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INTERACTIVE IMAGE ACCESS
ART HISTORY ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB

presented by

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INTERACTIVE IMAGE ACCESS
ART HISTORY ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB

By

Kimberly Abraham

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Art

1 997

ABSTRACT

INTERACTIVE IMAGE ACCESS
ART HISTORY AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

By

Kimberly Abraham

This thesis examines the influence of computer network technology on art history.
Digital imaging, interactive programs, and computer networks are three innovative
elements of the World Wide Web that will change the role of the an historian. The focus
of this thesis is on how these three elements will accomplish this task. Digital imaging
replaces photography as an important research and education tool. Digital imaging also
facilitates the task of managing and conserving fine art object and image collections.
Interactive computer programs present images and information in a dynamic manner.
Ideally, computer networks provide easy access to these tools. Practically, however,
economic and legal issues may limit ease of access. Examples are collected from existing
digital imaging projects, interactive computer programs, and current educational art
Websites. This study reveals how computer network technology and the World Wide

Web create a new mode of communication.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge several of the people who have aided in the
production of this work. Dr. Phylis Floyd, Dr. Carol Fisher, Dr. Kathleen Geissler, and
Dr. Susan Bandes have provided constructive criticism and support throughout the

development of this thesis and its defense.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter 1. The Internet and the World Wide Web

Chapter 2. Digital Images

Chapter 3. Interactivity

Chapter 4. Access

Chapter 5. Economic and Legal Issues of the World Wide Web

Conclusion

Bibliography

iv

11

26

38

49

56

58

INTRODUCTION

With the recent development of computer networks and graphic-intensive World
Wide Web browsers such as Netscape, the impact computer technology will have on the
arts community is astounding. In some ways it is too early to say anything definitive on
the subject as the technology advances every day. Initially, the largest number of art sites
on the Web were sites with commercial interests, sites that utilized the marketing
potential of the Web. Recently, the art sites with non-commercial interests have caught
up in number and sophistication with the commercial sites. These non-commercial art
sites are important examples of how computer network technology has changed the role
of the art historian.

Non-commercial art sites located on the Web offer three tools important to art
history. The first is digital imaging. This is particularly important as art history relies
heavily on visual material. Since the development of photography, art history has relied
heavily on photographic reproductions of fine art objects.1 Today, nearly all art history
courses use slides, videos, and art books. Digital imaging will eventually replace

photographic reproductions, therefore it is important to address the particular qualities of

 

' For a history on art history and the use of reproductions see: Estelle Jussim, Visual
Communications and the Graphic Arts (New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1974), Gabriel Weiberg and
Laurinda Dixon, eds., The Documented Image (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987), and Maryly
Snow, “The Pedagogical Consequences of Photomechanical Reproduction in the Visual Histories: From
Photography to Digital Mnemonics,” Visual Resources 12(1997), 307-331.

digital images. The second tool is interactive capability. The computer language used to
create Web pages, HTML, has a built in functionality for layering and expanding
information. HTML allows a user to jump from one page to the next effortlessly. The
layering of information introduces a flexible way of gathering visual and textual data.
This introduces a non-linear approach to teaching and conducting research. The third tool
is the network. The Web is a community of computers which allows for seamless jumps
to other Websites around the world. A Website can point to an infinite number of sites
with related topics. Since photography, side-by-side comparisons of art objects have
been a standard art historical practice. A technique of comparing individual works of art
goes back to Heinrich Welflinn’s Renaissance and Baroque, published in 1888.2 The
Web opens up a whole new world of side-by-side comparisons by increasing the number
of comparisons and allowing comparisons to be made at the whim of the viewer. Finally,
a community of computers could lead to the democratization of art, in so far as anyone
who has access to computer networks can freely gather the information available on these
networks. Ideally, computer networks will bring about a future where all information is
free and accessible. But in practical terms, not everyone has access to computer
networks, and not all information on these networks is free. For this reason, it is
important to address the practical issues of economics and copyright that surround
computer network technology.

For the purposes of this thesis, an art historian is defined as anyone who works

with the visual arts as an educator, researcher, and/or curator. These visual arts

 

2 Snow, 312.

professionals are found in universities, museums, archives, and visual resource libraries.
Computer network technology will effect all of these visual arts professionals in a
number of ways. First, computer network technology extends the visual memory of
educators and researchers and introduces a non-linear mode of thinking. As a result, the
dynamics of teaching art history changes. Hypervip is a key example of how an
interactive computer program can restructure an art history lecture by replacing lecture-
style teaching with a teacher/student interactive learning environment. Next, image
databases, such as the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Imagebase, allow researchers
to track down elusive visual information. Computer network technology is capable of
storing large quantities of information that is easy to access from remote locations.
Image database search engines are designed to gather information so efficiently that
museum curators can spend more time on creating innovative exhibitions rather than
searching their collections. Finally, computer network technology will even affect how
visual art professionals conduct daily business. Digital images will supplement, perhaps
even replace, photographic reproductions in visual resource libraries. Museums and
archives will also use digital images to help with their collection management and
conservation activities. This heavy use of digital imaging will require libraries,
museums, and archives to deal with changing copyright and intellectual property issues,
as well as the economic issues, that result from this new technology. Also, museums and
archives will consider entering into licensing agreements with commercial digital image
venders in order to generate revenue.

The Web and interactive art sites are new tools for the communication of visual

art information. In order to understand how this technology is valuable, it is necessary to

examine how computer network technology works by exploring various existing
examples of interactive art sites on the Web such as the Getty ArtsEdNet, the
Smithsonian Institution Website, and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
Imagebase. Also, it is important to examine how various art education, research,
economic and legal issues are addressed using this electronic medium. The three tools,
digital imaging, interactivity, and networks, will be examined separately, while keeping
in mind that these three tools are working together to form a new mode of
communication.

This new communication is not a product of the Internet per se; rather, it is the
result of the World Wide Web’s particular characteristics. The Internet has been in
existence for nearly fifty years, used first by the United States Defense Department
during the Cold War. The World Wide Web is a more user-friendly manifestation of the
Internet that incorporates all the power of the Internet without requiring its users to be
computer experts. The Web’s popularity is the result of easy to use, free computer
applications called Web browsers. A brief explanation of the difference between the
Internet and the Web will clarify how the Web, more so than the Internet, provides a new

form of communication.

Chapter 1

THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

An information revolution is how enthusiasts describe this new phenomenon
called the World Wide Web. A new world of instantly accessible information is created
by a network of computers and databases. First conceived by Ted Nelson of Serious
Cybernetics in Melbourne Australia, the World Wide Web is well on its way to becoming
the universal library he envisioned where “all human knowledge, all documents, images,
sounds, and videos [can] be instantly accessible to anyone who [has] a computer.”3 The
World Wide Web’s impact on 20th century society has been compared to the printing
press’s impact on 16th and 17th century societies.

The widespread creation and distribution of alternative

forms of information is already undermining the current

hegemony of an oppressive and intensely patriarchal

mode of thinking. We are in a situation that is comparable

to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the press

made it possible for the disenfranchised to assert their role

in political and economic processes - a situation that led

to a radical transformation of human society.4
Just like the printing press, the Web is a new form of communication that operates as an
open forum for the free exchange of information.

Among the Web’s many powers is the distribution of images. With its graphical

capabilities, the Web can disseminate art images via digitized reproductions, providing

 

3 Steven Vaughan-Nichols, Inside the Web (Indianapolis: New Riders Publishing, 1995), 1.
‘ Adam Lucas, “Art, Science and Technology in an Expanded Field,” Leonardo 260993), 344.

revolutionary ease of access to the world’s art. Many art institutions and organizations
are already exploring the impact electronic technology will have on art history. One
example is the J. Paul Getty Trust Art Historical Information Program (AHIP). Since
1983, AHIP “has sought to make art-historical information more accessible through
electronic technology.”5 In 1995 AHIP inaugurated the Museum Educational Site
Licensing Project. This project explores how computer network technology can be used
to facilitate art education and research.

Digital imaging offers the potential to make our cultural

heritage available to a wider audience in ways never before

envisioned. Distribution of these images over

communication networks is changing the nature of

teaching and research.6
Electronic imaging and computer network technology such as the Web will change how
information about art history is conveyed in two significant ways. First, computer
networks are capable of storing massive quantities of data and provide an easy way to
access and gather this information. Second, the Web in particular, operates under a
hypermedia paradigm that allows for an intuitive, non-linear process of gathering
information. Both of these advantages of computer network technology will be discussed
in detail later.

In order to understand the Web, first it is necessary to explain something about its

technology. The Web runs on the Internet. The Web cannot exist without the Internet

 

Getty Art History Information Program, “Museum Educational Site Licensing Project: Fact
Sheet,” (Santa Monica: Getty AHIP, 1995, photocopied), l.

°Jarnes Bower, “News from AHIP, ” Visual Resources (December 1995), 177. The Getty Trust is
a private operation foundation dedicated to the visual arts and humanities. The Trust’s origin dates to 1953
with the founding of the J. Paul Getty Museum as a California charitable trust. For more background
information see The Getty Trust lnforrnation Page, Getty Information Institute [online]; available from
http://www.ahip.getty.edu/gii/trust.html; accessed 13 August 1997.

because it uses the Internet, “like cars over two bridges.”7 The Internet is a
communication system designed to work between any two computers no matter what
their architecture and operating systems are. A network protocol, Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), allows for communication to take place because it

. . . nms on everything, from the nearly antique 286 PC with

its MS-DOS to Delphi on-line services VAX-VMS mini-

computers to the National Center for Supercomputing

Application’s Crays running UNIX.8
Therefore the Internet is operating system independent. That is to say, in the world of
personal computers, while the PC and the Macintosh use two different operating
systems, both can access the Internet and communicate with each other. The impetus
behind creating such a network was the Cold War. The father of the Internet, ARPAnet,
was created to “keep working even if parts were destroyed in a nuclear war. Data would

”9 Academia found the Internet as valuable

be lost, but communications could continue.
as the military. Scientists, especially physicists, used the Internet to communicate
findings with colleagues around the world. The Internet allowed information to be posted
faster than the traditional process of publication. As the Internet increased in
sophistication, interest grew. The Internet “rapidly evolved into a multimedia delivery

system carrying information, entertainment, and services to millions of end users around

the world.”1 0

 

7 Vaughan-Nichols, 41.

' Ibid., 36.

9 Ibid., 33.

'° Margaret McLaughlin, “The Art Site on the World Wide Web,” Journal ofCommunications
(Winter 1996), 54.

The Web works just like the Internet: it is a communication network anchored by
computers with databases designated as servers. “In essence, the Web is a worldwide
string of computer databases using a common information retrieval architecture. In

1 I
” The common

concept, the Web is a client/server database management system.
information retrieval architecture is called the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) which
works according to a hypertext and hypermedia paradigm. This allows for the dynamic
linking of information into a seamless whole. Unlike the Internet, the Web has a few
added features which makes it easy to use. Information via the Web is available to the
user in an uncomplicated manner due to the Web browser. Before the concept of the
browser, the user had to be very knowledgeable of computer systems in order to gather
information.12

The first browser created for a mass audience was Mosaic. Its creator, Marc
Andreessen, then went on to design Netscape, which is the most popular browser used
today. Both browsers are free to anyone wanting to use them for academic research and
internal business purposes.13 This explains why the Web grew in popularity so quickly.
The defining feature of the Web is its use of hypertext and hypermedia. Instead of
moving linearly from page one to page two, it lets you leap from one link to another. A
link can be a word (hypertext) or sounds, pictures and movies (hypermedia). Therefore,

the computer works the same way people think, that is, in jumps rather than linearly.

While there is the danger of getting side-tracked, this process remains an excellent way to

 

" Vaughan-Nichols, 19.
'2 Ibid., 20.
'3 Barbara Pollock. “How much is that Degas in the ‘Windows?”’ Artnews (March 1996), 104.

track down elusive information.'4 The non-linear characteristic of the Web allows for
creative problem solving by referencing new combinations of thoughts for “old”
problems.15

The Web offers art history the power of the computer plus the added advantage of
a world of information. Computer programs used as educational programs for art
museums already have a well established history. Museums use a number of computer
devices such as computer work stations with CD-ROM applications, touch screen
systems, videodisks, and virtual reality programs.l6 What is unique about the Web is the
opportunity it offers to reach a wider audience. Before computer network technology, art
educational programs remained inside the museum’s walls. The Web has the power to
disseminate our cultural heritage beyond these walls. With its graphic intensive displays
and interactive capabilities, the conveyance of art history to the world has a new, dynamic
presentation.

The three tools the Web offers art history - digital imaging, interactive computer
applications, and network technology - work in combination to create a unique mode of
communication. Digital imaging and interactive applications have already been the focus

of scholarly inquiry.l7 An added dimension of computer network technology, namely the

Web, has yet to be explored in depth. How this new form of communication

 

'4 Vaughan-Nichols, l7.

'5 For more discussion on creative problem solving see Jacob Getzel and Mihaly
Czikszentrnihalyi, The Creative Vision (London: John Wiley & Sons, 1976).

'6 For a study on interactive programs in museums see Koester’s survey, Stephanie Eva Koester,
Interactive Multimedia in American Museums (Archives & Museum Informatics, 1993).

'7 For a bibliography on interactive multimedia see Koester, for a bibliography on digital imaging
see, Getty Art Historical Information Program, Electronic Imaging [online]; available from
http://www.ahip.getty.edu/intro_imaging; accessed 2 May 1997.

10

disseminates visual arts information will have some very profound consequences in the

field of art history.

Chapter 2

DIGITAL IMAGES

The immediately perceivable difference between the Internet and the World Wide
Web is digital imaging. The Web is capable of displaying multimedia items directly.
While conversely, the Internet remains a text only display, it is possible to access images
through the Internet by downloading the appropriate files onto one’s computer. For the
Web user, the visual punch of dynamic graphical images is displayed immediately.
Websites contain all the visual and audio glamour - the “bells and whistles” - of which
computers are capable. Visually stunning high resolution images, movies with sound,
and virtual three-dimensional spaces are some of the multimedia items available on a
Website. Digital images are the most important element of an art Website because it is
by default image intensive. A brief introduction to digital image technology may explain
some of the problems associated with image intensive Websites.

Electronic imaging as a process is conceptually similar to film photography, but
the resulting image is physically different from a photograph. While the photograph
exists only as a physical entity - usually on paper, the digital image is practically a non-
physical entity - a product of the computer. A digital image is a collection of electronic
dots called pixels (picture elements) compressed and arranged according to a pre-defined

ratio of columns and rows. Pixels are very similar to dots on a newspaper photograph or

11

12

grains on a photographic print.18 There are three defining properties of a digital image:
dynamic range, resolution, and compression. The dynamic range determines how many
colors or shades of gray can be represented in the image. This is measured by a unit
number called a bit, the smallest unit of data stored in a computer. In a 24-bit image, also
known as a “true color” image, each pixel color comes from one out of 16 million
possible colors. In an 8-bit image, there are only 256 possible colors or shades of gray,
approximately the same quality as images on television.19 Resolution is defined by the
number of pixels in a selected area and is a measurement of clarity. The resolution is
described in the form of an equation representing the number of horizontal pixels by the
number of vertical pixels. A common ratio for an image is 1000 x 2000 pixels.20

A large amount of computer data is required to create a digital image. As a result,
an image intensive Website is slow. Website speed can be a problem because if it is too
slow, the viewer will simply skip over the site. Image compression is essential because it
reduces the size or the amount of electronic data used to create a digital image. Various
methods of compression include abbreviating repeated information or eliminating
information that is too difficult to see with the human eye. A common compressed image
is the JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group), which is compressed by systematically

deleting a number of pixels inside the image. For example, every second, third, or nth

 

" J. Paul Getty Trust, Getty Information Institute: Introduction to Imaging [online]; available
from HTII;P:// www.ahip.getty.edu/intro_imaging; accessed 10 June 1997.
Ibid.
2° Suzanne Weixel, Easy PCs, 4th ed., (Indianapolis: Macmillan Computer Publishing, 1995), p.
75.

13

pixel is eliminated. The result is a loss in data and therefore a loss in quality.21 But
compression is a necessary evil when dealing with computer network technology.

Image compression is useful, but that alone does not solve the problem of slow
Websites. Most computers connect to the Web via modem and telephone lines.
Telephone lines were not designed to handle the kind of data transfer that the Web uses.
Slowly, improvements in communications technology are remedying this situation.
Already the telephone companies, cable television, and other communications businesses
have developed better communication lines to perform the more rapid transfer of
computer data.

As communications technology improves, so does the attitude toward digital
imagery. Digital images are either original works of computer art or reproductions of
existing works. Both computer art and digital reproductions have initially received very
strong criticism. A. Michael Noll explains the mixed reception his computer art
received.22 In the 19608, Noll worked at Bell Labs creating computer animation,
holography, and three-dimensional force-feedback devices.23 His experiments were
encouraged by his superiors because they believed Noll’s work was an important
demonstration of the creative power of the computer.24 At the same time, Noll’s
supervisors at Bell Labs discouraged publicity of his work because they feared that the

Lab would lose funding since computer art might be perceived as a frivolous.25 Despite

 

2' J. Paul Getty Trust, Introduction to Imaging [online].

’2 McLaughlin, 51.

23 A. Michael Noll, “The Beginnings of Computer Art in the United States: A Memoir,”
Leonardo 27 (1994), 39.

2‘ Ibid., 43.

2’ Ibid, 41.

14

its difficult beginnings, it can not be denied that computer art is making important
contributions to our visual culture and is better received today than it was in the 19605.
In the early days of computer art it was thought of more as a scientific investigation into
the visual graphic possibilities of computer technology than as a viable artistic
expression. The pioneers, such as N011 and David Em worked as scientists in research
labs.26 It was not until the 19703 that computer graphics became computer art.27

Digital imaging is also very important for the advancement of art reproduction.
Art history relies heavily on reproductions (much to the chagrin of its scholars and
professionals) because works created in the more traditional media of painting, sculpture,
and architecture are not always easily accessible. Reproductions of existing works of art
are inferior substitutes for the original, simply because they do not have the same
physical properties as the original. Some media reproduce better than others. Prints and
paintings reproduce better than sculpture and architecture but all lack the integrity of the
original art work. In a perfect world, the art historian would never have to use substitutes,
but unfortunately this is just not possible.

Because of the reproduction’s inferior quality, it is easy to understand the cautious
reception digital imagery received. Art historians merely extended their distrust of
photographic reproduction to include digital ones. It is an old grudge they hold against

reproductions - starting with Walter Benjamin’s classic essay, “Art in the Age of

 

2‘ For more information on David Em see David Ross, The Art of David Em: 100 Computer
Paintings (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1988).

27 For more information on computer art see: Herbert W Franke, Computer Graphics Computer
Art (London: Phaidon, 1971); and Cynthia Goodman, Digital Visions: Computers and Art (New York:
Abrams, 1987).

 

(I)

15

Mechanical Reproductions.” Benjamin accuses reproductions of taking away fi'om a
original work of art its precious sense of uniqueness - its “aura.”28

With the invention of photography, art historians argued about the merits of using
photographic reproductions for teaching and research.29 Maryly Snow explains how
photography, once introduced as a viable supplement, quickly changed the nature of the
discipline. “The art reproduction has been central to the development of twentieth-
century art history curricula in colleges and universities. Photomechanical reproduction
encouraged art history to evolve into a separate discipline of academic inquiry.”30

It is generally agreed that reproductions are useful to research and teaching in a
limited capacity. A Getty AHIP study, Object Image Inquiry, investigated how art
historians worked, including how they used reproductions.31 This publication quotes the
surveyed art historians but keeps their responses anonymous. One scholar interviewed
for this project defines the limits of how reproductions should be used. “There are certain
things you can do with a bad photograph [work of art], certain things that you can only do

with a good photograph, and certain things that you shouldn’t do without the original.”32

Scholars are very cautious when relying on reproductions because they may cause an

 

2' Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” Zeitschriftfiir
Sozialforschung, vol. 5, no. 1 (1936); translated by Harry Zohn, in Benjamin, Illuminations (London:
Jonathon Cape, 1970), 219-253; excerpted in Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, eds., Art in Modern
Culture: An Anthology of Critical Texts (New York: Phaidon Press Ltd.), 300.

29 Wolfgang M. Freitag discusses how several great art historians of the nineteenth-century, such
as Charles Eliot Norton of Harvard, Herman Grimm from the University of Berlin, and Heinrich Willfflin,
responded to the problematic nature of photographic reproductions in “Art Reproductions in the Library,”
in The Documented Image, eds., Gabriel P. Weisberg and Laurinda S. Dixon (New York: Syracuse
University Press, 1987), 349-363 .‘

0 Snow, 318.

3' Marilyn Schmit, ed., Object Image Inquiry (Santa Monica: The Getty Art History Information
Program, 1988)

’2 Ibid., 11.

 

 

be

re:

pr;

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Bu

16

error in judgment while conducting research. One scholar recounts how a colleague fell
into this trap.

I had occasion to point out that certain colors essential

to [a Jungian critic’s] alchemical argument [about Jackson

Pollock’s work] . . . are in fact not in the picture at all and

she’d obviously seen a bad color reproduction and out of

that she’d woven this thing . . . . Art history has become too

much a library science . . . . The young scholars dream up

ideas and work in libraries.33
Cautious as art historians are about reproductions, in some cases research would be
impossible without them. The main problem is access to the original, as one scholar
points out, “I wrote hundreds of letters to museums to get photographs. I traveled then to
see [the paintings], but I didn’t see them all because sometimes they were in the
basement, on the road, [or] under restoration.”34 Digital imaging is useful not only
because the images are more readily accessible than original works of art, but also
because the technology surrounding digital imaging is now easy to use and affordable.

The directors of the Getty project, anticipating that the technology would soon

become practical, conducted research in 1986, well before digital imagery was a viable
resource for those working with visual materials. As soon as affordable digital imaging
products were made available to the visual arts professionals, excitement grew over what
this technology could do. Digital reproductions could be used for the management and

conservation of visual materials, as well as for research in and teaching of art history.

But, skepticism about this technology also arose. The concern was that digital imagery

 

’3 Ibid., 19.
3‘ Ibid., 10.

17

would replace the original work of art. According to art historian, Russell Kirsch, digital
reproductions have no redeeming qualities.

The symbolic surrogates [digital reproductions] are highly

suspect. These images that you look at are not any good.

I’ve been dealing with them for 40 years or so and I

know that they’re no good. And because some of you

feel a little more comfortable with them than others do,

that does not mean they’re any good. They are not the

original objects. They do not have the integrity of the

things that museums have to preserve.35

The problems art historians have with digital reproductions all stem from the fear

that the proliferation of reproduced images will be detrimental to society’s ability to
critique and appreciate real works of art. Howard Besser warns us about the danger of
this, “as individuals look at more and more cultural objects on their workstation screens,
it is likely that they will begin to confuse the representations with the original objects
they represent.”36 The digital reproduction has a slick, seamless quality that could
confuse the untrained audience into believing what ever he or she is seeing is real.
Lydecker explains how this inability to distinguish what is real is epidemic in our present
society, “anyone who has worked in a public capacity in a museum, and answered the

question ‘is this the real thing?’ will know that our culture is often confused about what is

means for something to be real.”37 It is true that digital reproductions will never have

 

3’ James Druzik and others, “Discussion: Potentials and Pitfalls,” Visual Resources 7(1991) , p.
418.

36 Howard Besser, “From Internet to Information Super Highway,” in Resisting the Virtual Lifle:
The Culture and Politics of Information, eds., James Brook and Iain A. Boal (San Francisco: City Lights
Books, 1995), 67.

37 Kent Lydecker, “Observations on Museum Use of Electronic Imaging: Today & Tomorrow,”
Visual Resources 7(1991), 316.

18

the same integrity as an original work of art; however, it is impractical to completely
reject this technology. Just like photographic reproductions, they are a necessary evil.
On a more positive note, some in the visual arts field are enthusiastic about this
new technology. Christine Stundt, editor of Visual Resources’ special issue on digital
imagery has a more positive attitude about electronic imaging.
The digital image is, in fact, one of the most important
imaging accomplishments since television entered our
living rooms some forty years ago. To some, the step
from transparency, or print file to digital file is a quick
and efficient solution for a very costly and demanding
visual resource facility.38
The accuracy of digital reproductions is an important consideration when dealing
with reproductions of works of art. High quality reproductions are essential to the areas
of conservation and collection management. However, the technology that creates high
quality reproductions is usually impractical. Two important projects have reconciled
digital accuracy with practicality: VASARI (Visual Arts System for Archiving &
Retrieval of Images), and MARC (Methodology for Art Reproductions in Color). Both
of these projects were part of the $10 billion dollar European program named ESPRIT
(European Strategic Program of Research in Information Technology) that was initiated

in the early 19803 to make Europe’s computer industry competitive with Japan and the

United States.39

 

3' Christine Stundt, “Editorial: Reshaping Life and Culture Digitally,” Visual Resources
10(1994), vii.

3’ Anthony Hamber “ The VASARI Project,” in Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums:
Proceedings of an International Conference, ed. David Bearman, (Pittsburgh: Archives & Museum
Informatics, 1991), 277.

19

The aim of VASARI was to demonstrate a practical system for the acquisition,
storage and retrieval of high resolution digital images. VASARI produced high quality
images and a workable computer display system that would meet the needs of real life
“users” of art and art history. As a result, a sophisticated scanner was created that could
produce extremely high quality reproductions of existing works of art.

A “colorimetric” scanner system creates digital reproductions of existing works
of art. This system, in fact, provides higher color accuracy than conventional film. A
digital camera is placed on the scanner that moves to different areas of the painting to
capture “details which are later “mosaiced” together into one high resolution image.40 The
camera can move on the scanner slightly forwards or backwards to allow for automatic
focusing; this keeps the resolution the same for each detail. Three scanners are currently
being used. The first one was developed by the VASARI project for the National Gallery
in London. This scanner is able to produce images with a resolution of 20 pixels per
millimeter. This level of accuracy is important for scientific analysis and conservation,
including the study of surface texture and color change. Under-painting analysis is made
possible by a second scanner built for the Doemer Institute in Munich which is capable of
infra-red imaging. Infra-red imaging detects images that have been painted over. This
allows art historians to look at what is underneath a painting without destroying it. A

third scanner is located in the Uffizi Gallery. 4' These scanners create very accurate

 

” Birkbeck College Art History Department, Information on VASARI [online]; available from
H'I'I'lelwllvwhartbbkaeuk/vasarilabhmrl; accessed 10 June 1997.
Ibid.

20

image, but this accuracy has its price. The image files are so large, up to 800 megabytes,
that they require special optical disc storage and powerful image processing software.

In order to keep the VASARI project practical, the developers created various
uses for the scanned images. First, the images are composed of smaller details. These
sub-images are less cumbersome for museum staff to work with.

The creation of sub-images from the original VASARI

image files will enable all those professionals involved

in the running of museums and galleries to have access

to both image and text databases which should have a

significant effect on the productivity and efficiency

levels.42
Next, the VASARI digital images can be used for profit. Museums and galleries are “the
repositories of cultural heritage which is increasingly being exploited.”43 These
institutions can earn a significant income by charging fees for reproductions. The ease of
digital imagery file transfer to printing houses “greatly speeds up the process of printing
hard copy images and significantly improves hard copy image quality.”44 Also, the
VASARI images could be used for the museum’s educational programs. “One of the
aims of the VASARI project is to carry out research into computer-aided learning in the

visual arts.”45

Therefore the project created a workable delivery platform of CD-ROM
drivers and quality low-cost PC systems to display the digital files. Finally, the VASARI
images work well with computer networks making the Web another workable delivery

platform. The project created compressed images and graphical user interfaces which are

 

‘2 Hamber in Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums, 286.
‘3 Ibid.

“ Ibid.

" Ibid., 285.

21

standards for the Web. At present, Web users can only sample the quality of these
VASARI images from a Website located at Birkbeck College in England. Two details or
sub-images are illustrated at this location. One shows a detail from the Adoration of the
Kings by the Master of Liesbon.46 The other is a detail from Rogier van der Weyden’s
Magdalen Reading.47 The Magdalen detail is so precise that one can make out the words
in Mary’s book. With these four useful applications of the VASARI digital images, the
project successfully balanced high quality digital imaging with practicality.

The MARC project is another example of how accurate digital imaging
technology was developed with practicality in mind. The MARC project was a three year
endeavor that ran from December 1993 to May 1996. Like VASARI, it was an offspring
of the ESPRIT project and developed techniques to scan high resolution images directly
from paintings. It produced an ultra-high resolution camera and created a catalog of
paintings fi'om a Munich museum to demonstrate the quality of its digital images. To
correct a shortcoming of the VASARI scanner, the MARC camera is portable and
provides very accurate images, with a resolution capacity of up to 20,000 x 20,000 pixels.
With VASARI’s sub-images and MARC’s portable camera, these two projects
successfully balanced accuracy with practicality. The digital images created by these two
projects are accurate enough to be useful for collection management and conservation

purposes and practical enough to be useful for both profitable and educational enterprises.

 

‘6 Birkbeck College, Master of Liesbon 's Adoration of the Kings [online]; available from
http://diana.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~lan/liespic.html.

‘7 Birkbeck College, Rogier van der Weyden ’s Magdalen Reading [online]; available from
http://diana.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~lon/magpic.htrnl.

22

While high resolution digital images are useful to art institutions housing valuable
visual collections, low resolution digital images are also useful for art historical research
and teaching. This is especially true when the images are coupled with computer network
technology. Because digital images are computer images, all the power of the computer
can be utilized. Through the computer and network technology, images of art can easily
be accessed by anyone with a computer. The dissemination of art takes on a new,
dynamic form. With the basic idea that art belongs to everyone, making art accessible to
the world is a valuable thing. Yet, is providing access to reproductions the same thing as
providing access to the original work of art? In a way, yes.

Digital reproductions, when combined with computer network technology provide
a new form of information and a new means of conveying this information. Visual
information contributes to a better understanding of our visual cultural heritage. A better
understanding of this heritage leads to a powerful experience described as the “aesthetic
experience.” According to cognitive psychologists Mihaly Czikszentrnihalyi and Rick
Robinson, the aesthetic experience is defined as the “awe and exhilaration pe0ple feel
upon seeing or hearing something beautiful.”48 Czikszentrnihalyi and Robinson
interviewed a group of art museum professionals in order to establish how the aesthetic
experience takes place when one is looking at art.

These authors feel some sort of visual skill is necessary in order to produce an
aesthetic experience. This skill can be innate or cultivated. While the interviewed

museum professionals denied explicitly that the aesthetic experience was solely the

 

“ Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Rick Robinson, The Art of Seeing: An Interpretation of the
Aesthetic Encounter (Malibu: J. Paul Getty Trust Office of Publishing, 1990), 5.

23

product of an education in art history, they agreed that a kind of visual skill was
necessary. The relationship between a perfected skill and an aesthetic experience is also
key to the author’s previous study of skilled athletes and game players, Beyond Boredom
and Anxiety."9 Czikszentrnihalyi studied rock climbers, chess players, and basketball
athletes who were highly skilled in their fields.

The goal was to focus on people having peak experiences, who

were intrinsically motivated, and who were involved in play as

well as real life activities, in order to find out whether [Mihaly

Czikszentmihalyi]could detect similarities in their experiences,

their motivation, and the situations that produced enjoyment.50
The enjoyment they felt was coupled with what they described as a “loss of ego” or a
“loss of self-consciousness” and a “fusion with the world.”51 They all shared a similar
cluster of related sensations that was termed as “the flow of experience” or more simply
“the flow.” What is interesting is that both studies reveal that the same enjoyment is
experienced regardless of the specific activity. By studying the visual arts professionals,
it became clear for Czikszentrnihalyi and Robinson that a special visual skill or
knowledge was a necessary ingredient to the aesthetic experience. Just as rock climbers
or chess players experience “the flow” after they have mastered their game, the same can

be said of appreciating art. But, what this skill is in relation to art is debated by many

museum professionals.

 

‘9 Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: The Experience of Play in Work and
Games (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975).

so Czikszentmihalyi and Robinson, vii.

" Ibid., vii

24

One interviewee denied that a knowledge of art history was necessary; he even
went so far as to suggest that this disciplined knowledge is detrimental. “I would even
argue that there are many art historians who don’t have aesthetic experiences. They
respond to the object intellectually, but they often aren’t moved by the beauty of a work

52
” But, there seems to be, more

of art. In many ways, it becomes an intellectual exercise.
often than not, a consensus from the museum professionals that art historical knowledge
constitutes at least one element necessary for the aesthetic experience. “I think the
experience that people have depends enormously on what they are bringing to the work of
art and what they are looking for. And to a certain extent that means knowledge.”53
There is an agreement that the knowledge is visual in nature - an ability to think or be
motivated visually is essential. All of the arts professionals interviewed for the study at
some point expressed the visual basis of their kind of thinking. They described
themselves as visual people. An ability to turn their memory into a visual storehouse that
could be accessed and utilized deepened their sense of enjoying a work of art.

One has to have a storehouse. One has to learn to do that.

Visual baggage in order to begin to appreciate other things,

because it’s the interconnections between things, the

serendipitous connections that one can make that really

begins to get you interested in looking at more things, this

whole fabric begins to develop.54
Just as with any enjoyable experience, the more background one has with it, the deeper
the experience is. In the case of an aesthetic experience, enjoyment stems from one’s

ability to connect what he or she is seeing with larger implications.55

 

’2 Ibid., 151.
’3 Ibid.
5‘ Ibid., 153.

25

The role digital reproductions play in all of this is the dissemination of art
historical knowledge that adds to one’s “visual baggage.” This knowledge will facilitate
the aesthetic experience. The digital image offers a technologically advanced form of
reproducing existing works of art - a high quality image that surpasses the resolution of
film photography. More significantly, digital images are part of the computer matrix.
They can be linked to computer applications as part of an interactive learning

environment.

 

5’ Historical aesthetics address these various issues. However such a discussion would take the
topic beyond the scope of this thesis. For a good introduction to aesthetics see George Dickie, Aesthetics:
An Introduction (New York: Pegasus, l97l),l-46, who provides an excellent introduction to historical
aesthetics of Plato, Aristotle, and Kant. See also Ruth Saw, Aesthetics: an Introduction (New York:
Anchor Books, 1971), 219-221, who lists the important works on historical aesthetics and art theory in her
bibliography.

Chapter 3

INTERACTIVITY

Interactivity is simply the “free-ranging manipulation of textual and visual
material according to the will of the user as well as of the program designer.”56 This
manipulation is made possible through two dynamic elements, hypertext and hypermedia.
Hypertext, not a new concept, has been around for over fifty years. In 1945, Vannevar
Bush wrote an article for the Atlantic Monthly titled, “As We May Think,” in which he
explains that the computer could be used to retrieve information in the same way people
retrieve information from their memory. Bush believed that the computer could be a tool
that would enhance human memory and thinking.” Ted Nelson and Doug Englebert
extended Bush’s ideas in the 1960s.58 The term “hypertext” was coined by Nelson, who
envisioned a future where literature would not be constrained to a linear form. Instead,
words would be linked together, and jumps from one section of text to another would
follow the natural flow of human thinking.59 Englebert developed large-scale computer

”60

systems that would “augment the human intellect. After hypertext, the next logical

step is hypermedia. It involves the same concept as hypertext, but uses “objects”

 

’6 Lydecker, 312.

’7 Kristina Hopper, “HyperCard: A Key to Educational Computing,” in Learning with Interactive
Multimedia: Developing and Using Multimedia Tools in Education, eds. Sueann Ambron and Kristina
Hopper (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1990), 9.

5' lbid

’9 lbid

6° Doug Englebert; quoted in Happer, 9.

26

27

(images, sounds, and text elements) as links. Hypermedia allows for the dynamic linking
of databases that contain images and sounds as well as text.61

The first extensive use of hypermedia was through a popular end-user
programming language called HyperCard. When it was released in 1987, it was the
“ideal software for controlling external multimedia devices such as video-disc and CD-
ROM players.”62 HyperCard’s popularity was due to its user-friendly design. Its creators
believed that anyone could use this language. The most appealing feature of HyperCard
is that it allowed for an easy access to highly visual and acoustic presentations, thus
encouraging a wide range of individuals to use the computer for interactive programs.‘53
Ten years ago, HyperCard was considered an easy computer language to work with,
compared with the other options available. By today’s standards, it is rather
cumbersome. The World Wide Web, and HTML editors have proved to be even more
user-fiiendly. For example, anyone with a computer can create his or her own Website.

Hypermedia and interactivity are new technologies that will indeed have a
significant impact on the field of art history. However, where the changes will take place
is still under debate. So far interactive computer programs have made their mark in the
areas of research and education. Academic research in art history has very specific
requirements. The process of art historical research evolves around a kind of inquiry
idiosyncratic to this field. The art historian is able to maintain a mental image database,

that is to say, he or she can internalize a large amount of visual information. The

 

6' David Bearman, “Implications of Interactive Digital Media for Visual Collections,” Visual
Resources 5(1989), 313.

‘2 Hopper, xii.

‘3 Ibid., 10.

28

accomplished art historian can also recall this visual information at will and use it to
attribute significance to similar objects. Computer network technology does facilitate the
art historian’s mental image database by artificially extending his or her memory.
Whether or not computer applications are sophisticated enough to accomplish this task is
debatable. Oleg Grabar and Richard Brilliant offer some insight in how interactive
computer technology may (or may not) be valuable to this scholarship.

Oleg Grabar defines the unique processes used by a scholar conducting research
within the humanities and finds that the existing computer technology does not
significantly aid this process. Working with three scholarly databases: the Perseus
Project, The Census of Antique Art, and Architecture Known to the Renaissance, Grabar
is unable to find a meaningful task for these programs.

I could not think of anything but contrived questions to ask of

[the Perseus or Census applications] . . . . I knew in what book or

article in my own library to look for answers to my questions

or directions for further work. The point may be important

precisely because these programs do not deal with topics of

scholarly concern to me, but with that particular area of

knowledge that lies somewhere between scholarship and a

general culture.64
Grabar also addresses the use of CAD-based computer applications for archeological
research. He is involved with a project to recreate the early medieval city of Jerusalem
from archeological and written documents. While he is a bit more enthusiastic about this

project, he still is cautious about its shortcomings. The main problem is that some of the

“facts” used are educated guesses. When these guesses are incorporated into a computer

 

6’ Oleg Grabar, “The Intellectual Implications of Electronic Information,” Leonardo 27(1994),
140.

29

program, they appear real. As a result, “a cardinal rule of humanistic scholarship has
been broken, as fact and fancy are no longer separate, even if the later is plausible.” 65
For Grabar, computer technology may not be sophisticated enough to aid scholars.
Richard Brilliant is more optimistic about how computer technology will facilitate
art historical research. To him, the most important contribution is the proliferation of
visual resources: “[laser disc technology, digitized color processing, computer aided
design functions] and other developments will surely extend the visual memory of all art
historians (who have access to them) in unprecedented ways, since the hunger for images

”66 Brilliant is more positive about the advantages of computer

is ultimately insatiable.
technology because he believes that the technology can be manipulated to work very
much the same way art historians think and the way in which they construct a visual
memory. He explains how the art historian does this:

Once the object has qualified as an artwork, the scholar’s

memory comes into play, and it has two different directions

of activity. Primary is the internalized memory of like

objects in whole or in the part which gives rise to mental

images or the revisualization on command hour the
. . o7
observer’s trained expenence.

Brilliant then continues to explain that the visual memory alone is not enough. There is a
second, more essential mental process that engages art historical thinking. The second
process is attributing significance to the image.

Art historians may act like art critics in grasping the

visual properties of objects, but they act like historians
in surrounding the artifacts with causes, effects, and

 

65 .
Ibid., 139.
‘6 Richard Brilliant, “How an Art Historian Connects Art Objects and Information,” Library
Trends 37(1988), 125
‘7 Ibid., 121.

3O

circumstances - the ingredients of significance.68
The visual memory is internalized with ideas of significance. Not only can art historians
re-visualize similar objects, they can also think about the relationships of compatible
concepts. Brilliant is describing a non-linear mode of thinking. Mihaly
Czikszentrnihalyi’s study on the creative processes of art students adds insight into non-
linear thinking used by creative individuals.69 Czikszentrnihalyi defines this different
mode of thinking as problem finding rather than problem solving.70 The truly creative
problem finder is able “to raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems
from a new angle, requires creative imagination and makes a real advance in science [and

”7' Problem finding and non-linear thinking is the very thing interactive

the arts].
computer applications were designed for, as Vannevar Bush had envisioned and as
HyperCard and HTML have accomplished.

Like Grabar, Brilliant believes that computer technology has a very limited role in
the facilitation of academic research. Much more promising is the advantage this
technology can offer education. Art history is taught in two fields connected with the
visual arts. The first is through art museums, the second is through a university study of

art history. The former has a less established tradition of standard practices than the

latter, because of a long standing belief that the appreciation of art and beauty is innate.

 

a .
Ibid., 125.
‘9 Jacob Getzcls and Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, the Creative Vision: A Longitudinal Study of
Problem Finding in Art (London: John Wiley & Sons, 1976).
7° lbid., 171.
7‘ Einstein quoted in Czikszentrnihalyi, The Creative Vision, 82.

31

The problem museum professionals have with defining the rules and practices of
appreciating art is that they do not believe that these standards exist. Instead, they have
held that if people are left alone in a quiet place, devoid of distractions, then the beauty of
art objects will make itself known.

For quite some time . . . museum education was based on a belief
that people could and should use their access to artifacts that
museums contain as a way to educate themselves. Kenneth
Hudson referred to this as ‘open-education’ where the only
educational responsibility of the museums was to provide the

opportunity for learning to take place by collecting and
displaying the objects during scheduled hours.72

The theoretical basis for an “open—education” is still very much dominant in the minds of
some art museum professionals. In describing the perfect environment for observing a
work of art, the modern museum or gallery is what is expected. “More often than not, for
the general public as well as for museum professionals, the encounter with a work of art
takes place with in the context of the modern art museum or gallery: the ‘clean, blank,

”’73 This environment works extremely well

spacious environment which is made for art.
with this the notion of an “open-education” and the idealistic belief that “if works of art
are allowed to express their natural eloquence, the majority of people will understand

them; this will be far more effective than any guidebook, lecture, or talk.”74

While it is true that the modern museum works well for some visitors, it does not

work for all. Several studies indicate that art museums are in general intimidating to the

 

72 Stephanie Eva Koester, Interactive Multimedia in American Museums (Archives & Museum
Informatics, 1993), 6.

73 Czikszentrnihalyi and Robinson, 140.

7‘ F. Schmidt-Degener; quoted in Vera L. Zolberg, “ An Elite Experience for Everyone” in
Museum Culture, eds., Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1994), 52.

32

uneducated visitor. Kenneth Hudson describes art museums as having “remarkable
powers of making the uneducated feel inferior,” because these museums “have become

temples of scholarship.” 75

According to Hudson, the majority of museum visitors are not
scholars or intellectuals. The majority of visitors are ordinary people who find the
austere museum atmosphere intimidating.76 Vera Zolberg confirms Hudson’s
observations with her survey on museum visitors. She finds that the level of the visitor’s
education works significantly as an indicator of how comfortable the visitor will feel.77
The highly educated were “quite knowledgeable about what works were in the collection,
. . . planned their visit to focus on specific works, . . . felt at ease, remained longer than
other visitors, preferred being far from the crowds and tended to visit alone . . . . [and]
avoided docents and museum handouts and pamphlets.”78 As much as the highly
educated avoided educational information provided by the museum, the middle-level
occupational background visitors were eager to use such tools. Zolberg describes this
group as having a “high level of intellectual aspiration” and wanting to make the most of
their visit by “reading guidebooks, learning from docents, and absorbing information.”79
In comparison, the least educated group felt the most ill at ease. Zolberg finds that this
third group “felt intimidated by the solemnity they attributed to the surroundings, were
unprepared for the esoteric quality of the works . . . . [and did not dare] to ask questions

for fear of exposing their ignorance.”80

 

75 Kenneth Hudson, Museums for the I980s: A Survey of World Trends (New York: Holmes &
Meier Publishers, 1977), 8.

7‘ Ibid.

7’ Vera Zolberg, 52.

7’ Koester, 57.

’9 Ibid

'° lbid

33

The “open-education” attitude works well only for the highly educated in
Zolberg’s study. Better museum education models are available that are built on a less
antiquated premise than the “open-education.” Kent Lydecker offers a more democratic
model, which is based on providing access to art -- both physical and intellectual access.

I think it can be said that the educational purpose of an art
museum is to provide access to art. This means physical

access - getting to the stuff so you can see it - and more
importantly, intellectual access . . . . There are many levels

of what I have just called intellectual access, from knowing

the simple fact that Picasso died in 1973; to the aesthetic
appreciation of Les demoiselles d 'Avignon; to the philosophically
complex and open-endedeprocess of understanding Picasso’s
place in 20th-century art.

Lydecker attributes to technological developments the possibility of providing
access to art. Physical access, or at least access to images of art, is possible through
digital reproductions, and intellectual access through computer applications that provide
an interactive challenge to the user. The reason why interactivity will facilitate the
intellectual access to art is because it teaches the user how to think art historically. The
same intellectual processes that take place inside the art scholar’s mind can be recreated
in an educational computer program.

Interactive applications work well as educational programs because they are built
on a premise of active learning - the idea that participating is the best way to learn.
Hopper, in an introduction to educational interactive computer applications, explains why

active learning is the best teaching method, “A critical prescription for learning - more

often stated than followed - is that of active learning. The basic proposition is that “to

 

" Kent Lydecker, “Observations on Museum Use of Electronic Imaging: Today & Tomorrow,”
Visual Resources 7(1991), 311.

34

do” is to understand, that active involvement by students in manipulating information is

. . . ,82
key to their success in learrung.’

Simply stated in a Chinese proverb, active learning is
the path to true understanding, “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I
understand.”83 Art institutions such as museums and galleries can use interactive
programs and the Web to provide the public with greater access to the visual culture they
house. This idea of access is discussed fully in the next chapter.

Art history taught in a university setting can also benefit from interactive
computer technology operating under the premise of active learning. Hypervip is such a
pilot project, created at the University of Victoria, Canada. It is a visual database that can
display several images at once, “[keeping] the focus on relationships rather than
individual species.”84 Its creators, Victoria Wyatt, an art historian, and Ged McLean, a
mechanical engineer, created a multiple image, palette-based system that would
encourage spontaneous and flexible classroom interactions. An instructor can set up this
system in the classroom and use the palette of images during his or her lecture. Students
are encouraged to participate in class discussion because the system creates and projects

”85

“new palettes spontaneously in response to student questions. According to Wyatt and

McLean, Hypervip provides a more egalitarian classroom “by giving students direct

”86

access to images. This system is also based on active learning. “When the instructor

 

'2 Hopper, 14.

'3 Chinese proverb, used as a motto for the Children’s Museum in Boston; quoted in Koester, 79.

“ Victoria Wyatt, and Ged McLean, “Imaging Databases in Research and Teaching: Global
Perspectives and New Research Technologies,” Visual Resources 10 (1994), 43.

'5 Ibid., 45.

“ lbid., 46.

35

projects a palette, students make selections from the palette, thus thinking actively and
creatively rather than simply receiving information from the instructor.”87

A popular format for interactive educational computer applications is the CD-
ROM. These discs are portable and have enough memory to house large multimedia
files. Digital images and sound files use a large amount of computer memory. If the
application is located on a CD-ROM, the user can run the program without installing it
onto the computer’s hard drive. In short, CD-ROMs are very practical.

A CD-ROM program, American Identity Explorer, is presently being used at
Michigan State University to augment undergraduate course work.88 This computer
program teaches the history of American immigration and migration through period
photography, citations from literary sources, and contemporary accounts. The user
decides the flow of inquiry by selecting which immigration group or American city she is
interested in. Throughout the exercise, the user is able to place bookmarks and add notes
which can be saved and returned to later.

A commercially available CD-ROM, Escher Interactive, teaches the life and
history of artist, MC. Escher.89 The program contains a history of the artist which
includes still photographs of the artist and his family, as well as short movie clips of the

artist at work. Throughout the program, sound clips narrate the personal story of the

artist or instruct the user how to use the program. A comprehensive collection of digital

 

87 -
Ibid.
3' Michigan State University, American Identity Explorer: Immigration and Migration [CD-
ROM] (East Lansing: MSU Communications Technology Laboratory and The McGraw-Hill Companies,
1997).
'9 MC. Escher Foundation, Escher Interactive [CD-ROM] (New York: Harry N Abrams and
Eyeware Interactive, 1996).

36

reproductions of Escher’s work is available in the program’s gallery section. The
gallery includes a “select-a-year” time line and a word search engine. The user
can type in a word or combination of words like, “skull and still life”, and the
appropriate reproductions are made available. The program’s interactive nature is
most prevalent in its “arts workshops.” The user can create his or her own
Escher-inspired Tessellations or morphed designs, which in turn can be saved as a
computer file or printed on paper or textile.

CD-ROM educational programs are very entertaining and exciting because
they utilize all the power and glamour computers offer. As appealing as they are,
they are lacking in one area that computer network technology excels in - world
connection.

Although CD-ROMs excel in logically linking information

together, they do not come close to equaling the resources

that are available on the Web. CD-ROMs are produced by

artists, authors, and editors all working together to form

complete works of art. The World Wide Web, on the

other hand comes from the efforts of thousands, each

adding their own strands of information to the Web.90
The CD-ROM is an important computer aided learning device. But, as Vaughan-
Nichols points out, it is a fixed entity. Its limited resources cannot equal those of
the World Wide Web. The Web is an open entity. New Websites are constantly
being created and old Websites are being up-dated. As a result, new information

on the Web is grows continuously. A CD-ROM can be up-dated as new versions

are created, but the cost and inconvenience of replacing the old discs with new

 

9° Vaughan-Nichols, l9.

37

ones creates a problem. Websites can up-date their information without any
added cost or inconvenience to the user. For the computer-aided learning of art
history, the development of computer network technology has an incredible effect
on how art images will be accessed. A network of computers provides a new
world connection to a world of information. Access is the most significant

contribution computer network technology offers art history.

Chapter 4

ACCESS

Many members of the arts community maintain art sites on the Internet or the
Web. A list of those who are creating art related sites is large and expanding daily:
museums, galleries, universities, art institutions, artist groups, and individual artists are
all working with computer networks in some capacity. The implication is that the amount
of art information available online is immense and continues to grow. This is very
significant because the more information available, the more the Internet and the Web
become a viable resource for education and research in the visual arts. As more visual
arts information becomes accessible through the Web, the artificial memory of the art
historian increases, as discussed earlier.

Open access to visual arts information is the most important contribution
computer network technology offers the field of art history. Kent Lydecker, as
mentioned earlier, defines access as the primary goal for education in art museums.
Academic research is also profoundly effected by open access to visual arts information.
The scholars interviewed for the Getty AHIP project, Object Image Inquiry, again and

again name open access to knowledge as the one thing that would dramatically alter the

38

39

discipline.90 Knowledge needed to conduct research would be freed from academic
rivalry.

The major thing is really . . . open access . . . to different kinds
of information - free, if possible. Intemecine academic

rivalry could be gotten around if people had equal access

to books, because access is power.91

For one scholar, access is accomplished by electronic means because computer
technology offers a way to manipulate information.

I would like access to visual traditions . . . and to me that

means electronic and computerized, so that you can slice

the pie there and get different permutations and combinations

[making] images accessible according to iconography,

time, region, artist, and owner.92
Access, to yet another scholar, means saving precious time by eliminating some of the
tedious tasks necessary for gathering information.

Gathering information is a long-winded business . . . . If we

really did have . . . electronic availability . . . wouldn’t it be

wonderful to have access to . . . some sort of network

reaching to the major museums and to find out what the

museums’ holdin s were . . . . It would save months and

months of work.9
The scholars interviewed for the Getty project have different conceptions of access, but
all agree access is the most important contribution this technology offers. The reason is
simple, access to knowledge equals power. If access is free and open, the effect is the

democratization of knowledge. Even Oleg Grabar, who dismissed proposed scholarly use

 

9° Marilyn Schmitt, general ed., Object Image Inquiry (Santa Monica: The Getty Art History
Information Program, 1988).

9' Ibid., 105.

9’ Ibid., 51.

’3 Ibid., 52.

40

of computer technology, acquiesces to the power of accessibility. “Electronic
information, far from being the privilege of the rich, like research libraries or museums
were and still are, could be a factor in the democratization of knowledge.”94 This is the
promise of computer network technology. There is a sense of hope brought on by the
possibilities of connecting together an entire world of knowledge.95

Not everyone is optimistic about this new technology. One skeptic, Howard
Besser, warns that this is a misguided admiration of network technology. He compares
the current optimistic excitement to that placed on cable television in the early 1970s.
Besser argues that just as one hundred additional television channels did not actually
change society as was originally hoped, computer network technology is also full of
empty promises. Technology, on its own, never creates social benefits. Instead, “both
technology and social benefits are shaped by social forces that operate on a much broader
level.”96 Besser believes, in fact, that computer network technology is capable of some
negative social changes. For one, the proliferation of “high quality representations of
cultural objects (and accompanying explanatory information) on the home computer” will
keep visitors away from museums.97 Computer network technology will also lure people
away from real experiences in favor of “virtual” ones. These “computer-based ‘virtual’
experiences ( including ‘virtual sex’) will provide us with experiences that are more

predictable, less serendipitous, and less interesting than human interaction.”98 Ann Mintz

 

9‘ Grabar, 137.

9’ A good source that addresses the issue of the democratization of knowledge is Richard Lanharn,
The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1993).

9‘ Besser, 59.

9’ Ibid., 67.

9' Ibid., 70.

41

agrees with Besser, as she explains that the best educational experiences take place
physically inside the art museums. She describes an experience that could not possibly
take place on one’s home computer:

My vivid memories of childhood museum experiences include

the electrifying moment when I realized that a human being had

built the Egyptian tomb at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and

that I could touch the same stone. No computer could provide this

sudden sense of connection and continuity across the millennia.99
It is the physical, real life connections that create the most meaningful aesthetic
experiences. Mintz’s electrifying moment simply cannot be reproduced, no matter how
innovative the interactive computer program, because these computer programs use
reproductions rather than original works of art. The concern here is that a proliferation of
digital images will result in a loss of interest in the real objects. Howard Besser predicts
that digital images will keep visitors away fi'om museums. The main problem with
Besser’s reasoning is that he assumes that the proliferation of digital images will have
different consequences than a proliferation of photographic reproductions. Fine art
photographic reproductions have already been incorporated into popular culture for many
years. Yet, statistics prove that fine art museums have remained as popular or have
grown in popularity since the invention of photography. '00 What should be focused on is
how digital images will change the meaning of art objects. In this regard, digital images
merely continue what photography has already started. Since the advent of photography,

the uniqueness of an art object is no longer tied to its underlying image. Because the

 

’9 Ann Mintz, “Techno-Logic,” Museum News (July/August 1992), 45.
'00 American Association of Museums, Museums Count (Washington D. C.: American
Association of Museums, 1994), 63-64.

42

underlying image can be reproduced many times, its meaning changes. As John Berger
explains, the original’s “meaning multiplies and fragments into many meanings?”1 The
only possible consequence of the proliferation of digital images will be an additional
multiplying and fragmentation of meaning. This is a different consequence than a loss of
interest. More attention should be paid to how digital imaging on the Web conveys art
information.

In order to understand how art information is best conveyed on the Web, it is
necessary to examine the most innovative and educational Internet and Websites
created. '02 Looking first at the earliest exhibitions created for the Internet, these
exhibitions tend to have more of an educational presence than today’s Websites. Three
projects stand out from the rest: the Smithsonian photograph collection and two online
exhibitions from the Library of Congress. These three Internet exhibitions were created
with a particular educational mission or lesson in mind. The Smithsonian’s mission was

”103 The two Library of Congress exhibits

the “. . . increase and diffusion of knowledge.
“consist of selected photo images from physical exhibits at the library and numerous

documents and bibliographies to help put the images in their historical context.”104 The
first is a Soviet document exhibition consisting of documents dating from the Cold War.

This online exhibition provides an introduction to Soviet Union foreign and domestic

 

m John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: The British Broadcasting Corporation, 1972), 19.

m Due to the ever-changing nature of computer network technology, it is impossible for this
thesis to be completely up-to-date. Innovations in educational art Websites are created on a daily basis.

'03 From the Smithsonian chapter; quoted in Jim Wallace, “Project Chapman: the Direct Delivery
of Digital Smithsonian Photographic Images Via the Internet,” Visual Resources 10 (1994), 58.

‘°‘ Adam Gaffin, “Visiting Museums on the Internet,” Internet World 5(1994), p. 24

43

policy. The second Library of Congress exhibit is a collection of images from the
Vatican Library that compares different biblical texts.

The Smithsonian Institution was one of the first organizations to develop an
image database. The Smithsonian Office of Printing and Photographic Services scanned
images fi'om its collection and made them “available to academic and non-profit

”'05 The motivation behind this project was to provide

audiences served by the Internet.
access to the Institutions resources. The Internet provided them with a means to reach a
broader audience. They were especially interested in reaching “those who cannot come

”’06 The Internet site is a collection of digital images

to Washington to visit the museums.
that the user can download onto his or her computer. There is not much information in
connection with these images except for some embedded descriptions. The quality of the
images are adequate. They are 24-bit images in a 640 x 480 pixel PICT format,
compressed into a JPEG. Selecting this level of quality was intended to discourage
misuse and copyright infringement. “These images will provide a high quality
presentation on computer screens, but will not have sufficient resolution for commercial
publication.”107
The exhibitions from the Library of Congress, like the Smithsonian, provide
digital reproductions, but also enough additional information to constitute a complete and

direct educational experience. The Soviet document exhibition is comprised of digital

reproductions of the original documents with English translations. Documents include a

 

'05 Wallace, 57.
'°‘ Ibid., p. 58.
'°’ Ibid.

44

“directive fi'om Lenin ordering the death of anti-Communist farmers” and “documents

103
” The documents

related to the Cuban missile crisis and the Chernobyl meltdown.
presented at this site form an open discussion of the Soviet Union domestic and foreign
policy during the Cold War. This open dialog is best featured in the transcript of an
“online discussion between Librarian of Congress, James Billington, his Russian

”109 The library’s second exhibit

counterpart, and users of America Online service.
provides a collection of original biblical texts, including copies of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The exhibit’s goal is “to illustrate the chain of transmission of the biblical text.” In order
to do this, the creators of the exhibition “have placed alongside the two-thousand-year-
old Dead Sea Psalm Scrolls, a facsimile of the tenth century Aleppo Codex (which until
the Dead Sea Scrolls was the earliest known Hebrew Bible manuscript) and the first
Hebrew printed edition of the Psalms from 1477 - both from the Vatican Library Hebraic
collections.”l '0 These two exhibitions demonstrate the educational power of online
projects by including reproductions of original documents, supporting information, and
online discussion.

Art sites created for the Web, in general, have less of an educational lesson and
more of an innovative thrust than their earlier counterparts from the Internet. Interactive
multimedia links and instantly accessible visual graphics are some of the elements of a

Website. Unfortunately, most art Websites do not utilize this interactive capability.

Instead, they offer only the most mundane information. The largest number of art

 

m Gaffin, p. 24
'°’ Ibid., 25.
"0 From the exhibition catalog, quoted in Gaffin, 25.

45

Websites are from art museums. “Almost every museum in the world now has a Web
page, although they vary in content . . . many museum pages function mainly as
brochures and offer only the basic information for visiting the home museum.”l H The
better art Websites are the few that include some element of interactive applications.
The “art museum brochure” type of art Website is by far the most common and
the least interesting type. One site worth mentioning is from the Louvre.”2 This site
offers very little commentary, but includes such “treasures” as the Mona Lisa and

”3 Not all Websites are related to physical art

provides interesting views of the building.
museums or institutions, but rather, exist only as electronic entities. One example is the
OTIS project. This site offers a variety of art and art related information and is on the

”4 An interactive component of the OTIS site is its

cutting edge of online medium.
collective art projects. These projects allow site visitors to contribute artwork to the
location. One fascinating collective project is the “Gridcosm.” This project allows
artistically inclined visitors to add pieces to an existing image grid. The visitor reserves a
spot on the grid, then has a few hours to produce an integrated piece. Non-participating
visitors observe the changing image. A Gridcosm discussion forum allows artists and
visitors to discuss the changing image. The brochure type of Websites connect the world
to the major museums, and offer access to some of the great works of art, such as the

Mona Lisa. The purely electronic sites, such as OTTS, offer creative, interactive

opportunities for those who wish to create art images or participate in online discussions.

 

“‘ David Noack, “Visiting Museums Virtually,” Internet World 6(1995), 88.
112 Louvre[online]; available from http:l/meteora.ucsd.edu/~norman/paris/Musees/Louvre.
113
Noack, 89.
114 OTIS [online]; available from http://sunsite.unc.edu/otis/otis.html; accessed 13 August 1997.

46

Three art Websites warrant particular attention due to their innovative and
educational natures. The Smithsonian Institution Website, the Getty ArtsEdNet, and the
Art Imagebase from the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.115 All of these sites offer
interactive elements, ways in which the user can become directly involved with the
Website or manipulate its information.

The Smithsonian Website represents all of the diverse museums that comprise the
real-world Smithsonian Institution. It was launched, May 8, 1995, in order to combine, on
the Web, individual museum’s and project director’s explorations of electronic

”6 The site is visually stunning, easy to use, and

communication for the Internet.
provides online tours of its various museums. The strength of the Smithsonian site is its
images. The same image catalog that is available through the Internet, is accessible from
the Website.1 '7 The Institution’s reputation as an innovative online image resource is
carried on at the National Zoo with its use of Web cameras. The most recent camera is
in place at the Zoo’s elephant house.118 The “Updating Elephant Cam” provides live
images for the Web that refreshes every twenty seconds. Site visitors watching the
elephants on their computer monitors experience a real time connection with the Zoo and

have a sensation of being there. After watching the elephants, site visitors are asked to

send a message to the program manager.

 

"’ Smithsonian [online]; available from http://www.si.edu/; ArtsEcflVet [online]; available from
http://www.artsednet.getty.edu/; and Art Imagebase [online]; available from
http://www.thinker.org/imagebase.

"6 Noack, 91. For more background information see, Smithsonian [online]; available from
http://www.150.si.edu/chapl3/thirteen.htm; accessed 13 August 1997.

“7 Smithsonian photograph Project [online]; available from ftpz/lphotol .si.edu.

““ Smithsonian Zoo Photographs [online]; available from
http://www.si.edu/organiza/museums/zoo/photos.

47

The Getty offers a Website that focuses on art education. “ArtsEdNet is designed
specifically for K-12 arts educators and general classroom teachers who incorporate the

”1 19 This Website contains an expanding database of materials

arts into their curriculum.
useful to arts education. There is also an online discussion center, ArtsEdNet Talk, that
allows teachers to connect and discuss various topics with other educators from around
the world. ArtsEdNet Talk also schedules special guests to participate in the online

‘20 Teachers learn from this site, then incorporate the lessons into their own

discussions.
classes. The ArtsEdNet Talk opens a dialog between site visitors and guest experts.
Each site visitor has a unique use for the information provided.

The Imagebase fi'om San Francisco is the most interactive site among these three.
The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, the De Young Museum and the Legion of
Honor, are in the process of digitizing their entire collections and to making them
available online through the Imagebase. Presently, they have over 65,000 works from
their graphic arts collection available on an image database. An Imagebase “tour” gives
the user an inside look art how the museums’ curators access the database while creating
an exhibition. This is accomplished by a program that simulates how Karin Breuer, an
associate curator of the Achenbach Collection for Graphic Arts, uses the Imagebase to
select objects for an exhibition on color woodcuts of California landscapes.121 The online

version of the image database uses the same search engine that easily finds appropriate

works depending on the designated search parameters. It is the museums’ mission “to

 

"9 Candace Borland, “ArtsEdNet: Arts Education Resources on the Internet,” School Arts
(January 1996), 12.
'2“ Ibid., 13.

 

48

behave more like a resource and less like a repository.”122 They established this Website

to serve “students and educators, art lovers and scholars.”123

The Imagebase is very
significant because it allows anyone to try his or her hand at being a curator. San
Francisco Imagebase, though not complete, it is the very thing wished for not too long
ago by the art historian who wanted to reduce the tedium of “long-winded research.”124

In this light, San Francisco Imagebase is a very significant contribution to art history.
However, do all museums to have the same resources as the Museums of San Francisco
had in order to produce their comprehensive database? Economic and legal problems that

surround computer network technology are two very real hindrances to a successful use

of this technology. The next chapter will cover these issues.

 

121 see Imagebase Tour, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Art Imagebase [online]; available
fi'om HTTP:// www.thinker.org/imagebase; accessed 13 August 1997.

122 Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Art Imagebase [online].

”3 Ibid.

‘2‘ Schmitt, 52.

Chapter 5

ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ISSUES OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The economic and legal problems that surround computer network technology are
intertwined. The possibility of profiting from the Web brings to the foreground questions
regarding the rights of copyright holders and fair use. At the core of the confusion is the
conflict of interest between commercial and educational uses of the Web. While the legal
issue surrounding commercial interest of the Web is straightforward, anyone wishing to
create an educational art site for the Web must first wrestle with the vague copyright
issues connected with this new technology. The most difficult aspect of creating an
educational art site for the Web has to do with copyright infringement. An art site on the
Web naturally uses many digital reproductions of works of art. Contemporary art objects
are usually protected by copyright laws. Even the doctrine of fair use, which allows
special consideration for educational projects, does not address the unique problems of
Websites. In looking for some guidelines for using digital reproductions on the Web, a
variety of sources are available. Most of these sources are not up to date and none give
any sort of definite answer to this topic.

For basic information about copyright law in general, the best sources are

available online. The United States Copyright Office maintains a Web site that spells out

49

50

the most current laws and acts relating to copyright.12 5 The Copyright Office will also
answer correspondences and provides forms which one can download. Other sources on
copyright law are books published by legal scholars who offer their interpretations on the
law. These books, better known as “horn books,” are written in legalese and are intended

126

to inform attorneys on the chapter and verse of copyright law. There are also sources

helpful for the less legal minded reader; these are self-help books created by attorneys to

127 These books are very easy to read and usually illustrated.

educate the general public.
Unfortunately they rarely explain the subject in depth.

For more information specific to copyright law and the World Wide Web, the
most current sources are found on the Web itself. There are a large number of Websites
dedicated specifically to this topic. The best is a site maintained by an intellectual
property attorney, P.J. Bennedict O’Mahoney. His site is appropriately named The
Copyright Website.128 O’Mahoney presents copyright issues in a clear and interesting
manner. He includes current information on the Clinton administration’s Information
Infrastructure Task Force (IITF), which is presently working on copyright and Internet

issues. Technical issues dealing with copyright law and the Web can be found in trade

journals such as PC Magazine and Mac World. One noteworthy article covers the issue of

 

‘2’ The United States Copyright Office, Copyright Web Site [online]; available from
http://1cweb.loc.gov/copyright; accessed 18 March 1997.

'26 Three popular “horn books” include; Benjamin Kaplan, An Unhurried View of Copyright (New
York: Collunbia University Press, 1967); William F. Parry, ed., Latrnan 's The Copyright Law, 6th ed.
(Washington D. C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 1986); Melville B. Nimmer, Nimmer on Copyright: A
Treatise on the Law of Literary, Musical and Artistic Property, and the Protection of Ideas (Albany:
Matthew Bender, 1963.)

127 Here are two fine examples, Don Glassman, Writers ’ and Artists ' Rights (Washington DC:
Writers Press, 1978); William S. Strong, The Copyright Book: A Practical Guide, 4th ed. (Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press, 1993).

m P.J. Bennedict O’Mahoney, The Copyright Website [online]; available at
HTTP://www.benedict.com; accessed 18 March 1997.

51

copyright and computer art. 129 This article is an excellent source for graphic artists who
want to create derivative works from copyrighted images. The author includes a very
interesting section displaying five derivative works that are examples of copyright
infringement. Scholarly journals, such as Visual Resources and Journal of
Communication address the theoretical as well as technical issues surrounding copyright
law, digital reproductions, and the Web. A special issue of Visual Resources is devoted
entirely to copyright law as it effects those who work with visual materials.I30

From these sources it is possible to gather some general information relating to
the specific problems of reproducing works of art for an educational Website. Online
sources offer the most current information, but, as it now stands, policy regarding the
lntemet and the Web is in the process of being made. The sources available today will
not be accurate for tomorrow.

There are two key legal issues particular to the Web. The first issue is a need to
clarify the rights of copyright and copyright holders. This is important to those wishing
to license digital images commercially on the Web. The second issue is a need to
redefine fair use. The Web has brought this ambiguous doctrine to the minds of those
creating Websites. It is unclear what can be claimed as the fair use of digital images on
the Web. The Clinton Administration has responded with proposed guidelines outlined

in the “White Paper.” The United States Commerce Department has also responded by

initiating the Conference on Fair Use, CONFU.

 

'29 Majorie Bear, “Copyright and the Visual Arts,” Mac World (October 1996), 163-167.
'30 Robert Baron, “The Great Image Debate,” special issue, Visual Resources 12 (1997).

52

The current laws of policy on the rights of copyright and copyright holders define
who owns these rights and what these owners are legally permitted to do with

131 . .
For example, when a museum or a gallery lrcenses images to

copyrighted images.
commercial venders, the museum or gallery retains some level of control over the
underlying image. Retaining control over the image is important for protecting the
interests of these visual arts institutions. They need to protect both their economic
interests and the integrity of the art objects - while at the same time, they need to provide
public access to this cultural heritage.132
Public access can be defined in many different ways. When a copyrighted object

is reproduced as a digital image, the question arises whether or not certain uses of this
digital image is protected under the doctrine of fair use. The problem at hand is that this
doctrine was deliberately left ambiguous. The Supreme Court stated that issues of fair
use must be considered on a case-by-case basis; using four factors in determining whether
the use is fair.133 Barbara Hoffman, in an article on copyright and CONFU, lists the four
factors:

(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether

for commercial or nonprofit educational purposes; (2) the

nature of the copyrighted work; (3) the amount and substantiality

0f the portion “36d; and (4) the effect of the use upon the
potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. ‘34

 

131 For an in-depth discussion see Barbara Hoffman, “Fair Use of Digital Art Images and
Academia: A View from the Trenches of the Conference on Fair Use (CONFU),” Visual Resources 12
(1997), 373-392.

132 David Bearrnan and Jennifer Trent, “Museums and Intellectual Property: Rethinking Rights
Management for a Digital World,” Visual Resources 12 (1997), 269.

‘3’ The United States Copyright Office, Copyright Web Site [online].

134 Hoffman addresses each one of these factors as they specifically relate to digital imaging and
the Web, see page 379.

53

The ambiguous nature of the doctrine allows for many different interpretations of what
can be considered fair use. For example, Stephen Weil proposes that any museum use of

‘35 Karlene McLaren disagrees with Weil. She advocates a

an image is always fair use.
stringent adherence to copyright law at the expense of fair use; believing that copyright is
designed to protect and promote creative activities.” 6 Both Weil and McLaren derive
different ideas fiom the same ambiguous doctrine.

In order to establish some guidelines for fair use, as it relates to computer network
technology, the Clinton Administration presented the “White Paper,” and the Department
of Commerce initiated CONFU. The “White Paper” has been declared defective because
it does not accurately address specific technical issues of the Web. For example, the
paper does not successfully distinguish between downloading and copying.137 The
“White Paper” has also been criticized as being too pro-commerce. Caron Camahan
explains how the papers proposed guidelines protect commerce to the detriment of

138

educational interests. She is concerned that if these guidelines are adopted, they will

139

phase out fair use. Fair use is not only placed in danger by the “White Paper,” but also

by the direction CONFU is heading. Virginia Hall explains how conservative positions

 

135 Stephen Weil, “Fair Use/Museum Use: How Close is the Overlap?” Visual Resources 12

(1997), 353.

'36 Karlene McLaren, “Copyright: Fair Use or Foul Play,” Visual Resources 12 (1997), 343.

'37 O’Mahoney explains this more in detail, see his Website, O’Mahoney, The Copyright Website
[online].

13: Caron Camahan, “The Visual Surrogates as Intellectual Property: The Clinton
Administration’s ‘White Paper’ and its Implications for Visual Resources Collections,” Visual Resources
12 (1997), 405.

‘3’ Ibid., 407.

54

taken during the proceedings of CONFU challenges long-standing practices of fair use. '4
Hall is very pessimistic about the future of fair use:

Will there be no such thing as fair use in the NTI [National

Information Infrastructure]? Given the current conservative

legislative trend on the issues, this may be alfluestion that the

courts Will be addressmg for years to come.

Ideally, computer network technology, as manifested in the Web, will lead to the
democratization of information by providing a world of knowledge freely accessible to
all. The dissemination of art will be part of this democratization of information.
However, practically speaking, the democratization of visual information assumes that
everyone will have access to computer networks and that the institutions who manage
visual materials will be able to provide this service. It is one thing to imagine what is
possible, and another to deal with what is practical. Even though digitizing programs
such as MARC and VASARI tried to keep their projects affordable and practical, it is
unlikely all museums will be able to afford such applications. Finally, given the
conservative tendencies demonstrated in the “White Paper” and at CONFU, it is likely
that commercial interests will prevail over educational ones when policy and law is
finally established regarding the Web.

Expense, and the possibility of legal conflict, do keep some art institutions from

initiating new Web-related educational projects. Nevertheless, the few truly innovative

 

"0 Virginia Hall, “Fair Use and Digital Image Archive: A Report on the National Information
Infrastructure Conference on Fair Use,” Visual Resources 12 (1997), 399.
l .
Ibld.

0

 

55

art Websites lead the way to the future. Major art institutions continually upgrade their

Websites, and the number of new art Websites increases daily. '42

 

"2 New examples of innovative educational Websites are found daily. One example is the image

database. As I began research, the Imagebase fiom San Francisco was the only online example of an

art image database. Now these databases are becoming more common. For example, the Detroit Institute
of Arts has just launched its own image database. Detroit Institute of Arts, Diamondial Image Database,
[online]; available from http://www.dia.org; accessed 13 December 1997 .

 

‘ma '7. Mess. J

CONCLUSION

Digital imaging and interactive programs accessible via the World Wide Web
have the potential of democratizing information. Art historical information, especially
digital reproductions of fine art is part of this information. Interactive programs present
this information in a non-linear way, inspiring creative approaches to problem solving or
problem finding. The key to the democratization of information is open access. Ideally,
computer network technology will create an open forum for the fi'ee exchange of
information. However, in practical terms, open access is hindered by economic and legal
problems. That is to say, there is a confusion of what is legally free, and there is the
simple problem of the cost network services.

Despite economic and legal problems, innovative art Websites have made their
way onto the lntemet. The sites provide the public with stunning digital reproductions,
interactive programs, and accessible image databases. The Website visitors learn from
these sites by using and manipulating the information in ways meaningful to them.
Computer network technology also provides the art historian with new education and
research tools. High quality digital reproductions, such as those from the MARC and
VASARI projects, are more accurate imaging tool than photography. This improves fine
art conservation and collection management efforts. Computer networks provide an

access to these digital images and interactive programs. Access facilitates academic

56

 

57

research and provides educators and students the opportunity to connect and Share
information outside of the classroom.

It is the possibilities of computer network technology that will lead to a more
dynamic use of human knowledge. Economic and legal problems will remain
troublesome only today because the technology is still new. Once standards of legal
practice have been established, the creation of educational art Websites will be less
confusing. The cost of implementing this new technology will also become less of an
issue. Computer technology has always followed a particular trend: as the technology

becomes more sophisticated, it becomes more affordable. For example, as the average

 

personal computer becomes more sophisticated over the past twenty years, the cost of l
purchasing this computer remains affordable. The democratization of art is a very noble
idea, and leading the way is computer network technology. The future may find us a

truly democratic society where the entirety of human knowledge is freely accessible.

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Alexander, Victoria. Museums and Money: The Impact of Funding on Exhibitions,
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Allison, David K., and Tom Gwaltney. “How People Use Electronic Interactives.” In
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Ambron, Sueann, and Kristina Hopper, eds. Learning with Interactive Multimedia.
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