5 "‘15 'l' ":51: n ., 5 915,555,515": 5» 3T: 1. A‘ ‘55.. £555 ' 5’ .' 5103‘ I'll. ' I5 (T 315' ‘ ,5.- :‘u. ‘IIHA; “PM in)“ 5 515,32 ,5 I?” > ‘5. ‘ A "12', LIL)“ ‘f‘, 3!. ”"1“. _5 ,5 ifl ‘15,, t“ :é;,,:."“ 5510.345"! 5"}; 3351455 [5'5 ' 5-“ 5. . ‘ ' V .i 55 " 5‘3.1'-55}':-~:"'5,‘ ‘. 3. ”Wm.“ 2'55 5. .... 55 ., {556' , ., . . . . 5 thfl" Kb.“ .4 f' : .‘ ._ 'J Wu,“ ,5, ,l.r;,';_: ' FL" | I4 '5'l551,..,“ . I : l“‘ .99 l‘." 'i' 5'5““ . :5. .. 55» 5 '5“, ~55 ’5 55555155. '1]: ,":1I:‘t‘5!,‘:5if 5. 5‘ ., . f, . 3, '5 Il-Uf'fr‘ I "‘13.;‘yh ‘ > . v ‘ .. . ‘ J" 5,5 ’1'..." 3;, 2‘151'15‘5'3" JF’ ' ‘...‘ 1 .‘1’35'11i95'JIlJ. I . ...l 5” d" - . ‘3 :2»;- an: mtf.." —:§-# 5 {3; r '15b‘,55" " “:‘g 1‘ 9 I u}— bv.’ ‘ ‘I~‘J' ,5..- ."E', . __ - 1:5: 5 a L."!.__; chm:{,’— “3‘7?“ .95 .~-':.:': ' ; - I 55‘5“ . 235‘ 15.5,? .- 2': J I. w m» "t- ‘3‘: . ”5-"? .-. . ~0. u" 1,335 .531 L,“ 55.53555" 33‘ _ LT. u. ... ‘24:; "‘ ‘Z; . I. .1... 9 Nu." _ (f ‘9}! _§55 ”555 "5515' 5 ! 55:.."55- :1__"‘§ ,‘U J5." .t-Umls thy-51.“. THESE This is to certify that the thesis entitled M W presented by 4411. /W W M W has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for imagine 1n WM W‘QW Major professor Date /11201% 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution ———‘_‘—_._'.__. _ Agfi—g q V~___._ v~—~—~ *— MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 01579 5903 r LIBRARY Michigan State Unlversity ; - PLAC CEINRETURNBOXt oromavo ohhchockodfromywrocord. ‘ TOAVO OIDF IN Srdumonorbdoroddoduo. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE -__- WWII—J %E3- MSUI: AnAtfldevoActIon/EMOWWI Indlution Wanna-m VOLUNTEER PARTICIPATION RATE OF URBAN EARLY ADOLESCENTS IN RELATION TO SELECTED ORGANISMIC AND BEHAVIORAL VARIABLES By Terry Langston A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Family and Child Ecology 1996 ABSTRACT VOLUNTEER PARTICIPATION RATE OF URBAN EARLY ADOLESCENTS IN RELATION TO SELECTED ORGANISMIC AND BEHAVIORAL VARIABLES By Terry Langston This investigation had a dual focus: 1) to examine the reported volunteer participation rate of urban early adolescents 12 to 14 years old, and 2) to determine if their participation differed by age, gender, race or ethnicity, school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, and youth activities. The Search Institute‘s MW; Questionnaire (ABQ) was administered to 16,375 students in 7th, 9th, and 11th grade in 36 Michigan communities during 1993 and early 1994. The ABQ is a 152-item inventory developed by the Search Institute. This study’s sample included a total of 4,393 urban early adolescents aged 12. 13. and 14 years. Data analysis included frequency and cross tabulations. Chi-square analyses were used to determine the level of significance. Overall, the majority (75.2%) of the urban early adolescents, aged 12 to 14 years, reported participating in volunteer activities one to three times during the previous twelve months. Significant, differences were found at the p <.Ol Chi-square level for all variables except for age. The findings of this research contribute significantly to understanding the participation of urban early adolescents in volunteer activities and provide a direction for future research. In summary, the research findings are as follows: . Age was not significantly related to volunteer participation. . Urban early adolescent females were significantly more likely than were urban early adolescent males to participate in volunteer activities. . All racial and ethnic groups participated in volunteer activities. Although there were some variations among ethnic and racial groups; these were not statistically significant. . Urban early adolescents who had higher levels of achievement motivation and higher levels of school performance were found to be more likely to volunteer than were urban early adolescents who had lower school performance and achievement motivation. . Urban early adolescents who reported higher levels of employment were found to be more likely to volunteer than urban early adolescents not employed. . Urban early adolescents who participated in youth activities were found to be more likely to volunteer than urban early adolescents who did not participate in youth activities. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Had it not been for the time, assistance and genuine effort of several individuals, this thesis may not have been completed. My sincere appreciation is extended to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Joanne Keith, for her patience and faith. I admire her wisdom and discernment; she is a caring and committed educator, and a conscientious researcher for whom I have the utmost respect. I was especially fortunate to have as my committee Mrs. Marie Corey, Dr. Daniel Perkins, and Dr. Francisco Villarruel. Their expertise, passion, and commitment served me well. and I greatly appreciated their willingness to share their time and insights. A special thank you to Dr. Dan Perkins who, through his friendship, assisted me in not just learning about the process of writing, but demonstrated a genuine understanding and patience for assisting me in learning the art of writing, developing, and perseverance. He has taught me much about setting and achieving both short- and long- term goals, and I am greatly indebted to him. I also owe him a debt of gratitude for sharing his data and research with me, and for serving as my statistician. He has a natural talent for statistics. Additionally, I thank Dr. Norma Bobbitt, who from the start of my graduate work played a major role. Although she was unable to complete her term on my committee, iv her patience, motivation, and constant “cheering” as an educator, listener and friend was invaluable. The original research for this project was supported in part by grants from the Lutheran Brotherhood Association and the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. The Institute for Children, Youth and Families at Michigan State University and Michigan State University Extension also provided support. In addition, the Search Institute of Minneapolis, Minnesota made the survey of Michigan students available. These organizations deserve recognition for providing scholarships, which in turn, enhances the quality of life for children and families. I would like to acknowledge three special friends and colleagues, Cathy Newkirk, Melissa F reel, and Judy Carl for their encouragement and support over the years. Although we are separated by many miles. they have consistently demonstrated their friendship, support and confidence and have continued to urge me to seek new challenges in life. Judy has also spent many hours editing this document. My wife, Shawna, deserves special mention. She is a remarkable and unique woman. Never, during the four years it took me to complete this Master’s program, did she complain about the time or expense of the undertaking. Shawna is the epitome of support--sharing my frustrations, pain, and successes throughout this entire process. Her consistent encouragement and support enabled me to accomplish this demanding, but worthwhile goal. Finally, I must mention my friends and colleagues at Minority Program Services, Michigan State University Extension; Michigan Nonprofit Association; the Council of Michigan Foundations; and the Langston, Bonner, Tate, and Stevens families who supported me throughout this process. Although many individuals have played an important role in helping me achieve this goal, a special thank you goes to Dr. Michael J. Tate; Mr. Harry Bonner, Sr.; Mrs. Dorothy A. Johnson; Mr. David O. Egner; Ms. Odessa Shepherd; Ms. Julie A. Busch; and Dr. Cynthia B. Mark, all of whom I consider my professional mentors. They have supported me and listened on countless occasions as l voiced my concerns about, and questioned my ability to complete, this thesis. I thank you for your constant support and encouragement throughout this process. vi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................... ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 Introduction ............................................................................. 1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................... 4 Research Questions ................................................................. 8 Limitations .............................................................................. 8 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 1 1 Early Adolescent Development .............................................. 1] Volunteer Participation in Relation to Adolescent Development ............................................................... 14 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Age ............................. 18 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Gender ........................ 20 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Race or Ethnicity ....... 23 Volunteer Participation in Relation to School Performance... 25 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Achievement Motivation ................................................................... 28 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Youth Employment.... 29 Volunteer Participation in Relation to Youth Activities ......... 31 The Present Study ................................................................... 33 III. METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE DESCRIPTION ........................ 35 Participants .............................................................................. 35 Measures ................................................................................. 36 Microsystems Organismic Variables ...................................... 36 Microsystems Behavioral Variables ....................................... 38 Procedures ............................................................................... 44 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii IV. RESULTS ........................................................................................... 45 Results Related to Microsystems Organismic Variables ........ 45 Results Related to Microsystems Behavioral Variables ......... 52 V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .......................................... 60 Implications for Programming ................................................ 65 Implications for Policy ............................................................ 71 Future Directions for Research ............................................... 76 GLOSSARY ................................................................................................. 79 APPENDIX A. Search Institute’s Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors Questionnaire ........................ 81 APPENDIX B. Conceptual, Operational Variables & Scales ...................... 89 APPENDIX C. University Consent .............................................................. 93 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................... 94 viii 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Community Based Profile of Michigan Urban Youth Sample ...................... 37 Community Based Profile of Michigan Urban Youth Sample Who Participate in Volunteer Activities ........................................................ 40 Community Based Profile of Michigan Urban Youth Sample Involved in School Performance and Achievement Motivation .................... 41 Community Based Profile of Michigan Urban Youth Sample Involved in Youth Employment and Youth Activities .................................. 43 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Age ........................................................................................... 46 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Gender ...................................................................................... 48 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Race or Ethnicity ...................................................................... 50 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by School Performance ................................................................. 53 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Achievement Motivation .......................................................... 54 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Youth Employment .................................................................. 56 Percentages of Urban Early Adolescents Who Participate in Volunteer Activities by Youth Activities ....................................................................... 58 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION There is an increasing concern today about the “rolelessness” and “alienation” of early adolescents aged 12 to 14 years (Bernard, 1991; Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1992; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Rolinski, 1990). In the past, early adolescents contributed to the maintenance of their families by engaging in meaningful and valued work. With the emergence of the industrial revolution, many families moved to urban areas and adult males of the household began working outside the home. In the process, the role of early adolescents as contributors to the family economy was diminished, and as a result, early adolescents now lack a legitimate role or stake in the larger framework in which they live (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Miller, 1991; Perkins & Miller. 1994; Schine, 1989). The lack of a meaningful role in society and the current societal view of early adolescents as a source of problems have contributed to the sense of “rolelessness” and “alienation” prevalent among today's adolescents and have resulted in a fluny of activity aimed at involving adolescents in service and volunteer activities in their communities (Bernard, 1991; Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1989; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988). “Adolescents need work experience, a higher sense of self-confidence, a chance to develop a service ethic, and Opportunities to work with different kinds of people in 2 common endeavors” (Eberly, 1991, p. 224). Volunteerism (service performed by one’s own free will and without pay) can provide opportunities for early adolescents to contribute to society in meaningful and valued ways. Providing adolescents with opportunities to serve enables them to become contributors, problem-solvers, and partners with adults in improving their commmtities and the larger society (Gardner, 1992; Hamilton & Fenzel, 1987; Perkins & Miller, 1994; Rolinski, 1990; Schine, 1989; Shay & Mfume, 1993). In the 19808, several plans were developed for involving adolescents in volunteer activities, including mandatory service participation, optional service programs, and elective credit for service participation in school. Whatever the plan, the goals were essentially the same: to give adolescents a sense of self-worth and accomplishment; to bring adolescents in contact with adults who might serve as mentors and role models; to allow adolescents to learn about responsibility and behaviors appropriate to holding a job and performing well; and to provide service to those in need. By providing them with values that promote prosocial behavior (action done with the desire or intent to promote the welfare of others) (Benson, 1990), participation in volunteer activities can help combat risky behaviors that result from restlessness and rolelessness (Benson, 1990; Blythe & Roehlkepartain, 1993; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Schine, 1989). Moreover, programs that encourage early adolescents to participate in volunteer activities in the community enable them to become stakeholders in the community’s values, traditions, and accomplishments (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1995). 3 Despite its potential significance, little empirical research has been conducted on early adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities. Indeed, much of the published research on early adolescent participation in volunteer activities is based on case studies describing a volunteer program, non-random or convenience samples, or relatively small samples (Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). These studies have found, in general, that the majority of early adolescents volunteer (Knault, 1992; Schine & Harrington, 1982; Schine, 1989). Current research does not distinguish between the various types of service [(e.g., volunteerism (service performed by one’s own free will and without pay), community service similar to volunteerism (service performed in the community); and service-learning (a method by which students learn and develop through active participation in thoughtfully organized experiences that meet actual community needs and are coordinated with the school and community)]. Terms, such as experiential education, apprenticeship, paid or stipend volunteerism, and internships, also remain unclear to many scholars, yet are often used interchangeably with the terms described above (Furco, 1994; Perkins & Miller, 1994; Rolzinski, 1990). Only a few studies based on a national sample and using multiple regression techniques have been published on early adolescents’ behavior and participation in volunteer activities. These studies also point to the fact that a majority of adolescents volunteer (Conrad & Hedin, 1989; F urco, 1994; Sundeen, 1988; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). Fewer studies have attempted to determine whether early adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities is related to age, gender, race or ethnicity, school performance, employment or youth activities (e. g., extra-curricular activities). Even 4 fewer studies have been conducted on urban early adolescents and their participation in volunteer activities. The present study draws from a statewide survey of early adolescents (Keith & Perkins, 1995) to examine the relationship between urban early adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities and several organismic and behavioral variables. The variables selected for the present study were identified in the literature as being important in explaining the extent of adolescents’ participation in volunteerism and the significance of volunteer activities. The purpose of the present study is to examine the reported volunteer participation rate of urban early adolescents aged 12 to 14 years. The volunteer participation rate will be examined in relation to selected organismic (e.g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e.g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, and youth activities) variables. Two broad categories of theoretical and empirical literature will be presented: 1) a brief overview of the literature related to the relevant theories of early adolescent development. and 2) early adolescent participation in volunteer activities. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The present study relies on a theoretical framework developed from the theory of ecological human development. This model views human development as the result of a series of ongoing interactions between an individual and a set of overlapping systems that relate to an individual and to each other (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Garbarino, 1985). Individuals are affected by the environments in which they live, and they in turn, affect 5 those environments (Lerner, 1986). In other words, individuals do not live in a vacuum; they interact with their immediate environments (including other individuals) which influence them, and whom they, in turn, influence. In addition, they are affected by and they indirectly affect environments with which they do not have direct contact. Bronfenbrenner (1979) states that as individuals develop, the way in which they perceive and interact with their environment changes. Thus, individuals are developing entities that not only interact with, but restructure their surroundings through interactions with their environments (Lerner, 1986). In studying human development, it is essential to examine the context in which development occurs. Moreover, any attempt to enhance the development of early adolescents must take into account the ongoing interactions that early adolescents have with their environment and the unique qualities or characteristics that early adolescents possess (Garbarino, 1982; Lerner & Foch, 1987; Lerner, Lerner, & Tubman, 1989). Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) theory of the ecology of human development can be defined as the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which a person lives and develops. This developmental process is affected by relationships between settings and the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded. The interaction is viewed as bi-directional (Lerner, 1986). The environment defined as relevant to developmental processes is not limited to a single, immediate setting, but rather encompasses interconnections between other settings and external influences emanating from larger surroundings (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Garbarino, 1982). In 6 that it can be conceived as a nested arrangement of concentric structures, each contained within the next. These structures are referred to as the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chronosystems. Although the present study focuses on only the organismic and its rnicrosystem, a brief explanation of each level follows. The innermost level--microsystem--can be described as a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relationships experienced in a given setting by the developing person with particular physical and mental characteristics. In this setting, the individual experiences day-to-day life (Garbarino, 1982). The rnicrosystem includes people and settings in which the individual comes into direct contact. For early adolescents, this includes home and family, school and teachers, and neighborhood and peers. Moving outward, the mesosystem comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person (e.g., the relationships between home and school, school and workplace, etc.) (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Beyond the mesosystem level is the exosystem. The exosystem refers to one or more settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by, what happens in the setting containing the developing person (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The next level of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model of ecological human development is the macrosystem which consists of the overarching patterns of micro-, meso-, and exosystem characteristics of a given culture, subculture, or other broad social contexts, and which is described as the tenants and organization of a society. This might include belief systems, ideologies, and government. 7 A final level is the chronosystem or movement through time (Keith & Griffore, 1990), making it possible to examine influences on the person’s development of changes over time in the environments in which the person is living. The participation of early adolescents in volunteer activities may be related to factors in the microsystem--such as school, youth employment, and youth activities. No less important, however, are factors in the macro-environment, such as community attitudes toward helping others, the overall health of a community, and the influence of urban early adolescent subculture. It is not possible to include all factors in the design of any single study, nonetheless, it is important to recognize them as vital elements in a complete discussion of the topic. Moreover, this model or similar representations of person-context relationships (e.g., Baltes, 1987 cited in Lerner et al., 1989) can guide the selection of individual and ecological variables in research, and can provide parameters about the generalizability of findings. For the present study, the analysis is limited to the rnicrosystem level of early adolescents and their volunteer experiences. Since an individual is also an active participant in his or her own development (Lerner, 1986), the volunteer participation rate as it relates to organismic (e.g., age. gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e. g., school performance, achievement motivation. youth employment, and youth activities) variables is examined. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The present study incorporates an ecological perspective in examining the reported volunteer participation rate of urban early adolescents aged 12 to 14 years. The volunteer participation rate will be examined in relation to selected organismic (e.g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e.g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, youth activities) variables. The following two research questions will be examined: 1. To what extent do early adolescents, aged 12 to 14 years who live in urban areas, report participation in volunteer activities? 2. Are there significant differences in the level of participation of urban early adolescents, aged 12 to 14 years who participate in volunteer activities, by organismic (e. g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e.g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, youth activities) variables? LIMITATIONS Whenever secondary data analysis is undertaken, the researcher must accept the boundaries of the chosen data base (Babbie, 1986). In this case, urban early adolescents’ reported volunteer participation was only one part of a wide range of topics included in the survey, Search Institute’s WWW Questionnaire (ABQ). The information obtained from this database was less specific and less detailed than might have been if urban early adolescent participation in volunteer activities was the primary topic of inquiry. Although survey research is a useful and reliable tool for obtaining data describing the characteristics of large populations, Babbie (1986) outlined several weaknesses inherent in this method of inquiry. Standardized questionnaires tend to be superficial in nature, capturing elements common to many people, but unable to describe 9 weaknesses inherent in this method of inquiry. Standardized questionnaires tend to be superficial in nature, capturing elements common to many pe0ple, but unable to describe complex details on individual experiences. Survey research is rarely able to deal with the context of social life or to measure social action. The manner in which volunteer participation was measured by the Search Institute illustrates the problem of superficial survey data. For example, it was not possible to determine the type of volunteer experiences that were reported by the urban early adolescents. An examination of additional variables relating to volunteer participation for urban early adolescents might have proven more meaningful. Furthermore, it was not possible to determine from the study, whether urban early adolescents had positive experiences when participating in volunteer activities. It would have been beneficial to know which types of volunteer experiences the urban early adolescents participated in. and whether the experiences were positive or negative. Additional questions may have determined whether factors such as cost of participating in volunteer activities and access would have made a difference in an adolescent’s participation. Parental and peer support are important in the participation of early adolescents in volunteering (Knault, 1992; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). More direct questions regarding parental and peer encouragement or role modeling could have been useful, as well. Ideally, the involvement of parents and peers in such a study could have helped to paint a more comprehensive picture of urban early adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities. However, even though the present data set has some limitations, it still provides an excellent opportunity to begin to examine the relationship between 10 volunteer participation, organismic, and behavioral variables among urban early adolescents. Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Went Early adolescence, ranging in age from 10 to 14 years, is a time of growth and change unique in human experience. Until recently, early adolescence was neglected in scientific inquiry, policy formation, and in public understanding (Hamburg, 1992). However, within the scientific and professional communities, a notable consensus has begun to emerge on new ways of viewing risk and opportunities inherent in the early adolescent experience. This consensus is based on a growing body of research and practical experience regarding early adolescent health, education, and development (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, 1995; Hamburg, 1992; Hendry, Shucksmith, Love & Glendining, 1993; Lerner and Galarnbos, 1984; Lipsitz, 1980; Takanishi, 1993). The current view asserts that early adolescence is part of a developmental continuum shaped by practices and policies that affect adolescents before and after this period (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1992, 1995). Early adolescence is a transitional period in life when individuals undergo multiple changes--physically, cognitively, and socially (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, 1995; Hamburg, 1974; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988). Indeed, no time of life except perhaps 11 12 infancy comprises more physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and moral development into so brief a time span (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, 1995; Lerner, 1993, 1995). Rapid change in the social environment is another reason for examining adolescence as a period of development (Dryfoos, 1990; Hamburg, 1992; Schine & Harrington, 1982). Today, early adolescents are faced with different stressors than in previous generations. These stressors put them at a greater risk for severe negative outcomes, such as increasing rates of drug use, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1989; Dryfoos, 1990; Lerner, 1995; Takanishi, 1992). Furthermore, the sense of community that once existed in urban neighborhoods and in some rural towns has also eroded (Keith et al., 1993). Stable, close-knit communities where people know and watch out for each other are far less common today than they were a generation or two ago (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; National Commission on Children, 1991). For all young people, early adolescence involves many interrelated developmental challenges: the biological changes of puberty coupled with reproductive capacity and new social roles; the move toward psychological and physical independence; the exploration of new ideas and risky behavior; and the engagement in intellectual tasks and formation of a distinct identity (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995; Lerner, 1993). Although early adolescents are often stereotyped as moody, rebellious, and self-indulgent, research indicates that this portrait is greatly exaggerated (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995; Lerner & Galarnbos, 1984; Nightingale and l3 Wolverton, 1988). Entry into early adolescence challenges adolescents’ self-image as they attempt new tasks and alter their values. In addition to the biological and social changes impinging upon early adolescent development, research indicates that there appear to be fundamental human needs that are enduring and crucial to healthy development and survival. These fundamental needs include the need to find a place in a valued group that provides a sense of belonging and the need to feel a sense of worth as a person (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992, 1995; Hamburg, 1987; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992). A community fosters and encourages healthy development of its children by involving all the people, creating a sense of belonging and need through meaningful roles, and establishing a sense of interdependency and shared purpose among its members (Gardner, 1992). Researchers suggest that the view of adolescents lacking a role in society is due in part to the definition of early adolescents (Hendry et al., 1993; Nightingale and Wolverton, 1988). According to the generally-used definition, early adolescents today have no prepared place in society that is appreciated or approved as compared to nineteenth century early adolescents in which their role was clearly defined (Hendry et al., 1993; Nightingale and Wolverton, 1988). Nonetheless, at this critical time period, early adolescents must take on two major tasks, usually on their own: identity formation, and development of self-worth and self-efficacy (Erikson, 1968; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Schine & Harrington, 1982). As pointed out by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and Lerner (1986), adolescents must be studied in the context of the total environment. These environments include home, 14 school, neighborhood, community and beyond (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Garbarino, 1982; Lerner & Galambos, 1984). Early adolescents are influenced by parents, peers, teachers, and the larger society. They, in turn, influence others. Moreover, while society may dictate new expectations and behaviors for early adolescents, they may continue to adjust and react to existing societal expectations, internal and external changes (Lerner & Galambos, 1984; Silbereisen, Eyferth & Rudinger, 1986). In recent years, the topic of early adolescent participation in volunteer activities has received increased attention from representatives of schools, churches, governmental agencies, parent groups, and youth service organizations (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Raskoff & Sundeen, 1994). In 1991, nearly two-thirds of American adolescents aged 12 to 17 years volunteered an average of 3.2 hours a week (George H. Gallup International Institute, 1993; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990). Through their volunteer activities, adolescents serve as a valuable source of labor and financial support for organizations such as schools, churches, hospitals, and recreational programs. Furthermore, these service activities have received considerable attention in the past ten years by educators, politicians, and journalists (Conrad & Hedin, 1991; Goss, 1993; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1992; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). Although an increasing amount of research on adult volunteers has developed predictive models of volunteer participation that indicate the significance of social roles and status, the amount of empirical research conducted on volunteer participation among early adolescents, 15 especially urban early adolescents, is more limited (Conrad & Hedin, 1991; Sundeen. 1988, 1991; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). Considerable numbers of adolescents currently participate in some kind of volunteer activity. Those who do so, volunteer for an average of four hours per week in their schools (57%), at their churches (42%), and in local community groups (12%) (Knault, 1992; Leitrnan, Binns & Duffett, 1995). Many scholars hypothesize that volunteer experiences provide meaningful roles while meeting the special needs of early adolescents (Allen & Kuperrninc, 1994; Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Lewis, 1987; Liptisz, 1984; Littky, 1986; Perkins & Miller, 1994; Schine & Harrington, 1982; Shumer, 1988). These needs include the following: . To develop a sense of competence, testing and discovering new skills; . To discover a place for themselves in the world, to create a vision of a personal future; . To participate in projects with tangible or visible outcomes; . To know a variety of adults, representative of different backgrounds and occupations, including potential role models; . To have the freedom to take part in the world of adults, but also to be free to retreat to a world of their peers; . To test a developing value system in authentic situations; . To speak and be heard, to know that they can make a difference; . To achieve recognition for their accomplishments; 0 To have opportunities to make real decisions, within appropriate limits; and 16 . To receive support and guidance from adults who appreciate their problems and their promise (Dorman & Lipsitz, 1984 cited in Schine, 1989; Lounsbury & Toepfer, 1988 cited in Schine, 1989; Perkins & Miller, 1994; Rolzinski, 1990). In addition, Schine (1989), through her work with the Early Adolescent Helpers Program, identified three additional development tasks unique to early adolescent development. They include the following: . Emergence of strong peer group affiliation, with an emphasis either on corporation or competition; . A need to attain competence at problem-solving in a variety of situations; and . A need to experience emotional commitment and control of impulses during a stage of rapid body growth and mercurial emotions. Although there have been few large scale research studies conducted on early adolescent development and participation in volunteer activities, several studies provide evidence of a positive association between participation in volunteer activities and self- esteem among early adolescents. Schine (1989), for example, reported that volunteer participation by early adolescents helped develop and strengthen the identity of participants to withstand negative peer pressure. The study also found that positive values from participation in youth service programs do not exist in isolation, but rather had “trickle-down” effects that translated to more successful behaviors in social, family, and educational settings. Nightingale and Wolverton (1988) had similar findings in their research on early adolescents and their participation in volunteer activities. 17 In a separate study involving adolescents aged 12 to 17 years, Serow, Ciechalski, and Daye (1990) indicated that volunteer participation provides adolescents with the means for achieving personal goals, including the acquisition of skills concerning “interpersonal relationships...” They hypothesized that adolescents are more likely to volunteer when they hold a strong commitment to values of community and social responsibility (such as political participation and efficacy, and charitableness) and to values of expressive and utilitarian individualism (i.e., interpersonal relationships, self- esteem, self actualization, and career success). In another study focusing on volunteer participation and the role of autonomy and relatedness on adolescents’ participation, Allen and Kuperminc (1994) found significant support for involving adolescents in volunteer activities. They found that effective intervention to prevent adolescent problem behaviors is linked to the promotion of students’ sense of autonomy and relatedness to autonomy-enhancing qualities provided by volunteer activities (Allen & Kuperrninc, 1994). Moreover, the volunteer work selected by the students themselves was reported to be more enjoyable and challenging, and was associated with greater site success in reducing the number of problem behaviors (Allen & Kuperrninc, 1994). Thus. they concluded that programs targeting adolescents should include a volunteer component which focuses on adolescents’ developmental needs to establish themselves as capable, independent individuals within the context of positive relationships with peers and adults. Early adolescent participation in volunteer activities has also been found to enhance the development of self-worth and accomplishment among early adolescents, thereby combating risky behaviors 18 (Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988). Researchers hypothesize that early adolescents participating in volunteer activities are less likely to engage in risky behavior (Benson, 1990; Blythe & Roehlkepartain, 1993; Keith & Perkins, 1995; Perkins, 1995). Participation in volunteer activities is inherently suited for early adolescents because “early adolescents are searching to establish a sense of who they are as individuals” (Schonhaut, 1988, p. 18). Although early adolescents find it hard to establish a sense of purpose in a society that seems to have no liking for them, they are generous to others less fortunate and will often work hard to help others (Schonhaut, 1988). Moreover, as Knault (1992) states, “the most important outcome of adolescent volunteering is not the number of hours given, but the impact of this activity on the adolescent. The focus on helping others, of achieving success as a member of a group that serves the community and being able to broaden one’s horizons are the rewards of the adolescent volunteer experience.” Gallop polls, longitudinal studies and case studies of adolescent participation in volunteer activities provide mixed results regarding the impact of age on volunteer participation-none of increasing interest. but decreasing participation. Some studies suggest that participation by adolescents in volunteer activities encourages them to participate in volunteer activities as adults (Sundeen, 1988, 1991; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). However, other studies indicate that as adolescents get older, the less likely they will participate in volunteer activities (Benson, 1990; Conrad & Hedin, 1989; Lewis, 1988; Perkins & Miller, 1994; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1995). 19 In a study involving more than 8,000 students in 5th through 9th grades, Benson, Williams, and Johnson (1987) indicated that nearly three-quarters of the participants reported spending two hours or less helping others. The remaining 26 percent reported spending three hours or more during the prior month helping others. In 1992, the George H. International Gallup Poll cited that nearly 6 teens in 10 (aged 14 through 17 years) reported participating in voluntary service. The most cited reason for initial participation in volunteer activities and then continuing to participate in volunteer activities were that adolescents wanted to do something useful in their lives or because they felt they would enjoy their volunteer experience. In return, participants were more likely to cite that as a result of their service they acquired useful skills such as: getting along and relating to other people; being kind, helpful and respectful; learning how to take care of children: and feeling better about themselves (George H. Gallup International Institute, 1993). Thus, time spent participating in volunteer activities can uniquely benefit early adolescents while also meeting their basic needs (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Schine, 1989; Schine & Harrington, 1982). A 1982 follow-up survey involving sophomores surveyed in a 1980 longitudinal study of American adolescents participating in volunteer activities found that volunteer participation dropped from 24.7 % to 20.8 % between the sophomore and senior years (Lewis, 1988). In another study conducted in 1980 in which high school seniors were surveyed four to six years after graduation, it was revealed that of those who volunteered in high school, 8.5% of the total were involved in organized volunteer work as adults and 5.4% in formal service groups (Lewis, 1988). 20 In a national study of adolescents’ attitudes and behaviors, Benson (1990) found that l in 10 students participated in three or more hours of volunteer activities per week. However, 53% of the students surveyed had not participated in volunteer activities during the prior twelve months. He concluded that prosocial behavior decreases as young people move through middle and high school years. However, in a 1995 national survey of high school students in 9th through 12th grade and volunteer participation, 67% of the participants cited they were currently participating in some kind of volunteer activity and 20% of the students averaged more than 20 hours a year in volunteer activities (Wirthlin Group, 1995). The study concluded that volunteer participation rises with an increase in grade level. Overall, however, researchers hypothesize that volunteer participation declines as one moves through middle, high school, and college years (61% of young people aged 12 to 17 years; 51% of adults over age 18; and 48% of adults aged 18 to 24 years) (Astin, 1991; Benson, 1990: Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Wirthlin Group. 1995) V l E . . . . E l . 3 1 Few studies have examine the similarities and differences among males and females participating in volunteer activities. A 1990 study commissioned by the Independent Sector found that nearly two-thirds (65% ) of surveyed female adolescents had reported volunteering in the month prior to the survey, while approximately one-half (51%) of the surveyed males reported volunteering in the same time span (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990). In addition, the study found that, overall, female adolescents were more likely to volunteer and slightly more likely to contribute money. In his study, 21 Benson (1990) found similar results and suggested that although there is much work to be done in promoting prosocial behavior among both males and females, clearly more work is needed with males. Nicholson, Lazar, and Maschino (1992) noted that the context of volunteer participation, if it involves projects planned and organized by young people, may be an excellent setting in which to overcome gender barriers. In her study of gender differences in adolescents’ attitudes towards mandatory volunteer participation involving ninety-one 1 1th and 12th graders, Miller (1994) found that females held a more positive attitude toward a proposal favoring mandatory volunteer participation in the school and generally rated supporters and opposers of mandatory service proposals more favorably than did males. She also found that females were more likely to participate in volunteer activities than males, and emphasized tangible rewards and role models as potential ways to involve males. In a separate study on adolescent volunteers and their values, involving 1,404 adolescents between 12 and 17 years of age, Sundeen and Raskoff (1995) found that although differences between males and females who participate in volunteer activities are not significant, tremendous differences exist between volunteers and non-volunteers in each gender category. Moreover. with respect to males and females who do volunteer, the complexity of values is more variable for females. Males who volunteered demonstrated a more consistent civic activists orientation and tended to use more utilitarian and expressive values. They also reported that 64.4% of the males and 60.1% of females volunteered in at least one activity. The largest proportion of males (45.1%) 22 and females (48.9%) volunteered for religious activities, and the second largest for youth development activities (males, 44.5%; females, 43.3%). Both groups were least likely to volunteer in recreational and public affairs activities. Moreover, 10% more females than males volunteered informally. In an anthropological study involving 7th graders in a service learning project. Schur (1995) examined the participation level of males and females in the classroom and found that females were more likely to volunteer their help to the teacher than males. Hicks (1995) conducted several studies on social goals and achievement on early adolescence as it relates to social responsibility and of forming relationships with peers. In his study on social goals and achievement involving 313 seventh graders, he found that gender was a significant predictor of extrinsic and relative ability goals, with males being more likely to pursue extrinsic goals. Similarly, in a national study involving 2,023 students in 7th through 9th grades, Leitman, Binns and Duffet (1995) found that females are more likely than males to volunteer at school (61% and 54%, respectively) and church (45% and 40%, respectively). Researchers have concluded that much work is still needed on this subject before any conclusive pattern can be drawn between male and female participation in volunteer activities and its impact on adolescent development (Benson, 1990; Hicks, 1995; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Leitman et al., 1995; Nicholson et al., 1992; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). 23 III EH"BI' E El” Many researchers make reference to ethnic and racial group participation in volunteer activities in the context of place or residence and socioeconomic status (e. g., low income, minority youth, and/or urban minorities), but few studies focus specifically on the reported participation rates of ethnic and racial groups of early adolescents. In terms of who participates, Newmann and Rutter (1986) estimated that of the students participating in volunteer programs offered in schools in the United States, 82% were Caucasian, 16% African American, and 13% Hispanic. However, 53% and 36% of the schools surveyed had no Hispanics or African American students, respectively. The study included 5,400 schools in the United States. In a 1990 study on volunteering and giving among American adolescents 14 to 17 years of age, Hodgkinson and Weitzman found that Caucasian adolescents (63%) were more likely to volunteer than nonwhites (37%), or African Americans (33%). Furthermore, the rate of volunteer participation was highest among those who were 17 years of age (67%), followed by those 14 years of age (61%); 15 years of age (54%); and 16 years of age (48%) (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990). The study involved 301 adolescents between 14- and l7-years—old. In a national study by Leitman, Binns, and Duffett (1995) on teens, crime, and the community, Asian (32%) and Hispanic (30%) students were found to be more likely than white and African American (22%) students to report not participating in volunteer activities. This study involved 2,023 students in 7th through 12th grade. 24 Although limited research has been conducted on the impact of volunteer participation and rural environments, almost no research has been conducted on adolescent participation in volunteer activities in urban areas. Nevertheless, the few studies conducted on this topic indicate that size and diversity, community values and traditions, and the availability of nonprofit organizations contribute to an individual’s willingness to volunteer (Sundeen, 1988, 1989; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). In separate studies conducted by Sundeen (1988, 1989) looking at adults and adolescent volunteer behaviors, he found that although residential location and community attachment do not distinguish between volunteers and non-volunteers, the population size of the city where adolescents reside does make a difference. Volunteers were less likely to reside in cities with more than 250,000 residents and more likely to live in suburbs as opposed to central cities (Sundeen, 1988, 1989). Similar results were found in a 1994 study which emphasized that adolescents who volunteered were more likely to reside in cities of less than 100,000 residents (Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). According to Leitman and colleagues (1995), African American adolescents (60%) living in urban areas are more likely to volunteer at school than Caucasian (52%) or Hispanic (43%) adolescents living in urban settings. Moreover, they found that rural African American adolescents are considerably less likely than urban or suburban African American adolescents to report not participating in volunteer activities (8% vs. 24%. and 22%, respectively), as are rural Hispanic adolescents compared to other Hispanic adolescents (11% vs. 26%, and 36%, respectively). In contrast, the same report found 25 that the proportions of each group that volunteered at church were relatively similar (47%, 45%, and 42%, respectively). All studies reviewed in this section noted that more research focusing on volunteer participation and ethnic and racial groups should be conducted in the future before any conclusive picture can be drawn. The majority of studies reviewed in this section focused on high school and college students because of a dearth of research on early adolescent participation in volunteer activities and school performance. Two studies involving adolescents in 9th through 12th grades conducted during the 19705 concluded that engaging students in active learning outside the traditional classroom does not retard their academic achievement (University of Pittsburgh. 1975; Urie, 1971). Moreover, Hamilton (1980) reported that volunteer participation by early adolescents should be viewed as complimentary to the classroom rather than as a replacement, and that unpaid experiences can offer opportunities not usually found in jobs open to adolescents (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1989; Hamilton, 1980). Proponents have long argued that volunteer participation is an effective way to improve academic learning for young people. While findings on the impact of volunteer participation and school performance have been limited and inconsistent, there are, nonetheless, some promising findings as to the benefits of adolescents participating in volunteer activities with regard to academic performance. 26 Conrad and Hedin, in a 1982 study involving high school adolescents, found that problem-solving ability, as measured by reactions to a series of real-life situations, increased more for students who participated in volunteer activities than those who participated in other experienced-based programs. In addition, they found that students who participated in volunteer activities gained skills in social and personal responsibility. Calabrese and Schumer (1986) examined 105 students in 9th grade regarding volunteer participation and behavioral problems and found lower levels of alienation and isolation, and fewer disciplinary problems when students participated in volunteer activities as part of a program for students with behavioral difficulties. They concluded that there was no relationship between alienation and school grades when students participated in volunteer activities. However, a study by Newmann and Rutter (1986) found less consistent differences, but noted that volunteer participation and classroom programs appear to affect students’ sense of social responsibility and personal competency more positively than did regular classroom instruction. Using the technique of meta-analysis, one researcher has combined the findings from many tutoring studies and found consistent increases in students’ reading and math achievement scores (Hedin, 1987). In another study, Schine (1989), for example, reported that some research has been conducted on early adolescents and volunteer participation, particularly those volunteer activities relating to tutoring programs and academics. In a promising variation of tutoring, early adolescents aged 10 to 12 years with learning disabilities, behavioral problems, and low grades, were paired with 6- to 8-year-old students with similar 27 problems. The school teacher who developed the program noted that “this peer tutoring program tells this child, ‘You are worthwhile and productive’” (New York State Council on Children and Families, 1982, p.7). Hamilton and F enzel (1988) found that adolescents who participated in volunteer and service learning activities developed more favorable attitudes toward adults, consequently enhancing their social skills and work competency skills. . Serow, Ciechalski, and Dreyden (1990), in their study focusing on college freshman females and grade point averages, reported that grade point average and hours spent in academic pursuits were positively associated with participation in volunteer activities. They hypothesize that helping others is similar to “earning good grades,” and a way of acquiring and asserting competence (p.166). Students who participated in field work (volunteer internships) were found to have higher grade point averages at the completion of their program (Williams, 1991). Furthermore, Sundeen and Raskoff (1994) found a positive association between an adolescent’s attendance at school and the degree to which the school encouraged volunteer participation by the students. Schools that encourage student volunteer participation tended to have higher attendance rates than schools that did not encourage volunteer participation. The researchers concluded that student performance in school is positively related to volunteer participation. For inner-city and minority adolescents who may be at greatest risk for unhealthy development and low school performance, participation in volunteer activities may be even more important (Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988). Researchers hypothesized that participation in volunteer activities provides an opportunity for those who are at greatest 28 risk of low school performance to succeed outside of school tasks (F urco, 1994; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Schine, 1989). III E"'°El' ll. 11" Achievement motivation is the least researched variable among early adolescent participation in volunteer activities. Very few studies have been conducted on the relationship between early adolescent participation in volunteer activities and achievement motivation. Still fewer studies have involved urban early adolescents. Benson and his colleagues (1987) found that achievement motivation for males declined slightly with increasing grade level, and females were found to have higher achievement motivation than males. They concluded that achievement motivation and prosocial development are positively associated for adolescents who score high on prosocial behavior, and that prosocial action is definitely related to positive feelings about school. In a national survey involving more than 23,000 students, Benson (1990) found that 82% of 6th graders hold achievement motivation as an internal asset and 68% for 12th graders. Thus, Benson hypothesized that achievement motivation decreases as one moves from 6th grade through 12th grade. In contrast to Benson (1990), a Michigan study involving 2,210 students enrolled in alternative education programs found that, in general, achievement motivation among students increased from 7th grade through 11th grade (Perkins & Keith, 1995). No figures were reported for 6th or 12th grades. More research in this area is clearly necessary before any further conclusions can be drawn 29 between adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities and its impact on achievement motivation. Ill EH"EI' ICIEI For adolescents in the process of developing and formulating employment work aspirations, volunteering one’s time can positively contribute to the development of skills. Volunteer participation may, for example, introduce young people to more formal work settings and tasks (Mortimer, Ryu, Dennehy & Lee, 1992). Hands-on experience may help students identify types of jobs or careers they would like to pursue in the future (Mortimer et al, 1992; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988; Rolinski, 1990; Schine, 1989). Several researchers have noted that participation in volunteer activities has the potential to assist adolescents in looking at educational and career opportunities, most notably among high school and college students (Conrad & Hedin, 1991; Halperin, 1992; Hamilton, 1980; Rolinski, 1990). Two studies, for example, examined the effects of field education programs on students’ career interests. Newton (1975) found that the strength of interest in career declined among students in field education programs. However, Usher (1977) found no significant difference in career interests among students enrolled in a field education course compared to those who were not. Still, other researchers point to the experience gained by adolescents participating in volunteer activities as noteworthy and skill-building, while instilling a sense of self- worth within the individual (Carnegie Council of Adolescent Development, 1989; William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family and Citizenship, 1988; Eberly, 1991). In a longitudinal study, Mortimer and his colleagues (1992) found that, in 30 general, there was little difference between participation in volunteer activities and paid work experiences among early adolescents. However, they did report gender differences between those who participated in volunteer activities and those who were employed. They noted that even though males were more likely to be employed in the 9th grade than non—volunteers, the volunteers reported a greater degree of involvement in paid work during childhood up to 9th grade. Males also reported doing more home jobs for pay compared to non-volunteers and males volunteers also reported engaging in more hours of work throughout high school. There was no significant relationship between employment and participation in volunteer activities for females. Mortimer and his colleagues concluded that participation in volunteer activities affects intrinsic and person- oriented work values among males and enhances feelings of self-esteem among females. Steinberg (1985) in similar study on adolescent employment and volunteer participation reported that although it might be argued that part-time employment reduces an adolescents discretionary time to participate in volunteer activities, working part-time also can be viewed as an additional dimension of personal competency, or the capacity to organize one’s discretionary time in an efficient and self-reliant manner. Nevertheless, he noted that although these highly-organized adolescents may find time to volunteer, current evidence does not support the hypothesis that employment increases one’s sense of social responsibility (Steinberg, 1985). More research in this area is clearly necessary before any further conclusions can be drawn between early adolescent participation in volunteer activities and adolescent employment. 31 Ill E""El' 1:“... There have been numerous studies written on adolescent participation in youth activities. In a national survey in 1989, for example, about three teens in four (73%) said they were actively engaged in extra-curricular activities. Young males (33%) were almost twice as likely as young females to report intramural athletic team membership. Approximately 17% of students reported participation in math and science clubs, 14% reported participation in school plays and drama, and 10% reported working on the school newspaper or yearbook staff (The George H. Gallup International Institute, 1993). However, very few studies have been conducted on early adolescent participation in relationship to volunteer activities and youth activities. Brown and Steinberg (1991) studied adolescent achievement and found that extracurricular activities were associated with positive school outcomes. They reported that the more intense a student’s participation in terms of number of hours, number of activities, or number of types of activities, the more time the student devoted to homework, and thus, the higher the student’s grade point average. However, participation in volunteer activities was reported as an interest group in this survey (Brown & Steinberg, 1991). In a national survey in 1990. Hodgkinson and Weitzrnan reported that 58% of 14 to 17 year olds volunteered an average of 3.9 hours per week, and approximately 29% of all voluntary assignments were performed as extra-curricular activities at school. Mortimer et al., (1992) found that males in 10th and 11th grades who participated in volunteer activities spent significantly more time in extra-curricular activities compared 32 to males who did not engage in volunteer work. There was no differences found for males in the 9th grade. However, females in the 9th and 10th grade who participated in volunteer activities spent more time in extra-curricular activities, but not in grade eleven. School clubs and other extra-curricular activities are used to encourage students to participate in volunteer activities (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Knault, 1992). Sundeen and Raskoff (1994) found a positive association between participation in volunteer activities and participation in religious activities among early adolescents. They reported that organized religion appears to play a major role in an adolescent’s decision to participate in volunteer activities. They also noted that church or synagogue membership and frequent church attendance are positively associated with participation in volunteer activities. Wuthnow (1990) yielded similar findings and suggested that religious participation and beliefs have long been associated with charitable acts through congregational activities, as well as in other more secular services. In two separate studies, however, religion has been found to be less associated with participation in volunteer activities among college students. For example, Serow (1989) found that the relationship between campus climate and participation in volunteer activities was stronger among students who did not hold a clear commitment to religion than among students with moderate or devout beliefs. However, Serow and Dreyden (1990) using college students found that students at private colleges having a strong religious orientation participated in volunteer activities more frequently than students at public universities or private colleges having less emphasis on religion. 33 More research in this area is clearly necessary before any further conclusions can be drawn between early adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities and its relationship to adolescent participation in youth activities. IhePresenLSmdx There has been a great deal of theory and scientific proposition about the impact of participation in volunteer activities on early adolescent development. However, very little empirical testing of the theories and propositions has been conducted. The purpose of the present study is to examine the reported volunteer participation rate of urban early adolescents 12 to 14 years of age. The volunteer participation rate will be examined relative to selected organismic (e.g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e. g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, youth activities) variables. The next chapter will present the methods used in this study. Based upon the review of literature, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1.1: Urban early adolescents at younger ages report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than older urban early adolescents. H1.2: Urban early adolescent females report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than urban early adolescent males. H1.3: Caucasian urban early adolescents report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than urban early adolescents of other racial or ethnic backgrounds. H1.4: Urban early adolescents who achieve at higher levels of school H1.5: H1.6: Hl.7: 34 performance are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Urban early adolescents who have higher achievement motivation are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Urban early adolescents who have lower levels of employment are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Urban early adolescents who participate in youth activities are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE DESCRIPTION As stated in the previous chapters, this study will examine volunteer participation rate as it relates to selected organismic (e.g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e. g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, youth activities) variables. The following two research questions will be examined: 1. To what extent do early adolescents, ages 12 to 14 years who live in urban areas, report participation in volunteer activities? 2. Are there significant differences in the level of participation of urban early adolescents, aged 12 to 14 years who participate in volunteer activities, by organismic (e.g., age, gender, race or ethnicity) and behavioral (e.g., school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, youth activities) variables? Banisipants A subset of the respondents from the WWW Youthfimdy (Keith & Perkins, 1995) was examined in this study. The Search Institute’s Er911I:5.9£8111dent.I.1f:._AnrI].Ids2:and.B_ehaxrnrfiflucstmnnarre(ABQ)Was administered to 16,375 students in 7th, 9th, and 11th grades in 36 school districts during the spring and fall of 1993 and winter of 1994 (Perkins, 1995). The ABQ is a 152-item inventory developed by Search Institute (Benson, 1990; Blyth & Roehlkepartain, 1993; see 35 36 Appendix A). A total of 4,393 urban 12-, 13-, and l4-year-olds were used as the sample for this study. Measures Student responses to the ABQ were used as an initial data base. Sixteen of the 152 items from the ABQ were used to create scales for the assessment of organismic and behavioral variables. Frequency and cross tabulations were used to address the research questions. Chi-square analyses was used to determine the level of significance. I l' C . . I! . l l Microsystem organismic variables are those attributes that are associated with an early adolescent’s biological status. Age, gender, race or ethnicity are the three rnicrosystem characteristics that were examined in this study. Age. In this study, age was scored as a continuous variable (see Appendix B). Out of 4,393 respondents, 23.3% were lZ-year-olds, 37% were l3-year-olds, and 39.7% were l4-year-olds (see Table 1). Gender. In this study, gender is treated as a dichotomous variable (see Appendix B). In this sample, there were more females (55.4%) than males (44.3%). Some urban early adolescents did not respond to gender (.4 percent), and this was treated as missing data (see Table 1). Will- Race/ethnicity was measured as a five-level categorical variable (see Appendix B). The majority of the sample was comprised of urban African American early adolescents (53.9%). The next largest population consisted of Caucasian urban adolescents (36%). Native American (4.4%), Hispanic (2.6%), and Asian or Pacific 37 Table l u... .r:.y.'..-. U"..._. ,. ;..- -. ... ....- Sample Size Percent of State of Total Sample Michigan Total 4,393 100 388,805' Gender Male 1,944 44.3 51 .0 Female 2,433 55.4 48.8 Missing 16 .4 2.2 Race/Ethnicity Native American 194 4.4 1.0 Asian/Pacific Islander 36 .8 1.0 African American 2.367 53.9 17.0 Hispanic 1 14 2.6 3.0 White 1,581 36.0 79.0 Missing 101 2.3 .5 Age 12 1.024 23.3 33.02 13 1.625 37.0 33.02 14 1,744 39.7 34.0 IState of Michigan data includes youth aged 12 to 17 years. Percentages are based on state urban youth population for 12- to 14-year—olds (Perkins, 1995). 2Ages 12 and 13 are combined in the 1990 United States Census. The percentage of 12- - and 13-year-olds was divided in half. 38 Islander urban adolescents (.8%) comprised the smaller percentage of the sample. Some urban adolescents did not respond to race/ethnicity (2.3%), and this was treated as missing data (see Table l). Microsystem behavioral variables are those attributes pertinent to an early adolescent’s personality, cognitive, or motoric (action) functioning (Perkins, 1995). Five rnicrosystem behavioral characteristics were examined in this study: volunteer participation, school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, and participation in youth activities. annnteenfianieinatinn. Volunteer participation was defined as an individual who performs some type of service of his or her own free will and without pay (see Appendix B). Volunteer participation was assessed through the use of three items from the ABQ that comprised a scale. The three items were: “Being involved in a project to help make life better for other people?,” “Given money or time to a charity or organization that helps people?,” and “Spent time helping people who are poor, hungry, sick, or unable to care 99 ‘6 for themselves?” The range of value was on a five-point scale: “Never, once,” “twice,” “3-4 times,” and “5 or more times.” For this study, the scale was collapsed into 9, 661” four categories: “0” = “ participation in no volunteer activities, = “low volunteer participation,” “2” = “medium volunteer participation,” and “3” = “high volunteer participation.” The sum of the responses for the three items were categorized such that an overall score of “O” meant the respondent did not participate in any of the above- , mentioned volunteer activities. An overall score of “1” (low volunteer participation) 39 meant the individual had participated once in one to three volunteer activities; an overall score of “2” (medium volunteer participation) meant the individual had participated twice in two or more volunteer activities; and an overall score of “3” (high volunteer participation) meant the individual had participated three or more times in all three volunteer activities. The Cronbach Alpha for the volunteer participation scale was .68 (see Table 2; for detailed coding, see Appendix B). Sebanlfierfennanee. School performance was defined as how well one performed in school compared to his or her peers (see Appendix B). School performance was measured using one item of the ABQ: “What kinds of grades do you earn in school?” The range of value was on an eight-point scale: “mostly A,” “about half A and half B,” “mostly B,” “half B and half C,” “mostly C,” “about half C and half D,” “mostly D,” and “mostly below D.” For this study, the scale was collapsed into three categories: “0” = “low school performance,” “’1 = “medium school performance,” and “2” = “high school performance.” (see Table 3; for detailed coding, see Appendix B). AehieyemenLMQtiyannn. Achievement motivation was defined as the degree to which one cares to do well in school (see Appendix B). Achievement motivation was assessed through the use of three items from the ABQ that comprised a scale. The three items were: “I don’t care how I do in school,” “At school I try hard as I can to do my best work,” and “It bothers me when I don’t do something well.” The range of value was based on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (W) to 5 (W). Items one and three were reverse scored to reflect positive achievement motivation. For this study, the responses were collapsed into three possible scores: “0” = “low achievement 40 Table2 Hm I\ :e‘O'OI‘O U.I°-I .- .‘.H‘ ‘0 Int eIII‘ A‘I..-.( . III E ... Sample Size Valid Percent of TotalSample Total 4,393 100% Participation in Volunteer Activities No 1,062 22.2 Low 1,01 1 23.0 Medium 1,787 40.7 High 434 9.9 Missing Data 99 2.2 41 Table 3 Hon ..‘ L50 or '0 U 10.. ,. .3”- Sarnple Size Percent of Total Sample School Performance Low 1,054 24.0 Medium 1,626 37.0 High 1,682 38.3 Missing Data 31 .7 Achievement Motivation Low 229 5.2 Medium 906 20.6 High 3.174 72.3 Missing Data 84 1.9 42 ,9 6‘1” motivation, = “medium achievement motivation,” and “2” = “high achievement motivation.” The Cronbach Alpha for the achievement motivation scale was .51 (see Table 3; for detailed coding, see Appendix B). W. Youth employment was defined as providing service to others for pay (see Appendix B). Youth employment was measured using one item from the ABQ: “On the average during the school year, how many hours did you work in a paid job?” The range of value was on a eight-point scale: “0 hours,” “5 hours or less,” “6-10 hours,” “1 1-15 hours,” “16-20 hours,” “21-25 hours,” “26-30 hours,” “more than 30 hours.” For this study, the scale was collapsed into three categories: “0” = “no 99 6519’ hours, = “1-10 hours,” and “2” = “11 or more hours” (see Table 4). W. Youth activities were defined as extra-curricular activities in which youth participate during or after school hours (see Appendix B). Youth activities were assessed through the use of five items from the ABQ that comprised a scale. The five items were: “During an average week, how many hours do you spend in band, choir, orchestra, music lessons, or practicing voice or an instrument?”, “Spend playing sports on a school team?”, “Spend in clubs or organizations at school (other than sports)?, “Spend in clubs or organizations outside of school?,” and “Attend services, groups, or programs at a church or synagogue?” The range of value was on a five-point scale, “0 hours,” 1 -2 hours,” “3-5 hours,” “6-10 hours,” and “11 or more hours.” For this study, the scale was collapsed into three categories: “0” = “0 hours,” “1” = “1-5 hours,” and “2” = “6 or more hours.” The Cronbach Alpha for the youth activities scale was .47 ( see Table 4; for detailed coding, see Appendix B). 43 Table 4 on" .15 :.-o’o ‘0 U..,, ‘. ;..‘ -. .._. ,...- . . -. Sample Size Percent of Total Sample Youth Employment 0 hours worked 2,925 66.6 1-10 hours worked 1,066 24.3 11 or more hours worked 376 8.6 Missing Data 26 .5 Youth Activities 0 hours spent in 627 14.3 at least one activity 1-5 hours spent in at least 1,870 42.6 one activity 6 or more hours spent 1.825 41.5 in at least one activity Missing Data 71 1.6 Procedures Data collection involved group testing in each of the participating schools. Teachers administered the questionnaire by following a specific script and a 26-page instruction manual from the Search Institute (Perkins, 1995). In order to avoid contamination, all participants, within their respective schools, were administered the questionnaire at the same time during the school day. All participants completed the questionnaires within their respective classrooms G’erkins, 1995). The ABQ was administered to participants with the assurance of anonymity. The study met the requirement of Michigan State University’s human subjects internal review board (Perkins, 1995; see Appendix C). Written consent from parents was obtained at the discretion of the school. In those schools (N,=5) where parental consent was sought, a letter of consent was utilized. Verbal consent was received from each of the participants, and they were informed about the precise nature of the study. Participants were told their responses were completely anonymous, that their participation was completely voluntary. and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. In addition, the participants were told that after all questionnaires were completed, their teachers would seal the envelopes which contained the questionnaires in front of the students. This procedure was intended to provide some concrete assurance of anonymity (Perkins. 1995) Chapter IV RESULTS The majority (75.2%) of the urban early adolescents, aged 12 to 14 years, reported participating in volunteer activities in the previous twelve months. Additionally, 23.5% of urban early adolescents reported participating once in one to three volunteer activities, and 41.6% reported participating twice in two or more volunteer activities in the previous twelve months. Furthermore, 10.1% of the urban early adolescents reported participating in three or more times in all three volunteer activities in the previous twelve months. Q'le'fil'flfi l 'IllEH' . ,, ... ...- -., .-. . . .. ... .._ - '. . ,_. -- . 'v' s? It was hypothesized that urban early adolescents at younger ages would report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than older urban early adolescents. This hypothesis was not supported. No significant differences were found (p=>.05) between the three age groups (see Table 5). Each age group reported about the same level of non-participation in volunteer , activities: 21.7% of the 12-year—olds, 21.1% of the 13-year-olds, and 26.2% of the 45 46 27a ”Sank :53; GE: 9%.: GE Eases 35 $2: $2: $2: A$8 ~ 9:833 .88. 2: to S: 2 _ 55 o. 3 o. 3 «Ne w. S. 83:82 0mm can odm «.2 264 Eva Ndm ZN fimm oz 38. .«o ..\o mgoéoffi .x. mv_o-ao>-m_ .«o .x. m29uauffl we a\.. soumamomtam 88:23, ..... ...... ..‘a .- ...... m 2an 47 14-year-olds. The medium level of volunteer participation was reported most frequently: 41.8% for 12-year-olds, 42.2% for 13-year-olds, and 41% for l4-year-olds. The highest level of volunteer participation (i.e., three or more times in all three volunteer activities in the previous twelve months) was reported by 10.1% of the overall sample with l 1.3%, 10.2%, and 9.4% for 12-, 13-, and 14-year-olds, respectively. Compared to the overall level of non-participation, the two younger ages were quite similar. Thus, the older age was highest. ,..- 1 .w. . ‘ .0“ ”him“. .17.“ , . “.._ It was hypothesized that urban early adolescent females would report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than urban early adolescent males. Significant differences were found at (p=<.01) (see Table 6). When examining the tables, it was clear that there was a direction: females were more likely to participate in volunteer activities as compared to males. In this study, 30.4% of the males and 20.3% of the females reported not participating in volunteer activities. However, 23.3% of the males reported participating once in one to three volunteer activities in the previous twelve months compared to 23.8% of the females at the same level. Significant differences were found between males and females participating twice in two or more volunteer activities. In examining the males, 38.8% reported participating twice in two or more volunteer activities in the previous twelve months as 48 Table 6 " ‘1...“ 0 hi ‘H‘ 'u. du'qo ' o 0 Gender Volunteer Participation % of Male % of Female % of Total No 22.4 20.3 24.7 Low 23.3 23.8 23.6 Medium 38.8 43.9 41.6 High 7.6 12.0 10.1 Total (percent) 1 00% 100% 1 00% Total (number) (1,878) (2,401) (4,279) Xr=69.62; p<.01 49 compared to 43.9% of females at the same level. Additionally, 7.6% of the males reported participating three or more times in all three volunteer activities compared to 12% for females at the same level. D'IEI'III'EE 'lllE"'El ,a.‘ ‘.| ,0'1 . ‘ ‘rgg‘.|o._‘u.‘. c r“ . c ._‘| l . . ,7 It was hypothesized that Caucasian urban early adolescents would report a significantly higher level of participation in volunteer activities than urban early adolescents of other racial or ethnic backgrounds. Significant differences were found at the significance level of p=<.01 (see Table 7). However, in examining the highest level of volunteer participation, Caucasian urban early adolescents exhibited a very similar pattern of volunteering to urban early adolescents of other racial and ethnic groups. especially African Americans. Therefore although there were significant differences among ethnic and racial groups, it was not in the direction hypothesized and no clear pattern emerged. Specifically for the two largest ethnic and racial groups--African American and Caucasians, the overall pattern of participation was approximately 75% participation in volunteer activities. Approximately 25% for both African American and Caucasians reported not participating in volunteer activities. Native American, Asian Pacific Islander, African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian urban early adolescents reported similar percentages for non-participation in volunteer activities (23.2%, 20.6%, 25.4%, 21.4%, and 24.6%, respectively). However. 50 Eva swank amassed: E c G _ as 3.9 as: Eggs 5.: $2: $2: :53 § .2: ea .2: :52 €853 38. 2: n: 3 3 a: ”.2 :me e. z. ”.3. n: as. Sm on 5282 EN EN 2m 2m as“ is 33 is 0.: v. a «.2 98 SN oz .83. cactus Quote—5V. Sucrose Beam—fl 885:2 :ozmqmomtwm we .x. 5%330 .5 25%5 .«o ..\o gory. Shown 0382 .«o .x. 82:23, 823 mo .x. 8 x85 Co .x. no 53. 95 .x. .. . .... .u.... ..‘a .4 -..... . N. 28d. 51 Asian Pacific urban early adolescents reported the lowest level of non-participation in volunteer activities (20.6%) and African Americans reported the highest (25.4%). Of the total sample, 24.8% reported not participating in volunteer activities in the previous twelve months. Native American, Afiican American, and Caucasian urban early adolescents reported similar levels of participation at the low level of volunteer participation (i.e., once in one to three volunteer activities) (24.7%, 23.2%, and 23.1%, respectively). Asian Pacific and Hispanic urban early adolescents reported the highest level of participation (32.4% and 32.1%, respectively) at the low level of volunteer participation (i.e., once in one to three volunteer activities) in the previous twelve months. However, African American and Caucasian urban early adolescents reported higher levels among those participating in the medium levels of volunteer participation (i.e., twice in two or more volunteer activities) in the previous twelve months than any other group (42.9% and 40.8%, respectively). Native American, Asian Pacific, and Hispanic urban early adolescents reported similar volunteer participation levels (35.3%, 35.3%, and 37.5% respectively). Native American, Asian Pacific, and Caucasian urban early adolescents reported the highest levels among those participating three or more times in all three volunteer activities than any other group in the previous twelve months (16.8%, 11.8%, and 11.5%, respectively). African American and Hispanic urban early adolescents reported similar levels (8.6% and 8.9%, respectively). 52 E 181111. El°lll'll Q'Sil'fil'fifi 'IIIEH'EI .n- _.l . . -...oc.uo.i"'-._-u . .--._"'-. H. nerfennancefi.’ It was hypothesized that urban early adolescents who achieve at higher levels of school performance are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Significant differences were found at the significance level of p=<.01 (see Table 8). As hypothesized, urban early adolescents who achieve at higher levels of school performance are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. When comparing cumulatively the levels of participation of urban early adolescents in volunteer activities by school performance, 79.1% who ranked high in school performance participated in volunteer activities in comparison to 76.1% who were medium in school performance and 66.3% who were low in school performance. For those urban early adolescents who did not participate in volunteer activities, 33.7% of those in the low school performance fell into this category, compared to 23.9% in the medium level of school performance, and 20.1% in the high level of school performance. More detailed comparisons are consistent with this overall finding and can be determined by examination of Table 8. -H‘ ‘1. -°‘I 0 ‘ ‘-. lunar-9'1 0..." . 0 l. I I. I. c) It was hypothesized that urban early adolescents who have higher achievement motivation are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Significant differences 53 Eva 235x 98$ 33.: 8%.: $8.: e853 .909 :2: $2: $8. $8. cause 38 2: “.2 to 2. as: o. 3. ad. ad. ca... 8282 98 an” is New 33 a...“ 3m 3m 62 oz 30% Mo .X. vegan—gotcha ”eggs—Oren vegan—prom deflmamomtam Begum 30:5 .8an BB§B> Em 5282 33 ......s.. ... a. c ‘. O -... ......Z‘. .- -.. w 2an 54 Eva E _ _ Tux 23$ 2: 10 $6 $3 engage BE :52 see :8. :52 cause 35 2: n: E E. as: 9:. 4.? is 2a 8:60: 13 New v. .N odm 264 men ZN ES 3. oz 38. me .x. 539562 cougzoz sewage—2 eomuaamomtam EoEo>oEo< “G080>OEU< EoEo>oEo< Doug—53> new Saab: 33 .. .) . ... a a ... . ......1 ... -.. . .... . a 2an a‘ 55 were found between urban early adolescents who reported participation in volunteer activities and achievement motivation at the significance level of p=<.01 (see Table 9). As hypothesized, urban early adolescents who report high achievement motivation are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. When comparing cumulatively the levels of participation of urban early adolescents in volunteer activities in the previous twelve months by achievement motivation, 78.1% who ranked high in achievement motivation participated in volunteer activities in comparison to 67% who were medium in achievement motivation, and 54.7% who were low in achievement motivation. For those urban early adolescents who did not participate in volunteer activities, 45.3% fell into this category, compared to 33% in the medium level of achievement motivation, and 21.1% in the high level of achievement motivation. More detailed comparisons are consistent with this overall finding and can be determined by examination of Table 9. .u- ‘1 on o 1 ‘9 ‘IOOgIOq‘I r_.1“._ o 011 emnlexment‘l It was hypothesized that urban early adolescents who have lower levels of employment are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Significant differences were found between participation in volunteer activities and youth employment among urban early adolescents at the significance level of p=<.01 (see Table 10). However, closer examination of the percentage revealed that the significant differences were not in the hypothesized direction. Rather those urban early adolescents who worked had higher 56 Table 10 " 'c.-°: o . aux-u. 111151: I o I W Volunteer Participation 0 hoursl-l 0 hours 11 or more hours % of Total No 28.3 17.8 17.6 24.8 Low 23.9 24.0 19.5 23.5 Medium 39.4 46.1 45.6 41.6 High 8.5 12.1 17.3 10.1 Total (percent) 1 00% 1 00% 1 00% l 00% Total (number) (2,869) (1,036) (364) (4,269) XT=85.17; p<.01 57 levels of participation in volunteer activities than those urban early adolescents who did not work. When comparing cumulatively the levels of participation of urban early adolescents in volunteer activities by youth employment, 82.4% who ranked high in youth employment (11 or more hours per week) participated in volunteer activities in comparison to 82.2% who were medium in youth employment (1-10 hours per week), and 71.7% who were low in youth employment (0 hours per week). For those urban early adolescents who did no participate in volunteer activities, 28.3% of those in the low youth employment fell into this category, compared to 17.8% in the medium level of youth employment, and 17.6% in the high level of youth employment. More detailed comparisons are consistent with this overall finding and can be determined by examination of Table 10. o..." ’I 9'... 0 ‘ '2- I.'e.I0'_‘I . ..I” 1 ' .-. . . . 9 It was hypothesized that urban early adolescents who participate in youth activities are more likely to report participation in volunteer activities. Significant differences were found between participation in volunteer activities and participation in youth activities among urban early adolescents at the significance level of p=<.01 (see Table 11). As hypothesized, those urban early adolescents who participate in youth activities are more likely to report participation in volunteer activities than urban early adolescents who do not participate in volunteer activities. 58 Eva fiémwx 38$ 8E: 83.: $8 c3835 3.: :52 $2: 88. :52 95220 33 2: m2 3 EN :33 a. s. 3:. 23 w. _ m 5:602 08 SN 98 ES 33 SN S; is ”d. 02 .33. maze: 868 8 0 fine: m; mason o newsflash.” we .X. 52:39; _ _ 2an 59 When comparing cumulatively all the levels of participation of urban early adolescents in volunteer activities by horns spent in youth activities, 85.3% who ranked high in youth activities (6 or more hours per week) participated in volunteer activities in comparison to 71.6% who were medium in youth activities (1-5 hours per week), and 57.2% who were low in youth activities. (0 hours per week). For those urban early adolescents who did not participate in volunteer activities, 42.8% of those in no youth activities fell into this category, compared to 28.4% in the medium level of youth activities, and 14.7% in the high level of youth activities. More detailed comparisons can be determined by examination of Table 11. Chapter V CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This research underscores the complexity of volunteer participation among urban early adolescents. The picture that emerges from this research and corroborated by other studies (Benson, 1990; Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989, 1992, 1995; Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990; Keith & Perkins, 1995; Leitman, Binns & Duffet, 1995; Miller, 1991; Schine, 1989) suggests that a majority of urban early adolescents do participate in volunteer activities. Urban early adolescents who participate in volunteer activities tend to report higher achievement motivation, higher school performance, and a greater participation in extra curricular activities. Moreover, those who participate tend to work at least part-time and are more likely to be female. No clear differences were elicited related to race or ethnicity. Indeed, the overall hypothesis that urban early adolescents do volunteer was supported by the findings of this study. This investigation had a dual focus: (1) to examine the reported volunteer participation rate of urban early adolescents 12 to 14 years old and (2) to determine if their participation differed by age, gender, race or ethnicity, school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, and youth activities. The findings of this research contribute significantly to understanding the participation of urban early 60 adolescents in volunteer activities and provides a direction for future research. In summary, the research findings are as follows: . The majority of urban early adolescents volunteered (75%) at least 1-3 times during the previous year. . Age was not significantly related to volunteer participation. . Urban early adolescent females were significantly more likely than were urban early adolescent males to participate in volunteer activities. . All racial and ethnic groups participated in volunteer activities. There were some variations among ethnic and racial groups; however there needs to be further study before any conclusive patterns can be determined. . Urban early adolescents who had higher levels of achievement motivation and higher levels of school performance were found to be more likely to volunteer than were urban early adolescents who had lower school performance and achievement motivation. . Urban early adolescents who reported higher levels of employment were found to be more likely to volunteer than those urban early adolescents who were not employed. . Urban early adolescents who participated in youth activities were found to be more likely to volunteer than urban early adolescents who did not participate in youth activities. Age, gender, and race or ethnicity are rnicrosystem organismic characteristics which interacted with other variables in this study. Age, gender, and race or ethnicity alone do not explain fully an urban early adolescent’s participation (or lack of 61 participation) in volunteer activities. In this research, age was not significantly related to participation; in other studies menson, Williams & Johnson, 1987; Benson, 1990; Keith & Perkins, 1995) age was found to be significant; however most of those studies included a wider age range than early adolescents. This may account for the differences in the findings in this present study. Congruent with others studies, females were more likely to participate in volunteer activities. Perhaps one of the most significant findings in this study was that all ethnic groups participated as volunteers and there were no significant differences among the ethnic and racial groups. This study was unique in addressing a sample of students with racial and ethnic diversity. It is especially noteworthy that African Americans and Caucasians had equally high levels of participation in volunteer activities. Additional demographic variables were not examined in this study, such as family and community characteristics. However, other scholars have included these variables in several recent studies. For example, Sundeen and Raskoff in their 1994 study involving early adolescents found that those who volunteer tend to be from families with higher socioeconomic status, have greater competencies in and out of school in managing their time and achieving higher grades, and live in smaller communities. In addition, they found that family, religious institutions. and school play key roles in providing role models, religious ethical values, and institutional support encouraging early adolescents to participate in volunteer activities. Community-based, youth-serving organizations, and other youth professionals working with early adolescents will not be successful in their attempts to reach 62 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 14 unless they are able to create meaningful opportunities that address their unique developmental needs. Designing effective volunteer opportunities for early adolescents will involve collaboration among schools, youth service organizations, and parents. Future research should seek to integrate and evaluate “best practices” of how schools, youth service organizations, and communities mobilize resources to develop and encourage early adolescent volunteer participation. Although this study examines urban early adolescents, far too few such studies have been undertaken. Future studies should seek to investigate the relationships and differences among racial and ethnic group participation in volunteering. Such research should base its sample on cultures other than the Caucasian culture. By studying different racial and ethnic groups, researchers may be able to develop a more comprehensive view of the volunteer patterns of early, middle, and late adolescents. The hypothesis that Caucasian urban adolescents would report a significantly higher level of volunteer participation was found not to be supported. Upon closer examination, Caucasian urban early adolescents demonstrated a very similar pattern to urban early adolescents of other ethnic and racial groups, especially African Americans. Researchers (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, 1990) have argued that Caucasians tend to participate in volunteer activities more than other ethnic and racial groups, especially Afi'ican Americans. However, Leitman, Bennis, and Duffet in a 1995 study suggested something different. They counter that African American urban adolescents are more likely to volunteer at school. In contrast, the proportions of each group that volunteer at church are relatively similar. They further assert that rural African American adolescents are 63 considerably less likely than urban or suburban African American adolescents to say they do not do any volunteer work. Thus, the myth of urban adolescents, in particular African American adolescents, not willing to participate in volunteer activities can not be seen as valid. Further studies could confirm or refute this assertion. This research corroborated other studies that have indicated that females are more likely to participate in volunteer activities. In this study, urban early adolescent females were found to be more likely than urban early adolescent males to report volunteer participation. Future research should focus on the types of volunteer experiences that adolescent males and females participate in, the number of hours, and the value orientation via the areas of participation. Although survey research is a useful tool, future research should integrate case studies and interviews to provide a more complete picture of urban early adolescent participation in volunteer activities and its potential developmental impact. Future questions may examine whether factors such as cost and access, among other variables, inhibit or further participation in volunteer activities among adolescents. As mentioned earlier, distinctions between volunteer, service learning, and volunteerism should be delineated in future research endeavors. The present study did not examine stipend volunteering (paid volunteering) due to the unavailability of data. However, given recent debates over this issue, future research should also include this in any study investigating the relationship of traditional and non-traditional volunteer participation. 64 11"EE' Given the findings in this research and other related studies, several implications for programming can be derived. There is no indication that volunteering by early adolescents is related to negative outcomes; to the contrary, students participating in volunteer activities were more likely to have higher school performance and achievement motivation. These relationships were not causal but the accumulation of evidence would suggest that volunteering by early adolescents should be considered an important part of an early adolescent’s educational experience. First, participation in volunteer activities will require new ways of thinking about the roles and developmental needs of early adolescents. In many instances, it will require moving beyond the physical classroom environment. As was demonstrated in this research study and corroborated by other studies, adolescents who volunteer tend to have higher school motivation and achievement motivation. Thus, given this finding, educators and youth-serving organizations should seek to collaborate, and when possible, integrate volunteer activities into the school curriculum. When developing volunteer activities for early adolescents, schools and community-based youth service organizations should consider age, developmental needs. and the environment of the adolescent. Additionally, early adolescents should be involved in the planning and design of the project to enhance their engagement in the project. Parental and peer involvement is often necessary in order for early adolescents to participate on a consistent basis. A good example of this type of community service activity can be found in the Early Adolescent Helper Program at the City University of New York’s Center for 65 Advanced Study in Education (CASE). This program has been promoting the idea of adolescent participation in volunteer activities since 1982, when it introduced the Child Care Helper Program in three New York City Schools. The Helper Program staff and consultants develop curriculum materials, train teachers and others to work with programs that involve adolescents in volunteer activities, and conduct research and evaluation (Schine, 1989). Over the last several years, a growing number of schools have also implemented a service requirement or optional community service course. In Maryland, for example, students are required to do community service in order to graduate. In Detroit, Michigan, students are required to perform 200 hours of community service in order to graduate, and in Atlanta, Georgia, students are required to do 75 hours of community service. While some schools require students to engage in community service, others have implemented community service clubs. These clubs are less structured, but nonetheless provide opportunities for students to participate in community service activities on a regular basis. Experience with programs of community service for adolescents points to the need for establishing such programs and activities under school sponsorship. School sponsorship brings a certain status to activities based in the school, even among adolescents who may generally be alienated from all aspects of school life. The school system through teachers and counselors is best suited to provide the reflective component that is necessary in making a community service experience meaningful while providing 66 a connection to academics. Program implementation can be easier when a district can allocate staff and supply support services (Schine, 1989). As for programming implications of gender in volunteer participation, it is clear that females are more likely to report participation in volunteer activities than males. As was noted in the literature review, this finding is consistent with other studies (Benson, 1990; Miller, 1991). Thus, volunteer activities should be designed to appeal to both male and female value orientations. People who work with volunteers need to be aware of the diverse goals held by males and females. For example, in a 1994 study of adolescent volunteers, Sundeen and Raskoff found that females tend to be more attracted to volunteering for human services and education, but not to religion or youth development organizations. In this example, one might conclude that females typically like interaction with people. This type of awareness may help in identifying and developing appropriate volunteer activities for females. In working with diverse populations, the need for sensitivity to individual values and goals are even more important. Miller (1991) in her study involving high school students and their opinions on national service suggests tangible rewards and role models as ways to involve males in volunteer activities. Males who volunteer tend to demonstrate a civic activist approach and use expressive values. Programs that include females would acknowledge the diverse set of orientations that they bring to their volunteer experience by using a diverse assortment of techniques; programs that use males as volunteers would be better served by addressing the needs of individuals oriented towards civic participation (Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). 67 The findings from Miller’s (1991) research also stress that it may be necessary to offer some form of reinforcements (i.e., stipends, school credit, etc.) in order to promote service participation among adolescents, especially males. Educators and youth-service organizations will need to develop innovative recruitment techniques that appeal to a wide range of adolescents. Such techniques might involve traditional methods (i.e., brochures, support materials, etc.) as well as targeted program activities, social activities, and peer mentoring programs. Findings from other studies have also indicated similarities and differences in the value structures of adolescent volunteers. Another key finding that has emerged from this research relates to ethnic and racial diversity. As mentioned before, the results of this study did not support the hypothesis that Caucasian urban adolescents were more likely to report volunteer participation. On the contrary, the findings indicate that Caucasian urban early adolescents demonstrate a very similar pattern to urban early adolescents of other ethnic and racial groups, especially African Americans. Given this finding, organizations wishing to increase their adolescent volunteer pool would be advised to develop and strengthen efforts to recruit adolescents from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. Serving one another has historically been a core value of many cultures. In recent years, a growing number of schools in the United States have embraced service learning as a method to connect students to their communities and cultural identities, and to enhance learning opportunities. These service learning experiences have emphasized critical thinking skills, cooperative learning, and high levels of self-esteem. Moreover, 68 service learning and volunteer experiences involving diverse populations of adolescents have begun to foster responsibility for creating a new kind of community that includes everyone. In creating service opportunities that seek to bridge the gap of racial understanding and commonality, schools and community-based youth-serving organizations should take the following guidelines into consideration. Service learning programs should be implemented early on in an individual’s life (i.e., preschool or middle school) and continue through his or her educational experience. An increased emphasis should be placed on critical thinking skills in service learning as this has been found to be a critical outcome of service learning activities. Encourage service projects that call for students to work in diverse teams towards a shared goal. Carefully prepare students before calling on them to work with people from different backgrounds (Roberts-Weah, 1995). As we seek new approaches to make learning more effective, relevant, and accessible to students who learn in a variety of ways, service learning and community service is an effective tool that can help maintain academic standards, involve students from all cultures, and bring greater emphasis on what it means to be a part of a community (Roberts-Weah, 1995). Further research on volunteer patterns of ethnic and racial groups is needed in order to help educators and practitioners more effectively understand ways for developing volunteer opportunities that respond to the needs of individual cultures as well as serve as a bridge for linking society. Most, if not all early adolescents will derive benefits from participating in volunteer activities. However, providing volunteer opportunities alone will not guarantee 69 a successful experience for early adolescents. Volunteer activities should be meaningful, offer a wide variety of roles and activities for the participants, be structured with flexibility, and offer collegial relationships with peers and adults from different ethnic and racial backgrounds. Of equal importance are the setting, the preparation given to the early adolescent, ways in which the young volunteer is received at the site, provisions for ongoing reflection and learning, the quality of adult leadership, and the recognition and appreciation accorded to the early adolescent. While this study was not able to determine the type and quality of the experiences by the urban early adolescents, other researchers have suggested that sound program planning, must respond not to general notions of what early adolescents are like, but to their specific needs (Schine, 1989). Thus, they argue that schools and youth-serving organizations must be careful and deliberate in planning programs for early adolescents. Collaboration among schools and community-based youth-serving organizations is crucial if volunteer activities are to be designed with the unique needs of early adolescents in mind. Schools and community-based youth-serving organizations may also collaborate with parents, religious institutions, and others who may be able to provide support in the overall mission of developing healthy adolescents. Previous research indicates that each of these entities are important in the lives of early adolescents (Benson, Williams & Johnson, 1987; Benson, 1990; Blythe & Roehlkepartain, 1993; Keith & Perkins, 1995). With collaboration between these competing bodies, their ability to design effective programs and services for early adolescents is enhanced and strengthened (Keith & Perkins, 1995). A comprehensive strategy is necessary when 70 developing programs to meet the unique needs of early adolescents and to provide a multitude of service opportunities (Perkins, 1995). Those early adolescents who are successful, are so because of a combination of factors. They benefit from such assets as supportive families, positive school experiences, safe and enriching communities, and involvement in religious institutions. Although a significant percentage of early adolescents in this study participated in volunteer activities, there was a substantial percentage (24.7%) who did not. Several recent national studies have concluded that there is much work to be done in involving all adolescents in volunteer activities (Benson, 1990; Leitman et al., 1995). Moreover, many scholars have begun to argue for a new approach to learning--service learning-which takes into account the unique developmental needs of adolescents and connects “real-life experiences with academics” (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989, 1992, 1995; Carin & Kielsmeier, 1991; Conrad & Hedin; 1989; Furco, 1994; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1992, 1993; Schine, 1989; Schine & Harrington, 1982). In addition, many scholars have begun to argue that a new educational model which emphasizes “values education” and encompasses a service component should be adopted (Lipsitz, 1995; Nightingale & Wolverton; 1988; Shine, 1989). Schine (1989) for example, argues that volunteering offers many developmental benefits to early adolescents and should be fully integrated into the middle school experience. She notes that against the backdrop of current societal issues, volunteer and community service participation has the potential to create environments and opportunities that allow 71 positive qualities to develop, and to nurture adolescents in their initial quest toward an effective and satisfying adulthood. Schine (1989) suggests that school policies should be developed and guided that emphasize participation in volunteer activities. Similarly, F urco (1994) through his research, concludes that participation in volunteer activities has long been a part of our educational system. However, prevailing misconception coupled with the lack of a conceptual framework and supportive policies have held up the impact that volunteering can have in an academic setting. Furco argues that there must be a clear and systematic approach to understanding the philosophical, structural, and programmatic foundations that underlie K-12 service programs which integrate curriculum, coordinating agents, and programmatic issues. He further states that “it is through such an approach that the confounding paradigms surrounding youth service programs can be overcome, and a clear vision for institutionalizing powerful and effective service programs can be developed” (p. 407). In support of school reform and the involvement of adolescents in volunteer and volunteerism, several national foundations have commissioned studies on this topic. The William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family and Citizenship (1988) affirmed the growing support for adolescents’ participation in volunteer activities. They called for creation of quality student service opportunities as central to the fundamental educational program of every public school. Other recommendations included state-level encouragement of school efforts to develop service opportunities for adolescents, financial support from businesses, local foundations and others to support these efforts, policy advocacy at the state and national levels to support service opportunities for 72 adolescents, and collaboration with others on unifying youth-serving organizations in the field. While the primary focus of current research has been to assess the involvement of adolescents in volunteer activities, the rationale for involving early adolescents is multi- faceted. The work of Schine (1989), Rolinski (1990), Lerner (1993) and Lipsitz (1995) has pointed to the need for providing programs and experiences designed for early adolescents. Volunteer activities can uniquely assist early adolescents in their development. Communities that care about early adolescents and believe that they too can have meaningful roles, will take steps to ensure the development and safety of those adolescents and will nurture the opportunities for them to be involved in serving their community. Volunteering in community-based organizations and implementing policies that support and encourage adolescent involvement in service are ways in which adults can help. Working to strengthen community and school policies that affect adolescent development may be another way in which adults can be involved. Additionally, community-based, youth-serving organizations need to pay careful attention to early adolescents when developing new programs. National, state, and local policies regarding community service continue to emerge and develop, and government at all levels has allocated greater amounts of public funds to youth-serving organizations that encourage adolescents to participate in volunteer activities. Those who make and implement policy in this arena must have a greater awareness of the need for continued public funding, as well as an understanding of the diverse value orientation of those who serve. The results of this research suggest 73 that policymakers should examine policies that promote an integration of service experiences within the school curriculum, as well as employment opportunities for adolescents. Policymakers would be advised to examine the following concerns regarding volunteer participation of adolescents: o the regulatory and organizational opportunities and constraints that foster or inhibit adolescent participation in volunteer activities; 0 the funding possibilities/constraints; o the scheduling, transportation, and liability concerns surrounding adolescent participation in community service activities; 0 the staffing, orientation, and training of teachers and other school personnel; 0 the quality of school-based and administered service programs; and o the connections between school-based service programs and community efforts for civic engagement. In the wake of the AmeriCorps Program and other national service efforts, policymakers should also consider the ramifications of such items as stipend volunteering, mandatory community service, and community service as a form of punishment which is used in the criminal justice system. Policymakers need to provide funding for sound research that can provide useful information with regard to the importance of community service and to the degree and role government should play in supporting and encouraging citizens to volunteer. 74 Youth employment was found to be positively related to participation in volunteer activities among urban early adolescents. In general, early adolescents who volunteer are also more likely be employed. This was found to be true in this study as well as previous studies (Hamilton, 1980; Knault, 1992; Mortimer et al., 1992; Steinberg, 1985; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). Several possible explanations have been presented by these scholars for this pattern; e. g. the ability of early adolescents to better organize and manage their time, the potential for vocational development through volunteer activities, and the development of positive values relating to career development. Additionally, several studies have found that participating in volunteer activities related to one’s desired career may provide adolescents with a more realistic appraisal of certain skills and abilities needed (Conrad & Hedin, 1982, 1989; Furco, 1994; Hamilton, 1987; Newmann & Rutter, 1986; Nightingale & Wolverton, 1988, 1993; Schine, 1989; University of Pittsburgh, 1975; Urie, 1971). As hypothesized, youth activities were positively related to urban early adolescent participation in volunteer activities. Similar to previous studies, this study found that early adolescents who participate in youth activities, such as school clubs, sports programs, or services and programs held at a church or synagogue, were more likely to volunteer than were those not involved in youth activities (Benson et al., 1987; Brown & Steinberg, 1991; Knault, 1992; Mortimer et al., 1992; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994). Knault (1992) and Mortimer et al. (1992) suggest that one possible explanation might be what is termed the “activity syndrome” or the presence of a high level of personal activity in an early adolescent in contrast to being a “loner” or sitting at home watching 75 television. In his research corroborated by others (Mortimer et al., 1992; Steinberg, 1985), Knault (1992) showed that volunteers placed a higher value on being active in the community than non-volunteers. And finally, the fact that having free time was not often mentioned by early adolescents as a reason for volunteering suggests that they may be too busy to have free time. Evidence suggests that this “activity syndrome” characterizes volunteers throughout the life-span from early adolescent to senior citizens in their seventies and beyond (Knault, 1992, Wirthlin Group, 1995). FutureDireetienaferReseareh The findings from this study suggest several directions and implications for future research. First, a theory of volunteer participation must be distinguish between early, middle, late adolescence, and adult volunteering. Although similarities exist between adolescent and adult volunteering, adolescents, particularly early adolescents, have separate concerns and conditions which leads them to volunteer. Complex analysis strategies of ecological settings: Although this study did not measure the reasons why adolescents volunteer, several studies conducted (Furco, 1994; Knault, 1992; Mortimer and colleagues, 1992; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994, 1995) have concluded that adolescents volunteer for a number of reasons including being asked, as well as being taught by parents and peers. In this study, the independent variables that most frequently were statistically significant were gender, ethnic and racial background, school performance, achievement motivation, youth employment, and youth activities. Similar to Wuthnow’s (1990) observation that religion is an important but bounded source of caring and helping behavior, we might conclude that family and school have 76 similar significant effects on adolescent participation in volunteer activities. However, this requires further investigation using techniques such as multiple regression to better understand more completely the settings in which these urban early adolescents live and the characteristics of these settings which may or may not foster their participation in volunteer activities. Future research should focus simultaneously on these and other variables at the various levels of the ecology to capture those characteristics that may be associated with volunteer participation. In this study, grades were used as a proxy of school performance. School performance was found to be related to participation in volunteer activities among urban early adolescents. Moreover, achievement motivation was also found to be related to urban early adolescent participation in volunteer activities. In general, it may be stated that urban early adolescents who achieve a higher level of school performance will most likely participate in volunteer activities or vice versa. This finding supports previous research (Conrad & Hedin, 1982; Hedin, 1987; Serow, Ciechalski & Daye, 1990; Serow & Dryden, 1990; Sundeen & Raskoff, 1994; University of Pittsburgh, 1975; Urie, 1971). Future research should attempt to identify factors at multiple levels of the ecology that might encourage (or discourage) early adolescents to volunteer. Such factors might include parental and peer role modeling, values that emphasize helping others, and access and transportation issues. In addition, future research should focus on delineating between the many forms of volunteering, the types and quality of activities, and the impact on developmental skills of early, middle, and late adolescents. 77 In summary this research has examined the levels of participation in volunteer activities reported by urban early adolescents. Significant differences ere found related to some organismic and behavioral variables. This study has contributed significantly to the growing body of research related to early adolescents and in particular urban adolescents and their participation in volunteer activities. The importance of this stage of human development and the participation of urban adolescent in volunteer activities clearly warrant further attention in research, programming, and policy. 78‘ GLOSSARY Volunteerism Prosocial Behavior Community Service Service-Learning Ecology of Human Development Theory Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem GLOSSARY OF TERMS Service performed by one’s own free will and without pay. Action done with the desire or intent to promote the welfare of others. Service performed in the community. A method by which students learn and develop through active participation in thoughtfully organized experiences that meet actual community needs and are coordinated with the school and community. Scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing human being, and the changing properties of the settings in which a person lives and develops. Patterns of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced in a given setting by the developing person with particular physical and mental characteristics. Comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more microsystems containing the developing person. One or more settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by, what happens in the setting containing the developing person (see chapter 1. Theoretical Framework for more detail). Overarching patterns of micro-, meso-, and exosystem characteristics of a given culture, subculture, or other broad social contexts, and describes as the tenants and organization of a society. 79 Chronosystem Volunteer Participation School Performance Achievement Motivation Youth Employment Youth Activities 80 Movement through time. An individual who performs some type of service of his or her own free will and without pay. How well one performed in school compared to his or her peers. The degree to which one cares to do well in school. Providing service to others for pay. Extra-curricular activities in which youth participate during or after school hours. APPENDICES APPENDIX A SEARCH INSTITUTE PROFILES OF STUDENT LIFE Attitudes and Behaviors Your an ~ an die Ion ° 0 n“ ' . . ...... .emzi'é‘emgaifimf. :. x “mm anawe toad"? Wm . IMPORTANT MARKING DIRECTIONS 0 Uae black lead pencil only (No. 2). 0 DoNOTuaeInkorhaIIpoInrpena. o Makeheavyblackmanathatfltlaheeirde. 0 Eraae cleanly any answer you wish an change. 0 Do not make any array maria on the queationnaire. EXAMPLES Proper Mark Improper Marina 0000 @900 ' 1989. Search haeirme. I22 Wear Franklin Avenue. Minneapolia. MN 55404 81 82 t Howoldareyout OIIorwmflo-t 016 012 017 013 Ora Ora 0|9orolder 015 2. Whatlayour gradainaohool? 05m 0 an. 08th 010m 07m One: Can. 012m 3. Matbyouraax? 0MaIa 0Fernale «Howdoyoudaaanoeyouraatt? 0Americanlnd'nn OklanorPacfichIandar CaledorAtrieanAmerican OHIO-tic 0White SJlowmanyyaaradoyouthhkywwIflgotoechoono Chooaathaatatarnentthatfitayoubeat. ' OlwouIdIilrehmitad'aooIaeaoonaal‘eau OIMDMWWMM‘IMFIQOM. Ordinatogotoaomekindottradeadtoolorvocaw achoolatterhighachool. Ordmngoneougauumm Ordiketoootocolegeandmmgomamreolleeeto 90¢»!!de 6.0oyouIiveaIIorrnoatoIthetImeIna m E! tamitywithtwoparenta? 0.0 7.0oyouIiveaIIorrnoatotthetimeInaaingIe- parent family? 0...0 8. Are your parents divorced or aaoarated? 0 Yet 0 No Ormnotaure 9. Are you adopted? Yes 0 No Ofmnotm 10. It yea. at whatagewere youadooted? Chew-1 Ole-640 Olen-s OAquIoroIder Atewattnetoiowlnooueationaaakaoornyourparenu. In thia auruay. ’oarenta’ land ‘tather' or 'rnother'l refer: tothaaduttawhoarenowmoatraeponflbletorralflno mWyoouldbetoampamatep—onentmor guardhnauyoulluahaainoleparenttamfly.anewartor thatadult. tr. Maththehi'heetlavalotadroolhoyourtatherm OComoIetadgradeacnooIorIeaa OSornehigheenool Owl-animated 05omeoole9e CIT-Whom 06raduateororotaaaionalaehoolalteroolege ODm'tknowmrdoeanotapon 12. WBNWWdMWW .OWgradeadnooIorleaa OSomaI-ighachoot OWWW _.0§omecoleoa OWN” OMme-Mm OWerdoeanotM Ilb‘dyourmotherhavaaoatdjobIhaIt-timeorml gflewmmmrwoew? Pb 'Ofia‘meptthet’lnewhenlwaaMm 0Yai.rnoatol'thetirne QYea.aaoIthea'rne 14. During a typical week. on how many evenings do you go out Ior tun and recreation? 0None 0M 00m 0Fourorf~e OTWO 05330!” 15. Where doea your taminnowIive? OOnaIann Ohmeeuntrymotonatarm OG‘IMMthi-flmtbfl 0Inaamaltownlunder 2.500hoopuationl 0hatownoI2.$OOro9.999 01m “autonomous”: 0 Inarnedium the city (50.000 h 250.0001 0 InaIargecitonver 250.0001 83 How Important is each of the following to you In your life? Mark one answer for each. “mud-[M Mm m must to. Havinglotsolmoney ...... O ...... O ..... .O ...... O 1?. Helping other people ...... 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 18. Having lots at Iun and goodtimes ................. 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 19. Helping toreduce hungerand povertyin the world.... ............... O ...... O ...... O ...... O 20. Beingpopularor well-liked ................... O ...... O ...... O ...... O 21. Helping to make the worldabetter place " tolive ....................... O ...... O ...... O ...... 0 ABOUT SCHOOL 22. In an average week. about how many hours do you spend doing homework? 00hours 06-10hours 01-2hours 011hoursormore 03-5hours 23. Compared with others your age. how well do you do In school? 0 Much above average 0 Above average 0 Average 0 Below average 0 Much below average 24. What kinds of grades do you earn in school? OMostlyA 0MostIyC 0AbouthaIIAandhalI8 0AbouthaIlCandhalID 0Mostly8 0Mostly0 0 About tuna and hail c 0Mostly below 0 For each of the following, choose one answer. How oIten does one of your parents . . . ? . Vary Sorro- 25.Helpyouwrthyourschool mmmmm work ............................... O...O...O...O...O 26. Talk to you about what youaredoinginschool .......... 0............0000 27. Askyouabom homework ....... OHOWOOO 28. Go to meetings or events atyomschool .................... OWOOOO How much do you agree or disagree with the following? Choose one answer lor each. «new In see-ore 29.Atschoolltryashardasl m can todomybestwork ........ fiffimsoa 30. 1131:. school ........................ O...O...O...O...O 31. My teachers really care about me .......................... 0.0.00 0 32. It bothers me when I don't do something well ................ 0............0000 33.1don‘tcarehowldo inachool ........................... O...O...O...O.. O 4:1. 34. My teachers don't pay much attention tome ................... 0...0...0 0 35. Iget a lot of encouragement atmyschool ...................... 0...0...0 0 36. During the last four weeks. how many days of school have you missed because you skipped or 'cut‘? 0 None 0 1 day 0 2 days 0 3 days 0 4 - 5 days 0 6 - 10 days 0 I I days or more 37. During the last four weeks. how often have you gone to school and skipped a class when you were not supposed to? 0 Not at all 0 I or 2 times 0 3 - 5 times 0 6 - 10 times 0 I I - 20 times 0 More than 20 times 38. On the average during the school year. how many hours per week do you work in a paid job? 0 None 0 5 hours or less 0 6 - IO hows O 11 - 15 hours 0 16 - 20 hours 0 21 - 25 hours 0 26 . 30 hours 0 More than 30 hows ABOUT ME l'lowrluchdoyouegreeerdisagreewitheachelthese? Chooseoneanswerloreach. 39. Mylaniyileiheopy ......... 41. lamgoodatmalting lriends ........................... 42. O‘NMIW CCU-eh as: ..0... .....O 44. Therebalotolloveln my lamly ....................... 4S.Attimee.lthinklamno goodatal ....................... 4G. lgetalongwelwithmy 47.Allnal.lam¢adl «.lhmbtsolgood 51. lleelldonothevemuch bbeproudol .................. szllbrealteneolmyparents' 53. Myoarentsgiverneheloand napportwhenlneedit ......... Mkhageirtstmyvaluesro haveseawhilelama teenager ......................... 55. My parents are easy to talkwith ......................... ...0.. .....O ..O... .....O 9 9 9 9 b ..O...O... ..O...O... ..O...O... 0 9999999993 999999999!!! 99999-9999l 'o'oo'oo-bo‘obgg 9 9999 9999 9999 6666 b 5!.Myperentsehentelme theyloveme ...................... O... Duringtheleet12months.howmany 60.Gonenhtotrouble m atadlool--- O... O..- 81. Sulensomethhg lrom astute--- 62. leeniwolvedha proiectbhebmalte Hebetterlorother peopl- O... 83. Gottenhtotrouble withthepolice .................... O... “.llitorbeatmsomeone .......... O... 05. Cheatedonatestat school ............................. O... 66. Damagedpropertyiust lorhmisuchasbreaking acar.puttingpainton wala. etc.) ......................... O... 87. Givenmoneyortimeto acharltyororganlzation mathelosm ................. O... 68. Soenttimehebhgpeople whoarepoonhungry. sickorunabletocare lorthemselves .................... O... O... 9 03 9999 9999 9999 ’ob‘ob .0 85 “MW-Mmm“m spend...? 3“ I.“ 30‘ CM es. Watching w3‘8‘??? 1o. thertlrlgtotheradio. Manages .................. O...O...O ..O...O 71. Athomevdlhaltonadlt therewihyeu .................... O...O...O ..O...O 72. Howmanyreallycloeeiriendeyeuregedoyouhave? ONone O'l'hree OOne OTwo OFourorlive OSlaermore Duringanaveregeweek.howmanyhosndoyou...? 73.Spenrllnbend.chok. «Mausoleum . ,, em ...-..0 O... em ...0... ......O o OE 0 on ...O...O...O...O ...O...O...O...O ...O...O...O...O lnthissectionwewanttoaskyouabeutalcoholend otherdmgs'leaeeenewerashonestlyesyoucan. Remember. youaronoteelnedtoputyournemeonthis lorm.aonoonewlllevarbeabletotellwnatyou arnwered. How many times. it any. have youhad alcohol to drink...) Mmrglfomeg 9 1:1 2:! 1:: minutes: 7&hyourlim ...... O...O...0...O.. .0.. ...O .O 79. Ouingthe W ...... O.- ---O -O~ ~Oo- ”O ...O O 30.0uringthe 913.321!!! ......... 0.. ...O ...O 0.. .0 O O l1. MbackomtheLASTTWOWEEKsHowmany timeshaveyouhadliveormoredrlnltainarowHA 'drlnk'ieaglaaeolwhe.abottleorcanolbeer.e ahotglaeaolliquor.oremixeddrlnk.i O3Io5times OGbStimes OlOormoretirnes 32.1lyeucamehome1romepartyandyourparentslotmd outthatyouhedbeendrlnking.hewupsetdoyouthink theywouldbe? ONotataltpset OVerytpset OAlttleupset OEWW OSornewhetupset l-iowmanytlmes.llany.haveyouMerettes...7 W 9 1:: a u mums: 83.me ...... O...0...0...O...O...O...O I4.0uringlhe mm ...... O...O...O...O...0...O...0 35.01559“ W ......... O...O...0...O...O...O...O 86. Dudngthehfltwomekaabomhowmanyclgarettes haveyousmoked? ONone OAboutlpeckperdey OLessthanlcigaretteperdeyOAboutlhoecksperdev OltoScigarettesperday OZpacksormereperday OAbout'hpackperday How many times. 11 any. have you used mariuena (grass. pot) or hashish (hash. hash oil). . . 7 mm 9 1:: u u unmet 87.lnyourfiuir_ng ...... O...O...0...O...O...O..O 88.0uringthe mm ...... O...O...0...O..O...O O 89.0mm W ......... O O O O...O...O 0 How many times. il any. have you used cocaine (crack. coke. snow. rock). . . 7 mm 9 u u 1;: minutes; 90.lnyourlilgtimg ...... O...O...0...O...O...0...O $1.0uringthe mm ...... O...O...0..O...O...O...O 92.0uringthe Mm ......... O...O...0.. O...O...O ..O 86 Ouringthelast12menths.howmanytimeshaveyou...? 93. ’40 07. 100. 101. Ier Brennan-vomit“ Ilsa: m Mafia; kidsyourageweredrinlting ..... 0............0000 Orivenacaralteryouhad beendr'nking ..................... O...O...0...O...O Riddeninacarwhosedriver mmm ................ O...O...0...O...O Howmanytirnesinthelastmonthhaveyouhadagood conversationwithoneofyourparentsthatlasted10 mlnutesormoreb ONone 03m 00"“ 04orrnoretimes 0Twice Howmanytimeainthelestmonthhaveyouhadagood conversationwithanedultlnotaparendthatleeted10 minutesormore? Oblon- 03times 000°. 04ermoretimes OTwice lfyouhadanimportentquestionaboutyourlife.how many adults do you know (not counting your parents) to whom you would feel comfortable going for help? 0None 03:94 01 05am 02 How often have you felt sad or depressed during the lastmonth? 0Althetime 00nceinawhile OMostolthetirne ONotatalI OSomeolthetime In the last year. how often. if at all. have you thought about killing yourself? 0 Never 0 3 to 5 times 0 One 0 5 or more times 0 Twice Have you ever tried to kill yourself? 0No 0Yes.once 0Yes.twice 0Yes.morethantwotimes 102. How often do you wear a seat belt when you drive or ridelnacarortruck? Onmetime Catechawhile OMostoltherirne ONotatell OSomeofthetirne 103. Have you ever had sexual intercourse l’gone all the wey.’ ’made love'l? O ire-i SK? 1O ouesnou 107 104. Whenyouhaveunhowoltendoytluandloryew partneruseabirtheentrolrnethodsuchasbirthcontrol pille.aoondomlrubberl.foem.diaphregm.orl00? ONever 001m Oswom OW OSometimes 105. The first time youhad sex. did you and/or your partner use birthcontrol? OM Ohio 106. Have you ever been pregnant. or made someone pregnant? Y ON: Howrnany times. if "hummus“ you...? mm lama-who 9 m to! hammer 100. Usedheroinlsmack. horse. skagler othernarcoticsilte 109. Usedadrugcalled alawan ............... 000000 110. Usedadrug knownascrack ..... 0000000 111. UsedPCPor AngelDust .......... O...O...0...O...O...O...O 112. UsedLSOl'acid'i...0...0...0...0...0...0...0 87 How-MW limos-“Invdnmmhawyeuud W "sarcomas-ms 1:: u u mutton: ascraclt ............. O...O...O...O...0...O...O 114.UsedPCPor AngelQrst .......... O...O...0...O...O...O...O 115. UsedLSDi'acid‘l...0...0...0...0...0...0...0 110.!lowoltendoyouvomitlthrowuplonpurpoeeefter eating? 0Never OOnceaweek 00ncearnontherless 02ermoreo‘mesaweek 02-3timesamonth 117. Haveyoueverbeenphyalcallyabueedbyanadultlthat ls.whereanedultcausedyoutohaveascar.blaclt andbluemarks.welu.bleeding.orebrokenbonei? 0Never 04-10times OOnce 0Morethan10tirnes 02-3times 113. Haveyouevorbeensexually abusedbyeomeonelthat heomeoneinyourlamilyorsomeoneelsedidsexual thingstoyouthatyoudidnotwantorforcedyouto touchthemeexuallyi? 0Never 04-10tirnes OOnce 0Morethan10times 02o3times During the last 12 months. how many times have you . . . ? 119. Taken partina fiwt whereagroupofyour Hurtsomeonebadly enouflrtoneed bendagesoradoctor ........... O...O...0...0...0 1 20. 121.0sedaknifeoragun orsomeotherthing likeachrbltoget somethinglrornaperson ....... 0............0000 122. i would be willing to eat less meat and more grains and vegetables ll it would help provide food lor starving people. 0 Disagree 0 Mostly disagree 0 Neither agree nor disagree 0 Mostly agree 0 Aom 'lhe neat questions are about WINES. which doctorseanpreseribe sehebpeooleloseweightorte givopeoplemoroenergy.0rwetoreeareneteuppoeedto eefldiernwithoutapreacrlptionlromadoctor. Amphelamheeareeometimesoelleduppere.ups.speed. mmmw.oletplle.1heymuie following drugs: Ieruedrine. Denedrine. Mediedrlne. flitalin.Preludin.Dexamyl.“-‘* 7“ ’ wvounnmnsneourmsoouor NCLUOE ANY mm 011 OVER-THE- Onhowmanyoccasiens.llany.haveyoutaken amphetaminesonyourown-«hathwlthotna doctortellingyoutotaltethem...? mm 9 1:2 2:! 9:1 mung: 123.me ...... O...O...0...O...O...0...O 124. During“ I am ...... O...O...0...O...O...0...O 125.0uringthe m ......... O...O...0...O...O...0...O Foreacholthefollowing.markonlyoneanswer. 128.1w0nyablabout & ”1. ”mm myluture .......................... 0...0...0...O...O 127.lamgoodat pummel: ................... O...O...0...O...O 128. Ten years lrom now. I think lwilbeveryhappy .............. O...O...0...O...O 129.Whenlamanadtdt.lthinlt lwillbesuccessluinwhat- everworklchoosetodo ........ 0...0...0...0...0 How interested are you in each of the following? Very 3M lee 130. Getting better at making and on...“ on...“ 5......“ keeping friends ...................... 0 ...... 0 ..... 0 131. Learninghow toreadbetter... ..... 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 132. Oeingthingstoheloother people ................................ 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 133. Learning values that was help guide me throughout my life ....... 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 88 Howinterestedereyoulneachofthefofiowing? 134.Learninghow&dealwith mum-mu .2"... 25;... mm ........................... O ...... O ...... O 135.Leamingmoreaboutsewelity ..... O ...... O ...... O 136. Gettingbetteratrnalting myowndecbione ................... O ...... O ...... O 137.Hevingabetterreletionshb withmyparonts ..................... O ...... O ...... O 138. Decidingwhatlshouddo widtmylfe 0 ...... 0 ...... 0 139. lfyouhadanimportantooncernaboutdrugs.alcohel. sex.orsomeotheraeriousiesue.wouldyoutaltto yourparentisiaboutit? OYes Ofiobebfynot OProbebly ONo Ormnotaure 140. Hownwchofthetimedoyourperentsaskyouwhere youaregoingorwithwhomyouwillbe? Practicalynever OMoetoroee'me 050mm Quorum OSomeofuIeome Among the people you consider to be your closest friends. howmanywouldyousay...? 141.0rinltalcoholonceaweek m a; m m a ormore ............................ 0...C).........000 142. Haveuseddrugssuchas mari‘panaorcocaine ............. ..0....0..0...0 143. Oowelinschool ................. O...O...0...O...O 144. Getintotroubleatschool ........ O...O...0...O...O 14$. Helpotnerpeopie ................. O...O...0...O...O 140:11aveyoufeftyouwereunderanystrain.stress.or pmsmdtuuigthepastmonth? OYesslmostmeretl'isnlceuldrslne 0Yes.guitaabitofprossure OYessome/morethanusual 0Yes.alittle/abouttmal ONotatal 147. How often have you felt anxious. worried. or upset duringthepestmenth? Quorum OMostofthetirne OSomeofdtedrne OAitthoffhot'ltte 0Noneofthetime 140. Whenwastheissttimeyouwenttoseeadoctorfor 149. 1 50. 151. 152. acheckup? Omelet-straw OAboutl-Zyearsago '0About3-4yeersago 05ormore-yearsago Ol’veneverbeenaa'adoctorforacheclwp Ooyouthinkyourmotherorfatherhasaserious problemwithalcoholo'rdrugs? ONo 'OMaybefl'mnotsure 0Yes How often do you attend religious services at a church 00nceortwiceamonth 0Aboutonceaweeltormore How important is religion in your life? 0 Not important 0 Somewhat irmortant 0 Important 0 Very important On the average over a school year. how many hours ur weglt doyouspenddoingvolunteerwork tohelp other people lsuch as helping out at a hospital. day care center or nursery. food shelf. youth program. community service agency. eth? 0 None' 0 1-2 hours 0 3-5 hows 0 6-9 hours 0 10 hours or more ”heed-U“ “law Waco-”131.305 APPENDIX B $800839, 82 .9288. 0.88 8 oz; 8 0035 808283 wow—00829, 83808 .805380 0005 2 28 8 028 808205 9880823 284 flaw—08808., on ”038380 .m 00 80—80 mm 008: .0083 .8 a 83 0.88 8 02.0 on“ .88 00 80.80 8 8 8308038 008331” .m 8 .0080 mm 0035 .N 002380 8 @0880 mm 008 ._ no 8088 mm 8>0Z 800839, .8 u .008: 088 8 m “80 .008: «in 848000 .0033 .028 .85: 08208 00088000 38 0x8 ...0883 030: 85 8338090 28% 030m 8 .0880 2 08: 8 >088 . 8888858 088 8030.. ...00200805 .8.« 080 .33 Ba 9 030:: 8 £20 £888 .808 .8338 .32 08 8:3 0.80m mama—0: 08: 80mm: .98 8933 “80 :5, 0080 82880388 ...08808 80.8 80 8:3 0.:— 0038 :28 ..0: 8 02 .8 003.00 .8 090 o: 53» 0.00m 20: 2 80.8.8 0 8 80338 800?. 088 0808.88 on? 38368 5. 33933 838.8.» 08825 8088—059 9580 a. 0mco%0m £00m .mcoficfia 383830 0:028:00 3880080 0058:; 3% 89 90 I .20: 88 <20: 8 < 8080 8 m 83 <20: :88 ._ 8080 8.25 82 .6 :2 2 ... 982 .a 323 €85 88 man: 80:0 8 8 .Q .888 d 88 0.28: 28:0 m .388 v 88:88 .U .588 .0 88 man: :88 .82 a 0 825 .m .885 .m 8.. <8; 33.. .... >8. ”8:88:80 .388 08:08 88888 c.5888 8 m 88 88880 :80 so» oo 88% .8 880: 8:3... .223 o5 88.8 88:08.... 85¢. 8 885 .8888 0500.: 8 :83. .588 808884.. 08:08 8888.. mum—0.88» 08.888 .8» .8 28m: .N 880 0380.“ 28 _ 8080 £08 .0388 8 208 08:08 8.888.. ...mxom So» 8 8:3: .3 88 .m: .2 .888; 8 2 08:08 8888.. ”.28.: 0.8 :8 28:: A8888 02:“ 2a 8 88: 0.88 8 00.8: 808803 .8008 ..0: 8 8: 9 8088880 8 80:00 8 888 08 :03 >82 858% "838...; 8.88:3— 8 "8.88.; 888.890 3058800 8.808383 91 8 2 2 : .m 8 Bus 8 3 2 c .N 8 880 8 m8— 8 85 ._ 8 880 8 082 .8088 8 =03 m8ov 80 88—00.“ 0.8888 083 085 083 888 88 .8288 88 on? 085 08.5 8888 80808800 80:00 88.53 88—05 0.580: 88 on? 085 083 304 80808808 82 388 883 888 85 8 880.8 083 mm a. awn 858:0 on 2 cm .80: mm 8 E .888 on 9 3 .88: m. 2 2 .888 o. 2 o .88 8 88: 02.“ .08: 05808 88880 ...So_. 88 8 8 x83 8» 88 808 .288 30: .80» 80:8 05 885 8808 05 80.. .8888 .8988 88 60.8808 .088 8: .0088 .0088 .2988 05808 88802 .2303 885080.». 80 5.85 _ 80:3 08 8058 8.. 88 ..0—8.5 88 88 05 8 80 u 8 588 .5 ~ 8800 56.. ”88588 0.2 958:5 05 .8 080.68 05 .8 8808 05 88 008808 .2828 E8 .8888 .08m 8: .0088 .0088 89850 08808 8809.2 ...—8800 8 80 ~ .50: 0.80 5.88 r. ”0388.» 85 8:82:88 80:88 005 836:5 05. .0 888 8 a .5808 588 8 K 880 8 Q .588 .0 8.08 m. 8 2a 8.2 58.. .m 880 8 U .588 .v 8.80 8 U 88 8.2 .82. .m 8.08 a m 88:. .m $8 8.“ 8050 9 00380 8 88285 .8800 8 :03 80 9 880 08 8083 8 00805 05. 8388080806 5038800 00888.88 80:03 92 .358 5:5 855. 5 E 8.55: 555 .5 8 :wE 55 55:55 555 5o— 5 E «.55: m-S 8:555 .555: 55 “mom—5355 m 5:: 585—50 555 5 25; 5 as 5.2 .5 55: my 5558 .855: o 85:5on.8 m 5:: 585—50 .w 5 .5555 m_ 55: cm 55 555 .5 5 5555 m_ cm 5: 5m .5 8 55555 mm mm 2 E .m 5 55555 .55: 558 5 Z 55 .855: 3-5 .55: Va .55: N; .55: o 5525.: 885583— ..osmomagm .5 55:5 5 5 $5555 5 .8955 .moomtom 553$. .55:8 .5 52355 8558555 5 8:25 5 553m: ...Amtoam 55 55:53 55:8 5 55555595 5 8:55 5 555m: ...58 55:8 5 55 3.5% 9:55 558m: ...558555 5 55 85> 55:55.5 5 .8588. 5:858 55:5 .55: 5 555m: 5555» 55 55: >58 35: .5553 5555 5 marsh: 8.55: am 55 555 55 .8555: 55:8 55 .5 meta: E 553255 :55» 5:: 82355 55555-55xm 25:55:55 558.3585 555.0 APPENDIX C RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES llalverslw Camrnlltee ea hesearch Involving llama Sailects (Will‘s) SUNS-2U FAX‘ SUM-ll" 11:1an "Mimosa- MICHIGAN STATE u N I v E R s l T v September 30. I993 TO: Dr. Ioanne Keith 20) Human Ecology RE: IRB 1: 92-379 TITLE: COMMUNITY BASED YOUTI'I NEEDS ASSESSMENT - COMMUNITY BASED PROFILE OF MICHIGAN YOUTH REVISION REQUESTED: NIA CATEGORY: loC ~APPROVAL DATE: September 24. I993 “flue University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRIHS) review of this project iscomplete. lam pleased toadviaethatthcrightsandweifare oftne human subjects appear tobe adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are appropriate. Therefore. the UCRIHS approved this project including any revision listed above. Renewal: Revisions: Problems! Changes: UCRIHS approval is valid for one alendar year, beginning with the approval date shown above. Investigators planning to continue a project beyond one year must use the enclosed form to sack updated certification. There is a maximum of four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to continue a project beyond that time need to submit it again for complete review. UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects. prior to initiation of the change. Ifthis is done at the time of renewal. please use the enclosed form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year. send your written request to the UCRIHS Chair. requesting revised approval and referencing the project's [RD 1 and title. Include in your request a description of the change and any revised instruments. consent forms or advertisements that are applicable. the year. please outline the proposed revisions in a letter to the Committee. Should either of the following arise during the course of the work. investigators must notify UCRIIIS promptly: (1) problems (unexpected side effects. complaints. etc) involving human subjects or ('2) change: in the smash chircnmcnt or new information indicating greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed and approved. Ifwe can be of any future help. plcue do not hesitate to contact us at (517) 355-2l80 or FAX (517) 336-Il7l. Sincerely. DEW: pjm k avid E. Wright. PILD. UCRIHS Chair 93 LIST OF REFERENCES Allen, J. P. & Kuperminc, G. (1994). Programmatic prevention of adolescent problem behaviors: The role of autonomy, relatedness, and volunteer service in the teen outreach program. AmedcaalmmaLoflqumuninLBmholggL 22, 617-638. The George H. Gallup International Institute (1993). MW. Princeton, NJ: The George H. Gallup International Institute. Astin. AW. (1991). IhaAmencanfreshmaannaLnonnflQLfamLQQQ Washington, DC, and Los Angeles: American Council on Education and University of California at Los Angeles. Babbie, E. (1986). W; Belmont. CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc. Benson. P. (1990). IWWMW Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute. Benson, P... Williams, D.. & Johnson. A. (1987). 111W Wm. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Bernard B (1991) W W. Portland, OR: Western Regional Center for Drug-Free Schools and Communities Far West Laboratory. Blyth, D. A. & Roehlkepartain. E. C. (1993). Heammmmsmitieuiealthx XQlllh' HQ)! ggmmlmjngs ggnm'bmg IQ pgsjn'yg youth development. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute. Bogenschncider, K., Small, S, & Riley,D. (1991). W W Washington DC National Extension Youth at Risk. Bronfenbrenner. U- (1979). Ihusologxnfihumandslelopmemgjmimemsbx Wu. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 94 95 Brown, B. B. & Steinberg, L- (1991). Noninsnmtinnaljnfluenceunadolescem W. Madison, WI: Final paper prepared for the National Center for Effective Secondary Schools. Calabrese, R. L., & Schumer, H. (1986). The effects of service activities on adolescent alienation. W, 675-687. Carin RW &Kielsmeier J C (1991) W11. WWW. Roseville, Minnesota: National Youth Leadership Council. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989).]11mmgpmn15mmg Amedcaxomhfouhazlsuenm Report prepared for the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development Task for on the Education of Young Adolescents. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1992). MW oppommLimhanonschmlhours Woodlawn MD: Wolk Press Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1995). W W. Woodlawn, MD: Graphtec, Inc. Conrad. D. & Hedin, D. (1982). The impact of experiential education on adolescent development. W, 57-76. Conrad, D- & Hedin» D- (1989)- WWW WW5. Research paper prepared for the National Center on Effective Secondary Schools. Washington, DC: National Center on Effective Secondary Schools. Conrad, D. & Hedin, D. (1991). School-based community service: What we know from research and theory. W, 743-749. DrnyOSJ- G- (1990). Won New York. NY: Oxford University Press. Eberly, D- (1991). W W. Washington DC: National Service Secretariat. Erikson, E. H. (1968). WW5. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Feldmann, S. S. & Elliot, G. R. (1990). MW. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 96 Furco, A. (1994). A conceptual framework for the institutionalization of youth service programs in primary and secondary education. JonmaloflAoolomnoQJl. 395-409. Gardner, J. W. (1992). W. Research Paper for Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. NY: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. GarbarinoJ- (1982). Childmndfamiliesjathmialsnximnmem New York, NY: Aldine Publishing Company. Garbarino. J. (1985). W Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. Goss. K. A. (1993). The youthful campaign for a new era of service. In; Chronicle of BMW 1 1113 Halperin, S- (1992). WWW Unpublished manuscript. Hamburg, D. (1987). W. Washington, DC: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Hamburg, D. (1992). W New York, NY: Times Books Randam House. Hamilton S F (1980) WWW loominganiinlolleotoalogxelopmom. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association. Quebec. Canada: American Psychological Association. Hamilton S F &Fenzel L M (1987) BMW Wm. Research paper prepared for American Educational Research Association. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Harrison,C- (1987). WWW Princeton.le The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Hedin, D. (1987). Students as teachers: A tool for improving school climate and productivity. Sooial Policy. 1 2, 42-47. Hendry, L. Shucksmith, J. Love, J, & Glending,A. (1993). Yang pooplo 5 leisure W. New York, NY. Routledge. 97 Hicks, L- (1995). W Research paper presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Indianapolis, IN: Society for Research in Child Development. Hodgkinson, V. A. & Weitzman, M. S. (1990). Xelnateeriagaadgiyjag W Washington DC: Independent Sector. Keith J G. & Gi’iffore R (1990) WWW Wm; Research paper prepared for the meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology. East Lansing, MI: Society for Applied Anthropology. Keith, J. G, Perkins, D. F. Zhou, 2., Clifford, M. C., Gilmore, B. & Townsend M Z (1993) Bmldineanimaimwmnuommunmyons mmmtehfldremthmdiammes Research Report #529 East Lansing, MI: Institute for Children, Youth, and Families. Keith J G &Perkins D F (1995) ILQQQadoleMsspeaKAnmflleof Miehigaaquh. East Lans1ng MI: Institute for Children, Youth, and Families. Knault. E. B. (1992). W. Washington. DC: Independent Sector. Leitman, R., Binns, K. & Duffet. A. (1995). Betwe ween hepe and fear: Ieeas W. A survey conducted by Louis Han 1s & Associates. Washington. DC: National Teens Crime and the Community Program. Lerner, R. M. (1986). Conceptsandflmrimflhummdflelonmem. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Lerner, R. M. & Galambos. N. (1984). The adolescent experience: A view of the issues. In R. M. Lerner and N. Galambos (I984). Experieaeiag agelescent: A W. New York: Teachers College Press. Lerner, R. M. & Foch, T. T. (1987). W adolescence. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 98 Lerner, M. L., Lerner, J. V. ,,&Jonathan T. (1989). Organismic and contextual bases of development 1n adolescence: A developmental contextual view. Bjelggx O _OO' “00".0 a... ’OIHUOOI°O qO.‘ “o_V|O|O l. . C 1‘ ‘00111' a! -.1‘ 1100‘ ‘10‘ '001112.1-__11_-. no, ‘ ‘ I, (pp 11-37) Lerner R M (1993) W iaterxeatiea. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. LemonR- M- (1995). W programmdpchcies CA: Sage. Lewis. A. C. (1988). MW Research Report by The William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family and Citizenship. Washington, DC: The William T. Grant Foundation. Lipsitz, J. S. (1980). W: A key time in secondary education. Testimony prepared for the Subcommittee on Elementary. Secondary, and Vocational Education. Washington, DC. Lipsitz, J. S. (1984). W. New Brunswick. NJ: Transaction Books. Littky. D. (1986). Action learning 15 a basic for the eleven to fourteen year old. WWI-.3 Miller, F. (1991). Gender differences in adolescents‘ attitudes toward mandatory volunteerism. loamaLQfAdgleseeangl, 381 -393. Mortimer, J., Ryu, Dennehy. Lee (1992). Iaflueaeemaadalemeafleeafleaal deyelaameat. Research findings prepared for Office of Vocational and Adult Education. Berkeley. CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education. National Commission on Children (1991). MW ehildreaandpareats. Research findings prepared for the National Commission of Children. Washington, DC: National Commission on Children. Newmann, F. M. & Rutter, R. A. (1986). Aprofrle of high school volunteerism programs EducationalLeadmhinAl 65- 71 Newmann F M &Rutter R A (1986) But‘feetsoflhrghschocmmmunm WWW]! Madison WI: Wisconsin Education Research. 99 Newton M (1975) WWW WWW Bowling Green KY: Western Kentucky University. New York State Council on Children and Families (1982). WAD mm. Albany, NY: New York State Council on Children and Families. Nicholson, H. J., Weiss, F. L., & Maschino, M. F. (1992). Geadeaissueflaygum deyeleameaLamgaams. Research paper commissioned by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development for its Task Force on Youth Development and Community Programs. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Nightingale, E.. & Wolverton, L. (1988). AdaleseeaLmlelessaemadeemM Abaekgmmdpaper. Research paper prepared for the Council on Adolescent Development Task Force on Education of Young Adolescents. Washington. DC: Council on Adolescent Development Task force on Education of Young Adolescents. Nightingale, E., & Wolverton. L. (1993). Adolescent rolessness in modern society. BaaharLCallagLResardfl. 472-486. Of.fer M. D. & Schonert-Reichl. K. A. (1992). Debunking the myths of adolescence: Findings from recent research WW AcademxaLChilaanaAdalasaenLEmhiatmll 1003- 1014 Perkins D F & Keith J G ( 1995) WWW WWW. East Lansrng MI: Institute for Children. Youth, and Families. Perkins. D., & Miller, J. (1994). Why volunteerism and service-learning? Providing rationale and research. WW, 1 1-16. Perkins, D- (1995). W V. E’I'IIV' I' [ll . Unpublished doctoral dissertation. East Lansing: Michigan State University. Pittman K J (1991) EmmahnayamhaeAaamenLBrengthemngtharaleaf yauthsamnganasammannmgamuhan: Paper prepared for the USDA Extension Service National Initiative Task Force on Youth at Risk. Washington. DC: USDA Extension Service National Initiative Task Force on Youth at Risk. IOO Rapoport, T., & Rosenhek, Z. (1989). Complex role experiences and personal differentiation: A real-life experience. Wm; 207-219. Roberts-Weah, W. (1995). Service learning honors cultural diversity. In C. W. Kinsley and K McPherson(1995) WWW Alexandria, VI: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Rolinski, CA- (1990)- WW1: aadlqlumeeasm. Washington, DC: Youth Service America. SehineJ- (1989). Yaungadalescentaandaammm Working Paper prepared for the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Washington. DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Schine, J & Harrington D (1982) Youthaarhaiaahanianaarlxaaalasaenta WW. Research paper prepared for the Phi Delta Kappa Educational Forum of Bloomington, Indiana. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Forum. Schonhaut, C. I. (1988). MW. New York: City Board of Education. Schur, J. B. (1995). Students as social science researchers: Gender issues in the classroom. W, 144-148. Serow, R. C. (1989). Volunteerism. religious commitment and campus climate. MOS-119- Serow, R. C., Ciechalski, J ., & Daye, C. (1990). Students as volunteers: Personal social diversity, and participation in volunteerism. WM. 157-168. Serow, R., C.. and Dreyden. J. I. (1990). Volunteerism among college and university institutional relationships. W, 553-566. Shays, C., & Mfume, K. (1993). National service: Preparing leaders of tomorrow. XaumBaliaLLi, 21-22. Shumer, R. (1988). Community-based learning: Humanizing education. Jeuraal of AdalascencLll. 357-367. Silbereisen, R.. K.. Eyferth, K.. & Rudinger, G. (Eds) (1986). Develepmeat in action Steinberg, L. (1985). Adeleseeaee. New York: Knopf. lOl Sundeen, S. A. (1988). Explaining participation in coproduction: A study of volunteers. W, 546-568. Sundeen, S. A. (1989). Volunteer participation in local government agencies. Jamaal atBahliaAffairle 155- 167 Sundeen, S. A. (1992). Differences in personal goals and attitudes among volunteers. Nanamfitmflalunmsmarflmnedw, 271-291. Sundeen, R. A., & Raskoff, S. A. (1994). Volunteering among teenagers in the united states. NannrafiLandloluntanLSactarfluanerbhll, 383-403. Sundeen, R., A., & Raskoff, S. A. (1995). Teenage volunteers and their values. NanamfitandlalmmSaataLQnanedefl, 337-357. Takanishi, R. (1992). The opportunity of adolescence-research, intervention, and policy: Introduction to special issue. W, 85-87. Takanishi, R. (1993). Changing views of adolescents in contemporary society. W, 459-465. Toepfer, C. F. (1988). What to know about young adolescents. In Joan Schine (Ed. ). WWW Working paper prepared for the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Urie.R-(1971)- WWW manual. Laurinburg: Andrews Presbertarian College. ' University of Pittsburgh (1975). Eulaahanfiaaafaasaniauamastararagram Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh. Usher, B. R. (1977). Etiaarcakegammumhunyalxementnragranmaluahan Ontario, Canada: Canada's Ministry of Education. WilliamT Grant Foundation(l988) Eamahenhalflflthwaxsaamaessfar W. Washington, DC: The WilliamsT. Grant Foundation. Williams, R. (1991). The impact of field education on student development: Research findings .IaumalaflCaaaeratixaEahaahanJl, 29-45 The Wirthlin Grotto (1995) BanniaanhalsarmafsammtmruaanA mafhighsahaaLstnaamsansammnniMnmmemem Washington DC: The Wirthlin Group. 102 Wuthnow, R. (1990). Religion and the voluntary spirit. In Wuthnow, V. A. Hodgkinson & Associates (Eds). Earthaaiphrlaamnymm Exalaringjharalejnaxahtntamsectar San Fransciso, CA: Jossey-Bass. Yates, M. (1995). lalnnteensmanadalasaenanmahaatmnsfaLmaraLpahhaal awareness. Research paper prepared for the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Indianapolis, IN: Society for Research in Child Development. "7111111171111111111111111“