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thesis entitled

A Confirmatory Analysis of Baldwin's Theory

of Black Personality

presented by

Valerie Elizabeth Roberts

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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MA degree in Psychology

 

 

 

 

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Date December 16, 1996

 

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MSU Is An Affirmative Adlai/Equal Opportunity Inotltulon
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AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF BALDWIN’S THEORY OF
BLACK PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

By

Valerie Elizabeth Roberts

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Psychology

1996

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ABSTRACT

AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF BALDWTN’S THEORY OF
BLACK PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

By

Valerie E. Roberts

The present study addressed the need for empirical support for the conceptualization
of Black identity. Two models of Black personality were developed and compared to
determine which described the process of identity development. The first model was
based on Baldwin’s (1981) Afiicentric theory of Black personality while the alternate
model included additional relationships.

Data was collected from 158 African American students. Lisre18 was used to obtain
path coefiicients and fit statistics to test the overall fit of each model. The chi-square
difference test was conducted to compare the two models. Results indicated that
Baldwin’s model did not adequately fit the data. Baldwin’s assertion that worldview is an
inherent part of the Black personality structure was not supported. The alternate model
was a good fit with the data. Context and environment were found to influence Black
personality development. The importance of incorporating an ecological approach into

Black personality research is discussed.

This thesis is dedicated to all those who continue in the struggle.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

One of the challenges faced by Afiican American scholars is the task of conducting
research that is relevant to the community and that accurately reflects our unique cultural
and social experiences. This is especially difficult when operating under the constraints of
a traditional education environment where the necessary resources are often scarce or
difficult to find. In completing this project, I was fortunate to have the support and
guidance of my committee, who although not well versed in the subject matter initially,
became active participants in the learning process enabling me to pursue and successfirlly
complete a difiicult task.

In recognizing those who were instrumental in helping me complete this task, first I
would like to thank my chair, Dr. William Davidson. His assistance from my initial ideas
to the development of a “doable” research study was invaluable. Additionally, the many
hours we spent talking over the theories and examining data and the feedback he provided
were greatly appreciated. I could not have completed this without him.

In addition, I would like to thank my remaining committee members, Jeanette
Gassaway and Pennie Foster-Fishman. They were both instrumental in providing critical
feedback to assist in getting the final draft done and in doing so, went above and beyond
what was ever expected.

I would also like to thank my family, who without knowing it, provided much need
support and an outlet to vent my fi'ustrations with the whole research process. Last but
not least, I must give thanks to the Creator without whom my success would never have

been possible.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... viii
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 4
Baldwin’s Africentric Theory of Black Personality ...................................................... 4
Components of Black Personality .................................................................... 5
Theory of Psychological Nigrescence ......................................................................... 7
Cross Model of Racial Identity Development .................................................. 8
Comparison of Baldwin’s Afiicentric Theory of Black Personality
and Nigrescence Theory ........................................................................................... 10
Factors Impacting Identity Development .................................................................. 11
Parental Socialization .................................................................................... 12
Quality of Interracial Interaction ................................................................... 15
Value Orientation/Worldview ........................................................................ 18
Implications of Positive or Negative Identification .................................................... 20
Africentric Behavioral Correlates.....................................................- ............. 20
Justification for Research .......................................................................................... 22
Hypotheses of the Present Study ............................................................................... 24
Baldwin’s Model of Black Personality Development ..................................... 25
Alternate Model of Black Personality Development ....................................... 27
METHOD ..................................................................................................................... 29
Design ...................................................................................................................... 29
Participants .............................................................................................................. 29
Procedure ................................................................................................................. 32
Measures .................................................................................................................. 35
Background Information Sheet ..................................................................... 35
Interracial Interaction Scale ........................................................................... 35
Parental Socialization Scale ........................................................................... 36
Afiican Self Consciousness Scale .................................................................. 38
Beliefs Systems Analysis Scale ...................................................................... 41
Afiican American Behavioral Checklist ......................................................... 47
RESULTS ..................................................................................................................... 49
Intercorrelations Among Study Variables .................................................................. 50
Structural Equations Modeling ................................................................................. 54
Baldwin’s Model of Black Personality Development ................................................. 54

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Alternate Model of Black Personality Development .................................................. 55

Comparison Between Two Models of Black Personality Development ...................... 60
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 62
Parental Socialization ............................................................................................... 64
Interracial Interaction ............................................................................................... 66
Afiicentric Worldview .............................................................................................. 70
Implications .............................................................................................................. 70
Theoretical ............................................................................................................... 70
Practical Application ..................................................................................... 71
Limitations ............................................................................................................... 71
Sampling ...................................................................................................... 72
Measurement ................................................................................................ 73
Design .......................................................................................................... 74
Future Research ....................................................................................................... 74
APPENDIX A
Consent Form ........................................................................................................... 78
APPENDD( B
Background Information Form ................................................................................. 79
APPENDD( C
Interracial Interaction Scale ...................................................................................... 80
APPENDIX D
Parental Socialization Scale ...................................................................................... 81
APPENDIX E
Afiican Self Consciousness Scale .............................................................................. 84
APPENDIX F
Beliefs Systems Analysis Scale .................................................................................. 89
APPENDIX G
Afiican American Behavioral Checklist ..................................................................... 92
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 94

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LIST OF TABLES

1. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants ....................................................... 30
2. Demographic Characteristics of the Student Population ............................................ 33
3. Internal Consistency of the Interracial Interaction Scale ............................................ 37
4. Internal Consistency of the Parental Socialization Scale ............................................ 39
5. Internal Consistency of the Afiican Self Consciousness Scale .................................... 42
6. Internal Consistency of the Beliefs Systems Analysis Scale ........................................ 45
7. Internal Consistency of the Afiican American Behavioral Checklist ........................... 48
8. Intercorrelations Among the Study Variables ............................................................ 51
9. Means and Stande Deviations of the Targeted Variables ........................................ 6O
10. Comparison Between Two Models of Black PersonalityDevelopment ...................... 6O

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Baldwin Model of Black Personality Development .................................................... 25
2. Alternate Model of Black Personality Development .................................................. 27
3. Path Coeflicients for Baldwin Model of Black Personality ........................................ 56
4. Path Coeficients for Alternate Model of Black Personality ....................................... 59
5. Revised Model of Black Personality .......................................................................... 76

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Western or "traditional" psychology has been criticized for its lack of valid and
appropriate cross cultural paradigms, and the inability within the field to do research free
of cultural bias (Baldwin, 1985; Bell, 1985; Akbar, 1989; Nobles, 1989). For example,
prior to the 1970’s, research that found differences between African and White Americans
explained them in terms of cultural deficiency rather than cultural distinctiveness. Because
of this approach, there are few paradigms that give credence to the cultural uniqueness,
reality and experiences of Afiican Americans. Over the last two decades, however, with
the growth of the Afiican American/Black psychology movement, the need for the
development of culturally specific epistemologies and measurement instruments has
received vigorous support among Black psychologists and social scientists. These
researchers have pioneered the development of the Africentric paradigm and advocated for
the use of theories and measurement instruments that reflect the specific social/cultural
reality of Afiican American people. The term ‘Afiicentric’ refers to a conceptual
framework that centers on the history, culture and philosophy of people of African
descent. The Afiicentric approach, therefore, focuses on placing African American
cultural norms at the center of any theoretical or empirical analysis of Black behavior and
psychological firnctioning.

With the development of the Afiicentric paradigm has come the formation of an
Africentric theory of Black personality which is used primarily to examine the

development and evolution of Black (racial) identity. Racial identity, which refers to

 

 

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one’s sense of group or collective identity with individuals who share a common racial
heritage, has long been a salient issue in psychological research on African
Americans.(Helms, 1990). Researchers argue that it is a critical component of Black
personality because of it’s relevance to an individual’s way of perceiving and responding
to the environment. Racial identity is hypothesized to be influenced by social forces and
to effect an individual’s definitional system and the way in which s/he perceives and
experiences reality.

Despite interest in racial identification, Spencer (1985) suggests that little or no
substantive progress in how Black identity originates and evolves has occurred. One of
the major criticisms of Black identity research to date is that there is a lack of consistency
regarding its conceptualization. Several theories of identity development have been
proposed but there is little empirical evidence to support any particular theory. Moreover,
researchers question the validity of many of these theories because of their failure to
operate within the Africentric framework. In addition, although researchers agree that
Black identity is impacted by personal and life experience variables, there is little
consensus regarding the way in which the proposed variables are related. Most studies
have focused on the consequences of having a positive or negative identification, leaving
the relationship among the factors impacting identity development virtually unstudied.
This problem is likely a result of the lack of empirical research on the theoretical model.

Baldwin (1985) advanced an Afiicentric theory of Black personality which has been
widely used to study Black identity. He contended that Black identity, a core component

of the Black personality structure, was partly bio-genetically determined but was also

 

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subject to socio-environmental influences. The socio-environmental influences he
proposed to be related to Black identity are nearly identical to those proposed by other
researchers, however, the conceptualization regarding the way in which they are related
difl‘ers. Additionally, there have been no studies to date investigating the core constructs
of his theory. The purpose of the present study was to address the need for more
empirical support for the conceptualization of Black identity. Specifically, two models of
Black personality were advanced for the purpose of examining the relationship between
the factors proposed to influence Black identity and to determine which model best
illustrated the process of Black personality development. The first model was developed
using Baldwin’s theory while the alternate model included relationships suggested by
other researchers, which were not set forth by Baldwin (1985). Baldwin’s theory of Black
personality was chosen as a basis for the present study because of its Afiicentric
conceptualization and wide spread use in the field of Black identity development.

This paper begins with a literature review summarizing Baldwin’s theory.
Following that is an overview of other prominent theories of Black identity development .
Finally, an examination of the literature which discusses the factors which impact identity

development, on which both models are built, is provided.

 

 

 

 

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LITERATURE REVIEW

flldwin's Afiicentric Theory of Blaek Personam
Baldwin's (1981) theory of Black personality is comprised of biological and

psychological components. Consistent with the Afiicentric paradigm, his theory assumes
that Black behavior is culturally based and is, therefore, derived from and reflective of the
distinct social reality of the Afiican American community. The Afiican American social
reality is presumed to have its own values, norms and standards which supports Black
behavior. Moreover, “normal” Black behavior is assumed to be directed toward servicing
the authentic needs and social priorities of the Afiican community (i.e.; towards
aflirmation, enhancement, survival, positive development and firlfillment of its potential as
a community) (Baldwin, 1981). Normal Black behavior is positively energized and
proactive in its drive toward afiinnation and enhancement of Afiican American life.

There are several basic assumptions in Baldwin’s theory. For one, Baldwin (1981)
proposed that race constitutes an individual's primary social definition. It is this primary
social definition which forms the basis for an individual's cosmology or worldview. In
turn, an individual's worldview or cosmology reflects and facilitates the "survival thrust",
those processes which define one’s approach to survival, of the racial/cultural group to
which an individual belongs.

Baldwin's (1981) theory not only hypothesizes differences between Afiican and
European worldviews, but also attributes an opposite, incompatible nature to them.
Afiican cosmology is said to be characterized by the theme of "Man-Nature-Hannony"
whereas the basic emphasis of European cosmology is proposed to be "Man vs. Nature"
(Dixon, 1976; Nobles, 1976). Based on this proposition, it is argued that those standards
by which European Americans are measured are inappropriate for the assessment of

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Baldwin (1981) also made several basic assumptions about the relationship between
race and personality. Race is bio-genetically predetemrined and therefore, Afiican
Americans are predisposed to the Afiican worldview simply because they are Afiican.
Likewise, personality is primarily a bio-genetically determined, internal, intrapsychic
phenomenon. It is coupled with an external medium of expression (Baldwin, 1981). In
some respects, personality defies social-environmental forces, whereas in others, it
interacts with them. Heredity is always assumed to represent the dominant force of the
basic nature and direction of personality. The conscious-expressive medium of
personality (i.e.; behavior) is open to modification by social-environmental forces. It is
this external medium that generates enormous variability in personality between people.

When the basic principles of personality are applied specifically to Afiican American
people, two propositions presented by Baldwin (1981) are particularly important to
emphasize. They are: 1) that Black personality is Afiican in its basic nature or bio-
genetically determined; and 2) that exposure to European culture and the psychological
forces of racial oppression affects only the conscious medium of Black personality. In
other words, the socio-environmental forces only impact behavior not one’s genetic
predisposition to “Blackness.”

Components of BLgck Personality

Within this framework of Afiican cosmology, Baldwin (1981) postulated two main
components of Black personality. They are the Afiican self-extension orientation and
Afiican self consciousness. The Afiican self-extension orientation is proposed to be the
fundamental organizing principle of Black personality. Baldwin (1981) asserted that it
gives "coherence, continuity and Afiicanity" to the basic behaviors and psychological
functioning Afiican Americans. The Afiican self-extension orientation represents the
unconscious, bio-genetically defined, psychological predisposition that all African

Americans share. Moreover, all of the basic behavioral characteristics of Afiican people

 

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can be inferred from the African self extension orientation. The key component of this
structure is spirituality, which Baldwin (1981) suggested, allows self-extension to occur.

The second core component which stems from the Afiican self extension orientation is
Afiican self consciousness. This personality component is conceptualized as the conscious
level process of "communal phenomenology" (Baldwin, 1981). Unlike the Afiican self-
extension orientation, African self-consciousness is not bio-genetically determined.

African self consciousness refers to one’s sense of collective identity and is synonymous
with the construct “racial identity.” Baldwin (1981) pointed out that the most important
aspect of Afiican self consciousness is that it represents the conscious embodiment and
operationalization of Afiicanity. In other words, African self consciousness is the medium
through which attitudes and behavior that are congruent with Afiican culture and
philosophy is expressed.

The two major components of Black personality operate synonymously with one
another under "normal-natural" conditions. However, since Afiican self consciousness is a
conscious level process, it is subject to social-environmental influences. Baldwin & Bell
(1985) pointed out that if this aspect of Black personality is nurtured developmentally and
situationally through indigenous personal and institutional supports systems, it will achieve
full expression in terms of a congruent pattern of basic traits (i.e.; beliefs, attitudes and
behaviors which affirm Afiican American life and the authenticity of Afiican cultural
heritage) (Baldwin & Bell, 1985). Conversely, when one is subjected to negative social-
environmental influences, for example, racial oppression, his or her expression may be
adversely afi‘ected and as a result, s/he may behave less Afiicentric in orientation.
Deviations from the expected pattern of functioning in the Afiican self consciousness are
explained by variations in the personal and institutional support systems that people
experience (Baldwin & Bell, 1985).

There are a number of ways in which the expression of Afiicanity are manifested under

"normal" conditions. Baldwin (1985) suggested that Afiican self consciousness follows a

 

 

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developmental pattern. Among the critical indices of Afiican self consciousness are: a) the
individual possesses an awareness of his/her Black identity (i.e.; a recognition of
collective consciousness) and African cultural heritage, and sees value in the pursuit of
knowledge of self; b) the individual recognizes Black survival and the necessity for
institutions which affirm Black life (i.e.; practices, customs, beliefs); c) the individual
actively participates in the survival, liberation and proactive development of Black people,
and defends their dignity, worth and integrity; (1) the individual recognizes the opposition
of racial oppression (via people, concepts, institutions) to the development and survival of
Black people, and actively resists it by any appropriate means.

The conceptualization of racial identification has gone through several
transformations. Contemporary research is dominated by two orientations: Baldwin’s
theory of Black personality, which is outlined above, and nigrescence theory, specifically
the Cross’ model of racial identity development. There are two major differences between
these orientations. Nigrescence theory originally described the process of identity
development as a reaction to social forces whereas Baldwin’s theory conceptualizes
identity (Afiican self consciousness) as a natural component of Black personality.
Secondly, although Baldwin acknowledged that Afiican self consciousness is subject to
socio-environmental influences, he also assumed a genetic predisposition towards
Afiicanity. Nigrescence theory focuses solely on the former. The following is a summary
of nigrescence theory with particular attention paid to the Cross model of racial identity
development. A comparison of nigrescence theory with Baldwin’s theory of Black
personality is then provided. The purpose of this overview is to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of each theory and develop a framework from which to build each model.
Theories of PsychologicalNigrescence

Nigrescence theorists attempted to define the direction of healthy Black identity
development. According to the theory, Afiican Americans are proposed to undergo a

"Negro to Black" identity transformation (nigrescence) whereby they move from a state of

 

 

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self hatred and dependency on white society for validation to a state of self-worth and
security in being Black (Thomas, 1971; Cross, 1971). A number of different racial identity
models were developed, and most were consistent in that they proposed that individuals
moved from least healthy defined stages to most healthy self-defined racial transcendence
(Cross, 1971; Thomas, 1970; Akbar, 1979; Milliones, 1980). Furthermore, nigrescence
theorists hypothesized that one’s quality of adjustment results fiom a combination of
personal identity, reference group orientation and ascribed identity (Parham, 1989).

Nigrescence theory attempts to predict the varied feelings, thoughts and behavior that
correspond with difi’erent stages of racial identification (Helms, 1990). Identity
development is characterized by movement across a series of sequential stages, and
changes are influenced by an individual’s reaction to social/environmental pressures and
circumstances (Cross, 1971, 1978; Jackson, 1975; Thomas, 1971; Williams, 1975).
Thomas (1971), for example detailed a five step process that he proposed as a necessary
condition for Afiican Americans to eradicate “negromachy” (a confusion of self worth and
dependence on white society for self-definition). Likewise, Jackson (1975) postulated a
Black Identity Development Theory (BID) that described a process by which an African
American developed a positive racial identity. The most well researched model of
psychological nigrescence, however, was that of Cross (197 1).

The Cross Model of Racial Identig

Consistent with nigrescence theory, the Cross model postulated that Afiican
Americans progress through a series of four psychological stages as they evolve fi'om a
state of self degradation to one in which they take pride and find security in their own
culture. These stages rest on a continuum from negative to positive self perceptions, and
were identified as pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-emersion and internalization.

In the first stage, pre-encounter, the individual was prone to view the world from a

White flame of reference. This worldview induced the individual to think and behave in

 

 

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ways that devalued and denied her/his Blackness. Consequently, the individual developed
attitudes that were pro-White and anti-Black.

The second stage, encounter, was characterized by an individual experiencing one or
more significant as well as shocking personal or social events that were inconsistent with
his or her current frame of reference. The event motivated the individual to challenge his
or her previous time of reference and allowed them to become receptive to a new
interpretation of identity. The encounter stage involved two phases. The first, which
could be described as the “realization stage” was discussed above. The second phase
occurred when the individual decided to develop a Black identity.

The third stage, immersion-emersion, represented the conversion fi'om the old to the
new frame of reference. This period of transition was characterized by a struggle to
repress or destroy all vestiges of the pre-encounter orientation. Simultaneously, the
individual became intensely involved with the implications of the new found Black identity.
During this period, it was typical for an individual to immerse him or herself in Black
culture and withdraw fi'om interactions with other ethnic groups. This stage was also
characterized by the tendency to denigrate White Americans and glorify Afiican
Americans.

Finally, in the internalization stage, individuals were said to achieve a feeling of inner
security and satisfaction with their own cultural heritage. Cross (1991) proposed that
these feelings of satisfaction and security occurred when aspects of the immersion-
emersion experience had been incorporated into the individual’s self-concept.
Furthermore, this final stage was also distinguishable from other stages by the adoption of
a flexible ideology about race issues and a decline in strong anti-White feelings.

There are a number of theoretical assumptions implicit in all of the racial identity
development models. First, racial identity development was assumed to occur via a

stagewise process that could be assessed. Secondly, it was a bi-dimensional phenomenon

 

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in that attitudes about both Afiican and White Americans were incorporated into one's
identity. Lastly, movement through the stages of racial identity was assumed to be fluid.

Comparison of Bgdwin’s Africentric Theog of Black Personfiality and

Nigrescence Theory

Baldwin’s theory of Black personality shares many similarities with nigrescence
theory (Cross, 1971; Thomas, 1971). Some of the similarities between these two
orientations are particularly noteworthy. For one, both orientations operationalize Black
identity (African self consciousness) as the extent to which an individual uses his or her
racial group to guide his/her thoughts, feelings and actions. In addition, proponents of
both constructs have postulated that identity development is subject to socio-
environmental influences. In fact, the variables cited as having an impact on identity
development are nearly identical in each theory. Finally, the measures used for assessment
are comparable in that they examine the relationship between attitudinal and behavioral
correlates of Black identity.

The two orientations have a number of important differences as well. Several
researchers have cited the ideological foundation of each theory as their major point of
dissension (Akbar, 1989; Nobles, 1989). Baldwin’s theory assumes a genetic
predisposition towards Afiicanity whereas, the original conception of nigrescence theory
was based on an assumption of racial self hatred. Positive Black identity was
hypothesized by nigrescence theorists to occur as a result of some encounter experience
that challenged the individual to change their pre-encounter flame of reference. Parham
(1989) has proposed that nigrescence theory be amended to reflect the Afiicentric
paradigm. He suggested that researchers recognize that the core of Afiican American
personality is essentially Afiican in nature. These proposed changes to the original Cross
(1971) model would then philosophically mirror Baldwin’s theory. Many researchers
argue, however, that the extent to which an amended nigrescence theory would truly

reflect an Afiicentric epistemology is questionable given its origin.

11

Secondly, although Baldwin’s theory and nigrescence theory both assume a
developmental progression, Baldwin (1981) describes a developmental process that
doesn’t entail movement from self hatred to acceptance. He believes individuals move
from an awareness of his or her Black identity and cultural heritage to active participation
in the survival thrust of all Black people. Even with the changes proposed by Parham
(1989), nigrescence theory still assumes movement from self hatred to self acceptance.
Further, because Baldwin’s theory is Afiicentric in nature, attitudes about White
Americans are not recognized as a component of one’s racial identity attitude. Finally,
Baldwin’s assumption that personality is bio-genetically determined is a critical distinction
between his theory and nigrescence theory. He asserted that under ‘normal’
circumstances all Afiican American behavior would be Afiicentric in orientation.

Although much theorizing has taken place over the last several decades on racial
identity development, there is little empirical evidence to support any particular theory.
Little time has been spent testing the underlying core constructs of these theories. This is
the main goal of the present study. Researchers have consistently argued that personal
and life experience variables impact Black identity development, however, the way the
proposed variables are related is not clear. The following is a review of studies which
examine factors which impact identity development. This overview provides the
foundation on which the model to assess Baldwin’s theory was built. It also provides the
framework used to build the alternate model of identity development which consists of
relationships that have been proposed by other researchers.

F‘actors Impactingldentitv Development

One focus of race identity research has been the identification of variables that impact
on development. Researches have consistently argued that parental socialization,
interracial interaction and worldview are critical to Black identity development and
participation in Afiican centered behaviors. Given their salience in the literature, these

variables are investigated in the present study.

 

 

 

 

12

Parental Socialization

The family context is generally regarded as the most influential socialization setting for
forming a child’s emerging sense of self, values and beliefs (Demo et al., 1990).
Researchers suggest that the significance of familial relations is revealed in the amount,
scope and intensity of parent-child interaction; reciprocal processes of attachment,
identification, modeling and role playing; and in the impact of familial relations toward self
and others (Demo et al., 1990).

Most of the existing knowledge on socialization comes from studies of middle class
White families (Ogbu, 1988). This means the assumptions about normative child rearing
behaviors and beliefs and child competencies rest upon a White American set of values
The implication of this is that child socialization processes that difi’er from these value
laden assumptions are deviant. A small but growing body of literature has confirmed that
in socializing their children, parents from ethnic families use distinct beliefs and behaviors
determined largely by their cultural orientation (Zayas etal., 1994). The emerging
literature suggests that socialization in ethnic families is often intended to prepare children
for a society that is often racist and prejudicial. For instance, although the basic
mechanisms for socialization are the same for all children, the transmittal sources and
content may exhibit some subtle and obvious difi‘erences for children from different racial
and ethnic groups. In regards to Afiican Americans, the need for adaptive responses to
social, economic and political barriers play a significant role in shaping the socialization
process (Sanders Thompson, 1990). Racial socialization is assumed, therefore, to play a
significant role in the preparation of African American children to cope with their social
environment (Harrison et al., 1991).

According to Thornton et al. (1990), the process of racial socialization involves
messages and actions that provide information on personal and group identity, interracial
relationships, and social position related to race. Since parental socialization is one of the

first processes by which values, norms and beliefs are transmitted, many researchers have

 

 

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argued that primary socialization experiences, particularly parental messages concerning
the meaning of being Afiican American are important in shaping one’s Black identity
(Ferguson-Peters, 1985; Comer, 1985)

In an analysis of racial socialization in African American families, Ferguson-Peters
(1985) asked Afiican American parents to indicate what they thought was important in
preparing their children for the world. She found that building self-respect and pride
concerning their racial identity was at the root of every parents childrearing philosophy.
Although there was little empirical evidence regarding the content of parental
socialization, her study implied that the message African American parents give their
children about their cultural heritage will impact on the nature of their racial identification.
It is assumed that positive messages about race will nurture pro Black identification.

Similarly, Corner (1989) asserted that the way in which a parent addresses the issue of
race will affect both the child’s ability to deal with racism and the formation of his/her
racial identity. Based on clinical research, he found that positive messages about race
enlarged the child’s overall sense of self whereas negative feelings about race fostered a
sense of self doubt and insecurity in being Black.

Branche and Newcombe (1986) traced the development of racial attitudes over time
by studying the similarity between parent and child racial attitudes. They found that
children’s attitudes were a product of both parental attitudes as well as the synthesis of
their social experiences. Parents with strong pro-Black attitudes raised children that were
better prepared to confront the issue of racism and shared their racial attitude. They
concluded that parental socialization not only impact racial identification but also the view
fiom which children view the world.

Finally, Greene (1990) focused on the role of Afiican American mothers in the
socialization process. She found that mothers play an important role in the socio-
emotional environment, thus contributing greatly to a child’s adaptive development.

Specifically, she argued that the way a mother deals with her own experiences of racism

 

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will influence the way she teaches her child to respond to it. Parents who emphasized
learning to cope with and survive prejudice, developing an understanding of the need for
education and a belief in fairness even when not reciprocated by Whites raised children
that were less likely to internalize negative feelings about being Black.

These studies consistently suggest that the socialization process undertaken in the
home is critical to the formation of Black identity. It should be emphasized, however, that
research on parental socialization has focused on the content of parental messages and
then drawn inferences regarding the relative importance of these messages on
identification. Few studies have directly assessed the relationship between Afiican self
consciousness (racial identity) and parental socialization. This is an important step since
researchers consistently indicate that primary socialization experiences will significantly
impact racial identification.

Studies that have examined the relationship between parental socialization and racial
identity have equated parental socialization with background variables such as birthplace,
role models during childhood, educational level of parents and parental organizational
afiiliation (Baldwin et al., 1987; Baldwin et al., 1990). Researchers expected to find that
children with parents that grew up in racially homogenous environments, who were
involved in Black cultural activities and organizations, and had positive Black role models
would have pro-Black attitudes. These parents were assumed to incorporate their positive
racial experiences into their child rearing philosophy and subsequently raise children with
positive racial attitudes. For example, Baldwin et al. (1987) examined the relationship
between Afiican self consciousness and parental background variables. Their findings
supported this assumption.

In another study, Baldwin et al. (1990) examined the relationship between Afiican self
consciousness, childhood background experiences and involvement in affirmative Black
behaviors among African American college students. The underlying assumption was that

African self consciousness was influenced by a pattern of early socialization experiences

 

 

 

 

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which encourage pro-Black/self affirming behaviors. They found that the racial-cultural
orientation in the home and in the external learning environment (for example, school
settings) significantly impacted African self consciousness. Specifically, participants
whose parents were involved in cultural activities had high Afiican self consciousness
scores. Similarly, Demo et al. (1990) found that children whose parents involved them in
cultural activities during childhood were likely to be involved in cultural activities in later
life.

' Baldwin’s (1985) studies suggest that early socialization patterns impact Afiican self
consciousness, however, he defined parental socialization in terms of demographic
background variables rather than the quality of parental messages. Researchers have
criticized that this is a major deficit within the socialization literature (Stevenson, 1994;
Sanders Thompson, 1994). While it has been argued that the quality of parental messages
is important, empirical research using a measures which taps into this is lacking. More in-
depth investigation utilizing a specific measure of parental socialization that taps into both
parental background and the content of parental messages needs to be undertaken in order
to clearly understand the relationship between Black identity and parental socialization. In
addition, researchers have suggested that parental socialization is not only related to racial
identity but also to worldview and involvement in Black cultural activities. These
relationships need to be further investigated in order to understand that way in which
socialization impact identification, attitudes and behavior. Using parental socialization as
an independent variable, this task was undertaken in of the present study.

Quality of Interracial Interaction

It has also been suggested interracial interaction is related to the development of Black
identity. Interracial interaction refers to the racial composition of the childhood setting
(schools, neighborhoods), exposure to and involvement in cultural activities, experiences
with racial prejudice, and exposure to and involvement with people of diverse

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Baldwin et al. (1987) investigated the relationship between social cultural setting,
background characteristics and Afiican self consciousness . Subjects included Afiican
American college students who attended a predominantly White and historically Black
college. In regard to interracial interaction, they found that a) students attending the
historically Black university obtained significantly higher African self consciousness
scores; b) students with Black studies backgrounds had higher Afiican self consciousness
scores; and c) students in the homogeneous setting with all-Black elementary school
backgrounds obtained higher Afiican self consciousness scores than their counterparts.
These results suggested that sociocultural settings and pro-Black experiences were
facilitative of positive identification and expected behavioral patterns.

Parham (1989) also examined the racial identity attitudes of African American college
students attending a predominantly White and historically Black university. He found that
students matriculating at the predominantly White institution were likely to have more pre-
encounter attitudes than encounter, immersion or internalization. This finding is
consistent with the assumption that heterogeneous environments do not nurture pro Black
self aflirming attitudes.

Significant relationships between African self consciousness and prior experiences with
racism and exposure to Black cultural activities have also uncovered (Cheatem, 1990).
Cheatem et al. (1990) found that Afiican Americans who were involved in indigenous
social settings reported high African self consciousness scores and more Black cultural
activities. These participants did not internalize experiences with racism. These findings
are consistent with Baldwin’s (1981) theory. A necessary component of Afiican self
consciousness is an awareness of forces hostile to Afiican people. Given this, it is
reasonable to expect that experiences with racism would serve to heighten awareness that
these forces exist and must be resisted. Consequently, an individual with heightened
awareness would be more likely to pursue knowledge of self through involvement in Black

cultural activities (Baldwin et al., 1990).

l7

Rosenberg (1979) suggested that interracial interaction during the pre-adult years
structures interpersonal experiences in ways that influence racial identity. He (1979)
found that dissonant racial contexts afi‘ect identification adversely by increasing exposure
to prejudiced communication and to out-group norms, values and experiences. Individuals
in dissonant context were hypothesized to identify less positively than those in consonant
racial environments. This perspective conflicts with Baldwin’s (1981) assertion that
exposure to racism heightens racial awareness.

Broman et al. (1989) assessed the impact of sociocultural context on racial group
identification. Consistent with Rosenberg’s hypothesis, they found that contextual
consonance fostered an awareness of similarity to other Afiican Americans, thus
strengthened racial group identification. Additionally, individuals fiom racially
homogenous settings were more likely to involve themselves in Black cultural activities.
Their interpretation was predicated on the notion that greater learning of the strengths and
problems associated with being Black in American society and understanding that the
disadvantages were associated with systenric rather than individual factors would take
place in consonant environments.

Mitchell and Dell (1992) also investigated the relationship between racial identify and
interracial interaction. They defined interracial interaction as participation in cultural/non
cultural activities. They found that Black college student’s racial identity attitudes
predicted participation in cultural and noncultural activities. Students who identified in
stages characterized by pro-Black or self affirming behaviors (immersion, encounter,
internalization) were more likely to engage in cultural activities than individuals in the
pre-encounter stage. Students in the internalization stage of identification were most
likely to engage in noncultural activities (Mitchell and Dell, 1992).

The way interracial interaction and Black identity are related is somewhat unclear.
Studies that have explored the relationship have indicated three plausible manners in which

they may be related. For instance, some studies postulate that interracial interaction

 

 

 

 

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during the childhood years impact identification. However, researchers don’t agree
whether contextual consonance or dissonance are facilitative of positive identification.
Others, have found that the quality of one’s interracial interaction during their childhood
years directly influences racial identity and later involvement in Black cultural activities.
Finally, research has suggested that interracial interaction impact one’s value system which
in turn influences identification. Further research using interracial interaction as an
independent variable is necessary to clearly delineate relationship between interracial
interaction, Black identity, worldview and involvement in Black cultural activities.

V_alue Orientation/Worldview

 

Another variable that has received considerable attention is the relationship between
one’s worldview or value orientation to racial identity development. In his theory,
Baldwin (1981) postulated that all Afiican Americans people are predisposed to having
an underlying value system that is Africentric in nature. It is the medium of expression
through which these inherent traits that are impacted by external forces, and consequently
create differences within the group. Several researchers have supported Baldwin’s
hypothesis(Baldwin and Hopkins, 1990).

Baldwin and Hopkins (1990) developed and empirically tested a scale that
discriminated basic cultural worldview differences between Afiican and European
Americans. They found that Afiican Americans were more Afiicentric in nature and
European Americans scored significantly more eurocentric. Consistent with Baldwin's
theory of Black personality, differences were particularly salient across the following
dimensions: a) harmony with nature vs. control over nature, b) spiritualism vs.
materialism, c) collectivism vs. individualism, (1) strong vs. weak religious orientation, and
e) interdependence vs. separateness, with Afiican Americans scoring significantly higher
across the first dimensions.

Other researchers yielded similar results in regard to differences in worldview among

Afiican and European Americans. For example, Curry (1981) sought to empirically

 

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demonstrate the continuity of the Afiican worldview among groups of Blacks. By
assessing the scores obtained on the Afiican Cultural Ideology scale, she found that
African Americans tend to revert to, and retain influences of African realism’s relative to
their lived experiences. Moreover, she concluded that African Americans and Afiican
born Blacks were quite similar in orientation. This suggested continuity in Afiican
worldview across the Diaspora.

Carter and Helms (1987) investigated the relationship between the content and
structure of cultural values/worldview and racial identity. They utilized Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck’s (1961) model of value orientation to define the value system of Afiican
Americans. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) suggested the following five possible
orientations: human nature (evil, good or mixed), person to nature (subjugation, harmony
or mastery over nature), time sense (past, present, firture), activity (being, being in
becoming, doing), and social relations (lineal, collateral, individual). Carter and Helms
(1987) divided these value orientations on the basis of whether they reflected a self
actualized or Afiicentric perspective. They suggested that good, harmony with nature,
present, being and collateral social relation orientations reflect the principles of
Afiicentricism. These orientations were consistent with those postulated by Baldwin
(1981). They found that of the five Afiicentric value alternatives (harmony with nature,
doing activity, collateral social relations), three were predictive of positive racial identity
attitudes (specifically internalization and immersion).

Myers (1988) presented the philosophical parameters of an optimal worldview
originating fi'om ancient traditional Afiican cultures, and contrasted it with a suboptimal
one, which she described as racist/sexist. The suboptimal worldview emphasized a
materialistic base that placed highest value on the acquisition of objects and technology,
and was believed to be the foundation of a racist/sexist mentality. The optimal conceptual
system was described by Myers (1988) as optimal because it of its thrust toward the

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Afiican Americans endorsed the optimal worldview which assumed there was a
nonmaterial (spiritual) reality underlying all observed material phenomena.

These findings suggested that worldview and racial identity were related. Specifically,
some studies support the assertion that Afiican Americans are predisposed to a particular
worldview. Others suggested that one’s worldview may develop as a result of early
socialization experiences. Further exploration of this construct is essential to more clearly
distinguishing the relationship. This variable was investigated in the present study.
Implications of Positive or Mtive Rm Identity Attitudes

A second focus of racial identity research has been an analysis of the implications of
having an either positive or negative identity. Typically, researchers have focused on
relating racial identity to involvement in activities that help to instill a sense of Black
cultural pride. For instance, many researchers expect that positive racial identification
will be related to involvement in Black organizations, attendance at Black cultural events,
support of Black business and commitment to service in the Black community.
Involvement in Black cultural activities is congruent with Baldwin’s idea of ‘normal’
Black behavior. Given the salience of this variable in literature, it will be the central
outcome assessed in the proposed models.

Afiicentric Behavioral Correlafl

One of the major implications of Afiican self consciousness (Black identity) is the
expression of specific behavioral characteristics. For instance, based on the competency
domains of Afiican self consciousness, an individual is expected to exhibit a set of

proactive behaviors as s/he strives toward self afiinnation.
Baldwin et al. (1990) examined the relationship between African self consciousness

and affirmative behaviors among African American college students. Using an Africentric
activities questionnaire which assessed the frequency of the subject’s participation in

Black cultural activities, they found that Afiican self consciousness predicted three

 

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activity. These indices include attendance at an Afiican cultural activity, rendering help to
another African American, and reading books related to Black culture. Their finding is
consistent with Baldwin’s (1981) theory of Black personality which suggested that
individuals who had a strong sense of Afiican self consciousness would be more likely to
pursue self knowledge in a general collective sense. Similarly, individuals who were high
on Afiican self consciousness are expected to engage in activities and social functions that
were African culture centered and thus, more self affirming. Stokes et al. (1994)
corroborated Baldwin et al. ’3 (1990) finding. They related Afiican self consciousness to a
set of criterion behaviors and found that African Americans who had high Afiican self
consciousness engaged in activities that encouraged affiliation and involvement with other
Afiican Americans. Other studies have related Cross’ stages of identification to different
levels of involvement in Black cultural activities. They found that subjects in stages
characterized by pro-Black attitudes (encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization)
were more likely to be involved in Black cultural activities than their pre-encounter
counterparts (Carter et al.; 1987; Helms, 1990).

Involvement in Black cultural activities is typically the outcome variable in studies on
Black identity. Afiican self consciousness (Black identity) is hypothesized to mediate the
relationship between the variable proposed to impact identity development (parental
socialization, interracial interaction, worldview) and involvement in African centered
behavior. Few research efforts have been geared towards examining this variables

collectively in an attempt to assess the underlying assumptions of the theoretical model. It

 

 

 

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is important to do so to determine whether Baldwin’s model is an accurate illustration of
Black personality or whether an alternate model is better.

To summarize, the above review establishes a firm foundation on which a model(s) of
Black personality can be built and subsequently assessed. The model is based on those
variables that are proposed to influence identity development and the corresponding
behavioral characteristics. Given the inconsistency that exists with regard to
conceptualizing Black identity, building and testing the theoretical model will provide

clarity and provide an avenue for further exploration and development.

Justification for Reseaih

The following is an exploratory analysis of Baldwin’s model of Black personality
development and an alternate model of Black personality which includes relationships not
suggested by Baldwin. Each model examines how parental socialization, interracial
interaction and worldview influence Afiican self consciousness and involvement in Afiican
centered behaviors. There are two main reasons for a study of this kind. First, there has
been a lack of consistency regarding the conceptualization of this Black identity. Different
theoretical orientations exist, however, few studies have focused solely on testing the
underlying constructs of the theories. The main goal of the present study was to build a
model of Black personality using Baldwin’s theory and empirically test it. A second
reason for an exploratory analysis of Black personality development is that there is little
consensus about how the proposed variables relate to identity development and each
another. To address this issue, an additional objective entailed developing an alternate
model of Black personality that illustrated some of the possible relationships between
Black identity and life experiences which are suggested in the literature are not advanced
by Baldwin. Finally, the last objective of the present study was to compare the two

models of Black personality for the purpose of determining which best explains the

process of Black identity development.

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Hypotheses
Accordingm Baldwin’s Theory of Black Personality

Figure 1 depicts the Baldwin model of Black personality development investigated in

the present study.

 

INSERT FIGURE I

 

Hypothesis 1: Baldwin (1981) postulated that all Afiican Americans are genetically
predisposed to an Afiicentric worldview. To test this assumption, it was hypothesized
that a direct, positive relationship would exist between Afiicentn'c worldview and African
self consciousness.

Hypothesis 2: Baldwin et al. (1989) found that early socialization experiences, particularly
parental socialization, are among the life experience variables that impact Afiican self
consciousness. It was hypothesized that a direct, positive relationship would exist
between parental socialization and Afiican self consciousness. More specifically, the
receipt of positive racial messages was expected to be related to high Afiican self
consciousness scores.

Hwothesis 3: Baldwin (1981) assumed that the quality of one’s interracial interactions
during childhood would impact African self. A direct, positive relationship between
interracial interaction and Afiican self consciousness was hypothesized. It was expected
that homogeneous racial experiences would be positively related to high Afiican self

consciousness.

25

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Parental
Socialization
..... I
Africentric ...... , African ...., African Centered
Worldview Self Consciousness Behaviors
,V
Interracial 7
Interaction

 

Figure 1. Baldwin’s Model of Black Personality

26

Hypothesis 4: According to Baldwin’s theory, African self consciousness which is the
conscious medium of expression of one’s “Blackness” mediates the relationship between
life experience variables (socialization, interracial interaction, worldview) and involvement
in Black cultural activities.
Consistent with this, it was hypothesized that Afiican self consciousness would mediate
the relationship between parental socialization, interracial interaction, worldview and
Afiican centered behavior.
Alternate Model of Black Personality Development

Figure 2 depicts the relationship among variables in the alternate model of Black
personality development. The alternate model includes all of the relationships proposed in

the Baldwin model in addition to the following.

 

INSERT FIGURE II

 

Hypothesis 1: Branche and Newcombe (1986) found that children’s attitudes are a
function of parental attitudes. In the alternate model, parental socialization was
hypothesized be directly related to Afiican worldview. Participants whose parents
conveyed positive racial messages were expected to endorse an Afiicentric worldview.
Hypothesis 2: It has been suggested that one’s values system results from socio-cultural
experiences. In the present study, interracial interaction was hypothesized to be related to
Afiicentric worldview. Participants who grew up in racially homogenous environments

were expected to endorse the Afiicentric worldview.

27

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Parental ............
Socialization ..................
a.“ ‘ ...................
‘ ‘t
Africentric ...... , African ...., African Centered
Worldview Self Consciousness Behaviors
1 7 ,,,,, v
.-v ..........

Interracial .................
Interaction ------

 

Figure 2. Alternate Model of Racial Identity Development

28

Hypothesis 3: Greene (1990) proposed that the mother’s method of dealing with her own
experiences of racism will influence how her child will respond to it. In the present study,
parental socialization was hypothesized to be directly related

to whether one engaged in Afiicentric behaviors. Specifically, it was expected that the
receipt of positive racial messages would be related to involvement in Black cultural
activities.

Hypothesis 4: Rosenberg et al. (1987) found that contextual consonance was related to
involvement in Afiicentric activities. In the present study, this relationship was
investigated. A direct relationship between interracial interaction and involvement in
Afiicentric cultural activities was hypothesized. More specifically, immersion in
homogenous racial experiences was expected to be related to involvement in Black

cultural activities.

CHAPTER 2

METHOD

Desigp

The present study is an exploratory analysis which uses a cross sectional design.

Survey data was collected to investigate the hypotheses proposed above.

Participants

All of the subjects were Afiican American undergraduate students currently enrolled at
a large, predominantly White, mid-westem university. In total, 212 students were
approached to participate in the present study; 162 agreed to participate and 48 refirsed.
Four students filled out the questionnaire but were considerably older than the majority of
participants (>28) and were consequently dropped fiom the study. One hundred and fifty
eight subjects participated in the present study. Detailed information on the demographic
characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. Subjects were predominantly
female, freshman and sophomore level students residing in on campus housing. The
majority of the sample were between the ages of 18 and 20. Additionally, nearly all of the
sample were residents of the state of Michigan, with the largest percentage coming from
Detroit and its surrounding suburbs. Half of the sample reported growing up in an urban
setting. In regard to family background information, parental educational level was evenly
distributed between high school graduates, some college and college graduates. Finally,
the majority of the sample reported their family’s household income at or above $25,000

per year.

29

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Population

 

 

Demographic Vaflble Valu_e
Age
18 30%
19 28%
20 21%
21 8%
over 21 14%
Gender
female 64%
male 36%
Grade Level
freshman 40%
sophomore 29%
junior 16%
senior 15%
Mother’s Educational Level
6th grade or below 1%
junior high school 1%
some high school 3%
high school graduate 24%
some college 31%
college graduate 25%
some post graduate education 3%
advanced degree 12%
Father’s Educational Level
6th grade or below 1%
junior high school 2%
some high school 4%
high school graduate 35%
some college 32%
college graduate 11%
some post graduate education 12%
advanced degree 2%

31

Table I (cont’d).

 

Demoggaphic Variable Value
Family’s Yearly Income
$10,000 and below‘ 9%
$10,000 - $24,999 11%
$25,000 - $39,999 20%
$40,000 - $59,999 22%
$60,000 and above 28%
Neighborhood
suburban 25%
rural 4%
urban 68%
Hometown
Detroit 46%
Detroit suburbs 19%
out of state 8%
other cities in Michigan 19%
other suburbs in Michigan 10%

 

*n=158; sample size varies from 142 (due to missing data) to 158.

32

Procedure

In order to obtain a representative sample of African American undergraduates, the
Office of Minority Student Afiairs was contacted and forwarded a copy of the proposed
study. Upon acceptance and approval to participate, a list of currently enrolled Afiican
American undergraduates which included grade level and local address was obtained. A
demographic breakdown of the characteristics of the African American undergraduate
population is presented in Table 2. The total African American undergraduate student
body is approximately equal to 2800 of which nearly 80% resided in on campus housing.

Data was collected during the last two weeks of the spring semester. Given the time
constraints this presented, the decision was made to solicit participants fi'om the pool of
on campus students and collect data in the dormitories. Dormitories were randomly
selected as collection sites. Dormitory directors were contacted at each of the potential
collection sites and given a summary of the proposed study. In many cases, the researcher
could only be granted approval after presenting the study at the dormitory’s student
council meeting and receiving two-thirds votes in her favor. In all cases, approval was
obtained to collect data in the dormitories. Tables were set up outside the cafeteria at
dinnertime in the dormitories at selected sites. In all, twelve dornritories were used as
research sites. The dinner mealtime was chosen because dormitory directors’ indicated
that more students ate at this time than at any other. In addition, this would allow the
researcher to have access to students from other dormitories since some dormitories share
cafeterias.

Prior to data collection, posters were hung in the nearly all of the dormitories on
campus advertising the study and requesting participation of Table 2.
African American students. The posters indicated that students would be eligible for one
of five lottery cash drawings for their participation as well as the dates, time and locations

of data collection. During actual data collection, interested students approached the

33

Demographic Characteristics of the Student Population

Total Enrollment 40,047
Undergraduate 3 1,248
Graduate 7,466
Professional 1,353

Afi'ican American Enrollment 2,799
Undergraduate 2,483

Graduate & Professional 316

34

research tables at which time the study was explained. If they were interested in
participation, they were given a packet which included the following information:
explanation of the present study, request for participation, instructions and a battery of
questionnaires, and information regarding their eligibility for one of five cash prizes,
including the dates of the drawing. Subjects were also informed at this time that by
completing and returning the questionnaire, they were consenting to participate in the
study. They were instructed not to put their name on the survey and that participation
was voluntary and anonymous. Furthermore, the information they provided would be
kept confidential, in that no individual name would be associated with any of the
information that was collected. The top right hand corner of each information packet
included a subject identification number. The same number also appeared on the lottery
ticket subjects received and returned with their completed questionnaires. Students took
the questionnaires into the cafeteria to fill out and returned them to the researchers upon
departure. Upon receipt of the questionnaire and lottery ticket, subjects were given the
top sheet which explained the study and gave a number should further questions arise. In
addition, subjects tore off the stub of their lottery ticket and placed it in a separate
container. This process ensured the participant’s anonymity and confidentiality since there
was no way to identify subjects by their questionnaires. Participants that were unable to
complete their questionnaire during mealtime were given a self-addressed envelope and
asked to return the materials via campus mail. Twenty-three questionnaires were returned
by this method. Five cash drawings occurred at the end of data collection. Participants

had a 32:1 chance of winning one of five $50.00 cash prizes.

35
Measures

Five instruments were used in the present study: a background information form, an
interracial interaction scale, the Parental socialization scale, the African self consciousness
scale, the Beliefs Systems Analysis scale and the Afiican American Behavior Checklist.
Bflcgpound Information Sheet

Background information focusing on the following demographic characteristics was
collected: age, gender, grade level, parental educational level, family’s yearly income,
hometown and whether subjects were from suburban, urban or rural communities. See
Appendix B for a copy of this instrument.

Interracial Interaction Sca_le

The Interracial Interaction Scale assessed the racial composition of the participant’s
childhood settings (i.e.; church, school) as well as their early life experiences with racism
and exposure to Black cultural activities. This scale was developed for the present study
and was based on two assumptions inherent in Baldwin’s (1985) theory. They were: 1)
that racial homogeneity and heterogeneity differentially impacted on racial identity, and 2)
exposure to Black cultural activities and personal experiences with racism impacted
identity development.

The Interracial Interaction Scale was a nine item scale in which the first 7 items asked
subjects to rate the racial composition of their childhood environment using a five point
likert scale. Responses ranged from 1 (all Black) to 5 (all white). The remaining 2 items
assessed: 1) the number of cultural activities the subject was involved in as a child, and 2)
the number of experiences with racism the subject had while growing up. They were
scored on a three point likert scale ranging from none (1) to many (3).

A scale score was obtained by summing , after reverse scoring items 8 and 9, the score
on all items. A low scale score indicated that the subject grew up in a racially

homogenous environment and was exposed to Black cultural events. A high score

36

indicated that the subject grew up in a mixed or predominately White setting and was not
exposed to Black cultural activities regularly.

The reliability of this scale was assessed in the present study. Due to the different
scaling methods used for this measure, scale scores were transformed to z-scores prior to
analysis. Item total correlations are presented in Table 3. Analysis revealed that internal
consistency was best with items 5, 8 and 9 removed from the scale. Prior to analysis, the
researcher established that items falling atleast .30 below the highest item total correlation
would be dropped from the instrument because of their low correlation with other items
on the scale. Reliability analysis yielded a coefficient alpha = .87. Alpha with all items
included = .79. The Interracial Interaction scale is presented in Appendix C; an asterisk

next to an item indicates it was removed from the scale.

Parental Socialization Scale

The Parental Socialization scale was originally a 23 item scale which assessed the
content of parental messages about race and race relations. Given the paucity of content
oriented socialization scales, this scale was developed for the present study utilizing the
research of Ferguson-Peters (1985) and Sanders-Thompson (1994) as a framework.
Ferguson—Peters (1985) identified race related themes that Black parents viewed as critical
to the socialization process. Parental messages covered the following domains:
education, religion, self esteem and interpersonal relationships. Sanders-Thompson
(1994) suggested that it is equally important to examine the fi'equency of race related
discussions as well as their perceived impact on individual beliefs and attitudes when

studying racial socialization.

37

Table 3. Internal Consistency of the Interracial Interaction Scale

Variable Name

HS]
H82
H83
IIS4
*IISS
IIS6
HS7

*HS8
*IIS9

Item Item Total Correhrtion

Racial composition of grammar/elementary school
Racial composition of junior high school

Racial composition of high school

Racial composition of childhood neighborhood

Racial composition of childhood church

Racial background of childhood fiiends

Racial background of participants in childhood
extracurricular activities

Number of Black cultural activities involved in as a child
Number of experiences with racism while growing up

*item was removed fi'om the scale
Alpha with all items included = .79

Alpha = .87

38

The 20 items on the Parental Socialization scale consisted of messages that Black parents
might give to their children. Subjects were first asked to indicate whether or not their
parents passed on these message by checking ‘yes’ or ‘no’ with each corresponding
message. For items 21, 22 and 23, subjects were to indicate the following: 1) how often
they discussed race relations in their home, 2) what impact parental messages have on
their current beliefs and, 3) whether there were other things their parents told them that
they feel is important.

The psychometric properties of the scale were investigated in the present study and are
presented in Table 4. A scale score was obtained by summing the total number of “yes”
responses. A high score indicated that the subjects parents conveyed the message whereas
a low score indicated they did not. Given the two scaling methods employed in this
measure, scale scores were transformed to z-scores prior to analysis. Analysis of the scale
indicated that 12 items be dropped because they fell below the .30 cut-ofi’. Appendix D
contains a copy of the entire scale. Reliability analysis yielded a coefficient alpha = .82.
Alpha with all 23 items = .63

Afiican Self Consciousness Scale

 

The Afiican self consciousness scale was originally a 42-item personality questionnaire
designed by Baldwin (1982) to assess the Black personality construct African self
consciousness. The 42 original items covered four competency dimensions and six
manifest (expressive) dimensions of Afiican self consciousness. The four competency
dimensions were: 1) awareness or recognition of one’s African identity and heritage, 2)

general ideological and activity priorities placed on Black/Afiican survival, liberation and

39

Table 4. Internal Consistency of Parental Socialization Scale

 

Valable Name Item Item Total Correlation

PS1 Be positive about yourself. .38

PS2 Be proud that you are Black. .62

PS3 Society treats Blacks & Whites differently. .40

*PS4 It’s important to get along with ----
with everybody.

*PSS In White society, Blacks get pushed ----
around and used.

PS6 Don’t be ashamed to be Black. .66

*PS7 Sometimes Blacks have to work twice ---
as hard as Whites to get ahead.

PS8 Blacks can’t get away with the same .45
things as Whites.

PS9 You may be treated differently .45
because you are Black.

PS 10 Remember where you came from. .37

PS1] Black children must get a good .49
education to get ahead.

*PSIZ God can protect you from racial hatred. ----

*PS13 All races are equal. ----

*PSI4 Racism and discrimination are the hardest .----
things a Black child has to face.

P815 Getting a good education is the best .40
way for a Black child to survive racism.

PS16 Blacks have to work twice as hard .62
as whites to be successful.

PS 17 It is important to know Black history. .52

*PS18 Whites do not have more opportunities ----
Blacks.

*PS 19 Our society is fair to Black people. ----

*PSZO A Black child or teenager will not be ----
harassed simply because she or he is
Black.

*PSZI Impact of messages on behavior. ----

*PS22 Frequency of race related discussions ----

*PS23 Other things your parents told you. ----

Alpha = .82

Alpha with all items = .63
* item Was removed from the scale.

4O

proactive development, 3) specific activity priorities placed on self-knowledge and self-
afiirmation (i.e.; Afiican values, customs, institutions), and 4) a posture of resolute
resistance toward “anti-Black/Afiican forces, and threats to Black/Afiican survival in
general. The six manifest (expressive) dimensions cover the areas of: 1) education, 2)
family, 3) religion, 4) cultural activities, 5) interpersonal relations, and 6) political
orientation.

Baldwin (1985) indicated that this scale may be used as a total scale score as four
independent subscales. For the present study, the African Self Consciousness Scale was
scored by summing, after reverse scoring odd numbered items, the subject’s responses on
each of the items. Odd numbered items were negatively worded. A high score indicated
high levels of Afiican self consciousness whereas low scores indicated lower levels of
identification. Subjects responded to a seven point Likert-type format ranging from
1(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

The internal validity of this scale was established in previous research (Baldwin et al.,
1985; Stokes et al., 1994). Initially this entailed computing the correlation between the
rankings of 10 ASC characteristics of the 50 highest and lowest scoring students on the
scale by their instructors. This analysis yielded a coefficient rho = .48 (p<.001) (Baldwin
et al, 1985). Also, the correlation between the Afiican self consciousness scale and the
Williams Black Personality questionnaire was .70.

The psychometric properties of the ASC scale were also investigated in the present
study and are presented in Table 5. Principal axis factor analyses failed to replicate the

four factors previously identified by Baldwin; 60% of the items loaded on four factors. As

41

indicated earlier, the total scale score was used for the present study rather than any of the
subscales. Reliability analyses revealed that the scale’s internal consistency would improve
with 16 items, which fell below the .30 cutoff, removed. A revised 26 item scale was used
in the present study. Reliability analyses yielded a coefficient alpha =.85. Appendix E
contains a copy of the African Self Consciousness.

Belief Systems Analysis Scale

The Belief Systems Analysis Scale developed by Montgomery et al. (1990). was a 31
item questionnaire designed to assess one’s degree of adherence to an optimal Afiicentric
worldview This worldview was characterized by holistic, nonmaterialistic, and
communalistic orientations (Montgomery et al., 1990). Subjects were asked to indicate
how they would behave in specific situations rather than to indicate the extent to which
they adhered to a set of abstract beliefs and values. Therefore, questions reflected
hypothetical behaviors and situations to operationalize the underlying abstract beliefs and
tenets. Items were presented in a five-point Likert format, and subjects were asked to
indicate the extent to which they completely agree to completely disagree with the
statements. The total score for the Belief Systems Analysis Scale was obtained by
summing, after reverse scoring those items keyed in a negative direction, the scores on all

items.
Prior to the present study, minimal information had been generated regarding the

reliability of this scale. Past research provided evidence that the instrument demonstrated
good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .80), and test-retest reliability (r = .63).
With regard to the validity, Montgomery (1990) reported that the total score on the BSAS
correlated significantly in the expected direction with other criterion measures. The
psychometric properties of this scale were investigated in the present study and are

presented in Table 6. Six items correlated less that .30 with the other items on the scale

42

Table 5. Internal Consistency of African Self Consciousness Scale
Variable Name Item Item Total Correlation

*ASCI I don’t necessarily feel like I am being mistreated ----
in a situation where I see another Black person
being mistreated.

ASC2 Black people should have their own independent .33
schools which consider their Afiican heritage and
values as an important part of the curriculum.

ASC3 Blacks who trust whites in general are basically ----
intelligent people.
*ASC4 Black who are committed and prepared to uplift ----

the race by any means necessary are more
intelligent than Blacks who are not committed and
prepared.
ASCS Blacks in America should try harder to be American .34
rather than practicing activities that link them up with
their Afiican cultural heritage.
ASC6 Regardless of their interests, educational background .33
and social achievements, I would prefer to associate
with Black people than with non-Blacks.

ASC7 It is not such a good idea for Black students to be .28
required to learn an Afiican language.

ASC8 It is not within the best interests of Blacks to depend .34
on whites for anything no matter how religious and
decent they purport to be.

ASC9 Blacks who place the highest value on Black life are .51
reverse racists and generally evil people.

ASCIO Black children should be taught that they .40
are Afiican people at an early age.

*ASCll White people, generally speaking, are not opposed ----
to self determination for Black people.

ASC12 As a good index of self respect, Blacks in .43

America should consider adopting traditional
Afiican names for themselves.

ASC13 A White image of God and the “holy family” .38
are not such bad things for Black people to
worship.

ASC14 Blacks born in the US are Black or Afiican .40

first, rather than American or just plain people.

43

 

Table 5 (cont’d).
Variable Name Item Item Tota Correlation
*ASC15 Black people who talk in a relatively loud manner, ----

show alot of emotions and feelings, and express
themselves with a lot of movement and body
motion are less intelligent than Blacks who do not
behave in this way.
ASC16 Racial consciousness and awareness based on .52
traditional African values are necessary to the
development of Black marriages & families that
can contribute to the liberation and enhancement

of Black people.

*ASC17 In dealing with other Blacks, I consider myself ----
quite different and unique fi'om them.

ASC18 Blacks should form loving relationships with and .50
many only other Blacks.

ASC19 I have difficulty identifying with the culture of .31
Afiican people.

ASC20 It is intelligent for Blacks in America to organize .32

to educate and liberate themselves from white
American domination.

ASC2] There is no such thing as Afiican culture among .46
Blacks in America.
ASC22 It is good for Black husbands and wives to help .47

each other develop racial consciousness and
cultural awareness in themselves and their children.

ASC23 Afiica is not the ancestral homeland of all Black .40
people throughout the world.

ASC24 It is good for Blacks in America to wear traditional .38
African-type clothing and hairstyle if they so desire.

*ASC25 I feel little sense of commitment to Black people ----
who are not close fiiends or relatives.

ASC26 All Black students in Afiica and America should .56

be expected to study African culture and history as
it occurs throughout the world.

*ASC27 Black children should be taught to love all races ----
of people, even those races who do harm to them. ‘
*ASC28 Black in America who view Afiica as their homeland ----

are more intelligent than those who view America
as their homeland.

ASC29 If I saw Black children fighting, I would leave them to . .27
settle it alone.

44

 

Table 5. (cont’d).

Vargble Name Item Item TotaLCorrelation

ASC3O White people, generally speaking, do not respect .39
Black life.

ASC3] Blacks in America should view Blacks from other .50
countries as foreigners rather than as their brothers
and sisters.

ASC32 When a Black person uses the term “self, me, and I”, .41

his/her reference should encompass all Black people
rather than simply his/herself.

*ASC33 Religion is dangerous for Black people when it directs ----
and inspires them to become self-determining and
independent of the white community.

*ASC34 Black parents should encourage their children to ----
respect all Black people, good and bad, and punish
them when they don’t show respect.

*ASC35 Blacks who celebrate Kwanza and practice the ----
“Nguzo Saba”, both symbolizing Afiican traditions
don’t necessarily have better sense than Blacks who
celebrate Easter, Christmas and the fourth of July.

ASC36 African culture is better for humanity than European .42
culture.

*ASC37 Black people’s concern for self knowledge and self ----
determination makes them treat white people badly.

*ASC38 The success of an individual Black person is not ----
as important as the survival of all Black people.

*ASC39 Ifa good education could be obtained at all schools, ----
I would prefer my child to attend a racially integrated
school.

ASC4O It is good for Black people to refer to each other as .46

brother and sister because such practices are
consistent with our Afiican heritage.

*ASC41 It is not necessary to require Black studies courses ----
in predominantly Black schools.
ASC42 Being involved in wholesome group activities with .43

other Blacks lifts my spirits more so than being
involved individual oriented activities.

Alpha = .86

Alpha with all items = .80

* indicates that the item was removed from the scale.

45

Table 6. Internal Consistency of the Belief Systems Analysis Scale

 

Variable Name Item Item TotaCorralation
BSA] The more important consideration when looking for .20
a job is not the money ofl‘ered but the people I would
be working with.
BSA2 English should be the only national language. If one .27

wants to live in this country, one should learn to speak
the language, bilingualism is unimportant.

BSA3 If I could make a choice, I would prefer to lead a .39
wealthy, exciting life as opposed to one that is peacefirl
and productive in terms of helping other people.

BSA4 In order to know what’s really going on you need to .23
look at the scientific data rather than the individual
person’s experience.

BSAS Working at a job with meaning and purpose is more .29
important than the money received from a job.

BSA6 Winning the lottery would solve all of my problems. .38

BSA7 This country would be better off if we restricted .35
immigration to a very select few.

BSA8 Welfare is a mistake; individuals must learn to help .16
themselves.

BSA9 When I meet an acquaintance on the street, I note .38
the type of clothes they are wearing and compare
them to mine.

BSAIO Race or nationality reveals more about an individual .20
than s/he may realize.

*BSAII More than anything else, I am most concerned by ----
another’s opinion if s/he has the statistics to back it up.

BSA12 When I encountered new acquaintances at meetings .28

or work-related activities, I note the type of clothes
they are wearing and impressed if they are “dressed
for success”.

BSA13 When someone challenges my belief, I am eager to .16
set him/her straight.
BSA14 Pain is the opposite of love; in other words an act .21

of love cannot cause pain.

Table 6 (cont’d).

VariableMe

BSAIS

BSA16

*BSA17

BSA18

*BSA19

BSAZO
BSA2]

BSA22

BSA23

BSA24

BSA25

BSA26

*BSA27

BSA28

BSA29

*BSA30

Alpha = .76

46

Item Item Total Correlation
If a “fiiend” were to betray my confidence and tell some .37
other people a secret, the best way for him/her to learn a
lesson is for me to do the same thing to him/her when I
get a chance.
If my opinion of my uncle has always been different than .21
everyone else’s, then I must be perceiving him wrong.
It is easy for me to see how the entire human race is ----
really part of my extended family.
When considering all difficulties of life, I have trouble .40
seeing any meaning or order to it.
I find myself worrying a lot about circumstance in my ----
life.
If I just had more money, my life would be more satisfying. .43
If I were better looking, my relationships with others .40
more satisfying.
I feel badly when I see fiiends from high school who now .42
have better cars.
Sometimes when I am good and do my best, I still suffer, .24
this is an indication that good does not necessarily triumph
over evil. .
Although I have a favorite kind of music I learn to, I can ..15
usually get into and enjoy most kinds of music)
When I am confirsed or unclear about myself or the .37
world about me, I try to push these concerns out of
my mind and go on with my life as usual.
Past philosophers like St. Augustine and Descartes .20
are less relevant today then they were 100 years ago
before the modern age.
Despite my religious preference, I still believe there ----
are teachings from difi‘erent religions that are valid.

I am uneasy and bothered by my responsibilities at .33
work and at home.
I can remain calm and peaceful even when my boss .17

blames me for another’s mistakes.
If I were president, I would invest more money to develop ----
social programs and less money in high tech development.

Alpha with all items = .73
* indicates that the item was removed from the scale.

47

and were removed fiom the scale. Reliability analysis yielded a coefficient alpha =.76.
Alpha with all items = .73. Appendix F contains a copy of this scale.
Afiican Amerign Beflfiorflhecm

The Afiican American Behavioral Checklist was developed for the present study from
“The Best Predictors of ASC Scale Scores” put forth by Baldwin et al. (1990) The
rationale behind this instrument was that individuals high in Afiican self consciousness
should tend to engage in activities and social functions that were Afiican cultural centered,
and therefore, more self-affirming.

This instrument was originally a twenty item checklist in which the first 16 items
required subjects to indicate how often, using a four point likert scale (never-always), they
engage in a list of activities. For two of the remaining items, subjects indicated using a
three point Likert-type (mostly Black to mostly white) scale the following: 1) the racial
composition of their current neighborhood, and 2) whether their church is white, Black or
mixed. Item 19 and 20 asked subjects to indicate using a Likert-type scale (none to
many): 1) the number of experiences they had recently had with racism, and 2) the number
of Black studies courses taken. The reliability of this scale was obtained in the present
study and is presented in Table 7. Analyses revealed that internal consistency improved
when the 7 items which fell below the .30 cut-off were dropped fi'om the scale. Alpha =

.90. A copy of the behavioral checklist is found in Appendix G.

Table 7. Internal Consistency of the African American

48

 

Behavioral Checklist

mac Name Item Item Toaal Correlation

AABl I attend Afiican American cultural activities. .72

AAB2 I receive Afiican American owned publications. .49

AAB3 I belong to Afiican American social, civic or .56

professional organizations.

*AAB4 I try to support Black owned businesses. ----

AAB5 I am involved in programs specifically geared .70

toward the uplifiment of the Black community.

AAB6 I wear clothing that promotes Black pride. .49

AAB7 I spend time reading and learning about my .52

cultural heritage.

AAB8 I spend time teaching others about Black culture .57

and history.

*AAB9 Ifanother Black person needs help, I am there ----

to lend my assistance.

AABIO I am a role model to Black youth. .51

AABll I am a leader in Black organizations. .61

AAB]2 I am a mentor to Blacks who need guidance .60

or assistance.

*AABl3 I participate in the political process to ensure --—-

that my voice as a Black person is heard.

AAB14 I encourage other Blacks to get involved in .70

Black organizations.

AAB l 5 I involve myself in activities that enable me .75

to “give back” to the Black community.

AAB16 I initiate the planning of Black cultural activities. .68
*AAB 17 Racial composition of current neighborhood. ----
*AAB18 Racial composition of your church. ----
*AAB19 Number of experiences with racism. ----
*AAB20 Number of Black studies courses taken. ----
Alpha = .90

* indicates that the item was removed from the scale.

CHAPTER 3
RESULTS

Several analyses were conducted to test the two models and investigate the
relationship between parental socialization, interracial interaction, Afiican self
consciousness, worldview orientation and the outcome, Afiican centered behaviors. A
brief overview of the data analysis plan is provided here. First, descriptive statistics on the
participants were conducted. Next, a correlation matrix which illustrates the relationship
between the variables under investigation was constructed and is presented in Table 8.
Finally, table 9 contains the means and standard deviations for each of the study variables.

Lisre18, a statistical technique for structural equations modeling, was used to obtain
path coefficients for the two models. This technique uses the covariance matrix to
generate standardized path coefficients on which the proposed relationships can be
evaluated. Several fit indices are also provided on which to evaluate the overall fit of the
model. First, the chi-square goodness of fit index is used as a criterion to determine
overall model fit. The chi-square should be non-significant, which means that the data fits
the proposed model. It should be noted, however, that the chi-square is a function of
sample size and the number of parameters specified. Therefore, large sample sizes and/or
specification of many parameters can yield a significant chi-square. Secondly, the normed
fir index should be examined to assess model fit. A normed fit index of .90 or above
indicates that the data fits well with the proposed model (Bollen & Long, 1990). Next,
the path coefficients should be exarrrined to determine if they are significant and in the

proposed direction. For the present study, each relationship was proposed to be

49

50

significant and positive, with the exception of interracial interaction. Interracial interaction
was proposed to have significant and negative relationships with the study variables.
Finally, in comparing the two models, the chi-squares and degrees of fieedom fi'om each
individual model are subtracted. In this instance, a significant chi-square is preferable and
indicates that one model is a better fit than the other.

Given the substantial number of items dropped from the African Self Consciousness
Scale and the Belief Systems Analysis Scale, analyses were run with both the full and
revised scales. Results showed no significant change when the full scales were used,
therefore, the results reported here reflect the revised scales. The analyses for this study
were conducted in order to answer each of the hypotheses presented earlier.
Intercorrelations Amorg the Study Van'a_ble_s

The intercorrelations among the study variables are presented in Table 8. Correlations
significant at .05 level are indicated by two asterisks The data suggests that it is
reasonable to conceptualize Black identity as a multifaceted phenomenon that is related to
a number of personal and life experience variables.

Afiican self consciousness was significantly correlated with African centered behaviors
(r=.37, p<.05) and interracial interaction (r=-.32, p<.05). This suggests that participants
who had high Afiican self consciousness scores exhibited more Afiican centered behaviors
than individuals with low Afiican self consciousness scores. As expected, a negative
correlation between interracial interaction and Afiican self consciousness was obtained.

This means that participants who reported growing up in predominantly White or racially

mixed environments had lower Afiican self consciousness scores than participants with

predominantly Black backgrounds. Afiicentric worldview was significantly correlated

51

 

Table 8. Interrcorrelations Among the Study Variables
AAB ASC BSA 11 PS

AAB 1.0

ASC .37“ 1.0

BSA -.22** .00 1.0

II -.03 -.32** -.03 1.0

PS .24" .13 .13 .04 1.0

Note: n=158; “are significant at p<.05.

AAB: Afiican Centered Behaviors

ASC: Afiican Self Consciousness

BS : Afiicentric Worldview

11: Interracial Interaction

PS:

Parental Socialization

 

52

Table 9. Means and Standard Deviations of the Targeted Variables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable Range Mean Standard Deviation
Interracial

Interaction 3 .67 2. 3 .891 7
Parental

Socialization 1.00 .87 .1915
Afiican Self

Consciousness 4.56 4.7 .7898
Afiicentric

Worldview 2.29 2.7 .4267
Afiican Centered

Behavior 2.92 2.2 .6816

 

53

with Afiican centered behavior (r=-.22, p<.05). This means that individuals that did not
possess an Afiicentric worldview were more likely to engage in African centered behavior
than those who did. It is important to note that this correlation is not in the expected
direction. According to Baldwin’s theory, Afiicentric worldview would be positively
related to involvement in Black cultural activities. The implications of this negative
correlation is discussed in the next chapter.

Parental socialization was also significantly correlated with Afiican centered
behaviors(F.24, p<.05). Participants whose parents conveyed positive racial messages
were more likely to report involvement in Black cultural activities.

The relationship between interracial interaction and Afiican centered behavior was not
significant (r=-.03, p>.05). The racial composition of the participants childhood
environment did not influence the extent to which they were involved in Black cultural
activities. The data also suggests that having an Afiicentric worldview is not related to
high scores on Afiican self consciousness (r=.00, p>.05), parental socialization (r=.13,
p>.05) nor interracial interaction (r=-.03,p>.05). An individual’s worldview orientation
does not appear to effect his or her Afiican self consciousness. There is also no significant
relationship between worldview and the extent to which participants’ parents conveyed
positive messages about race. Additionally, the racial composition of the participants’
childhood settings was unrelated to their worldview orientation. In other words, whether
an individual grows up in a predominantly Black or White environment has little to
do with his or her worldview. Finally, the relationships between parental
socialization and interracial interaction (r=.04, p>.05) was not significant. The

racial composition of one’s childhood environment was not related to whether or

54

not participants’ parents conveyed positive messages about race. Structural equations
modeling was used to firrther determine the interrelationship among the variables and to
assess the two models.

Structural Equations ModelingUsinLLisrel 8

Figures 3 and 4 contain the models, path coefiicients and fit statistics for Baldwin’s
model of Black personality and the alternate model of Black personality. The chi-square
and normed fit index were used to determine the adequacy of the overall model. A
discussion of the Lisrel estimates for the Baldwin model is followed by a discussion of the
alternate model.

Badwin’s Model of Afiican Self Conaciousness.

Only one of the predictor variables (interracial interaction) emerged as a significant
predictor of African self consciousness. A path coeficient of -.32 (p<.05) was obtained,
indicating that a significant and direct relationship exists between interracial interaction
and Afiican self consciousness. This result supported hypothesis 3 which proposed that
racially heterogeneous environments were negatively related to high levels of Afiican self
consciousness. Participants who reported growing up in predominantly White
environments had lower levels of Afiican self consciousness than those who grew up in
predominantly Black settings.

Hypothesis 1 which proposed a direct effect between Afiicentric worldview and
African self consciousness was not supported. A non significant path coefficient of -.01
(p>.05)was obtained. This suggests that the possession of an Afiicentric worldview was '

not predictive of one’s level of Afiican self consciousness.

55

Hypothesis 2 which stated that the receipt of positive racial messages would be related
to high levels of Afiican self consciousness was not supported. The path coefficient
assessing the direct effect between parental socialization and Afiican self consciousness
was .11 (p>.05), and was not significant. Students whose parents conveyed messages of
racial pride did not have higher African self consciousness than others.

Finally, a significant path coefficient of .38 (p<.05) was obtained to reflect the direct
relationship between Afiican self consciousness and Afiican centered behaviors
Hypothesis 4 which proposed that one’s level of Afiican self consciousness would be
predictive of involvement in Afiican centered behaviors was supported. In other words,
individuals with high levels of Afiican self consciousness were more likely to be involved
in Black cultural activities than their counterparts. These findings also suggest that while
African self consciousness has a direct effect on Afiican centered behavior, it also
mediates the relationship between interracial interaction and Afiican centered behavior.

In terms of the adequacy of the overall model, the following fit statistics were
obtained: Chi-square (3df) = 21.6, (p<.05) and Norrned fit index =.70 The significant
chi-square indicates that Baldwin’s model should be rejected as an adequate illustration of
Black personality. The normed fit index (.70) is firrther indication that the Baldwin model
is not an excellent representation of this phenomenon. The path model is shown in Figure
3; an asterisk indicates that the path coefi'rcient was significant.

Alte_rn_ate Model of Black PerscMity.

Figure 4 shows the path coefiicients and fit statistics for the alternate

 

56

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Parental
Socialization '-
"~-..,,..11
. a“
Africentric -.Ol Afiican .38“ African Centered
Worldview """ I Self Consciousness ...., Behaviors
.3
-.32*

Interracial
Interaction

 

 

 

Chi-square (3Df) = 21.6 (p<.05)
Normed Fit Index = .70
* is significant

Figure 3. Path Coefficients for Baldwin’s Model of Black Personality

57

model of Black personality. The path coefficient depicting the direct effect of parental
socialization on Afiicentric worldview was .12 (p>.05) and was not significant.
Hypothesis 1 which proposed that the receipt of positive racial messages would be
positively related to the endorsement of an Afiicentric worldview orientation was not
supported. In other words, participants whose parents conveyed positive messages about
race did not score any higher on the Belief Systems Analysis Scale than participants who
did not receive the parental messages.

Consistent with the results for the Baldwin model, parental messages that conveyed
racial pride were not predictive of high Afiican self consciousness scores in the alternate
model. The path coefficient was .11 (p>.05) and was not significant.

The direct effect of parental socialization on Afiican centered behavior was also
examined in the alternate model. The path coefficient was .19 (p<.05) and is significant.
Hypothesis .3 which postulated that the receipt of positive racial messages would be
directly related to participation in Black cultural activities was supported. Participants
whose parents conveyed messages of racial pride were more likely to report engaging in
self afl'rmring, Afiicentric behavior than participants who did not receive positive racial

messages.

Hypotheses 2 and 4 which proposed that interracial interaction would have a direct
effect on Afiicentric worldview and African centered behaviors were not supported. The
path coemcients were -.03 (p>.05) and .09 (p>.05) respectively. The racial compositions
of the participants’ childhood environment did not influence his or her worldview

orientation or facilitate involvement in Black cultural activities. Participants from racially

58

homogenous settings were no more Afiicentric or involved in Black cultural activities than
those from mixed or predominantly White settings. Interracial interaction was, however,
significantly related Afiican self consciousness. A path coefficient of —.32 (p>.05) was
obtained. This indicates that participants who grew up in predominantly White or racially
mixed environments had lower Afiican self consciousness scores than those who grew up
in predominantly Black settings.

The relationship between Afiicentric worldview and Afiican self consciousness
remained insignificant in the alternate model. The path coefficient was .01 (p>.05) which
indicated that the endorsement of an optimal Afiicentric worldview was not predictive of
high scores on the Afiican self consciousness scale.

Finally, Afiican self consciousness and Afiican centered behavior were significantly
related in the alternate model Analysis yielded a path coefficient of .38 (p<.05). This
supported the hypothesis that positive identification is related to involvement in Black
cultural activities. Individuals with high Afiican self consciousness scores were more
involved in Black cultural activities and organizations than their counterparts with lower
Afiican self consciousness scores.

In regards to the overall model, the following fit statistics were obtained:
chi-square (ldf) =13.1 (p<.05); NFI=.80. The chi-square is significant which means that
the alternate model should also be rejected as an adequate model of Black personality
development; however, the normed fit index is .80 which suggests that although the
alternate model does not perfectly fit the data, it is an adequate fit and better than no

model at all.

59

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Parental .....
Socialization .l9*
"NH“...le
. 12
3" ‘
mOl .38* -
Africentric ...... , African . . . ., African Centered
Worldview Self Consciousness Behaviors

-.03 . ...............
-' -.32* .............

 

.0

Interracial .09
Interaction

 

chi-square (lat) = 13.1 (p<.05)
Normed Fit Index =.8O
" is significant

Figure 4. Path Coefficients for Alternate Model of Black Personality Development

60

CMson Between the Two Models of Black Personality Development

Table 10 contains the fit statistics for both models and a comparison between the
Baldwin model and the alternate model. The difl’erence between the two models was
obtained by subtracting the chi-squares for each model, yielding a chi-square = 8.5 (2df).
The chi-square is significant which suggests that the two models differ significantly. This
difi‘erence can be interpreted to mean that when comparing the two models, the alternate
model is a more adequate illustration developmental progression of Afiican self

consciousness.

61

Table 10. Comparison Between the Baldwin Model and Alternate Model

Baldwin Model: chi-square = 21.6 (3df), p<.05
Full Model: chi-square = 13.1 (ldf), p<.05

Difference Between the models: chi-square = 8.5 (2df), p<.05

CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION

The intent of the present study was to address the need for more empirical support for
the conceptualization of Black identity. Specifically, two models of Black personality
were advanced for the purpose of examining the relationship between the factors proposed
to influence Black identity and to determine which model best illustrated the process of
Black personality development. The first model was developed using Baldwin’s theory of
Black personality while the alternate model included relationships suggested by other
researchers, which were not set for by Baldwin (1985). Baldwin’s theory of Black
personality was chosen as a basis for the present study because of its Afiicentric
conceptualization and wide spread use in the field of Black identity development.

The results of this study offer some insight into the theoretical assumptions of
Baldwin’s (1985) Afiicentric theory of Black Personality. Although several of the
proposed relationships did exist, statistically, the Baldwin model did not adequately fit the
data. Specifically, Baldwin’s assertions that parental socialization and Africentric
worldview directly impact on identity attitudes were not supported. Given that these are
critical components of Baldwin’s theory, the findings suggest that Baldwin’s
conceptualization of Afiican self consciousness may be incomplete. The finding that
Afiicentric worldview and Afiican self consciousness are unrelated is particularly
important given that it is the cornerstone of Baldwin’s theory. Baldwin (1981) postulated
that Afiicentric worldview is an inherent (genetic) part of the personality structure of all

Afiican Americans, therefore all Afiicans Americans are proposed to endorse an

62

63

Afiicentric value system. Analysis of the worldview scale revealed that there was some
variation in terms of how participants scored rather than a skewness towards Afiicentrism
as would be expected. In addition, Baldwin (1981) assumes that individuals who are
Afiicentric are also likely to engage in Black cultural activities. Although, the present
study did not address the question of genetic predisposition directly, the assumption that
all Afiican Americans would score high on the Belief Systems Analysis scale was
examined and was not supported. Finally, the assumption that a positive and direct
relationship between Afiicentric worldview and Afiican self consciousness would exist
was also not supported.

In sum, the results of the present study suggest that there are direct and indirect
relationships among the proposed variables, not simply direct relationships as Baldwin
suggests. Moreover, Afiican self consciousness was found to mediate the relationship
between interracial interaction and African centered behavior.

The findings of this investigation affirm previous studies which suggest that life
experience variables are predictive of identity attitudes and behavior (F erguson-Peters,
1985; Thornton, 1990; Comer, 1989). In general, there was some variation in terms of the
impact of the independent variables (parental socialization, worldview, interracial
interaction) on Afiican self consciousness and Afiican centered behavior. The findings,
however, do clearly suggest that context and environment are more influential on identity
development than genetics or heredity. The discussion of the different model components

and hypotheses begin below.

64

Parenta Socialgapig

Racial socialization is viewed as a critical step in the preparation of African American
children to cope with their social environment. Studies have repeatedly found that Black
parents consider instilling messages of racial pride important to the socialization process
and that parental messages are important in shaping an individual’s racial identity
(Thornton, 1991; F erguson-Peters, 1985; Sanders-Thompson, 1991). Much of the
existing literature, however, has focused on asking parents what they viewed as important
racial messages and then drawn inferences regarding the effect of these messages on the
child’s racial identification. Few studies have explored the extent to which: a) parents
actually conveyed the racial messages to their children, and b) the messages impact the
child’s racial identity attitudes. Furthermore, studies that have used parental socialization
as an independent variable have operationalized parental socialization as a set of
background characteristics (neighborhood environment, involvement in Black cultural
activities) rather than the actual content of parental messages. Given the potential impact
of parental socialization and the paucity of content-oriented scales, a specific measure of
parental socialization which asked participants about the content of parental messages was

developed for the present study.

Based on the conclusions of previous research, the items on the Parental Socialization
Scale covered four domains which parents viewed as important: 1) education, 2)
interpersonal relationships, 3) self esteem and 4) religiosity. Analysis of this 23 item
measure indicated that 11 items should be removed fi'om the scale to improve its internal
consistency. Many of the items that were removed focused on religion (God can protect

you fi'om racial hatred) or were universal, in that they did not specifically focus on

65

Black/White relations (It’s important to get along with everybody or All races are equal).
It is likely that religious items were not applicable because either participants did not
attend church or parents viewed race related socialization as separate fi'om spirituality.
The universal items were probably too ambiguous since they did not ask specifically about
race relations. Finally, the last three scale items which asked about the fi'equency of race
related discussions and impact of parental messages on behavior were also removed from
the scale. It is probable that these items did not fare well because they were not related to
the actual content of parental messages.

In the present study, parental socialization impacted behavior and not identity
attitudes. Parental socialization only emerged as a significant predictor of African
centered behavior. It was not predictive of Afiicentric worldview or Afiican self
consciousness as proposed in the two models. These findings are particularly important
considering that past studies have found a direct and positive relationship between racial
socialization and Black identity development.

In the Baldwin model, a direct relationship between parental socialization and African
self consciousness was hypothesized. This relationship was not significant and did not
support Baldwin’s assumption that participants who received positive racial messages
would also have high Afiican self consciousness scores. In addition to the above, parental
socialization was hypothesized to be related to Afiicentric worldview and involvement in
African centered behaviors in the alternate model of Black personality development. In
regards to the former, there was no relationship between parental socialization and
Afiicentric worldview. The receipt of positive racial messages did not influence whether
one adhered to an Afiicentric value system. In regards to the latter, the relationship
between parental socialization and African centered behavior was significant. Participants
who received positive racial messages were more likely to report being involved in Black

cultural activities than participants who did not receive these racial messages.

66

The results of the present study suggest that more attention needs to be paid to the
relationship between racial socialization, identity attitudes and Afiican centered behavior.
As indicated earlier, researchers have repeatedly reported that Black parents view
incorporating positive racial messages into the socialization process as critical. These
researchers inferred that these primary socialization experiences in turn shape an
individual’s self perception (identity attitude) and they way in which he or she interacts
with the environment (F erguson-Peters, 1985; Comer, 1989; Green, 1990). The findings
of the present study, however, suggest that parental socialization is a critical indicator
behavior and not attitude, as suggested in the literature. This may mean that positive
racial messages influence the extent to which individuals engage in self afi'rrrning behavior
and not whether or not they adopt specific racial attitudes. One plausible explanation for
this finding may be that parents who convey positive racial messages reinforce the
messages by exposing their children to self afirming cultural activities. Children, in turn,
model parental behavior rather than adopt parental attitudes. Attitudes may also be
influenced by peers, institutions and other social contexts children come in contact with.
Further investigation of the differential impact of parental messages on attitude and
behavior is necessary to understand this phenomenon.

Interracial Interaction

Previous research on the impact of interracial interaction on identity development has
been less clear than that of parental socialization. While researchers agree that the quality
and frequency of interracial interaction are predictive of racial identity, there is little

consensus as to whether contextual consonance or dissonance is preferable (Baldwin,

67

1985; Rosenberg, 1979; Broman et al., 1988). In addition, researchers suggest that
interracial interaction is predictive of involvement in Black cultural activities as and the
adoption of an Africentric value system (Mitchell et al., 1992). These relationships were
investigated in the present study.

In regards to the Baldwin model, interracial interaction was hypothesized to be directly
related to African self consciousness. This hypothesis was supported. Participants who
reported growing up in predominantly White or racially mixed settings had lower Afiican
self consciousness scores than those growing up in predominantly Black settings.
Baldwin’s (1981) theory suggests that Afiican self consciousness is nurtured through
indigenous personal and institutional support systems. Exposure to negative racial
experiences have been found more likely to occur in racially heterogeneous environments,
therefore, it is plausible that living in a predominantly Black setting acts as a bufi‘er against
the negative efl‘ects of racism (Allen, 1992). This result supports the assumption that
contextual consonance is more facilitative of positive racial identity attitudes than
contextual dissonance.

In addition to the aforementioned relationship, the alternate model also proposed
relationships between: 1) interracial interaction and worldview, and 2) interracial
interaction and African centered behaviors. In regards to the first hypothesis, the racial
composition of the participants childhood environment was not related to the endorsement
of an Afiicentric value system/worldview. It should be noted that the Interracial
Interaction Scale does not tap into the quality of the participant’s environment but merely

the racial composition. Examining the quality of the environment may be more

68

informative as it is likely that how an individual is socialized in a particular environment is
more important in shaping his or her worldview than the racial composition of the
environment. In terms of the relationship between interracial interaction and involvement
in Black cultural activities, results did not support this hypothesis. The racial composition
of one’s childhood environment was not related to whether or not participants were
involved in Black cultural activities. Again, it may be important to examine the quality of
the environment, particularly the types of cultural experiences that are available. It is
often assumed that individuals who grow up in predominantly Black settings are more
active in Black cultural activities because they are more accessible. However, a racially
mixed or predominantly White setting may have the resources to provide cultural activities
to people of different ethnicities as well. Furthermore, the socioeconomic status of the
community and individual’s may dictate what cultural experiences an individual is exposed

to moreso than the racial makeup of the neighborhood.

These results suggest that interracial interaction is related to attitude and not behavior.
It is likely that living in a racial homogenous environment protects children fiom the
negative impact of racist attitudes and is therefore, facilitative of positive identity attitudes
(Baldwin, 1985; Rosenberg, 1979). Individuals living in a racially homogenous settings
are less likely to be influenced by racist stereotypes or negative attitudes about their
cultural group because they have less contact with racially rrrixed and predominantly White
environments (Rosenberg,1979). Consequently, their self perception is not negatively
impacted by these mechanisms. In terms of the relationship between interracial interaction
and behavior, it is possible that racial homogeneous environments do not necessarily
provide more cultural resources than mixed or even predominantly White settings. The

availability of cultural activities may also be a function of resources; in which case

69

socioeconomic status need to be explored as a mediating variable. It is plausible that
behavior may be learned through watching others while attitude may be related to how
much your are influenced by those who surround you.

In sum, the findings suggest that context and environment are particularly significant in
influencing one’s attitude and behavior. An ecological approach, would, therefore, be
particularly useful in examining the relationship between parental socialization, identity
attitudes and behavior. This approach would incorporate the impact of social institutions,
policies, community organizations and other social phenomenon on attitudes and behavior.
Afiicentric Worldview

The major difference between the Baldwin model and the alternate model was that in
the latter, Africentric worldview was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between
parental socialization and interracial interaction on African self consciousness.
Conversely, worldview was expected to predict Afiican self consciousness in the Baldwin
model. The relationships between parental socialization and Afiicentric worldview and
interracial interaction and Afiicentric worldview were discussed previously. The results
also showed that there was no relationship between Africentric worldview and African self
consciousness. This finding is especially significant because it is the cornerstone upon
which Baldwin’s theory rests. Baldwin’s (1985) theory assumes that Africentric
worldview is an inherent part of the personality structure of all Afiican Americans. The
results, however, suggest that worldview does not contribute to the overall process of
identity development. This calls into question the likelihood of a genetic predisposition
towards Afiicentrism. Few studies have investigated this proposition or have included
worldview as an independent variable. Further investigation of this variable is necessary in
order to understand the complexity of this issue.

The relationship between Afiicentric worldview and involvement in Black cultural
activities was not investigated in the present study. Based on the significant correlation

between worldview and behavior, it is likely that a significant relationship does exist,

70

however, the relationship may not be in the expected direction. Worldview was negatively
correlated with behavior which suggests that individuals who endorse an Afiicentric
worldview are less likely to be involved in Black cultural activities . The implications of
this finding is discussed below.

Implications

The findings of the present study hold a number of important implications for the
continuance of research in this field. Implications are related to both theory and practical
application.

Theoretical

Few researchers have ever tested the underlying assumptions of Baldwin’s (1981)
Afiicentric theory of Black Personality. Baldwin’s model difl’ers from the alternate model
in two ways: a) parental socialization, interracial interaction and Afiicentric worldview are
proposed to have direct effects on Afiican self consciousness; and b) worldview is
assumed to be an inherent part of the personality make up of all Afiican Americans.

Findings from the present study indicate that Baldwin’s model of identity development
is incomplete. This suggests that identity development is a multifaceted phenomenon
which is related to both personal and life experience variables. The variables proposed to
impact identity development are both directly and indirectly related to identity attitudes
and behavior and appear to be more complex than Baldwin proposes.

The other major implication drawn from the present study is that the possession of an
Afiicentric worldview has little to do with the extent to which one identifies with his/her
racial group. The hypothesis that worldview mediates the relationship between parental
socialization and interracial interaction and African self consciousness was not supported.
Further, there was no direct relationship between worldview and Afiican self
consciousness. Given the correlation between worldview and behavior, it is possible that
although worldview is not predictive of Afiican self consciousness, it is related to outcome

behavior. The nature of the relationship warrants further study, however, given that the

71

correlation was not in the expected direction. It is possible that the negative correlation is
an indication of a measurement issue which should also be investigated in firture studies.

Given the impact of socioenvironmental forces on identity development, the findings
of the present study imply that Baldwin’s theory needs to be revisited. In particular, more
focus should be placed on context and environment rather than heredity. In conjunction
with an Afiicentric perspective, an ecological approach which would examine the impact
of the entire context (family, school, community, systems etc.) should be integrated in
Baldwin’s theory to provide the most accurate description of identity development.

Pgactical Applicayion

The results of the present study also hold implications for possible intervention efforts.
Given the importance of an individual’s ecology in influencing identity attitudes and
behaviors, efforts should be directed towards creating settings which are facilitative of
positive identification and racial pride. The significance of the socializing impact of the
home has already been discussed. Schools, churches and other community agencies that
children come into contact with should be targeted as well. For example, diversity
workshops and cultural fairs that expose individuals to other ethnicities and cultures is one
way of dispelling negative stereotypes, educating individuals and encouraging racial pride.
In addition, schools could begin to incorporate lessons about different cultures into the
regular curriculum rather than as “special” lessons that occur periodically. This would
increase knowledge and awareness of different cultures, foster racial pride and help
students begin to appreciate their difi’erences. Finally, another possible intervention could
use community coalitions and other organizations to continue to address racism and
discrimination in their communities.
Limitations

There were several limitations in the present study. Addressing them in future studies
may provide more information about racial identity development. Limitations center

around sampling, measurement and design.

72

Sampling
The first limitation is related to the sample used in the present study. Like most

studies on racial identification, the present study utilized a college student sample because
its convenience. As a result, most of the information on racial identification comes from
college student samples. Little is know about racial identity during any other period of the
life span or among young adults who are not college educated. A life span approach will
provide information about changes in identity development, for instance, from adolescence
to adulthood or young adulthood to late adulthood. A life span approach will address the
question of whether identity development remains stable over time or whether individuals
move back, forth or recycle through the stages of identity development. This approach
may also help researchers pinpoint whether socioenvironmental forces are more influential
at different time periods.

Another issue related to the use of the current sample is selection bias. All of the
participants volunteered to participate in the present study. Little is known about those
who refused to participate. It is possible that there are significant differences between
participants who volunteered and those who refirsed. In addition, there was some range
restriction in the current sample on the socialization and interracial interaction dimensions.
The majority of subjects reported that their parents conveyed the positive racial messages
and that they grew up in mostly Black or all Black settings. There was little diversity in
terms of the life experiences of participants in the present study which may indicate that
the sample was not representative of the Afiican American community and affect the
generalizability of the results. Future studies should include individuals with diverse
experiences and non-student samples. This would provide a more representative sample
of Afiican Americans and increase the generalizability of the findings.

Finally, the demographic information collected in the present study was used mainly
for descriptive purposes. There may be group differences based on demographic

characteristics that were not explored.

73

Measurement

The measure used to examine worldview was relatively new and had only been used in
one previous study. This measure was developed and validated on a White sample with
the assumption that every individual, regardless of race, could be predisposed to
Afiicentrism. Meyers (1994) takes an anthropological approach to studying Afiicentrism
and suggest that man originated in Africa, therefore, all people have Afiican roots. In
developing the measure, Fine et al (1994) suggested that future studies validate this
measure on an African American sample since the work on Afiicentric worldview and
other Black personality constructs are conducted with Black samples. The results of the
present study call into question the validity of this measure as an instrument of Afiicentric
worldview. The organizing framework of the Afiicentric paradigm is that Afiican
Americans need to be researched and understood within their own cultural and social
reality, this includes the use of measurement instruments that are specific to Afiican
Americans (Akbar, 1979). The scale used in the present study operated from a more
universal perspective and may therefore, have been inappropriate for use with the current
sample.

In addition, this measure assessed worldview by operationalizing the behaviors that
would be expected to be related to Afiicentrism or Eurocentrism rather than asking
participants about beliefs specific to the Afiicentric values system (e. g.; communalism,
harmony with nature). It is possible that this approach does not adequately assess
worldview and that an approach which asks about the endorsement of specific values
would be more effective. The Afiicentric perspective is characterized by an abstract set of
beliefs. It is possible that individuals could endorse a set of beliefs or principles without
actually engaging in the expected behavior. A measure that taps into the Africentric belief
system may have provided more useful information.

The Parental Socialization Scale was developed for the present study. Given the

paucity of content oriented scales and the lack of research utilizing this type of scale,

74

further scale development may be necessary. Although this scale assessed the content of
parental messages, it may also be important to exarrrine the frequency of race related
discussions and whether or not participants actually internalize parental messages.

The Afiican Self Consciousness Scale has been widely used. Given the number of
items removed from the Afiican Self Consciousness Scale in past studies and in the
present study, it may be necessary to explore whether the scale adequately taps into the
African self consciousness construct. The scale items may be too ambiguous as written
and therefore, it may be necessary to employ a revised measure in firture studies.

Finally, the Interracial Interaction Scale did not assess the quality of the participant’s
interracial interactions. It is likely that exarrring the quality in addition to racial

composition would provide more meaningful information.

Desigp
The present study employed a cross sectional design. To date, no longitudinal studies

on racial identity development have been conducted. Therefore, little is known. about
changes in identification over time. Collecting data in a longitudinal study would provide
meaningful information about the evolution of identity attitudes.
Future Research

Future studies should focus on revising the model of Black personality development.
In particular, relationships that were not significant in the present study should be
excluded from the model while relationships that have not been explored should be added.

Figure 5 contains an illustration of a revised model of Black personality.

 

INSERT FIGURE V

 

75

Specifically, the relationship between Afiicentric worldview and Afiican centered behavior
should be explored. Although, worldview was unrelated to identity attitudes, it is possible
that worldview is related to behavior. In addition, the moderating effect of worldview on
Afiican self consciousness and the direct relationship between interracial interaction and
identity attitudes and behavior should be removed. These relationships were not
significant in the present study. A revised model of Black personality should also
incorporate the impact of other social institutions (churches, peer groups, schools,
community organizations) that children come in contact with that may impact their identity
attitudes and behavior. Lastly, the impact of demographic characteristics such as age,

gender and socioeconomic status should be explored.

Future studies should also be geared towards theory building efforts. Past research on
racial identity has been driven by theoretical models that have not been empirically tested.
Based on the findings of the present study, it is clear that although the ideological
foundation may be sound, the conceptual model may be incomplete. Baldwin’s model of
Black personality is a good example of this. As the results garnered from this study
showed, one of Baldwin’s main assertions; that worldview is an inherent part of the
makeup of Afiican people; did not hold up when empirically tested. The Afiicentric
framework on which Baldwin’s theory is built is valid given its orientation toward
affirming the cultural experiences of Afiican Americans. Future theory building efforts
should focus on the role of socio-environmental factors rather than biological ones. A
usefirl step would be the incorporation of an ecological perspective. Such a perspective
will place emphasis on the person-environment fit (context) and may also be useful in the

development of interventions which are discussed below.
In terms of intervention efforts, the focus should clearly be on developing

programs/mechanisms to support the efi‘orts of parents in the socialization process.

76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

Parental
Socialization
Africentric 3‘ ; African Centered
Worldview - '1" 4' Behavior
African
Self Consciousness
0" '0‘ 0‘
W IntCITaCIaI .0... .'
Interaction churches
community'brganizations peers
-: exploratory
: confirmatory

Figure 5. Revised Model of Black Personality

77

Research has shown that parental messages positively influence identification as well as
behavioral outcomes. It is plausible that the negative effects of experiencing racism are
counteracted by positive parental influences and positive socialization experiences.
Positive racial messaged should, therefore, be reflected in other social institutions that
Black children come in contact with (schools, churches, community organizations).

Researchers should also begin to focus on longitudinal research which will address
questions about changes in racial identity over time. In doing so, it is important to use a
sample that is representative of the diversity within the Black community.

Next, continued work on the measures to assess identity development and the related
constructs is also necessary. For example, although the Afiican Self Consciousness scale
is widely used, there is little evidence supporting the notion that four subscales exist.
Moreover, in the present study, the scales internal consistency improved after 16 items
were removed. This suggests that perhaps some of the items do not tap into the
dimensions of African self consciousness they intend to. Additionally, utilizing a measure
which taps into the quality of interracial interaction rather than just racial composition may
obtain more meaningful information. Lastly, as discussed earlier, a measure with taps into
the Afiicentric belief system rather than hypothetical behaviors may be more usefirl in
assessing worldview.

Finally, it should be noted, that the findings of the present study do not lessen the
importance of utilizing the Afiicentric paradigm as a framework for research on Afiican
Americans. The basis of this perspective is placing Afiican American cultural norms at the
center of theoretical and empirical research which investigates the psychological
functioning and behavioral patterns of Afiican Americans. Employing this perspective,
therefore, rejects the idea that European norms and standards be used in research on

Afiican Americans and embraces the specific social/cultural reality of Afiican Americans.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

CONSENT FORM

78

APPENDIX A

INFORMED CONSENT AGREEMENT

This study is designed to investigate the social attitudes and life experiences of African American college
students. The following questionnaire takes approximately 30 minutes to complete. There are no right or wrong

answers to any of the questions Please do not write your name anywhere on the questionnaire! All of the
information obtained will be kept strictly confidential.

1. This study has been explained to me. I understand the explanation that has been given and what my

participation will involve.

2. I understand that I do not have to participate at all, and/or that I am free to stop participating in the
testing session at any time without penalty.

I understand that the results of my scores in the study will be kept strictly confidential, and that my scores

will remain anonymous. Within these restrictions. group results of this study will be made available to me
upon my request.

I understand that for my participation in the study. the number in the top lefi hand corner of my
questionnaire will be entered in a lottery for $50.00, with a chance of winning at approximately one in
forty. I understand that my number will only be entered upon reciept of my completed questionnaire. The
lottery will be drawn on May 5th, if at least 200 people have participated in the study. If not, then the
lottery will be drawn when that number is reached and I will be contacted by phone and in writing

if I win.
I understand that if I am made uncomfortable by my participation in this study, or if I have any questions.

I may discuss this with the principal investigators. Valerie Roberts at (517) 353-6449 or William
Davidson, PhD. at (517) 353-5015.

I understand that in giving my name and personal information, it will only be used to contact me if I am
the winner of the lottery. This contact will only be nrade in order to pay me.

Please fill in the following information:

NAME:

 

CAMPUS
ADDRESS:

 

CAMPUS
PHONE:

 

SUMIVIMER
ADDRESS:

 

SUMMER
PHONE:

 

THANK YOU FOR YOUR psarrcrrA'rronu

APPENDIX B

BACKGROUND INFORMATION SHEET

79

APPENDIX B

Demographic Information

Age: Gender: Male Female

 

What is your current grade level? (Please check one of the following)

0 freshman D sophomore D junior D senior

Mother’s highest educational level (Please check one of the following)

0 6th grade or below 0 junior high school [3 some high school

0 some college . 0 college graduate 0 some post graduate
education

Father’s highest educational level (Please check one of the following)

[3 6th grade or below D junior high school [3 some high school

0 some college 0 college graduate 0 some post graduate
education

What is your mother’s occupation

 

What is your father’s occupation

 

Please check the box that represents your family’s yearly income.

Ethnicity

 

[3 high school graduate

0 advanced degree (eg; MA, MS.

MBA. Ph.D., MD. etc.)

D highschool graduate

[1 advanced degree (eg; MA, MS,
MBA, Ph.D., MD. etc.)

[3 $10,000 and below 0 $25,000-$39,999 I $60,000 and above

0 Sl0,00-$24,999 Cl 840,000-359,000

What is your home town?

 

Please check the adjective that best describes your neighborhood.

U suburban 0 urban 0 rural

APPENDIX C

INTERRACIAL INTERACTION SCALE

80

APPENDIX C

Interaction Scale

 

Mmctions: The following items ask you about the neighborhood you grew up in. I realize that people
often move around from one neighborhood to the next, so please talk about the neighborhood in which you
spent the most time. Please complete the following sentences by circling the number from the following

scale that best describes your answer. Remember, there are no right or wrong answers, so please answer
as honestly as you can.

 

 

 

 

 

 

All Mostly About Mostly All
Black Black narrated: White mu
1. My grammar or elementary school was 1 2 3 4 S
2. My junior high school was 1 2 3 4 5
3. My high school was i 2 3 4 S
4. My childhood neighborhood was i 2 3 4 5
5. When I was growing up my church was i 2 3 4 5
6. My childhood friends are l 2 3 4 5
7. Growing up I participated in l 2 3 4 ' 5
extracurricular activities in which
most of the participants were
I Using the following scale, circle the number that best describes your answer. 1
None Few Many
8. How many Black cultural activities 1 2 3
were you involved in as a child?
9. How many experiences with l 2 3

racism did you have growing up?

 

APPENDIX D

' PARENTAL SOCIALIZATION SCALE

8]

APPENDIX D

Socialization Scale

 

Directions: The following list contains messages that parents sometimes give their children about race
and race relations. Please indicate whether your parents or other adult family members conveyed similar
messages to you when you were growing up by checking ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Next, indicate the extent to which
you agree with these messages by circling a number from the scale that best describes your feelings.

 

 

L
Did you hear Strondy Disagree Agree Strondy .
tide message? Disagree

1. Be positive about yourself. U yes 0 no i 2 3 4

2. Be proud of the fact that [3 yes (3 no i 2 3 4
you are Black

3. Society treats Blacks and 0 yes C] no i 2 3 4
whites difierentiy.

4. It’s important to get D yes [3 no i 2 3 4
along with everybody.

5. In white society, blacks 0 yes 0 no i 2 3 4
get pushed around and used

6. Hold your head up and 0 yes 0 no i 2 3 4
don’t be ashamed to be Black.

7. Sometimes Blacks have to C] yes 0 no i 2 3 4
work twice as hard as whites
to get ahead.

8. Blacks can not always get D yes 0 no i 2 3 4
away with the same things as whites.

9. You may be treated differently just 0 yes 0 no i 2 3 4
because you are Blacic

10. Remember where you came from. 0 yes C] no i 2 3 4

11. Black children must get a good 0 yes 0 no i 2 3 4
education to get ahead

12. God can protect you from 0 yes 0 no 1 2 3 4
racial hatred. '

13. All races are equal. Dyes C] no 1 2 3 4

 

82

Did you hear Strongly Disagree Agree Stronfly
this message? Disagree Agree
14. Racism and discrimination are the Cl yes 0 no 1 2 3 4
hardest things a Black child has
to face.
15. Getting a good education is the best CI yes 0 no 1 2 3 . 4
way for a Black child to survive racism.
l6. Blackshave toworktwioeashard Dyes [inc 1 2 3 4
as white to be successful.
17. It is important to know Black history. 0 yes C] no 1 2 3 4
18. Whites do not have more opportunities U yes 0 no 1 2 3 4
than Blacks.
19. Our society is fair to Black people. CI yes 0 no 1 2 3 4
20. A Black child or teenager will not be 0 yes [3 no i 2 3 4
harassed simply because she or he is
Black

 

Using the scale above each of the next two questions, please circle the number that best describes your
feelings.

 

no minimal ' moderate strong
impact impact impact Impact
21.. Whatimpact did thesefamilymessageshave 1 i 3 4
on your current beliefs and behavior? '
not sometimes i ’ often ’ always
at all
22. How often did you discuss race relations with i 2 3 4
your parents and/or other adult farniiy members
when growing up?
23. 'Are there any other things your parents or the 0 yes 3 no

people who raised you told you about racism
and how to deal with being Black in America?

83

233. If yes, what are the most important things they taught you?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX E

AFRICAN SELF CONSCIOUSNESS SCALE

84

APPENDIX B

Social Attitude Scale

 

Instructions: The following statements reflect some beliefs, opinions and attitudes of Black people. Read

each statement carefully ,and give your honest feelings about the beliefs and attitudes expressed. Indicate
the extent to which you agree by using the following scale:

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

Circle the number closet to your own feelings. * Note that the higher the number you choose for
the statement, the more you agree with the statement; and conversely, the lower the number
you choose, the more you disagree with the statement. Also, there is no right or wrong answer,

only the answer that best expresses your present feelings about the statement. Please respond to all
statements (do not omit any).

 

 

Strondy Disagree Agree Strondy

l. Idon't necessarily feel like lam 1 2 3 4 5 6
being mistreated in a situation where
1 see another Black person being
mistreated.

2. Black people should have their own 1 2 3 4 5 6
independent schools which consider
their African heritage and values an
important part of the curriculum.

3. Blacks who trust whites in general 1 2 3 4 S 6
are basically intelligent people.

4. Blackswhoarecommittedandprepared l 2 3 4 5 6 ‘ 7 8
to uplift the (Black)race by any means
necessary (including violence) are more
intelligent than Blacks who are not
committed and prepared.

5. Blacks in America should try harder to 1 2 3 4 S 6
be American rather than practicing
activities that link them up with their
African cultural
heritage.

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

85

Strondy Disagree
Disagree
Regardless of their interests, educational l 2 3

background and social achievements, I
would prefer to associate with Black

people than with non-Blacks.

It is not such a good idea for Black 1 2 3
students to be required to learn an

African language.

It is not within the best interests of l 2 3

Blacks to depend on whites for anything,
no matter how religious and decent they
(the whites) purport to be.

Blacks who place the highest value 1 2 3
on Black life (over that of other people)

are reverse racists and generally evil

people.

Black children should be taught that l 2 3
they are African people at an early age.

White people, generally speaking, are l 2 3
not Opposed to self determination for
Black people.

As a good index of self respect, Blacks l 2 3
in America should consider adapting
traditional African names for themselves.

' A white\European or Caucasian image 1 2 3

of God and the “holy family” (among
others considered close to God) are not
such bad things for Black people to worship.

Blacks born in the United States are l ‘ 2 3
Black or African first, rather than
American or just plain people.

Agree

Strongy
Agree

86

Strondy Disagree Agree Strondy
Disagree A!“

Black people who talk in a relatively l 2 3 4 5 6 ‘l 8
loud manner, show a lot of emotions

and feelings, and express themselves

with a lot of movement and body motion

are less intelligent than Blacks who do

not behave in this way.

Racial consciousness and awareness l 2 3 4 S 6 7 8
based on traditional African values

are necessary to the deveIOpment of Black

marriages and families that can contribute

to the liberation and enhancement of Black

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

people in America.

In dealing with other Blacks, I consider
myself quite different and unique from
most of them.

Blacks should form loving relationships
with and marry only other Blacks.

I have difficulty identifying with the
culture of African people.

it is intelligent for Blacks in America
to organize to educate and liberate
themselves from white-American
domination.

There is no such thing as African
culture among Blacks in America

it is good for Black husbands and
wives to help each other develop
racial consciousness and cultural

awareness in themselves and their
children.

Africa is not the ancestral homeland

of all Black people throughout the world.

 

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

87

Strondy Disagree

It is good for Blacks in America to wear 1 2 3
traditional African-type clothing and .

hairstyle if they desire to do so.

I feel little sense of commitment to l 2 3
Black people who are not close friends

or relatives.

All Black students in Africa and l 2 3

America should be expected to study
African culture and history as it occurs
throughout the world.

Black children should be taught to love 1 2 3

all races of people, even those races who
do harm to them.

Blacks in America who view Africa as 1 2 3
their homeland are more intelligent than
those who view America as their homeland.

IfI saw Black children fighting, I would 1 2 3
leave them to settle it alone.

White people, generally speaking, do 1 2 3
not respect Black life.

Blacks in Arnerica should view 1 2 ' 3

Blacks from other countries (eg;

Ghana, Nigeria, and other countries
in Africa) as foreigners rather than
as their brothers and sisters.

When a Black person uses the term i 2 3
“Self, Me, and I”, his/her reference

should encompass all Black people

rather than simply him/herself.

Religion is dangerousfor Black people
when it directs and inspires them to
become self-determining and
independent of the white community.

H
N
w

Agree

Strongiy

 

 

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

Black parents should encourage their
children to-respect all Black people, good
and bad, and punish them when they
don’t show respect.

Blacks who celebrate Kwanzaa and
practice the “Nguzo Saba" (the Black
value system), both symbolizing African
traditions don’t necessarily have better
sense than Blacks who celebrate Easter,
Christmas, and the fourth of July.

African culture is better for humanity
than European culture.

Black people’s concern for self-
knowledge (knowledge of one’s history,
philosophy, culture etc.) and self
(collective) -determination makes them
treat white people badly.

The success of an individual Black
person is not as important as the
survival of all Black people.

If a good/worthwhile education
could be obtained at all schools
(both Black and white), I would
prefer my child to attend a racially
integrated school.

It is good for Black people to refer
to each other as brother and sister

because such a practice is consistent
with our African heritage.

It is not necessary to require Black/
African Studies courses in predominantly
Black schools.

Being involved in wholesome group
activities. with other Blacks lifts my
spirits more so than being involved in
individual orientedlactivities.

88

Strondy Disagree
Disagree
1 2 3

1 2 3
1 2 3
l 2 3
l 2 3
1 2 3
l 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3

Agree

Strongy
Agree

APPENDIX F

BELIEF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS SCALE

 

89

APPENDIX F

Worldview Scale

 

Instructions: The following statements reflect some beliefs, opinions and attitudes about various issues.

Read each statement carefully ,and give your honest feelings about the beliefs and attitudes expressed.
Indicate the extent to which you agree by using the following scale:

Completely Mostly Neither Mostly Completely
Agree , Agree Agree or Disagree Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5

Circle the number closet to your own feelings. Note that the higher the number you choose for the
statement, the more you disagree with the statement; and conversely, the lower the number you choose,
the more you agree with the statement. Also, there is no right or wrong answer, only the answer that best
expresses your present feelings about the statement. Please respond to all statements (do not omlt any).

 

 

 

Completely um, um Murry Cousteau
Arm Moe Ay'eeernhagree W Ding-cc
l. The more important consideration when l 2 3 4 5
looking for a job is not the money ofi'ered
but the people I would be working with.
2. English should be the only national language. 1 2 3 4 5

If one wants to live in this country, one should
learn to speak the language; bilingualism is
unimportant.

3. If I could make a choice, I would prefer to l 2 3
lead a wealthy, exciting life as opposed to one

that is peaceful and productive in terms of

helping other people.

4. In order to know what’s really going on you 1 2 3 4
need to look at the scientific data rather than
the individual person’s experience.

5. Working at a job with meaning and purpose 1 2 3 4
' is more important than the money received
from a job.

Winning the lottery would solve all of my 1 2 3 4
problems. -

 

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

is.

16.

17.

18.

9O

Completely
w
This country would be better ofi‘ if we 1
restricted immigration to a very select few.
Welfare is a mistake: individuals must 1
learn to help themselves.
When I meet acquaintances on the street, I
I note the type of clothes they are wearing
and compare them to mine.
Race or nationality reveals more about an 1
individual than he/she may realize.
More than anything else, I am most 1
concerned by another‘s opinion if he/she
has the statistics to back it up.
When I encountered new acquaintances at 1

meetings or work-related activities, I note the
type of clothes they are wearing and am
impressed if they are “dressed for success”.

When someone challenges my beliefs, I am 1
eager to set him/her straight.

Pain is the opposite of love: In other words, 1
an act of love cannot cause pain.

If a “friend” were to betray my confidence 1
and tell some other people a secret, the best

way for him/her to learn a lesson is for me to

do the same thing to him/her when I get a chance.

If my opinion of my uncle has always been I
difi'erent than everyone else’s, then I must
be perceiving him wrong

It is easy for me to see how the entire human 1
race is really part of my extended family.

When considering all the difficulties of life, I
I have trouble seeing any meaning or order to
it.

Mostly
Agree

Netthc
”we or Disagree

Mostly
Dbagree

Coupldely
Disagree

 

‘ 19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

91

Coqktdy
Aura '
I find myself worrying a lot about 1
circumstances in my life.
If I just had more money, my life would be ' l

more satisfying

IfI were better looking, my relationships with 1
others would be more satisfying

I feel badly when I see friends from high 1
school who now have better cars.

Sometimes when I am good and do my best, 1
I still sufi‘en'this is an indication that good
does not necessarily triumph over evil.

Although I have a favorite kind of music 1 I
listen to, I can usually get into and enjoy
most kinds of music.

When I am confused or unclear about I
myself or the world about me, I try to

push these conoems out of my mind and

go on with my life as usual.

Past philosophers like St. Augustine and l
Descartes are less relevant today than they
were 100 years ago before the modern age.

Despite my religious preference (eg; Jewish, 1
Muslim, Catholic etc), I still believe there

are teachings from difi‘erent religions that are
valid

I am uneasy and bothered by my I
responsibilities at work and at home.

I can remain calm and peaceful even when I
my boss blames me for another’s mistakes.

If I were president. I would invest more 1

money to develop social programs and
less money in high tech development.

14

Mostly Keith
Agree Apes or Disagree

2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3
2 3

Moody
Die-pee

Col-plenty
Ding-ea

Us

APPENDIX G

AFRICAN AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL CHECKLIST

92
APPENDIX G

BEHAVIORAL CHECKLIST

Instructions: The following is a list of activities that some people engage in. Please cheek'“yes” or “no” in

correspondence with the items that apply to you. If you answer “yes” to any item, check the box that
indicates how often you do that particular activity.

1. I attend African American cultural activities. 0 yes C! no If yes, how often do you

do this?

0 never

0 sometimes
0 often

Cl always

 

2. I receive African American owned publications. El yes :1 no If yes, how often do you

do this?

0 never

0 sometimes
0 ofien

Cl always

3. I belong to African American social, civic or a yes 3 no If yes, how often do you
professional organizations (fraternities; sororities, do this?

campus organizations). D never

Cl sometimes
0 ofien

Cl always
4. I try to support black owned businesses. :1 yes I no If yes, how often do you

do this?

D never

D sometimes

El often

Dalways

5. I am involved in programs that are specifically 3 yes 2 no If_yes, how often do you
geared toward the uplifiment of the Black community. do this?

0 never
0 sometimes
0 often

0 always
6. I wear clothing that promotes Black pride 3 yes I no If yes, how often do you
(T-shirts, buttons, hats...) do this?
0 never
0 sometimes
0 often
0 always

 

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

93

I spend time reading and learning about my
cultural heritage.

I spend time teaching others about Black
culture and history.

Ifanother Black person needs help, I am
there to lend my assistance.

I am a role model to Black youth.

I am a leader in Black organizations.

I am a mentor to other Blacks who need
guidance or assistance.

I participate in the political process to ensure
that my voice as a Black person is heard.

[J yes

0 yes

U yes

0 yes

Dyes

Dyes

Dyes

Dno

Duo

0110

Dno

[Inc

C] no

One

If yes, how often do you
do this?

0 never

0 sometimes

CI often

Cl always

If yes, how often do you
do this?

0 never

Cl sometimes

0 often

Dalways

If yes, how often do you
do this?

. 0 never

0 sometimes
0 often
0 always

If yes, how often do you
do this?

0 never

0 sometimes

0 ofien

Cl always

If yes, how often do you
do this?

0 never

0 sometimes

CI often

0 always

If yes, how often do you
do this?

D never

0 sometimes

0 often

0 always

If yes, how often do you
do this?

0 never

0 sometimes

0 often

D always

94

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