example all of them regarded the husbands as
being responsible for providing for the needs of family. They regarded
women as being responsible for the home and not involved in working
outside the home setting. The data has shown that four husbands

initially did not want to participate in household chores and regarded

47
such activities as part of women's roles, even though their wives were
employed. Related to belief in ideal roles, one woman (Thelma)
expressed regret that she was not able to give 100 percent of her time
to her children and the household because she was employed. All nine
respondents were proud of being Mexican, and they felt that it was
very important to keep tradition. Spanish was spoken in six out of
nine households.

Four husbands out of nine did not allow their wives to participate
in decisions in the household. Seven respondents stated that their
husbands wanted to be the authority figures in the household. This is
how one of the respondents (Dorah) expressed her views about her
husband, “He does not want me to be me, no 50-50 percent, no 75-25
percent, he wants to be the head of the home.” Another respondent
(Lilly) said about her husband, “He is macho, he is always right. He
always gives the last word.”

The wives tend to blame outside factors for the behavior of their
husbands rather than holding the husbands themselves responsible for
their behavior. Four women out of nine blamed themselves for being
abused. For example, Sarah stated that her bossiness triggered the
violent behavior of her husband; the violence increased when she was
home on maternity leave and lessened when she went back to work.
Thelma pointed out that she said things that she was not supposed to
have said to her husband, in addition to the blaming her husband's
grandmother, who was living with them, for being a bad influence on
her husband. Dorah blamed herself for not being competent in

performing household chores and the husband’s family for being a bad

48
influence on her husband, which led to domestic violence. Barbara
blamed herself for being ambitious and wanting things she knew they
could not afford. Other factors to which the respondents attributed
the abusive behavior of the husbands included family members, alcohol,
and unemployment. Cindy blamed relatives for telling her husband
things that were not true and also drinking too much alcohol for
changing the behavior of her husband. Lilly attributed the behavior of
her husband to the fact that he was abused as a child, in addition to
blaming alcohol. Sakie blamed alcohol for the abusive behavior of her
husband; according to her, all the times she was abused, her husband
had been drunk. Harriet and Mikie blamed their husbands’ unemployment
for their abuse; they pointed out that when their husbands found jobs,
the abuse stopped. We should note that all of the husbands drank
alcohol.

Table 1 illustrates the level of education and income of the wife
relative to that of her husband and list the factors that are believed
to have brought change in the abusive behavior of the husband.

Three women are more educated than their husbands, two women and
their husbands have no formal education, two have the same level of
education as their husbands, and one is less educated than her
husband. The remaining wife was not sure about the level of education
of her husband; she was a high school graduate. Four women were
earning more than their husbands, three were earning less than their
husbands, one was not employed, and the husband of the remaining woman
had retired but she was still employed. Four women attributed a

decrease in abusive behavior to the fact that their husbands were now

49
older; four of the women attributed it to better communication with
their husbands; five devised strategies of keeping quiet, including
not telling their husbands things that might upset them; three said
that leaving their husbands gave their husbands time to think; two
said advice, including counseling or therapy had been helpful; and two

said employment of their husbands helped to lessen the fights.

Nonviolent Households

Domestic violence entails both physical and verbal fights, but in
this paper only physical fights, that is, delivering a blow or using a
gun, a knife, or any other weapon against the wife, are considered.
Other kinds of fights that do not meet these criteria are grouped
under nonviolent households. Therefore, cases that are discussed in
this section involved no physical domestic violence as defined in this

study.

Case 1 (ID #53)

The husband was 47 years old, and the wife was 34. There is no
information about their duration of stay in the United States. They
had three children, and therefore, there were five people in the
household, including the respondent. The husband was employed full
time as a court interpreter and was satisfied with the salary he was
getting considering his ability. The wife was not employed. The level
of education of the wife was given as “some high school,” but no
information about the level of education of the husband was noted.

They were both members of the Catholic Church.

TABLE 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a. Education of wife in relation to that of husband.

b. Income of wife in relation to that of husband.

VIOLENT HOUSEHOLDS
Name Education' Incomeb Change in Violence Attributed to:
1. Sarah More educated More 1. Wife going back to work
2. Husband getting older
3. Husband’s role expectations changed
2. Thelma More educated More 1. “Talking and communicating
2. Grandmother moved out
3. Shuts her mouth
_ 4. Getting out of the house often
3. Dorah No formal Less 1. Getting older
schooling 2. Communicating. understanding.
for either and listening to each other
3. Not telling him upsetting things
4. Harriet More educated More 1. Employment for both
2. Advice from clergy
3. Therapy on maniage
5. Barbara Less educated Less 1. Puts up with the situation as is
2. Leaving the house
6. Mikie Same level More 1.Employment of husband
for both 2. Discussing things together
3. Not telling husband upsetting news
7. Cindy 7th grade Less 1. Counseling
for both 2. Keeping husband happy
3. Not doing things he does not like
4. Asks for forgiveness
5. Husband got older
6. Leaving the husband
8. Sakie No formal Wife not 1. Not telling husband upsetting things
education employed 2. She is now a good listener
for either
9. Lilly Wife high Wife 1. Husband got old
school but employed. 2. Husband got sickly
not sure of husband
husband retired
Notes:

51

On a question about what she thinks an ideal husband should do, the
wife said that a husband should be hardworking and should take care of
his family. Asked about the alcohol intake of the husband, she pointed
out that he did drink alcohol. An ideal wife to her should love and
care for the husband and children. The wife had not experienced
violence at her home when she was growing up, but occasionally her
parents yelled at each other loudly. They maintain contact with
relatives outside the 0.3. The wife is proud of being Mexican, and she
says it is very important to maintain tradition. They speak English in
the household. On a question of how she manages to keep the household
free from violence, she said that she tries to avoid the things that
she knows would upset her husband. According to her, this has been
very effective in preventing conflict.

In this household the, level of education of the wife has been
stated as “some high school”; there is no information about the level
of education of the husband. The wife was not employed, and the
husband was employed as a court interpreter. The wife stated that the
strategy she used to avoid violence was not to do the things she knew

that the husband did not like.

Case 2 (ID #201)

The husband was 63 years old and the wife was 60. The husband had
been in the 0.5. for 48 years, and the wife for 38 years. They had
three children, but there were only three people, including the
respondent, in the household. The husband was retired, but the wife

was working as a teacher's assistant with small children. The wife was

52
a high school graduate, and the husband's level of education was
eighth grade. They were both members of the Catholic Church.

According to the wife, an ideal husband should be responsible for
the family and fulfill his obligations, and the wife should be
responsible for raising the children. They maintain contact with
relatives outside the U.S. To her it is very important to maintain
Mexican tradition, and she is very proud of being Mexican. They speak
Spanish in the household. The wife had not experienced violence at her
home when she was growing up. According to her, the key to avoiding
violence in the household is to have love, communication, and mutual
respect for each other.

In this household, the wife was more educated than her husband; she
was a high school graduate, and her husband’s level of education was
given as eighth grade. The husband had retired, and the wife was still
working as a teacher's assistant; there is no information about the
salary differences when the husband was still employed. The husband
drank alcohol. The wife stated that communication is a good method of

avoiding violence in her household.

Case 3 (ID #142)

The husband was 36 years old and the wife was 35. The information
about the duration of stay in the U.S. is missing for both. There is
no information about the number of children they had, but there were
three people in the household, including the respondent. They both had
“some post-BA training.” They were both employed full time. The wife

was employed as a nursing technician, and the husband was doing office

53
work. There is no information about their salaries. They were both
members of the Catholic Church.

On a question about what she thinks an ideal husband should be, she
said, “Aunque los tiempos han cambiado pero dentro de nuestra cultura
hay la expectativa de que el es el proveedor principal economicamente
hablando.” (Even though times have changed in our culture, there is
still the expectation that he is the major provider economically).
The wife, according to her, should be responsible for the home and
raising the children. The wife in this case had no experience of
violence at her home when she was growing up.

The wife felt that it was very important to keep tradition and was
very proud of being Mexican. They maintain contact with relatives
outside the U.S., and they also speak Spanish in the household. On a
question of how she manages to avoid violence in her household, she
said that communication helps in preventing threatening behavior in
the household.

In this household, both husband and wife had “some post-BA
training.” They were both employed, the husband was doing office work
and the wife as a nursing technician. No information was given about
their salaries. The wife considered communication to be effective in

preventing violence in her household.

Case 4 (ID #443)
The ages of both husband and wife are missing for this couple, as
is their duration of stay in the U.S. They had three children, but the

information about the number of people in the household is also

54
missing. In addition, there is no information about the level of
education of the couple or the employment status.

An ideal husband, according to the wife, should be a good worker
and able to provide for the needs of the family. The wife should be
submissive, a servant, and be protective towards the family. The wife
experienced violence at her home when she was growing up. According to
her, her father was an alcoholic and abused her mother both physically
and verbally. According to her, these were bad fights, involving the
police, hospitalization, and her mother's leaving the house.

They maintain contact with relatives outside the U.S, but the
information about how proud she is of being Mexican is missing. On the
question about how she maintains to keep the household free from
violence, she said that both she and her husband became born again
Christians in 1988. This, according to her, made them to grow mentally
and spiritually, and it gave them a new understanding of themselves.

In this household, the information about the level of education of
both husband and wife is missing, as is their employment status. The
wife stated that joining the Pentecostal Church has been very helpful

in preventing violence in the household.

Case 5 (ID #656)

The husband was 46 years old and the wife was 42. The husband had
been in the U.S. for 20 years and the wife for 15 years. They had five
children; therefore, there were seven people in the household. The
level of education for both was given as seventh grade, and both were

members of the Catholic Church. They were both employed full time at

55
the same factory. The wife started working when her husband had an
accident at work, which led to him being disabled. Less than half of
the family income is from the wife, but the husband felt that his
salary was not enough considering his ability.

What the wife considers to be an ideal husband is somebody who
provides for the needs of the family; an ideal wife is expected to be
a housewife. The wife did not experience violence when she was growing
up. They maintain contact with relatives outside the 0.3, and the wife
feels that it is very important to keep tradition. They speak Spanish
in the household, and the wife is very proud of being Mexican. On a
question about her efforts in avoiding violence, she said that when
they have a problem, they talk about it and do not stop until they
reach an agreement.

In this household, both husband and wife had an education level of
seventh grade. They were both employed full-time in the same factory.
The salary of the wife is less than that of her husband. The wife

stated that talking helps in preventing violence in her household.

Case 6 (ID #586)

The husband was 60 years old and the wife 49. The husband had been
in the U.S. for 49 years and the wife for 30. They had three children;
there were five people in the household. The husband was a high school
graduate, and the wife had “some college.” They were both employed
full time, the husband as a repairer of cranes at Crane Wright and the

wife as a teacher's aide at an elementary school. Less than half of

56
the household income was from the wife's employment. They were both
members of the Catholic Church.

An ideal husband, according to the wife, provides for the needs of
the family, and an ideal wife should wait until children are at of
school age before being employed. If this was not possible, the
children should be left with relatives because nurseries are not
trustworthy. The wife has no experience of physical violence from her
home when she was growing up, but her parents were involved in verbal
fights. They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. They
have an aunt and a cousin living in Lansing, but the rest of the
family is in Mexico.

The wife is very proud of being Mexican and to her it is very
important to keep tradition. They speak English in the household. On a
question about her efforts in avoiding violence, she said that the
family has to be surrounded by love. This, according to her, is
achieved by communication, sharing, and understanding each other. She
also said that violence is prevented by being brought up in a
nonviolent home.

In this household, the wife was more educated than the husband; she
had attended college, and the husband was a high school graduate. They
were both employed full-time, the husband fixing cranes and the wife
as a teacher’s aide. The salary of the wife was less than that of her
husband. The wife stated that communication was effective in her
household as a means of avoiding violence, and added that when one had
been brought up in a nonviolent household, violence in ones own

household was less likely.

57

Case 7 (ID #623)

The husband was 65 years old and the wife was 70. They had been in
the U.S. for 30 years. They had two children; there were four people
in the household. The husband was a retired college professor and had
a master’s degree; the wife was a high school graduate and had worked
as a saleswoman for three years. Less than half of the household
income was from her. They were both members of the Catholic Church.

According to the wife, an ideal husband should be the breadwinner
and provide for the needs of the household. An ideal wife should not
be employed for the first five years but tend to the husband and the
children. Information about past experience of violence is missing.
They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very
proud of being Mexican, and to her it is important to keep tradition.
They speak English in the household. On a question about how she
manages to avoid violence in the household she said, “Everything that
I could do, like completing my obligations so that there is no
discord.”

The wife was less educated than the husband. The husband was a
retired college professor and had a master's degree. The wife was a
high school graduate and had worked as a saleswoman at one stage, but
her salary was less than her husband’s. The wife stated that she

avoids violence in her household by completing her obligations.

58

Case 8 (ID #459)

The husband was 39 years old and the wife was 33. The husband had
been in the U.S. for 20 years while the wife had been in the 0.8. for
10 years. They had six children, and there were nine people in the
household, including the respondent. They were both employed full-
time. The husband was working at a construction company, and he felt
that his salary was not enough considering his abilities. The wife had
been working at a factory for sixteen years, and less than half of the
household income was from her. The husband was a high school graduate,
and the wife's level of education has been given as seventh grade.
There is no information about religious affiliation for either. She
pointed out that her husband started drinking alcohol after the death
of their baby and a 12-year-old son.

According to her, an ideal husband should be a good provider and
pass the trials of parenthood. The wife should obey her husband and
stay at home. The wife experienced violence when she was growing up;
her parents fought because her father used to spend money on alcohol.
They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very
proud of being Mexican and feels it is very important to keep
tradition. They speak Spanish in the household.

The wife explains that her husband left her in Mexico while he
worked in the U.S. for five months a year. They could not get along
very well then because, according to her, she was very jealous of his
being in the U.S. They never had physical fights, but sometimes they

had verbal fights. The strategy she used when she arrived in the U.S.

59
was to go to the Pentecostal Church with her husband. According to
her, the word of God brought changes to their relationship.

In this household, the wife was less educated than her husband; her
education level was seventh grade and her husband was a high school
graduate. They were both employed full-time, the wife working at a
factory and the husband at a construction company. The salary of the
wife was less than the husband. The strategy for avoiding violence,

according to the wife, was joining the Pentecostal Church.

Case 9 (ID #343)

The husband was 30 years old and the wife was 31. The wife had been
in the U.S. for 11 years, but there is no information about the
husband. They had two children, and there were five people in the
household, including the respondent. The level of education for both
of them was seventh grade. The wife was not employed, and the husband
was employed part-time by a construction company. According to the
wife, however, he fixes cars as well, and the yard was filled with old
cars. The husband was not affiliated to any church, but the wife was a
member of a Protestant church.

The wife said that an ideal husband should be employed, respectful,
and friendly to his children. An ideal wife should be a housewife and
be hardworking. The wife had no experience of violence at her home
when she was growing up. They maintain contact with relatives outside
Detroit. The wife is very proud of being Mexican and feels that it is

important to maintain tradition. They speak English in the household.

60

At the beginning of the marriage, according to the wife, her
husband could not buy food for the family and would not sleep at home
sometimes. At that time, they stayed with her mother-in-law for two
years. According to her, what her husband earned went to his mother,
and she was the one who decided everything. When they moved to their
own place, there was a change. But she stated that they were never
involved in physical fights, only verbal ones occasionally. The
strategy she used to avoid violence was, “When he is speaking, I do
not say anything. I wait an hour or two and then I go and speak with
him.”

In this household, the level of education for both husband and wife
was seventh grade. The wife was not employed and the husband was
working part-time at a construction company. The wife's strategy for

avoiding violence is to keep quiet when her husband is speaking.

Case 10 (ID #211)

In this household, the husband was 43 years old and the wife was 40
years old. There is no information about the duration of stay in the
U.S. for either of them. They had four children, and the there were
six people, including the respondent, in the householdf The wife was a
high school graduate, and the husband’s level of education was given
as eighth grade. They were both employed full-time. The husband was a
welder and was satisfied with the salary he was getting. The wife was
employed at a restaurant as a cook, and less than half of the

household income was from her. They were both members of the Catholic

61
Church. On a question pertaining to alcohol intake, the wife noted
that her husband drank alcohol.

An ideal husband, according to the wife, should provide for the
needs of the family. The wife should be a housewife and not be
employed outside the home. There is no information pertaining to the
experience of violence by the wife when she was growing up. They
maintain contact with the husband’s family outside Detroit. They visit
both families in Texas every two years. The wife is very proud of
being Mexican and feels it is very important to keep tradition. They
speak English in the household.

In this household, the wife stated that they never had physical
fights but sometimes did have verbal fights. She said her husband is
very jealous. He does not like it when she wears makeup, mini skirts,
or hot pants. Sometimes they have disagreements about the children
because her husband does not want the children to go out at night.
According to the wife, there was nothing wrong with the children going
out at night. She said, “It is the nineties.” The strategies used by
the wife to avoid violence include getting the children home before
her husband comes home. She also stopped wearing things he did not
like.

The wife was more educated than the husband; she was a high school
graduate, and the husband’s level of education was eighth grade. They
were both employed full-time, the wife working as a cook in a
restaurant and the husband as a welder. The salary of the wife was
less the that of her husband. Her strategy of avoiding violence was to

stop wearing the clothes her husband did not want her to wear. She

62
also made her children be at home by the time her husband returned

from work.

Case 11 (ID #84)

In this household, both husband and wife were 34 years old. The
husband had been in the U.S. for 12 years and the wife for 15 years.
They had two children; there were four people in the household,
including the respondent. The wife was a high school graduate, and the
husband's level of education was given as seventh grade. The husband
was employed, but there is no information about the type of job. The
wife stated, however, that the husband felt that the salary he was
getting was not enough considering his ability. The wife worked
temporarily for three years after the wedding, but she is not employed
now. They were both members of the Catholic Church. On a question
pertaining to the intake of alcohol, she stated that her husband did
drink alcohol.

According to the wife, an ideal husband should be a good role model
to the kids and have some responsibility for the family. An ideal wife
should be obedient, submissive, and make the children a priority. The
wife had not experienced violence at her home when she was growing up,
but she did have arguments with her parents when she wanted to have a
boyfriend. They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The
wife was very proud of being Mexican and felt that it was very
important to keep tradition. They spoke Spanish in the household.

In this household, according to the wife, they never had physical

fights but had verbal ones at the beginning of the marriage. She said

63
that she found a telephone number and confronted her husband about it
and they argued. She said her husband was a womanizer and a liar, and
they once lived apart because of these problems. The wife stated that
what prevented these arguments from escalating was communication. She
sometimes asks her husband to calm down and they discuss their
problems openly.

In this household, the wife was more educated than the husband; she
was a high school graduate, and the level of education of her husband
was seventh grade. The wife was not employed, but the husband was
employed. The wife stated that communication was an effective method

in preventing violence in the household.

Case 12 (ID #561)

The husband was 34 years old, and the wife was 29. The wife had
been in the U.S. for 11 years, but the information about the duration
of the period in the U.S. for the husband is missing. They had four
children; the number of people in the household was given as six,
including the respondent. The level of education for both husband and
wife was given as eighth grade. They were both employed full-time. The
husband was employed by a construction company and was satisfied with
the salary he was getting. The wife was working at a cleaner, and less
than half of the household income was from her. They were both members
of the Catholic Church. On a question pertaining to the intake of
alcohol, she stated that her husband did drink alcohol.

The wife considers an ideal husband to be one who is employed; an

ideal wife stays at home and takes care of the children. The wife

64
experienced violence when she was growing up; her parents argued and
sometimes her father hit her mother. She said that her father always
cheated on her mother. They maintain contact with relatives outside
Detroit. The wife is very proud of being Mexican, and she feels it is
important to keep tradition. They speak Spanish in the household.

At first, the husband did not want his wife to be employed. They
never had physical fights, just verbal ones at the beginning of their
marriage. One time, she was arguing with her husband's sister when she
suddenly slammed the door; the glass broke and cut her and the
argument escalated. She said that she avoided conflict now by not
talking back. She says that change has occurred because they are both
mature now. The things that affected her then no longer affect her.
She added that before she was less understanding now she understands
her husband better.

The level of education of both husband and wife was eighth grade.
They were both employed full-time, the wife at a cleaner and the
husband at a construction company. The salary of the wife was less
than that of her husband. She stated that being more mature helped in

preventing violence in the household.

Case 13 (ID #183)

The husband was 62 years old and the wife was 64. The wife had been
in the U.S. for 34 years, but there is no information about the
duration of period in the U.S. for the husband. They had six children,
but there were two people in the household, including the respondent.

They were both high school graduates, and the husband was employed

65
full-time as a minister. The husband felt that the salary he was
getting was not enough considering his ability. The wife was not
employed. She was a member of one of the Protestant Churches, but the
information is missing about the husband’s religious affiliation. On a
question pertaining to the intake of alcohol, she stated that her
husband did not drink alcohol.

According to the wife, an ideal husband should be a hard worker,
able to provide for the needs of the family. An ideal wife should not
be strong and should be responsible for the children. The wife had not
experienced violence at her home when she was growing up. They
maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very
proud of being Mexican and feels that it is important to maintain
tradition. They speak English in the household.

In this household, there was no physical violence, but sometimes
they did have verbal fights. According to the wife, being mature does
reduce the intensity of misunderstandings in the household.

In this household, both husband and the wife were high school
graduates. The wife was not employed, and the husband was a minister.
The wife stated that being mature helps to reduce misunderstanding

that could lead to violence in the household.

Case 14 (ID #151)

In this household, the husband was 28 years old; information about
the age of the wife is missing. The information about the duration of
the stay in U.S. for both of them is missing. They had two children;

there were four people in the household, including the respondent.

66
They were both high school graduates and were both employed full-time.
The husband was working as a carpenter. The wife was working for a
financial services company, and less than half of the household income
was from her job. They were both members of the Catholic Church.

What the wife considers to be an ideal husband is a man who is able
to support and take care of the family. An ideal wife should perform
the household duties, not be employed, and never talk back. The wife
had not experienced violence at her home when she was growing up. Her
parents had verbal fights because her stepfather sometimes slept out,
but there were no physical fights. They maintain contact with
relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very proud of being Mexican and
feels it is very important to keep tradition. They speak English in
the household. According to the wife, communication helps in
preventing violence in the household.

In this household, both husband and wife were high school
graduates. They were both employed, the wife working at a financial
services company and the husband working as a carpenter. The salary of
the wife was less than that of her husband. According to the wife, the

strategy for avoiding violence was communication.

Case 15 (ID #497)

The husband was 40 years old and the wife 36. The information is
missing about the duration of period in the U.S. for the wife; for the
husband it was given as five years. They had two children; there were
six people in the household. The husband had some post-BA training,

and the wife had an advanced degree. They were both employed full-

67
time. The husband was working as a social worker and held an assistant
manager's position. The wife was a university administrator. There is
no information about the salary of the wife versus that of her
husband. They were both members of the Catholic Church. On a question
pertaining to the intake of alcohol, the wife stated that her husband
did drink alcohol.

The wife considers an ideal husband to be man who works hard, is
devoted to the family, and provides for their needs. An ideal wife, on
the other hand, should be a good homemaker and should be devoted to
the family. They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The
wife is very proud of being Mexican; she feels it is somewhat
important to keep tradition. They speak English in the household. The
wife stated that they had a good loving relationship and that when
they had disagreements, they usually compromised.

In this household, the husband had “some post-BA training" and the
wife had an “advanced degree.” They were both employed full-time, the
wife as a university administrator and the husband as an assistant
manager in social work. The information about their salaries was not
available. According to the wife, compromise is effective in

preventing violence in her household.

Case 16 (ID #376)

In this household, both husband and wife were 58 years old. The
information about the duration of stay in the U.S. is missing for both
of them. They had two children; there were four people in the

household, including the respondent. They were both high school

68
graduates and were both employed full-time. The husband had two jobs:
representative for AT&T and salesman at Sears. The husband felt that
the salary he was getting was inadequate considering his ability. The
wife has been doing child care for five years. Less than half of the
household income was from the wife. They were both members of the
Catholic Church.

The wife considers an ideal husband as a man who is employed and
does things and spends time with his family. An ideal wife, according
to her, should not be employed but should stay at home and care for
the children. The wife had experienced violence at her home; her
parents were involved in physical fights. Her father died when, in a
drunken stupor, he fell out of a moving car and broke his neck. They
maintain contact with the relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very
proud of being Mexican and feels it is very important to keep
tradition. They speak both English and Spanish at home. According to
her, the way she avoids violence in the household is to talk when they
have a problem until they reach an agreement.

In this household, both husband and wife were high school
graduates. They were both employed, the wife in child care and the
husband as a representative for AT&T and as a salesman at Sears. The
salary of the wife was less than that of her husband. According to the

wife, communication was effective in preventing violence.

Case 17 (ID #624)
In this household, the husband was 61 years old and the wife was 59

years old. The information is missing about the duration of period in

69
the U.S. for both. They had three children; there were five people in
the household. The level of education for both of them was seventh
grade. They were both employed full-time, the husband at a factory and
the wife at General Motors as a machine operator felt. The husband
felt that his salary was adequate; less than half the household income
was from the wife’s job. They were members of the Catholic Church.

The wife considers an ideal husband to be hardworking, good, and
honest. An ideal wife, according to her, should not be employed
outside the home, should be a good mother, and should be honest. The
wife had no experience of violence at her home when she was growing
up. They maintain contact with relatives outside Detroit. The wife is
very proud of being Mexican and feels that it is very important to
keep tradition. They spoke both English and Spanish in the household.
Information is missing about avoiding violence in the household, but
she states that fights are prevented by being close to each other.

The level of education for both husband and wife has been given as
seventh grade. They were both employed, the wife as a machine operator
and the husband at a factory. The salary of the wife was less that
that of her husband. According to the wife, being close to each other

helps to prevent violence.

Case 18 (ID #508)

In this household, information about the ages of both husband and
wife is missing. The husband had been in the U.S. for 20 years and the
wife for 26 six years. They had six children; the number of people in

the household was eight, including the respondent. The level of

70
education for both of them was given as seventh grade. They were both
employed full-time. The husband was employed by a construction
company, but there is no information about how he felt about his
salary. The wife was working at a factory, and less than half of the
household income was from her job. There is no information about the
religious affiliation of the husband, but the wife was a Catholic. On
a question pertaining to the intake of alcohol, the wife noted that
her husband did drink alcohol.

The ideal husband, according to the wife, should be a hard worker
and should cooperate with the family. An ideal wife should be
responsible and active in the household. The wife did not experience
violence at her home when she was growing up. They maintain contact
with relatives outside Detroit. The wife is very proud of being
Mexican, and she feels that it is very important to keep tradition.
They speak Spanish in the household. The wife stated that they are not
involved in physical violence in the household, but sometimes they do
have verbal fights. According to her, her husband drinks too much, and
arguments start when he is prohibited from drinking. On a question
about how she tries to avoid the verbal arguments leading to physical
fights, she said that she went for counseling.

The level of education for both husband and wife has been given as
seventh grade. They were both employed, the wife at a factory and the
husband by a construction company. The wife stated that counseling

helped in avoiding violence in her household.

71

Summary of Information about Nonviolent Households

Among the nonviolent households, all the respondents had similar
views about what they considered to be ideal roles for husbands and
wives. They regarded the role of providing for the needs of the
household as the husband’s task. Doing household chores was regarded
as the wife's task. All the respondents were proud of being Mexican
and felt that it was important to keep tradition. Six respondents out
of eighteen stated that Spanish was spoken in their households. The
information pertaining to alcohol intake showed that of eighteen
husbands, eight drank alcohol, one did not, and information was
missing for nine husbands.

Table 2 illustrates the cases together with the variables under
investigation, which are the level of education of the wife in
relation to that of her husband, the income of the wife compared to
that of her husband, and the factors to which the wives attribute lack
of domestic violence in the household.

The results show that all the husbands were employed; four of
the women were not employed; and, there was no information about the
employment status of one wife. Ten women had salaries lower than those
of their husbands; there was no information about three women; and
one's husband had retired. No wife was earning more than her husband.
Four women were more educated than their husbands; ten had the same
level of education as their husbands; two were less educated than
their husbands; and, there was no information about two women.

Information pertaining to how violence was avoided showed that eight

72
women attributed it to communication; two to avoiding doing things
that their husbands did not like; two to joining the Pentecostal
Churches; two to keeping quiet; one to counseling; and two to being

mature .

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TABLE 2
NON VIOLENT HOUSEHOLDS
Case # Education' Income” Strategies to avoid violence
1. 53 no information wife not 1. not doing things that upset husband
about husband employed
2. 201 more education husband 1. communication
retired
3. 142 both post BA no information 1. communication
4. 443 no information no information 1. joining Pentecostal church
for either for either
5. 656 both 7th grade less 1. talking about the problem
6. 586 more education less 1. communication
2. being brought up in a nonviolent home
7. 623 less education less 1. completing obligations
8. 459 less education less 1. joining Pentecostal Church
9. 343 both 7th grade wife not 1. Keeping quiet
employed
10. 211 more education less 1. stopped wearing clothes the husband
did not like.
2. told children to be home before their
father returns from work.
11. 84 more education wife not 1. communication
husband employed
12. 561 both 8th grade less 1. getting older
2. not talking back
13. 183 both high school wife not 1. getting older
employed
14. 151 both high school less 1. communication
15. 497 both post BA no information 1. compromise
16.497 both high school less 1. communication
17. 624 both 7th grade less 1. being close to each other
18. 508 both 7th grade less 1. counseling
Notes: a. Education of wife in relation to that of husband.

b. Income of wife in relation to that of husband

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter, the twenty-seven cases analyzed are compared and
contrasted and then discussed. Discussion and conclusions are in
relation to the factors being investigated: the level of education of
women in relation to that of their husbands; the income of the wives
in comparison to that of their husbands; and, the strategies devised
by wives to avoid violence, including the factors to which they
attribute decreases in violence in the households. These cases include
nine households that were involved in domestic violence and eighteen

households that were not involved in domestic violence.

Comparison of Violent and Nonviolent Cases

The issues to be compared and contrasted are those pertaining to
the level of education of women in relation to their husbands; the
income of women in comparison to that of their husbands; and the
strategies devised by women to avoid violence, including factors that
have contributed to bringing about positive changes in the households.

Education differential, with the wife having more education than
the husband, was not stated by the respondents as having contributed
to domestic violence. The data show that among the nine violent

households, three women were more educated than their husbands, and

74

75

four had the same level of education as their husbands. Among the
eighteen nonviolent households, four women were more educated than
their husbands, and ten had the same equal level of education as their
husbands. In both violent and nonviolent households, therefore, the
wives tend to have equal and more education than their husbands.
Education as a contributory factor to violence is not supported by
these findings; among the nonviolent households, a large number of
women were educated and yet their husbands did not abuse them. Among
the violent households, wives who were less educated than their
husbands were also abused. Thus, the idea that women with more
education than their husbands are more likely to be abused is not
supported by this study.

It should be noted, however, that the overall level of education in
the household was related to violence. Of the couples in violent
household, only two women were college graduates and none of the men
had college degrees. Among the nonviolent households, two couples were
college graduates, and one husband had a master's degree. The overall
level of education in violent households was less than nonviolent
households.

In violent households, four women out of nine had incomes greater
than those of their husbands, three less than their husbands, and in
the remaining two cases, one woman was not employed and the other's
husband was retired. The information available does not clarify the
status of the retired husband, whether he has retirement income and
how his salary compared to that of his wife when he was still

employed. In nonviolent households, there was no wife who had a higher

76

income than her husband. Four were not employed, ten had lower incomes
than their husbands, one's husband was retired, and there was no
information for three women. Looking at the income status of both
groups indicates that there might be a relationship between income and
violence. Wives with more income than their husbands seem to be more
exposed to violence than those who earn less. Among the violent
households, three women earn less than their husbands and one is not
employed, but all are abused by their husbands. Therefore, attributing
violence to salaries of wives that are higher than those of their
husbands does not explain why it occurred in these four cases.

Looking at the levels of education and income shows that among the
violent households, four women had more income than their husbands,
three were more educated than their husbands, and a fourth had the
same level of education as her husband. Among the nonviolent
households, no wife had a higher income than her husband; even the
women who were more educated than their husbands were earning less.
Therefore, education in itself does not seem to be a problem but
becomes a problem when it leads to the wife’s earning more than her
husband.

Questions about what brought change in the household, including the
strategies devised by women to avoid violence, elicited many factors.
Each woman used more than one strategy to avoid violence. Among the
violent households, three women attributed decrease in abuse to
improved communication between them and their husbands. For example,
they stated that they engaged in discussions with their husbands when

they had problems until they came up with a solution. Among the

77

nonviolent households, eight women also stated that communication
helped in preventing violence in the household. Thus, 11 women out of
27 recognized communication in the form of discussion as a helpful
means of avoiding violence.

The strategy of keeping quiet and not telling their husbands things
that would upset them was used by 7 women out of the 27, 5 from
violent and 2 from nonviolent households. One respondent from a
violent household, Thelma, said that in addition to discussions with
her husband, she also decided to “shut her mouth,” that is, not
answering back when there were arguments with her husband. Dorah and
Mikie said that they did not tell their husbands things that would
upset them.

Advice, counseling, or therapy was the method of choice for two
women among the violent households. Among the nonviolent households,
one attributed nonviolence in her household to this measure. She
stated that she used to be engaged in verbal fights with her husband,
and this method was used to prevent them. Thus, 3 women out of 27
recommended this method. As was the case with the other methods, it
was also used in combination with the others. Among violent
households, Cindy was one of the women who used this method; she
stated that her husband stopped abusing her for two months when they
were still on therapy. Thereafter, he stopped going to the
appointments and started abusing her again.

Two women among the violent households said that employment of
their husbands helped in reducing fights in the household, whereas

among the nonviolent households this issue was not raised by any of

78

the respondents. The two women who attributed lessening of violence to
their husbands’ having gotten employment said that when their husbands
were not employed, they (the women) were employed and were abused by
their husbands. When their husbands got jobs, violence stopped and one
of the respondents said that her husband even wanted her to stop
working. On looking at these two cases, one might be influenced to
suggest that unemployment of the husband is related to domestic
violence. The impression is that the husbands would prefer their wives
not to be employed rather than having themselves be the ones who are
not employed. A contradiction in this view is the case of Sarah, one
of the respondents in the violent households. She stated that violence
increased when she was on maternity leave and decreased when she went
back to work. The opposite would have been expected since the husband
was employed. In addition, we note that among the nine violent
households, the remaining seven husbands were employed and yet abused
their wives.

Age was one of the factors involved in a decrease in violence. For
example, among the violent households, four women said that now that
their husbands are older they no longer abuse them as before. Some
women also pointed out that now that they are older things that used
to upset them when they were younger do not matter anymore. Among the
nonviolent households, two women who had had verbal fights in their
marriages attributed change in the extent of these to the fact that
their husbands were now older. In both these groups, age was not the

only factor said to have brought a decrease in violence, however;

79

other strategies, such as keeping quiet and not telling their husbands
things that might upset them, were used as well.

Among the violent households, three women said that leaving their
husbands when there was some misunderstanding between them gave their
husbands some time to think. These women also used other methods in
addition to leaving their husbands. Among the nonviolent households,
this method was not mentioned.

One last measure that was recommended by two women in nonviolent
households was joining Pentecostal Churches. They said that the church
enabled them to have a new understanding of life. Among the violent
households, this measure was not mentioned. In both violent and
nonviolent households, the majority of wives were members of the

Catholic Church.

Wbmen’s' Levels of Education in Relation to those of their Husbands

There seems to be a relationship between education and income in
this study, although Shamin (1992) has pointed out that women do not
receive equal remuneration with their male counterparts regardless of
their educational qualification. Indeed, among the nonviolent
households, there were women who were more educated than their
husbands but earned less. There is an indication that education is not
a problem on its own but becomes related to domestic violence when it
makes the wife earn more than the husband, as is apparent in the
contrast between violent and nonviolent households in this study. It
has also been noted that among the violent households, one of the

respondents was less educated than her husband but was also subjected

80

to domestic violence. If education were a major factor contributing to
domestic violence, she would not have been a victim since her husband
was more educated than she. It could be argued that women who were
more educated in violent households were subjected to domestic
violence not because they were more educated than their husbands but
because education enabled them to earn more than their husbands.
Therefore, attention should be focused on class structure and the
distributive process in which the social values are rooted to
understand domestic violence. The feminist perspective maintains that
the equality in status between men and women in a male-dominated
society is viewed as a threat to male superiority (Makinjani 1992;

Giles-Sims 1983; Hirsch 1981; Straus 1980).

‘Women's Incomes Compared to those of their Husbands

Women in the study almost uniformly said that the ideal role of the
husband was to be the main provider of the needs of the family. They
also stated that the ideal role of the wife was to be a housewife,
that is, doing the home chores and looking after children. Some women
in the study expressed regret that they had to work, and some
complained that they are not able to perform household chores because
of involvement in the labor market. Some respondents also pointed out
that there was violence in their households when they were employed
and their husbands were not. They also said that when their husbands
got jobs, they wanted the wives to stop working outside the home and
do household work instead. The data shows that there was a tendency

for both husband and wife to want to follow the ideal roles. Some

81

women expected their husbands to contribute more than financially in
the household. As one of the respondents in the nonviolent households
who had a college degree stated, “Even though times have changed, in
our culture there are still expectations that he is the major provider
economically.”

The study shows that among the violent households, five women were
earning more than their husbands, and among the nonviolent households,
no wife was earning more than her husband. Information about income
was not available from three women in the nonviolent households,
however. In light of what women stated as ideal roles for men and
women, women earning more than their husbands have assumed a role that
was ascribed to men. Mirande and Enriquez (1979) stated that among the
Latinos, gender roles, such as men being responsible for providing for
the needs of the family, were important for personal gain in status
according to Mexican tradition. The respondents in this study have
pointed out that it was very important to keep tradition and that they
were proud of being Mexican. Therefore, for a man to retain his
status, it was necessary for him to conform to the traditional norms.
Domestic violence, therefore, could be attributed to a desire by men
to retain the status that they feel they are losing by earning less

than their wives.

Factors Contributing to Change and Strategies Devised.by‘Women to
Avoid‘Violence in the Household
The strategies discussed here are those that were used by more than

one respondent in both violent and nonviolent households. These were:

82

communication between husbands and wives; getting older; keeping quiet
by the wife, including not telling the husband things that might upset
him; leaving the husband, which was said to give husbands time to
think; advice, including counseling and therapy; employment of the
husbands; and, joining the Pentecostal Church.

Feminist theory associates spousal abuse with the higher status
accorded to men in society (Stets 1988; Viano 1992). Among Latinos,
the term machismo is associated with domination of women by men (Ramos
1962; Hahner 1976; Mirande and Enriquez 1979; Stevens 1868). Some
respondents in this study actually used this term to indicate that
their husbands wanted to be authority figures in the household.
Looking at the measures for avoiding violence in the household gives
an indication that the strategies for avoiding violence seem to
maintain the status quo. For example, the respondents say that
discussing issues with their husbands helps them to overcome the
problem of spousal abuse. The dictionary meaning of communication
related to this study is interchange or imparting of opinions or
information by speech. But on viewing the information given by
respondents during the communication process, it seems that there is
little free interchange of opinions. For example, the same woman who
used communication as a strategy stated that they did not tell their
husbands things that might upset them. Thus, as this method was
explained by the respondents, it appears that the problems in the
household will be resolved in a way that will not upset the husbands.

The respondents in this study stated that an ideal wife should be

quiet and submissive to the husband. Ramos (1962) has also pointed out

83

that among Latinos, women are expected to be submissive to their
husbands and not to question their behavior. The method of keeping
quiet has been stated as having been effective in preventing domestic
violence by the respondents. Therefore, comparing the respondents'
ideas of what they consider to be the expected behavior of an ideal
wife and their use of the strategy of keeping quiet to avoid domestic
violence, it seems that the hierarchical order in the society, which
is male dominated, is being reinforced. Feminist theory states that
male domination is embraced in social institutions that promote
inequality in socialization of males and females. According to this
theory, during socialization men are accorded a higher status than
women. The statements of women in this study therefore show that the
way of avoiding violence in these households follows this hierarchy,
which is more favorable to the husbands than the wives.

Bowker (1983) mentioned an incident in which a battered woman
consulted clergy for advice (unfortunately, the denomination was not
noted); the clergy, he reports, advised the woman to obey her husband
and try to keep him happy. According to Dobash and Dobash (1979), the
biblical laws of marriage promoted inferiority of women by prescribing
conjugal duties. These laws, according to these writers, stated that
women should obey their husbands and that the husbands are responsible
for exercising authority in the household. The scriptures therefore
provided an ideology for making inferiority of women to appear sacred
and a natural phenomenon. Some of the strategies for avoiding domestic
violence that were used by the respondents appear to be promoting male

superiority.

84

Some respondents in the study said that employment of their
husbands caused a decrease in abusive behavior in the household. Thus,
it could be argued that the husbands abused their wives as a way of
relieving stress; hence, it stopped when the husbands got jobs.
Unemployment has also been associated with stress (Cox 1990).
Literature has revealed that alcohol is sometimes used to relieve
stress (Craig 1990), which could be related to why the respondents
were blaming alcohol for violence in their households. It could be
argued that alcohol was a way of relieving stress, which could be
related to the husbands’ inability to perform ideal roles. Although
the husbands in violent households all drank alcohol, the underlying
cause for domestic violence could be stress, rather than the use of
alcohol per se. The argument is that there are a number of men who use
alcohol and do not abuse their wives, as it was the case among the
nonviolent households in this study.

Age was mentioned as a factor that helped decrease violence in the
household. One respondent said that things that used to upset her do
not matter anymore now that she is old. This was the case with the
husbands, too; things that were stressful to them when they were
younger did not matter anymore now that they are old. For example, one
woman pointed out that her husband confessed to having been jealous of
their older son and that domestic violence in the household decreased
when their son was ten years old.

The last factor mentioned by the respondents that contributed to
decreasing violence was for the wives to leave their husbands.

According to the wives, this gave their husbands some time to think.

85

It appears that the intentions of the wives were not to leave their
husbands permanently, but to either give themselves some rest from
abuse or to let their husbands realize that they are valuable too.
Ramos (1962) has pointed out that Mexican culture places a great value
on marriage; unmarried women are looked down upon. This was shown by
discouraging girls from going to school when education was introduced,
because it was said that they would find it hard to get husbands if
they were educated (Mirande and Enriquez 1979). Gordon (1983) has
noted also that the Catholic Church, to which the majority of Latinos
belong, forbids divorce. Thus, women who adhere to these values may be
more likely to endure abusive marriages. Some women, however, stated
that they were forced to go back to their husbands because of the

children and threats that their husbands would kill them.

Conclusions

Conclusions drawn from this study are based on the following three
variables: education, income, and strategies used to avoid violence.
In both violent and nonviolent households, wives tend to have either
equal or more education than their husbands. In this study, therefore,
education does not support a difference in the behavior of husbands.

Wives used many strategies to avoid violence. These include
communication strategies (verbal and nonverbal), avoiding things that
husbands do not like, joining Pentecostal churches, and undergoing
counseling. Age was also a factor that was mentioned by several women.

As the husbands grew older, less violence was experienced in these

86

households. The strategies used by women could be related to the
feminist theory.

Dutton (1995) says that some husbands see their wives as property
to be controlled. Other means used by women to avoid violence seem to
support this view; for example, one of the women among the nonviolent
households stated that to avoid verbal fights in her household, she
stopped wearing the clothes that her husband did not like. She also
told her children to return home early before her husband came back
from work, although she did not see anything wrong with them going out
at night. Among the violent households, one woman also stated that she
stopped doing things that her husband did not like.

Although there were many strategies used by women to avoid
violence, the communication variable seem to have been used by many
women. When taking into consideration the view that communication
entails both verbal and nonverbal means (Schaap 1982), the results
show that this method was used by 18 women in the 27 cases analyzed.
Three women from violent and eight from nonviolent households used
verbal communication; five women from violent and two from nonviolent
households used nonverbal communication. Further research is
recommended to verify how valid communication is as a method of
preventing violence.

Although wives in violent households tended to have more income
that their husbands, no wife had a higher income than her husband
among the 18 nonviolent households analyzed. This shows a possible
relationship between the behavior of husbands and income. Wives with

more income than their husbands experienced violence in their

87

households, whereas there was no violence reported in the households
where husbands earned more than their wives. The conclusion that can
be drawn from this study is that more income for wives in Latino

families of Mexican origin contributes to violence in the household.

The results on the income variable, therefore, support the feminist
theory. According to the proponents of this theory, men think they
have a legitimate right to be the main providers of the needs of the
households. A reversal of this situation contributes to domestic
violence.

Literature has shown that men do not accept equality of power with
women, and incidences of violence between men and women have been
associated with such an attitude (Banks 1990; Hauser 1982). In this
study, it appears that men do not accept equality of power with women
Two respondents from violent households stated that violence was
greater when they were the ones who were employed. When their husbands
ultimately got jobs, they wanted them (wives) to stop working. The
question of ideal roles, such as for men to be responsible for
providing for the needs of the family and women for the household,
seem to be valued by both husbands and wives. For example, one of the
respondents said that although times have changed, men are still
expected to be the main providers of the needs of the family. Another
woman pointed out that she expected her husband to support her because
he was the man. Literature has associated domestic violence with the
struggle for power, and resources are a means of gaining power. It

could be argued, therefore, that income is a means of gaining power;

88

thus, the husbands were stressed and violent towards the wives who
earned more than they did.

Although education per se does not appear to be a contributory
factor to violence in this study, there seems to be a positive
relationship between education and income. This is shown by the fact
that among the violent households, women with more income were more
educated than their husbands. Further studies should be conducted to
investigate a connection between education and violence.

The income variable found in this study to be contributory to
domestic violence also needs further investigation. Would the same
results be obtained among groups other than Latinos. In addition, the
sample here consisted only of Latinos in the Detroit area. Further
investigation is required to ascertain when the same results would be
obtained among Latinos in other parts of the U.S. A larger sample is
also recommended because the one used here was too small to be

representative of the Latinos in Detroit.

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